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PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.
THE first edition of “Yacht and Boat Sailing” was published in 1878,
and, whilst the general plan of that edition has been maintained in
successive issues, the matter relating to yachts and sailing boats has from
time to time been considerably altered or exchanged for new subjects. The
instruction as to rigging a yacht, seamanship, and the general handling
of vessels under sail remains much the same as originally written, but
where necessary each subject has been revised and made to accord with
present practice. The chapters dealing with yacht racing have also been
revised, and in many instances re-written ; in short, the whole work
has been brought up to date and made thoroughly representative of
contemporary yachting in all its branches.
The new Linear Rating Rule of the Y.R.A. was not settled in time to
include it in the exposition of the rules for the rating of yachts, but it will
be found in the Appendix, fully explained, and with an example of
working it.
So many new designs have been introduced into this edition that it
was found necessary to exclude several which had formerly appeared ;
but the new designs are of a more interesting and useful type than
those omitted. Amongst the designs now presented I am indebted to
Mr. C. E. Nicholson (of Messrs. Camper and Nicholson) for the “Coquette”
(0.5-rater), “Worry-Worry’ (1-rater), and “Dacia * (5-rater); to Mr.
C. P. Clayton for the 1-rater “Gaiety Girl”; to Mr. A. E. Payne
for the “Lady Nam ” (2.5-rater), “Papoose ’’ (25-rater), “Mahavanee *
iv. Preface.
(1 rater), and “Baby” (0-5 rater); to Mr. A. Burgoine for the
“Ruby,” “Mona,” and “Mirage"; to Capt. du Boulay for the Bem-
bridge Rig ; to Mr. C. Livingston for the Mersey Boat “Deva, ’’ and
Windermere Yacht “Midge,” &c.; to Mr. C. Friend for the Mersey
Boat “ Venture *; to Mr. W. H. Willmer for the Mersey Boat “Zinnia’’;
to Mr. G. L. Watson for the Royal Clyde Sailing Boats; to Mr. T. D.
Lingard for the Windermere Yachts “Rosita’’ and “Snipe,” and the
Windermere “Una ’’; to Mr. A. F. Fynne for the Falmouth Quay Punt ;
to Mr. R. Fry for the Dublin Bay Boats, &c.; to Mr. W. Fife, jun., for
the Clyde Boat “Hatasoo”; to Mr. J. M. Soper for “Flat Fish ’’ (5-rater);
to Mr. Linton Hope for the single-handed cruiser “ Dorothy ’’ and the
1-rater “Sorceress,” &c.; Captain Bayley for the “Scourge,” and Mr.
J. C. Enberg for the single-handed cruiser “AEre Perennius”; and to
Mr. S. Bond for the Mersey Canoe Yawl, 1890.
Mr. G. L. Watson has kindly revised the chapter on Clyde Sailing
Boats, and brought the subject up to date. -
The canoeing was written by Mr. W. Baden-Powell and Mr. E. B.
Tredwen.
DIXON KEMP.
24, SUSSEx GARDENs, HYDE PARK, LONDON, W.
September, 1895.
C O N TENT S.
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page iii
How to Select a Yacht. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
CHAPTER II.
Examination of the Yacht before Purchasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
CHAPTER III.
Building a Yacht; How to Proceed about It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
CHAPTER IV.
The Equipment of the Yacht, including Complete Information as to
Spars, Rigging, &c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
CHAPTER V.
Seamanship and Management of a Yacht Under Sail. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
CHAPTER VI.
The Management of Open Boats Under Sail .............................. 128
Chapter VII.
The General Management of a Yacht, including Duty and Discipline
of the Crew …............….......... 138
CHAPTER VIII.
The Rules of the Yacht Racing Association Expounded, and Illus-
trated by the most Notable Decisions in Protest Cases ............ 152
CHAPTER IX.
Yacht Racing : Handling a Yacht in a Match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
CHAPTER X.
Centre-board Boats, their Origin and Use, and varied Forms ......... 262
Vl Contents.
CHAPTER XI.
Centre-board Boats for Rowing and Sailing, with Examples of
Successful Craft—“Ruby,” “Mistletoe,” Cowes Waterman’s
Skiff, &c. ............................................................... page
CHAPTER XII.
Sails for Centre-board Boats of all Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTTR XIII.
Small Centre-board Yachts—“Sorceress,” “Mirage,” “Mona,”
“Challenge,” “Holly,” “Ragamuffin III.,” “Mystery,”
CHAPTER XIV.
Mersey Sailing Boats, 1895—“Venture,” “Deva,” “Zimnia,” &c.—
and their Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER XV.
Clyde Sailing Boats—including two boats designed 1890 and 1893
for the Royal Clyde Yacht Club by Mr. G. L. Watson, and his
successful “Vida"; and Mr. W. Fife’s equally successful
“ Hatasoo "; Mr. Linton Hope's Clyde Sailing Boat, &c..........
CIIAPTIVR XVI.
Kingstown Boats, Waterwags, Mermaids, &c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- CHAPTER XVII.
Itchen Boats and Punts—“Gipsy,” “Wild Rose,” “Centipede,”
CHAPTER XIX.
Thames Bawley Boats—“Mayflower; ” and the Original Design for
the “JDabchick ’’ Class, by Mr. Linton Hope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTDR XX.
Windermere Yachts and Unas, 1891–º Snipe,” “Midge,”“I'osita,”
“Una,” &c. (1895). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
271
282
310
336
342
381
393
Contents.
vii
CHAPTER XXI.
Small Yachts of Y.R.A. Rating—“Dacia,” “Flatfish,” “Papoose,”
“Lady Nan,” “Maharanee,” “Gaiety Girl,” “Worry-Worry,”
“Virginia,” “Coquette,” “Baby,” &c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page
CHAPTER XXII.
Single-Handed Cruisers—These include the well-known Thames
cruiser, “Dorothy,” and the Swedish craft “AF're Perennius,”
winner of the first prize of the London Sailing Club Com-
petition, 1895 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER XXIII.
Types of Sailing Vessels: Penzance Lugger, Yarmouth Yawl,
Coble, Galway Hooker and Pookhaun, Belfast Yawls, Norwegian
Pilot Boats, Bermudian Boats, Bombay Boats, American
Sharpies, &c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER XXIV.
Double Boats and Catamarans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER XXV.
Steam Yachting—Giving Full Information as to Cost of Steam
Yachts, Expenses of Working them, Coal Consumption, &c.
CHAPTER XXVI.
Ice Yachting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER XXVII.
Canoeing—“Nautilus,” “Pearl,” Canoe Yawls, &c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX.
This Appendix contains a Complete Dictionary of Matters Relating
to Yachts and Yachting; Laws Relating to Yachts, &c.;
Customs of the Sea, &c. It also contains an Exposition of
the new Linear Rating Rule of the Y. R. A. Full Instructions are
given for Practical Boat Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.09
448
456
466
485
B. R. R. A. T A.
Page 76. “Plate W.” should be “Plate VIII.”
Page 76. “Plate IX.” should be “Plate VIII.,” and “Plate X.” should be
“Plate IX.”
Page 77. “Plate XII.” should be “Plate XI.”
Page 78, “Plate XIII.” should be “Plate XII.”
LIST OF P L A. T E S.
TO FACE PAGE
I. Spar, Rigging, and Sail Plan Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
II. Main Boom Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
III. Gaff Jaw Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
IV. Fore Deck Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
V. Mast and Rigging Fittings of Small Y.R.A. Raters ......... 49
VI. Mast and Rigging Fittings of 20-Raters..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
VII. Cabin Plan of Schooner... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
VIII. Cabin Plans of “Constance ’’ Yawl and “ Beluga " Cutter 75
IX. Cabin Plan of “Alpha Beta " Cutter ................ . . . . . . . . . . . 76
X. Cabin Plan of “Fée ’’ Cutter .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
XI. Cabin Plan of “Wril 2’ Cutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
XII. Cabin Plan of “Spankadillo '’ Cutter .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
XIII. Plan of Shuldham’s Original Centre Plate....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
XIV. Drawing of “Oceana’’ Rowing and Sailing Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
XV. Drawings of Centre-board Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
XVI. Drawing of “Ruby’’ (as originally built) ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
XVII. Drawing of “Ruby’’ (as altered) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
XVIII. Drawing of “Ruby’’ (as altered, 1892) ........................ 286
XIX. Drawing of Thames “Mystery’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
XX. Drawings of “Zythum,” Centre-board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
XXI. Drawings of Cowes Waterman’s Skiff........................... 292
XXII. Drawings of Yacht’s 4-oared Cutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
XXIII. Sail Plans of “Ruby’’ and “Mystery’........................ 296
XXIV. Sail Plan of New Brighton Pattern............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
XXV. Sail Plans (3) for Yacht’s Cutters ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
XXVI. Sail Plan of French Yacht ‘‘Le Lison '................ . . . . . . . . 305
XXVII. Sail Plan—Battened Lug ............................... . . . . . . . . . . . 309
XXVIII. Drawings of Original “ Una ’’ Boats ........................... 325
XXIX. Drawing of “Mocking Bird” (“Una ’’) ..................... 326
XXX. Drawing of “ Gleam ” (“Una ’’) ................................. 326
XXXI. Drawing of “Parole” Boat . . . . . . . ................................ 327
b
X List of Plates.
TO FACE PAGE
XXXII. Drawing of “Sorceress,” 1-Rater .............................. 328
XXXIII. Drawing of “Mirage,” by Burgoine ........................... 329
XXXIV. Drawing of “Mona,” by Burgoine .............................. 330
XXXV. Drawing of “Challenge,” 1-Rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
XXXVI. Drawing of “Holly,” 1-Rater .................................... 330
XXXVII. Drawing of “Ragamuffin III.,” 1-Rater........................ 330
XXXVIII. Drawing of Brighton Beach Boat ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 333
XXXIX. Drawing of “Pollywog,” Centre-board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
XL. Drawing of “ Haze,” Centre-board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
XLI. Drawing of “Witch,” Centre-board Yacht .................. 344
XLII. Sail Plan of “Bembridge ' Rig ................................. 347
XLIII. Drawing of “Venture,” Mersey Racing Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
XLIV. Drawing of “Deva,” Mersey Racing Boat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 353
XLV. Drawing of “Zinnia,” Mersey Racing Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
XLVI. Drawing of Clyde Lugsail, by G. L. Watson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
XLVII. Sail Plan of Clyde Lugsail Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
XLVIII. Clyde 19ſt. Sailing Boat, by G. L. Watson .................. 368
XLIX. Clyde 23ft. Sailing Boat, by G. L. Watson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
L. Drawing of “Vida,” Clyde Sailing Boat, by G. L. Watson 371
L2. Drawing of “ Hatasoo’............................................. 372
L3. Sail Plan of “ Hatasoo " ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
LI. Drawing of Clyde Sailing Boat, by Linton Hope ............ 372
LII. Drawing of Kingstown “Water Wags ’’........................ 374,
LIII. Sail Plan of Kingstown “Water Wags " ..................... 374,
LIV. Drawing of Kingstown “Mermaid” ........................... 377
LW. Drawing of Kingstown “Mermaid’’ ........................... 378
LVI. Drawing of Itchen Boat “ Gipsy " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
LVII. Drawing of Itchen Boat “Wild Rose ’’........................ 382
LVIII. Drawing of Itchen Boat “Centipede '' ........................ 385
LIX. Drawing of Itchen Length Class Boat “ Minima '' ......... 387
LX. Sail Plans—Itchen Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
LXI. Drawing of Itchen Punt ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
LXII. Drawing of Itchen Punt “Wril'? ................................. 392
LXIII. Drawing of Falmouth Quay Punt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 394
LXIV. Drawing of “Dabchicks,” Thames ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 395
LXV. Drawing of Thames Bawley Boat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 397
LXVI. Drawing of the Windermere Yacht “Rosita’” ............... 403
LXVII. Drawing of the Windermere Yacht “Midge’” ............... 403
LXVIII. Drawing of the Windermere Yacht “Snipe” ............... 403
LXVIII2. Drawing of Construction of “Snipe’’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
List of Plates.
xi
LXIX.
LXX.
LXXI.
LXXII.
LXXII2.
LXXIII.
LXXIV.
LXXV.
LXXVI.
LXXVII.
LXXVII.2.
LXXVIII.
LXXIX.
LXXX.
LXXXI.
LXXXII.
LXXXIII.
LXXXIV.
LXXXV.
LXXXVI.
LXXXVII.
LXXXVIII.
LXXXVIII2.
LXXXIX.
XC.
XCI.
XCII.
XCIII.
XCIV.
XCV.
XCVI.
XCVII.
XCVIII.
XCIX.
C.
C2.
CI.
CII.
CIII.
CIV.
TO FACE PAGE
Drawing of Windermere “Una ’’ Boat........................ 404
Drawing of Windermere “Una ’’ Boat....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Drawings of the “Dacia,” 5-rater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Drawings of the “Flat Fish,” 5-rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Drawing of Fin Bulb Keel of “Flat Fish ’’.................. 406
Drawing of the “Lady Nan,” 2-5-rater ..................... 406
Drawings of the “Papoose,” 2-5-rater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Drawings of the “Virginia,” 2-5-rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Drawings of the “Maharanee,” 1-rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Drawings of the “Gaiety Girl,” 1-rater .............. . . . . . . . 406
Drawings of “Worry-Worry,” 1-rater............... ........ 406
Drawings of the “Coquette,” 0'5-rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Drawings of the “Baby,” 0.5-rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Sail Plan, 2.5-rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Drawings of Single-handed Cruiser “Aylmer’’. . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Drawings of Single-handed Cruiser “Cigarette ’’......... 4.09
Drawings of Single-handed Cruiser “Vivid’’ ............ 411
Drawings of Construction of “Vivid”. . . . . . . . . . . ............. 412
“ Vivid '’ General and Sail Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Drawing of Single-handed Cruiser “Godiva " ............ 412
Drawing of Single-handed Cruiser “Scourge " ............ 413
Drawing of Single-handed Cruiser “AEre Perennius” ... 415
Drawing of Cabin Plan of “AEre Perennius” ............ 415
Drawing of Single-handed Cruiser “ Dorothy ’’. . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Drawing of Single-handed Cruiser “Rheola " ............ 416
Drawings of Penzance Lugger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Drawings of Yarmouth Beach Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Drawings of Watson’s Yarmouth Yawl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Drawing of Galway Hooker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Drawings of “Catamaran * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 452
Cabin Plans—S.Y. “Primrose ’’ and “Celia '' . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Cabin Plan of S.Y. “Amazon '' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Cabin Plan of S.Y. “Linotte ’’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Sail Plan of S.Y. “Linotte ’’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Cabin Plan of S.Y. “Speedy " .............................. .. 460
Sail Plan of S.Y. “Speedy '’.................................... 460
Cabin Plan of S.Y. “ Marchesa '' .............................. 462
Cabin Plan of S.Y. “Maid of Honour '' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Sail Plan of S.Y. “ Maid of Honour '' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Cabin Plan of S.Y. “Oriental '' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464.
xii
List of Plates.
CW.
CWI.
CWII.
CVIII.
CIX.
CX.
CXI.
CXII.
CXIII.
CXIV.
CXV.
CXVI.
CXVII.
CXVIII.
CXIX.
CXX.
CXXI.
CXXII.
CXXIII.
CXXIV.
TO FACE PAGIſ,
Cabin Plan of S.Y. “Fauvette ’’ .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Cabin Plan of S.Y. “Capercailzie’’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Cabin Plan of S.Y. “Soprano ".................................... 464
Plan of Ice Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Drawing of “Nautilus ” Paddleable Sailing Canoe ......... 487
Drawing of “Nautilus ”Canoe, 1881 ........................... 502
Plan of Double Canoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Sail Plan of Travelling Canoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Sail Plan of Cruising Canoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Drawings of Canoe “ Pearl .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Drawings of Mersey Canoe Yawl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Drawing of Mersey “Vital Spark’” .................. . . . . . . . . . 550
Drawings of Mr. W. B. Jameson’s Mersey Canoe Yawl. .. 550
Drawings of Canoe Yawl “Severn " ........................... 552
Drawings of “Nautilus ” Canoe Yawl.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Drawings of Humber Canoe Yawl ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Drawings of Humber Canoe Yawl “Cassy’’.................. 554
Drawings of Humber Canoe Yawl “ Ethel ”.................. 555
Thomas and Nicholson’s Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Winch Roller Boom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
YACHT AND BOAT SAILING.
CHAPTER I.
S E L E CT IN G A YA C H T.
IN selecting a yacht, a man, as in making other purchases, will be guided
by his tastes and his means. If he is really fond of the art of fore and
aft sailing, and looks forward to a life on the sea with the professional
keenness of a middy or apprentice, his desire will be to obtain a yacht
which he can direct the handling of himself. If, on the other hand, the
dawning yachtsman has boundless wealth, is a little of a sybarite, and
determines to spend two or three months afloat because it is the fashion,
he, too, will get a yacht to his taste ; but she will probably be a large
steamer, unless he has determined on racing, when a large cutter, yawl,
or schooner would be chosen.
The man who desires to eventually become a thorough yacht sailor
should begin his apprenticeship on board a cutter, in the small classes.
If she is, say, of 20 rating or 45ft. water-line length, he should make
all the passages in her when shifting ports, and not bid farewell to her
at one pier head, and welcome her arrival from another pier head at the
next watering place on the coast ; nor follow her nor precede her from
port to port in a larger steam yacht. If a man goes about attended by the
uncomfortable feeling that he shirks all the real daring and adventure
of yacht cruising he is not likely to make a perfect yacht sailor, as
sailing in ten or twenty matches during a summer can only give a
very circumscribed idea of the sea and its charms, compared with the
experiences of passage making ; although a man may, it is true, become
an adept in the highly diverting sport of yacht racing. But it is not
only the 20 rating yacht which is large enough to convey the racing
yachtsman from port to port ; many owners of vessels of 10 rating,
or even smaller, like Will Watch, “take the helm and to sea boldly
steer’’; and these are the men who get the most real enjoyment
B
2 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
out of their vessels, and are the best sailor-men, apart from the
knowledge of racing. Of course, living in a 10 rater to many young
yachtsmen might be utter misery, and disgust. The budding yachtsman
has been in the habit, perhaps, of spending a couple of hours every morning
over his toilet, surrounded by all the luxuries of the upholsterer’s art—
velvet-pile carpet, satin damasks, cheval glasses, water-colour drawings,
Dresden china, and a valet-de-chambre. The man who has been
used to such luxuries as these must have the big schooner or yawl, or a
hugh steam yacht, as he will find no room for them inside the little
craft. He would have to carry his clothes in a bag, or cram them
into a locker 2ft. by 6in. ; go on his marrowbones to shave ; into the Sea
and if he is addicted
to cosmétique, he will probably find a piece of “common yellow ’’ a good
substitute. The cuisine, of course, would not be such as would raise water
bubbles in the mouth of a valetudinarian; the carnivorous propensity will
mostly be gratified by steak which, when cut, will resemble the Mudhook
Yacht Club burgee of rouge et noir; and savoury soups, luscious Salmon,
for his bath—it is only one step and overboard;
and piquant entrées will be luxuries only obtainable in “canister’ form.
With all this, the five-tons man will very rapidly become a sailor, and the
little ship below will be as neat and cosy as a woman’s boudoir; he will
have a place for everything, down to a housewife; and at the end of one
summer there will not be a part of the ship, from the breast-hook forward
to the transom-frame aft, that he will not know the use of.
Of course, for real comfort at sea, the bigger the yacht a man can
afford to have the better; but it was never found advisable to go much
beyond 300 tons,” as very large sailing vessels are more or less, according
to size, unhandy in narrow channels and crowded roadsteads. A yacht of
150 tons and upwards should be schooner-rigged; and we are inclined to
think, if her size reaches 300 tons, or say 120ft. in length on the load
water-line, that she should have three masts, with all fore-and-aft canvas.
“Square rig forward” is generally recommended for a three-masted vessel,
as Square topsails may be of occasional use in backing and box-hauling,
or in Scudding in a heavy sea, when small trysails set on the lower
masts might get becalmed whilst the vessel dropped between the crests
of two seas; but the extra weight aloft, and the extra gear, are to
Some extent a set-off against these advantages.
A yacht from 150 to 80 tons downwards can also be schooner-rigged,
but many yachtsmen prefer the yawl rig for these and intermediate
tonnages. The yawl will be the more weatherly craft, will reach as fast,
* When “tons' are quoted it means tons by Thames rule as given in Lloyd’s Register
(See “Tonnage’’ in the Appendix.)
Advantages of the Yawl Rig. 3
and be faster down the wind. The actual weight of spars will be less for
the sail area ; there will be less gear; and there will be no mainmast
obtruding in the main cabin, or in one of the berths abaft it. It is
undeniable, however, that in heavy weather the schooner, appropriately
canvased, is a very easy and handy vessel. In a “fresh gale” (see “Winds”
in the Appendix) she would be under main trysail, reefed fore staysail
and fourth jib (foresail stowed); a yawl under similar conditions would
have main trysail, or double-reefed mainsail, reefed foresail, and fourth jib,
with mizen stowed, and would be quite as handy, and would lie-to quite as
quietly. As there will be no difference in the number of men required
to work either rig, size for size, we are on the whole inclined to think that
the yawl rig is to be preferred for yachts under 130 tons.
But the yawl must be snugly rigged, and not merely a large cutter
with a mizen mast stepped over the archboard for the sake of a long main
boom. This latter class of yawl has really a greater weight of spars in
proportion to sail area than a cutter. The main boom is, in a yawl say of
100 tons, within 10ft. or 11 ft. as long as the main boom of cutters of equal
tonnage ; the mast is as long, the bowsprit is nearly as long, the topmast is
as long, the gaff is generally longer in proportion to length of boom ;
and the weight of the mizen mast, bumpkin, yard, boom, and rigging
is generally about ten times the weight of the extra length and extra
size of the cutter’s boom. These are not the yawls which have an advan-
tage over even large cutters for comfort. In short, the racing yawl of
a few years ago had but little advantage in snugness over a cutter of
equal size, and was as costly to equip and build as a cutter. However, in
a cruiser above 100 tons two masts become a necessity in order to divide
the sails, as they would be larger than a crew could well handle, and a
yawl should be chosen up to 140 tons, and a schooner above that tonnage.
But the cruising yawl proper is a very Snug vessel indeed, and has
nearly all the good qualities of a cutter, and is really a more comfortable
craft, and can be worked with fewer hands, which of course means with
less cost. Her mizen mast will be stepped nearly close abaft the rudder
head, instead of at the extreme end of the counter; her bowsprit will
be shorter and lighter than the bowsprit of a similarly sized cutter (see
page 4); her mast will be lighter than a cutter’s ; and so will her boom,
gaff, and topmast be lighter. Her mizen mast will be so stepped that it will
be safe in the most violent wind storm to put sail upon it; and this may be
often of real advantage in clearing out from an anchorage in a hurry.
The advantage of the yawl mainly depends upon the reduction of
weight of spars and gear, and the economy of labour in working sails
which are more subdivided than those of a cutter.
B 2
4. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
We have calculated what the difference in the cubical contents of the
spars of a cutter of about 90 tons would be if she were changed from
cutter to yawl, her length of mainmast remaining the same. Difference
in mast, 20 cubic feet; difference in bowsprit (3ft. shorter), 12 cubic feet;
difference in main boom (12ft. shorter), 25 cubic feet; difference in main
gaff, 4 cubic feet—making a total difference of 61 cubic feet, or one
ton weight. The topmast would remain about the same. The bulk
and weight of mizen spars would be as nearly as possible as follows:
mast, 16 cubic feet; boom, 4 cubic feet; yard, 3 cubic feet; boomkin,
2 cubic feet ; or a total of 25 cubic feet, making a net reduction of about
12cwt. The difference in the weight of rigging and blocks would be
from 4cwt. to 5cwt., making a total reduction in the weight of spars and
rigging of about 17cwt. The removal of this weight would bring about
nearly 2in. difference in the vertical position of the centre of gravity of
the yacht, and would be equal, so far as influencing her stiffness went,
to the taking of 2 tons of lead from the top tier of ballast inside and
putting it under the keel outside. The effect of the reduced spars on
the momentum acquired during pitching will be mainly governed by the
reduction made in the bowsprit ; that is, by the influence that reduction
has on the longitudinal radius of gyration. To reduce the momentum to
its utmost limit, the bowsprit should be reefed close in, and mizen mast
unstepped and stowed amidships. -
It will be gathered that the advantages of a yawl are mainly dependent
on the general weight of her spars and rigging being less than are the
weight of the spars and rigging of a similarly sized cutter. Taking a cutter
and merely reducing her boom in length, whilst all her other spars and her
rigging and blocks remain unaltered, and incumbering her with a mizen,
would be no advantage at all, either for racing or cruising; in fact, the
mizen would far exceed in weight the trifling reduction that had been
made in the main boom ; hence many “converted cutters” were failures
as yawls. Neither had a racing yawl, as sparred up to the prevailing
main-boom rule, any advantage in point of weight of spars and rigging
over the weight of spars and rigging of a similarly sized cutter, and it
could not be expected that such a yawl would obtain any advantage
beyond her rig allowance, in competitive sailing, so far as sailing by the
wind goes. Down the wind and along the wind the inferiority would
be less patent, and occasionally a heavily sparred yawl, with her rig
allowance, would beat the cutter.
Allowing—as there is not the least doubt about the matter—that a
judiciously sparred racing or cruising yawl has less weight of spars than a
cutter of similar tonnage, we come to the consideration of the usefulness
The Ketch and Yawl Rig. 5
of the mizen sail. About this matter opinions widely differ. For sailing
to windward, most sailors will agree that the mizen sail is not worth its
attendant weight of spars and rigging; but as to the extent it affects the
handiness of the craft there will be no such agreement. In 1875 the
Oimara was converted to a yawl for her winter cruise to the Mediterranean;
but, before she was clear of the Clyde, the mizen went by the board. She
proceeded without a mizen, and with her yawl boom sailed all over the
Mediterranean, and for two seasons, in a similar guise, cruised in British
waters. Her sailing master declared that he never felt the want of the
mizen in any weather that he encountered; and this is conceivable when we
consider that generally, in heavy weather, the first sail to stow on board a
yawl is the mizen. This brings us to consider whether, after all, the
advantages of the yawl are not entirely dependent upon her resemblance to
a very reduced cutter, with short boom and bowsprit ; and whether the
advantages would not be increased by the absence of the mizen altogether?
The fact that the mizen can be stowed in bad weather, to avoid reefing the
mainsail, is hardly an argument in favour of having one'; and, as what may
be termed its active advantages in affecting the handiness of a vessel are
not of much importance, we think that the “reduced cutter,” as before
hinted, has all the advantages of a yawl without the incumbrance of a
mizen. Of course, a cutter with her main boom inside her taffrail is not a
very sightly craft; but still, with the length of counter now given to
yachts, this must be put up with. With the short bowsprits now carried,
the symmetry and beauty of the cutter rig would not be outraged,
whilst the general weight of spars, rigging, and blocks could be very
much less than the weight of spars of a yawl with similar sail area.
However, in a fashionable cutter, where the tonnage approaches 100 tons,
the main boom becomes a very awkward stick to handle, and for cruising
there is not the least doubt that a yawl of 80 or 100 tons with a main
boom plumb with the rudder head is a much more comfortable craft to
work than a cutter of similar tonnage. We have evidence of the objection
taken to long booms in the case of the large pilot vessels and fishing
vessels, as whilst they are invariably cutter-rigged up to about 80 tons, we
find that the yawl, ketch, or schooner rig is preferred above that tonnage.
A modification of the ketch rig is much in use by coasters, and we
have often heard it recommended as superior to the yawl rig ; but
with this we do not agree, as, owing to the narrowness of the mainsail,
there is no rig which, area for area, yields such a heeling moment as does
the ketch rig. The final conclusion which we arrive at is that, for the yawl
to possess any advantages over a snug cutter, she must be very judiciously
sparred, and it should be always recollected that the mere fact of carrying
6 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
a mizen does not make a comfortable sea boat. The yawl’s mast can be a
trifle less in diameter than a cutter’s (we are assuming that the sail area is
to be nearly equal), the bowsprit can be very much less, the boom can be
very much less, and so can the gaff; the standing and running rigging can
be lighter, and so can be the blocks; but great care should be taken that
the spars and rigging of the mizen do not exceed the total reduction that
has been made in the weight of the main spars and rigging. The weight
of mizenmast and rigging on the counter will not, it is true, punish a vessel
like a heavy bowsprit outside the stem ; but it must be remembered that
almost the sole advantage of a yawl, so far as behaviour in a sea goes,
depends upon her total weight of spars being less than would be the total
weight of spars of a cutter with a similar sail area. The supposed require-
ments of a racing yawl are incompatible with the advantages generally
claimed for the rig; it is, however, some satisfaction to know that the yawls
which have hitherto been most successful are those which have been sparred
and rigged with an intelligent appreciation of the conditions upon which
those advantages depend. Apart from behaviour in a sea, the principal
advantage of the yawl rig is that, even if her spars as a whole be equal in
weight to those of a cutter of similar size, she can be handled with a
smaller crew; but this advantage will not be very apparent until 70 or 80
tons are reached.
A snugly rigged cutter of 80 tons, of about 4% beams in length, can
be as easily handled and as cheaply worked (six A.B.'s would be required
for either) as a yawl of 80 tons, and a cutter should be preferred on
account of her grand sailing qualities. The line is drawn at 80 tons for
this reason: a gig's crew must be had out of either yawl or cutter, and
if four hands be taken away in the gig, two will be left on board to work
the yacht with captain and mate ; and even a 60-tonner cannot very well
do with less than six A.B.'s for the reason just given. But, whereas
six men may work an 80-tonner, whether cutter or yawl, six would be
insufficient for a 100-tons cutter, although they might be quite equal
to a yawl of that tonnage ; and moreover, if there was anything like a
breeze, and four men had to leave the cutter in the gig, it would be hardly
prudent to leave the sailing master and mate with two men only on board.
Of all the rigs which the ingenuity of man has devised, not one is
equal to the cutter, whether for clawing to windward, reaching along the
wind, or running down wind. A cutter with a true wind will beat as far
to windward in a day as a yawl will in a day and a quarter; will walk off
with a light air when the yawl will scarcely move ; and in a breeze under
topsail is even more comfortable and easy than the yawl. But the cutter
must be snug ; and not sparred like a racing vessel.
The Racing Yacht. 7
A common argument in favour of yawls as against cutters is this :
a racing cutter of 80 tons is a more expensive vessel to work, is an
awkward vessel to tackle in a sea, especially if the mainsail has to be got
off and trysail set; a cutter will not lie to the wind under headsail, and
this disability has been much aggravated by the modern fashion of cutting
away the forefoot.
A yawl to be a successful racer against cutters must be ballasted and
canvased pretty much as a cutter of equal size, and the expense of racing
such a yawl will differ very little from that of racing a cutter; probably,
tonnage for tonnage, the expense would be the same. There is as much
difference between a cruising yawl and a racing yawl as there is between
a cruising cutter and a racing cutter, and it is a great mistake to
suppose that a racing yawl of say 80 tons includes the comforts of a
good cruising cutter of equal size.
The ultimate conclusion is, that the particular rig will depend upon the
size of the yacht, and for cruising the rig should be : cutter up to 80 tons;
yawl from 80 to 140 tons ; schooner above that tonnage.
We have hitherto almost entirely considered the selecting of a yacht.
from a cruising point of view ; the racer must now be dealt with.
The rating rule,” adopted in 1887 by the Yacht Racing Associa-
tion, has already largely influenced the proportions of yachts, and the
proportion of beam to length being much the same as that which was the
fashion before the days of lead keels. Not that lead keels have been
discarded ; they are as much needed for safety in a broad craft as in
a narrow one, and do not make the uncomfortable sea boat it was thought
they would. A faster yacht for any given length has been already
developed under the new order of things; and there is no doubt that
with the removal of the restrictions on beam a much broader and stiffer
yacht has come into fashion, and one which will not be always heeled to an
uncomfortable angle when sailing.
In deciding on a yacht for racing, the first thing to exercise the mind
is, of course, which is the best size to have A designer or builder may,
not unnaturally, recommend something very large—something that one
can live in with comfort and with all the luxuries of shore life, and at
the same time strike an imposing figure in the yachting world.
Great éclat naturally attends the successes of a big craft like a Britannia
or Vigilant : such a yacht is generally ahead of the fleet—and the sympathies
of the crowd invariably go with the leading craft; and if she wins (say from
a 60-rater), she is almost certain to be three or four miles ahead at the
* The rule was sail area multiplied by length of load line, and divided by 6000. The quotient is
the rating. A rule, which includes girth and breadth, is proposed to come into operation in 1896.
8 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
finish. This feature in itself is, no doubt, a most impressive one, both
on the owner and on the spectator; and there can be no question about
the éclat of winning with a large craft eclipsing the splendour of winning
with a small one. This certainly is the vanity of the thing ; but there
are vanities in sport as there are in other occupations, and if it is a man’s
vanity not only to win prizes, but to revel in the glory of “ coming in
first '' in the cutter class, then he must have a large vessel. If, on
the other hand, the desire is simply to win, one way or another, the
greatest number of prizes, irrespective of the value, then the wish may be
gratified by owning a yacht not larger than a 20-rater; and there are
indications that this will be a fashionable size for racing for some time
to come. §
For real sport, there is not much doubt that class racing, from
40-rating downwards, is to be preferred to racing large vessels: there is
no time allowance; the exact merits of the vessels, and merits of their
handling, are easily read; and, as a rule, the winning vessel can only arrive
first at the goal by contesting every inch of water sailed through.
The old 20-rating class has now become a very numerous one, and
in no class has competition been more keen than in this since the intro-
duction of the new rating rule in 1887. The 10-rating class is not
quite the success it at one time promised to be, and seemingly for the
principal reason that the cost of one is so very near what a 20-rater
costs, which has so very much superior accommodation. It is not likely
that anyone would “ yacht ° in a 20-rater or 10-rater for the sake of
the mere repute of owning a yacht; a man, to own, race, and live in
one of these craft, must love the art of sailing, be enthusiastic in com-
petition, and think of gaining the honours of the match by sheer hard
sailing. This also must be said of the 5-rating class and 2-5 class, and so
long as these small classes exist, so long will there be evidence that love
of the art of yacht sailing is one of the most striking characteristics of the
British gentleman. Some men, of course, revel in the passive pleasure of
sailing about in a yacht, without knowing anything or caring anything
about the mariner’s art, just as some men will derive pleasure from riding
on the back seat of a drag, and knowing and caring nothing about the
tooling of the team in front of him. These are the gentlemen whose
yachts we meet and hear of in all sorts of out-of-the-way ports; and as
’ as pleasant as it is possible to make
it, be assured that they are agreeable men to cruise with.
they make “life on the ocean wave'
CHAPTER II.
EXAMINATION OF THE YACHT.
HAVING decided upon the size of the yacht, the next step will be to find
a suitable one of that size. If the intending purchaser advertises his
wants, he is certain to have a great many vessels offered him, and all will
be highly recommended by the agents of the vendors; each vessel will be
the best sea boat of her tonnage, the strongest built, the best found, and
the handsomest; and, moreover, the present owner is almost certain to have
recently spent several hundred or thousand pounds upon her reconstruction
or redecoration. The intending purchaser will be delighted; and, after
having got through particulars of the yachts which have been offered
for sale, something like bewilderment will naturally follow, and the task of
making a final selection will be a little difficult. The best plan will be to
begin with treating all the answers as mere information of vessels for sale.
Find out when they were built, and by whom, and when last surveyed,
from Lloyd’s Yacht Register, and if those that seem unobjectionable, so
far as age is concerned, are suitable also in price, go to see them. Then, if
one appears to be in every way a desirable craft, bid for her, “subject to a
survey and inspection of inventory, which must show her hull and equipment
to be in a seaworthy and thoroughly satisfactory condition.” It will always
be necessary to have a vessel surveyed before completing a purchase, unless
it is found by Lloyd’s Register that the yacht is quite new, or has recently
been surveyed by an experienced surveyor or builder. The fees for surveying
will vary from five to twenty guineas, according to the size of the yacht and
the extent of the survey, the fees being exclusive of travelling expenses.
5
In agreeing to purchase a yacht “subject to survey,” it is usual for
the vendor and purchaser to agree upon a competent surveyor—that
’ according to custom—and as a
being the meaning of “subject to survey’
rule a vendor prefers this plan to calling in a Lloyd’s surveyor if the yacht
is not already classed in Lloyd’s “Yacht Register.”
If the yacht as to her frame and planking is found to be unsound it can
be rejected, as it might not suit the intending purchaser’s purpose to wait
whilst she is put into a sound condition or repaired. If it is a mere case
L0 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
of a few defects, or a rotten mast or other spar, the vendor usually agrees
to supply and fit new spars, and generally to make good all Small defects
which may be discovered during the survey.
The hauling up or docking expenses and the cost of survey are borne
by the intending purchaser, unless a special arrangement is made con-
cerning them. .
A man may perhaps desire to act as his own surveyor; if he does, he
will act very unwisely, as it is only by long experience, and a perfect
knowledge of the construction of vessels and of the decay and strains they
are subject to, that a man can become competent for such surveys. Never-
theless, as the yachtsman who takes to the sport enthusiastically, and with
a resolve to be “thorough,” will necessarily want to know in a general
kind of way the “marks” to distinguish a good vessel from a bad one,
some instruction must be given him.
In the first place as to age. Speaking generally, a yacht should
not be more than twenty years old; we do not mean that all yachts
upwards of that age should be broken up or sold into the coasting, or
fishing, or piloting trade ; but that yachts so old as twenty years should
be put through a very searching survey. Yachts seldom are broken up,
and their fate is to lie year after year in mud docks for sale, and till
they are far on the shady side of thirty. If money is no object, do not
be tempted by cheapness into buying one of these ; it would certainly
end in mortification and disappointment. If the vessel were merely patched
up, she would be a perpetual trouble and expense ; and if repaired or
renewed as she ought to be, a new vessel had much better be built, as
it would be cheaper in the end.
Some old vessels are, however, desirable craft enough ; their condition
depends upon the way they have been used and “ kept up,” and upon
( & 5
the amount of repairs and “renewing ” they have undergone. For
instance, some vessels at the end of fifteen years are stripped, newly
planked, and decked, and all doubtful timbers and beams replaced by
new ; such a craft would be good for another ten years without further
outlay, and she might be bought with as much confidence as a perfectly
new vessel. Or if the yacht was originally well built in the best manner
by one of the best builders she may at the end of fifteen years require
neither new plank nor new frames, but if she has seen much service
she is almost certain to require new decks. The condition of a yacht at
the end of fifteen years will very greatly depend upon the quality of the
materials used in her construction, upon the sizes of the timbers and their
disposition, and upon the thickness of the planking, and upon the strength
of the fastenings. Some idea of what these should be can be gleaned
Examination of the Yacht. 11
from the tables in “Yacht Architecture * or Lloyd’s “Yacht Register,”
compiled from the practice of the best builders of yachts. The timbers
(called also frames, or floors, first, second, and third futtocks, where the
lengths of the frames are in two, three, or more pieces) will be “double,”
that is, two timbers will be placed close together, or nearly close together,
and act as one frame. Then there will be a space, and hence “timber and
space ’’ means the distance from the centre of one double frame to the
centre of another. The spacing should not be greater than the limits
given in the table, as if the frames are too wide apart the vessel will work
and the caulking become loose, with the final result of troublesome leaks.
Some builders do not place the timbers of a double frame quite close
together, as some ventilation is considered a good thing; but greater
strength is obtained if the timbers of each double frame are close together,
and the general practice is to so place them close together.
Occasionally (though very rarely now, except in very small vessels)
a single-framed vessel is to be met with—that is, instead of two timbers
being worked close together to form one almost solid frame, one single
timber forms each frame, placed at regular intervals. These vessels, unless
the timbers are of superior size and placed very close together, should be
regarded with great suspicion; the space from centre to centre of the
timbers should be at least 35 per cent. less than in a double-framed vessel,
and the sizes should be 15 per cent. greater ; and if the timbers are too
long to be all in one piece, the “shifts” or lengthening pieces of the timbers
should be so arranged that two shifts never come on the same horizontal
line in adjoining timbers, and the heads and heels should be dowelled,
and thick strakes worked over them inside—through fastened. In
almost all vessels the frames of the bow forward of the mast are
single, and in some very old vessels these bow frames might be found
to be of fir; these frames will require a great deal of inspection and
pricking. Some 20-tonners which we have met with have had single frames
12in. from centre to centre in the middle of the vessel, these frames
extending over a distance equal to half the length of the vessel; similar
frames were used in the bow and stern, but the spacing was increased to
16in. There does not appear to be any objection to this plan, and it has
a slight advantage in weight of timber. A favourite plan for small vessels,
and one that answers very well, is to increase the spacing between the
frames, and work a steamed timber of American elm between. This
plan is also used in combination with a double skin.
With regard to materials, all the frames should be of oak and so
should be the stem piece, stern post, upper portion of dead woods,
knight heads, apron, beams, shelf clamp, bilge strakes, and keelson; the
L2 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
—w-----
keel will generally be found to be either English or American elm. The
garboard strakes are generally of American elm, and it is best that the
planking above should be of American elm or oak to within a foot or
so of the load water-line, and teak above to the covering board or deck
edge. Very frequently, however, only the garboard strake is of American
elm, and the remainder red pine or pitch pine, with a top strake of oak
or teak. Again, sometimes the first four strakes above the garboard are
of American elm, and the first four strakes below the deck of oak or
teak, and the remainder pine ; but pine between wind and water is liable
to rapid decay; the teak should be carried two or three strakes below
the water-line. Formerly oak plank was used at the bilge, with a wale
or “bend ’’ of oak above the water-line; and sometimes the plan was
all oak from keel to plank sheer, but teak is now generally preferred,
as it is so little influenced by heat or damp.
The floors and keel fastenings of yachts are now variously contrived.
Twenty years ago a builder never thought of constructing a vessel without
grown floors and a keelson; but, owing to the increasing sharpness
in the bottoms of vessels, or increasing “dead rise,” it became very
difficult to find suitably grown floors. The result was that iron floors were
cast, and these, whilst having an advantage in strength and durability, have
the additional recommendation of forming excellent ballast. In some cases
(almost always in vessels of 40 tons and under) grown floors, or floors of
any kind, are dispensed with entirely; the heels of the first futtocks are
brought down to the keel and connected by iron V knees, which are securely
bolted in the throat through the keel or through a hogging piece and keel,
and through the timber and plank.
If a yacht is met with that has these iron knee-floors, it should be
ascertained if she has been ballasted with lead; if it turns out that her
ballast has been lead, it will be necessary to have the iron knees very
carefully examined, as lead very quickly destroys iron. It should also be
ascertained whether or not the floor bolts and other fastenings are of
iron ; if they are, it is just possible that the lead ballast, or copper
sheathing, may have eaten off their heads; and if the yacht has a lead
keel bolted with iron (a not very likely thing in these days), the bolts
may have decayed between the wood keel and lead.
If the yacht has been cemented between garboards and keel up to
the level of the floors, some of the cement should be cut out to examine
the plank, heels of floors, &c.
If the yacht be twelve or thirteen years old, it will be incumbent to
examine her very thoroughly inside and out, unless it is satisfactorily
shown that she has recently been so examined, and all necessary repairs
Examination of the Yacht. 13
made. To effectively examine a yacht the copper should be stripped off,
and the planking scraped clean ; if, however, the copper be good it will
be a pretty fair evidence that the plank underneath is sound, as the
copper in such a case is not likely to have been on more than three years;
and, of course, the plank and caulking would have been thoroughly
examined and made good when the vessel was re-coppered.
If it is stated that the vessel does not require re-coppering nor needs
stripping, it will be well to be present when she is hauled up high and
dry, or as the water is pumped out of the dry dock into which she has
been placed, as the case may be ; as, if there are wrinkles or folds in the
copper, giving evidence of strains, it is quite possible, where the oppor-
tunity exists, that these “wrinkles” would be “dressed '' out. The
wrinkles will generally appear in a longitudinal direction, under the
channels and under the bilge over the floor or futtock-heads, and often
in the vicinity of plank butts. But if the vessel has been subject to
very severe racking or twisting strains, or has bumped on a rock or on
very hard ground, the wrinkles may run diagonally or in half circles
across the copper; and the caulking or stopping may be found to be
working out of the seams. Very long and deep yachts, which have
not been properly strengthened longitudinally by internal bilge strakes
and continuous diagonal braces across the back or inside of the frames,
may be subject to great racking or twisting strains; if there be evidence
of such strains, the yacht need not be condemned, but she will
require strengthening, and should be put into a builder’s hands. In a
case where the copper shows unmistakable signs that the vessel works
or strains, she should be thoroughly examined in the vicinity of the
supposed strains, and be strengthened and fastened in the manner
which a builder from his experience may consider necessary. If iron
fastenings have been used in the vessel, it is very likely, unless the
heads have been counter-sunk and well cemented, that iron rust stains
will show on the copper; if such stains are met with, it will be best
to have as much of the copper stripped off as the case requires, so
that the fastenings may be driven out and new ones put in. The keel
should be examined for rot, shakes and splits; and if the keel or
false keel pieces be worn away from the through bolt fastenings, the
bolts should be cut off and re-clinched, and if necessary new false keel
pieces should be fitted.
The stern-post, rudder-post, rudder braces, or gudgeons and pintles
must be examined, and if the rudder-post is twisted, or braces or
pintles much worn, there will be work for the shipwright.
The chain plates and chain-plate bolts and the surrounding planking
14, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
and its caulking should be closely examined for flaws and strains, and so
also should the stem piece and bobstay shackle plates.
Signs of straining on deck will mostly be apparent in the seam of the
covering board abreast of the runners, the mast, at the stem, knightheads,
bowsprit bitts, and near the mast partners. If the seams are unusually
wide here, as they frequently may be in a yacht which has been much
pressed with canvas, “ sailed hard ” in heavy seas, or that has been weakly
built, some strengthening will be required by more hanging knees under the
beams, lodging knees, additional knees at the mast partners, diagonal
straps across the frames, or it may be new beams, partners, and knees
altogether. If the covering board shows signs of having opened badly
in the seam, or lifted from the top strake, the beam ends and shelf or
clamp will require very careful examination—the shelf and clamp especially
at the scarphs and butts.
To examine the frames of the vessel, the ballast should be removed,
and some of the ceiling and some of the outside plank should be stripped
off. Lloyd’s surveyors, in examining an old ship, usually cut out listings
from the plank the whole length of the ship ; and they also similarly cut
listings from the ceiling inside, under the deck, and over the floor heads;
planks are taken off, too, at different parts of the ship, equal in the whole
to her length ; and the beam ends and their fastenings are examined either
by taking out the top strake under the covering board, or by boring under
the covering boards. Fastenings, such as trenails and bolts, are driven out,
to further test the condition of the frames and fastenings; and the condition
of the oakum and caulking is ascertained by examination in several places
besides at the listings. If the ship or yacht be completely ceiled up inside,
it is obvious that the whole of the framing cannot be examined by such
means; but generally a yacht is not so closely ceiled, and an application of a
pricker to the frames will soon determine whether they are rotten or not.
There is scarcely any limit to the number of years frames of autumn-
cut oak will last ; but occasionally a sappy piece will find its way among
the frames, and it may not last a year, or the frames may decay in conse-
quence of leakage and defective ventilation; but from whatever cause rot
may arise, any frame so affected should be removed. Heels and heads
of floors and frame timbers are the most likely places to find rot; but of
course it may occur in any part of a frame, and, if possible, every timber
in a vessel should be thoroughly examined from heel to head.
Old decks are a great trouble to keep tight; and if there is any sign
of “weeping ” either under the deck at the seams, round the skylights,
shelf, or mast, there will be sufficient evidence that caulking is necessary.
New decks, however, frequently give trouble in this way if they have been
Examination of the Yacht. 15
carelessly caulked, or if the yacht has been weakly constructed, or if the
caulking was done during wet weather and not under a shed. As the
plank dries, it shrinks away from the caulking and paying, and leakage is
the inevitable result; this condition can be somewhat ameliorated by
wetting the deck two or three times a day, but wet decks are almost as
bad as leaky ones, and re-caulking and stopping will be the best remedy.
It is the fashion now to lay the deck planks very close together, in order
that narrow seams may be obtained; narrow seams of course look very
nice, but, as the seams are scarcely wide enough to receive the caulking
iron, very little oakum or cotton is driven into the seams, and very little
marine-glue run in ; then as this paying or putty stopping shrinks, leaks
are the result.
The examination of an iron or steel yacht should be very carefully
made by a competent person, and for this to be done she must be placed in
a dry dock or on a patent slip. The cement over the floors and bottom
plating inside should be carefully examined and sounded, to see if it is
loose—that is, if it has come away from the iron. If the edges of the
cracks are damp it will be pretty certain that there is a wasting by
rust going on underneath, and the same if the cement has been worn
or chipped. All rust and scale should be removed from the frames and
plates inside and out, and if the rust appears to have eaten deeply into
the plate, holes should be drilled in the latter to ascertain its thickness.
If it is less than three-fourths the original thickness Lloyd’s require the
plate or other part of the structure to be renewed.
All the deck beams, stringers, keelson, tie plates, and pillars will
require examination, as well as the butt straps and all the rivetting and
caulking. Also the inside plating should be very carefully examined in
the wake of the side port-lights, as, if they have been carelessly drained,
there will be leakage and rust. The deck and wood fittings about the
deck will also come in for survey. If the yacht has, however, been
up for survey within two years—Lloyd’s require a survey every four
years—then it may be prudent to dispense with placing the yacht in
dock, unless she has been ashore or has not been painted outside during
the time.
In the case of a steam yacht the machinery will have to be examined,
and this can only be properly done by an engineer of experience. The
chief parts for examination will be the sea connections and pumps, to see
that they are in good serviceable condition, and also that there is no
leakage running down on the inside of the plates. The screw shaft
should be disconnected and withdrawn, to be examined, and the stern
bush examined as well, for wear, fractures, &c. Also the cylinders and
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I6 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
slide valves, pistons and rods; but only the experienced eye of an engineer
could tell if they are worn so as to require taking to the shop.
The boiler should be tested by drilling to ascertain the thickness
of the plates, and by hydraulic pressure as well, if it has been much used,
and the condition of the furnace crown should also be ascertained.
The safety-valves must also undergo inspection; and if the surveyor is of
opinion that the working pressure should be reduced, then they must be
set accordingly. If the pressure is greatly reduced the slide valves may
require readjusting to get the most possible out of the engines.
The spars of all yachts will require careful inspection, and if either
has cracks running transversely or diagonally, it will be pretty sure
evidence that it is sprung. The longitudinal cracks or fissures are not of
much consequence unless they gape very much, run deep and show a
crack across the grain between two shakes; sometimes, however, if the
cracks have not been stopped with putty or marine glue, the wet might
have got in and caused internal decay. The insertion of a knife into
various parts of the crack will soon settle this matter. The mast should
be carefully examined at the partners, and the masthead will require very
careful examination under the eyes of the rigging, behind the bolsters,
and under the yoke (which should be removed) for rot, and right away
to the cap for wrings, which generally show themselves by a lot of little
cracks. The main boom should be examined, and if sprung it is most
likely to be near the outer end; the bowsprit at the gammon iron, or stem
head, and at the outer end above and about the sheave hole.
The rigging, blocks, and sails will of course require an overhauling.
The standing rigging is now generally made of galvanised steel wire;
if it has seen much service, rust from the inner strands will show itself,
and the “lay ” of the strands will have been stretched nearly straight;
also now and again a broken strand or wire may be come across.
Hemp and manilla rope, if much worn, with a washed-out appearance,
should be in certain places unlaid, or untwisted, and if stranded, with
a dried up dull appearance of the yarns, the rope should be condemned.
The shells of the block will require examination for splits, and the hook,
eye, sheave, and pin for flaws of whatever description. The sails should
be laid out and examined; if the stitching in the seams or roping be worn
and ragged, if the canvas be black looking, very soft and thin, admitting
a great deal of daylight through the woof, then the sails will be only fit
for a fisherman or coaster. As a rule, for a cruising yacht, a suit of sails
will last through four or five summer cruises; but three months’ knocking
about, winter cruising in the Mediterranean or elsewhere, will do as much
harm as two summer cruises, and it will never be prudent to start on a
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Selling a Yacht “in Commission.” 17
long winter cruise with sails that have seen more than three seasons’
wear. Of course sails may have been exceptionally well cared for—
never rolled up wet or unfairly stretched—and the vessel may have
been in the happy condition of never having been under way in much
of a breeze. Then if they are six or seven years old, and an expert
pronounces them fit for a winter’s cruise, they can be depended upon ;
but to be caught in a breeze is bad enough, and it is a great deal
worse if when so caught some of the spars, rigging, blocks, or sails
give out. A mainsail is most likely to go at the clew or to split from
foot to head, but occasionally they split right across from leech to luff.
A jib will go all ways; its head will come off, tack or clew will come
off, and sometimes they will split or burst out of the stay rope.
For racing, a mainsail is of little use after the first year, and
even with the greatest possible care they will hardly do the second, as
they get thin and soft and bunt away from the spars into bags with
the least weight in the wind. The owners of some yachts have a new
mainsail every season, or even two in a season; and this may be quite
necessary if the yacht is sailed in as many as thirty or forty matches, and
if the sail has been frequently reefed.
Lastly, the ground tackle or holding gear must be examined. The
anchors and chains should be galvanised, and be of the weight and size
set forth in the tables before referred to.
Occasionally a yacht is sold “in commission ”; this means with crew
actually on board and found in clothes according to yacht customs, and
ready to proceed to sea at short notice ; but the vendor may get into a
difficulty if he does not make a special arrangement with the crew to
transfer their services to a new owner.
It is evident that, if a man sells his yacht in commission, he cannot
sell his crew as well, and no law at present exists to compel them to
re-ship under a new master. In the Royal Navy a ship is not in com-
mission until the captain is on board and her pennant hoisted, although
the crew may be appointed and the officers be on full pay. Yacht
customs mostly come from those of the Royal Navy, and a yacht is not
said to be in commission unless she has captain and crew on board,
although her equipment may be all in place or, as the term goes, “fitted
out.” Still, selling a yacht in commission and then inducing the crew to
aid the vendor in carrying out his contract, are very different matters.
CHAPTER III.
BUILD IN G A YA () HT".
SOME men seem to have quite a passion for building yachts, whether
for cruising or racing, and do not believe in the paraphrased adage
that “fools build yachts for wise men to buy.” So far as a racing
yacht is concerned, it is quite natural that a man should wish her first
Success or fame to be identified with his name, and that he would not
care to own a vessel which had already become famous under another
man’s flag. On the other hand, there are plenty of men who, directly
they hear that a yacht is successful, and read of her wonderful exploits
in the reports of matches, long to possess the wonderful craft. And so
it happens that there is always something for the builder to do. The
man who finds excitement in building is always certain to fancy that
there is something even in his last success that can be improved upon ;
and he is glad to meet with the obliging purchaser who so covets the
possession of the property he is anxious to discard.
The man who knows nothing whatever of yachts and yachting, in setting
out to build, will perhaps be troubled to know which designer or builder
to employ. But of this he may rest pretty well assured that, if he explains
clearly what he requires, the designer, whoever he may be, will most
probably suit him ; and, so far as the builders go, there is little variation in
the excellence of the work among the leaders of the trade; and the main
thing to consider will be the price. The price, to some extent, will be
governed by the materials used, and classing at Lloyd’s will also affect the
price. If the specification for the yacht is drawn by a competent yacht
designer of experience there will not be much object in employing Lloyd’s
to look after the construction, if the designer has to superintend the
building. Still, some owners like to have the yacht classed, because they
fancy she will sell all the better for it ; and if a yacht is to be classed she
had better be built under Lloyd’s survey at the outset, or there will be
a great deal of trouble about it afterwards; the owner, designer, and
builder will be worried by innumerable suggestions as to what should be
Cost of Building a Yacht. 19
done, and a great many of these may be avoided if a sectional drawing of
the proposed construction and the specification are submitted to Lloyd’s
Committee at the outset. And it will be better for the designer to do
this before any estimates are obtained from the builders, as, if Lloyd’s
Committee should think proper to vary the construction or add to the
specification in any way, the builder may require to revise his estimate or
make out a bill for extras, either of which are always more or less annoying
to the owner. Lloyd’s surveyors, also, do not pay much attention to the cabin
fittings, spars, blocks, and rigging of a yacht, and so long as what the builder
proposes to supply appears to be sufficiently strong they are satisfied ; but
there are a good many details to think of, to say nothing of the finish
of the work, which the more practised yacht designer will know should be
done. In the end, it will be generally found that building according
to Lloyd’s tables is a safe thing to do, and that if building under Lloyd’s
survey does not always insure a perfectly sound vessel, it will be because
their surveyors, like other human beings, are not infallible.
We were saying just now that the price would be, to a great extent,
governed by the quality of the materials used. Thus, say a yacht is to be
built under a roof up to the requirements of the 18 years’ class, with oak
frame, teak topsides, and all hard wood below, and copper and yellow metal
fastenings, she will cost very nearly 10 per cent more than a 12 years' yacht,
which has pitch pine plank, and perhaps similar shelf and beams. Then,
again, builders, for precisely the same work, vary so in their prices (beyond
the variations always found in tenders and traceable to errors in pricing the
quantities). Still, as a rule, if money is no object it will be some advantage
to employ the builder who has made the largest provision for profit ; then,
when it comes to the various items of the equipment enumerated in the
specification, it will be found that they are more liberally supplied and of
better quality and finish, and that generally there is better finish to the
work. But, as said before, the practice of leading builders is pretty
uniform in this respect, and variations of 5 per cent. in their estimates, or
even as much as 10 per cent., will not much affect the ultimate result on
the value of the vessel.
As a matter of fact, there is a great deal more variation in the quality
of the materials used and workmanship among the cheap builders than
among those who can command the highest prices; and there are some
excellent cheap builders who have a good knowledge of what yacht
work is like. These by clever management of labour and saving in the
purchase of material under the most favourable conditions, manage
to build yachts at a low rate, which compare favourably with those
which have cost perhaps 15 or 20 per cent, more at a fashionable builder’s.
C 2
20 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
In choosing a cheap builder, the owner, if he has no experience to
guide him, will be governed by the advice of the yacht designer he
employs, and there is not much doubt that in the end he will be satisfied.
Yachts, whether intended for racing or solely for cruising, are now
built with keels out of all proportion to the sizes of their other scantling :
thus a racing yacht of 120 rating may have a keel sided (by “sided '' is
meant its transverse thickness) amidships 5ft. This enormously broad keel
of course tapers fore and aft, and is only so broad amidships in order that
a heavy weight of lead or iron might be carried underneath. A similar
weight could only be carried on a smaller wood keel by greatly increasing
the draught, and then the strength and thickness of the keel might be
unequal to the weight of the lead and to the boring for the necessary bolt.
Sometimes a lead keel, or keelson, is worked inside, fore and aft, between
the heels of the timbers and on top of the keel proper.
Various plans have been used for strengthening and binding together
the fabric of the hull; but the diagonal iron braces previously referred to
are seldom used except in large yachts of great length, although Mr.
G. L. Watson has introduced them into a wooden 30-tonner he had
built at Southampton in 1885. In yachts of eighty feet and over in
length, two thick strakes of English oak or pitch pine are worked under
the clamp, and run the whole length of the vessel, and are through-
fastened with metal bolts. Two limber strakes are also worked over the
heels of the first futtocks which join the heads of the floors, and are
through-fastened. Similarly, in small vessels, two bilge strakes are worked
along the curve of each bilge on each side and through-fastened. Limber
strakes in a cruising vessel with a floor construction, where there is no
keelson, greatly adds to the strength of the vessel; but in yachts of
70 tons and under it would scarcely be necessary to have thick strakes
besides the bilge strakes. Outside, a wale or bend is worked and through-
fastened; but where all the planking is of hard wood, the wales are
dispensed with.
It must be understood, if the yacht about to be built is intended
for racing rather than cruising, that it will be an advantage to reduce
the scantling, and increase the spacing so far as may seem compatible
with strength. The plank also (if the owner is not particular about
obtaining a class in Lloyd’s Register), from the bilge upwards, can be
of red pine instead of teak or oak, and the deck beams can also
be of red pine; the bulwarks of red pine, and the stanchions and rails
reduced in size so far as may appear consistent with strength. There
are racing vessels, of similar tonnage, with as much as two-fifths differ-
ence in the size and height of stanchions; and in a 200-ton vessel half a
Metal Fastenings for a Yacht. 21
ton of weight might very well be disposed of in this way. Of course it
is only fair to say that some of the most successful large racing yachts,
such as Florinda, Samoena, or Marjorie (composite build, and classed
20 years), were built up to Lloyd’s rules, of the best material, and full-
sized scantling. However, although this may show that a vessel can be so
built and succeed as a racer, it is at least an open question whether she
would not have been a still greater success had her scantling been reduced.
For small racing yachts Lloyd’s rules are not applicable.
The metal fastenings of yachts form a subject about which there
is a great deal of opposite opinion. The builder who constructs cheaply
contends stoutly that there is nothing like iron, above water at any
rate; on the other hand, the builder who always asks and gets a good
price for his work always recommends copper and yellow metal for all the
fastenings. Others recommend iron for dead-wood bolts, shelf bolts, and
floor bolts, with Muntz’ yellow metal for plank fastenings, except the butt
bolts, which should be of copper. Others recommend Muntz' metal for all
bolts, and a mixture of yellow metal and trenails for plank fastening.
There is no doubt that iron has some advantages, so far at least as long
dead-wood bolts are concerned. Iron can be driven very much tighter
than copper-rod or yellow metal, and its strength is greater. We have
seen iron bolts, that had been made hot and dipped in varnish or oil
before they were driven, taken out of a vessel thirty years old, long before
galvanised iron was heard of, as clean and bright—in fact, the varnish
unperished—as they were at the moment of driving. On the other hand,
if the iron were driven through badly caulked seams in the dead-wood,
or through a shaky piece of timber, or be loosely driven, so that salt
water might get to it, decay of the iron would be very rapid; hence
preference must be given to copper or yellow metal. Galvanised iron is
often used for shelf fastenings, and it is less objectionable there ; but
preference should be given to yellow metal for all dead woods, as it
can be driven almost as tightly as iron, and, if of the best quality, will
clench well. Inferior yellow metal is very brittle, and care must be taken
to obtain metal of the very best quality.
Lloyd’s give an additional year to all ships or yachts that are
fastened from the keel upwards (to within one-fifth the depth of hold
amidships from the deck) with yellow metal or copper bolts and dumps,
or trenails; in such case the fastenings for the upper strakes of plank
to the deck must be properly galvanised, it being also understood that
the iron bolts for frames, beams, &c., are to be galvanised. And a
further two years are granted if no tremails are used at all.” Whether
* Lloyd’s also give an extra year if the vessel is built under a shed or roof.
22 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
trenails or bolts are used, one is to be put in each plank or strake at
every timber; two-thirds of the trenails are required to be driven through.
The butts of the plank and the bilge strakes and limber strake should
be through-fastened with copper bolts, not yellow metal.
Trenails are scarcely adapted for vessels of less than 50 tons, on
account of the small size of the timbers; and even in these they should
be very sparingly used (and only in the bottom plank), as a 3in. timber
must be very considerably weakened if it is bored with holes to receive
lin. trenails.
Metal bolts should in all cases be used for bolting on lead keels;
iron keels can be bolted on with iron bolts, but if the vessel is coppered
a 3in. strip of zinc should be put between the lower edge of the copper
and the iron keel, and frequently renewed.
Some ten years ago it seemed likely that composite vessels would
quite supersede those entirely of wood construction ; but so far the
composite plan, on account of its costliness, has not advanced very rapidly
in favour, except for racing vessels, where it is preferred for lightness.
The composite build also offers this advantage over the wood structure:
so very much more room is obtainable inside on the same tonnage or
displacement; and this is a consideration in these days of very narrow
racing yachts. The great question was, ten years ago, could a composite
vessel be so fastened as to be insured against the possibility of the
fastenings giving out 7 We think the question has now, after nearly
thirty years, been satisfactorily answered by such vessels as Selene
(1865), Sphinx (1866), Bella Donna (1867), Nyanza (1867), Oimara
(1867), Palatine (1870), Garrion (1871), Modwena (1872), Sunbeam (1874),
Soprano (1877), Lancashire Witch (1878), May (1881), Marjorie (1883),
and many others since the latter date. None of these vessels have, so far
as we know, ever shown the slightest signs of straining, nor have their
fastenings decayed ; although the American elm plank used as a
bottom skin has shown in one or two cases rather extensive decay from
the inside through the plank not being of the best quality; or, in other
words, it was that known among builders as bog or marsh elm. Canadian
rock elm is the name of the best quality. For a composite yacht it is
best that all the planking (excepting the deck) should be of extra thick-
ness to the extent of 10 per cent., and that the plank fastenings should
be of yellow metal screw bolts, sunk in the plank, and so insulated that
galvanic action could not be set up with the outside copper, the bolts, and
the frames. 3 -
A great many experiments have from time to time been made with
compositions for preventing the fouling of the bottom of ships; but up
Metal Sheathings for Yacht’s Bottom. 23
to the present time no specific has been discovered, and the opportunity
for someone to realise a large fortune still exists. So far as yachts are con-
cerned, they are generally sheathed with copper, which may last from
seven to ten years; and, for these waters at least, the bottom can be
kept clean enough by a couple of scrubbings throughout the season.
Of course, for a racing yacht, the copper cannot very well be cleaned
too often ; and a month is quite long enough for the vessel to be
without a scrub, although there are but few which get one so often.
The Admiralty some time since made experiments with zinc as a
sheathing for iron ships (the iron being first protected by a slight wood
skin), but so far zinc does not appear to offer many advantages.
Copper, on the other hand—if the ship be kept constantly moving, or
moored, say, in a five-knot tide—will keep comparatively clean, on
account of the extensive exfoliation which goes on of the oxychlorides
and other soluble salts produced by the action of the salt water on
the copper. Oxychlorides are similarly and much more rapidly formed
on zinc, but are not so readily soluble; hence very little exfoliation takes
place, and a corroded and rough surface is the result, the zinc being
finally eaten through. Zinc, therefore, we may conclude, is unsuitable as
a sheathing for yachts, especially as evidence exists that such sheathing
#in. thick has been eaten through in one year. An alloy of copper (2)
and zinc (3), popularly known as Muntz' metal, is largely used as a
sheathing for ships; but it is scarcely so good as copper for yachts,
as, owing to its greater stiffness, it cannot be laid so well, and is subject
to a rough oxydization; hence it does not exfoliate to the extent copper
does, and therefore fouls with weeds and barnacles more quickly; and
that after being under the influence of salt water any considerable time
—say three or four years—the metal becomes rotten ; but this defect, it
is said, can be remedied by an addition of a small quantity of tin to the
alloy. For composite ships Muntz' metal sheathing has some advantage,
as it sets up very little, if any, galvanic action with iron ; but the risk
of galvanic action from copper sheathing in a well-constructed composite
ship is so remote that copper is to be preferred even for these, if the
difference in cost is not a consideration.
The coating of iron yachts cannot be copper, neither should any of the
compositions which contain copper be put on without first coating the hull
with a mixture of nine parts of coal tar and one part of quick lime or
thick red lead paint. In the case of steel yachts the “scale * due to the
manufacture requires removing before the yacht is coated (unless it has been
done whilst building), and for this purpose, if time admits of it, the yacht
may be left afloat for a few months without any coating on. In all cases
24 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
all rust and scale should be carefully removed from the hull before any
coating is put on. The coal tar mixture is put on to prevent corrosion and
deleterious action of the anti-fouling composition. The action of the latter
is either to kill animal or vegetable life, or prevent their formation by
constant exfoliation. The coal tar prevents, as before said, corrosion of
the iron or steel. -
Of the many compositions in use, the best are J. W. Blake and Son’s,
High-street, Gosport; Jesty’s, High-street, Gosport; Peacock's, South-
ampton; Day’s, Salmon-lane, Limehouse; Rahtjen’s, Suter, Hartman
and Co., Billiter-street, London; Thrift's enamel anti-fouling, Tower-
buildings, Water-street, Liverpool; Haley’s, 131 Narrow-street, Lime-
house ; Denny’s, Hayes', and many others.
For small wooden racing yachts thin black varnish is commonly used ;
it fouls quickly, but, on the other hand, it presents a very smooth surface,
and hauling up a small racing yacht for a scrub and recoating is not a
very serious matter. Davis’s anti-fouling varnish (to be obtained of the
Warnish Paint Company, Spekeland-buildings, Liverpool) and the paint
manufactured by the Liver Colour Company, Liverpool, are recommended
for cruisers; but, of course, any of the compositions named will answer as
well. In applying any of the compositions, the manufacturer’s instructions
should be followed. (See “Composition ” in the Appendix.) The old-
fashioned blackleading, and polishing with a brush, is still followed in
America, where it is termed pot leading, and for getting a good surface for
racing nothing is better, but it does not last clean any length of time, and
soon wears or washes off. -
One gallon of tar or paint will cover about 100 sq. ft. of surface first
coat, and about three-quarters of a gallon the second coat.
.
PLATE [.
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Spar, Rigging, and Sail Pla.







CHAPTER IV.
THE EQUIPMENT OF THE YACHT.
-------- - - - - - -->
'THE equipment of a yacht embraces generally everything that is used or
required for working her.
Usually it is understood to consist of the
spars, standing and running rigging, sails, various tackles or purchases,
anchors, chains, warps, boats, lights, &c.
The diagram, Plate I., and the
references, will assist the explanations that will follow of the various parts
and uses of a vessel’s outfit or equipment.
A.
Cl.
:
increased the weight aloft, without much increasing the size of topsail.
SAILS.
Mainsail.
Clew of mainsail, with shackle as traveller
on the horse 13 (chain or wire rope
outhaul and tackle shown underneath
boom).
. Main tack.
. Throat.
Peak earing.
Head.
. Foot and roach of sail.
Luff or weather leech.
. Leech, or after leech.
First, second, third, and close reef cringles.
First, second, third, and close reef points.
. First, second, third, and close reef cringles
or luff cringles.
. Foresail.
Luff.
Foot.
Leech.
Head.
. Tack.
Mast.
. Top Mast.
. Bowsprit.
. Boom.
* Balloon topsails, with a footyard or jackyard,
they were for a while done away with, excepting in schooners and yawls, as the long yard greatly
. Reef points.
Jib.
Luff.
Foot.
Leech.
Head.
Tack.
. Gaff Topsail.
Clew.
Tack.
Weather earing, or head earing.
Peak earing.
Head.
Foot.
Luff.
Leech.
. Jib Topsail.
Luff.
Foot.
Leech.
Head.
. Tack.
. Gaff.
. *Topsail yard.
. Spinnaker boom.
. Hounds, bolster, and yoke.
are now again common in all racing yachts;
The upper yard is now
much shorter, and there is less of it on the fore side of the top mast.
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
9. Cap. | 13.
10. Masthead.
11. Pole of topmast. 14.
12. Truck.
RIGGING.
1. * Main rigging shrouds. | 24.
2. * Sheer pole, termed also sheer batten 25.
and sheer stretcher. 26.
3. * Dead eyes and lanyards. 27.
4. * Fore stay. 28.
5. * Pendant | 29.
6. * Runner.
7. Runner tackle. 30.
8. Fall of runner tackle.
9. * Topmast stay (the topmast back-stays 31.
are not shown). See Fig. 1. 32.
10. * Topmast shifting backstay, or “pre- 33.
venter backstay.” 34.
11. Tackle of shifting backstay. 35.
12. * Bobstay. 36.
13. Bobstay tackle and fall. 37.
14. Main halyards. | 38.
15. Peak halyards. 39.
16. Main sheet. 40.
17. Topping lifts. :
18. Reef-earing or pendant. 41.
19. Foresail halyards. 42.
20. Foresail sheet rove through block on
clew of sail. 43.
21. Foresail tack.
22. Jib halyards.
23. Jib sheets fast to clew of sail. !
SPARs—continued.
Iron horse at boom end for mainsail out-
haul to travel on.
Mast hoops.
Jib tack.
Jib traveller.
Jib outhaul.
Jib downhaul and foresail dowmhaul.
Topsail halyards.
Topsail upper halyards, or tripping hal-
yards.
Topsail sheet, leading through block with
pendant, fast round masthead.
Topsail tack.
Topsail tack tackle.
Topsail clew line.
Jib-topsail halyards.
Jib-topsail tack.
Jib-topsail sheet, fast to clew of sail.
Mainsail downhaul.
Spinnaker-boom; topping lift.
Spinnaker-boom; after guy.
Spinmaker-boom; hauling and standing
parts of whip purchase of after guy.
Spinnaker-boom ; fore guy.
Spinnaker outhaul, the hauling part on
the under side of the boom.
Spinnaker outhaul, on the upper side of
boom ; this is the part made fast to
spinnaker tack.
The parts of the rigging marked thus * are termed “standing rigging,” and the other parts
“running rigging.” Large racing cutters have a masthead shroud each side.
HULL.
1. Load water-line. (L.W.L.) 10
2. Keel, 11
3. Sternpost. 12
4. Rudder. 13
5. Deadwood. 14
6. Forefoot, termed also gripe. 15
7. Stem. 16
8. Freeboard. 17
9. Counter.
FIG. 1.
HULL.
1. Floor. | 6
2. Frames or timbers. 7
3. Keel. | 8
4. Garboard. 9
5. Bilge. |
Archboard.
. Taffrail.
. Quarter timbers.
. Covering board or plank sheer.
. Rail, or rough tree rail.
. Channel.
. Chain plates, or channel plates.
. Bobstay shackle plates.
. Deck.
. Deck Beam.
. Bulwark stanchions.
. Channels and channel plates.
t \
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ZZI 9 | 6. & *
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7
4. K.
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FIG. 1.


Yacht and Boat Sailing.
MAST AND RIGGING.
10. Mast.
11. Hounds.
12. Yoke or lower cap and bolster.
13. Crosstrees.
14. Topmast.
15. Main rigging or shrouds.
16. Topmast shrouds or backstays.
17. Backstay falls or tackles.
18. Legs of topmast backstays taken off when
the topmast is housed.
FIG. 2.
I, UG MIZEN OF YAwl.
1. Mizen mast.
2. Pole of mizen mast.
3. Mizen boom. [instead of a yard)
4. Mizen yard (a gaff is now generally used
5. Mizen bumpkin.
6. Spider band on mast. [sheer pole.
7. Mizen shrouds set up with lanyards and
8. Mizen bumpkin guys or shrouds. A
bumpkin bobstay set up to a bolt in
the ridge of counter is usually fitted as
well.
9. Mizen shifting stay, one on each side.
10. Tackle for mizen shifting stay.
11. Strop on mizen yard.
12. Iron traveller on mizen mast, with chain
tye or halyard passing through sheave
hole above. The tackle on the chain
halyard is on the other side of the mast.
13. Mizen sheet leading in board.
14. Mizen outhaul and whip purchase slack-
ened up. It is also sometimes arranged
in this manner : the outhaul is put over
the boom end by a running eye, then
through a single block on the clew cringle
through a sheave hole in the boom end,
and then on board. In such case there
is no whip purchase.
15. Mizen tack and tack tackle.
16. Mizen topping lift.
17. Mainboom and part of mainsail.

The Rigging of a Schooner. 29
The rigging of a schooner, taking the hoist of mast, is somewhat
lighter than that of a cutter or yawl; but for the sail spread the total
weight of rigging and spars is heavier.
FIG. 3.
MASTS AND RIGGING OF SCHOONER.
1. Mainmast. 11. Main-topmast stay.
2. Foremast. 12. Fore-topmast backstay,
3. Main topmast. 13. Fore-staysail halyards.
4. Fore topmast. 14. Head of fore-staysail.
5. Hounds or cheeks of mast. 15. Head of main-topmast staysail.
6. Lower cap on which crosstrees rest, fore 16. Tack y 2 3
side of topmast. 17. Clew 2 3 5
7. Cap. 18. Luff 2 3 7
8. Topmast fid. 19. Foot, 3 * y
9. Triatic stay. 20. Sheet 3 × 5 s
10. Forestay. leading to quarter rail.
The other parts of the rigging are identical with those of a cutter,
except that the head gear is different in a schooner, which has a standing
bowsprit and jib-boom. The latter rig has very much gone out of fashion
of late years, and most yachtsmen and seamen prefer the cutter bowsprit,
which can be reefed in more easily than the jib-boom in bad weather, and
will then ease the vessel as much or more.

30
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Fig. A shows a view of the top side of the .
Fig.
Fig.
FIG. 4.
|
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MASTHEAD FITTINGs.
yoke or lower cap.
a is the yoke with an iron band round it.
b is a U-shaped iron plate, sometimes
fitted over the yoke as shown, and
is the strongest plan.
c c iron bolts.
d is the mast.
e is the topmast.
f the crosstrees fitted with screw bolts
and nuts on the fore side of top-
mast as shown.
is the yoke and mast viewed from aft.
the ends of the aft arms of yoke.
the cheeks, the upper part on which
the bolsters rest being the hounds.
iron bolt at aft side of mast.
d, the mast. -
e, bolsters on which the rigging rests.
C shows a broadside view of the yoke
and masthead.
b.0,B
C,
(b,
b,
C C,
d,
h,
t,
jjj,
k,
|
|
m, forestay.
Tv shows the position on the cheeks where the
the yoke.
the cheeks.
iron bolts.
the masthead.
iron cap.
jib halyard block (one on each side of
mast, on iron band).
peak-halyard blocks.
throat-halyard block, and span bolt. This
bolt should be long enough to keep the
parts of the halyards clear of the yoke.
Sometimes a single bolt is used with
strong spur and plate below.
(See page 61).
2, bolster resting on
the yoke.
f, crosstrees.
g, topmast.
:C-l
to take the
the topping lift.
are bolted
blocks for
The sheave in the masthead for the heel rope
of the topmast is not shown ; the sheave is
fitted diagonally, not in the fore and aft line.





The Equipment of the Yacht. 31
In yachts above 20 tons the fittings on the mast below the hounds
consist of two iron mast hoops. The upper one carries the winches for
FIG. 5.
heaving out topsail sheet, purchasing up, &c., and the lower one carries
the main boom and sometimes the spinnaker boom as well.
The “Gipsy” winch, or Paget’s, is usually fitted to a mast hoop of yachts
of 20 tons and over, above the mast
hoop for main boom. Fig. 5 shows
the foreside of this winch mast
hoop, with spinnaker boom goose-
neck and belaying pins.
Fig.6 shows the aft side of the
mast and a different winch. Both
1%. , L.
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wº
º
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|
i.
º
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views are taken from winches sup-
plied by Messrs. Atkey and Son, FIG. 6.
of Cowes. Fig. 7 shows the mechanism of a winch invented by Mr.
Bentall, of Maldon. All the moving parts are inside. It was designed to
FIG. 7.
give two and a half times the purchase of the ordinary winch, but of course
it is slow. The handle on the pinion A transmits motion to the idle pinion
B, and so to C.












32 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The mast hoop and main boom universal joint are illustrated on
Plate II. The spinnaker boom, it will be seen, has also a universal
joint to the gooseneck, but more generally a socket and jointed goose-
neck, as shown in Figs. 5 and 8, are used. The plan shown in the plate
was adopted in the Jullanar, and the plate was engraved from the original
drawing for the same.
The mast hoop and boom end of small yachts is shown by Fig. 8
No belaying pins, it will be seen, are shown in this sketch of mast hoop,
but it is usual to have them, or to fit dagger (t) belaying pins in the
deck round the fore side of the mast. The belaying pin racks under
the bulwarks are also shown.
FIG. 8.
Generally, instead of the pin rack fitted in the deck round the mast,
the boom or winch mast hoop forms a spider band. Fig. 5 shows the
arrangement with spider band spinnaker boom gooseneck, and if there
were no winches the main boom would be on the other side of the hoop
shown in the figure.
Formerly wooden jaws, with tumbler, were usually fitted to gaffs,
but iron jaws, leather bound, are now generally adopted, as shown by
Fig. 9. The eye plate, A, on each side of the gaff has a bolt, and takes
the nock or throat cringle of mainsail. The throat halyard band is repre-
sented by B. The inner side of the jaws, D, is covered with thick hide;
sometimes, however, a sheepskin with the wool on is used. Frequently
the jaws are secured to the gaff by several iron bands instead of bolts;
the band B is not then used, but a bolt working in a slot, as shown in
Plate III. This plan was engraved from the drawing used in making
the jaws for Jullanar's gaff, and has never received the attention it
merited. The large bearing surface of the slipper renders any chafing
of the mast impossible, and there is an entire absence of that annoying
grating noise inseparable from the usual gaff jaws. A rope and ball
parrel is shown in the plate, but we believe a steel band was substituted
for this in Jullanar. Mr. R. Aldous, of Brightlingsea, has patented a
modification of this plan, as shown by Fig. 10.

PLATE II.
{{ %)
YACHT JULLANAR,
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF MAIN B00M JOINT
ND / * * * *-* * * * * * Scale /#*-7Foot
Scale of Feet.
Q
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|-H=H =HE= =====

YACHT “JULLANAR”
PLATE III.
Detail of Gaff Jaws.
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34 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
An efficient appliance for getting the anchor is a most necessary
part of a yacht’s outfit, and hitherto yachts under 20 tons have seldom
had a compact modern capstan, but a time-honoured windlass of some
pattern or other. However, Messrs. Pascal Atkey and Son, of Cowes,
and Messrs. W. White and Sons, Vectis Works, Cowes, now make a
capstan with a winch top for small yachts, which will take #in., #in., gin.,
==
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tº. ººms - ºr " Centre. &nee C -º- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9%roua.
TIG. 11.
A. Bowsprit. E. Pawl of windlass.
B. Span shackle. F. Fid of bowsprit.
C. Whisker for bowsprit shroud. H. Iron roller sheave for mooring chain.
and #in. chains. These are suitable for yachts down to 3 tons. The
small sized capstans with winch tops are not fitted for “capstan bars,”
but in yachts of considerable size, say of 60 tons and upwards, where
there is plenty of deck room, a capstan, which can be worked with bars
as well as by the winch top, should always be had to use in the case of
heavy heaving. There are various makers of these combination capstans.
Windlasses are of varied pattern, and one made by the Troon Yacht
Building Company, Troon, N.B., has iron bitts and knees complete, and is


Anchors for Small Yachts. 35
worked by crank handles. This windlass is shown in Fig. 11, and has
been fitted to yachts of 3 tons and upwards.
Messrs. W. White and Sons, Vectis Works, Cowes, Messrs. Atkey
and Son, of West Cowes, Messrs. Blake, of Gosport, and Messrs. Watkins
|
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--> sº –2 º "A) -
- P ‘. Eºº
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š
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º
.
... "-
º
ſº
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and Co., Blackwall, make a ratchet windlass, with lever heaving handle,
for small yachts, and these are as a rule preferred to those with crank
handles. They are fitted with iron bitts, as shown, or wood bitts as
required (see Fig. 12).
ANCHORS FOR SMALL BOATs.
For light open boats which carry little or no ballast, and are not
moored in a very strong current, the anchor should weigh 11b. for every
foot of length up to 20ft. For other boats anchors would be chosen
according to the total weight of the boat, including her ballast and
equipment, &c.; thus—for a boat of the weight of # ton, 201b.; 1 ton,
25lb. ; 1; tons, 30lb. ; 2 tons, 34lb. ; 2% tons, 38lb. ; 3 tons, 421b. This
supposes the boat to be moored in not more than a two knot tide, or in
a sheltered position. Anchors for small boats should be long in the
shank, and of the old-fashioned pattern, especially if the scope of cable
is short. The usual length of cable allowed is three times the depth of
water at top of the flood. The size of link of chain would be about #im.
Fay and Co., of Northam, Southampton, make two folding anchors
suitable for small yachts. One is the invention of Colonel Buckmill, R.E.,
and the other of Mr. Sinnette, N.A. (See “Anchor * and “Grapnel” in
the Appendix.)







36
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
ANCHORS FOR SAILING YACHTS.
tº qX a 2. 1st Anchor, 2nd Anchor. 3rd Anchor. 4th Anchor.
q) by - *
5 § | #3 T - - -
# 5 3 : Weight
£-g: £4 Weight. | Test. Weight. Tost. Weight. Test. OX Test.
| Stock.
Tons. Tons. Tons. Cwts. | Tons.
With Stock With Stock |
3 2 75lb. sºme 281b. — - * * sºmºn
Cwts.
With Stock With Stock t
5 2 % — 40lb. .* *-*. * * * *
: Cwts,
With Stock With Stock With Stock
10 2 1 | -- & 201b. — * **
With Stock With Stock With Stock
20 2 1} — # 35lb. *sºmº, sº **
Ex Stock With Stock With Stock
30 2 1% ## 1 * 50lb. * * ****
With Stock With Stock
40 2 2 #3 1+ *g #cwt. *º * —r
Ex Stock With Stock
50 3 2} 5 2+ 4}; } * º sº
With Stock
60 3 3 549 2} 5%; 1 *º-ºº: &=ºme *
With Stock
75 3 3# 6; 3} 5%; 1} * *-* *º-sº
With Stock
100 3 43 6# 4% 6# 1% * -- --ºr
Ex Stock
125 3 5 73's 4} 7; 1} 45%; * wº
150 4. 5% 7}} 5+ 7## 2 5 1 *
200 4. 6% 8}} 6 85%; 2} 5%; 1 *
250 4. 7 9:#; 6% 8# 3 5}} 1} sºmsº-
300 4. 8 10%; 7} 9%; 3% 5%; 2 4}}
CHAINS FOR SAILING YACHTS.
Chain Cable, Stream Chain. IHawser. Warp.
Thames -------- ------ - *-*.----
Tonnage. Mini- Break-
|- mum | Test. ing Length. Length. Size. Length. Size. Length. Size.
dº cšze. Test.
Ins. Tons. | Tons. | Fathoms. | Fathoms. | Ins. || Fathoms. Ins. | Fathoms. Ins.
3 H%; .* * 50 * * 40 3 40 2
5 +%; - * 50 * sºmº, 40 3} 40 2%
10 +'ſ 34%; 5% 60 * * 45 4. 45 3
20 +%; 45%; 6% 60 * - 50 4% 45 3.
30 +%r 5%; 8% 60 * * 60 4% 45 3
40 # 7 10} 75 * * 60 5 50 3
50 +} 7 10} 90 * -- 75 5 60 3%
60 # 84%; 12% 105 * *-ºs 75 5% 75 3%
75 +} 84%; 12# 120 * --- 75 5% 75 3%
100 +% 10% 15% 135 - * 75 - 6 90 3}
125 +# 10} 15; 150 45 +%; 75 6 90 4.
150 ## 11% 17+%; 150 45 +ºf 75 (3 90 4.
200 +# 13} 20; 150 45 Hºr 75 6}, 90 4.
250 ## 15%; 234's 1.65 45 +%r 75 6; 90 4%
300 1 18 27 165 45 +%; 75 7 90 4%
The weight of chain cable per fathom can be found by multiplying the square of the diameter
(diameter”) by 54.

PLATE IV,
..Shrowd, H
C A P S T A ſy

Main Sheet Buffers. - 37
For EDECK FITTINGs, Bow SPRIT AND RIGGINg.—PLATE IV.
A. The bowsprit. U U. Eye bolt for boom guy and fore guy.
B. Bitts, pin roller and fid. V. 5 2 peak purchase.
P 2. Knees of bitts. W. 22 topmast backstays.
C. Compressor. X X. Socket for davits.
D. Chain pipe and compressor. Y. Cathead.
E. Bollard. Z Z. Eye bolts for topping lifts.
F. Gammon iron, also called span shackle. {1, 0,. 2 3 fore sheet.
G. Whiskers hinged or hooked to the stem. b. Sheave for fore tack.
H. Wire shrouds. c. Score for forestay.
J. Tackle for setting up bowsprit shrouds; d. Eye bolt for setting up forestay.
blocks are iron and one a fiddle. e. Carlines. -
R. Covering board. j. Bilge strakes.
T. L. Cavels ; those next channels with pins. g. Breast hook.
M. Mast and mast bitts. h. Hanging knees.
N. Fore hatch. i. Shelf.
O. Eye bolt for gaff topsail tack. j. Clamp.
P. 2 3 jib halyards. k. Mast step.
Q. 2 3 topsail halyards. l. Bobstay plate.
R. 2 3 jib purchase. m. Iron floors.
S. 25 throat purchase. m. Hawse pipe.
T T. Channels and dead-eyes.
FITTINGS ON THE AFTER DECK.
At the after end of the vessel the principal fitting is the main
sheet buffer. It consists of several thick indiarubber rings with thin
brass rings between. The two patterns most approved of, and made by
%-
%
%
º
%
º
%
:
%
A
º º
- 5
º
|
º tº
fi - ſ
tº in
B 'liſt
iſ tº iſ
l
;
I * * * *
º tº
i.
-º
T
L.245
|
E
º
FIU. 13.
the inventors, are shown by Figs. 13 and 14. In the case of small
yachts, an iron horse only is often used, with one of the indiarubber
rings at either end to ease the shock when the boom goes over.












TABLE I.—BLOCKS FOR RACING YACHTS BY Y.R.A. RATING.
Desºption of S. Sº...º I 2-5 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120
Blocks. Blo Giºs. Blocks. Rating. Rating. Rating. Rating. Rating. Rating. Rating. Rating. Rating. Rating. Rating.
Inches. | Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches, Inches. Inches. Inches.
Throat halyards......... Shackle... ......... -- 2a. 2 2# 4% 5 5% 7 8 10 10% 11
Throat purchase......... Shackle............ I 1. 2 # 3 # 4. 5 6 Tº 7 7% 8
Peak halyards............ Hook ............ 5 * --- - 4; 5 5% 7 8 # 9% 10% 10%
Peak purchase ... ... ... Shackle... . . . . . . . . . 1 1 --- - 3 # 4. 5 6 # 7 7% 8
Fore halyards..........., Cliphook ......... 2b * 2 2} 3 3% 4. 5 6 # 7 7% 8
Jib halyards ............ Shackle............ 3h *E*g - - 4 4} 4} 6 7% # 9 9% 10
Jib purchase ............ Shackle............ 1 1 -- - 3 3% 4 5 6 # 7 7} 8
Runner pendant......... Lugs ............... 2 ---. 2 2} 3 3% 4. 5 6 # 7 7% 8
Runner tackles ... ... ... Hook & Fiddle... 2 2c - 2} | 3 & 7 || 3% & 7% 4 & 7% 4% & 8 || 5 & 9 53 & 10 || 6 & 11 6% & 12 || 7 & 13
Topping lift ............ Hook... ........... 2 -- 2 2% 4. 4; 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% S
Topping lift purchase | Lugs .............. 2 2 - - 3 3# 4. 5 5% G 6% 7 7%
Main sheet ............... Lug and strop... - 2d 2} 3 4% 5 5% 7 8% 9} 10% 11 12
Main sheet leads......... Swivel ............ 2 - - 2% 3 3% 4. 5 6 7 7% S 8%
Topmast backstays ... Shackle..........., 4 4 - - 3 3# 4. 5 5} 6 6% 7 7%
Preventer backstays ... Shackle............ 4 *- - - 3 3} 4. 5 5% 6 6% 7 7%
Topsail sheet ............ Shackle... ... ... . . 1 *-*. -- - 3 3# 4 5 5% 6 6% 7 7%
Topsail halyards ...... Hook.............., 1. - --- --- 3# 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6# 7 7}
Fore sheet ............... Hook............... 2 *s- 2 2 3 3# 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Beef tackle .............. Hook & Fiddle... 1 1 2 2} | 3 & 7 3} & 7% || 4 & 7# 4} & 8 || 5 & 9 || 5% & 10 || 6 & 11 6% & 12 || 7 & 13
Jib tack .................. Hook............... 1 1. 2 2} 3 3# 4. 5 5% 6 6% 7 7
Main outhaul ............ Hook............... 1 I 2 2.É. 3 3# 4. 5 5% 6 6% 7 7
Trysail sheets............ Hook............... 2 2 2 3 4. 4% 5 6 7 7% 8 8% 9
Bobstay ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steel shackle ... 1 1 2 2# 4. 4; 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Bowsprit shrouds ... ... Shackle & Fiddle 2 2 2 2# 3 & 7 || 3} & 7% 4 & 7% 4} & 8 || 5 & 9 5% & 10 || 6 & 11 6% & 12 || 7 & 13
Sundry tackles ......... Rope strop ... ... 12 12 2 2; 3 3# 4 5 5% 6 6% 7 7%
Gaff bulls’ eyes ......... Iron bound ...... 2 -- --- 3 3 3# 4% 5 5% 6 6# 7
Jib sheet ditto ......... Iron bound ... ... 2 -º-º-º: - --- 3 3 3 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6#
Spinnaker halyards,
spinnaker guys, and
jib topsail halyards
and down-hauls ...... Rope strop ... ... 7 - 2 2} 3 3 3# 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6%
(a) In yachts of 10 rating and over where a throat purchase is used, the upper block has three sheaves, as there is no standing part to the halyards. In {
yachts of 5 rating down to 1 rating the halyards are of flexible wire and the blocks of steel. (b) These are steel blocks. (c) The double block is fiddle-shaped.
(d) The upper block has three sheaves, and wire rope stropped. The lower block has lugs. !
§

TABLE II.-SIZES FOR STANDING AND RUNNING RIGGING FOR. RACING YACHTS.
Shroudsa ............
Runner pendants ..
Forestay
Bowsprit shrouds
Bobstay pendant...
Topmast backstays
Preventer back-
stays...............
Topmast stay
Topping lifts
Jib halyards ......
Topsail halyards...
Runners ............
Bobstay tackle
Jib tack
Throat halyards ...
Peak halyards ......
Fore halyardsb
Fore sheets .........
Jib sheets............
Purchases
Spinnaker and jib
topsail gear ......
Spinnaker guys ...
Main sheet
Runner tackles
Topsail sheet
Topping lift tackles
Diameter of rigging
SCTeVVS
Dittotopmast back-
stays... . . . . . . . . . . . .
* * a s a º
s sº * g g tº
* * * * * * * * * * * *
& & & & g º a 4 tº
a s a , is e e = w is # =
Description. 0.5-Rating. 1-Rating. 2:5-Ratinº. 5-Rating. 10-Rating. 20-Rating. 40-Rating. 60-Rating. S0-Rating. 100-Rating. 120-Rating.
Clºſe. 0. fe- clºſe. Circumfe- || Circumfe- Circumfe- Circumfe- Circumfe- Circumfe- Circumfe- Circumfe-
& 4. Il rence. Ten Ce * * e & - & **
Inches. Inches. Inches Inches. Inches i. Hºs. Iº. i. i. †.
Crucible steel # # 1} 1} 1} # 3. 2 2} 2} 2#.
Crucible steel # # # 1+ 13 1% : 2 2} 2} 33
Crucible steel # # 1} 1} 1% 3. ic 2c gic §c 34.
Crucible steel # # # 1} 1; 1 i # 2 ; 2} 2:
Crucible steel # # # 1% 1; 2 2} 2} 2# 3 3#
Crucible steel — - # # 1 1; 1+ 13 1} 1$ l;
Crucible steel — - # # # 1 1. 1$ 1} 1$ 1}
Crucible steel — *may # # 1 1. 1} 1$ 1} 1# 1;
Flexible steel § # # # # 1 13 1; 13 1; 1;
Flexible steel — --- # 1 1; 1} 1} l; 1; 2 3:
Flexible steel — *m-. # 1 1} 1} § 1; 1% 2 3.
Flexible steel --- -------- # 1 1; 13. 1; 1; 1; 2 3:
Flexible steel — * # 1 1} 1 . 1} 2. # 2} 3.
Flexible steel # % # 1 1} 1; 1; 2 2} 2š 2}
Hempb......... # # 1} 13 2 2; 2á 3} 3} 3# 4
Hemp s s º e º º e º s : # # # 2 2} 2} 3 3 # 3} 4.
Hemp ......... # # # # 1} 1; 2} 2} 2# 3 3}
Hemp ......... # 1 1 1} 1% 2 2} 2} 2} 3 3#
Hemp — - 1 1% 1; 2} 2} 2} 3 3} 3}
Hemp 1 1 1 14 1} 1; 2 2} 2} 2;
Hemp ......... i # 1 1 1 1} 1} 1; i 2 . 2} 2} 2}
Hemp ......... # 1 1} # 1% 1; 2 2} 2} 2.É. 3
Manilla 1 13. 1; 2 2 2}. # 3 3# 3+
Manilla. ...... --- - 13 # 1} 2 } 2} 2} 3. §
Manilla ...... : – --- 1% 1; 1; 2 2+ 2} 2} 3 §
Manilla ... ... § 1 1} 1} 1% 2 2} 2} 2} 3 3#
Gn. mtl. & steel § % # § # # 1% 1} 1; lºs 1%
Gn. mtl. & steel -- --- # § # § † | § 1 1.Tº 1.
| |
(a) One on each side only in 0.5-rater and 1-rater; two 2-5-rater and 5-rater.
0.5 rating. Manilla can in all cases be substituted for hemp if preferred.
(c) Double forestay.
(b) Flexible steel in 1 to 5-rating (see Plate V.) Hemp
º In 5-raters a double whip of 2in, manilla and 1%in. manilla purchase is used.
2.5 rating, 1 rating, and 0-5 rating, single whip manilla and purchase.
or manilla in
In
§

40 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
BLOOKS FOR YACHTS BY THAMES TONNAGTE.
The sizes given for blocks in the following table are for cutters and
yawls up to 100 tons Thames tonnage (see Table VII., on page 43). If the
tonnage exceeds 100 tons, the sizes will increase in the ratio shown in the
table.
TABLE III.-SIZES OF BILOCKS FOR YACHTS OF WARIOUS SIZES.
IRON STROP BLOCKS.
- --
: 6 . 6 is . . ~ + | 6 s. ... < 3 ... < c, • –" : c • Cº. ; :
*:::sºlº #|####|###|##|##|###
" |###|###|###|######|###|###|###|###|###
NAME OF BLOCK. |
* ####| size. size. size. size. size. size. size. size. Size. size.
25 Q 232
25.3% |
| -
Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins.
Throat halyards a ...... 2 — 4 4% 5 5} | 6 7 8 9 9% 10
Peak halyards ... ... ... — | 5 || 4 4% 5 5% | 6 7 8 9 9% 10
Main sheet .............. 1 || 1 || 4% 4} | 5 5% | 6 7 8 9 9% 10
Main sheet lead......... — | 2 | 3 3 4. 4% 5 5} | 6 6% 7 7%
Jib halyards ... . . . . . . . . . — | 3 || 4 4} 5 5} | 6 7 8 9 9% 10
Fore halyards ......... — | 2 | 3 3 4. 4% 5 6 6% 7 7% 8
Bobstay (iron blocks). | 1 || 1 || 4 4% 5 5} | 6 7 8 9 9% 10
Bowsprit shrouds b ... || 2 || 2 || 6 & 3 || 6 & 3|6% & 47 &4}|7% & 58 & 5}|83 & 69 & 63.9% & 710 & 7%
Pendant blocks,........ — || 2 || 3} | 3} || 4 || 4} | 5 || 5% 6 6} | 7 7%
Runner tackle b ...... 2 || 2 || 6 & 3 || 6 & 3 |6% & 47 & 43.7% & 58 & 5%|84 & 5}| 9 & 6 |9% & 6%| 10 & 7
Main outhaul............ — | 1 || 3 3 3} || 4 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Topsail sheet (cheek). -– | 1 3 3 3% 4 4} | 5 5% 6 6% 7
Topmast backstays c... || 4 || 4 || 3 3 3% 4 4% 5 5} 6 6% 7
Preventer backstays... || 2 | 2 3 3 3% 4. 4} 5 5% 6 6% 7
Preventer backstay
whips ................. — | 2 | 3 3 3} 4 4} | 5 5% 6 6% 7
Jib tack.................. — | 1 || 3 3 3% 3% 4 4% 5 5% 6 6%
Jib purchase ... . . . . . . . . . 1 || 1 || 3 3} | 3} 4 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Jib purchase runner... | – | 1 *-s º ºs * : * I am--sºº i == 5 6 7 8
Main purchase ......... 1 | 1 3 3} 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Peak purchase ......... 1 | 1 3 3% 3} | 4 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Topping lifts ............ — | 2 | 3 3% — 4 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Topping lift purchase d || 4 || – || 3 3 3} 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Spinnakertopping lift e | 2 | – || 3 3 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
ROPE STROP BLOCKS,
Jib topsail halyards ... — | 2 | 3 3 3} | 4 4} | 5 5} | 6 || 6% 7
Spinnaker halyards ... | – || 1 3 3 3} | 4 4% 5 5} | 6 6% 7
Spinnaker guy whips. | – || 2 3 3 3 3% 4 4% 5 5% 6 6%
Trysail sheets ......... 2 || 2 || 4 || 4 || 5 || 5 || 6 || 6 || 7 || 7 || 8 8%
Fore sheets ............ — 4 4 3} || 4 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Reef-tackle (fiddle dbl.) | 1 || 1 || 6 & 36 &346% & 4 7 7} | 8 8% 9 9% 10
Boom guy ............... 1 | 1 * I tºº 3 3} 4. 4% 5% 6} 7 7%
Tack tackles ............ 3 || 3 || 3 3 3% 4 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Burton .................. — 2 - -- 3 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6%. , 7
Gaff topsail sheet whip || – || 1 || 3 3 3} | 4 4} | 5 5% 6 63 7
Downhauls (forward) | – || 3 || – || – || 3 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Dead-eyes f ... . . . . . . ... — | – || 3} | 3% 4 4} | 4% 5 5% 6% 7% 8}
(a) If a throat purchase is used (as it generally is in racing yachts of 10 tons and over, the
upper throat halyard block is a threefold, as one part of the halyards is required for the purchase,
and another for the hauling part. &
(b) The double blocks on the bowsprit shrouds and runner tackle are fiddles.
(c) A five-tonner has only four single blocks for backstays, two on each side.
(d) These would be single up to 20 tons.
(e) These would be single up to 10 tons.
(f) Some five-tonners have only two shrouds on each side; 10 tons and upwards three
shrouds; above 60 tons four shrouds for racing.
The Equipment of the Yacht. 4]
The sizes of cordage are arranged suitably for Thames tonnage, but
Table VII., page 44, should be consulted before deciding upon the cordage.
TABLE IV.-SIZES OF CORDAGE FOR, CUTTER AND YAWL YACHTS OF
WARIOUS SIZES BY THAMES TONN.A.G.E.
TON8. | TON8. | TONS. | TONs. | TONS. TONs. | TONs. | TONS. TONs. | TONS.
Cut. 3. Cut. 5. Cut. 10. Cut. 15. Cut. 20. Cut. 30. Cut. 40. Cut. 60. Cut. 80. Cut, 100.
NAME OF TROPE. Yawl 5. Yawl 7.|Yawl 14, Yawl 20, Yawl 30.|Yawl 40 Yawl 60.|Yawl 80.|Ywl. 100|Ywl. 130
Cf. Cf. Cf. Cf. Cf. Cf. Cf. Cf. Cf. Cf.
Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins Ins. Ins Ins Ins Ins.
Throat halyards......... 1} 1; 2 2} 2% 2% 3 3} 3} 3%
Peak halyards............ 1% 1% 2 2% 2% 2% 3 3} 3% #
Main sheet (manilla) ... 1% 1% 1} 2 2% 2% # 3 3} 3}
Fore halyards............ 1. 1% 1% # 1; 2 2} 2% # 3
Bobstay tacklef ......... 1% 1 ; 2% 2} 2} 3 3} 3% 3; 4.
Bowsprit shrouds tackl 1. 1% 1% 1% 1% 2 2} 2% 2% 3
Pendant .................. 1% 1 # 2 2% 2% 2; 3 3% 3% 3;
Runner .................. 1% 1% 2 2% 2% 3 3} 3% 3# 4.
Runner tackle......... ... 1 1+ 1% # 1% 2 2} 2% # 3
Main outhaul ...... * is tº tº º ſº 1 1 1% 1} 1% 1% 2 2} 2} 2}
Beef pendants......... .. 1; 1} 2 2} 2% 2 : 3 34 3% 3}
TopSail sheet ............ 1 1% 1% 1; 2 2} 2% # 3 3%
Topmast backstay
tackles.................. 1 1} 1+ 1% 1% 1; 2 2% 2% 3
Preventer backstay
tackles.................. 1} 1} 1% 1% 1% 2 2% 2% 3
Preventer backstay
whips .................. 1 - 1} 1% 1% 1; 2 2% 2} 3
Jib tack .................. 1% 1; 2 2} 1% w 1} w 1; w 2 w 23 w 2% w
Jib halyards (chain) ... fºr - ºr +%; # +ºf # # Hºr # #
Jib halyards (manilla). 1#. 1#. 2 2+ 2} 2} 3 3# 3% 3;
Jib sheets ............... 1% 1% 1% 2 2% 2} 2; 3 3# 3%
Jib purchase ............ 1 1% 1} 1} 1% 1; 1; 2 2} 2%
Jib purchase runner ... — ºm: *— tº- - *mme 13 w 1} w 2 w 2% w
Throat purchase......... 1 1} 1} 1% 1% 1} 1} 2 2} 2}
Peak purchase ......... 1 1% 1+ 13 1% 1; 1} 2 2} 2}
Topping lifts ............ 1% 1; 2 2% 2; 3 3% 3% 3; 4.
Topping lift purchase... | 1 1} 1} 1} 1% 1} 1; 2 2} 2%
Jib topsail halyards ... | 1 1% 1+ 1% 1% 1} 1; 2 2} 2%
Spinnaker halyards...... 1 1} 1} 1% 1} 1; 1; 2 2+ 2#.
Spinnaker guy whips... | 1 1} 1+ 1% # 2 2} 2; 2; 2}
Spinnaker topping lift., | 1 1% 1% 1} 1% 1; 1; 2 2% 2%
Trysail sheets............ 1 1} 1} 1} 1; 2 2} 2} 3 3#
Fore sheets ............... 1 1} 1% 1% 1 2 2% 2; 3 3#
Reef tackle (fiddle) 1 1 1} 1} 1} 1% 1; 2 2} 2%
Boom guy ............... 1 1 1} 1% 1% 1; 1; 2 2#. 2}
Tack tackles ............ 1 1 1% 1% 1% 1% 1; 1% 2 2%
Burton..................... * * --- 1% 1} 1; 1; 2 2% 2}
Gaff topsail sheet whip. 13 1; 2 2% 2% 2} 3 3# 3% 3#
Downhauls, peak, fore
sail, and jib ............ 1. 1 1 1 1} 1% 1% 1; 2 2
Lanyards.................. 1 1 1} 1% 1; 2 2+ 2% # 3
Topsail halyards......... 1} 1+ 1% 1; 1; 2 2} 2% 2} 3
Topsail trip halyards... 1 1 1} 1% 1% 1% # 2 2} 2}
(w) Flexible steel wire jib tack and jib purchase runner. Cf. Circumference.
In the case of jib halyards the size of the iron of the link is given.
+ Or equivalent in flexible steel wire.
42 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
TABLI, W.—CIRCUMIFERENCE IN INCHES OF IRON WIR E FOR STANDING RIGGING
g FOR, CUTTERS AND YAWLS.
Tons. Tons. | TONs. | Tons. Tons. Tons. ' Tons. | Tons. | Tons. Tons.
NAME. Cut,3orf5 Cut. 10.|Cut, 15. Cut. 20. Cut. 30. Cut. 40. Cut. 60. Cut,80. Cut. 100, Cut, 120
Ya, Wl 7, Yaw 14. Yawºyow 30, Yawl 40. Yawl 60 yawlsoyw. 100 Yw. 120Yw. 140
* | : -
Shrouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1% 13 1% 1% 2% 2% 3 3 3% 3;
Pendants .................. 1% 1} 1$ 2 2} 2% 3} 3} 3; ; 4
Bowsprit shrouds ...... 14 13 1% 2 2% 2% 2} 3 3} 3}
Forestay .................. 13 1#. 2 2} 2% 2} 3% 3} # | 4.
Bobstay pendant ... ... 1% 1} 2 2} 2% 2; 3# 3% 3; 4.
Topmast stay ............ # # 1. 1 1} 1% 1; 2 2} §
Topmast backstay ...... # # # 1 # 1% 1% 2 2% *
Preventer backstay # # 1 1 1} 1% 1} 2 2} 2}
No. of shrouds a side... 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4. 4. 4.
No. of backstays a side | 1 || 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Copper bobstay bar ... § # # 1 14 13 13 1} 2 2%
l | |
NOTE.-Steel Wire.—Although the matter is referred to farther on
under the head of “Rigging,” that in using steel wire of “equivalent
strength '' instead of iron, it would be always safe to choose a size next
above that given in the table. For instance, the size of iron wire given for
an 80 tons cutter’s shroud is 3in., the equivalent strength for steel wire is
2}in. ; but it would be better to choose 2%in. if the yacht is sparred up to
the extreme limit given in Table VII.
TABLE VI.—RELATIVE SIZE AND STRENGTH OF HEMP, IRON, AND STEEL ROPE.
-4- * 4 º' sº | - ſ:
# #3 # ## # # #.
? Kl) O 9 Kl, O QD § 3. H g; # 2.
# # | 3 || 3 || 3 | # g; #5
# # à | # à #: # #:
# 5 3. # 5 § # ă ă 3% £"
C) ſn- O ſh- O & a = £C.
2} | 2 | 1 1 | 6 2
- - 1% 1% 1 1 9 23
3% || 4 || 13 2 . . . 12 4.
* * * 1% 2} | 1 || 13 | 15 5
4} | 5 || 13 3 | . . . . . . . 18 6
... 2 3% 1; 2 21 7
5% | 7 || 2% 4 || 14 2} | 24 || 8
... 2% 4} | ... * * * 27 9
6 9 23. 5 1% 3 30 1()
- - - ... 2} 5% | ... ... 33 11
6} | 10 || 23 6 2 3; 36 12
* * * ... 2} 6% 2} 4 39 13
7 12 2% 7 2% 4% 42 14
- * * ... 3 7} | ... ... 45 15
7; 14 || 3% 8 || 23 5 48 16
- - - * - - } 8} | . . . ... 51 17
8 16 33 9 || 2 5% 54 18
- - - ... 3} | 10 || 23 || 6 60 20
8% 18 3} | 11 2% 6} | 66 22
- - - ... 3} | 12 ... 72 24,
9; 22 3% 13 || 3} 8 78 26
10 25 4 14 84 28
• - - 4} | 15 3# 9 90 30
11 30 43 | 16 ... 96 32
- - - ... 4} | 18 3% 10 108 || 36
12 || 36 4; 20 || 3 | 12 120 | 40
The Equipment of the Yacht. 43
THE SIZES OF RIGGING AND BLOCKS NOT UNIFORMLY GOVERNED BY
TONNAGE.
It is obvious that the strength of the rope and size of the blocks must
largely depend upon the size of the spars and area of sail; and as these
vary very considerably as between racing and cruising yachts of equal
tonnage, it would be impossible to fix on sizes which will be suitable
for yachts of all tonnages without reference to the spars and area of sail
they are to carry. Again, the “ tonnages '' for any given length of the
modern racing yachts differ so considerably from the yachts of a decade
ago (and even among themselves according to their beam) that the
tonnage test for any purpose of comparison may be very misleading. For
instance, the Britannia cutter is 88ft. on the water line and of 221 Thames
tons, has a mainmast 64ft. deck to hounds, and her main halyard blocks
being 13in. The racing cutter Genesta of 1885 is 81 ft. on the water line
and of 80 tons, and has a mast 52ft. deck to hounds, and a main boom
70ft. long. These are about the lengths of spars which a cruising cutter
of 130 tons would carry, and are larger than provided for in the tables.
Genesta’s throat halyard blocks are 104 in., and peak 10in. ; rope for
throat halyards 4 in., and peak 3;in. These would be the sizes for 120 tons
if a column for that tonnage had been provided in Tables III. and IV.
In all cases the rigging, &c., for racing yachts should be decided by
Tables I. and II. ; and for cruising yachts Table VII. should be consulted
before fixing on sizes for the blocks and cordage.
44
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
TABLE VII.-DIMENSIONS OF SPARS TO WHICH THE BLOCKS AND CORDAGE
GIVEN IN THE PRECEIDING TABLES ARE SUITABLE.
TONS. TONS. TONs. | TON8. | TONS. Tons. Tons |...}} ||Nº|| Tº
NAME. Cut. 3. Cut. 5, Cut, 10. Cut. 15. Cut. 20. Cut. 30. Cut, 40. Cut, 60. Cut. 80. Cut, 100.
Yawl 5, Yawl 7 ..Yewlly. Yaw 20. Yawl 30, Yawl 40. Yawl 60. Yawl 80.|Ywl. 100|Ywl. 130
Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft.
Mast, deck to hounds... 21 23 27 30 34 37 40 44 47 50
Topmast, fid to hounds. 17 19 24 28 29 30 33 36 40 44
Main boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 29 33 38 43 47 51 55 61 68
Main gaff ... . . . . . . . . . . . 18 20 22 25 28 30 33 36 40 45
Bowsprit outboard...... 16 17 18 21 24 25 27 30 32 34
TopSail yards ( 27 30 35 36 37 38 39 41 43 46
p8all yard 8 . . . . . . . . . . . & 18 20 21 22 23 24 35 26 28 30
Spinnaker boom ......... 30 35 40 42 44 45 46 50 54 58
TABLE VIII.—SCHOONERS.
CIRCUMFERENCE IN INCHES OF WIRE FOR STANDING RIGGING.
T. Racer. TONS. TON8. | TON8. TONS. To Nº. TONS. TON5, ToN5. | TONs, ToN8.
Č. Cruiser. R. 20. R. 30. R. 40. R. 50. R. 75. R. 100. R. 125. R. 150. R. 175. R. 200.
- C. 30. C. 40. C. 00. C. 75. C. 100. C. 140. C. 180. C. 220. C. 250. C. 275.
$hrouds . . . . . . . . . ............... 1% 1% 1% 2} 2% 3 3 3% 3% 4.
Pendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% 1% 2 2% 2% 3% 3% 3# 4. 4+
Bowsprit shrouds ............ 1% 1} | 2 2% 2% # 3 3} 3% 3%
Forestay ........................ 1% 2 2} 2% # 3% 3% # 4. 4}.
Bobstay pendant ... . . . . . . . . . 1% 2 2} 2% 2% 3% 3% 3# 4. 4}.
Topmast stay . . . . . . ............ # 1 1 1} 1% 1% 2 2} 2% 2%
Topmast backstay ........... # # 1 1} 1% 1% 2 2} 2% 2%
Topmast preventer backstay # 1 1. 1% 1% 1% 2 2} 2% 2%
No. of shrouds a side......... * 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
No. of backstays a side ...... 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Copper bobstay bar . . . . . . . . . # # | 1 1} 1% 1% 1#. 2 2} 2%



The Equipment of the Yacht. 45
TABLE IX.—SCHOONERS.
MAINMAST.
IRON STROP BLOCK8.
º i., | TON8 TONs {{ 8 TON3 | TON: N8 | TON "()N MON
###, Pººr ſºlº ſº. £º ſº; ſº ſº, º ſº;
C. 30. C. 40. C, 60. C. 75. C. 100. C. 140. C. 180. C. 220. C. 250 | C. 275
#| #:
NAME or BLook |fi/É size |size. size. size. size. size. size. size. size. size
żā Ž%
Ins. | Ins. Ins. Ins. | Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins Ins.
Throat halyards a || 2 | – || 4% 5 6 7 8 9 9% 10 10% 11
Peak halyards ..., | 5 || 1 || 44 5 6 7 8 9 9% 10 10% 11
Peak downhaul... — | 1 || 3} 4. 4. 4% 4% 5 5 5 5 5
Main sheet . . . . . . 2 — 4% 5 6 7 8 9 9% 10 10% 11
Main sheet lead | – || 2 || 4 4% 5 5% | 6 6} | 7 7% 8 8%
Pendant ......... — | 2 || 4 4% 5% | 6 6% 7 7% 8 8%
Runner tackle b ... || 2 || 2 || 4 |5 & 4} 6 & 5 |7& 5}| 8 & 6 9 & 64.9% & 710 & 7#10% & 811 & 8%
Outhaul............ — | 1 || 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Topsail halyards. | – || 1 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
TopSail sheet — | 1 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Topmast stay pur-
chase ............ 1 | 1 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Topmast back-
stays ........... 4 || 4 || 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Preventer back-
stays ............ 2 2 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Preventer back-
stay whips...... — 2 3% 4 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Throat purchase. 1 || 1 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Peak purchase ... | 1 || 1 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Topping lifts...... — | 4 || 3} 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Topping lift pur- .
chase ............ 2 || 2 || 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Spinnaker top-
ping lift c ...... 2 — 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
ROPE STROP BLOCKs.
Reef tackle d ... | 1 || 1 |5% & 3}|7 & 4|7% & 4%|8 & 58% & 5}|9 & 6.9% & 6%|10 & 7|10% & 7%"11 & 8
Tack tackles...... 3 || 3 || 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Spinnaker hal-
yards............ — | 1 || 3% 4. 4% 5 5% (3 6% 7 7% 8
Spinnaker guy
whip ............ — | 1 || 3 3 3% 4 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Top sail sheet
whip ..........., — | 1 || 3% 4 - || 4% 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Topmast staysail
halyards ...... — | 1 || 3 3% 4 5 5% 6% * . 7% 8
Topmast staysail
tack ............ — | 1 || 3 3} | 4 5 5% 5 5% 6 6% 7
Topmast staysail
sheet ........... — | 1 || 3 3% 4 5 5% 6 6% 7 7% 8
Trysail sheets ..., | 2 || 2 || 5 5% | 6 6% 7 7% | 8 8% 9 9
Boom guy......... 1 || 1 || 3% 4. 4% 5 5% ($ 6% 7 7% 8
Dead-eyes e ...... — | 12 || 3% 4. 4% 5 5% 6 6# 7 7% 8

(a) The upper throat halyard block will be treble,
(b) Fiddle blocks.
(c) Single blocks under 75 tons.
(d) Fiddle blocks.
(e) Only two shrouds a-side under 40 tons.
97.
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‘GH3)WOIºHOO HO SQIZIS
*S*HGINOOHOS—'IX (ITGVL
48 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
TABLE XII.—DIMENSIONS OF YACHTS AND SPARS.
H * | * , # ăg | H | # = a
2 tº •º- 2 ºf, ſº- º: º: 2: r=. º: i º: ãº
a à || | | ##| 3 |É3 | | |##| | | | 3 | #
H § # 3 || 3: 33 |#2- || 3 |&##| # #2; = 4
Name, with dates when | p 3 Kł) # 3 || 2H * = |###| H Că ă ă #: %rd
the spars were carried. |a| 3 £ | 32 o 3. gº;3 3 || 333 || 3 | . p- 7: K-
# # ã" | # #3 |## | f |##" . . ." | #"
3 || 3 | H # |34 || 3 ||3: {
E"I’. IFT. F.T. I'T. I"I FT. B"I'. FT. |80. FT|SQ. J"I'SQ.. I'T
Amphitrite (1890) ... s 94.5 | 19.4 ... - ..., | 64-0 || 37'5 ... 3158 2618 || 8297
Waterwitch (1887)... s 95.7 | 19.3 | 12:2 58' 0 || 33-0 || 62-0 || 36-0 || 37' 0 | 2868 2649 8090
Egeria (1880) ......... S 93.7 | 19.2 | 12°5 58' 0 || 32' () | 66' 0 || 38°5 35' 0 3040 2600 8500
Seabelle (1876) ...... S 90°5 | 19.1 | 12' 0 || 59°5 36' 0 || 63-0 || 38'0 || 38' () 29 14 2200 | 6880
Pantomime (1876) ... s 91.5 | 19.3 | 12:0 57-5 31.5 58.0 35-0 || 34-0 2622 || 2350 || 7870
Miranda (1879) ...... S 86.7 18.9 || 13° 0 || 58' 8 27.5 64.8 35°5 || 34' 0 || 3075 2136 7700
Dracaena (1876) b ... s 80'0 | 18-0 || 10-0 || 52-0 | 28-0 || 48-0 || 30-0 || 30-0 | 2040 2008 || 5920
Flying Cloud (1872). | 8 || 735 | 157 9-5 46-0 || 23.5 46.5 28-0 || 28-0 | 1690 1920 5500
Latona (1882)......... Y | 93.6 20:2 | 12°5 58°3 39'0 63-0 || 48-0 || 48.5 || 3390 3900 8880
Florinda (1878) ...... Y | 85’7 | 19.3 | 11.9 54°5 36' 0 || 56-5 42°5 44' 0 || 2923 || 3300 | 8280
Jullanar (1877) ...... Y | 99' 0 | 16:9 || 13-8 53° 0 || 24°5 || 56°5 42'0 || 38.5 2737 2900 || 7800
Constance (1885) b... Y | 82.8 | 18-2 | 12:0|| 49-0 || 28'5 || 53'0 37.5 39-0 || 2330 |2600 6190
Lethe (1890) ......... Y 93-3 || 19.6 | . . . * g e ... 63°2 | 40-3 | . . . . 2936 || 3454 7958
Caroline (1878) b ... y | 75-0 | 16.1 | 11.5 43’5 || 31-0 || 50-7 || 37-0 || 35-0 | 1950 |2340 5050
Foxglove (1890)...... Y 61°1 | 13-9 ... 37.8 23-0 || 43'2 30°5 || 34°5 || 1451 | 1592 || 3919
Oimara (1872) ...... Y | 95-0 | 19.9 || 13° 0 || 64-0 || 46' 0 | 72-0 || 49-0 || 49' 5 || 3960 4500 9520
Thistle (1887)......... C 86°4 22°2 # tº º 35' 0 || 81'4 || 51°5 | . . . . 4563 37.70 || 99.57
Britannia (1895)...... C 88.3 || 23-3 || 17°5 . . . . . . . . 91.0 54.9 | . . . 51.65 || 3780 10395
Vigilant (1895) ...... C | 87-3 || 26' 0 || 14-0 | . . . ... 96.7 53'5 ..., | 5695 || 4397 |11588
Iverna (1890) ......... C 83.5 | 19-0 || 13° 0 | ... ... 77°9 || 47-3 | . . . . .3856 || 3410 | 8458
Valkyrie (1890) ...... c | 69.2 15-9 ... . ... ... 69-0 || 42'2 | ... 3047 2736 || 6707
Yarana (1890) ...... C | 65’7 || 14-9 ... tº e º ..., | 62’7 | 40°6 | . . . . 2624 || 2:276 || 5651
Wanduara (1890) ... c | 81.3 | 16.2 | 12:4 || 48°5 31-0 | 68.3 43-3 || 427 | 3170 |2930 | 7283
Genesta (1887) ...... C 81-0 | 15-0 || 13-0 || 52-0 || 35-0 || 70-0 || 46-0 || 47.5 3090 3360 7646
Marjorie (1884) ...... C | 75°4 || 14-5 | ... s g º tº w tº a gº º * * * ..., | 2964 || 2928 || 7022
AnnaSona (1883)...... C 64’3 || 11.9 || 10-7 || 41'0 || 31-0 || 55-0 || 37' 0 || 38'0 || 2130 2104 || 4986
Creole (1890) ......... C | 59-3 || 13-3 || 12:1 | ... ... 56°1 || 34'0 ... 1881 1570 4008
Carina (1895) ... ... C 60:8 15.8 12.8 60-0 || 35-3 | ..., |2167 || 1306 || 3947
Lais (1894) ............ C | 60'4 || 17-0 || 11-5 60° 0 || 35' 0 | . . . . 2165 | 1294 | 4000
Wendetta (1894) ...... C 60°5 || 17-1 || 11 ‘8 ..., ... 61-0 || 34°5 | ... 2151 | 1282 || 3963
Tara (1883)............ C | 66-0 || 11.5 | 11° 5 || 42°5 30' 0 || 58' 0 || 39°5 | 40' 0 || 22.70 || 2150 || 5280
Freda (20 tons) (1881) || C 49-0 9 8 || 9°5 || 34°5 24' 0 || 43°0 28'0 30' 0 || 1450 || 1480 || 3150
Vanessa (20 tons)('78) c || 47:0 9.8 7-8 || 31°5 24° 0 || 39-0 || 27-5 26-5 | 1150 1170 2720.
Wreda (1889) ......... C 45°4 || 10:1 ... 34'0 c 21-0 || 42°6 26-0 | . . . . 1230 1024 2641
Stephanie (1895) ... C 46.5 | 12-3 || 11:1 | ... ... 49' () 28-8 ... 1497 | 689 || 2565
Dragon III. (1894)... C 46:1 || 13.2 9:0 47' 0 || 27-0 | ... 1354 874 || 2600.
Audrey (1894) ...... C 43’5 12-8. 9:0 48° 5 || 27' 0 | ... 1403 || 976 2740
Asphodel (1894)...... C 46-6 || 12:3 9:1 46’2 27°2 ... 1352 | 876 || 2576
Luna (1894) .......... C 46.1 || 13-0 || 9°7 | . . . ... 47.8 || 26°5 ..., | 1348 916 || 2599.
Buttercup (;882) ... G| 42-3 7-3 || 7-8 || 30-0 || 20:5 || 39-0 || 25' 0 || 27' 0 || 1050 | 1040 2500
TJlerin (1884): ) # * is ; p & C 41°5 7.2 ... 29'0 | 19-0 || 38°5 25-0 || 28'0 || 1040 | 1049 || 2492
Decima (1889)......... C 35-7 || 10-2 8°5 || 31°0 ... 34°5 || 23°8 | ... 905 || 497 | 1679.
Rosetta (1894) ... ... C | 34°9 || 10:5 8.7 40-8 21:1 | ..., | 1023 463 1718
Lilith (1894) . . . . . . . . . C; 35°2 || 10:6 7.5 38'0 21°5 ... 866 || 568 || 1695
Archee (1890)......... C | 30°4 9° 6 ..., 30:6 | 19°5 ... 675 305 || 980
Flat Fish (1894) ... L | 32-0 | 10-0 7.5 31°8 || 32°4, , , , 687 || 232 919
Gareth (1894)......... L 28-9 6'9 6-7 24'9 || 24°5 | . . . 442 | 97 || 538
Meneen (1894) . . . . . . L | 24'8 7-0 6-0 | ... ... 27.2 27-0 | . . . 474 | 123 603
Humming Bird (1890) L 25.9 7-3 || 5-7 || 25.5 7' 0 || 23°5 24-2 | ..., 432 || 135 | 567
Babe (1890) ......... L | 26'8 6'8 5.9 23°6 22°8 ... 418 135 553
Dolphin (1890) ... ... L 25-7 7'4. 5'8 ... ... 23°5 || 23°5 | ... 428 152 580
Doris (1890) ......... C | 33' 62 5’73| 6′3 21.5 ..., | 35' 0 || 21.3 , , , 782 | 686 1730.
Currvilish (1885)..... C 28°53' 47 5.5 23:0 . . . . 26.2 | 18-0 539 422 || 104.7
* This includes topsails and schooner's foresail.
b Cruiser. c From fore end of L.W.L. to cranse iron.
PLATE] W,
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Shrouds. 49
STANDING RIGGING.
MAIN RIGGING.
The usual plan of measuring off the rigging for a yacht is to make
a spar plan to scale—that is, a plan showing a broadside view of the
yacht with all her spars in their places, as shown by Plate I. and Fig. 1.
The latter plan, Fig. 1, is necessary to obtain the correct lengths of the
lower-mast shrouds and topmast backstays, as merely taking the length
deck to hounds makes no allowance for the “spread '' the rigging is to
have. A further allowance must be made for the eyes of the rigging going
one over the other, and this allowance will be equal to twice the diameter
of a shroud. (See Plate VI.) For instance, the eye of the starboard fore
shroud is put over the masthead first ; then the port fore shroud, which
follows, must be cut longer than the starboard rigging to the extent of
twice the diameter of a shroud (twice the diameter is equal to two-thirds of
the circumference, the circumference being three times the diameter). The
second and third starboard shrouds form a pair, and the allowance will be
four times the diameter; and so on. (The forestay goes over all, resting
on the throat or peak halyard bolt.) (See page 30, Fig. 4, and Plate VI.)
For the eye and splice an allowance equal to one and a half the circum-
ference of the masthead must be made ; for the dead-eye an allowance
equal to one and a half the circumference of the same. The eye to go
over the masthead should be one and a quarter the circumference of the
mast at the hounds; the eye at the other end of the shroud should be one
and one-eighth the circumference of the dead-eye, so that the latter could
be removed if split or damaged, and replaced. The length for each shroud
is measured from the top of the bolster to the dead-eyes; the drift or
space between the upper and lower dead-eyes, or from the channel to the
top of the upper dead-eye, will be about the height of the bulwark.
There are two plans for fitting the shrouds, one known as “single
eye,” and the other as “pairs.” In the former plan each shroud has its
own eye; but when shrouds are fitted in pairs the wire goes from one
dead-eye up round the masthead, and down to the next dead-eye (on the
same side). A wire seizing close up to the bolster, round both shrouds,
forms the eye. This is the most generally used plan, and the only objection
to it is that if the eye bursts a pair of shrouds are gone ; and even if one
shroud burst, the strain on the remaining one might prove too much for
the seizing. This, however, can be said in favour of the “pair " plan,
that there are just half the number of eyes to go over the masthead,
and consequently there is a trifle less weight aloft and a neater-looking
|E}
5() Yacht and Boat Sailing.
- - - - - - - -------> - ------------- -- ~~. ------.”
masthead. If there are four shrouds a side two “pairs ” are fitted ; if
three one “pair' and one “single.”
Formerly, in the case of three shrouds a side, instead of one single eye
and one “pair,” two “pairs '' were fitted, the aftermost shroud doing duty
as a pendant; this plan has been abandoned, as the seizing so constantly
burst in consequence of the great angle the pendant made with the shroud.
Recently mast head shrouds have come into use again for racing yachts,
and the manner of fitting them and the crosstrees in a 20-rater is shown
on Plate VI., which represents the mast head arrangements of the
20-rater Stephanie.
There are three plans in use for covering the eyes of rigging : 1.
Parcelling and serving with spun yarn ;
2. Covering with canvas and painting it ;
3. Covering with leather.
:
The first plan is cheapest, but will
require renewing every year; the third
is the most costly, and lasts the longest ;
whilst the second is most used, and
g
º,ſ
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i at the lower ends of the shrouds are
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generally served with spun yarn ; but
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tinual washing whilst dragging through
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º-§
i
will remove the washed-out appearance.
§
The lanyards are rove in this man-
ner : A Matthew Walker, or wall knot,
is made in one end of the lanyard; the
other end is rove out through the fore-
most hole of the upper dead-eye; in
through the corresponding hole of the
lower dead-eye; out through the centre
hole of the upper dead-eye, and so on,
the hauling part coming in through the
aftermost hole of the lower dead-eye and
is then set up by a luff upon luff tackle.
The hauling part (a, Fig. 15) is then
secured to its next standing part by a racking; it is then carried up
and out through the eye of the shroud at e ; round the back part
of the eye at b, and in through at c ; a tackle is then put on the end, d,
FIG. 15.


















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Lanyards and Rigging Screws. 5l
and when set up the part d is seized to a standing part of the lanyard.
Sometimes the fall d, instead of being passed through the shroud eye
at e, is secured by a couple of half-hitches round the shroud and seized
as before described. Also, sometimes the fall of the lanyards is secured
by a couple of simple turns and seized in the usual way round the eye
of the shroud. The sheerpole passes across the eyes of the shrouds
immediately over the dead eyes.
Wall knots and Matthew Walkers have, however, been known to draw,
and now the general practice is to have a thimble eye spliced in one
end of the lanyard, which eye is shackled to an eye bolt in the
channel (see Fig. 15) rather ahead of the foremost chain plate ; the
other end of the lanyard is rove out through the foremost hole of the
upper dead-eye (always commencing with the starboard fore shroud) in
through the corresponding hole of the lower dead-eye, and so on;
passing round the aft side of the mast, and ending with the port
fore shroud : on the port side the lanyard is shackled to the
channel under the after hole of the upper dead-eye. As
this makes another part, extra setting up will be
required, as most likely the lanyards will not render
freely through the holes in the dead-eyes; some-
times three parts are set up first, then secured with a
racking, and the tackles shifted to set up the remaining
parts.
A racking is made as follows: a piece of rope, two
or three feet long, is secured to one of the parts of
the lanyard by a running eye at a (Fig. 16). The other
FIG. 16.
end is then passed in and out as shown. The whole is then jammed
up close together, and the part b properly secured.
Very great care must be taken in setting up rigging so that an
equal strain is brought on all its parts.
Cutter or yawl yachts of from 3 to 15 tons usually have two shrouds
a side ; those from 20 to 75 tons three shrouds a side; and those above
that tonnage four shrouds a side.
Racing yachts up to 20-rating have two shrouds a side; 20-rating up
to 60-rating three; and above 60-rating four. It should, however, be
remarked that some of the racing 20-raters have three shrouds on each side.
Schooners usually have three shrouds on each side of main and
fore mast. Schooners, however, like Guinevere, Boadicea, of from
250 to 400 tons, have been fitted with four shrouds on each side of
main and fore mast, or sixteen shrouds in all.
For racing yachts rigging screws, as shown by Fig. 17, have almost

E 2
{52
É
=
=
}
º
#º
&º.
|
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Yacht and Boat Sailing.
entirely superseded dead-eyes and lanyards,
for the principal reason that there is no stretch
to them and they are so much more easily set up.
The cylinder nut is made of gun metal, Delta, or
other suitable metal, and the rigging screws of
steel. The eye of the shroud is spliced round a
solid thimble, with hole through it for the bolt
at A. In large yachts instead of a shackle to take
the channel the lower screw is made with jaws
like the one to take the eye of the shroud.*
Crucible steel wire rope is now universally
used for racing yachts, because it does not stretch
to the extent iron wire rope does. As a rule, in
selecting steel wire, it would always be safest to
choose the size next above that given in the table
of iron and steel equivalent strengths. Iron wire
varies greatly in its stretching qualities (see
foot-note, page 53), and whilst some 3in. rope
may stretch 18in. in lengths of 40ft. under a given
pressure, other may not stretch half as much.
When wire rigging was first introduced, great
objection was taken to it, on account of its
rigidity; and it was declared that the stretching
of the lanyards would not compensate for the
stretching which was due to hemp shrouds.
Various plans were suggested to supply the
deficient stretching quality of wire rigging, such
as spiral spring lanyards, and screw lanyards
with india-rubber buffers. The fact is, however,
that the stretching sought to be given to the
wire rigging by such means is not required, and
would certainly end in the dismasting of the
yacht. The late Mr. W. John, in his elaborate
report to Lloyd’s in 1877 on the dismasting of
ships, shows the stretching qualities which wire
rope has, and the general elasticity of wire
shrouds and hemp lanyards combined. From
his report we learn that the stretch wire rope is
capable of before breaking is very considerable,
FIG. 17.
---,
* White and Sons, Vectis Works, Cowos, and Messrs.
Fay and Co., Northam, Southampton, make these rigging
screws and fittings.



Stretching of Wire Rigging.
5
3
Asºma-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º- - - - --→-- - - - - - --- -- --------- - ------------------------------- - - - ------ - - - -
and that not half of that stretch and strength would be exhausted when
the mast had arrived at its breaking point, due to its bending.”
The maximum recorded stretch before breaking varies from 2 to 7 per
cent. of the length. The stretch, of course, is influenced largely by the
core and lay of the rope, the actual wire stretching very little.
Hemp or Manilla rope is more or less elastic—that is, it will “take
up again * after it has been stretched, but never quite so much as it
may have been extended; and old rope has scarcely any elasticity at all.
Thus so far there is little danger that a yacht’s spars will be lost in
consequence of the wire rigging giving out from its actual bursting,
and, as in ships, it is found that if a mast is so lost, it is generally through
some defective ironwork or careless fitting of the rigging.
It has been contended that a yacht’s main rigging should be stretchable,
because, if she were sailing in squalls or under the influence of successive
* Mr. W. John, in his report, gives the following formula for ascertaining in tons the breaking
‘strain of wire rope. The square of the circumference of the rope in inches, multiplied by 1-034;
that is to say, if the rope be 2in. in circumference, the breaking strength will be 2 × 2 ×
1:034 = 4-13 tons, or about 25 per cent. less than authorities on the subject have usually given.
The size of steel wire of equivalent strength is generally given as 0-8 of the size of the charcoal
iron wire rope; that is to say, if the iron be of 2in. circumference, the equivalent strength in steel
would be thus found 2 × 8 = 1-6 in. or 1;in. However, from experiments made by Mr. John, it
would appear that the strength of the steel wire varies very considerably, and, whilst the ratio in
some cases with soft steel was less than that given, in other cases with hard steel, the ratio of
strength was greater.
The breaking strain in tons of single rope, such as the lanyards, was found to be equal to the
square of the circumference in inches, multiplied by the fraction 0-2545.
The whole breaking strain in tons of the lanyards, rove in six parts, was found to be equal to
the square of the circumference of a single part multiplied by the fraction '843. The joint
strength of the six parts is considerably less than six times the single part, and the disparity
varied between 2'97 and 498; and it would appear that ill-made or defective dead eyes had a
great deal to do with the apparent loss in strength.
The stretch of lanyards in six parts was found equal to the strain in tons multiplied by
the distance from centre to centre of the dead eyes, and divided by six times the square of
the circumference in inches of a single part of the lanyards.
The stretch of wire rope varies greatly within the limits of proof, and the average was found
to be equal to the length of the shroud multiplied by the strain in tons, and divided by the square
of the circumference in inches and by a divisor ranging from 9 to 36. The mean divisor of the
cases experimented with was 20.
Generally it is found that wire rope, when the strain is removed, does not “take up ’’ all that
it has been stretched, and ultimately the stretching quality of the wire will be lost without much
loss in strength. The stretching quality of wire rope to some extent depends upon the core being
of hemp, and to reduce the stretch it has been suggested that the core should be of wire. Wire
rope stretches more rapidly as the strain increases, whereas hemp rope stretches less rapidly; but
these peculiarities are mainly observable as the ropes approach the breaking point.
The weight of iron or steel wire rope per fathom can be found by dividing the square of the
circumference (circumference *) by 1-1 ; the weight of hemp rope by dividing the square of tho
circumference by 4. (See also Table VI., page 44.)
In selecting wire shrouds, pendants, or stays, care should be taken that slack laid rope
with large core is not supplied ; as it stretches very badly, “takes up ‘’ again very little, and
“‘constant setting-up and never taut ’’ will be the inevitable result. As a proof of what iron wire
rope will stretch, it may be mentioned that the shrouds of the Constance yawl, in 1885, stretched
ſuntil the dead-eyes came together, or about 18in., and then all the stretch was not out of it.
54 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
---- - - -- . . . . . . . . . ---------------------
shocks of wind force, if the rigging did not give to some extent, it would
be like attempting to drive a railway train by a succession of blows from a
sledge hammer. In stating the case thus ludicrously the fact is entirely
overlooked that a vessel’s heeling facility affords much greater relief to
such shocks than could the yielding property of any rigging, unless indeed
the latter were to be so stretchable as to be perfectly useless for stays. In
fact, Mr. John clearly shows in his report that, so far as safety goes, the
rigging cannot be set up too rigidly, and the less it stretches the better.
Instead of elastic lanyards, long screw bars are now often used, and
invariably for iron masts in the merchant navy.
In the case of narrow yachts built under the old tonnage rule, with great.
height of mast deck to hounds, the shrouds are of little use unless they are set
up rigidly, and, so far as the requirements of match sailing go, there can be
no doubt that the more rigid the rigging can be kept the better are the results.
The old-fashioned theory is that the rigging should give readily, and that
the masts should have plenty of play. This curious fallacy has been
maintained by still more curious arguments and theories; and we have
known some sailing masters slack up the rigging to give it the required
play. It is obvious that the mast would yield under such circum-
stances, as the strain would not come upon the rigging until the mast
had been very considerably bent—perhaps almost to the breaking point.
We need not dwell upon the bad effects of slack rigging and a yielding
mast further than to say, that anything which tends to render the applica-
tion of the propelling force intermittent, or to absorb any portion of it and
reduce its effect, must in some measure detrimentally influence the speed of
a vessel; and if rigid rigging is necessary for the good performance of
sailing ships, it is equally necessary for the attainment of the highest
results in competitive yacht sailing.
ToPMAST RIGGING.
The topmast rigging will be cut (due allowance being made for the spread
of the cross-trees), fitted, and served in the same manner as the main rigging,
but with single eyes and not in “pairs,” the eyes at the lower end of the shrouds
will be turned in round galvanised iron thimbles, to take the hooks of the
rigging screws (see Table II.) or setting-up tackles, or falls, as they are termed.
Each topmast backstay is usually in two parts, the lower part being
the leg, which is in length equal to the housing length of the topmast.
A thimble is eye-spliced into the upper and lower end of the leg, and a
shackle joins it to the upper part.
Racing yachts above 20-rating usually have two topmast shrouds, or
two backstays as they are more generally termed, on each side, and one
J 5
“preventer’ or shifting backstay each side. In yachts of above 40 tons
the “preventer” is usually in two parts, the leg being of a length to suit
Topmast Backstays. 55
the upper part of the backstays. In yachts of 20-rating and under one
backstay and one preventer each side are generally considered sufficient;
in these vessels a thumb cleat is usually fitted to the cross-trees, and
when the yacht is at anchor the preventer is put in this and set up with
its tackle, for the sake of tidiness. In large yachts a cleat or score
is also provided on the cross-trees, for the preventers when not in use.
A favourite plan, however, is to set up both preventers from their eye bolts
aft on the counter; and the only objection to this plan is, that there is
more gear for the yards or jibbooms of passing craft to pick up if they
come dangerously near ; on the other hand, so far as appearance goes,
it makes a yacht look a little more rigged.
Schooners, in addition to topmast shrouds and preventers, have a
main-topmast stay which leads from the shoulder of the main-topmast to the
fore mast head (see Fig. 3); some cruising schooners further have a
standing fore-topmast stay, which leads from the fore-topmast shoulder
to the main mast head.
The shifting or “preventer” backstays will be measured for length
from the shoulder of topmast to taffrail, and then deduct from this length
about six or seven feet for the setting-up tackle. In large vessels this
tackle always consists of two double blocks, the standing part being
generally made fast to the upper block, and then the fall leads from the
upper block; but sometimes the tackle is put the other way up, so that
the fall leads from the lower block. The advantage of this plan is that
several hands can get on the fall for a “ drag ; ” the other plan, however,
is more shipshape, and if the fall be put under the cavel round a belaying
pin, with a couple of hands to “swig’’ and one to take up the slack, the
tackle will always be set up taut enough. The tackles are hooked to the
trysail sheet bolts on the quarter. In racing yachts, to avoid any possible
mishap before the backstay can be properly set up, a tail block is seized to
the lower end of the preventer just above the eye; a single rope is rove
through this block, and one end of it is secured by a running eye to the cavel
aft; a knot is made in the other end to prevent the rope unreeving. The
rope is of sufficient length to admit of the preventer being carried into the
main rigging without being unrove. When shifting the backstays, as in
gybing, one hand takes hold of the hauling part of this “whip” to leeward,
and hauls the backstay aft and gets it set up fairly taut, whilst another hand
prepares the tackle for hooking on as the boom settles over. If backstays
are properly worked in this way, a topmast should never be lost in gybing.
Another plan is to have a tapering “fall” to the setting up tackle and
overhaul the parts until the backstay can be stopped into the rigging.
This, on the whole, is the simpler plan. The fall must, of course, be hauled
on Smartly in gybing so as to get the tackle set up in good time.
56 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
In all yachts it is a great advantage to be able to get the topmast
quickly on deck, and in those of 20-rating and under the man-of-war plan
of sending the rigging up on a funnel can be recommended. A topmast on
deck, instead of up and down the mast, is as good as a reef; and in small
yachts of from 5 to 20-rating, where the stick can be easily “man-handled,”
the funnel arrangements can be made use of. In the annexed diagram
a is the topmast, and b the pole of the topmast ; 8 topsail halyard sheave; k
is the funnel; m, and m are two catches rivetted to the funnel; the catches
rest on the cap of the mast in a fore-and-aft direction when the topmast
is lowered, and prevent the funnel going down through with the topmast.
The funnel, it will be seen, is made to fit on the shoulder of the topmast,
the lower part of the funnel being greater in diameter than the upper
part. Fig. A shows the funnel viewed from above, o being the shoulder,
b the pole of topmast, and ºn m the catches.
All the topmast rigging, including preventers,
also spinnaker and jib topsail halyard blocks,
are fitted on the funnel over the shoulder. A
stout rope grommet should be fitted on the
shoulder of the funnel as a bolster to prevent
the rigging being cut. In lowering the top-
mast the halyards must be unrove from the
sheave 8 ; then, when unfidded, the topmast
will come down; but the funnel, with the
catches resting on the upper cap, will remain
at the masthead—that is, the lower half of
the funnel will be inside the cap, and the
upper half above the cap. All the rigging,
&c., of course remains on the funnel. To
get the topmast up again, the pole will be
shoved up through the funnel, and, when
clear of the cap, a hand aloft will reeve the
halyards through the sheave hole s. In
gºvºy. lowering whilst racing, the flag would have
FIG. 18. to be taken off before bringing the pole
through the funnel, as it might foul. So also if there are signal halyards
or trip halyards, they must be unrove. Any good brazier would make
the funnel, and rivet or weld the iron catches on. The funnel would,
however, be better made of copper. Care should be taken that the
lower part of the funnel is made as deep as the cap, and that it fits
inside the cap easily, but not too loosely. The upper part of the funnel
must be high enough to take all the eyes of the rigging and tails of

Topmast Rigging Funnels. 57
blocks. The man-of-war funnels have no lower part, and the catches when
the topmast is down have to be lashed to the cap ; this of course takes up
time. A topmast, with the funnel as described in a 5-tonner, can be got
on deck in one minute, and be got up again in nearly as little time.
Mr. Thomas Butler, of Barrow-in-Furness, invented a topmast funnel, on
the plan shown in the annexed diagram (Fig. 19), and used it in his 3-ton
yacht (O.M.) for getting
his topmast on deck with-
out unrigging. The funnel
(shown by A) is cast in
brass, about ; inch thick.
a is the pole of the top-
mast, which is fixed or
jammed in the funnel, and
does not come below c. b
is the lower part of the
topmast. a. is a stud to
insure the funnel getting
on the right part of the
topmast. c is a shoulder
to strengthen the funnel,
and rests on the masthead
cap when the topmast is
lowered. d is a hole in
the funnel through which
the halyard is rove. g is
a part of the funnel
bevelled away to prevent
the halyard being cut. f
is a rib, of which there
are three. (As the funnel
is necessarily larger at the
bottom than at the top, the
top part would fit loosely
in the masthead cap; hence
the ribs are made to taper
to nothing at the bottom,
and just fill out the cap
when the funnel is lowered
Scale.—3im. to the foot.
FIG. 19.
inside the cap.) e e are two eyes; of these there are four, two for shrouds,
one for topmast forestay, and one for shifting backstay. They can either

58 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
be cast with the funnel or rivetted in afterwards. B is a section of the
funnel, viewed nearly broadside on ; j j j j shows the thickness of the
brass, and g the bevellings; i the halyard; h is a piece of hard wood
fitted on the upper end of the topmast, as shown, forming a dumb sheave.
If a sheave were used, it would require a broad one with a good deep
score in it. D is an end-on view of the funnel; l is the fore eye, looking
in a fore-and-aft line corresponding with m ; 0 and m are the two eyes
for the shrouds; q q q are the ribs; k l are the shoulders; p is the opening
for the halyard; j is the funnel. If other halyards are required, tail
blocks can be made fast round the shoulders for them to run through.
The feature of this arrangement is that the topmast may be got on
deck, or rather all that portion of it which is below the topsail-halyard
sheave hole, leaving the pole and funnel, with the signal and topsail-
halyards, and be sent up again without anyone going aloft to reeve the
halyards or fid, as the heel rope can be trusted to keep the topmast up.
FIG. 20.
If necessary, in a squall, topsail and topmast could be lowered alto-
gether by letting go the heel rope; this is of great consequence
in small boats, as it enables a larger topsail to be used than a pole
mast will admit of without the latter being too big for a sea way.
Various plans have been devised for fidding and unfidding topmasts.
In Fig. 20, A is a pawl pivoted in slots which drops into a score in the top-
mast as the latter is got up. When the topmast has to be lowered, haul
on the heel rope; and when the topmast is lifted sufficiently high, pull on
the small rope B (which passes over the sheave C) until the pawl is clear
of the score. The topmast can then be lowered.
Mr. Augustine L. Dunphy describes his self-acting fid as follows:
(Fig. 21):


Topmast Fids: Pendants and Runners. 59
“The iron fid works rather stiffly on a pin in the slot at heel of the
topmast (see A, 1); a bolt, B (2), screwed into the masthead, completes the
mechanical part of the arrangement.
“To Jºid the Topmast.—The fid is placed in position, A (2), whilst the
topmast is down, and then haul on the heel rope until the projecting part
(A) strikes the bolt B (a score is cut in the cap to enable the fid to clear),
and is pushed into a horizontal position when the heel rope is slacked,
and the topmast will fall a few inches, fidded securely (see 4, Fig. 21).
“To Unfid.—Haul on the heel rope until the fid strikes the bolt B,
thereby changing its position to that shown in (3),
and the topmast is then free to come down.

“A little extra care is necessary in sending up
the topmast, as, if driven up too high the fid is fidded
and unfidded, when a hand must go aloft to right, or
the topmast be lowered so as to place the fid in
position again. |-r:
YN
Nºli
|
|
N
The most approved plan for a self-unfidding
topmast is shown by Fig. 22. a is the topmast, y the
yoke, s is an iron tumbler fid, pivoted by a bolt
shown above a. m. and n are slots cut in the topmast,
k is a small line fastened to the fid, and passed up
through a hole bored in the heel of the topmast. To
unfid hoist on the heel rope until the tumbler falls \
into the slot n, then lower away. To fid, hoist by the FIG. 22.
heel rope until the slot m is above the yoke. Then pull on the line k
until the fid is in the horizontal position shown in the drawing. We
think this fid is to be preferred to either of the other two.
PENDANTS AND RUNNERs.
The pendants are made of wire rope, and are put over the mast.
head before the shrouds are. They are covered with canvas. The pendant
is usually in length two-thirds the distance deck to hounds, but it should
not be longer, otherwise the runner will not overhaul sufficiently without
unhooking, which only ought to be necessary when the boom is eased off
the quarter. The lower end of the pendant is shod, or, if not shod, an
eye is turned in over an iron thimble. A single block is shackled to this
end of the pendant, and through the block the runner is rove.
The runner is sometimes made of hemp or Manilla rope, but in large
racing vessels it is more frequently made of flexible iron or steel wire
rope. The runner in total length is generally three-fifths the distance
deck to hounds. It should be made as long as possible, so that there may
(50 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
be plenty to overhaul when the boom is eased off. It should not be
necessary to unhook the runners and tackle every time the boom is eased.
Each end of the runner has a thimble-eye splice, with a strong hook
at the end of the standing part, which leads aft to be hooked to an
eye bolt on the rail.” The tackle is shackled to the eye at the other
end of the runner, and usually consists of a fiddle block on top and single
block below, but sometimes the upper block is a common “double.” The
fall of the tackle always leads from the upper block. With the wind
much forward of the beam, very little strain comes on the runners; but
they should be kept well set up, or otherwise the mast may go forward,
and bring about a slack forestay, hollow luff to jib, and throw an undue
strain on the aftermost shrouds.
Mr. C. P. Clayton has adapted the American plan for runners in his
20-raters, and it has been introduced into the 40-raters as well. In Fig. 23
the pendant block is about 21ft. abaft the mast and 3ft. 6in. above the
deck; the bullseyes B and B 1 are about 1.ft. 4in. apart. They are bolted
through the beams, work fore and aft, and swivel. The tackle being
7AC/ZZ A.
3.
FIG. 23.
released at A, and a haul taken on the runner at A 1, the tackle block is
drawn up to B. The weight of the boom will then overhaul the runner
through B 1 and the pendant block. In setting up, the runner is hauled
upon until hand taut, and the rest is done with the tackle.
FORESTAY.
The forestay goes on “over all; ” but now the practice is to have the
eye, or collar, large enough to go well up the masthead, above the yoke and
over the throat-halyard-block bolt, or a hook bolt; in a racing yacht the
latter is preferable, as the mainsail puts quite enough strain on the
throat-halyard-block bolt. The collar encircles topmast as well as the
yoke. The eye should be made so that the splice comes well under
* The runner should be always hooked so that the point of the hook comes uppermost ;
this will bring the strain fairly on the throat or bight of the hook; otherwise the hook
may be straightened or broken.

Triatic Stays : Topping Lifts. 61
the cross-trees, and should be long, so as not to bring strain on the
splice. (See page 30.) The yoke gives the spread to the collar necessary
to allow the topmast to go up and down without touching it. The collar
should be leathered. The stay leads down to the fore side of the stem-
head in a score (see c, Plate IV.), where it is rove through a hole. The
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FIG. 23A.
end A is then made into a bight round a heart block D, with seizings.
at intervals, as shown ; it is then set up with a lanyard C (Fig. 23A) to
the bitts B, with an iron bound hart E. In reeving the forestay through
the stemhead it must not be forgotten that the iron hanks or rings for
the foresail must go on it first.*
TRIATIC STAY.
Formerly, in schooners, a stay on each led from the main mast head to
the deck, forwards, and was set up by a tackle ; in tacking or wearing, the
lee tackle had to be set up and the weather tackle let go. This plan was
very inconvenient in racing schooners, and, about the year 1858, the fashion
became general to carry a stay from mast head to mast head, a larger
forestay being introduced to bear the extra strain thrown upon it. The
disadvantage of this plan is that it entails some trouble in tacking or gybing,
as double fore-topsail sheets and tacks are required, and the fore topsail
has to be clewed up every time the schooner is put on a different tack. To
obviate this trouble, double triatics have been tried, the lee one being
always eased up; but they were found to be a great nuisance, as there was
still the difficulty of getting the clew over the main-topmast stay, and the
danger of not getting the triatic set up before the vessel filled. On the
whole, the single standing triatic gives the least trouble and is the safer.
There are two ways of fitting a triatic stay to the mastheads; the
most approved plan is to have a thimble eye spliced into either end of
the stay, and shackle it to an eye welded on the masthead cap. The other
plan is to shoe the stay with lugs to fit an eye bolt on the masthead cap.
ToPPING LIFTs.
In vessels about 40-rating there is one Manilla topping lift a side, and
the standing part is hooked to an eye in an iron band round the boom.
* In schooners, and in some cutters, when the bowsprit goes out over the stem, the forestay
is set up to lugs on the span shackle by a screw bolt and nut, or lanyard.


















62 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
J.------------------"º"
The topping lift is then rove through a single block shackled to an eye
plate on the cheeks of the mast. The hauling part of the topping lift
has an eye, to which the purchase block is hooked or shackled ; the
purchase consists of a double and single block.
In vessels from 30 to 60-rating the topping lift is single, with the
addition of a runner, the standing part of which and the purchase are
shackled to eye bolts on the channel; but sometimes they are shackled to
an eye bolt in the rail, or to the cavel abreast of the mast.
In vessels above 60-rating it is usual to have double topping lifts,
with runner rove through a block on the end of the hauling part of
the lift ; a tackle is hooked to the runner; in such case the standing
part of the lift is shackled to the block at the masthead, and leads thence
through a block on the boom, and back through the block at the masthead.
Most large racing yachts have a single topping lift a side, made of
flexible wire and covered with canvas. These, of course, have the runner
and tackle. These topping lifts look neater than the double (Manilla rope)
ones, and overhaul themselves just as readily.
Very small craft have only one single topping lift, and of course, when
under way, this one is always slack if to leeward so as not to girt the sail;
the practice in larger craft is always to have the weather lift set up hand
taut and belayed.
BowsPRIT SHROUDs.
Bowsprit shrouds are made of iron or steel wire rope, and have a
thimble eye-splice in each end ; one end is shackled to the iron
cranse at the bowsprit end, the other to the setting-up tackle or to
screws like the shroud screws (see Fig. 17). The tackle formerly was
always outboard, hooked to an eye bolt on the top strake, or on the
channel, where it not only dragged through the water and picked up weeds,
but was not so readily got at when reefing the bowsprit. The tackle con-
sists of an iron fiddle block and a single block, the latter being at the after
end of the tackle. (See J, Plate IV.) An eye bolt is usually put in the
deck to take the tackle. This bolt should go through a beam, and have
a plate and spur on deck; the strake of deck plank where the bolt is
should be of hard wood, and the bolt should be a very strong one.
Several vessels have lost their bowsprits through this bolt drawing,
crushing through the plank, or breaking off short. In some yachts an
iron clamp band is fitted, with an eye bolt in it, round one of the bulwark
stanchions, for the shroud tackle block to be hooked to. Another fruitful
cause of mishap to bowsprits has been the practice of having an iron shoe
instead of a thimble eye-splice in the shroud for the shackle. Even when
Bobstay. 63
the shoe is a long one, it will occasionally strip in consequence of the
wire parting where the rivets go through, and a shoe should never be
trusted for any part of the wire standing rigging.
In the case of the rigging screws being used for the bowsprit shrouds
bolts will require to be fitted at intervals equal to the distance between the
fid holes for reefing the bowsprit. In most of the small racing yachts the
bowsprit is, however, too short to require reefing.
BOBSTAY.
Various ingenious plans have been invented for bobstays, as no
part of a yacht’s gear so frequently gives out ; but the most usual
plan of making up a bobstay is as follows: a copper bar * shackled
to the stem, and about as long as the bowsprit is high out of the
water; then a wire pendant and tackle. The tackle has a single block
next the pendant, and a double one at the bowsprit end, the fall
leading inboard at the stem. The cordage selected for the tackle is
usually bolt rope, and some racing yachts have flexible wire rope. A
common practice in racing vessels is to have a “baby bobstay,” or
preventer, which is not set up quite so taut as the other ; this preventer
has no doubt saved some bowsprits, but, on the other hand, it has
undoubtedly been the cause of many being carried away. Constantly
setting up the jib, or the strain of the jib alone, or the strain of the
bowsprit when set down to a crook, will soon cause the fall to stretch
or “come up,”
and then an equal strain comes on both. But very
frequently the preventer is set up a little tauter than the other; in such
cases, if there be any weight in the wind, the preventer is almost certain
to part, and the other if the jerk be very great, may go with it. If the
main bobstay should go first, it would be hardly reasonable to expect
the other and weaker one to stand ; it may, it is true, just save the
bowsprit, but the sailing master will have so little confidence in the pre-
venter that he will order the jib sheets to be eased up, and will gill his
vessel along, whilst the other bobstay is being patched up, if such a
thing as patching be practicable. Another danger attending the practice
of having two bobstays is that the main one is never quite so stout and
strong as it otherwise would be ; and, as it is almost certain that an
unequal strain will come upon them, one only has practically always to
do the work. Therefore by far the wiser plan is to have one stout and
strong bobstay, equal in fact to the united strength of the two.
* The eyes in the bobstay bar must not be welded or braised. The ends of the bar should
be heated. and hammered back by striking the end of the bar on the anvil end on ; when the
end is driven up twice as thick as the other part of the bar, the hole can be drilled or punched—
drilling is to be preferred. -
64. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
RUNNING RIGGING.
JIB TRAVELLER, JIB TACK, JIB HALYARDS, AND JIB SHEETs.
The Cowes plan for traveller is to have a short eye shackle (b) on
the traveller to take the jib clew cringle, and shackle (a) for the tack,
as shown in Fig. 24. The common plan is to have a hook for the clew
**.--"
Scale
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
Shroº
FIG. 24.
cringle of the jib, and a shackle for the outhaul or jib tack (o), as it is.
termed. (See T and V, Fig. 25.) The shackles and hook are fitted loose
to the traveller, so as to turn easily; the end of the leather covering of the
traveller prevents their slipping round. In some cases, in small vessels,

Bowsprit End Fittings. 65
where no shackle is used, the eye in the jib tack is seized to the ring.
Again, in large vessels, another plan is to open the strands of the wire
rope and make them into two parts. Two thimbles are put on the ring
traveller, one on each side of the hook, and the two parts of the jib tack
are eye-spliced round the thimble. The jib tack thus forms a sort of
bridle. -
The jib tack requires to be of great strength, and is made according
to the choice or judgment of the person who has the fitting out of the
yacht, of rope, chain, or flexible wire rope. Rope does very well in small
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FIG. 26.
vessels, but flexible steel wire rope is to be preferred, and it is found to
stand better than chain. The tack leads down through a sheave hole s
at the bowsprit end; a block is shackled to the end of the tack through
which the outhaul is rove. The standing part of the outhaul is put over Qne
of the bitts with a running eye; the hauling part leads on board by the
side of the bowsprit. A single rope inhaul is generally fast to the traveller.
The cranse iron, it will be seen, is fitted with four single lugs—eyes,
to take the shackles ; k k for the shrouds and t for the topmast stay ; and
F.


66 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
-
the other for the bobstay. Another form of cranse iron will be found
illustrated farther on in the chapter on Clyde Lugsail Boats.
The score in the end of the bowsprit has necessarily to be very long,
and frequently it is made wider than it need be ; at any rate the sheave
hole is a source of weakness, and generally if the end of the bowsprit
comes off it is close outside the sheave hole, the enormous lateral strain
brought on the part by the weather shroud causing the wood to give
way. To avoid such accidents we for some years advocated a plan for
putting the sheave outside the cranse iron, and the plan is now generally
adopted in small racing yachts. A collar piece, A, Fig. 26, is fitted on the
bowsprit end, and the cranse iron, B, goes on over that. The score for the
sheave, D, is cut a little out of the vertical so as to throw the outhaul, E,
on opposite sides of the lugs, F F, to avoid straining or chafing. The
example given shows the bowsprit end fittings of a 5-rater, drawn to one-
quarter full size.
Jib halyards are, as a rule, made of chain, or for racing yachts of
crucible steel wire rope, as it runs better and does not stretch, and the fall
stows in a smaller compass when the jib is set ; in fact, the fall is
generally run through one of the chain pipes into the forecastle, where
it helps a trifle as ballast. In cruising yachts, where chain is not used,
Manilla rope is employed. The jib halyards are rove through an iron
(single) block (which is hooked or shackled to the head cringle of the jib),
and then each part leads through an iron (single) block on either side of
the masthead (see Fig. 4). The hauling part usually leads down the port
side of the mast ; the purchase is shackled to the part that leads through
the block on the starboard side. In vessels above 50-rating a flexible wire
runner is invariably used in addition to the purchase ; one end of the
runner is shackled to an eye bolt on deck, and the other, after leading
through a block on the end of the jib halyard, is shackled to the
upper block of the purchase. The purchase consists of a double and
single block, or two double; in the former case the single block is below,
with the standing part of the tackle fast to it; but where two blocks are
used, the standing part of the tackle is made fast to the upper block. As a
great deal of “beef’ is required to properly set up a jib, it is usual to have
a lead of some kind for the “fall” + of the purchase on deck, such as a
snatch block. It is, of course, necessary to have a “straight ° luff to a
jib, but very frequently the purchase is used a little too freely; the result
is that the forestay is slacked, and perhaps a link gives way in the hal-
yards; or the luff rope of the jib is stranded (generally near the head
or tack, where it has been opened for the splice), and sometimes the
. . . * The fall of a “tackle” is the part that is taken hold of to haul upon.
Fore Halyards, Fore Taeks, and Fore Sheets. 67
bobstay-fallis burst. These mishaps can be generally averted by “easing ”
the vessel whilst the jib is being set up, choosing the time whilst she is in
stays or before the wind, and watching to stop purchasing when the
forestay begins to slacken.
Jib sheets in vessels under 30-rating are usually single, but in vessels
above that rating they are double. In the latter case there are two
blocks, which are put on the clew cringle; a sheet is rove through each
block, and the two parts through the jib sheet holes in the wash strake of
the bulwarks; one part of the sheet is then made fast and the other hauled
upon.
The foot of the jib should make about the same angle as the foot
of the other sails when close-hauled, and in extremely narrow vessels it
has been sometimes found necessary to have an outrigger with a block
on it for the jib sheet to reeve through, but it is oftener found in small
yachts than large.
For E HALYARDs, FoRE TACKs, AND FORE SHEETs.
The fore halyards are usually fitted as follows: The standing part is
hooked or shackled to an eye bolt under the yoke on the port side, then
through a single block hooked to the head of the sail, and up through
another single block hung to an eye bolt under the yoke on the starboard
side. The downhaul is bent to the head cringle or to the hook of the
block. No purchase is necessary, as the sail is set on a stay ; but in
yachts above 10 tons the luff of the sail is brought taut by a tackle
hooked to the tack; the tack leads through the stem head. The tackle
consists of a single and double block, or two doubles according to the
size of the yacht. In yachts of 50-rating and upwards the tack is usually
made of flexible wire rope.
Fore sheets in yachts under 30-rating are usually made up of two single
blocks. The standing part is made fast to the upper block (hooked and
moused or shackled to the clew of the sail). In larger vessels a double, or
single, or two double blocks are used, the hauling part or fall always
leading from the upper block. In cutters or yawls of or above 100-rating,
or ill schooners of and above that rating, “runners” are used in addition
to tackles. These are called the standing parts of the sheets : one end is
hooked on the tackle by an eye; the other end is passed through a bullseye
of lignum vitae on the clew of the sail, and is then belayed to a cavel.
The sail is then sheeted home with the tackle.
In the case of schooners a favourite plan for cruisers is to have a
boom foresail with sheet rove similar to the main sheet, except that there
are no quarter blocks. Occasionally a short horse is fitted in the deck
F 2
68 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
for the lower block to travel on, but more frequently a bolt only. When
there is no boom the sail is termed a lug foresail, and the bolts for the
standing parts of the fore sheets are usually put in so that the foot of
the sail, when straightened flat in for close hauled work, makes an angle
of from 13° to 15° with the middle line of the keel. As this usually brings
the bolts a considerable distance inboard on the deck, it is usual to have
them screwed into sockets so that they can be removed and plugged when
the vessel is not under way; otherwise they may make awkward things to
kick the toe against.
MAIN AND PEAK HALYARDS, MAIN TACK, MAIN SHEET, AND MAIN
OUTHAUL.
The main or throat halyards are generally rove through a treble block
at the masthead, and a double block on the jaws of the gaff. The hauling
part of the main halyards leads down the starboard side of the mast, and is
belayed to the mast bitts. The main purchase is fast to the standing part,
and usually consists of a couple of double blocks, and the lower one is
generally hooked to an eye bolt in the deck on the starboard side. For-
merly it was unusual to have a main purchase in anything under 30-rating,
and when there was no purchase the upper main halyard block was double,
and the lower a single. However, now a racing 20-rater has a main pur-
chase, and most 10-raters have one. The principal object in having a main
purchase in a small craft is that the mainsail can be set better, as in
starting with “all canvas down” the last two or three pulls become very
heavy, especially if the hands on the peak have been a little too quick; and
a much tauter luff can be got by the purchase than by the main tack tackle.
Of course the latter is dispensed with in small vessels where the purchase
is used, and the tack made fast by a lacing round the goose-neck of the
boom. By doing away with the tack tackle at least 6in. greater length of
luff can be had in a 5-tonner, and this may be of some advantage. The
sail cannot be triced up, of course, without casting off the main tack
lacing ; but some yacht sailers consider this an advantage, as no doubt
sailing a vessel in a strong wind with the main tack triced up very badly
stretches the Sail, and looks very ugly.
The peak halyards in almost all vessels under 140 tons, O.M., are rove
through two single blocks on the gaff and three on the masthead, as shown
in Plate I. and Fig. 4. Some large cutters have three blocks on the gaff.
and in such cases one of the blocks on the masthead (usually the middle
one) is a double one. The standing part of the peak halyards to which the
purchase is fast leads through the upper block and down on the port side.
The usual practice in racing vessels is to have a wire leather-
Main Boom 0uthaul Slide. 69
covered span (copper wire is best) with an iron-bound bullseye for each
block on the gaff to work upon, and this plan no doubt causes a more
equal distribution of the strain on the gaff. The binding of the bullseye
has an eye to take the hook of the block. In Fig. 27 a is a portion of
the gaff, b is the span ; c. c are the eyes of the span and thumb cleats
on the gaff to prevent the eyes slipping. d is the bullseye with one of
the peak halyard blocks hooked to it.
The main tack generally is a gun tackle purchase, but in vessels above
40 tons, or say 60-rating, a double and single or two double blocks are used.
In addition, some large cutters have a runner rove through the tack cringle,
one end being fast to the goose-neck of the boom, and the other to the
tackle. In laced mainsails the tack is secured by a lacing to the goose-neck.
The main boom is usually fitted to the spider hoop round the mast
by a universal joint usually termed the main boom goose-neck.
The main sheet should be made of left-handed, slack-laid, six-
stranded Manilla rope. The blocks required are a three-fold on the boom,
62 º *…)
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FIG. 27.
a two-fold on the buffer or horse, as the case may be, and a single block on
each quarter for the lead. Yachts of less than 20-rating have a double
block on the boom, and single on the buffer.
Many American yachts have a horse in length about one-third the
width of the counter for the main sheet block to travel on. For small
vessels, at any rate, this plan is a good One, as the boom can be kept down
so much better on a wind, as less sheet will be out than there would
be without the horse. A stout ring of indiarubber should be on either
end of the horse, to relieve the shock as the boom goes over.
In modern racing yachts the main boom end is fitted with a “slide”
in order to get the clew of the mainsail out to the extreme end of the boom,
which forms a base for the measurement of the area of the sail. In Fig. 28
is shown the fittings of a 20-rater for the mainsail outhaul, on a scale one-
quarter of the real size. A is the boom and B the “slide.” C is the
traveller made with two lugs or ears, D; the clew cringle of the mainsail
is put between these ears and secured by a bolt and nut as shown. The
“ slide” is made of gun metal.


70
Yacht and Boat Salling.
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Main Boom Traveller and Outhaul. /71
E is an iron hoop, and F is the usual turned end cover of the boom.
G is an eye welded to the hoop, E, and the standing part of the outhaul is
spliced or shackled to this. The outhaul then leads through the sheave,
H, fitted in the traveller, C, and back over the sheave, I. This sheave, I,
it will be seen, is out of the vertical—that is, on the top of the boom it is
on the starboard side ; underneath, it is in the centre line of the boom, so
that the tackle which is on the outhaul has a fair lead on whichever side
of the beam it is hauled upon. J is the pin of the sheave, I. K is a hole
for lacing of mainsail. The slide for a 20-rater is secured to the boom
with 2%in. Screws and four through bolts, as shown by L.
The mainsail outhaul is usually, in cruising yachts, made up of a horse
on the boom, a shackle as traveller, a wire outhaul shackled to the traveller
shackle, and rove through a sheave hole at the boom end, and a tackle.
FIG. 29.
(See Fig. 29.) In small vessels the tackle consists of one block only; in
large vessels of two single, or a fiddle and single, or two double blocks.
There is a dummy sheave at s, and sometimes a whole sheave in large
vessels.
The old-fashioned plan of outhaul, and one still very much in use,
consists of an iron traveller, like the jib traveller (see Fig. 26), on the
boom end, a chain or rope through a sheave hole and a tackle. This
latter plan is perhaps the stronger of the two ; but an objection to
it is that the traveller very frequently gets jammed and the reef cleats
have to be farther forward than desirable, to allow the traveller to
work. - -
Sometimes, instead of a sheave hole, an iron block is fitted outside
the extreme end of the boom. • * .

72 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
TOPSAIL HALYARDS, SHEETS, AND TACKS.
The topsail halyards in vessels under 20-rating consist of a single steel
wire, hemp, or Manilla rope rove through a sheave hole under the eyes of
the topmast rigging.
Yachts of 20-rating and over have a block which hooks to a strop or
sling on the yard, or if the topsail be a jib-headed one, to the head cringle.
The standing part of the halyard has a running eye, which is put over the
topmast, and rests on the eyes of the rigging ; the halyard is rove through
the block (which has to be hooked to the yard), and through the sheave hole
at the topmast head. It is best to have a couple of thumb cleats on the
- yard where it has to be slung; there is then no danger of
the strop slipping, or of the yard being wrongly slung.
When the topsail yard is of great length an upper
halyard is provided (called also sometimes a tripping line
or trip halyard, because the rope is of use in tripping the
yard in hoisting or lowering). This is simply a single
rope bent to the upper part of the yard, and rove through
a sheave hole in the pole, above the eyes of the topmast
rigging. The upper halyards are mainly useful in hoist-
ing and for lowering to get the yard peaked; however,
for very long yards, if bent sufficiently near the upper end,
they may in a small degree help to keep the peak of the
sail from sagging to leeward, or prevent the yard bending.
The topsail sheet is always a single * Manilla rope,
as tarred hemp rope would stain the mainsail in wet
weather. It leads through a cheek block on the gaff
end, then through a block on a pendant or whip. This
pendant is shown in Plate I., and goes round the mast-
head with a running eye, or is shackled to an eye bolt in
the masthead. Formerly the block was shackled to an
eye bolt under the jaws of the gaff, but by the modern
arrangement as described the strain is taken off the jaws of the gaff
and consequently off the main halyards. One plan of fitting this block
and whip is shown in Fig. 30. The hauling part of the sheet is generally
put round one of the winches on the mast to “sheet home * the topsail.
The topsail tack is usually a strong piece of Manilla with a thimble
spliced in it, to which the tack tackle is hooked.
* Some large cutters have double topsail sheets rove in this way: one end of the sheet is
made fast to the gaff end; the other end of the sheet is rove through a single block on the clew
of the sail; then through the cheek block at the end of the gaff, through a block at the jaws of
the gaff, and round the winch.

Spinnaker Booms and Gear. 73
Jib-topsail halyards and main-topmast-staysail halyards are usually
single ropes rove through a tail block on topmast head; but one or two
large vessels have a lower block, with a spring hook, which is hooked
to the head of the sail. In such cases, the standing part of the halyards
is fitted on the topmast head with a running eye or bight.
SPINNAKER HALYARDs, OUTHAUL, &c.
Spinnaker halyards are invariably single, and rove through a tail block
at the topmast head.
The spinnaker boom is usually fitted with a movable goose-neck at its
inner end. The goose-neck consists of a universal joint and round-neck
pin, and sockets. (Square iron was formerly used for the neck, but
there was always a difficulty in getting the neck shipped in the boom,
and round iron was consequently introduced.) The pin is generally put
into its socket on the mast, and then the boom end is brought to the neck.
At the outer end of the boom are a couple of good-sized thumb
cleats, against which the running eye of the after and fore guy are put.
The fore guy (when one is used) is a single rope; the after guy has a
pendant or whip with a block at the end, through which a rope is rove.
The standing part of this rope is made fast to a cavel-pin on the quarter,
and so is the hauling part when belayed. The after guy thus forms a
single whip-purchase (see Plate I.). The outhaul is rove through a tail
block at the outer end of the spinnaker boom, and sometimes a snatch
block is provided for a lead at the inner end on the mast. The topping
lift consists of two single, a double and single, or two double blocks,
according to the size of the yacht.
The upper block of the topping lift is a rope strop tail block, with
a running eye to go round the masthead. The lower block is iron
bound, and hooks to an eye strop on the boom.
Formerly a bobstay was used; but, if the boom is not allowed to lift,
it will bend like a bow; in fact, the bobstay was found to be a fruitful cause
of a boom breaking, if there was any wind at all, and so bobstays were
discarded. The danger of a boom breaking through its buckling up can
be greatly lessened by having one hand to attend to the topping lift ;
as the boom rears and bends haul on the lift, and the bend will practically
be “lifted ” out.
Small yachts seldom have a fore guy to spinnaker boom, but bend a
rope to the tack of the sail (just as the outhaul is bent) leading to the
bowsprit end; this rope serves as a fore guy, or brace, to haul the boom
forward; and when the spinnaker requires to be shifted to the bowsprit,
the boom outhaul is slackened up and the tack hauled out to bowsprit end.
74 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
** ****
Thus double outhauls are bent to the spinnaker tack cringle, and one
rove through the sheave hole or block at the spinnaker boom end, and
the other through a block at bowsprit end. But generally the large
spinnaker (set as such) has too much hoist for the jib spinnaker, and a
shift has to be made for the bowsprit spinnaker, which is hoisted by
the jib topsail halyards if that sail be not already set; even in such
case no fore guy is used in small vessels, but to ease the boom forward
one hand slackens up the topping lift a little, and another the after guy,
and, if there be any wind at all, the boom will readily go forward. In a
5-tonner the after guy is a single rope without purchase, and the topping
lift is also a single rope, rove through a block under the lower cap.
A schooner has a main and fore spinnaker fitted in the manner just
described, and the usual bowsprit spinnaker as well, which is usually
hoisted by the jib-topsail halyards. x
As spinnaker booms will not go under the forestay when the spinnaker
has to be shifted, the boom must be unshipped. To shift the boom,
the usual practice is to top it up, lift it away from the goose-neck,
and then launch the inner end aft till the outer end will clear the forestay,
or leech of foresail if that sail be set. If the boom is not over long, the
inner end can be lowered down the fore hatch or over the side of the
vessel until the other end will clear the forestay. Some large racing
yachts have a well from deck to keel to lower the boom into to get it
under the forestay, the well being sunk into the lead in the case of an
iron or steel yacht (see also the chapter on Seamanship).
When spinnakers were first introduced no goose-neck was used, the
heel of the boom being lashed against the mast or to the rigging. A
practice then sometimes was to have a sheave hole at either end of the
boom, with a rope three times the length of the boom rove through each
sheaves hole. One end of this rope served as the outhaul, the other for
the lašing round the mast. To shift over, the boom was launched across
the deck to the other rail, and what had been the inboard end became the
outboard end. Of course the guys had to be shifted from one end to
the other. As spinnaker booms are now of such enormous length, it
would be almost im-
possible, and highly
dangerous, to work
them in this way,
although it might do
for a 5-tonner.
A plan for “telescoping ” a spinnaker boom is shown by Fig. 31, a is
the inner part of the boom; c is a brass cylinder with an angular slot in it

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Cabin Arrangements. 75
at 8. This cylinder is fixed tightly to the outer part of the boom by the
screw bolts i i. The two parts of the boom meet inside the cylinder at the
ticked line t. When the two parts of the boom are to be used together,
the ring m is put on the cylinder. The inboard part of the boom is
then put into the cylinder, and the whole is firmly screwed up by the
thumb-screw a. Both parts of the boom have their ends “socketed?” so
as to take a goose-neck, and thus either part can be used alone.
ARRANGEMENT OF CABINS AND FITTINGs.
The fitting up of sailing yachts do not admit of much variety, as
certain arrangements may be considered as arbitrary. For instance, there
are so many reasons for berthing the crew forward that no one ever
dreams of placing them elsewhere. Next it is so much more convenient
to have the saloon (or main cabin, as it was formerly always termed) next
the pantry and galley, that placing it farther aft has generally been
regarded as a disadvantage. And then there is a good reason for placing
the ladies’ cabin aft because they are there less liable to interruption.
Beyond that, the cabin is not often sub-divided, and whilst men object, as
a rule, to be stowed away in the same cabin, women do not appear to
object to it.
The common way of arranging a 200 tons schooner is shown on
Plate VII. In still larger vessels a “ drawing room '' is sometimes
formed—abaft the dining room, or main cabin. The Lyra (364 tons),
Boadicea (380 tons), and other large yachts have been so fitted. The
Gwendolin (200 tons) was originally fitted in the same way, but it very
much cramped the forecastle and the sleeping accommodation, and she
was re-arranged below.
On Plate VIII. a good plan of arranging the cabins below is shown,
by having the companion placed farther aft. The yawl Constance is
fitted in this way; and the advantage of having the greater portion of
the passage in the centre of the vessel is that two very fine cabins can
be obtained on both port and starboard side. It will be seen that on the
starboard side of the Constance there is one long cabin, but this could
easily be bulkheaded off so as to form two cabins if required. It may be
mentioned that the Egeria schooner has one long cabin like this, but, the
passage not being in the centre, the berths on the port side are narrow.
Another arrangement is to have the saloon aft next the ladies' cabin;
the Pantomime, Gelert, and Harlequin were fitted in this way. The
companion is then forward, with a passage down the centre to the saloon,
with the sleeping berths on each side of the passage. The chief objection
76 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
to this arrangement is the distance the saloon is away from the pantry and
companion, and its interference somewhat with the privacy of the “ladies’
cabin.”
Yachts of 100 tons have not usually a cabin abaft the “owner's
berth '' on the starboard side, if there be also a cabin forward of the
saloon on the starboard side; but the Vol-au-vent and some other yachts
have had them; still, with less than 83ft. on the load line, the berths
must be rather short or the forecastle very much curtailed.
Coming down to yachts of 60 and 40 tons, a common arrangement
is that shown on Plate IX. of the Beluga cutter. We have seen this
arrangement in vessels as small as 25 tons, but the cabins are necessarily
very narrow, and require copious ventilation. A common plan in cruising
20-tonners is to have a sleeping cabin on the starboard side, forward
of the saloon; a lavatory and stairs next abaft the saloon, and then the
ladies’ cabin; or a stair-ladder leads into the main cabin direct from the
deck, with nothing but a sleeping cabin (or ladies’ cabin, as it is always
termed) abaft the main cabin. Often, too, there is no berth forward
of the main cabin in yachts so small as 20 tons. -
An admirable plan for a yacht which is likely to be used oftener
by day than night, is that adopted in the Alpha Beta (Plate X.); it
is a plan frequently met with in America, where the saloon is almost
invariably entered from a cockpit aft. The Alpha Beta is 49ft. from
stem to stern post on deck, with 11ſt. 10in, beam, making 27 tons
Thames measurement. With so much beam two very fine bed cabins
can be had, as will be seen, and many will prefer this arrangement to
an attempt to get the accommodation of a 40-tonner into a 25-tonner.
Ten-tonners boast of a “ladies’ cabin,” and beyond that some—
the Saraband, for instance—have a lavatory and w.c. between it and the
main cabin. In some respects a much better arrangement is one similar
to that of the Alpha Beta's, and shown on Plate XI., which represents
the cabin plan of the yacht Fee. This arrangement gives one good
sleeping cabin and an airy and easily accessible saloon, with plenty of
stowage room. The only objection is that the “steward,” or, say, his
“equivalent,” has occasionally to pass through the sleeping cabin, but
that is a very small matter, and in the early morning, when the owner and
his friend are finishing off a night’s sleep, the steward can always go
over the deck to get to the saloon. The ordinary plan of arranging a
10-tonner is with the inevitable “ladies’ cabin ‘’ aft. This plan is also
shown on the same Plate. -
In the case of fitting up a yacht like the Fee it would be well to
have one of the folding washstands, as when folded up they are only
Sai/ room
Sternpost
_ –T-T
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Plate IX.
Cabin. Plan of
“ALPHA BETA"
Designed by DDXON KEMP,
AN D B U 1 LT BY
ALF RED PAYN E & SONS,
SouTHAMPTon,
1881.







Flate X.
S/e ejoin g Cab in AOrecast/e \ Cupboard
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Cabin Fittings. 77
about 8in. deep. (See Figs. 32 and 33.) The manufacturers are Messrs.
J. Stone and Co., of Deptford, who make every variety of water-closet,
pumps, cocks, &c., necessary for yachts.
In yachts of 5 tons and under, the “ladies’ cabin’ arrangement is
not possible, and the sofas usually form the sleeping berths. A common
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arrangement for a 5-tonner is that shown of Wril (Plate XII.); but some—
as, for instance, like the old 5-tonner Freda—are decked in, back to the
steering well, and have no raised deck on. -
An old-fashioned 3-tonner, owing to the still narrower beam, is more
difficult to arrange into cabins than one of the old narrow 5-tonners; and a
great deal of experience and ingenuity is required to make anything like a



















78 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
decent living place below. Still it is done, and Spankadillo (Plate XIII.),
built and fitted up by a very old hand, Capt. H. Bayly, in 1884, gives a
good idea of what can be done on board so small and narrow a craft.
There is one bulkhead just abaft the mast, which has a sliding door com-
municating with the forecastle. Right in the eyes of the forecastle is a
large cupboard, fitted with shelves, where all loose things in the way of
crockery, lamps, &c., are stowed, when not in use. There are two glass
side lights (a) on each bow to light and help ventilate the forecastle.
On the port side is a long locker, which also forms a bunk, and on
the starboard side a fold-up cot. The cooking stove (s) is a Rippingille
(Fig. 34), and is fitted on double gimbals—a necessary arrangement for
the oil cooking stove of a small yacht if an attempt is made to use the
stove in very rough water. The stove cost 10s., and the gimbal frame
would be made by any ironmonger at about the same cost. The
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cistern oil thamber has two perforated partitions, arranged in the form
of +, to prevent the oil slopping in case the yacht jumps about with
unusual violence. A methylated spirit lamp, for boiling eggs and making
hot water in a hurry, is also carried.
In the cabin there is a sofa on the starboard side 7ft. long. The
locker space is divided into three lockers; the forward one is used for
storing away tinned meats, soups, &c.; the middle one for bottles, and the
aft one for clothes. The cushion is also in three pieces to suit each locker.
Over the sofa is the owner’s sleeping cot, 2ft. wide, which turns up
under the beams by day.
At the aft end of the sofa is the wash stand (with enamelled iron
basin), door, &c., as shown in the drawing (Fig. 33). The mirror above
the wash stand is not attached, and is an optional arrangement.




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Cooking Stoves. 79
On the port side of the cabin is tho table, which is attached to a shelf
with a deep coaming. There are two hooks on the table which slip into
eyes in the shelf. The legs of the table are hinged. It can be stowed as
shown in the cross section, or unhooked and stowed elsewhere.
The shelf is used for stowing all sorts of things in constant use, such
as pipes, tobacco, water bottle, whisky bottle, &c. The lamp is one of the
usual pattern, on double gimbals, and can be unshipped to stand on the
table if required. On each side of the lamp is a rack for tumblers. Over
all a long rack for charts, &c.
In the wake of the table is another sleeping folding cot 1ſt. 9in. wide.
The after end of the cabin, which is open right away to the counter,
is kept for sails and gear on gratings, to keep them free of moisture from
the plank. Hanging hooks for clothes of course can be placed wherever
the owner fancies they will be the least in the way.
In yachts of the length of an old 3-tonner, but having from 8ft. to
10ft. beam, a good plan is to have a lavatory containing a w.c. forward
on the starboard side.
There are a great variety of oil and spirit cooking stoves made, all
more or less of the stowable order (one part in the other), and a good
serviceable spirit stove (Fig. 35) is sold by Messrs. Pascal Atkey and Son,
West Cowes. The “ Stella’’ Company, of Oxford-street, make a spirit
stove which is much in use ; also the Albion Lamp Company, Birmingham ;
the “Victor,” made by Wright and Butler, Charterhouse-street, London;
and the “Rippingille’’ and “Boddington ’’ stoves are all highly spoken of.
The “Cera Light Company,” 70, York-street, Glasgow, has brought
out a stove for burning their “Cera Wax.” The great advantage of this
wax is that it is carried solid, and only melts when the stove is in use;
there is no smoke or smell from it, and no danger of explosion, &c.
Oil and spirit cooking stoves are continually being improved upon,
as those who use them discover the advantages of some modified arrange-
ment. We believe Mr. G. Wilson, of 23, Sherwood-street, Piccadilly,
keeps himself informed of all the various stoves introduced, and would give
any necessary information.
With regard to the relative merits of petroleum (Kerosine should be
always used if procurable) and spirit stoves, there is no doubt that spirit
is to be preferred on account of its cleanliness and the little trouble it
gives. It is, however, dangerous on account of its high inflammability,
and may be objected to on account of its costliness compared with Kerosine.
The latter is simple enough to light, but the burners and surroundings
must be kept scrupulously clean, and evenly trimmed, or there will be
deficient heating and most unpleasant odours.
80 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
A cooking stove, useful for river work, or any kind of cruising where
fuel can be obtained, is shown by Fig. 36. It boils, bakes, fries, or broils
extremely well, and one apparatus of the pattern shown in our engraving
will bake and boil enough for a party of six. When packed up it is
contained in a space of 12in. by 9in. by 8in. ; it consists of two cookers
and an oven, baking dishes, frying-pan, gridiron, &c., and will cook for
half a dozen people; it weighs about 10lb. A smaller apparatus cooks
**Tºrº
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FIG. 36.
for two to three people, and weighs 5lb. Any rubbish, such as brushwood,
faggots, &c., generally obtainable on a river's bank, may be burnt. The
makers are Messrs. Lineff and Jones, Engineers, 12, Buckingham-street,
Adelphi.
Messrs. Pascal Atkey and Son make an admirable little cast iron
stove suitable for cooking and warming, to burn coal, coke, &c. It can
be recommended for the cabins of small yachts which may be used for
winter work, wildfowling, &c.
The “Clyde Model Cooking Stove * is also well adapted for small
yachts, and is made by Messrs. Ferguson, 34, Trongate-street, Glasgow. -


















C EIA PTER V.
SEAMANSHIP.
SEAMANSHIP comprises the practice of the whole duties of a sailor, including
all kinds of work upon rigging, making sail, taking in sail, steering, reefing,
working the ship, marking and heaving the lead, and whatever else relates
to the management of a ship. Before a man can be called a seaman, he
must have practised all the duties enumerated, and be capable of performing
them in a satisfactory manner without supervision; he is then called an
able seaman, as distinct from an “ordinary seaman,” who is a young
sailor not yet versed in the practice of the seaman’s art. A seaman, as
generally understood, is one who is perfect in the art of square rig sailing,
but there are “fore and aft rig ’’ men as well, and the instruction given
in this chapter will relate to the duties of the latter alone, as the square
rig, so far as sailing yachts are concerned, has practically disappeared.
To BEND A MAINSAIL.-The throat cringle is first shackled to the eye
bolt under the jaws of the gaff. The head of the sail is then stretched
along the gaff, and the peak earing passed (see Fig. 37, page 82).
The earing is spliced in the cringle by a long eye splice. The
splice is shown at n. The earing is passed through d round through
the cringle e, through d again and through e again ; then up over the
gaff at i and k, down the other side and through e again, and so on
up round the gaff four or five times; at the last instead of going up
over the gaff again the earing is passed between the parts round the
gaff, as shown at f, round all the parts that were passed through d
as shown at m, and jammed by two half hitches m and h. The end 9.
would then be seized to the part at n.
When the earing is first passed through d it is hauled upon to well
stretch the head of the sail along the gaff unless the sail be a new one.
In the sketch the earing is not represented hardened up as it
would have to be in practice. The cringle e would be jammed up
G
82 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
close to the gaff, and the half hitches hardened back to the cringle at m.
The earing is shown loosely passed for the sake of distinctness.
As a rule the cringle comes about under the cheek block b, but often
when the head of the sail becomes stretched the cringle comes outside
the cheek block b. The earing then has to be passed round the gaff
between d and the cheek block. This in some respects is an advantage,
as it prevents the topsail sheet chafing the lacing; on the other hand it
looks awkward, as the leach of the topsail is necessarily some distance
inside the leach of the mainsail; the leach of mainsail and topsail ought
to make an unbroken line. (See the Y.R.A. rules.)
It is usual to put a piece of canvas parcelling round the earing over
the parts where the topsail sheet chafes.
The earing being passed the head of the sail is laced to the gaff.
A half hitch is usually taken at each eyelet hole; the lacing then crosses
up over the gaff at right angles instead of diagonally, and holds the
k
FIG. 37.
a a is the peak end of the gaff. eye-bolt screwed into the end of the gaff.
b is a cheek block for the topsail sheet. The worm of the screw is, of course, a
c is a block for peak downhaul, and used deep cut one.
also as ensign or Bignal halyards. The d is a hole in the gaff end through which the
hook of the block, it will be seen, is earing is passed.
moused. The block is hooked to an e is the peak cringle of the mainsail.
sail closer to the gaff. Sometimes the head of the sail is laced from
eye to eye with diagonal turns, and laced back again so that the lacing
crosses on the gaff thus—XX.
The luff of the sail is next seized to the mast hoops with spun yarn.
The clew is shackled to the traveller, and the sail is then bent.
In bending a new mainsail great care should be taken not to get
any strain on the head or foot at first. In first hoisting take the weight

Seamanship. 83
of the boom with the topping lifts; set the throat up taut by the
halyards, and then get the peak a little more than half up. Then
set the luff taut with the tack-tackle, and afterwards set the peak up,
but still leave the leech slack. If the weather is damp and any strain
comes on the foot, ease the outhaul to let the traveller in. So also if
the sail is set and it should rain, ease in the traveller. It is a good plan,
especially if the sun is out, to hoist the sail up several days before
getting under way, and as it blows about with head and foot slack, it will
stretch fairly. If a chance occurs it is an excellent plan to run before
a good strong wind for some hours, especially if the leech of the sail
appears to be unduly slack. After a few days the head can be hauled
out fairly taut on the gaff, and the foot on the boom ; but the traveller
should always be eased in for shrinking by rain or dew. Even for an
old sail the traveller should be eased in a little if the sail gets wet, and
if it appears necessary the tack or throat purchase should be eased as
well for rain or dew. Nothing is so likely to spoil a new sail as attempting
to make it sit flat by putting a great strain on the foot before the sail
is stretched.
To SET THE MAINSAIL.-Take the coats off. Hook on the peak
halyards, and mouse the hooks. Overhaul the main sheet. Top+ the
boom up five or six feet clear of the crutch, taking care that the crutch
is not lifted out of the sockets and dropped overboard; haul the main
sheet taut, and belay. Cast off the tyers, leaving one as a “ bunt
gasket” amidships at present to keep the sail from blowing out. See
that the purchases have been well overhauled (fleeted); and that the
peak downhaul and the topsail sheet are rove. Man the peak halyards,
cast off the bunt tyer, and hoist the gaff end between the topping lifts,
guiding it with the peak line. When the gaff shows above the lifts, hoist
away on the throat halyards, and let the sail go up with the gaff as
nearly as possible at right angles to the mast. If the sail is peaked
before the throat is up (i.e., if the peak of the sail goes up faster than
the throat), it will be hard work getting the throat up, if it can be
got up at all without the purchase. Get the throat as high as possible
with the halyards, and belay. Leave the peak for the present, and
pull the sail out on the foot by the outhaul. Purchase up the throat
as high as required, and set the peak up, using the peak purchase until
the sail begins to girt in the throat; a few girts here will not matter,
as the peak will be sure to'settle down a good deal. Sometimes in
small yachts, after the throat is set up hand-taut, the peak is got as high as
* It is a practice in racing vessels, if the wind be not very strong, to unhook from the boom
what is to be the lee topping lift whilst hoisting, so that the mainsail will not girt across it, and
cause a delay. -
G 2
84 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
it can be without the purchase. The sail is then set up by the throat
purchase, “peak and all” going up bodily.
When the foot of the sail is laced to the boom the tack is lashed
down to the gooseneck, and the throat purchase brings the luff of the
sail taut—like a bar of iron. When the sail is not laced, the tack-
tackle is hooked on after the throat and peak are up, and the luff of
the sail is brought taut by this tack-tackle. But the better plan for
a racing yacht is to make the tack fast before hoisting by passing a
lashing through the tack cringle and round the gooseneck of the boom ;
then pull the sail out on the boom ; the throat purchase will now get
the luff of the sail much tauter than the tack-tackle. We are speaking
now of setting the sail to the best advantage; but it is possible the
skipper may want the tack triced up, for which purpose the tricing line
will be hooked on to one of the mast hoops near the throat, and to the
tack cringle of the sail.
When the sail is set, coil away the halyards and purchase falls,
and, if not previously done, make the tyers up in neat bunches, and
fold the sail coats ready for stowing away in the sail room.
It is the practice to always have one reef earing rove, and if the
weather looks at all threatening a second one should be rove. The first
earing should be fast round the boom, then, if the outhaul should burst,
or the clew of the sail tear out, the sail will not fly in along the boom
nor get adrift. In anticipation of such accidents a common plan is to
pass a tyer through the clew cringle and round the boom, three or
four times.
If whilst sailing the peak should settle down so much as to require
setting up, the best time to choose for doing so will be when the vessel
is head to wind in stays. The weight of the boom should be taken by
the weather topping lift before using the peak purchase.
To REEF A MAINSAIL.-Get the reef tackle on deck and bend it (see
Fig. 40) to the reef earing (previously rove), and hook the fore block to the
eye bolt or strop on the boom. Take the weight of the boom by the weather
lift, and ease the main sheet, if required, to allow the boom being tossed up.
Cast off the main tack, if the sail be not a laced one. Ease up the throat
and peak purchases till the sail has settled down a reef, and if necessary
ease up the halyards by the fall; no more of the peak than actually
necessary should be settled down, as the peak will be the heavier work
to get up again. Put plenty of strength on the reef tackle (ease the helm
a little, so as to take the weight of the wind out of the sail) and harden
the earing down on the boom until the last inch is got. Should the
cringle not come right home pass a tyer two or three times through it
Seamanship. 85
and round the boom. This “preventer” lashing is commonly rove when
match sailing with a reefed mainsail. Then roll the foot of the sail up
tightly and neatly, and tie up the reef points (see Fig. 38);
set up the throat by the purchase, and then the peak if
necessary. Bowse the tack down. Ease up the topping lift
and trim the sheet. A racking should now be put round
the boom and earing, and the reef tackle cast off. Then Fºº. 38.
make the earing fast by jamming turns round the boom (see Fig. 39).
In Fig. 39 the turns and hitches are shewn loosely for the sake of
Ateef earing
FIG. 39.
distinctness; to secure the earing all the turns and hitches are jammed
up close together. The end of the racking is also secured before taking
off the reef tackle. A couple of hitches round the
earing will secure the end of the racking. §:
Reeve another earing and bend the tackle on to haul &
~<rſ.
ſº
| gº
|º:
*;
i
down the second reef if necessary. The reef tackle block
next the earing has a thimble eye strop. The earing is "
bent to the eye by a sheet bend with a bight (see Fig. 40).
Never reef a new unstretched mainsail if it can be avoided, but stow
it and set the trysail if necessary.
Having reefed the mainsail, prepare to shift jibs. The jibs generally
carried with mainsail reefed or otherwise are as follows:
Mainsail and topsail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No. 1 jib.
Whole mainsail and housed topmast . . . . . . No. 2 jib.
Single-reefed mainsail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No. 3 jib.
Double-reefed mainsail and reefed foresail” No. 4 jib.
Three-reefed or closed reefed and double-
reefed foresail” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No. 5 jib.
Trysail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storm jib.
The bowsprit should be reefed in as the jibs are shifted.
* Sometimes in match sailing, if there be much reaching and if the water is pretty smooth,
No. 3 and even No. 2 jib is carried with double-reefed mainsail, and No. 3 or 4 jib with














86 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
To SHAKE A REEF ouT.—Set taut the weather topping lift to take
the weight of the boom. Untie all the reef points, and be careful that
not one is left tied, as the sail may be torn thereby. Ease up (hand-
somely) the tack-tackle and unhook it. Ease up the reef earing. The
reef will now be fairly shaken out, and the mainsail can be set by the
purchases, always recollecting to set the throat up first. Bowse down
the tack, ease up the topping lift, and trim the sheet.
To STOW A MAINSAIL.-Put the tyers at proper intervals across the
boom. Ship the crutch. Set taut the topping lifts. Overhaul throat and
peak purchase. Lower the boom by the topping lifts into the crutch.
Haul taut the main sheet and belay; cast off the falls of throat and peak
halyards, and lower (by the throat the faster) and gather in the sail on
deck. Belay the peak halyards so that the gaff end rests on (say) the
port side of the boom. Pull the foot of the sail up on the top of the
boom so that the roach just hangs over on one side, say the port side ; next
lay the leech of the sail along as far as it will go on the top of the foot.
Then the whole of the bag of the sail will be on the starboard side.
Take hold of this bag (outside) part and lift up and roll over, repeating
the operation until the sail is rolled up in a Snug bag. [The process
of thus lifting the bag or bunt of the sail is termed “skinning ” by
sailors.] Then hoist the gaff up clear of the boom and lift the whole
sail bodily up on the boom, over the foot of the sail. Throw the ends
of the tyers up over the gaff, and thereby haul the sail Snug up to the
gaff; then take the ends of the tyers under the boom up over the
gaff again, and tie. Unhook peak halyards and put on the mainsail
covers. The peak halyard blocks can be then hooked on again, or
hooked to a sling passing under main boom, and will thus keep the
boom from sagging with its own weight. When the peak halyards are
not so hooked on, an X crutch should support the boom amidships.
To STOW THE MAINSAIL AND SET THE TRYSAIL.-In heavy weather
it is always better to set a trysail than a close-reefed mainsail, as
the mast is thus relieved of the heavy strain of the main boom and
gaff. Get the trysail gaff clear of the other spars on deck. Bring the
trysail on deck, and the trysail sheets. Prepare to heave to under the
two head sails by hauling the foresheet a little a-weather of the mast.
Ship the boom crutch. Set the topping lifts taut. Overhaul the main
and peak purchase. Settle the main boom down into the crutch.
Haul the sheet taut and belay. Stow the mainsail and make it up on
the boom. Put a lashing on the boom from each quarter, or secure
three reefs. A racing yacht usually carries a jib larger than No. 1, as a “reaching jib,” because
it is set when a long distance is to be done by reaching with the wind more or less free.
Seamanship. 87
the boom down in the crutch by tackles on to each quarter. Take off
main and peak halyards and hook the same to the trysail gaff. Unhook
the topping lifts, and make them fast in main rigging. Ship the jaws
of the trysail gaff to the mast, and make fast the parrel round the
mast, the gaff end resting on the deck. Lace the trysail to the gaff.
Bend the sheets and belay both hand taut. Hoist and toggle on the
parrels, or strops, or lacing (as the case may be) on the luff of the sail
round the mast, as the sail goes up.
If the yacht be yawl rigged, and the mizen has been stowed, it
should be set before the mainsail is taken off, as the mizen will keep the
yacht’s head up to the sea. The storm mizen, of course, would be chosen
for this purpose.
To SET A STAY-FORESAIL. (In a schooner this sail is termed the
fore-staysail, and the foresail is the gaff sail set abaft the foremast; in
cutters the foresail, although, as in a schooner, set on the forestay, is
simply termed the foresail or staysail ; the proper term is stay-foresail).
—Take off the coat and hook on or bend the sheets, hauling in slack
of port or starboard one (or both), and belay. See that the downhaul
or block is bent to the head cringle, and hoist away.* When the sail
is high enough, hook on the tack tackle and bowse down.
TO REEFA STAY-FORESAIL.-Cast off the tack tackle and lower the sail;
unhook the sheets; tightly and neatly roll up the foot of the sail and tie the
reef points. Hook on the sheets to the reef cringle and belay; re-hoist the
sail; hook the tack to the reef cringle and bowse down with the tackle.
To SHIFT A STAY-FORESAIL FOR A BALLOONER.—Let go the halyards
and haul down the foresail by the downhaul; unhook the halyards from
the head cringle; hook them on to the balloon foresail with downhaul;
and, as the sail is hoisted, toggle the luff on to the forestay, or hook
on as the case may be ; carry the lee sheet aft and belay (slack) as the
crew start hoisting. When the head is chock-a-block bowse down the
tack. Trim the sheet. On a wind the sheet is generally brought inside
the main rigging, or between the main rigging and the topmast back-
stays. For reaching, the sheet is carried outside of all.
To SET A JIB.—Carry the sail forward tack first. Hook the tack
cringle to the traveller; hook on the halyards and downhaul to leeward
of the forestay and foresail; belay the sheets hand taut, or one a-weather,
as required. Hoist away by the halyards until the sail is about half up;
then haul the tack out by the traveller outhaul, hoist the sail and set
* The downhaul is sometimes kept rove through the hanks and leads through a block inside
the stem head. In a racing yacht it is best to have the downhaul made fast to the halyard
block and not rove through the hanks, because it is so frequently necessary to shift for a
balloon foresail.
88 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
taut with the purchase. Trim the sheets. Always be careful that the
jib sheets are rove through the right holes; nothing shows up the
careless mate so much as the sheet for first jib rove through the holes
for second jib, or the contrary.
In light winds it will be found less trouble to pull the jib out on
the bowsprit before hoisting, and with a few stops uncut.
Generally in getting under way the jib is set up in stops, that is,
before it is unrolled. The jib is hoisted up some distance, and then the
tack is pulled out on the bowsprit, the sheets being loose, as otherwise
the stops would be broken. Upon getting under way the stops are
easily broken by hauling in the jib sheet. -
When the second jib is set the bowsprit should be reefed, and
double-reefed for third jib ; otherwise the strain from the jib on the jib
traveller may nip the bowsprit and cause it to break, as the traveller would
come far inside the support of the bobstay.
Before purchasing up a jib the runner-tackles should be set taut, and
swigged upon unless it is desired to “stay” the mast forward by the jib.
If the runners are slack, the effect will be to pull the mast forward
and slacken the forestay instead of to straighten the luff of the jib,
thus a straight luff to the jib cannot be made until the runners and
pendants are “bar taut.” It is also of course necessary that the bobstay
should be set well taut by its tackle.
To SHIFT A JIB.—Ease up the purchase handsomely, slack up the
outhaul and pull in by the inhaul, and gather the sail in board by the
sheet and foot; then pull the head of the sail down by the downhaul,
gathering the sail in-board, and “muzzling” it as it comes on deck over
the lee bow. The purchase should always be eased before the outhaul
is let go, so that it may be overhauled ready for use again. If the outhaul
or purchase is let go suddenly it may cause such a jerk that the bowsprit
might be sprung or the bobstay burst.
If possible, the jib should be shifted when the vessel is before the
wind; and often a sailing master will run his vessel off whilst the crew
are getting the jib in, so that the sail is becalmed. Sometimes two or
three or more hands go on the bowsprit, and gather the sail up as it
comes down, but in bad weather the traveller is always let run up close
to the stemhead.
If it is seen beforehand that one jib will have to be shifted for
another, the tack of the jib which is to be first used is lashed to the
bowsprit end; the other jib is run out by the traveller and stopped along
the bowsprit. To shift, haul taut the weather sheet ; one hand cut the
lashing at the bowsprit end; as the jib flies aft haul in by the main parts
Seamanship. 89
of the sheet, and pull down by the downhaul. Hook the halyards, down-
haul, and sheets on the other jib and hoist away. -
In light weather when a bowsprit spinnaker is carried, it is unusual to
let the jib run in, but several of the hands stow it along the bowsprit.
To SET A GAFF TOPSAIL.-Bend the sail to the yard; pass the weather
earing first, and then haul the head taut along the yard by the peak
earing (see how the peak earing of the gaff was passed, page 85). Tie
the stops round the yard, or lace, as the case may be. Bend the sheet
to the clew cringle (see Fig. 41). See that the sheet is inside the topping
lift, and that it passes under the yard from the mast side before it is
bent to the clew cringle. See that the clew line is fast to the clew
cringle. Hook on the halyards and bend the trip halyards (see Fig. 42),
and hoist the sail clear of the deck. Hook on the tack tackle. A mousing
should be put on all hooks. (See “Knots and Splices '' in the Appendix.)
To keep the sail from blowing away from the mast, it is usual to
have a “lazy tack,” which consists of a short line, one end of which is
fast to the tack cringle of the sail; the other end is passed round that
FIG. 41.
part of the main or peak halyards which has been belayed to the mast
bitts, and is then made fast to the tack cringle the same as the other
end was ; the line thus forms a kind of traveller, and the main or peak
halyard serves as a jackstay.
A gaff topsail should be always sent up to windward, and if the
halyard and sheet are to leeward they should be shifted over.
Hoist on the trip halyards until the peak is well up inside the topping
lift (the peak will always be the aft end of the yard), then hoist away
on all, hauling out the sheet as the sail goes up; otherwise, if the sail
blows about, the sheet may get a turn round the gaff end. When the
yard is so high that the point where the trip halyards are bent is level
with the trip halyard sheave in the topmast, leave the trip halyards adrift,
and all hands hoist by the other halyards. When the yard is chock-a-
block, belay. Bowse down the tack to the last inch to take all the
“render’ out of the halyards, and belay. Set taut the trip halyards.
Pass the lacing and haul taut round the masthead. Haul out the sheet
until the sail sits as desired. A topsail should never be sheeted until the
tack has been bowsed down, so as to well peak the sail and take the

90 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
“render ’’ out of the halyards. If during sailing it is found that the tack
requires bowsing down (which will have the effect of setting the peak
up), the sheet should be eased up first.
Before the topsail is sheeted, a look should always be given to the top-
mast stay (see “Bobstay”). The topmast should cant forwards a trifle, so as
to insure plenty of drift for the sheet, as it is unusual to “sheet home.” Also
a look should be given to see if the peak requires purchasing up, as a topsail
will always require “sheeting ” after the mainsail has been “peaked.”
If the head of the sail be short, the trip halyards will not be used.
In the case of a jib-headed topsail, it will be hoisted as fast as
the masthead-man can lace it. The safest plan is to send the sail up
in stops, and make a traveller of the upper lacing round the standing
part of the throat or peak halyards.
In running before the wind with the boom square off, if the topsail
tack is to windward of the gaff the sheet should be eased a little ; and, if
necessary to relieve the strain on the weather cloths, the lacing or tack
should be eased as well.
To TAKE IN A GAFF TopSAIL-One hand will go aloft to cast off the
lacing. When all is ready for lowering, cast off the halyards and trip
halyards from the belaying pins. Lower away with the halyards, but
keep the trip halyards hand taut, until the yard is “ up and down ''
the mast. Ease up the sheet, and lower away all. If there be much wind,
several hands must be put upon the tack at first to haul down as the
halyards are started, otherwise the bellying bunt of the sail is certain
to blow in between or over the parts of the peak halyards, and will
thus prevent the sail lowering. In such a case do not cast off the
“lazy tack ’’ until the sail is on deck. The hand aloft will keep the
heel of the yard inside the topping lift as it passes down.
As the yard comes down between the topping lift and the mainsail,
haul forward by the tack (casting off lazy tack), so that the heel of the
yard (the lower end) goes forward.
When the sail is on deck, unbend the halyards and make the ends fast
to a belaying pin. Unbend the sheet, and make it fast round the boom.
Roll the sail up on the yard; or unbend it, roll up, and stow below.
Formerly the practice was to lower the topsail to leeward of the
mainsail, as it was thought to come down more freely under the lee of
the lower sail; but the difficulty is that the sail or yard is almost certain
to get foul of the topmast rigging or lee crosstrees, and the crew cannot
handle it so well from the lee scuppers. Very often in attempting to take
in a topsail to leeward it will take charge and blow out, whereas if it
were to windward it would lie flat on the mainsail, and could not blow
Seamanship. 91
away. So now the practice is, if the tack be to leeward, for a hand to
go aloft in the lee rigging or up the mast hoops and unhook the tack
tackle, whilst another hand goes aloft on the weather side to the mast-
head, and lowers a line to him to bend to the tack. When the line is
so bent, the hand at the masthead pulls the tack up over the peak halyards,
so that the sail can be got down to windward. The heel of the yard is
pushed to the weather side of the topmast whilst lowering.
To SET A SCHOONER's FoRE GAFF TopSAIL.—The sail should be sent up
stopped to the yard, with the clew and tack cringles showing clear. Bend
on the halyards, and hoist to the masthead. The hand aloft will then bend
on the lee sheet and lee tack to the cringles; then the weather sheet and
tack will be bent, first passing them over the main-topmast stay. When
this is done, hoist the sail chock-a-block, bowse down the lee tack, then
heave the lee sheet taut by the winch.
To WoRK A FoRE GAFF TOPSAIL.-When the order comes “ready
about,” ease up the sheet and tack ; clew the sail well up. The fore-
masthead man will clear the tack and sheet over the main-topmast stay,
and must well overhaul the same. As the vessel comes head to wind,
bowse down the tack as Smartly as possible, at the same time haul out
the sheet ; but do not sheet home until the topsail is tacked, as it must
always be recollected that a topsail cannot be peaked to sit properly if it is
sheeted before the tack is down.
To SET A JIB TopSAIL.-Pass along the sail, head first, one hand
going to bowsprit end with the head cringle in his hand. In large vessels
this hand bestrides the bowsprit end outside the topmast stay, with his
face towards the vessel; generally in such small vessels as five-tonners
there is not such a “seat '' at the extreme end, and the hand will sit on
the bowsprit weather shrouds if the sail has to be hanked. Bend the
sheets, and pass them outside of all. Haul in the lee sheet, and place one
hand to attend to it, and ease up if necessary. Hook or toggle the hanks
on to the topmast stay, cutting the stops and hoisting as the hanks are
so hooked or toggled. When all the hanks are on, hoist to the required
height, set the tack down, and trim the sheet.
A jib topsail in very small yachts is sometimes set flying, as the bow-
sprit end of such craft is not a pleasant place for a man of the customary
weight of eleven stone. At the bowsprit end a tail block is fast ; through
this block a rope is rove, both ends being kept in-board. To set the
sail, bend both ends of this rope to the tack cringle, and bend the halyards
to the head cringle. Haul the sail out on the bowsprit by the under part
of the outhaul, and hoist at the same time. The bight of the outhaul
will therefore come in-board, and its upper part will serve as the inhaul
92 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
---------------"
when the sail has to be handed. The sail can be hoisted to any required
height. One hand, of course, must go to the bowsprit end to pass the
sheet round the jib.
If the halyards are to windward the sail can be hoisted to wind-
ward; if otherwise it will be hoisted to leeward of the foresail and jib.
In strong winds a jib topsail should never be hoisted so high as in
light airs, as the higher it is the more strain it will bring on the topmast.
Also, in strong winds, one hand should always be stationed at the
sheet to ease up during strong puffs. A good plan is to put a tail-
tackle on the sheet. The sheet can then be eased or hauled in as required
very readily by the tackle.
To SET A SCHOONER's MAIN TopMAST STAYSAIL.-See that the hal-
yards are on the lee side of the main-topmast stay. Bend on the halyards,
tack and sheet; see that the sheet has been passed outside the main rigging
and main-topmast rigging. Hoist to foremast head in a bunch; then,
as the hand aloft hooks the hanks on the main-topmast stay, the deck
hands will hoist. When hoisted, set the tack taut, and belay. Trim the
sheet. It is very usual for the sheet to lead to the boom end; it cannot
very well be got too far aft.
To SET A SQUARESAIL.-The yard has a strop and thimble eye seized
in it at the centre of length of yard; on the fore side of the mast a wire
jack stay or jumper reaches from masthead to deck, on which the thimble
eye on the yard strop travels. The braces are rove through single blocks
at each yard arm, and one end made fast to the cavel aft, the other part is
for hauling. The fore braces are single ropes leading from each yard arm
through single blocks at the bowsprit end. The lifts go from each yard
arm through single blocks hooked to the upper cap at masthead, and lead
to the deck. When at anchor the yard is generally lowered half-way down,
and then pointed up and down the mast. It is more ship-shape, however, to
lower the yard down to about level with the tier of mast hoops and square
across, with all the braces and lifts set taut. The only objection to the
latter plan is that it may be fouled by passing vessels.
To set the sail, reeve the earings through the block at each yard-arm,
and through a block near the strop on the yard amidships; then hoist the
yard up. Bend or hook one end of each earing to the corner head cringles
of the sail, and hook the four halyards to the middle cringle ; hitch the
lizard to the cringle or hook of halyard block. (The lizard is a short piece
of rope with an eye at one end; the eye travels on the jumper, and the tail
is fast to the sail; thus the sail is kept from blowing away.) Bend on the
tack and sheet; then hoist by the halyards, and afterwards pull out the
weather earing ; take in the slack of the lee earing. Get out the boom with
Seamanship. 93
*.
fore and after guys on it, and the outhaul rove through the sheave hole at
boom end; bend the outhaul to the tack cringle of the sail, and haul out.
To take in the sail, let go the weather and lee earing ; then let
go the sheet, and tack outhaul, and gather the sail aboard; then,
when the sail is all in-board, let go the halyards and haul down with
downhaul. As the sail is hoisted by the fº
foresail halyards, the fore downhaul will be º ë
used as well. §§§
To SET A SPINNAKER.—The boom must
be got ready first. Hook on (or bend if it is a
tail block) the lower block of the topping lift
to the boom. Bend the outhaul block at the
spinnaker boom end; be careful that the part
of the outhaul which has to be bent to the tack FIG. 43.
cringle is on the fore side of the spinnaker boom topping lift and over
the fore guy; put on the after guy and fore guy.” Hoist the boom
well above the rail, and launch forward until the gooseneckt can be
shipped in the socket; hoist until the boom is “ up and down ''
the mast, and high enough for the lower end to be shipped on the
gooseneck. (It is usual to put the gooseneck in the socket on the mast
first, and then bring the socket which is in the end of the boom to the
shank—see Fig. 43–6 is the boom and p the gooseneck, a the mast.)
Lower the boom and haul aft, or “square the boom.” If the boom
be already shipped and “ up and down the mast,” one or two hands will
take the guys and outhaul aloft and put over the end. The standing
part of the after whip will be made fast to the weather quarter, and the
hauling part rove through a sheave hole or turned round a pin. The
hand aloft will cast off the boom lashing, and push it away clear of
mast and crosstrees for lowering by topping lift.
See that the spinnaker halyards are clear on the fore side of the
boom topping lift. Bend on the halyards and the outhaul to the sail
(see Fig. 41). If the spinnaker is to answer the purpose of bowsprit
-
spinnaker as well, another outhaul must be bent, leading through a
block on bowsprit end. Generally the fore guy in such cases is made
to do duty for this purpose; but if there be a fore guy beside the tack
outhaul, care must be taken in bending the latter to see that it is over
the fore guy, and not under. Bend on the sheet and belay on one of
* A fore guy is not always used in small yachts.
+ Square goosenecks have gone out of fashion now, as it was difficult to get the socket
fair for taking the gooseneck. With a round gooseneck and round socket this difficulty is
avoided. If the boom should be shipped unfair, a marling spike in one of the holes in the
boom will easily twist it round.




94. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
the cavel pins inside the lee rigging, with one hand to attend to it to
ease up if necessary. Hoist away on the halyards, and when the sail
is up chock-a-block put all hands on the outhaul, easing up the sheet
all that is necessary, so as to make the sail lift in order that it may be
boom-ended; drop the boom down and trim the sheet. In light winds,
the sail is usually pulled out on the boom whilst it is being mast-
headed. This is all very well if there be plenty of help at hand, and if
there is not much wind; but generally, if the sail be hauled out on the
boom first, it is found almost impossible to get the head up chock-a-
block. If the sail cannot be boom ended, slacken up the sheet until the
sail lifts, and haul it in again as the tack is brought to the boom end.
The American plan, and one sometimes adopted in this country, is
to hoist the sail in stops, and it breaks out as the tack is hauled out to
the boom end. If there be much weight in the wind, care must be
taken, if the sail breaks out suddenly, that there is no great strain on the
sheet, or something will be broken. -
To prevent the sail going up full of turns, there is a swivel at the
head, but this will not always prevent turns, as the swivel is likely to
jam if any part of the sail fills; and a good plan is for a man to stand by
the mast and run the luff of the sail through his hands as it goes up.
When sailing in a strong wind more or less quarterly, the boom will
often rear on end in a troublesome manner, and sometimes fall forward
with the sail round the topmast stay. To prevent this, “square * the boom
a little and ease the sheet. Sometimes a spinnaker is reefed by tying a
knot in the head; and sometimes the balloon foresail is set as a spinnaker.
To TAKE IN A SPINNAKER.—Top the boom up well clear of the rail,
otherwise when the sail is taken off it the boom may drop into the water
and be broken. Take hold of the foot of the sail, let go the outhaul, and
haul the sail in smartly by foot and sheet; gather the sail in to the mast,
well muzzling it, and then let go the halyards, and haul down.
The halyards should never be started until the sail has been hauled
in-board from the boom; if the halyards are started first, and there be
much wind, the sail is almost certain to blow away and then get into the
water, and cause a great deal of trouble.
To SET A SPINNAKER ON THE BowsPRIT.-Bend on the tack and halyards
to leeward of jib and foresail; hoist and then pull out by the outhaul; pass
the sheet outside of all and trim as required ; belay to a cleat or pin
aft; take in the jib, or let it run down by the head and stow and stop
along the bowsprit.
To TAKE A SPINNAKER IN FROM THE BOWSPRIT.-Pass the weather sheet
round the fore stay to leeward and make fast to the bitts; let go the
Seamanship. 95
outhaul, and haul the sail in-board Smartly by the weather sheet and
by the foot over the lee bow. If there is only one sheet, bend a line to
this sheet, with a running bight in it. Take this line forward, and haul
the bight close up to the clew cringle of the sail, and haul inboard as
the tack is eased up. In fresh winds the sail will have to be cut adrift.
One hand will go out on the bowsprit and cut the tack (outhaul), which
he will not allow to unreeve, and will bring the end in-board with him.
As the sail flies aft, smartly haul it inboard by the line that has been
bent round the sheet, and get hold of the foot as soon as possible ;
gather the sail together, so that it cannot blow out whilst the foot is
being hauled inboard; when the foot is all in board gather the sail together
and lower by the halyards.
It should be clearly understood that the halyards must not be
started until the foot is hauled in and the sail gathered together or
“ muzzled ”; and, should the sail blow out, “ spill’ it by gathering
the folds together, or it may take command and blow away, and perhaps
at the same time pull someone overboard, or foul the lee crosstrees and
be torn.
Racing yachts have special bowsprit spinnakers, and these are set
much the same as a jib topsail, one or two hands laying out on the bow-
sprit and carrying the tack out; the sail is sometimes hanked to the
topmast stay like a jib topsail.
To SHIFT A SPINNAKER BOOM.–Man the topping lift and hoist away.
Slack up the fore guy, ease up the after guy as required, and do not let
the boom swing forward as if it had to be got in on deck for stowing.
When topped sufficiently carry the after guy and whip forward, passing
it outside runners and rigging. Top the boom until it is lifted clear
away from the gooseneck; lower by the topping lift, whilst three or four
hands take it by the heel and carry it aft on the side of the mast it has
to be next used. Lower sufficiently low and far enough aft to pass the
upper end under the forestay, and clear of the foresheets and foresail,
launch forward again and top up; ship the gooseneck as before, and shift
the gear. Some large racing vessels have a well to take the heel of the
boom (see page 74). Sometimes, where the forehatch is near the mast, as
in small vessels, the heel of the boom is lowered into the forecastle ; this,
of course, is a simpler plan than launching the heel of the boom aft. If
handled with care in smooth water, the heel of the boom can be lowered
over the side.
Often, especially in small yachts which have spinnaker booms as long
as the deck length is overall, the boom is topped a few feet and then let
swing forward. It is then unshipped and launched aft on the opposite
96 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
side of the mast until the fore end can be cleared of the forestay or foresail
sheets; it is then launched forward again and re-shipped, on gooseneck.
To SET A RINGTAIL.-A hand must get on the main boom to fit on
the ringtail boom iron, which is similar in form to the iron cap at the
masthead. Bend the main peak downhaul to the boomkin (generally
called ringtail boom), and hoist it to the main boom ; steady it through
the iron at the main boom end; cast off the peak downhaul; reeve an
outhaul through the sheave hole in the end of the boomkin, and launch the
spar the required distance out; then lash the heel to the main boom. In
reeving the outhaul, care must be taken that the hauling part only, is
outside the topping lift. The head of the ringtail is bent to a yard, with
three or four spare feet for the overlapping inner end. Bend the main
peak downhaul to this yard for a halyard; bend both ends of the down-
haul to the tack cringle (the clew cringle for the sheet will be in-board).
Hoist the sail, then pull out to boomkin end by the under part of the
downhaul, and sheet as required. To take this sail in, the first thing to
do is to haul it in by the sheet and inhaul whilst the outhaul is slacked up.
Lower by the halyards as fast as the sail is gathered in. The boomkin
will be got on board by aid of the peak downhaul.
To SEND UP A TopMAST.—Lash a tail block to the upper cap at
masthead; through this reeve a rope and bring down to deck; reeve an
end through the sheave hole in topmast, and make it fast some distance
below the shoulder, stopping the end securely. (The heel of the topmast
should be aft.) Hoist away; point the topmast through the lower cap;
then make the heel rope fast to topmast, cast off the other rope, and
hoist the topmast up through the upper cap by the heel rope. Put the eyes
of the rigging over the pole, topmast stay over all; reeve the halyards,
hitch on the tail blocks for jib-topsail and spinnaker halyards, and then
send up the topmast by hauling on the heel rope and fid. Set up the
backstays by the tackles and topmast stay.
The topmast will be sent down by reversing the order given above.
To Hous E A TOPMAST.-Ease up the topmast stay and backstay falls.
Hoist away on the heel rope until the topmast is sufficiently above the
lower cap for the hand aloft to unfid. Settle down the topmast by easing
up the heel rope. When lowered, so that the eyes of the rigging come close
to the cap, belay the heel rope and lash the heel of topmast to the mast.
Unshackle the legs of backstays and preventer backstays; hook the tackles
on again, set hand taut and round in on the topmast stay.
If the vessel has much list, the topmast will not come down very
readily, and the weather backstays should be kept taut, so as to keep the
topmast in the line of the mast, and to prevent it breaking by sagging
Seamanship. 97
to leeward with its own weight. Also if there be much sea it may be
found necessary to steady the topmast by the preventer and topmast
stay. Generally the vessel should be eased up in the wind or hove to
whilst a topmast is being housed if there be much wind and sea.
Plans for fidding and unfidding topmasts from the deck without
going aloft are given on page 59, that shown by Fig. 22 being the plan
most generally preferred.
To REEP A BowSPRIT.—If the jib is set, ease up the sheets and
belay them, well slack. Cast off the bobstay fall and the falls of
the shrouds and topmast stay. Knock out the fid, and then launch
the bowsprit in by the shroud tackles; fid and set up all the tackles.
To TAKE A REEF OUT OF THE Bowsprit.—Overhaul all the tackles ;
launch the bowsprit out with heel rope and tackle, or by the rack-plate
and wheel; fid and set the tackles taut again.
BOBSTAY.—In the days of long bowsprits, it was the fashion in setting
up the bobstay tackle, in small racing yachts, before starting in a match,
to set the bowsprit end down until it nearly touches the water. This was
done in order to give more hoist and drift for the jib, as by frequent
setting up the blocks would soon come “ chock-a-block”; moreover, the
bobstay fall is certain to “ come up ’’ or stretch a good deal, so much so
that very frequently at the end of a match a bowsprit, instead of being
bent downwards, is steeved in the air. The topmast stay should in such
cases be looked to when heaving on the bobstay fall.
To GET UNDER WAY RIDING HEAD TO WIND AND TIDE, To RUN BEFORE
THE WIND.—Heave short ; set up the bobstay ; set the jib in stops; take
the foresail coat off and hook on the halyards and sheets; top the boom and
cast the gaskets off the mainsail. To cast to starboard, put the helm to
port, heave the anchor up smartly ; as the anchor is a-weigh break out the
jib and set the foresail, keeping the port jib and foresheet taut. As her
head goes off set the mainsail, steady the helm, and trim the sheets.
To GET UNDER WAY RIDING STEM. To TIDE WITH WIND ASTERN, TO RUN
BEFORE THE WIND.—Heave short ; loose the mainsail; set jib and foresail;
break out the anchor, and when a-weigh set the mainsail.
To GET UNDER WAY RIDING HEAD To TIDE AND STERN TO WIND, TO
BEAT TO WINDWARD.—Heave short ; set the jib in stops, and hook on the
fore sheets. To cast to port : put the helm to starboard, heave up the
anchor; break out the jib, set the foresail (with starboard sheets hauled
flat) and smartly set the mainsail. If the mainsail is set before the anchor
is a-weigh, the peak should be dropped down.
To GET UNDER WAY WHEN RIDING HEAD TO WIND AND TIDE BY CASTING
To STARBOARD, TO PROCEED ON PORT TACK CLOSE-HAULED.—Heave short;
H
98 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
------------"
set the jib in stops; hook on the fore sheets with the port One fast.
Set the mainsail. Put the helm to port, and heave up the anchor. As the
anchor is a-weigh break out the jib with port sheet hauled a-weather.
Slack off the mainsheet. As the vessel’s head pays off let draw the head
sheets, haul in mainsheet and sail her.
To GET UNDER WAy; RIDING HEAD TO WIND AND TIDE, By CASTING TO
PoRT TO PROCEED ON PORT TACK.—Heave short ; set the jib in stops; bend
on the fore sheet, with starboard one fast. Set the mainsail. Put the
helm to starboard; get the anchor; break out the jib, hauling starboard
sheet in ; ease off the main boom a little on the port quarter; keep the
helm to starboard till the vessel’s head wears off so as to bring the wind
on the port quarter; the main boom will then gybe over ; trim the sheets
and sail the vessel. It may sometimes be advisable not to set up the peak
of the mainsail until after the vessel has wore round. In the case of a
yawl the mizen would be set to get under way with, and not the mainsail.
To GET UNDER WAY AND LEAVE AN ANCHORAGE TO RUN FOR IT.—If
possible choose slack-water time or when the tide is running to leeward.
Set the trysail, reefed foresail and fourth jib. Watch for “smooths' to
heave up the chain; but, if the sea is so bad that the vessel pitches head
and shoulders under, so that there might be danger in pinning her down
by heaving short, or if she sheers about so as to get the cable jammed hard
athwart the stem, then unshackle the chain, make fast the buoy rope
outside the hawse pipe, wait till the vessel sheers the way she is wanted
to cast, then slip the chain and sail her. i’
If the vessel is wind rode, and on a lee shore, it will be prudent to
claw out to sea for an offing. Set the storm canvas as if for a thrash to
windward. Heave short, set the jib with the sheets slack, set the foresail,
and if the vessel is to be cast on the port tack, haul in the port foresheet;
put the helm to port ; slack out a little mainsheet. As the vessel sheers to
starboard break out the anchor or slip, and when she pays off enough so
as to make sure of not flying to again, ease the fore sheet over, trim the
main sheet and sail her. If the vessel does not gather way, but drives
towards the shore, stand by to let go the anchor again : if one anchor
has been slipped, the other should be ready on the bow. If there
is not too much sea, the kedge with hawser bent to it should now
be carried out in a boat; then as the anchor is hove short haul in on
the hawser. When the anchor is off the ground haul the vessel ahead
by the hawser, when the kedge is apeak, sheet the jib, and break out
the kedge. When anchored on a lee shore a vessel should never wait
till the wind and sea gets so bad that it is neither safe to remain nor
to attempt to leave.
Seamanship. 99
To TACK A CUTTER.—When the order is given “ready about,” the
fore deck hands will go to their stations at fore sheets and jib sheets,
and one of the after guard to the main sheet, seeing all are clear. The
cry of “Lee O !” or “Helm's a-lee” will be the signal that the helm is
about being put down, or is put down. As the vessel nears the wind the
jib will begin to lift ; then handsomely ease up the sheet and overhaul it.
If the vessel is coming round smartly like a racing yacht, ease up the fore
sheet or fore sheet purchase as well; the hand aft hauls in the main sheet
if the breeze be very light and the vessel slow in coming up to the wind.
When the vessel has passed the point “head to wind,” begin to haul
in the jib sheet, and get the sail sheeted and belayed before the vessel
is full again and gathers way; handle the fore sheet in the same way,
and overhaul the main sheet. Care must always be taken not to pull the
jib sheet over the forestay, and get a strain on it before the vessel has
passed the “head to wind ’’ point, or is filling on the opposite tack to
the one upon which she has been sailing ; otherwise a back sail will be
formed, and the vessel may fall off again. On the other hand the jib,
when the time comes for working the sheets, must be sheeted with all
despatch; as, if the vessel is allowed to fill before the jib sheets are in,
it will be hardly possible to get them in properly without a tackle if there
be a nice breeze. So with the fore sheet.
In tacking a vessel in a sea, the fore sheet should not as a rule be let
go until it is seen whether the vessel is going to fill on the other tack or
not, as the sail may be wanted to pay her head off: when the vessel fills,
the fore sheets must be handled with smartness. If there is much sea, a
“ smooth ** should be watched for, to tack in. Never, if it can be avoided,
attempt to tack with a big comber rolling in on the weather bow, as a
“miss-stays” may be the consequence, to say nothing of the water that
might be thrown on deck.
The helmsman will soon find out how the vessel likes the helm put
down for quick staying ; but generally the vessel should be kept a good
full before giving lee helm. Then at first ease the helm down gradually, so
as to shoot a good distance, and make as big a circle as possible, but be very
careful not to keep the vessel shooting till her way is stopped ; as she comes
near head to wind, put the helm right over to the rail, and keep it there
till the vessel fills and gathers way on the other tack; keep the vessel a
little off a good full till she is reaching along, and then bring her to the
wind “full and bye.”
To TACK A YAwL.—The only way in which tacking a yawl is different
from tacking a cutter is that there is the mizen-stay to work. The stays
lead forward from the mizen-mast head, and are set up by tackles; only the
H 2
100 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
--------º-º-º-º-º:
weather one is set up. The weather tackle is overhauled in tacking, and
the lee set taut, and forms the weather one when the vessel has filled on
the opposite tack. Generally a yawl does not stay so quickly as a cutter,
and more frequently requires backing off by the foresail.
TO TACK A SCHOONER.—Keep the vessel a good full. As the vessel
comes head to wind ease up the jib sheet, but do not let it “fly ’’; overhaul
the fore sheet purchase and fore-staysail purchase, and overhaul fore-
topsail tack and sheet and clew up. When the vessel is head to wind cast
off the standing part of fore sheet and fore-staysail sheet. As she passes
the point “head to wind" haul in jib sheets and belay; haul in the
standing part of the fore sheet and fore-staysail sheet and belay ; then
be smart with the purchases and get the foot of the foresail as straight
as possible ; fore-staysail sheet not quite so “straight,” as there should
be a little flow in the after leech, owing to the angle made by the luff
of the sail, and if the foot be hauled “bar taut,” the leech will generally
be so too. Tack and sheet the foretopsail.
In hauling in the fore sheet all hands should be outside it, and not
between the sheet and the rail. Care should also be taken that the fall
of the purchase is clear and ready to lay hold of directly the standing
part of the sheet is fast. One hand should be selected to stand by the
fore sheet cavel, and he should belay. Directly the order “belay ! ” is
given all hands should haul on the fall of the purchase ; the belaying
hand taking care that a turn of the standing part of the sheet is caught
round the cavel. It is highly important that the fore sheet of a schooner
should be well taut ; as, if the foot be slack, the sail, not being set
on a boom, is certain to bag more or less. And when sailing close-
hauled and the wind frees a trifle, the fore sheet should always be the
last one to be checked.
STERN WAY IN TACKING.-In square-rigged ships “stern way ’’ is
commonly the result of letting the head yards lie aback during tacking,
but a fore-and-aft vessel, in tacking under ordinary conditions, should
not be subject to stern way. However, sometimes, even in smooth water,
if a vessel has been brought head to wind either too suddenly or too
slowly, she may get stern way, or be placed in the situation known as
“ in irons,” when she will neither fall off on one tack nor the other,
after being brought head to wind. If the vessel has stern way, it must
be recollected that the action of the rudder is different from what it is
with head way; that is to say, if during stern way the helm be put to
starboard, the action of the water on the rudder will force the stern to
port and the bow to starboard ; and if the helm be put to port, the
stern will be forced to starboard and the bow to port. Under the
Seamanshup. 101
-- - - - ------- ------ - - - - ------------
influence of head way opposite results are obtained. The rudder has very
reduced effect in turning a vessel one way or the other during stern way.
Let it be assumed that a vessel has been sailing on the port tack,
and on the helm being put down that she failed to get farther than
head to wind, or that she got in irons; the result would be that the wind
would drive her astern—this would soon be discovered by looking at
the water over the quarter or stern, as the “wake ’’ will show in eddies
along the side of the vessel. The helm would be to starboard, and
would have to be shifted to port, and the starboard fore sheet and jib
sheet hauled in, and the main boom eased off. The stern would
gradually drive to starboard, and the bow, under the influence of head
sails aback, would go off to port. The head sails being aback would of
course increase the stern way, and directly the vessel’s head was well off
the wind, and the vessel insured against coming to again, the head sheets
should be eased up and hauled in to leeward. She would require to fall off
till the wind was brought nearly abeam before she gathered headway, and
then the boom could be hauled aboard again. -
Under the influence of stern way the pressure of water on the lee
quarter can be made to help turn the vessel just the same as the pressure
on the lee bow helps to press the bow towards the wind when a vessel
moves ahead. Or suppose the vessel be head to wind, and has stern way
on, and it is desired to cast her head to port, or fill her on the starboard
tack; then if she be listed or heeled to port by all hands going on the port
side or port quarter, the ardency of the pressure on the port quarter will
press the stern to starboard, and necessarily the bow turns to port.
Thus, it will be frequently found, that the bow of a vessel, if she has
sternway, and is heeled, will very rapidly fall off to leeward; even though
the head sails are not aback, and the rudder, from the way it is turned,
should prevent her doing so. - - -
It should, therefore, be remembered, that when a vessel gets in irons,
and is under the influence of stern way, that she should be, if possible,
listed on the side it is sought to make the lee side. Easing the main boom
off will allow the stern to come up against the wind more rapidly, and will
help heel the vessel. y - ..
Missing STAYs.—To get in irons or to get stern way on a vessel is not
exactly missing stays, as to miss stays means to come up head to wind and
then to fall off on the same tack again—in fact, to fail in going about.
Generally a vessel has a tendency to miss stays through having too little
after-canvas; that is to say, the centre of effort of the sails is too far ahead
of the centre of lateral resistance, and consequently she may even carry
her helm a-lee and have very little to work upon in tacking. The fault
102 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
may be cured by reducing the head sail; by increasing the after sail;
by shifting the mast aft without reducing the sail; by rounding up the
fore foot and heel; or by rounding up the heel.
But a vessel may generally stay well enough, and only fail in going
about through meeting a sea on her weather bow as she is brought to
the wind; or through the wind following her round; or through the helm
being put down too quickly or too slowly ; or through the head sails being
badly worked ; or through her having insufficient way on when the
attempt was made to tack. Whateve, the cause, directly it is seen that
the vessel is going to fall off on the same tack again after coming to,
lose no time ; haul the fore sheet, and jib sheet too, if necessary, up to
windward, slack out the main sheet, and, if the vessel has stern way, bring
the helm amidships. Directly she has fallen six or seven points off the
wind, ease over the head sheets and trim them to leeward; and as she
gathers headway haul in the main sheet, and sail the vessel a good full,
and try again. At the next attempt, as the helm is put down, ease up
the jib sheet smartly and haul in the main sheet, but let the fore sheet
lie till the vessel falls off on the desired tack.
GYBING OR WEARING.—To gybe or wear is to keep the vessel off the
wind by bringing the helm to windward until the wind comes astern and
then on the opposite side to which it has been blowing. This manoeuvre
has sometimes to be resorted to when a vessel miss-stays. Set taut the
weather topping-lift. Ease off the main sheet until the boom is well off
the lee quarter, and if there be much wind or sea, trice up the main tack
and lower the peak; if a topsail is set it should be clewed up. Have as
many hands as can be spared at the main sheet. Put the helm up. As the
vessel’s head goes off and brings the wind nearly astern, rally in the main
sheet, and be careful that there is a smart hand stationed to take a turn
with it. As the vessel comes nearly stern on to the wind, overhaul what
has been the weather runner; catch a turn with the main sheet ; and, as the
boom goes over, meet her with the helm, so that she does not fly to, head
to wind. Ease up the topping lift, and trim tacks and sheets.
If the vessel be already before the wind with the main boom square
off, when it is necessary to gybe her, take the same precautions, if there be
much wind, by tricing up the main tack, lowering peak, and clewing up
topsail, not forgetting to set the weather topping-lift well taut, if it is not.
already taut, as it certainly should be. Luff a little, and get in some of
the main sheet; when the boom is on the quarter (at about an angle of 45°
with the keel), steady the helm and put up gradually, still getting in the
main sheet. Hook on what has been the lee runner and set taut. Then, as
the wind is brought astern, overhaul the weather runner, belay the main
Seamanship. 103
* : - - - - - - * ~ *** : * : - - - - - ~~~~. -------------º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-
sheet, let the boom go over, and meet the vessel with the helm. Overhaul
the lee-topping lift, and trim tacks and sheets.
These are the ordinary precautions taken in gybing in strong breezes
whilst cruising ; but in match sailing, unless something like a gale of wind
be blowing, the main tack is not triced up, nor is the peak lowered, nor
the topsail clewed up. There will, however, be the topmast preventer
backstay to attend to. Station one man at the weather preventer to over-
haul and unhook the tackle as the boom comes amidships. One hand to
the fall of the whip of the lee preventer, who must haul the backstay aft
as fast as the main boom is brought aboard; he must get the whip as tauf
as he can, and belay before the boom is gybed. The tackle (already
hooked on the preventer) must be set smartly as the boom swings over.
In large vessels two hands should be told off to the lee preventer to get
it set up smartly.
In a schooner similar precautions will be taken, and there will be the
fore-topmast preventer backstays to attend to, and the fore-topsail should be
clewed up. The fore sheet can be left until after the main boom is over.
GYBING ALL STANDING...—In very light winds it is a common practice to
“gybe all standing,” that is without rounding in main sheet; but care should
always be taken to let go the preventer backstay and the runner. To gybe
all standing when there is much wind is a very dangerous operation, and
special alertness should be shown to endeavour to “meet ’’ the vessel with
the helm, as she will most likely fly to, after the boom goes over. (See the
article “Running before the Wind,” and the chapter on “Yacht Racing.”)
CLUB HAULING.—Club hauling may have to be resorted to in a narrow
channel sometimes when there is neither room to stay nor wear. Get an
anchor on the lee bow with a warp bent to it; lead the latter to the lee
quarter. Have the cable ranged on deck unshackled; put the helm down,
and keep shooting with the sails shivering. When way is stopped, let go
the anchor; as she is brought head to wind let all the cable run out
through the hawse pipe, and haul in on the spring. The anchor, of course,
will be got in over the stern. Another better plan for a small vessel is to
bend a warp to the kedge, and as the helm is put down drop the kedge
over the stern, then hold on and haul in on the warp.
To HEAVE TO.—Haul the fore sheet up to windward, and the jib sheet
until the clew just clears the forestay ; ease the main sheet until the vessel
lies quiet with her helm amidships, or a little to leeward. A vessel will
lie like this very quiet, just forging ahead perhaps a knot an hour or
so, and occasionally falling off, when she will take a great list as the
wind comes abeam ; directly, however, the after canvas is well filled she
will spring to again, and if she is coming up with too much way on, so
104. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
*... *s-ºº-------"
as to be likely to get head to wind, she must be checked by weather helm.
To lie-to very dead so as to pick up a boat or speak another vessel, &c., it
will be well to let the jib sheet fly and haul the fore sheet hard a-weather,
with main sheet eased and helm a-lee.
In heaving to in heavy weather the mainsail is stowed and boom
lashed, in the crutch, to each quarter. Instead of the mainsail a reefed
trysail is set, or storm trysail, which is either jib-headed or has a very
short gaff, and is hauled up close to the hounds in order that it should
not get becalmed when the yacht is in the hollow of the sea. Bowsprit
is run in until the outer end is within a few feet of the gammon iron, and
storm jib set on it, with both sheets fast, and clew hauled up to windward
of the forestay. Foresail stowed. Trysail sheet (a luff tackle) hauled aft.
In the case of a schooner the storm jib can be tacked inside the forestay to
the bitts, with clew just to windward of the foremast ; main-trysail close
reefed, or storm trysail, as the weather requires.
A yawl would be hove to just the same as a cutter, but if she were
riding to a floating anchor a storm mizen might be set, but no other sail.
As a rule the more sail a vessel will bear when she is hove to in bad
weather the better, as the sail will tend to check the weather rolling ;
for this reason ships usually heave to under topsails, as the lower sail
might be becalmed in the trough of the sea; for the same reason the
trysail is cut narrow and high, and the same amount of canvas close to the
deck would not be nearly so effective. Sail at the extreme ends of a vessel
is never required, and a yawl hove to under storm jib and mizen would not
lie nearly so quiet as she would if hove to under storm trysail and storm
jib inside the forestay, as every time the headsail was becalmed she would
be fetched to against the sea very hard by the mizen, or as the mizen was
becalmed as she scended, she would fall off to a troublesome extent.
The helm can be left to take care of itself, or the tiller lines will be
belayed on each side, slack, so as to allow a great deal of freedom for
falling off with the sea. The general practice, however, is to have a
hand to attend to the helm to humour the vessel as she falls off and bring
her to again quietly up to the sea. A vessel will generally fall off as the
crest of a wave comes in on the weather bow, and come to as the bow is in
the hollow of a wave, or as the crest of a wave lifts the stern. Shallow
vessels fall off much more freely than deep vessels, and come to with much
more way on. The principal danger is that, if much way be gathered
in coming to, a vessel should also meet with a big comber on the weather
bow ; to avoid this danger the man at the helm should meet the vessel as
she runs off, and bring her to with the helm so that she fairly bows the
sea, always being careful not to get her head to wind. At the same time,
Seamanship. 105
as before said, a vessel must be allowed to fall off freely with the Sea,
to the extent perhaps of three or four points, or until the wind was nearly
abeam; but in bringing her to, her head should never be allowed to come
within a couple of points of the wind.
To HEAVE To AFTER RUNNING BEFORE A HEAVY SEA.—Give warning
below that the vessel is about to be brought by the wind, and see that
everything is well secured about the deck. Watch for a “smooth '' (which
is brought about by several large waves meeting, and being broken up and
dispersed into several small ones). Put the helm down, rally in the main
sheet smartly ; meet the vessel with the weather helm before she gets head
to wind. Trim the head sheets as necessary. If the vessel has been
running with a great deal of canvas set, it must be reduced as the vessel is
brought to the wind; and the throat of the mainsail should be lowered
half down, and the tack triced up as the vessel comes to.
To HEAVE TO TO PICK UP A BoAT.—It will be supposed that the wind
is blowing off shore, and that the yacht is in the offing waiting for the
boat. As the boat gets off into deep water, the yacht will reach in past
to leeward of her from fifty to one hundred yards clear; then put the helm
down, and shoot up towards her, keeping the jib sheet and fore sheet fast
so as to lie a-weather as she fills on the other tack; or the jib sheets can
be slackened well up so that the jib can blow about. If well judged
the boat will now be close under the lee side of the yacht, and a hand
will be ready to throw a line into her as she comes alongside. If the
wind is blowing on the shore similar tactics will be observed, but a greater
sweep must be taken in coming to, and the main sheet must be well
rounded in as the helm is eased down. Sometimes under such conditions
the yacht will run in to windward of the boat and wear round, but generally
it is safer to keep to leeward and bring the yacht to. -
SQUALLS.-If a squall is long foreseen, the sailing master will of course
have snugged down and got his vessel so as to meet it end on if possible;
but if caught unawares lose no time in letting jib sheets fly, and haul down
the foresail. Set the topping-lifts taut ; let the throat run half down the
mast, and trice up the main tack. Or let the peak drop down between
the topping-lifts until the gaff is about square to or at right angles to the
mast. Then haul up the main tack and the mainsail will be scandalised.
If the sail be a laced one the throat must be let down instead of the peak,
keeping the peak downhaul fast to the centre of the boom to leeward to
prevent the sail blowing out. In short-handed vessels the throat is
generally let down in preference to the peak, as the sail is then more easily
managed, and it is easier to get the throat up again than the peak.
If the vessel has the wind abaft the beam when she is actually
1()(3 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
struck, put the helm up a little to keep her before the squall. If the
squall strikes her before the beam, put the helm down. If the vessel gets
struck or knocked down on her side before the sails can be lowered, and
will not come to, cast off the jib sheets, pull the foresail down by the
downhaul. Haul the main boom well aboard, cast off the throat halyards
and the throat will fly down, then cast off the peak halyards and haul in on
the peak downhaul. If the vessel does not right, get the kedge up if a
bottom can be reached, bend the hawser to it and let go over the stern ; then
the vessel may wear round so that the wind will take her on the other side.
If the ballast or anything else shifts to leeward, trim it back to windward.
Close up the companion hatchways and skylights to keep the water out.
To SCANDALISE A MAINSAIL.-Set taut the topping lifts. Trice up the
tack as high as possible, and lower down the peak between the lifts.
SAILING BY THE WIND.—Sailing a vessel successfully on a wind is
quite an art, and no amount of tuition will make a man a good helmsman
if he be not “to the manner born.” However, there is scarcely a yacht
sailor who does not think he can steer a boat on a wind better than
any other man. Still the fact remains, that some men cannot sail a
vessel on a wind, and no amount of instruction will teach them to know
for themselves when a vessel’s sails are full or when they are “starved
of wind.” Some vessels are so beautifully balanced—that is, the centre of
effort of their sails and centre of lateral resistance so nicely adjust
themselves—that in moderate breezes they will “ sail themselves” if close
hauled, and only require a little weather helm now and again as the wind
heads them. Yet a bad helmsman will find more difficulty or do worse in
steering one of these vessels than he would in steering a very hard-
mouthed vessel—one that carries a lot of weather helm, for we never
suppose that a yacht carries lee helm. The well-balanced vessel is what
may be called sensitive to her helm, or “tender mouthed,” and the least
touch of her helm will bring her to, and the gentlest pull on the weather
tiller lines will take her off; such a vessel steered by a man with a “coarse
hand” will be always “off” or “near,”
and never really “full and bye;”
one minute he will slam the helm down to bring her to the wind, and the
next haul it savagely to windward to keep her off the wind ; whereas, if
the vessel had been left alone with a free tiller, or with only the very
slightest strain on the weather tiller lines, she would keep herself full
and at the same time eat to windward as she luffed to every free puff.
A vessel which carries much weather helin does not require such delicate
handling, and a man may tear away at the weather tiller lines until he
is black in the face without doing much harm ; he will be delighted to find
he has something to “hold on by,” and all the strength in his arms will no
Seamanship. 107
more than keep the vessel out of the wind. But, although a good helms-
man cannot be made out of a naturally bad one, it does not follow that a
few hints would not be of service to the inexperienced who may have the
light hand, quick eye, and sensitive skin of a perfect timoneer.
In the first place the sails should be as nicely balanced as possible, so
that in a topsail breeze, when the channels are barely awash, the weather
tiller lines only require to be kept hand taut, with the rudder turned no
more than six or seven degrees off the keel line. We are, of course,
assuming that the sail plan has been so judiciously arranged that the effort
of the sails when effectively trimmed, will be balanced by the lateral
pressure on the hull. If the sails are so well balanced then the weather
helm will about equal five or six degrees in a moderate breeze, and it
should not much exceed this nor be much less; if it is much in excess the
vessel will be what is called ardent, and her constant effort to fly to, will
necessitate the helm being kept “right across her keel,” which will very
much interfere with her speed. On the other hand, if much less than
six degrees of weather helm is carried in such a breeze the vessel will be
what is called “slack,” and will require constant doses of lee helm ; the
result will be that the vessel will crab to leeward, and in tacking will be so
slow in coming to that she will probably lose all way ere she gets head to
wind, and then will require helping round by the foresail.
If the vessel in a nice breeze does not seem to gripe as she ought—
that is, does not make much effort to fly to, and so cause a good strain on
the weather tiller lines to keep her off the wind—first see what the effect
of drawing in the main sheet a trifle will do ; if this only improves matters
a trifle, and the boat seems dead in the water or does not pass through it
with any life, go forward or to leeward, under the foot of the mainsail near
the mast, and have a look at the jib sheets and foresheet. See that the
jib sheets are not pinned in, and that they are rove through the right
holes. If the first jib be set and the sheets rove through the second jib-
holes, the foot will be drawn into a curve and the sail more or less in a
bag; the effect will be to drag the vessel’s head off the wind, and not
assist in driving her ahead an inch. If the sheets be rightly rove, but
hauled in too flat, the foot of the jib will be straight enough, and the
sail generally be flat enough ; but the effect will be that the sail, being
trimmed too flat, will, as in the other case, press the vessel’s head off the
wind, and be of little service towards driving her ahead. It requires some
experience of jibs and the way of trimming their sheets to know when
they are trimmed so as to be most effective, and it would be difficult
to frame advice on the point to meet all cases; but the leech should be
straight, the foot gently curved or “flowing ” with the sheet, and the
108 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
luff should not lift—i.e., shake into ripples. If the other sails are full
and the luff lifts it will be a sign, as a rule, that the sail is not sheeted
flat enough. On the other hand, the clew should be well off the lee
rail, and the sheet and the foot should make a gentle flowing curve from
bowsprit end to sheet hole; if the sheet and the foot, when the sails
are full, make a “straight line,” it will be a pretty sure sign that the sheet
is too flat. It is a good plan to mark the jib sheets where they nip the sheet
holes by a piece of yarn, for sailing by the wind ; yet it is always to be
remembered that a jib must be sheeted to suit the strength of the wind.
If the vessel carries an excessive amount of weather helm, more than
previous experience of her sailing would lead one to expect, and does not
pass through the water freely, it may be relieved by easing off the main-
sheet a trifle, and flattening-in the jib sheets, but the main sheet must not
be so much eased as to cause the weather cloths of the sail to lift, nor must
the jib sheet be flattened-in so as to make the jib simply a pressing sail.
In vessels which are broad across the deck at the bow like the modern
“raters,” the jib sheets can be much better trimmed, as there is less
chance of getting the sheets too flat ; hence, as a rule, second jibs are
always made to stand better than first jibs, as they do not go out so far
on the bowsprit, and the angle made by the sheet is therefore coarser.
[In very narrow vessels outriggers were formerly sometimes used to lead
the sheets through and get more spread.]
It can be supposed that the sails are all nicely trimmed, doing their
work properly, and that the vessel carries just the right amount of weather
helm, and will fly to directly the weather tiller lines are released. Under
these conditions the tiller is handed over to the young helmsman, and
we will first say a few words as to the position he should take. As a
rule, the steersman stands near to, or sits on the weather rail, and this
is undoubtedly the best position ; he can then look into the jib and
foresail, see when they are inclined to lift, and at the same time watch
the luff of the mainsail and the vane or flag, which, if there be a topsail
set, should flicker just on the weather side of the yard. But sometimes in
light winds a man may sit on the lee rail and watch the head sails from
under the lee of the mainsail, and this will be occasionally a capital
position if a jib topsail be set. The weather tiller-line must, of course,
be rove through the sheave in the weather rail, then, with the fall in his
hand to leeward, the helmsman can keep his vessel off or bring her to at
will. Of course, we do not mean that a man might always equally well
sit down to leeward and steer, but there is no better place for seeing
the sit of the sails, and an occasional visit to leeward will often prevent
the necessity for shouting out “How are the head sheets 7" which in-
Seamanship. 109
variably produces a general scramble of the crew to the lee bow, and a
meaningless chorus “ All right, sir!” Some men we have seen get a
deck cushion and sit down by the side of the tiller and hug it as if
they had got hold of the neck of a favourite donkey. They may be
very good helmsmen, but their hunched-up appearance, as they squat
on their haunches cuddling the tiller, necessarily makes one form a very
” and frequently the man can be
poor opinion, at least, of their “style,
put down as more or less of a sloven.
It can be concluded that the best position for the helmsman when
sailing on a wind is as near the weather rail as possible; he can then
really see for himself what the head sails are doing, and the admonition
“She’s near for’ard ” need never be heard.
The jib, when properly sheeted, is perhaps the best guide for the young
helmsman, and if he steers by that alone, he ought always to be able to
keep his vessel full and yet not allow her to get off the wind. With a nice
topsail breeze—not strong enough to lay the vessel in to the deck—the
luff of the jib will be just rippled, or the canvas into which the luff
rope is stitched will more or less “bag,” and will be in a constant state
of quivering; but the luff of the sail must not be allowed to lift, i.e., to
go into large folds, as, if it does, it will be a sign that the vessel is
too near. If you are keeping the vessel a good full there will be no
ripples or wrinkles in the luff of the jib-unless the jib be a very old
and badly-stretched one—and all the sails will be quiet.
In sailing by the luff of the mainsail, as some men do who cuddle
the tiller, the young helmsman may be apt to get his vessel off the
wind, as he will be constantly thinking she is “near,” through the eddy
wind out of the foresail making the luff of the mainsail lift into wrinkles.
The luff of the mainsail is thus a not very trustworthy guide for the inex-
perienced helmsman; still, as a rule, when the luff of the mainsail lifts
and the disturbance begins to travel aft across the belly of the sail in
waves, it will be a pretty sure sign that the vessel is “ starved of wind,”
and a little weather helm should be given her.
Sailing by the vane, whip, burgee, or racing flag, is sometimes said to
be the easiest and at the same time the most trustworthy guide for close-
hauled sailing ; but a very little experience will soon prove the fallacy
of this. If the vessel is moving along at a good pace, say five or
six knots an hour, the flag will blow aft nearly in a line with the keel,
and if there be a square-headed topsail set, the flag will flicker on the
weather side of the yard. But in such light winds as we are now assuming
to blow, there may be quite a different current of wind aloft. Thus we
frequently hear the remark “She’s near for’ard” responded to by the
110 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
helmsman, “She’s all full aloft—look at the flag,”—and probably the
flag will be right across the vessel. Or the flag may blow out to wind-
ward of the topsail yard, or droop and cause the helmsman to think
that he has got his vessel head to wind, and he will of course haul the
tiller to windward. This, perhaps, will cause a shout of “Bring her to l’’
or “Let her luff, she's all off the wind,” and an appeal to the vane or
racing flag will only show what a misleading guide it is. In fact, trying
to sail the vessel by a vane, or by the luff of a topsail, will be certain
to cause “remarks '' to be made forward, and as these remarks have
always an irritating effect on the steersman, he had better sail on a
wind by the head sails than by the flag, especially so as he will thereby
be able to keep the lower sails doing their work, and it is the lower
sails which must be mostly depended upon for getting through the water.
An old hand will sit down by the tiller and, perhaps, close his
eyes, and still fairly sail a vessel on a wind, as long practice will tell him
whether the sails are full or not by the feeling of the wind on his face.
He will not deign to look at jib, mainsail, or flag, but will give the
vessel lee or weather helm just as he feels the wind on his face comes
freer or shorter. This really is a very good guide, and the steersman,
when he gets thoroughly acquainted with the sailing of a vessel on a
wind, will find a “chill” on his face a very trustworthy hint as to the
doing of a paltry, shy, or baffling wind.
In sailing on a wind, keep an eye on the head sails, after sail, upper
sail, and vane, and the other eye to windward, for nine times out of ten
the direction of an impending puff can be seen as it travels towards the
weather bow of the vessel, rippling the water in its course. If the dark
ripples are seen coming broad on the bow, you will know that it will
be a good luffing puff, and as it takes hold of the vessel, ease the weather
tiller lines, and let her luff to it freely, but do not allow the jib to lift;
then, if the puff is a mere “chill,” out of a passing cloud, perhaps,
and leaves the wind as before, do not wait till the puff has passed over
before the helm is hauled a-weather again, or the vessel will be left nearly
head to wind, and this would be a very lubberly proceeding ; therefore,
before the “free puff" has blown itself out, haul up the helm and get the
vessel full and bye again. -
If you see that the puff is a strong one, of the nature of a squall,
do not get nervous and luff before it strikes the vessel, unless of course
it is considered prudent to shoot up head to wind to meet it. If you
begin luffing and lifting the sails before the squall strikes, you will deaden
the way of the vessel, and then the squall will have much greater effect
in heeling the vessel, and will perhaps take the topmast away—as a
Seamanship. ll. 1
very frequent cause of topmasts being broken is by being caught in a
puff when the vessel has no way, or but little way, on.
But puffs as frequently come ahead as they do broad on the bow, and
the head puffs are the more difficult to deal with. Keep a good look-out for
these “nose-enders,” and if lucky enough to see one before it reaches the
jib, keep the vessel off a little, and, if possible, prevent the sails lifting
at all. These puffs will be most frequently met with when sailing along
under high land or under trees; one minute a puff will come broad on
the bow or on the beam and lay the vessel in to the skylights, and the
next one will come right ahead and bring her upright as a monolith ; and
what with luffing to one puff and keeping away for another, the helms-
man will have his vigilance very highly tested. He, of course, will not
be able to keep the sails from lifting at all, as the puffs are more or
less revolving, and Palinurus himself could not successfully dodge them;
still, with care, a vessel should never be allowed to get head to wind
so as to want backing off by hauling the fore sheet to windward and
easing off the main boom—this would not be seamanlike, and would
betoken great inattention.
In luffing to free puffs, or in keeping away for foul ones, do not
“slam ” the helm about ; that is, do not shove it down as if you were
trying to avoid striking something, or haul it up as if you were bearing
away round a mark. In most cases easing the tiller lines will enable the
vessel to luff all that is necessary, and when free puffs are prevalent a
very light hand should be kept on the tiller lines, and the vessel will
dance herself to windward and eat out on the weather of one whose
tiller has been held in an iron grip, or with two or three turns round the
tiller head, during all the puffs. Get all the luffing possible out of a vessel,
and never miss the smallest chance of a gripe to windward, even to a
quarter of a point of the compass; but do not put the helm down so
coarsely that there is a danger of bringing the vessel nearly head to
wind; if this is done the helm will have to be put hard up to get her
off the wind again, and nothing so interferes with good performance on
a wind as too much ruddering. A good helmsman must have a light
hand and unceasing vigilance, as weatherliness is no small degree depen-
dent on the helm. Therefore it cannot be too frequently repeated that
the faintest semblance of a luffing puff must never be disregarded, and
the vessel must at the same time be humoured so tenderly to it,
that no one shall see what the helmsman is about unless by watching
his movements very closely. On the other hand, in using weather helm
in keeping off to avoid a foul puff, it will not do to be too slow with
the helm, or the vessel will be stopped, and, without way on, it will be
112 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
some trouble to get her full and going again. Therefore always haul
the helm up as promptly as possible, but do not haul it savagely on to the
weather rail as if you were going to sail “large ’’ for the rest of the
day. If a puff is not seen coming broad on to the bow, but more or less
ahead, be careful that directly the jib shows the slightest sign of
lifting to drag steadily on the weather tiller lines; if the puff is a very
bad one, the helm must be smartly hauled aweather, but as a rule the
foul puffs will not vary in direction more than a couple of points from
the direction of the true wind, and they must be accorded with by as
delicate a use of the helm as for “luffing puffs.”
Thus the secret of close-hauled sailing consists in such a constant
watching of the wind and such a use of the helm to meet its variations,
that the vessel is always “full and bye,”
“off” the wind. A man who can so sail a vessel is a perfect helmsman.
and never “ near ’’ and never
Speaking of professional skippers reminds us that many of the
old-fashioned yacht “captains” had a funny habit of “sawing ” the
helm backwards and forwards; that is, they haul on the weather tiller
lines and then ease them without apparent motive, generally accompanying
the performance with a corresponding see-sawing motion of the body,
by first resting on one foot and then on the other. Probably this peculiar
habit was acquired on board fishing vessels in the winter, when the
men might find sawing the helm and working their bodies about promote
warmth. It certainly is no assistance to a vessel, and is very “bad
form.” Others have a worse habit than this, of taking a turn round the
tiller head with the tiller lines, and never easing them for a free puff or
hauling on them for a foul one.
Sailing a vessel in a strong wind, say with the scuppers full of
water, will not be quite such a delicate operation; still, the wind will
vary a great deal, and the very most must be made of the free puffs,
and the effect of foul ones reduced as much as possible. The vessel
will of course carry a great deal more weather helm, and when the sails
are nicely trimmed the jib will be found the most reliable sail to steer
by, as the luff of the mainsail will lift a great deal from the mere
effect of the wind out of the foresail. Look out for the very hard
puffs, and do not allow the vessel to needlessly bury herself; on the
other hand, do not get frightened at a little water on deck, and throw
the vessel in the wind. Sail her along heartily, even to the rail under,
but never forget to ease the tiller lines for the smallest freeing of the
wind; and for the very heavy puffs do not luff before they strike, but luff
into them as they strike; the vessel will then not be knocked down so
badly, and will walk off with increased speed by the aid of the puff.
Seamanship. 113
It must not be supposed that it is a good thing for a vessel to be
sailed with her rail under and the water nearly up to her skylights;
but in sailing on a wind she should not be luffed up for the mere
sake of getting her out of such a condition if it is only a passing puff
that has laid her in ; luffing, as a rule, in close-hauled sailing, in our
deep-bodied, heavily-ballasted yachts, is to take advantage of free puffs;
but occasionally when the puff is very strong, and neither free nor foul,
advantage may be taken of its strength to do a little luffing, and at the
same time clear the lee deck of water; in such luffing the chief care
of the helmsman will be not to get the vessel so near the wind as to
much stop her way or to risk getting in irons.
Frequently in match sailing a vessel is found to be heading for her
mark, and the hope of the helmsman will very properly be that she will
fetch without making a tack ; but he must not get anxious about it, and
hug the wind; if he does the vessel’s way will be deadened, she will make
an unusual amount of leeway, and it will be a hundred to one against her
fetching. He must sail her along boldly, not getting off the wind and
courting another tack, but exercising all his care in keeping her an exact
full; she will probably fetch, and if her head now and again falls to leeward
of the mark, it will probably come to windward of it again : on no account
get nervous and try to steer for the mark. If such an attempt is made,
the mark will not be fetched, and the attempt will be quite contrary to the
principle of the art of close-hauled sailing, which art cannot be regulated
by “steering ” for fixed marks. There is an old saying “keep a vessel
full and she will eat herself to windward, but try to sail her in the
wind's eye and she will crab to leeward.” Occasionally a little “ niggling,”
as it is called, may be indulged in if the mark is very near ; but even then
the vessel must not be sailed so fine as to cause the head sails to actually
lift ; and when within one hundred yards or so of the mark she should
be ramped along a good full and shot up to windward of the mark with
good way on, as if she be gilled up to the mark with little way on, and
got met at the last moment by an unfriendly puff, a collision with the mark
would be almost a matter of certainty. This, although a most humiliating
spectacle, very often happens, as skippers will do almost anything to save
a tack; but it is only the Smartest of them that can judge when a tack
can be profitably saved and when not. (See “Over-reaching.”)
SAILING A VESSEL ON A WIND IN A HEAVY SEA.—It will require
some nerve to sail a vessel successfully on a wind in a heavy sea. Often
a haunting fear that the bowsprit will be carried away, or the deck swept
by a green sea, makes a man have the vessel’s sails constantly lifting;
the result is that she tumbles about in the sea like a log, sags to leeward,
I
114 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
and gets the character of being a bad sea boat. Do not fear the breaking
of a bowsprit or a green sea on deck; be not unmindful of either, but
above all things keep the sails full; this is the secret of success in
sailing on a wind in a sea. Of course it is assumed that the vessel is
properly canvassed, and the sheets eased a bit to what they would be
in Smooth water : if she has two reefs down in the mainsail, that
the foresail is single reefed, third jib set, bowsprit reefed, topmast
housed, and everything securely lashed on deck. The vessel should be
canvassed so that in the true strength of the wind the covering board
would be well out of the water—a fourth of the height of freeboard. It
is of the first importance to remember that in a sea it will not do to sail
a vessel rail under, as a weight of water on deck and the fact of the
vessel being over on her side will greatly interfere with her good per-
formance; therefore a vessel should be canvassed so that her rail will
not go under, and in the squalls she must be eased judiciously with the
helm, always remembering that although occasional easing may be prudent
the chief aim must be to keep her full. The main boom should be carried
a couple of feet or so farther off than it is in smooth water, and the
weather topping-lift should always carry the weight of the boom. The
fore sheet should also be eased, but the jib sheet should not be eased
so much as to cause the jib to lift badly, as the jib will be wanted
to keep the vessel out of the wind, especially after she has been eased
into a sea.
* As a rule the vessel will be found to pitch pretty regularly, and one
sea being very much like another, the vessel will be sailed through all,
hard and a good full. Do not let her sails shake, as her way will be
stopped ; she will then pound the sea and jump two or three times into
the same hole. Those on board will say “what a horrid bad sea boat she
is, that she pitched two or three times to the once of any other vessel,
and always had her deck full of water.” But keep a wary look-out for
the big seas. One will be seen rolling in on the weather bow, gradually
gaining in height, and perhaps rising, pinnacle like, just at the point
where the vessel will meet it. This is the wave to be ready to meet ;
it will rise higher and higher as it gets towards you, and will either
curl Over and break up by its own exhaustion, or from the fact of its
meeting the vessel, and there will be in either case a ton or two of green
water on deck. Just before the big wave reaches the vessel there will be
an unusual hollow or deep trough, and into this she will and must go ;
before she can recover herself the big wave will roll over and fairly
swallow her up ; then there will be a smooth; a number of small waves
will be formed; the vessel will give one or two deep dives—the result
Seamanship. 115
of her bow being thrown up by the big wave—and then be steadied for
a minute or so in the smooth.
When a big sea like this is seen on the weather bow, the vessel’s
helm should be eased down a little just before the sea reaches her,
so that she may take it more fairly stem on ; but in luffing into the
wave do it in good time, and directly she is fairly into it put up the
helm again, and fill her sails before she has time to get head to wind.
The object in easing the vessel is of course to ease the shock both by
deadening her way and by presenting the stem to the sea instead of
the bluff of the bow ; therefore directly the sea and the vessel have
met, the effect is over, and the vessel must be filled instantly; that is,
she must be put off the wind again to a good full and bye.
The most tiresome of all seas to sail a vessel in are those which are
met with on a weather-going tide in more or less shallow water, such
as on the Brambles, at the mouth of Southampton Water, or on the
Bar at the entrance to the Mersey, or at the Nore. Here the sea is
furrow-like ; that is, the troughs are long and deep, and the crests of
the waves are a succession of sharp ridges instead of the long-backed
waves met with in deep water. So long as a vessel keeps time with
these waves, that is, so long as she only pitches once into each hollow,
there will be a regular succession of pitching and scending; but if,
through the wind heading her, or through careless steering, her way
becomes deadened, and she pitches twice into the same hollow, or if
she does so through meeting a trough of unusual breadth, there will be
trouble on deck in the way of water, as the vessel will meet the wave
crest just as she takes her second dive instead of when she scends from
her first. There will be two or three very quick dives after this, and
the helmsman must keep the vessel full ; not shake her up because she
is taking these unpleasant plunges, but keep her full in order to keep her
going through the sea, and to get her into the regular fall and rise of the
waves again, or, as the sailors say, make her toe and heel to the tune.
It can be supposed that the vessel is sailing in a pretty regular
sea, and that she rises, and at the same time cleaves through a wave as
at A (Fig. 44). Whilst she is going up through the wave, or scending, she
will show a tendency to come up to the wind, as her stern will be so
little pressed by the water that it will go off to leeward. She will stop
in suspense for a moment and then pass rapidly through the wave, and the
next moment will be in the position B (Fig. 45), when her bow, being unsup-
ported, it will fly off the wind. This latter tendency must be guarded
against, as in another moment the vessel will be in the position C (Fig. 46),
with water well nigh up to the bowsprit bitts. She will rise streaming with
I 2
116 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
water at d, and take the position A again, and so on ad nauseam. Very
frequently a vessel will shoot so far through a wave when in the position
A, that she even gets farther through it than shown by B; this is what
a vessel does that is sailed fast through a sea with a lot of canvas and
with a tremendous momentum, due to the speed and weight of the
FIG. 44.
vessel and her manner of ballasting. Often two or three bigger waves
than usual will come one after the other and then there will be a smooth as
the waves break up. Frequently these bigger waves apparently follow each
other, when in reality the vessel is only plunging from the effects of the
| Tº:
FIG. 45.
motion imparted to her by one big wave. At any rate when the vessel
gets into the position B, she should be put as fairly into the sea ahead of
her as possible. If there is no big sea ahead she will fall harmlessly
enough into the trough and will hardly require easing.
FIG. 46.
In sailing a vessel hard through a sea like this, the motion will
necessarily be unpleasant, as, instead of rising leisurely as it were to
the waves, and pitching gently, the vessel will more or less of her own
momentum throw herself ahead; this will not only make the motion quick


Seamanship. 117
and unpleasant, but will put a great strain on the gear, but as it is
more a question of getting through the sea than riding over it with
comfort and with safety to the gear, the last words on this subject will
be, keep a firm hold of the weather tiller lines.
SAILING OFF THE WIND.—Sailing off the wind means that the vessel
is more away from the wind than the close-hauled point, and applies
up to the time when the wind blows four points abaft the beam, when
the wind would be quarterly. In sailing with the wind abeam, the head
sheets must not be eased up too much, but a good strain must be kept
on them, as the vessel is almost certain to gripe a great deal, and
to show a tendency to fly to ; of course, if the head sheets are eased up
so that the sails are always lifting, this tendency will be much more urgent.
Neither must the main sheet be eased off too far; if it is,
the weather cloths of the sail will “lift " and go into folds. If the fore
part of the sail does so lift, the main sheet must be drawn in a little
until the sail has the full weight of the wind, and falls “asleep.”
Frequently the luff of the sail may be quiet enough, but the topsail
may lift, and that will be a sign that the main boom wants hauling aboard
a little, so as to get the peak more inboard, and thus make the topsail
stand better. But the mainsail must not be pinned for the mere object of
making the topsail stand ; if the luff of the latter be to windward of the
topmast, the cause of its lifting may be the eddy wind round the topmast.
With the wind abeam the vessel will be laying her course, and the
helmsman will have to steer by compass or by keeping some object straight
on for the bowsprit end. Every tendency the vessel shows to fly up in the
wind must be promptly met by the helm ; do not hold the helm as if the
object was to keep it rigidly in one position, nor wait until the vessel’s head
has ranged up two or three points. Watch the compass card or the object
you are steering for, and directly the vessel brings her head to windward
give her a little weather helm and keep her straight if you can. If she
shows a tendency to fall off, meet her promptly with a little lee helm, and
always remember that the object is to make her keep a straight course, and
to prevent her yawing either on or off the wind. It will not be a question
of keeping the sails full and no more than full, but that of making the vessel
go straight as an arrow for her object, always recollecting that if she yaws
about that of itself will stop her way, and there will be also the retarding
action of the rudder to bring her back on her course; therefore using a little
helm promptly will prevent yawing, and the checking of the vessel’s way
from this cause will be reduced to a minimum.
But a vessel may gripe through the wind shifting more aft, or she may
show a tendency to run off through the wind coming more ahead, therefore
118 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
_-*
the vane must be watched, and the blowing of the wind on the face should
also be regarded. In match sailing especially, slight alterations in the wind
should be observed, and usually the main sheet in Small vessels, and some-
times in large ones, is laid along the weather side of the deck in the hands
of the crew, who slackened off or drew in the boom to suit every slight
alteration in the wind. Of course this would only be done in very light
winds, but all cases and alterations in the wind that make a palpable
difference on the amount of weather helm carried, should be promptly
provided for by trimming the sheets.
With a beam wind if there is much strength in it—So strong that a
topsail lays her in to the deck edge—the vessel in the puffs will now and
again shove her rail under, but she should never be permanently sailed with
more than two or three planks of the deck awash. Sail should be
shortened without hesitation if the reach is a long one, and if the wind
seems bent on a good steady blow. But if it is a mere puff, or if the
reach be a short one of a half mile or so, the vessel must be eased to get
the water off deck, and ramped along again in the lulls. Some judgment
must be exercised in so easing a vessel, as if her sails are made to lift very
much her way will be stopped; on the other hand, if she has to sail with
her lee deck full of water up to the rail, that will stop her way, and so the
aim must be to stop her speed as little as possible from either cause, and as
before said, if the reach be long and the wind a lasting one shorten sail.
SAILING OFF THE WIND IN A HEAVY SEA.—In sailing along the wind
in a sea—it would not be attempted if the sea were very heavy—the
helmsman will find some difficulty in keeping his vessel from griping-to or
running off, as the sea will carry her about a great deal. He should be
well prepared to give her lee helm promptly if she shows a sign of running-
off, and should either keep the lee tiller line in his hand, or the tiller itself,
or should have someone to leeward of the tiller, the latter if the vessel be a
big one, say of 70 tons, or upwards. If the vessel gripes-to, she must be
given weather helm ; but checking the tendency to “run off her helm ’’ will
require the most care, and lee helm should be given a vessel directly her
head begins to fall off when sailing along the wind. With a heavy beam
sea a sensation will be experienced of slipping down the side of the waves
as the seas pass under her ; but the great danger will be from a beam sea
breaking aboard, and, as before said, if the sea is very heavy, she should
be either put head to it or before it.
To RUN BEFORE THE WIND IN A HEAVY SEA.—Have the boom topped
up, so that the boom end will clear the combers if possible during the lee
roll. Bend the boom-guy by making fast with a clove-hitch the thimble end
to the boom, about two-thirds of the length of the boom from the mast.
Seamanship. 119
Take the guy forward, pass the bight round a cleat or Snatch block, and bring
the end back, and reeve through the thimble, and belay. Sometimes the
guy is simply taken forward and belayed, or set up by a tackle.
If the sea is very heavy the mainsail should be stowed and trysail set.
The squaresail, reefed, should be always set under such circumstances, but
it is best to have the trysail as well, because if an accident happened
to the squaresail, the vessel can be brought to wind and hove to under
the trysail. The trysail should be sheeted pretty flat, as the sail will then
tend to check the weather rolling and inclination to fall off. The foresail
would be lowered, but a small jib should be always kept set.
Another reason for preferring a trysail to a close-reefed mainsail is that
the head of the sail would be higher, and would keep the wind whilst in
the trough of the sea, whereas a close-reefed mainsail might be becalmed.
For the same reason, to avoid being becalmed, a reefed square sail should
always be hauled close up to the hounds.
In running before a wind and sea great care must be taken that the
vessel does not get by the lee; that is, that she does not run off so much as
to bring the wind on the other quarter and gybe. The lazy guy would most
likely prevent the boom coming over; if it did not, look out, and keep clear of
the main sheet if you are near the counter; and lie down on deck, as, if the
boom is brought up suddenly by the runner, it may break and sweep the
deck.
Supposing the vessel gybes without any other accident, “ meet ’’
her promptly with the helm, and do not let her fly to ; then prepare to
gybe the vessel back again if necessary ; get in some of the main
sheet ; drop the throat or peak down; put the helm up and gybe her
handsomely.
If when running under squaresail the vessel broaches to, that is, flies
up into the wind and gets aback, brace the squaresail sharp up, and haul
the weather jib sheet taut ; keep the helm hard up until the vessel is before
the wind again. If the vessel flies-to quite head to wind, the squaresail
must be stowed and the foresail set, if necessary, to back her head off.
It is generally supposed that a large quantity of sail must be carried
when running before a heavy sea, in order to keep ahead of the waves; or,
in other words, to avoid being pooped. This is not exactly the case, as
the speed of large waves is much too great for any vessel to run away
from them ; thus an Atlantic wave 200ft. in length (such as would be
met with in a brisk gale) travels at the rate of twenty miles an hour, and
no vessel could run at that speed. The height of such a wave might
be about 35ft., but probably would be not more than 15ft. and the object
of having much canvas set would be that a vessel might not get becalmed
120 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
in the trough of the sea, and by suddenly losing her way cause an over-
taking wave to be broken up ; a quantity of water might then possibly fall
on board. [It must always be understood that it is not the water which
travels, but only the wave motion.] This would be termed “pooping,”
and to avoid such accidents square topsails have been much recommended
for large cruising yachts, as, owing to their loftiness, they are unlikely
to get becalmed in the trough of the sea. However, pooping more
frequently happens from quite a different cause, in this way: as a wave
advances it will sometimes grow in height and lose in length, and as a
wave form cannot be sustained after a certain proportion of height to
length has been reached, the crest of the wave becomes suddenly sharp
and still higher, and ultimately curls over on the side it has been advancing.
If this breaking up of a wave—which under such circumstances might rise
to a height of 50ft.—should happen close to the stern of a vessel, she will
be inevitably pooped; that is to say, some of the water will fall on board,
and the crew will have to hang on for their lives.
Large deep sea waves, when they approach shallowness, alter in
form and lose their speed ; they become shorter and higher (deep-sea
waves whose original height was 40ft. have been said to rise to 150ft.
as they approach the coast), and then the crests, travelling faster than the
troughs, topple over in broken masses. Hence waves in shallows or near
the coast are more dangerous than deep-water waves.
CARRYING AWAY A BowSPRIT.-If by the wind, directly the bowsprit is
gone ease the main sheet and haul the fore sheet a-weather; but if the
vessel has been reaching well off the wind, she must be brought near the
wind, and in either case hove to. If the bowsprit is carried away near the
stem, in consequence of a shroud bursting, the outer end will fly aft. Lower
the jib and unhook from the traveller. Put the bight of a rope under each
end of the bowsprit, the end of the
inner part of each rope being fast on
the deck; haul on the other part, and
*--
ſ - -
\ # # w
º Hº == =º thus roll or parbuckle (see Fig. 47) the
== ºr bowsprit up the side of the vessel to
*. --> <=" == --> *s
the deck. Then clear the gear. The
FIG. 47.
bowsprit may be got out again properly
secured. If the end of the bowsprit breaks off outside the jibtack sheave
hole, let the jib sheet fly; or take the jib in altogether, as most likely a
change will have to be made. Get the end of the bowsprit on deck, take
the gear off, and re-fit it to the bowsprit end by lashings.
If the topmast should not be carried away by the loss of the bowsprit,
try and save it. Let go the topsail sheet and halyards, and get the topsail

Seamanship. 121
down. Take the jib topsail halyards or spinnaker halyards forward, and
set taut as a topmast stay, to steady the topmast.
CARRYING AWAY A BowsPRIT SHROUD.—Let the jib sheet fly. Put the
helm down and bring the vessel on the other tack immediately; if there
is not sea room to keep the vessel on the other tack, let the jib run in
and heave to. Then repair damage, or set up the shroud by tackles. (To
put on tackles, see page 123.)
CARRYING AWAY A BoBSTAY.—Let the jib sheet fly and heave to if not
match sailing. If it is the fall that has broken, the bobstay will have to
be fished up and a new one rove. If the shackle on the stem or the bar is
broken so that it cannot be repaired, and there is no second shackle or bar
on board, the vessel must be sailed without a bobstay. Reef the bowsprit
in, set a small jib, and do not sheet the jib too taut. In squalls, or when
falling into a wave hollow, ease the vessel with the helm. Many fishing
vessels, some of 80 tons, are never fitted with bobstays; but of course they
have very short bowsprits.
If there is any sea, the vessel should not be sailed without a bobstay
and with no jib set, as the bowsprit would under such conditions most
likely be carried away. The stay rope of the jib will support the bow-
sprit, but the jib sheet should be well lightened up.
CARRYING AWAY A ToPMAST.—A topmast when broken invariably falls
to leeward, and it would be very difficult to give directions for clearing
the wreck away. It will hang by the topsail sheet from the gaff, by
the tack over the peak halyards, by the backstay over the peak halyards,
and by the topsail halyards if they were belayed to windward. In clearing
the wreck and unreeving, be careful not to let anything go until it has
been properly secured or lashed, so as not to tumble on deck.
CARRYING AWAY A MAST.—The best thing to do, if the weather is
very heavy, is to unreeve tacks, lanyards, and backstay tackles, and
ride to the wreck, as it will make a capital floating anchor. When the
weather moderates, the mast can be got alongside, the gear cleared, and
the sail got on board. In a large vessel the mast will probably be too
heavy to handle, and will have to be made fast astern. In a small yacht
the mast may be rigged as a jury mast. Supposing the mast has been
carried away five or six feet above the deck, put the heel of the mast
against the stump on the aft side so that it cannot fetch away; take the
lower main halyard block forward to stem head ; put guys on the mast-
head, and lead one to each side of the yacht. Lift up by the masthead,
and set taut by the main halyards, and when the latter have got sufficient
purchase hoist the mast to a perpendicular, steadying by the guys. When
upright lash the mast to the stump, seize bights in the shrouds to shorten
122 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
them, and set up by the lanyards. If the mast be worked round to the
fore side of the stump, the boom gooseneck can be shipped as before.
Set the mainsail reefed or double reefed as required, or set the trysail.
If the mast be carried away close to the deck, unship the stump, and
step a spare spar to lash the heel of the mast to. Or the broken mast could
be stepped. In this case it would be better to improvise sheers by taking
a couple of spars, such as topsail yard and trysail gaff; and, after lashing
their ends together, rear them over the mast hole, one leg in either scupper.
A tackle should be lashed to the apex of the sheers for hoisting the mast
by. Keep the sheers in their place by guys leading forward and aft.
Sheers might be used for getting the mast and boom on deck, or
for rearing the mast on end at first, by rigging them aft, when the heel
of the mast is to be lashed on deck. -
In case of a mast being carried away close under the hounds, pre-
parations for getting the rigging and halyards aloft again can be made
by throwing a line over the masthead, and hauling a tackle to pull a man
aloft by. If the masthead is carried away, the main halyard block can be
lashed above the rigging round the yoke. The peak hoisted by one of the
topping-lifts, or by a couple of blocks of the peak halyards, one to be lashed
to the masthead over the main halyard block.
When the masthead is badly sprung above the yoke, but is kept from
falling by the topmast, let fly the jib sheets, heave the vessel to, and lower
the mainsail as quickly as possible. Lower the topmast half-way down, and
lash the heel to the mast. Unhook main and peak halyard blocks, and
unreeve jib halyards. Then prepare for rehoisting mainsail as if the
masthead had come down. (See previous paragraph.) The topmast will
keep the mast head from falling.
CARRYING AWAY THE FORE STAY.—Ease up fore and jib sheets, slack
out the main sheet, and run the vessel off the wind. Put a strop round
the bowsprit close to the stem, and set the lee runner up to it. If the
fore stay cannot be secured by tackles, haul an end of the cable up to the
masthead by the foresail halyards, and take a bight round the mast
above the yoke. Set up the cable through the hawse pipe. Sometimes
a jury fore stay is rigged out of one of the hawsers, passed under the
bowsprit and round the masthead in two or more parts, according to
the size and condition of the hawser.
CARRYING AWAY A RUNNER.—The greatest strain comes on the runners
(by runners is meant the pendant runners and tackle), when the wind is a
little abaft the beam; and if the weather one is carried away, the vessel
should be instantly thrown head to wind, and put on the other tack until the
runner is repaired. The vessel should be met by the helm when near head to
Seamanship. 123
wind, and not put on the other tack until the main sheet is hauled in. If
there be not sea room to sail the vessel when on the other tack, heave to.
CARRYING AWAY A TRIATIC STAY.—If the triatic be carried away, and
the mainmast does not go with it, put the helm up, slack out the main
sheet, and run the vessel off the wind. Take the lee main runner forward,
outside the main rigging, and set up to the fore-runner bolts. If there
be a fresh breeze, stow the mainsail, and then repair the damage.
CARRYING AWAY A ToPMAST BACKSTAY.—Throw the vessel up in the
wind, let fly the topsail sheet, jib topsail sheet or spinnaker sheet, and if the
damage cannot be quickly made good take in the topsails.
FIG. 48. FIG. 50. FIG. 51.
To PUT A STROP ON A ROPE.—A strop is put on to a rope to hook
a block or tackle to, as shown in Fig. 48, the whole of the strop being
used up in the cross turn.
Another way of putting a strop on a block is shown in Fig. 49. The
bights are passed through and through, round the rope until used up ; the
tackle is then hooked to the bights as in Fig. 48. A strop is usually put
on a wire rope in this way, as it is less likely to slip. (See “Selvagee?” in
the Appendix.)
To PUT A TAIL BLOCK ON A ROPE.—A tail block is put on to a rope
by a rolling hitch, as shown in Fig. 50. The hitches are jammed up close

124 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
together. If the block is to remain on the rope the end of the tail can
be seized back to the rope if required. Often when in a hurry only one
hitch is taken (Fig. 51), the tail being gripped round the rope with the
hand. A tail tackle is put on to a rope in the same manner as a tail block.
To ANCHOR whi:N ON A WIND WITH WEATHER-GoING TIDE.-Get the
anchor ready on the bow, and some cable ranged on deck. Have the main-
sail ready for lowering. When nearly abreast to leeward of the spot where
the anchor is to be let go, lower the main sail and put down the helm ;
when head to wind bring the helm amidship, take in jib and foresail and
shoot to the spot where the anchor is to be let go. Unless there is so little
wind that the vessel will be wind rode when she is brought up, it is
important that the mainsail should be stowed before she comes to anchor;
otherwise as she swung round to before the wind with the tide, the conse-
quences might be very awkward.
To ANCHOR WHEN ON A WIND WITH LEE-GoING TIDE.-Have the anchor
and cable ready. Have jib and foresail ready for lowering. When abreast
to leeward of the spot where the anchor is to be let go take in jib and
foresail, put the helm down and shoot up head to wind, and when way is
deadened let go the anchor and stow the mainsail; or if plenty of hands
are on deck, lower the mainsail as the vessel is brought to. The vessel will
of course lie head to wind and tide.
To ANCHOR WHEN RUNNING BEFORE THE WIND, BUT AGAINST THE TIDE.
—Stow the mainsail, take in the jib, put the helm down, shoot head to
wind, lower the foresail, and let go the anchor.
Or stow all the sails, and do not alter helm. When the tide has
brought the vessel to a standstill, let go the anchor.
To ANCHOR WHEN RUNNING BEFORE THE WIND, AND WITH THE TIDE.-
Take in jib and foresail, haul in the main sheet, put down the helm, and
when head to wind keep shooting till way is stopped; let go the anchor,
and stow the mainsail.
If moorings have to be picked up, the same course will be followed;
but judgment must be exercised, so that when the vessel shoots up to the
watch buoy her way is almost or quite stopped.
ANCHORING IN AN OPEN ROADSTEAD.—In coasting it may be fre-
quently convenient to bring up for the night under the land, but if
the weather looks at all bad seaward, the precaution should be taken to
unshackle the cable and bend the watch buoy on. Then if the sea did
get up in a great hurry the cable could be slipped, and recovered on
another occasion.
To MooR.—Veer out chain about double the length of cable it is
intended to ride by ; when the vessel has dropped astern and brought the
Seamanship. 125
cable taut, let go the second anchor; veer out chain, and heave in on the
anchor first let go until an equal length of chain is out. If the yacht will
not drive to a spot suitable for the second anchor, send out a kedge and
warp in the boat; warp the yacht to the kedge, and let go the anchor. Or
the second anchor and chain can be carried out in the required position in
a boat. In such case, only as much chain as it is intended to ride by need
be veered out to the first anchor.
The quantity of chain to ride by will greatly depend upon the nature
of the bottom, the strength of the tide and wind or sea. Generally about
three times the depth of water at the top of flood is sufficient for a smooth-
water berth. - -
To UNMOOR.—Heave in on one anchor, and pay out chain on the
other. Break the first anchor out of the ground, cat, and then get the
other. In some cases the second anchor might be got by the boat under-
running the chain.
ScowING AN ANCHOR OR KEDGE.--When boats or yachts have to
anchor on ground known or suspected to be foul, it will always be prudent
to scow the anchor. Unbend the cable from the ring, and make the
end fast round the crown, shank, and flukes with a clove hitch, and bring
the end a (Fig. 52) back to s, and stop it round the cable with spun yarn
FIG. 52.
or hitches; take the cable back to the shackle and stop it as at b ; when
the cable is hauled upon by the part o the stop at b will break, and
the fluke of the anchor can be readily lifted out of its bed. Some-
times, instead of scowing the anchor a trip line is bent to the crown and
buoyed. (See “Anchor’’ in the Appendix.)
To PASS A SEIZING-A way of securing a bight of a rope by a lashing
so as to form an eye, or of securing any parts of ropes together. A seizing
is thus passed : an eye is spliced in a piece of small cordage which is
to form the seizing (Fig. 58), and the seizing is then passed through
its eye and round the rope as shown; the end is brought down through
the turns and through the eye splice (or not, as preferred). It is then
brought over at a (Fig. 54), which is the back view of Fig. 53, round and
over again at b; the end is then passed under a at c (by aid of a marling

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Seamanship. 127
spike), out at a, and hitched under b at d as shown. Sometimes the
cross turns are not taken, but the end of the seizing made fast to a part
of the large rope; in such a case riding turns are usually taken; that is,
the seizing is passed twice round—once over itself.
To MAKE A SELVAGEE STROP.—This is a strop made of spun yarn laid
up in coils and marled ; a board has two pegs, a a (Fig. 55), inserted at
intervals suitable to the required length of the strop. Layers of spun
yarn are put round these pegs, and when enough turns have been taken
the marling is passed by single hitches as shown in Fig. 56.
CHAPTER VI.
MANAGEMENT OF OPEN BOATS.
QUALITIES OF OPEN BOATS AS To STIFFNESs.—Small open boats must
never be regarded as if they possessed the qualities of deep and heavily
ballasted yachts. They should not be sailed “gunwale under ’’ as a deep,
decked yacht is, and the puff or squall which a small yacht can be sailed
through with impunity, will necessitate the open boat being thrown head
to wind with head sheets eased up, or off the wind with aft sheets eased. -
No system of ballasting will much increase the range of stability of a
boat, although the initial stiffness may be increased—(by boat is meant
something of the type of the Surbiton open gig)—and it must be clearly
understood that it is not the initial stability, or the stiffness of the boat
at small angles of heel, upon which her safety depends, but upon her range
of stability; that is to say upon the amount of stability or power to recover
herself she has, when heeled through successive angles until the gunwale
might be pressed under water. After this point is reached stability
vanishes very rapidly. For competitive sailing, a boat to succeed must
resist being heeled at all very potently, that is, she must have great
initial stability, so as to be able to carry a large area of canvas without
heeling more than to a point midway between her water line and gunwale.
This stiffness is more dependent upon breadth of beam than upon the weight
of ballast carried low, and an inexperienced boat-sailer finding a boat very
stiff at first might be tempted into pressing her beyond the danger point.
- On the other hand, depth of hull of itself does not add to stability,
but by ballasting it does, and, if accompanied by a high ride out
of water, lengthens out the range of that stability so that a boat
made deep like a yacht may always have righting power at any possible
angle of heel, providing she does not fill with water and sink. Thus
safety does not so much depend upon the great stiffness which enables
a boat to carry a large press of canvas without heeling to any considerable
extent, as upon the range of her stiffness or the continuation of that stiff-
Open Boat Sailing Among Waves. 129
ness, even up to the time when she might be blown over on her beam ends.
Shallow open boats have a very low range of stability, and directly
their gunwales are put under, they are likely to be blown over, fill, and
sink, if ballasted. A high side out of water in a large way increases the
range of stability, and the higher, in reason, a boat’s side is out of the
water the safer she will be. Thus if the two boats are the same in
height to the gunwale, and one above that height is fitted with a 5in.
wash strake, she will be a safer one to sail than the other.
Sailing an open boat with a quantity of lead or iron ballast on board is
at all times a very risky proceeding, especially if a man is out alone and
away from the track of passing vessels. If the boat fills she is bound to
sink, and the safest plan is to carry water ballast in open boats.
Boats are most frequently capsized in disturbed water, and the cause is
generally ascribed to a sudden squall, or to the fact that, the boat being
unduly pressed, some of her loose ballast shifted to leeward; or that she
was sailed so long “gunwale under ’’ that the weight of water taken
in and resting in her lee bilge caused her to lose stability and so capsize.
But a boat among waves might be, and no doubt frequently is, capsized
without any accession of wind, or movement of the ballast.
It can be supposed that a boat is sailing with a beam wind, and with a
beam sea, and that her inclination, due to the pressure of wind on her sail is
15°. If she got into the position shown in Fig. 57, she would practically
be inclined to 30° and she would probably upset. Assuming that the boat
had no sail set, she would not get into such a position, as she would
accommodate herself to the wave surface and her mast would correspond
to the perpendicular drawn to the wave surface (see Fig. 57). Even with
sail set the boat would more or less so accommodate herself to the wave
surface, minus her steady angle of heel; but the increased pressure on the
canvas, due to the righting moment of the boat, which would have to be
overcome, would prevent her recovering herself entirely. That is, if the
boat be heeled to 15° relative to the horizon, or to the normal surface of
the water represented by the vertical line, and a wave came to leeward as
shown, she would be in the position of a heel of 30° relative to the
perpendicular to the wave surface; but, inasmuch as the wind pressure
is only capable of heeling her to 15° the boat would ultimately recover
herself to that extent, and her mast would be represented by the vertical.
However, long before a boat could so recover herself, she might be
swamped or blown over.
With a beam sea a boat will roll a great deal, and this condition
is a prolific source of accidents. If a boat is being sailed at a permanent
angle of heel of 15°, and by the action of the wave she is made to roll
K
130 - Yacht and Boat Sailing.
another 15°, she will frequently be in the position of being heeled to 30°;
and if the extreme part of the roll should occur jointly with such a position
as shown in Fig. 57, the boat would inevitably upset.
Next it can be supposed that the boat is being sailed at a permanent
angle of heel of 15°, that she has an extreme roll of 15°, and that there
came a sudden wind squall. Then if the extreme leeward roll, and the
squall took place together when in the position shown by Fig. 57, she
would blow over and nothing could save her. But she need not be in such
a position as that depicted and yet be blown over; if the boat has a heel
of 15°, and an extreme leeward roll of 15°, then if the extreme roll and
a squall occurred together the boat would be upset, whatever her actual
position among the waves, whether she was on the trough, on the side,
or on the crest of a wave. Further it must be always understood that
a force of wind which will, if applied steadily, heel a boat to 15°, will if
applied suddenly heel her to double that inclination; thus it is not so much
the force of the squall as the suddenness of its application wherein lies the
danger.
SAILING AMONGST WAVES.—When a boat is among waves (especially
with a beam wind), ballast should not be trimmed to windward, nor
should the passengers sit on the weather gunwales, as a boat after being
in a position similar to that shown by Fig. 57 will take a very heavy
weather roll, possibly fly up in the wind, be taken aback, and blown over.
The canvas that will permanently heel a boat to 15° may be carried
safely enough in smooth water with a beam wind, but the case is altogether
different among waves, and so much canvas should not then be carried,

Open Boat Sailing in Squalls. 131
perhaps by one half. Many ships’ boats and pleasure boats are annually
lost through recklessness in carrying canvas in rough water; and, although
a boat may go out among waves a dozen times without being subject to
either of the coincident conditions described, yet may she the very next
time; therefore immunity is not necessarily impunity. It will thus be
seen that there is very considerable danger attendant upon sailing a
boat among waves, a danger perhaps not always understood.
In sailing among waves the ballast (if any) should be well secured,
the passengers should sit in the bottom of the boat, and the main sheet
should be kept in the hand. If the sea is abeam the boat should be
watched very closely, and if a bigger wave than usual rolls in on the
weather beam, ease the sheet and run off the wind a little, the wave
will then pass harmlessly under the boat. In sailing with a beam wind
or sea an experienced sailor might ease the sheet and run the boat off
in a squall; but it will be always better to luff up sharply, and if necessary
ease the sheet too.
In sailing by the wind among waves the danger of being blown over
will be considerably less, but nevertheless there is danger, and it must not
be assumed that because an experienced and skilful boat sailer sails a
mere cockle-shell safely about among waves, that anyone could do so
without experience or skill. In boat sailing safety mainly depends upon
knowing what is dangerous.
In Sailing by the wind the main sheet might be belayed with a slippery
hitch, with the fall close to the hand (resting over the knee is a good plan)
and the fore sheet should lead aft. If there is much sea do not pin the
main sheet in, but the fore sheet can be drawn fairly taut. Luff the boat
fairly into the big seas that roll in on the bow, and fill her again promptly.
The foresail will be found of great assistance in taking her head off again,
and hence it should be sheeted pretty flat. In puffs and squalls the boat
should be luffed up and the fore sheet eased if she does not spring to
readily ; never wait until the gunwale gets under, as when the gunwale
goes under the boat soon loses way, and then the power of luffing will be
gone, and the boat may perhaps fill and sink. If there is no boom to the
mainsail, and the boat does not “come to ” quickly and relieve herself
of wind, let fly the main sheet and ease her that way; but recollect in
all cases that whatever is done must be done promptly.
If the boat has a mizen the main sheet can be eased at the time of
putting the helm down, as the mizen will bring the boat head to wind,
but generally in luffing for hard squalls the main sheet need not be eased;
but the fore sheet should be directly the squall is seen approaching, as
that will allow the boat to fly to more readily when the squall strikes.
K 2
I 32 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
If the boat has only a mainsail and mizen, ease the main sheet in
luffing if the squall be heavy, and leave the mizen to bring her to:
In luffing for squalls, should the boat get head to wind, haul the
fore sheet a-weather, put the helm up, keep the main sheet eased off and
press down what is to be the lee quarter (see foot-note in the Chapter
on New Brighton Boats). If the boat has only one sail, haul the boom
on what is to be the weather side and put the tiller on the opposite
side ; as the boat gets sternway on she will pay off, then right the
helm, ease the boom over, and sail her. If the boat has a mizen as
well as mainsail, the mizen sheet should be eased whilst the boom is held
over. If an oar is handy, the boat can be helped off the wind by a
“back-water’’ stroke or two off the lee quarter, or a forward stroke or two
on the weather bow. But the boat sailer must not get nervous and throw
nis boat head to wind for every little catspaw or small sea ; he must,
whilst being careful that his boat is not capsized by a squall or filled
by shipping water, sail her boldly but not recklessly, and keep her a
“good full,” or she will surely drive to leeward. It is particularly
incumbent that a boat should be kept full when sailing among waves,
hence the great necessity of her being appropriately canvased. However,
if the boat is Sailing across a weather-going tide she may be “squeezed'’ a
little, but never allow the sails to lift.
TACKING-Whilst tacking a small boat always remember that it is
not the tiller of a big yacht that is grasped, and do not shove the
helm down with all the force at hand; bring the boat head to wind
with the tiller about half over, then put it hard up and ease again to
amidships as the vessel gathers good way. With a big boom mainsail
a small boat in smooth water will shoot head to wind and fill on the
other tack in less time than it takes to write it, but in a sea she may
require some help, and the moment for tacking should be when a “smooth *
comes on the water. If there is an uncertainty about the boat coming
round, do not let go the fore sheet until the boat's head is fairly off on
the other tack. If the boat has no head sail, and there is a doubt of
her staying, catch the boom amidships as she comes head to wind, and
then shove it over to what is to be the weather side, and keep it to wind-
ward until she pays off. Never forget that a boat can always be helped
round by an oar.
Above all things never attempt to tack with a big wave coming in
on the weather bow. *
SAILING ALONG A WEATHER SHORE WITH A SQUALLY WIND.—In sailing
along a weather shore with a squally wind, it is generally found safer
with a boom mainsail to luff up in the wind and ease the fore sheet, if
Open Boat Sailing. 133
there be one, than to ease the main sheet and attempt to relieve the
boat without much altering her course; however, if the weather shore
be the bank of a river and close aboard, there will be the risk of going
stem on into the bank; and this will be especially awkward if the boat
has a long bowsprit. It is not pleasant to go into the bank of a river,
but it would be preferable to capsizing. Still, in match sailing a great
deal of valuable time might be lost by luffing up into a bank, and a boat
can be relieved and kept going by judiciously easing the main sheet and
running her off; but the sheet must be eased handsomely, and not in
a half hearted manner. Never deliberate as to what shall be done—that
is, whether the boat shall be luffed up at the risk of running into the
bank, or whether the sheet shall be eased and the boat run off the wind.
Always remember in the case of squalls that “he who hesitates is lost.”
SAILING ALONG A LEE SHORE.-When sailing along a lee shore in
squally weather (if it is a matter of choice, always work the weather
shore), Smartly luff up to the squalls in preference to easing the main
sheet, and thus keep the boat going. If the squall be very heavy, and
the boat will not come to, but is dragging through the water, the
fore sheet should be let fly so as to bring the boat head to wind quickly.
If the main sheet is eased off much the boat loses way, and then by help
of her foresail may take off against her helm and shove her nose ashore.
Generally the boat will “come to” quickly enough without the fore sheet.
If a squall looks to have much weight in it, luff up in good time, and
prepare to lower the mainsail, if necessary.
In lowering a sail in squalls, great care should be taken to spill
the sail as it comes down, as, if it fills and blows out in bags, it may
not only cause trouble in handing it, but upset the boat.
RUNNING BEFORE THE WIND AND SEA.—Running before a wind and
sea in a small boat may to the inexperienced appear a very simple
and safe operation; but, in reality, it is a very dangerous one, and
many a small boat has been lost in attempting to “run away” from
a sea. The two principal dangers will arise from getting by the lee
and broaching to : the boat’s head will be most likely to fall off to
leeward, or rather her stern lift to windward, as a wave crest passes
underneath her bottom from astern. But with equal peril she might
have “broached to ” as the wave crest lifted her bow ; the boat’s
head will be turned towards the wind, and then, if she be not well
managed, she will get broadside on to the waves, and the next roller
will almost inevitably swamp her. If the rig be mizen, mainsail, and
foresail, the mizen should be stowed before the boat is put before the
wind; the lee foresheet should be belayed slack, and the weather one should
134. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
be led aft. As the boat begins to fly to, haul the weather fore sheet in, and
put the helm up; but very frequently the helm is not of much use if the
boat is among breakers in shallow water, as she will be carried along on
the back of a comber. Thus it very frequently happens that a boat that
has successfully battled with the waves in the offing comes to grief as she
gets among the surf to try and effect a landing or to run over a bar into
harbour. In running over a surf an oar off the quarter will be found much
more effective than the rudder to steer with, but the oar should always have
a line fast on it, and it should be belayed to a cleat on the gunwale, in
case it has to be left when the sail requires attention.
A small boat, if there is much wind, and especially if there be sea as
well, should never be run dead before the wind with the sheet right out,
but with the wind a little on the quarter; then gybe over, and run on the
other tack, to make the destination. On the other hand, it is dangerous
to get dead before the wind with the main sheet close in, as in yawing
about the sail might be gybed with very awkward consequences.
In gybing a boom mainsail always haul the boom well aboard as the
helm is put up, and take a turn, but hold the sheet in the hand. As the
- ‘eſſºſ Rºss -
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FIG. 58.
wind passes from dead astern and comes on the other quarter, taking the
boom over, shift the helm promptly and prevent the vessel flying to. It is
also well, even when the mainsail has no boom, to get the sheet well in
before gybing if there is much wind.
HEAVING TO.-Circumstances may arise when it will be necessary to
heave to. The best plan will be if the boat has a mizen to set it on the
mainmast, or shift mizen-mast and all to the mainmast step, stowing the














Rowing an Open Boat in a Seaway. 135
mainmast ; a small piece of the foresail might be shown with the fore leech
just to windward of the mast. A boat will lie to pretty comfortably under
a small head sail with sheet hauled up close to the mast. The helm will
require unremitting attention. However, if an open boat has to be
hove to on account of the sea and wind, the best plan will be to ride
to a raft made of mainmast, oars, &c., lashed together. This will
break the seas, and keep the boat head to the sea. For half decked
boats a drogue is a good contrivance for keeping head to the sea.
They are much used on the north-east coast. The drogue consists of
a hinge-jointed galvanised iron ring about 2ft. in diameter. A conical
canvas bag, made of No. 0 canvas, is sewn to this ring, and roped as
shown in the sketch, Fig. 58. A bridle is fitted to the ring, to which
the riding hawser is bent; d is a tripping line; b a cork buoy to prevent
the drogue diving. When thrown overboard the mouth of the drogue,
a, opens and fills. To get the drogue on board the tripping line d is
hauled upon. When not in use the ring is folded together by the joints
at k and n, and the bag snugly stowed round it.
When riding to a drogue a boat might keep a small mizen set ; it
would help keep her head to the sea, and make it easier work for the
man who had charge of the helm. Of course only a reefed or small
mizen would be set. When riding to a drogue, oil would be found of
immense service in preventing the waves breaking. (See “Oil for Stilling
Waves” in the Appendix).
REEFING.—In reefing, the tack and sheet should always be shifted to
the reef cringles before the foot of the sail is rolled up and the points
tied. Always roll up neatly and as tightly as possible, not only for
the look of the thing, but because otherwise the points for the second
or third reef may not be long enough in case they are required. In
shaking out a reef always untie the points and loosen the foot before
shifting the tack and sheet.
Row1NG IN A SEA.—The principal thing to avoid in rowing in a sea is
getting broadside on to the waves; it will be extremely difficult tº work
the oars in a beam sea, and if a boat gets into such a position she
may roll over or be knocked over or be swamped. If possible, row head to
the sea, and if the boat is carried too far to windward, take the opportunity
of running her off whenever a smooth presents itself. In rowing before the
sea the boat will most likely show a tendency to broach-to, and so get into
the trough of the sea that way; this tendency must be instantly checked.
In landing on a beach through a surf, it is frequently a good plan, if
the boat is not sharp sterned, to row her in stern first or bow on to
the following surf.
136 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
. In boarding a vessel that is under way, always row up under her lee.
In boarding a vessel at anchor, always bring the boat’s head up to the tide,
and take a good sweep in coming alongside. Give the order “ In bow ’’
when about thirty or fifty yards off, according to the tide, and “Oars ”
(the order for the men to toss their oars in), according to the speed of the
boat, so that she may shoot alongside with her way nearly stopped. Avoid
if possible going alongside a vessel stem on.
As a rule a boat should always be beached through surf with her sails
stowed, as, if she got broadside on among the breakers with sail up a
capsize would be inevitable. Upon nearing the beach on a flat shore
recollect that here the wave water itself is moving, and will carry the boat
along until it finally casts her up on the beach ; as each wave overtakes the
boat care must be taken by skilful use of an oar that it does not twist her
round broadside on.
As the water at the stern may be moving faster than that at the bow,
the tendency of the stern wave will be to turn the boat round if the wave
does not take the boat fairly end on. This effect of the overtaking waves
can be reduced by towing something astern—a spar broadside on, for
instance, made fast to a bridle—and by approaching the shore stern first,
so that the bow is presented to the overtaking waves.
If the beach is a steep one the best plan is to row in as hard as
possible, choosing at last as an opportunity for beaching when a sea begins
to break and pour in on the beach.
GENERAL CAUTIONS FOR SAILING BOATs.-Great care should always be
taken when passing under the lee of a ship at anchor or other large object,
if there is anything like a breeze, as when the boat draws clear she will
have but little way on, and to be met then by the full blast of the breeze
will cause her to heel dangerously; or, if she has to go under the lee of a
passing or meeting vessel, she will equally get becalmed, though not for so
long a time; she will, however, get the breeze again much more suddenly
than if the passing ship had been at anchor, and may consequently be knocked
down more. None of the crew of a boat should ever sit on the weather gun-
wale when approaching to pass under the lee of a ship, as the sudden loss
of wind will bring the boat upright, and so much weight on one side may
cause the crew to be pitched into the water, or possibly, if the boat got
caught aback as she heeled to windward, she might capsize.
The first best thing to do is to give all large and lofty objects such a
wide berth that the boat cannot be becalmed by them. If the boat is
beating to windward, and would have to bear up very much to clear the
ship at anchor, it would be better to make a board and weather the ship;
this can also be done, if managed in good time, to weather a ship that
General Management of Open Boats. 137
is meeting the boat, i.e., is running before the wind; but a boat should
never be put across a vessel unless so far ahead as to render collision
impossible. If in the attempt to weather a ship there seems a doubt
about doing it, do not commence squeezing or nipping ; ramp the boat
along, and tack or bear up in good time and go under the ship’s stern if
both are beating, and under her lee if the ship is free.
If there be no choice, and the small boat has to pass under the lee of
the ship, then have the main sheet cast off and held ready and clear to run
out ; if the boat has nearly lost her way before she gets the breeze again
she will scarcely answer her helm to luff; and if she is knocked down to
near the gunwale edge let the sheet fly without hesitation.
If the passing vessel be a steamer going at a great speed, she will
leave a considerable wash, and small boats should avoid this, although it is
the delight of some boat sailers to get into it and ship “green water,” as
they love to call it.
If the boat carries lee helm trim her by the head a little, or if the main
sheet will admit of it harden it in and ease the fore sheet a trifle; at all events
so manage that the boat carries enough weather helm to fly up in the wind
when the tiller is let go. If a boat carries lee helm she may refuse to come
head to wind, and under some circumstances this might be highly dangerous.
A man single handed should never attempt to row and sail a boat at
the same time; if occupied with rowing he cannot attend to the helm and
sheets, and the prudent course would be to lower the sail and propel the
boat entirely by oars. In case the rig includes a mizen or foresail, one
or both could be kept set, but the fore sheet should be so belayed that a
slight pull on the fall will release it.
The crew of the boat should invariably sit on the bottom boards on
the weather side, or, if there be much sea, in the fore and aft line over
the keel. No one should be allowed to climb the mast if the boat is under
way, as the weight aloft might capsize her. Nor should any of the crew
stand on the thwarts so that they might get thrown down in the lee side of
the boat when she lurched, or otherwise imperil her safety.
In cases where the main sheet leads through a block, through a bull's-
eye, through a thimble, through a hole, or other similar arrangement, the
boat sailer should ever and anon cast his eye on the fall of the sheet and
see that there are no turns or kinks in it. If the fall be coiled up, see that
the running part is uppermost and the end underneath. New rope and
wet rope are specially liable to get foul turns in them. Never forget
to see that nothing like a boat’s stretcher, mop handle, thole pin, or bailer
lies in the coil of a fall of a sheet, as in running out the sheet might
get toggled thereby.
CHAPTER VII.
THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF A YACHT.
THE OWNER, MASTER, MATE, &c.
THERE is no code of regulations for the discipline of a yacht, but generally
the customs of the Royal Navy and merchant service are observed. The
master is not required by law to have a Board of Trade certificate of
competency, and frequently he is only capable of making coasting
passages. However, most masters of large vessels are skilful navi-
gators, and could take a yacht to any part of the globe. The
chief requisite in a master for a yacht, whose cruising does not
extend beyond the English and Irish Channels, is that he should
be a thorough master of fore-and-aft sailing, and that he should
be clean and tidy in his habits, able to enforce cleanliness and tidiness
in the crew, have perfect command over the crew, and carry out the
owner’s wishes cheerfully and respectfully. Most yacht masters rise from
“before the mast’ after they have served a season or two as mate or
second mate, and generally they assume their new station with a full appre-
ciation of its consequence—that is, they are alive to the serious responsi-
bility of being in charge of a vessel—take her about with a caution and
patience that are unceasing, and assume an appropriate dignity in their
intercourse with the crew. Some men, however, appear to be quite
incapable of feeling that dignity, and at one moment are too familiar
with the crew, and the next squabbling with them. Such men
should not have charge of a yacht, and if an owner wishes to cruise
in comfort he will get a sailing master who, above all things, is “master
of the crew,” conducts himself as such, and is observed as such.
The master has sole control on board, subject of course to the wishes
of the owner, who ought, however, never to have occasion to interfere
with the discipline or working of the yacht. If the owner has any
fault to find with the conduct, whatever its nature, of any member of
the crew, he should make that complaint to the master; this will show
Master and Mate of Yachts. I 39
the master that he is responsible for the discipline, good behaviour, and
efficiency of the crew, and the crew will not have the opportunity of
saying they do not know who is master, or that the owner is master,
and that the titular master is only so in name.* But if the owner
observes any misconduct or gross inefficiency on the part of any member
of the crew, and the master apparently does not notice it, then the
owner should bring the master’s attention to it, and, if necessary, insist
on the delinquent being discharged. This will really strengthen the
position of the master, and inspire him with courage to take command
of the crew, instead of being content with a kind of slovenly discipline.
In large yachts the owner should always keep up a kind of formality
in sending a message through the steward or mate or other member of the
crew to the sailing master, and address him as Mr. So-and-so, and not as
Harry or Charley or Bill, as the case may be (many owners, however,
prefer to address the master as Captain So-and-so). The owner in this
way can do a great deal towards making the crew regard the master with
respect ; as, if it is seen that the owner treats the master with a flippant
familiarity, the crew will do so too. In small yachts less formality is
observed, and the owner usually calls the master by his surname. The
crew should always address the master as “Sir,” and not in an offhand
way, such as “All right, skipper,” or “ All ready, captain.”
If the owner wishes any work done on board, or requires the gig
or boat, he should tell the master of his wishes or send a proper message
to him, and not issue direct orders to the crew ; all such usurpations
of the proper duties of the master are subversive of discipline, and
should be carefully avoided. If the owner goes on shore and wishes
the boat to return for him, he should give the orders to the master ;
but if he forgets to do this he should upon landing give the order to
the coxswain, whose duty it will be to repeat the order; thus, if the
owner says, “Come for me at half-past four,” the coxswain will answer,
“Half-past four, sir,” to show that he understands the order; or in large
yachts the owner would say, “Tell the captain to send the gig for me at
half-past four.” -
The master should always ship the crew, and generally should be
allowed to ship the mate as well.
The mate, like the master, should always be addressed as “Mr.,”
alike by the owner, master, and crew. When the master is on deck
the mate's place is forward, and he superintends the setting and taking
* In some small vessels the owner is actually master, and then he deals with the crew
as such. But if the owner is registered as master and takes charge of the yacht, it may in some
cases affect liability for damage and policies of insurance. See “Insurance,” in the Appendix.
140 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
---
in sails, and generally sees that the master’s orders are efficiently carried
out. He also takes charge of the yacht’s spars and rigging, and with
the assistance of the carpenter and boatswain sees that all necessary
work is done upon it, and from time to time reports the condition of
the rigging, spars, and sails, to the master.
When orders are given to get under way, the mate superintends
all the necessary preparations for weighing the anchor and making sail;
so also in bringing up, he prepares for taking in sail and letting go
the anchor.
When the master is below, the mate goes aft and takes charge of
the deck and issues orders as if he were the master; but, although it
may be his watch on deck, he does not make any serious alteration in
the vessel’s course, or shorten, or set sail, or reef without informing the
master of what he is about to do. Then if the master considers it
necessary, he may go on deck himself, and perhaps summon his watch
from below. w
The boatswain takes charge of the sail room and ship's chandler’s
stores, sees that all the tackles, spare sails, &c., are properly stowed
and in good order. With the mate he superintends the washing down,
scrubbing, cleaning of brass work, and blacking down the yacht or
rigging.
In a few instances a quartermaster is shipped, and his duties are
to look after the signal flags, guns, the helm, time, the watches, and
the stowage of heavy stores.
The carpenter notes the condition of the spars, decks, fittings, &c.,
sounds the pumps every morning or oftener if the condition of the
hull requires it.
The coxswain of a boat has to see that she is kept clean and in
readiness for use, rows the stroke oar if passengers are in her, and takes the
yoke lines if the crew only are on board. The coxswain of the owner’s
gig has usually one shilling or so a week extra for taking charge of her,
and he, as before said, is held responsible by the master for her condition
and the condition of everything belonging to her.
The dinghy man (in a large yacht he has a mate) is at everyone’s
call on board, goes on shore on errands, rows the steward on shore,
&c. He is generally given 18. a week extra. g
WATCHES, BELLS, THE HELM, THE CREW.
WATCHES.—The master is always in charge of the deck, excepting
when long passages are being made; then watches are set. The master
takes the starboard watch, and the mate the port watch. The second
Watches, Bells, Helms, and Crew. 141
mate is in the master’s watch, or, if no second mate, the boatswain.
The two mates generally tell the men off into their respective watches
when they are shipped. If the yacht is short-handed in making a
passage, the steward musters in the master’s watch and the cook in the
mate's. The watches are usually set at eight o’clock of the first night
at Sea, and the master takes the first watch; but on leaving a foreign
port for home the mate takes the first watch. Following out the axiom
that the “master takes the ship out, but the mate brings her home,”
the mate has thus charge of the navigation on the homeward voyage
if he is capable of the duty, the master superintending only.
When a yacht is in harbour, or when only sailing or steaming about in
the day-time and bringing up at night, no watches are kept, and the whole
crew, including master and mate are on deck. When sailing about for a few
hours in the daytime the master takes sole charge of working the yacht and
generally steers. He issues all orders, and the mate sees that they are carried
out. Thus, in working to windward, if the yacht has to be tacked, the
master says “Ready about !” or “Lee O !” The mate answers “All ready,
” The master then puts down the helm, or orders it to be put down,
saying “Helm’s-a-lee ” the mate answers “Helm’s-a-lee, sir!” and directs
the crew to ease up the head sheets and haul them aft again as required.
When the master hails with “Ready about,” none of the crew should bawl
out “ All right, sir,” or answer in any way whatsoever, but if the mate
is not on deck, the second mate or boatswain should take his place,
answer “All ready, sir,” and see that the head sheets are worked properly.
The master will see that the aft sheets are properly worked. With a
good and attentive crew, the first hail of “Ready about,” or even a
sir.
sign, will send all the men to their stations, and the more quietly a
yacht can be worked the better it will be for the nerves of the passengers.
In making long cruising passages watches are set, and the master
and mate take alternate watches, as before stated. The twenty-four
hours are divided into seven watches, thus—five of four hours duration,
and two of two hours, the latter being called “ dog watches” and always
occurring between four and eight o’clock in the afternoon. The object of
having dog watches is to obtain an uneven number, as otherwise the
same men would always be on duty in particular watches. During the
dog watches—from four o’clock to eight—a great deal of liberty is allowed
the men, and the watch below as well as the one on deck do their own
odd jobs, tell yarns, sing, and generally amuse themselves in such a way
as is consistent with the good working of the yacht.
When going to sea the first (starboard) watch is set at eight p.m.,
and the master takes that watch. Eight bells are struck and the port
142 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
watch retires below. At twelve o’clock (midnight) the port watch is
called by the second mate or boatswain going to the fore hatch or
scuttle, and hailing “Port watch ahoy!” or “Eight bells, sleepers ”
The watch below should answer “Ay, ay!” turn out immediately, and
be on deck in five minutes. Any lagging is regarded as very bad
form, and a man is looked upon with contempt who does not turn
up on the first summons. The watch lasts from twelve to four, and is
termed the middle watch. At four a.m. the sleeping watch would be
called in the same way, to come on deck and take the morning watch
from four to eight, and so on for the forenoon watch, afternoon watch,
the “dog watches,” and first watch again. When in harbour, or at
moorings, an “anchor watch '' is kept by one man, whose spell is two
hours, the port and starboard watch supplying the men on alternate
nights. This watch looks out for any dangers that a yacht may be in,
summonses the watch below if necessary, and strikes the bells.
BELLS.–As a rule, “Bells” are only struck on board yachts between
eight in the evening and eight in the morning, but in large yachts
they are regularly struck all through the twenty-four hours, whether
the yacht is at sea or in harbour.
The bells are struck in this way: one stroke (or one bell) is half-
past twelve; two strokes struck quickly (or two bells) one o’clock; two
strokes struck quickly, followed by one (or three bells), half-past one ; a
double two (or four bells) two o'clock; a double two and one (or five
bells) half-past two; a treble two (or six bells) three o’clock; a treble two
and one (or seven bells) half-past three; four double strokes (or eight
bells) four o’clock. Then commences one bell for half-past four, two
bells for five o’clock, and so on, eight bells struck every four hours.
But during the dog watches after four bells have been struck for six
o'clock, one bell is struck for half past six, two bells for seven o’clock,
three bells for half-past seven, but eight bells again for eight o’clock.
HELM.—When watches are set it is usual for one of the crew to
steer, and not the master or mate. Two men out of each watch are
usually selected (generally among themselves) to steer, who are known
to be good helmsmen. Each man is at the helm for two hours, and
this is called a “trick.” When the time has expired the other man
goes aft as four bells are struck. If he does not go immediately he is
reminded by the hail “Spell O !” The man who relieves should always,
if the weather will permit, come aft along the lee side, and, crossing
over the tiller, from the lee side to weather side, come behind the other
helmsman, and take the lines out of his hand from abaft.
The man, as he gives up the helm, states the course as, say, E.S.E.,
Work of the Crew. 143
or “Full and by,” as the case may be. It is the duty of the new comer
to repeat the course, to show that he understands it, and the officer in
charge of the deck, should be near to hear that the course is correctly
given. The relieved man retires behind the other one, crosses the tiller,
and finds his way forward along the lee side of the yacht.
If the officer of the watch requires the course altered, he gives the
course anew, as E. by S., or “keep her off,” or “bring her to,” or
“ no more away,” or “no closer,” &c., and it is the duty of the man
at the helm to repeat the order audibly, to show that he understands
it. In bad weather, it is usual to place a second hand at the helm, and
then the man whose trick it is, stands to windward of the tiller, or wheel,
with the weather tiller lines or wheel in his hand, and the other to lee-
ward with the lee tiller lines. The second hand assists in pushing the tiller
to windward, or hauling it to leeward, as occasion requires. Frequently
a young hand is given a spell at the helm in light winds, in order that
he may gain a knowledge of steering.
THE CREW AT WoRK.—When an order is given to any member of
the crew by the master or the mate, such as “Ease the fore sheet,” or
“Take in the slack of that sheet,” it is the duty of the man to audibly
repeat the order to show that he understands it, as “Ease the fore sheet,
sir,” &c. While the crew are at work, or during the watches from 8 a.m.
to 4 p.m., there should be nothing like “recreation ” permitted on the
fore deck or in the forecastle, but the men should go about their work
quietly, never converse loudly, nor hail one another from one end of the
vessel to the other. All orders should be obeyed instantly and cheer-
fully, with a ready response or a cheery “Ay, ay, sir!” Nothing could be
worse than for the crew when an order is given to sit and stare, and then to
leisurely proceed to do it with an air which plainly says, “I am doing
it, but I don’t like doing it.” In most cases, in working the yacht the
master should give the order to the mate, who will direct the particular
man or men who are to carry out the order. As before said, the order
should be obeyed with alacrity; if it is not, it will appear that the men
do not know how to execute it, or that they are so stupid that they do
not understand it, or that they are such bad sailors that they do not
know that a seaman’s first duty is ready obedience.
Whenever any member of the crew shows the least slackness in
executing orders, or in any way neglects the ship's work, shows symptoms
of insubordination, indulges in mutinous talk, gives insolent or even
pert answers, he should be instantly warned by the master of the mistake
he has made, and upon the second offence should be given his “ discharge
ticket.” If a seaman obeys all orders promptly and executes them con-
144 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
scientiously, he will be respected by the master and other officers; but
if he is doubtful in obedience and a sloven in his work, the master,
very properly, will have a contempt for him, and will take advantage
of the first opportunity for unshipping him.
AGREEMENTS, LIBERTY MEN, DISCIPLINE, &c.
In all cases a clear and distinct agreement should be signed by
the crew, even though they do not “sign articles” under a shipping
master ; and this agreement should contain in detail such regulations
as are referred to in No. 7, sect. 149, of the Merchant Shipping Act,
1854, which says that regulations may be made with the crew “as to
conduct on board, and as to fines, or other punishments for misconduct
which have been sanctioned by the Board of Trade as regulations
proper to be adopted and which the parties agree to adopt.” The
agreement should therefore clearly set forth the rules to be observed
on board as to wages, clothes, duties, general conduct, liberty, dis-
cipline, &c. (see the article “ Seamen’’ in the Appendix). It will be
found to be a very difficult matter to make and enforce rules after
the crew has been shipped and berthed on board. The rules should
therefore be agreed to and signed at the time of shipping.
As a rule there is more difficulty in maintaining discipline on board
a yacht seldom under way than on board one which is constantly making
passages. A yacht is in such thorough order, that after she is washed
down, the brass work cleaned, and her sides “chamoied,” there is nothing
left to do except perhaps row the owner on shore and bring him off again.
The men have nothing to do but eat and sleep, and as they cannot be
doing this all day, there comes a longing for going ashore. The master
has to be asked for “liberty,’” and if the man cannot claim it as a
right the master may refuse, and the man then most likely has a fit of
sulks, and takes the first opportunity of being insolent. This is frequently
the origin of squabbling on board; but, on the other hand, sometimes
the master allows too much liberty, and almost permits the crew to leave
and rejoin the vessel when they please in spite of a signed or under-
stood agreement to the contrary. This is worse than no liberty at all,
and usually ends with the contented men who stay on board from week’s
end to week’s end abusing those who are everlastingly on shore, and
the result is a regular fo'c'sle row. The master in all cases should make
known the “custom of the ship” as to liberty as the men are shipped.
The usual plan is for the crew to have alternate afternoons and evenings
Work of the Crew. 145
on shore, or “watch and watch,” when lying in a harbour or safe road-
stead; but when lying in an open roadstead the question of liberty should
be left entirely to the discretion of the master.
It is useless to tell an owner that he should not keep his yacht at
anchor for weeks at a stretch, but get under way every day; there may
be a variety of reasons why he does not want to get under way, except
for making passages, which perhaps is the only purpose for which he
requires the yacht. As a rule, the master will know the habits of
the owner, and only engage men who he knows can stand a life of
comparative idleness and confinement.
Drink should be under very strict regulation. It is customary to
serve out grog, just one “glass,” on Saturday nights to drink to “sweet-
hearts and wives,” and as a rule owners allow the master to serve out
a glass on a dirty night, or after a long dusting to windward, or after
heavy work—striking topmasts and reefing or setting trysail in heavy
weather; or when the whole ship’s company have been kept up to
midnight or later; but the master should take every precaution to prevent
drunkenness among the crew, and should never overlook more than
One offence in a season. This rule should be observed with great strict-
IléSS.
Smoking should be permitted on the fore deck for a half hour
after breakfast and dinner; also during the dog watches, and in the first
watch if the men so please; and the men are sometimes allowed a pipe
in the morning at eleven o’clock as “lunch.” On board some yachts
indiscriminate smoking is permitted, but in those best regulated smoking
is only permitted at the times stated. Smoking should not be per-
mitted below, and only on the fore deck. Some owners, however,
permit the men to smoke below just whenever they please ; other
owners permit it at any time except when meals are underway in the main
cabin. -
In the daytime the crew should always appear in the uniform of
the yacht ; but at night when making passages they are allowed to wear
any old clothes they have on board; but when the forenoon watch comes
on deck at 8 A.M. to relieve the morning watch they should be in uniform.
If there is still work to do, such as cleaning out boats, or work upon
rigging, the watch would appear in their dongaree suits, or “jumpers ”
if they have any, but the man who took the helm would be in his cloth
and serge uniform. In bad weather the men wear any old clothes under
their “oilys.”
A great many complaints are made about yachts’ crews, and some
very hard things have been said against them; no doubt some yacht
L
I46 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
sailors are ill-behaved, sometimes indolent, sometimes intemperate and
dirty in their habits, and frequently show a spirit of insubordination.
Now, we are not inclined to wholly blame the crews for this; in the
first place, they are almost entirely untutored in anything like dis-
cipline, or the discipline they are used to is of the most slipshod
character; there is no restraint on their habits, and if they exhibit
anything like insubordination, the master, perhaps as ignorant as they
are, has no code or system to guide him in restraining it. Again,
it must be understood that very much more is expected from a
yacht Sailor than from a seaman of the mercantile marine. He should
be smartly built, be very active, be pleasant in his manners, and be as
cleanly, as respectful, and as well conducted as a highly trained man-
servant ; at the same time he must be a seaman. Now all that is
required of a merchant sailor is that he should be a thorough seaman,
and should show no mutinous tendency; he may be as ill-shapen as
Caliban, and as rough in his manner, and dirty in his person as a
pitman, but no one will complain of this. He is kept in restraint by
very severe laws, but the very nature of the characteristics expected in
a yacht sailor forbids the application of the Merchant Shipping statutes
to him in their integrity. A yacht sailor must be governed by quite a
different hand, and in a large measure discipline and good behaviour on
board must rest with the moral force of the master rather than with any
restraints that could be employed under the Merchant Shipping Act.
No Act of Parliament will make men clean in their persons, respectful in
their manners, or shapely in their forms; and a master in seeking these
characteristics in a crew can only employ the means adopted for such
ends in a household. He will take particular care, of course, that the
men he engages are seamen; and he must exercise the same care in
seeing that they are men who have the other qualifications for a yacht
sailor.
We hear a great deal about men saying “ this is not according to
yacht rules,” and “ that is not yacht rules,” but if the seamen venture to
say this we immediately think that it is the master does not know what
“ yacht rules” and customs are. We have already shown that such
rules as there are for working ship are in accordance with the custom of
the Royal Navy and Merchant Service, and should be, and generally
are, rigidly observed. The other rules for the good conduct and
personal behaviour of the men must rest entirely with the master; if
he has the moral force necessary to govern men he will have a
happy and Orderly yacht’s crew ; if he has not, and attempts to
supply the deficiency by the application of statutes that were intended
Wages and Clothes of Sailing Master and Crew. 147
*
for quite a different condition of things he will always be master of a bad
Crew. -
Masters as a rule have that necessary moral force, and the very fact
that most of them rise from “before the mast” is evidence of this. And
this brings us face to face with the fact that yacht sailors, taken as a whole,
are well behaved, of good manners, amenable to discipline, and exceptionally
expert in their vocation, and it can be said that most masters exhibit a
wonderful tact in maintaining what is not so much discipline as a ready
compliance and respectful demeanour in the crew. (See the article
“Seaman” in the Appendix).
WAGES OF THE CREW_CLOTHES_GENERAL EXPENSES.
The expenses of yachting is largely governed by the number of
hands employed, and the magnitude of this part of the necessary expen-
diture can be calculated from what follows. (For form of agreement
between a sailing master and owner, see the article “ Seaman * in the
Appendix.)
It is usual to pay the master of a yacht by the year, and the wages
vary according to the size of the yacht and the qualifications sought.
Thus, the master of a 10-rater may only have 50l. a year, whilst one in
charge of a 100-tonner may have 100l., and one in charge of a 300-tonner
150l., and we have known instances of the master of a large steam yacht
receiving as much as 400l. per annum. Again, if a master for a racing
yacht is required, very nearly as much will have to be paid for one to take
charge of a 40-rater as for one of 200-tons. The master is not always
paid by the year, and for a cruising yacht the terms range from 1 l. 158. to
3l. a week whilst the yacht is in commission, and sometimes, for the sake of
securing a master’s services, 10s. per week whilst the yacht is laid up ;
when such is the rule the master does not always keep charge of the
yacht whilst she is laid up, but the owner pays a trifling sum per week
—ranging from 5s. to 10s.--to a shipkeeper who may be an agent who
undertakes such work, or a yacht sailor ; but it is better for the master
to have charge if he lives near the place where the yacht is laid up. One
argument in favour of paying greater wages while the yacht is in commis-
sion is this—the master, if paid alike all the year round, will be indifferent
as to whether the yacht is in commission or not ; if paid a larger sum
whilst afloat he will be anxious to keep the yacht in commission, and
therefore strive to make the life on board as agreeable as possible for the
OWI101".
L 2
148 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The remainder of the crew will be paid as follows—from the time they
are engaged commencing to fit out the yacht until she is laid up —
38 s. d. £ s. d.
1 10 0 | Cook.................. bout k 1 15 0
Mate ........................ per week to OO (about) per week
2 () () S } 1. 3 ()
* 08,1118,11 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 2 3 to
Boatswain .................. 3 y 1 8 O 1 6 ()
Steward ............ (about) , , 1 15 0
The seamen find their own provisions; but if a long voyage is contem-
plated they should either be victualled by the owner or he should ascertain
that they lay in sufficient stores for the requirements of the voyage.
Often 1s. per week is kept back from the seamen’s wages as conduct
money, and if any seaman commits an offence during the week the 18. is
stopped; the fine, however, is seldom inflicted, as few masters have the
courage to enforce it.
The coxswain of the gig is usually given 1s. per week more than
the other men, and it will be his duty to keep the gig clean and fit for use.
The “dinghy man,” whose duty it is to row the steward ashore, &c., for
marketing, and to fetch letters off, and generally to do the carrying to
and fro, also has 18. per week extra. He also has to keep the dinghy
clean. In racing yachts the masthead men are sometimes paid 18. per
week extra.
The steward and cook sometimes have more than the wages stated,
and sometimes less. In large yachts, where a second steward is carried,
the wages given to a good steward are perhaps as much as 2l. The
second steward’s wages will vary from 11. to 11. 10s. according to whether
he is a man or a boy, and to his efficiency.
We have known a professed cook to receive as much as 5l. per
week, but generally a sufficiently good cook can be obtained for 11. 10s.
or 1. 158. It is a common practice in yachts of 70 tons and under to
have steward and cook combined in one. In this case one of the fore
deck hands acts as cook for the forecastle, and assists the steward at
times in the caboose.
The outfit of clothes for the crew is rather an expensive item, as will be
seen from the table which follows; but very frequently, especially in small
yachts of 40 tons and under, only one suit and one cap or hat is given all
round, with one pair of shoes. Thus the crew’s outfit largely depends upon
what the owner considers it necessary to give them.
It has been established over and over again in law courts, that the
clothes are a livery and belong to the owner, but it is the custom to allow
the men to take them away when the yacht is paid off. If a seaman is
discharged for misconduct his clothes are retained; if he takes them away
Wages, Clothes and General Expenses. 149
under such circumstances he can be sued for the value of them in the
County Court. (See the article “Seaman * in the Appendix.)
The clothes given to the crews of the most liberally found yachts are
usually as follows: *
MASTER. £ s. d. 48 s. d.
2 blue cloth suits, or one cloth and COOK
On 9 891'ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 8 0 | 1 blue cloth suit..... .................. 4 4 0
1 cloth cap with peak and gold band 1 1 0 || 1 neckerchief ........................... 0 5 0
1 silk neckerchief ..................... 0 6 0 || 1 cloth cap .............................. 0. 5 ()
1 pair canvas shoes .................. 0 7 6 || 2 pairs shoes ........................... 1 2 6
1 pair leather shoes ....., * * * * * * * * * * * * 0 15 0 || 2 white trousers......................., 0 15 0
– || 2 white jackets ........................ 1 4 0
10 17 6 || 2 white CapS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 3 ()
MATE. 2 white aprons .................. ..... 0 5 0
1 blue cloth suit........................ 4 4 0 *º
1 pair pilot trousers .................. 1 1 0 8 3 6
1 frock.................................... 0 10 6 SEAMEN.
1 cloth cap with peak ............... 0 5 0 || 1 pair pilot trousers .................. 1 1 0
1 neckerchief ........................... 0 5 0 || 2 pairs of white duck trousers ...... O 10 6
2 pairs of shoes .... ................... 1 2 6 || 1 serge frock ........................... 0 10 0
— — | 2 white duck frocks .................. 0 12 0
7 8 0 || 1 cloth cap .............................. 0 5 0
BOATSWAIN. 1 red cap ................................. 0 1 6
Similar to Mate. 1 straw hat.............................. 0 4 0
1 hat or cap riband, including name
STEWARD. of yacht ....... .................. 0 1 6
1 blue cloth suit........................ 4 4 0 | 1 neckerchief ........................... 0 5 0
1 serge suit .............................. 3 3 0 || 1 pair canvas shoes .................. 0 7 6
1 neckerchief ........................... 0 5 0 || 1 pair leather shoes .................. 0 10 0
1 cloth cap with peak ............... 0 5 0 | Suit of waterproof “oiley’s ” in-
2 pairs of shoes ........................ 1 2 6 cluding south-wester ............ 1 0 0
8 19 6 5 8 0
Sometimes in small yachts the master is given only one suit of blue
cloth and a jersey. -
If white duck suits are not given to the men, it is usual in large
yachts to give them a dongaree suit (at about 10s. 6d. per suit) of blue
linen to do their rough work in, an extra pair of pilot trousers, and a
“jersey’’ besides the serge suit.
It would of course be impossible to estimate what the exact expenses
of yachting would be apart from those enumerated, as so much depends
upon the owner himself and how he likes the yacht “ kept up.” Also
a great deal depends upon the sailing master, as no doubt the custom
of ship chandlers to pay commissions greatly influences unscrupulous
masters in “making bills.” Roughly the expenses, inclusive of those
incidental to the crew as already enumerated, can be set down at from
10l. to 12l. per ton, assuming the yacht to be five months in commission
from the day she commenced to fit out to the day she laid up.
* The number of hands carried by yachts of different tonnages will be found set forth in a
table in a succeeding chapter on Yacht Racing.
150 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
These expenses would be (applied to a yacht of 60 tons) made
up as follows:
£ 8. d.
Interest on 32000 ............................................................... ... ... 100 0 0
Insurance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35 0 0
Annual depreciation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 100 () ()
Repairs and renewal of hull, taking an annual average of 5 years ... ... 7() () ()
Renewal of sails and rigging, taking an annual average of 5 years ... ... 6() () ()
Ship Chandlers’ stores, oil, paint, varnish, brushes, charts, flags, coke, &c. 50 0 0
Hire of store ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 0 0
425 () ()
The above expenses would not vary much whether the yacht were out
four months or six months.
The crew expenses would be as follows:
3 s. d.
Sailing Master, per annum ........................................................, 70 0 0
Mate 20 weeks........................................................................... 35 0 0
Steward ditto ... ... ............................................................ ... ... ... 35 0 0
Four seamen ditto ... ... ............................................................... 100 0 0
Clothes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45 0 0
Dues, pilotage, and unforeseen expenses... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 0 0
325 0 0
425 0 0
Total........................................................................... 750 0 0
The master, mate, cook and steward, usually live at the expense of
the owner in yachts of 100 tons and upwards, and a pint of ale or its
equivalent being found. If a table is not kept for them they are paid
board wages from 12s. to 14s. each per week. The matter of board wages
is, however, entirely one of option, and often the master and steward of a
40-tonner might be found receiving them, whilst the master and steward
of a 100-tonner find themselves in food. Also it is a matter of opinion as
to whether the mate and cook are paid board wages.
If board wages are not given, or if the owner does not provide for the
master, mate, steward, and cook, they usually mess together and share the
expense. In very small yachts one mess does for the whole crew.
One argument used against board wages is that, if they are given, the
steward and cook will still generally so contrive that their mess is provided
at the owner’s expense. On the other hand, if the owner agrees to provide,
the steward may cater extravagantly. This is very likely to be the case
where the steward is not a yearly servant, as he very seldom is, although a
few owners make it a point to engage a man who can act as butler in his
shore establishment. Under any circumstances, the steward’s book should
be carefully gone into every week, and any extravagance instantly checked,
as there is no reason why living on board a yacht should vary from living
in a house.
Hiring a Yacht. 151
When a yacht is hired (the usual charge for which is from 30s, to 408.
per ton per month) the owner finds clothes and pays the crew, except
occasionally the steward and cook; and the hirer sometimes pays half
the laying up expenses, and generally the hirer pays the insurance ; the
latter will be about 7s.6d. per cent. per month. These things are, however,
all matters of agreement; and the hirer before entering upon any under-
taking to pay so much per ton per month, or any gross sum irrespective of
tonnage, should clearly understand all the conditions; also as to how pay-
ment is to be made. It is usual for the hirer to retain part cf the
money until the termination of the hire in case the crew should require
an advance of money, or other possible contingencies of the hirer having
to disburse money on behalf of the owner.
The owner would have to see that the hirer covenants to make good
all damage not covered by insurance, unless caused by the neglect or
wilfulness of the owner’s servants. Also that the hirer pays all pilotage,
and delivers the yacht in a specified port on or before the day appointed
for the termination of the hire. (See the article “Hiring a Yacht’ in the
Appendix.)
CHAPTER VIII.
THE RULES OF THE YACHT RACING ASSOCIATION.
RULE 1.-MANAGEMENT OF MATCHES.
All races, and all yachts sailing therein, shall be under the direction of the flag
officers or sailing committee of the club under whose auspices the races are being sailed.
All matters shall be subject to their approval and control; and all doubts, questions, and
disputes which may arise shall be subject to their decision. Their decisions shall be
based upon these rules so far as they will apply, but as no rules can be devised capable of
meeting every incident and accident of sailing, the sailing committee should keep in view
the ordinary customs of the sea, and discourage all attempts to win a race by other means
than fair sailing and superior speed and skill. The decisions of the sailing committee
shall be final, unless they think fit, on the application of the parties interested, or
otherwise, to refer the questions at issue for the decision of the council of the Yacht
Racing Association. No member of the sailing committee or council shall take part in
the discussion or decision upon any disputed question in which he is directly interested.
The sailing committee, or any officer appointed to take charge for the day, shall award
the prizes, subject to Rule 29. If any yacht be disqualified, the next in order shall be
awarded the prize.
The first rule of the Yacht Racing Association is, that “all races and
all yachts sailing therein, shall be under the direction of the flag officers on
sailing committee of the club under whose auspices the races are being
sailed.” All matches are to be subject to their approval, and they hav
the power to settle all disputes, and their decision is to be final, unless the
choose, “upon the application of the parties interested, or otherwise, to refer
the questions at issue for the decision of the council; ” but there can be
appeal from the decision of the flag officers of a club, or sailing committe
to the Council, nor can a party interested in a dispute demand as a right
that the matter shall be referred to the Council, the option of so referring
disputes to the Council rests entirely with the flag officers or sailing
committee. However, the practice is, where both disputants request it,
for the flag officers or sailing committee to refer the dispute, and in most
cases such a request from one disputant has been complied with. Also
in cases where a general principle is involved, or where none of the

Y.R.A. rules appear to clearly meet the matter in dispute ; or where the
Yacht Racing Rules. 153
reading of a rule is doubtful, or is open to more than one interpretation,
the flag officers or sailing committee have of their own accord referred
disputes to the Council.
In all cases when the cause of a dispute is clear, and when a rule
exactly meets the case, or when there can be no question that a breach
of a rule has been committed, the flag officers or sailing committee
should decide the case for themselves. They should apply the rules as
stringently as possible, but at the same time should remember that the
rules were founded upon the principle of “fair play ” only, and were
not intended to be penal in their operation ; exemplary penalties or
decisions should be avoided; on the other hand, that class of protest which
has been aptly termed “frivolous and vexatious ” should be discouraged.
In most cases breaches of rules are more or less the result of accident
or errors of judgment, and in giving decisions regard should be taken of
the character of the breach, and of the manner of its occurrence. But a
protest should not be dismissed for the mere reason that it has had no effect
on the issue of a race, although in certain instances that feature could be
properly considered; still in the majority of cases it is impossible to say
how far a breach of the rules has influenced a result, even though it be
such a trifling matter as carrying an anchor on the bow in a “cruising
trim race’’ or “side lights in a race at night.” It is not a sufficient
excuse to say that a breach of a rule was the result of an error of
judgment, carelessness, forgetfulness, or ignorance; no such pleas are
admissible ; nor should it be overlooked that a rule may be designedly
and persistently broken. On the other hand, a rule might be broken
through an entirely accidental cause ; such for instance as a delay in
the delivery of an entry, or the dragging of moorings; such breaches
might reasonably be overlooked, if satisfactorily accounted for ; but if
a yacht crosses a line too soon through an error of judgment, or touches
a mark through an error of judgment, or in a cruising-trim race fails
to start with an anchor on the bow, and fails to carry one all through
the race, such errors of judgment or persistent breaches of rules could
only be regarded adversely.
RULE 2.-POSTPONEMENT OF RACES.
The sailing committee, or officer in charge for the day, shall have power to postpone
any race, should unfavourable weather render such a course desirable. Letter N of the
Commercial Code hoisted over the flag denoting the race shall be the signal that a race
has been postponed.
The flag officers or sailing committee can only postpone a race
on account of unfavourable weather, such as a calm, a fog, or a heavy
154. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
wind which may be blowing in the actual locality of the regatta, so as to
prevent the yachts getting round the course.
RULE 3.−MEASUREMENT FOR RATING.
The rating of every yacht entered to sail in a race shall be ascertained by multiplying
the sail area in square feet (as found in the manner hereafter enjoined) by the rating
length in feet, and dividing the product by 6000; the quotient shall be the rating. In
ratings above 10, a fraction of, or exceeding '01 shall count as 1-0, but in ratings from
1 to 10, a fraction smaller than 0.1 shall count as 0.1; and in ratings below 1-0 fractions
from 0-01 to 0.99 inclusive, shall be reckoned at their proper value (see Rule 4 and page
57). The length shall be taken between the outer edges of the Official marks of the
Y.R.A., as placed by the owner at the bow and stern of the yacht, this length to be
termed the “rating length,” and to represent the extreme length for immersion, provided
always that if any part of the stem or sternpost, or other part of the vessel below the
marks for rating length project beyond the length taken as mentioned, such projection
or projections shall, for the purposes of the rule, be added to the rating length taken as
stated; and pieces of any form cut out of the stem, sternpost, or fair line of the ridge
of the counter, with the intention of shortening the rating length shall not be allowed
for in measurement of length, if at or immediately below the marks for the rating length,
nor above if within 6in. of the water level.
Owners shall mark the rating length of their yachts on both sides at the bow and
stern in such manner as the Council may direct, with the Official marks supplied by the
Y.R.A., which marks shall at all times represent the extreme length for immersion when
the yacht is lying in smooth water in her usual racing trim, including racing crew on
board at and about the mid overall length. -
MAINSAIL (See FIG. 59, on next page).
A.—Measured from the top of the boom (under the pin for outhaul shackle on
traveller, or clew slide, when hauled chock out) to the gaff under the pin of the sheave
of the topsail sheet, provided the peak cringle of the mainsail does not extend beyond
the pin; in the case of the yacht having no topsail, or of the peak cringle extending
beyond the pin of the topsail sheet sheave, then the measurement to be taken to the
peak lacing hole.
B.—Perpendicular to A, measured to under side of gaff close in to the mast.
C.–Measured from top of boom over the pin of the sheave, for outhaul or end of
clew slide to under side of gaff close in to the mast.
D.—Perpendicular to C, measured in to the mast, in a line with the top of the boom,
or to tack cringle of mainsail, if below top of boom.
YARD TOPSAIL.
E.—Measured from upper side of gaff close in to the mast to pin of sheave for
topsail sheet, or to lacing hole in jackyard.
F.—Perpendicular to E, measured to lacing hole in yard.
G.—From lacing hole to lacing hole in yard.
II.-Perpendicular to G, measured to pin of sheave for topsail sheet in gaff; or to
lacing hole in jackyard.
JIB HEADER.
K.—Measured from top of gaff close in to mast to pin of halyard sheave in
topmast.
I.—Perpendicular to K, measured to pin of topsail sheet sheave in gaff; or to lacing
hole in jackyard.
Measurement of Sails. 155
HEAD SAILS.
I.—The perpendicular I to be measured from the deck at the foreside of the mast
to where the line of the luff of the foremost head sail when extended cuts such per-
pendicular. In case a schooner has no fore-topmast, but a main top-mast and main
spinnaker, the perpendicular for the fore-triangle shall be measured from the deck to
where the line of luff of such spinnaker when extended cuts the main topmast.
J.—To be measured from the foreside of the mast to where the line of the luff of
the foremost head sail when extended cuts the bowsprit, other spar hull, &c., as the case
may be.
In all cases if the distance from the centre fore and aft line of the mast to the outer
end of spinnaker boom (when shipped in its place and square to the keel) exceeds the
distance from the fore side of the mast to the bowsprit end (where cut by the line of
the luff of the foremost head sail), the excess shall be added to the base of the triangle
formed by the head sails; and the area of the head sail to be computed accordingly.
FIG. 59.
In the case of a yacht having no head sail, but carrying a spinnaker, the area for
head sail shall be computed from the length of spinnaker boom and the height from deck
to where the line of the luff of the spinnaker when extended cuts the mast.
The length of head stick or head yard to spinnaker shall not exceed one-twentieth
the length of spinnaker boom. Foot yards not allowed on spinnakers.
In the case of a yacht carrying a square sail, or square topsail, or raffee (together or

156 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
separately) the actual area of the same shall be computed; and if such area exceed the
area of the fore triangle, the excess shall be used in the total area for determining the
rating.
LUG SAILS WITH HEAD SAILS.
In the case of a lug sail, standing lug sail, or balance lug sail being carried, the
actual area of the same shall be computed; and if head sail be also carried, the measure-
ments for computing the area of the same shall be taken from fore side of mast, &c., in
accordance with the method provided in the rule for head sails.
[“Actual area " means that any round given to the head or leeches
LUG SAIL,
s
S.
§
S.
§
§
^
N
A SS
`s
B
N.
^
^
^
SS
`s
\
\
\
D \
\
\
Zength of boom ºr gettina &azz
FIG. 60.
will have to be included in the area; also if a piece of the sail is in front
of the mast it will also have to be included in the area.]

Measurement of Sails. 157
FORESAIL OF SCHOONERs.
A-Measured from fore side of mainmast (in a line with main boom gooseneck) to
gaff, under the pin of topsail sheet sheave.
B.-Perpendicular to A, measured to under side of gaff close in to the mast.
Q-Measured from fore side of mainmast (in a line with main boom gooseneck) to
gaff close in to the mast.
D-Perpendicular to C, measured in to the mast in a line with the top of the fore
boom or tack cringle.
AREA OF MAINSAIL.
To find the area of the mainsail—Multiply A by B and C by D, and add the
two products together and divide by 2.
AREA OF YARD TOPSAIL.
To find the area of yard topsail—Multiply E by F and G by H, and add the
two products together and divide by 2. -
AREA OF JIB HEADER.
To find the area of jib header—Multiply K by L and divide the product by 2.
AREA OF HEAD SAILS.
To find the area of head sails, jib topsail or spinnaker—Multiply I by J and
divide by 2.
AREA OF POLE MAST HEAD SAILS.
To find the area of head sail, for pole mast—Multiply I by J and divide by 2.
AREA OF SCHOONER's AND YAWL's SAILs.
The area of a schooner's sail or a yawl’s sail would similarly be found; in the case of
a yawl having a lug mizen the lacing holes in the yard would be taken as the upper
boundaries. -
AREAS OF LUG SAILS AND HEAD SAILS.
In the case of a lug sail, standing lug sail, or balance lug sail being carried, the
actual area of the same shall be computed; and if head sail be also carried, the measure-
ments for computing the area of the same shall be taken from foreside of mast, &c., in
accordance with the method provided in the rule for head sails.
AREA BOUND BY CURVED EDGES OF SAILS.
The area bound by the round in the foot, head, luff or leach of a sail, if at any time
extended by battens or otherwise beyond the line between the points for measurement,
shall be computed as follows: Multiply the base E by two-thirds of the perpendicular P.
—See page 156.
In cases of disputed measurement, or if the necessary measurements cannot be
obtained from the sailmaker, the sails can be measured in the manner following : Take
the length of boom from mast to pin of sheave for outhaul, and length of gaff from mast
to pin of topsail sheet sheave or lacing hole, as the case may require; then hoist the sail
with the tack fast and set the peak and luff up taut, and let go the topping lifts so that
the weight of the boom comes on the leach of the sail. With a line and tape measure
the leach and luff and the diagonal, C. For the head sail measure the height, I, and the
distance, J, as provided for in the section dealing with headsail. For topsail the sail
I58 k Yacht and Boat Sailing.
would be hoisted and marked in a line with the gaff; then lowered and the other
dimensions taken. From the measurements so taken a sail plan would be made and
the areas calculated as described.
In all calculations whether relating to length, sail area, or rating any fraction beyond
the second place of decimals shall be disregarded.
As soon as a yacht has been measured by the Official Measurer, a certificate of rating
of the Yacht Racing Association shall be granted to her owner, unless from any peculiarity
in the construction of the yacht, or other cause, the measurer shall be of opinion that
the rule will not rate the yacht fairly; in which case he shall report the circumstances
to the Council, who, after due inquiry, shall award such certificate of rating as they
may consider equitable.
The certificate of rating of the Yacht Racing Association shall only be valid as the
yacht's rating for racing, so long as no increase is made in her rating length, or in her
spars, or sail area. If any alterations be made by any means whatever, so that one or
both of the marks at the bow and stern, as placed by the owner, come inside the length
immersed when the yacht is lying in Smooth water in her usual racing trim, with racing
crew on board at and about the mid overall length, or if any increase be made in the
length of spars, or in the sail area of a yacht, or if any mark denoting her rating length
is moved from its position, her certificate of rating ceases to be valid, and must be
immediately returned to the Secretary of the Yacht Racing Association, with notice in
writing of the alterations, in order that the yacht, or her spars or sails, may, if necessary,
be remeasured, and a new certificate issued. Yachts which have been raced previously
to 1893, shall be allowed to compete in the classes for which they were designed, by
allowing time for any excess of rating arising from remeasurement with racing crew on
board, provided no alteration has been made in the hull, by which the length of load
water-line has been increased since 1892, or any increase made in the sail area since
1892.
A certificate of rating of the Yacht Racing Association shall be held by every yacht
starting in a match, unless the Sailing Committee give special permission in writing
before the start that the yacht may compete without it; but in the event of any dispute
as to the rating of a yacht so exempted or otherwise, she or her sails shall be measured
by the Official Measurer before she can be entitled to a prize.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MEASURERS ISSUED BY DIRECTION OF THE COUNCIL.
The measurer shall not measure for the Yacht Racing Association a yacht or boat
which he has designed or built, or which any firm he is interested in has designed or built;
nor shall he measure any yacht in which he is interested as owner or otherwise.
Before measuring a yacht the measurer should ascertain from the owner or his
representative that she is in her correct racing trim, and that the fees for measuring have
been paid. -
All sails, spars, gear, &c., as usually carried by the yacht when racing, must be on
board when the marks for the rating length are being tested.
The measurer may allow Sails, spinnaker gear, tackles, &c., to be put amidships whilst
the marks for the rating length are being tested.
The measurements to be taken are the rating length, heights at bow and stern, and the
lengths of the spars, or dimensions of Sails, in accordance with the Yacht Racing Associa-
tion rule No. 3, for the rating of yachts.
The rating length shall be obtained by measuring the length over-all on deck, and
deducting from this length the distances in to the bow and stern marks as fixed by the
owner, from perpendiculars let fall from the bow and taffrail, as shown in the diagrams.
These perpendiculars are best obtained by a hand lead sunk two or three fathoms deep, so
as to ensure a steady line to measure from. The distances in from the line are to be taken
by a rod placed parallel to the water surface, as shown in the diagrams.
The over-all measurement must be taken parallel to the L.W.L. above the deck,
Measuring and Marking the Water-line. 159
starting from any convenient point forward on the rail, knee, &c., ahead of the fore end of
the load-water line.
When the length over-all is taken with rods, a line should be stretched taut from the
point forward to the taffrail to facilitate the accurate shifting of the rods.
After the over-all length has been taken the measurer must see that the crew are
placed at and about the mid over-all length. (See Rule 14.) He must then ascertain
that the yacht is not immersed at the load-water line beyond the rating length, as
represented by the owner’s marks at the bow and stern. -
If a yacht is measured in a tide-way the measurer must view the marks in smooth
º during slack water; and the overhangs must be measured in smooth and during slack
W8/UOI’.
All measurements should be taken and recorded in the measurement book twice, and
a third time if there is material disagreement. The mean should be adopted.
A steel tape or rods supplied by the Yacht Racing Association must in all cases be
used for taking the measurements.
The measurer must take and record in the measurement book such notes of a yacht's
trim, by measuring the height above water at the taffrail and stem, or by such other
means as will enable him at any subsequent date easily to ascertain if the immersion at
the water-line or the marks at the bow and stern have been altered since measurement.
If a yacht has movable ballast on board the measurer should note its position.
In measuring the main boom length from the mast to the pin of out-haul shackle,
the measurer should see that the traveller, whether on a slide or round the boom, is chock
out. For this purpose the clew of mainsail should be unshackled and the traveller hauled
out to the farthest point to which it can be taken.
The measurer should ascertain for himself the point on the mast or topmast, and on
the bowsprit or cranse iron to which the measurements for fore triangle must be taken.
In measuring the height for fore triangle, a piece of white linen should be attached to
the ring of the tape, and the tape can be then hoisted by the signal halyards; or by the
jib or spinnaker halyards if no head-sail be carried on the topmast stay or masthead pole
stay.
Before measuring a jackyard the sail should be bent to it, or the foot laid parallel
to the yard and fairly stretched; and, as a check, besides measuring the distance from the
sheet to the outer lacing-hole, the number of cloths from sheet to clew should be counted.
In the event of any difficulty arising under section 1 of these instructions or other-
wise, as to the measuring of any particular yacht, the secretary shall make arrangements
for the measuring of the yacht.
MARKING THE RATING LENGTH.
The metal strips for marking the rating length must be those supplied by the
Yacht Racing Association, and stamped Y.R.A. They can be obtained of the measurers
free of cost.
The marks are to be placed vertically, and must be securely fixed to the yacht by
the owner before measurement, one on each side of the bow, and one on each side of the
stern, as shown in the diagrams overleaf.
In the case of a yacht with very flat sections aft, the marks will be placed across the
stern to represent the extreme point for immersion aft.
In case a bobstay plate, or shackle, or mooring chain would interfere with the
placing and securing the bow marks, they can be placed as shown in Nos. 1 and 3; but
in no case may the immersed length extend beyond the marks, as ascertained by a plumb
line dropped from the outer edges of the marks at bow and stern, with racing crew on
board at and about the mid over-all length.
The marks must not be shifted or removed without giving notice thereof to the
secretary of the Y.R.A. (See Rule 3.)
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Measuring the Load Water-line. H61
The Y.R.A. measurer takes the dimensions of all the spars as a check
upon the measurements supplied by the sailmakers; not that the latter are
doubted, but it was a common practice to send the sailmaker “short
measure * and then make the spars longer to allow for the anticipated
stretching of the sails; this, of course, only applies to the days before sail
area measurement. The sailmakers are now given the exact dimensions of
the spars, and they supply the other measurements of leach, luff, diagonal C
and the perpendiculars Band D as they will be when the sail is fully stretched.
ST +==,
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FIG. 61. i
The Y.R.A. manner of taking length of water line is as follows:
The length is first taken “over all ” by a couple of rods or a steel tape.
[A linen tape is not allowed to be used, as it stretches so considerably ;
that is, from 1ſt. to 1ſt. 6in. in 100ft. when the tape is only apparently
fairly straightened over the distance to be measured.] If there be much
difference between the heights at the bow and stern the “ over all ” must
be taken on a level line and plumbed down to the taffrail, otherwise the
length over all will make the length of water-line longer than it actually is.
The overhang forward and aft is then taken, and subtracted from the
length over all. The overhang is thus taken (see Fig. 61): A plumb line
is dropped over the taffrail at the centre, and a rod is then floated into
the edge of the Y.R.A. mark on the stern post at the load line. The
length of the load line is taken to be at the edge of the groove for the
rule joint in the stern post, as indicated by the arrow, and not to the
hollow of the groove (see Fig. 61). In case of an immersed counter
the marks are placed and measured to as shown on page 160 opposite.
M

I62 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
In July, 1879, the Assegai (10 tons) was brought out with notches
cut in her stem and stern post at the L.W.L., as shown by Fig. 62. It
will be seen that the yacht has an immersed counter, and the notch was
cut at A, close down to the water line. There was a similar notch
forward. B is the rudder post and D the stern post.
This case was brought before the Council, and they decided that
such notches as A could not be allowed for.
In 1882, Bonina (a length class boat) appeared with a notch cut
out of the edge of the groove in the sternpost at the water-line. The
Council of the Y.R.A. decided that it could not be allowed for, and, to
meet such cases as the two mentioned, framed that part of the rule which
disallows notches in the counter if they are within 6in. of the water level.
A curious point in measurement arose in 1894 out of a yacht built on
the Clyde of the “fish torpedo type.” She has circular sections aft, as
shown in the diagram at A A, Fig. 63, and is 26ft. on the L.W.L. Of course,
if the longitudinal vertical section had been carried out to the point D, the
fixing of a rudder would have entailed the employment of long struts and
stays. The owner got over the difficulty by making the tapered end of the
boat work in a hollow as shown at B C. Two lugs are here fixed to the
top side and under side of the boat, through which a bolt passes, as well as
through the pear-shaped bulb on the rudder. The bulb is about 8in.
through at B C, and about 1.ft. 4 in. long. The point raised was whether
the boat should be measured for rating length to abreast of the bolt through
B C or to the end of the bulb at D. It is obvious that with a construction
something like this a boat could be built in two halves and claim to be
measured for one half only. The matter was referred to the Council of the
Y.R.A., who decided that as the bulb portion of the rudder is solid (it is of
mahogany), it adds nothing to the buoyancy or power of the boat, and is
not to be measured in the rating length, but if hollow, it would be measured.
This decision is, no doubt, ingenious ; but, at the same time, we must

Measuring the Water-line. 168
remember that the specific gravity of some kinds of mahogany are not
nearly so great as that of water, and also that the specific gravity of cork is
not so great as that of mahogany. It is possible to conceive that a very
large bulb-say 4ft. or 5ft. long—could be made solid of cork, and veneered

M 2
T64. Yacht and Boat Salling.
**-*-----— --- -- - - - - - - ----- - - - - --------- -
over with mahogany to fashion off the water line of a racing craft; and
what would be the ruling then
As might be expected, attempts “to cheat the length '' were made
by “placing the crew,” in one or two cases, whilst small yachts or boats
were being measured ; accordingly the Y.R.A. passed a rule that the
crew must be on board and amidships whilst the marks for rating length
are tested.
RULE 4.—TIME ALLOWANCE–SHORTENING COURSE.
In time for Rating Races, time shall be allowed on arrival for differences in rating,
according to the annexed scales, in proportion to the length of course. In all cases where
time has to be allowed for difference of rating in the yachts of 10 rating and under, it
shall be computed by the rating and fractions of the rating in accordance with the time
Scales. -
Should it be necessary during a race to shorten the course, the signal flag denoting
the race hoisted under the White Peter, or in case of fog or darkness two guns fired, shall
show that the race is to finish with the round about to be completed, or at such mark as
the sailing committee or officer of the day may appoint, and the time allowance shall be
reduced in proportion.
A case occurred in Dublin Bay where a race was advertised to be
sailed with a “time allowance for a course of ten miles.” Upon being
measured by chart it was found that the distance was only nine miles,
and the case was referred to the Y.R.A. The Council decided as
follows:
If the race was sailed upon the understanding that the time allowance was to be in
accordance with the scale for a ten miles course, no alteration should be made in the
time allowance on the ground of the actual length of the course not being precisely
accurate.
If, however, a course is advertised to be of a certain distance, the
time allowance must be in accordance with that distance.
In August, 1877, a case was sent to the Council by the Corinthian
Yacht Club as to measuring a course in a channel marked by buoys, the
distance varying considerably if measured along the channel as against
from buoy to buoy, &c. The Council decided as follows:
The length of a course must always be measured along the low water deep ship
channel, and not from buoy to buoy or point to point.
RULE 5.—ENTRIES : FORM OF ENTRY ; RE-SAILED MATCHES.
Entries shall be made with the secretary at least forty-eight hours previous to noon
of the day appointed for starting each race. In case of a Sunday intervening, twenty-
four hours shall be added. Entries may be made by telegram, and it shall be deemed
sufficient that the same shall have been despatched before noon of the day on which the
entries close, subject to the provision as to Sundays. A sailing committee may, if they
consider it expedient, refuse any entry.
Entering a Yacht for a Match.-Post Entries. 165
Form of entry to be signed by the owner, or his representative, previous to the race :
Please to enter the yacht for the race at on the
Her distinguishing flag is ; her rig is ; and her rating, in accordance
with Rule 3, is . And I declare that no increase has been made in her rating
length or in her length of spars, or in her sail area since she was measured by the official
measurer and her certificate issued, and I undertake that while sailing under this entry
she shall not have on board any bags of shot; that all her ballast shall be properly
stowed under the platform or in lockers, and shall not be shifted or trimmed in any way
whatever; and that I will obey and be bound by the Sailing Rules of the Yacht Racing
A380ciation.
Signed this day of
Should any yacht duly entered for a race not start, or, having started, should she
give up, or be disabled during the race, such yacht shall, in the event of the race being
resailed, be entitled to start; but no new entries shall be received under any circumstances
whatever for a postponed race.
Many a time an owner has been disappointed in sailing because his
entry arrived too late, and he should recollect that by the Y.R.A. rules,
a yacht must be entered for a match at least forty-eight hours before moon
of the day appointed for starting the race. But a club may take as much
Longer time as they may consider necessary; therefore the dates for the
closing of entries should be put in a diary, the date of closing the entries
should be inserted as well.
A club cannot accept post entries under Y.R.A. rules, but sometimes
a yacht, which was not properly entered, is allowed to start upon the
other competitors signing a paper that they do not object. If the
other competitors did not do this, and if the post entry won and was given
the prize, the club or regatta committee could be sued by the owner of the
second vessel if he had not agreed to the post entry starting; and he
could recover the amount of the prize.
On the other hand, in the Norman-Bloodhound case tried at Plymouth
in 1877, the judge held that if a post entry started contrary to the rules,
such post entry could not claim the prize, but only the value of the entrance
fee and the attendant racing expenses. In this particular case the secretary
was alleged to have accepted the entry on his own responsibility; and the
judge ruled that this would not be binding on the committee, as they
had not directed that such an entrance should be accepted, but he, the
secretary, would have to refund the entrance fee and disburse the
expenses; however, this was not actually done, as the evidence further
disclosed the fact that the secretary received the entry only “subject to
protest” from any of the other entries.
Entries can be made by telegram, and the Council of the Y.R.A.
decided in the Vanduara case that it must be considered a good entry if
proof is given that the telegram was despatched or handed in at the
166 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
- - ------
telegraph office before noon of the day on which the entries closed. So
also if it can be proved that a letter was posted in such time that the
entry ought in the ordinary course to have arrived before noon of the
day on which the entries close, the entry should be considered a good one.
A plea of forgetfulness, or a general statement that somebody was “told
to enter the yacht, and forgot to do it, or neglected doing it, or was
given a letter to post and forgot to do so, or was told to despatch a telegram
and forgot to do so,” does not justify the acceptance of an entry after the
stipulated time for closing. Telegrams should be confirmed by letter.
Post entries are condemned for two strong reasons; in the first
place, they are disliked by the owners of the yachts that have already
entered in good time ; in the second place, they are disliked by clubs
and regatta committees, because owners are induced to hang back until
the last moment to see if the weather will suit their yachts, or to see
if they can arrive in time to sail. The chance of swelling an entry by
admitting a late comer, that had not deferred entering for any of the
above reasons, is a very remote one, and post entries are now rarely heard of.
In races that are ordered to be re-sailed, from whatever cause, all the
original entries can start, and no yacht, whether she was among the
original starters or not, requires to be re-entered. The yachts in fact
are regarded as the entries in a race which has been postponed.
If a yacht commits a breach of the sailing rules in a race which is
unfinished, no action can be taken under the alleged cause for protest ;
and should the race be re-sailed, the breach of sailing rules is, practically,
considered as not having taken place, and the offending yacht starts
on exactly the same terms as the others, and can win the prize, providing,
of course, no breach of the rules occurs during the re-sailed race.
An owner cannot claim to enter a yacht in a race for a different rating
to that shown by his Y.R.A. certificate. For instance, if a race is
advertised for yachts exceeding 40 rating the owner of a yacht of
40 rating by certificate could not contract himself out of the terms of
his certificate of rating and enter his yacht as, say, of 41 rating. Also if
a yacht is by consent of a committee entered before measurement at an
assumed rating, and it is afterwards found that the yacht is either over
or under the rating at which she was entered, the rating as ascertained
would have to be used to settle any question of qualification for the
match, or question of time allowance.
The following case was referred by the Royal Dart Yacht Club :
R.D.Y.C. v. Neptune, 1888.
“At the Bailing matches of this club, August 31, the Neptune was entered to sail in
the second race, open to yachts not exceeding a rating of 39. She sailed accordingly and
Entering Yachts at Incorrect Ratings. 167
won the race, but was objected to as being over 39 rating. By the Y.R.A. ratings for
1888 she was of 40 rating, and the rules of the Royal Dart Yacht Club provide that
the Y.R.A. certificate shall be the one accepted.
“When the owner of Neptune was called upon to produce his certificate, he delayed
doing so until October 20, and then forwarded one dated October 8, which certified the
rating at 38:47, and thus under 39.”
The question which the sailing committee submitted was whether Neptune (if on
August 31 she was under 39 rating) should be award the prize.
It was stated that on October 8, Messrs. Lapthorn and Ratseys forwarded a sail
diagram of Neptune to the secretary of the Y.R.A., for a certificate for that yacht for
second topsail, the yard of which is the same as that used for jackyard topsail. The
application contained the statement that the jackyard topsail was put on board Mr. R. H.
Baillie's yacht Roebuck during the Royal Dart Yacht Club Regatta. The secretary of
the Y.R.A. sent a certificate as requested, dated October 8, that being the date when the
application for the certificate was made. No previous application for such certificate had
been made.
The council decided that Neptune mot having obtained a certificate of or under
39 rating on the date when the match was sailed, and not being specially exempted under
Y.R.A. Rule 3 from having such certificate by the sailing committee, she was not entitled
to start in the race or to take any prize.
A case was referred by the Salcombe regatta committee as follows:
Salcombe Regatta Committee v. Shamrock, 1889.
The Shamrock was entered and sailed in a match for yachts exceeding 2:5 rating, as
if she were of 3.5 rating. Previous to the entry she was measured; but her rating was
not worked out until after the match was sailed, when it was found that her rating was
27. The committee wished to know if the fact that she was entered at a rating different
to that shown by her certificate would disqualify her. The secretary of the Y.R.A.
was directed to reply that, no matter at what rating the yacht was entered, her actual
rating could be alone recognised and acted upon by a sailing committee; and that as there
was no fraud in the circumstances attending the entry the yacht could not be disqualified
on the ground of being entered at an incorrect rating.
Royal St. George's Yacht Club v. Eurynome, 1890.
The Royal St. George's Yacht Club withheld the prize because the owner of the
Eurynome did not produce a certificate of rating and had not been exempted by the club
under Rule 3 when she sailed the match on July 23rd. It transpired that the owner's
representative, Thomas McCullough, on July 21st, signed the entry declaration that the
length of load line, &c., had not been altered “since she was measured by the official
measurer and her certificate issued.” The owner applied for measurement on June 22nd,
and the yacht was measured at Ringstown June 25th, and her L.W.L. made to be 30:05ft.;
but as 30:05ft. made the yacht over 6-rating, and as there were some stores and gear on
board not carried when racing, the owner desired that the measurement should be treated
as an experimental one, and that another measurement should be made on her return to
Ringstown from the Clyde. She was accordingly remeasured on August 1st, and her water-
line measured as 29:11ſt., or nearly 1ſt, shorter (the over-hang aft was decreased to nearly
that extent). The measurer, however, reported that there was a heavy mooring chain
hanging from the yacht's bowsprit 4ft. outboard, and the Secretary of the Y.R.A.
declined to issue a certificate in consequence.
The owner of the Eurynome contended that the weight of the chain would have made
no difference to the length of the yacht, and, further, that he would have removed the
chain had he been so requested. This statement, however, was at variance with the
statements of the measurer.
168 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
It will be also noted that Royal St. George's match was sailed on July 23rd, and the
yacht was not measured until August 1st (disregarding the repudiated measurement of
June 22nd), although the owner's representative signed the declaration on July 21st, which
would warrant the assumption that the yacht held a certificate of rating.
The Council decided as follows: “The measurer was correct in reporting the case and
the secretary was correct in withholding the certificate; and, further, that the Eurynome
is not entitled to any prize she otherwise would have won at the regatta of the Royal
St. George's Yacht Club on July 23rd, as she was then and is now without a certificate.”
The terms of a match are often vague as to the limitation of the rating
of the yachts for which the match is intended. Matches are frequently
advertised for yachts under a certain rating, as, for instance, “ Match for
yachts under 10 rating,” &c. This has often given rise to a yacht just
under the rating claiming to sail. In 1880 the following case occurred :
The Mabel of 9-71 tons was entered for a race at the Paignton Regatta
advertised for yachts “under 10 tons.” She was protested against, that as
a fraction of a ton counted as a ton she was not under under 10 tons. The
case was referred to the council of the Y.R.A., who decided as follows:
“The Mabel by Y.R.A. rules is 10 tons, and ineligible for a race advertised for
yachts under 10 tons.”
In all cases the form of entry provided by the Y.R.A. should be
signed by the owner or his representative before the race is started. So
also in all cases should the declaration that the rules have been strictly
observed be signed before a prize is presented.
RULE 6.- () WNERSHIP-HIRED YACHTS.
Each yacht entered for a race must be the bond-fide property of the person or
persons in whose name or names she is entered, who must be a member or members of a
recognised yacht club.
A yacht whilst let on hire shall not be allowed to compete under these rules.
A case referred to the Y.R. A. by the Royal Welsh Yacht Club was as
ollows:
Dysilio v. Miranda, 1888.
The cutter yacht Miranda, 28 tons, was entered by Mr. W. E. Thomas for a match, he
having been requested to so enter her by the “skipper,” the real owner being Mr. W.
Jones. Prior to the race the skipper was drowned, and Mr. Thomas declined to sail the
yacht. He also wrote to withdraw the entry. Subsequently the secretary received an
unsigned telegram that the yacht was not to be withdrawn. On the day of the race the
yacht appeared in the programme as owned by Mr. W. E. Thomas, and that gentleman
visited the clubhouse and regatta. On the handicap time allowance Miranda was declared
the winner. The following day a seafaring man (who had previously paid the entrance fee
of Miranda) called and received a cheque for the prize, drawn in favour of W. E. Thomas
and payable to his order. A receipt was given for the prize in the name of W. Jones.
The cheque was subsequently indorsed by W. E. Thomas, and paid at Bangor.
Afterwards the foregoing facts as to the ownership of Miranda were brought to the
attention of the sailing committee by the owner of the second yacht Dysilio and others.
The skipper of the Dysilio was aware of the facts before the termination of the race, but
entered no protest until some days afterwards.
Entering Yachts in Different Races, &c. T 69
Mr Thomas gave as a reason for entering the yacht in his own name that he thought
he was bound to do so.
The Miranda had not a member of a recognised yacht club on board during the race.
The council decided that under Rules 6 and 9 the Miranda was not entitled to sail in
the match, and has no right to the prize.
The club by virtue of this decision ultimately recovered the prize in
the County Court.
RULE 7.—RIGHT OF ENTERING MORE THAN ONE YACHT.
No owner shall be allowed to enter more than one yacht in a race, except in cases
in which a prize is given for each rig, when one yacht of each rig may be entered,
nor shall he be entitled to enter the same yacht under different rigs for any race.
If a yacht is entered for two or more races which are to be sailed at the same time,
the owner before starting the yacht, shall (in writing or by showing in the rigging the
signal flag denoting the race) declare to the sailing committee in which of the races the
yacht will compete; but this section of the rule shall not apply to postponed or re-sailed
Tà (20 S.
The last paragraph to this rule was added in 1894, because a case had
occurred where the owner steered a friend’s yacht A instead of his own
yacht B, and became involved in some vexatious luffing matches with a
competitor C. It was alleged that C was thereby prevented from winning,
and B. proved the winner. There were no charges of malpractice, but the
incident was considered of sufficient significance to warrant the addition to
the rule referred to.
An owner shall not steer any other yacht than his own in a race wherein his own
yacht or yachts compete.
A yacht cannot be entered for any one race under two rigs (see Rule 7),
but if there are two or more distinct races at the same time, or a prize for
each rig, she can enter under a different rig for each, as practically there
would be two distinct races. If it is a race where there is an “allowance
for rig,” a yacht cannot be entered under different rigs. In a race where
there are distinct prizes for more than one rig, and where the rig of the
“first yacht in ’ determines the rig of the winner of the principal prize,
an owner may enter a yacht of each rig, but in no case can two yachts
of the same rig be entered in a race.
The same yacht cannot be entered under two rigs for any race, neither
can she be entered under two classes for any race. The case, however, is
different if two races are to be sailed at different times. In August, 1885,
in the Neptune case, the Council of the Y.R.A. decided that a yacht
could enter in a race one day as a B class vessel and another day as a
C class, but that she must race under whatever class she has been entered
for, and cannot enter under two or more classes or rigs for any one race.
It has sometimes happened that a yacht has been entered for two
races which practically are to be sailed concurrently. For instance, in
17() Yacht and Boat Sailing.
1889 two races took place on the Thames, and the starting gun for the
first race was the preparatory gun for the second. A yacht was entered
for both races and having started in the first, recrossed the line and started
with the yachts in the second race. She won a prize in both races, but
was only awarded one. Other cases having occurred, the Y.R.A. in 1890.
made a rule that if a yacht is entered for two races to be sailed con-
currently the owner before starting his yacht must declare to the sailing
committee as to which race he intends to compete in.
The following question was referred to the Y. R.A. by the Royal
Portsmouth Corinthian Yacht Club :
R.P.C.Y.C. v. Mliss, 1890.
Mliss was entered in the names of Mrs. Read and Miss Cox, whilst Troublesome was
entered in the name of Mrs. Read. Would this disqualify Troublesome or Mliss under
Rule 7, which prohibits an owner entering two yachts of the same rig for a prize P The
council decided as follows: “ Under Rules 6 and 7, either Mliss or Troublesome must be
disqualified, the first entered only being entitled to compete. The other entry should not,
therefore, have been accepted by the club.”
RULE 8.—SAILING OVER.
When a prize has been offered for competition any yacht duly entered shall be
entitled to sail over the course (subject, however, to Rule 2), and be entitled to a prize of
not less than half the value of the first prize.
RULE 9.—CENTRE-BOARDS OR SHIFTING KEELS.
In the case of a yacht fitted with a centre-board or plate, or other form of shifting
keel, manual power only shall be employed in working it.
Formerly the centre-boards were forbidden by a rule as follows:
No yachts which are fitted to shift keels, or to otherwise alter their form, shall be
permitted to enter.
This rule was rescinded in August, 1887.
The rule led to a curious dispute in the regatta of the Royal Dart
Yacht Club in August, 1884, as follows:
One of the conditions of a match was that two yachts were to start or no race. The
Ulerin (10 tons) started, and the Maria (a small yacht fitted with a centre-board). This
was not made known to the committee until after the race, and they withheld the prize,
although it was alleged the board was “fixed ” for the occasion, in order, as it was
thought, to get over the rule.
The case was taken to the Council, who decided as follows: “As two qualified yachts
did not start for the race, the committee were justified in withholding the prize from the
Ulepin ''
See Rule 15 as to shifting ballast that it does not apply to centre-plates.
RULE 10.-MEMBER ON BOARD.
Every yacht Sailing in a race shall have on board a member of a recognised yacht
club, who, before the prize is awarded, shall sign a declaration that a yacht under his
charge has strictly conformed to all the sailing regulations.
Sailing Instructions, Course Marks, &c. 1714.
RULE 1.1.—DISTINGUISHING FILA G.S.
Each yacht must carry at her main topmast head a rectangular distinguishing flag,
of a suitable size, which must not be hauled down unless she gives up the race. If the
topmast be lowered on deck or carried away, the flag must be rehoisted in a conspicuous
place as soon as possible.
A yacht which is competing in a match is required to fly a dis-
tinguishing “rectangular flag of suitable size.” Flags of “suitable size ''
for yachts of various tonnages will be found under “Flag” in the Appendix.
RULE 12.-INSTRUCTIONS, MARKS, &c.
Every yacht entered for a race shall, at the time of entry, or as soon after as possible,
be supplied with written or printed instructions as to the conditions of the race, the
course to be sailed, marks, &c. Nothing shall be considered as a mark in the course
unless specially named as such in these instructions.
Each yacht shall be given a number with the sailing directions, and should any yacht
cross the line before the signal for the start has been made, her distinguishing numeral
shall be exhibited as soon as conveniently may be as a recall, and kept displayed until
the said yacht shall have either returned and recrossed the line to the satisfaction of the
sailing committee, or have given up the race. [The numbers to be in white on a black
ground, and the figures not less than 2ft. 6in. in height.] -
Sailing committees should be very clear in the instructions they issue
as to the manner of starting and the marks in the course, and in no case
should verbal instructions be given, nor should verbal alterations be
made to written instructions.
A sailing committee can, however, if they so choose, issue verbal
alterations to instructions; but such verbal alterations, the same as all
other alterations, should be clearly made known to the person in charge
of every competing yacht in the race, otherwise a yacht which had not been
made acquainted with the alterations, but had fulfilled the original
instructions, could claim the prize, so also could the yacht that won the
prize by fulfilling the altered instructions. As mistakes in issuing
instructions are usually the result of a simple misunderstanding, the fairest
way is to pronounce the race void, and order it to be re-sailed.
A secretary, acting under the direction of the committee or flag
officers, can deliver verbal alterations or instructions; but such
alterations or instructions would render a race void, or cause the
yacht or yachts acting upon such verbal alterations or instructions to
be disqualified under a protest, if it were proved that the secretary
had acted without authority or direction from the flag officers or sailing
committee.
The following case occurred in a regatta of the Lough Erne Yacht
Club, and was decided by the Council on Dec. 10, 1879: Owing to some
$172 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
...----------
oversight, the instructions given to two yachts about to compete for a
prize varied so much that one was directed to round a small island on
port hand, and the other on the starboard. The committee gave the prize
to the yacht which came in first, whereupon the other yacht claimed it,
she having, as alleged, sailed a somewhat longer course, and at the same
time fulfilled the conditions as handed to her owner before the start. The
case was referred to the Council, who decided as follows:
The committee had rightly awarded the prize to the yacht which came in first, she
having carried out the instructions.
The “other yacht '’ might have had a legal claim on the committee
for a similar prize, but the Y.R.A. was only concerned with the actual
prize put up for competition. In a case where the competitors did not
object, the fairer course would be to have the match re-sailed ; but a
committee could not claim a right to have this done if the yacht which
came in first or that saved her time objected, providing, of course, that
she had carried out the instructions given her.
The following curious corollary to the foregoing case came before the
Council on Aug. 14, 1886.
The case was referred by the Sailing Committee of the Orford Regatta, as
follows:
The instructions given to the Amelia, as to the course, were-“To start from an
imaginary line, drawn from Committee vessel; round mark boat at Raydon Point Reach ;
thence round the Island (going down the main and up the gulls) twice round.”
The instructions given to Keepsake were-“Start from an imaginary line drawn
from Committee boat, up round mark boat at Raydon Point; down round the Island
twice, down the Main and up the gulls.”
The instructions given to Phya were-“Start from Committee boat, up round mark
boat at Raydon Point, down round the Island, leaving everything on starboard hand,
twice round.”
Phya did not start. The Amelia, after sailing round the Island, returned to the
Committee vessel and then went on the other round.
The Keepsake after rounding the Island once, proceeded to round it again, the
Amelia being at the time ahead; but Keepsake arrived home first and claimed the prize.
Amelia also claimed the prize.
The instructions given to the Amelia were an exact copy of those originally drawn
up by the Sailing Committee. Those given to Keepsake and Phya were varied in
copying.
The Committee wished the competitors to Hail the match over again, but this the
owner of the Amelia declined to do.
The Council decided, in accordance with the decision given in 1879, “that if
Reepsake came in first, and had carried out the instructions given to her owner, she must
be awarded the prize.”
In June, 1881, a case occurred in a R.L.Y.C. match where, in a
channel race, the buoys, &c., marking the channel were not specifically
named, and at the end of the race it was contended that every mark was
Balloon Sails, &c. | 73
not intended to be cleared, and in support of this view it was stated that
the committee had excepted some by name. The case was referred to the
Council, who decided as follows:
In a case where channel marks are named, all are included, unless any are specially
excepted in the instructions.
The following case was referred for decision to the Y.R.A. by the
Bournemouth Regatta Committee :
Melissa v. Foachownd, 1888.
In the first race Foxhound, Sibyl, and Melissa started, but when reaching the point
where markboat No. 1 should have been, no mark was to be seen (the marksman having
rowed ashore), so the two leading yachts, Foxhound and Sibyl, went straight on and
rounded Christchurch Ledge Buoy. The Melissa did not follow this course, but turned
where she thought the markboat should have been. As all three yachts came round
committee vessel the first time (the committee not knowing but that all had gone round
the Christchurch Ledge Buoy), told all three of the yachts to go the same course again.
The Foxhound and Sibyl went the second round as they did the first, viz., round Christ-
church Ledge Buoy, but the Melissa turned where she did before, the markboat No. 1,
according to Melissa, now being in position; that is, where she thought No. 1 mark
should be. The Melissa went the shorter course and came in first, claiming first prize;
the Sibyl also claimed first prize, and the Foxhound claimed second prize. The Melissa
had not paid her entrance fee, hence breaking Condition W. of the regatta committee.
The Melissa, on passing Committee vessel first round, did not protest according to Rule
29, Y.R.A. In the Sailing Conditions, No. 3, of the regatta committee, 10s. should be
paid at the time of handing in written protest. Melissa eventually entered protest, but
paid no fee.
The council decided that Melissa was not entitled to a prize.
See also “Circumnavigating Marks’’ farther on.
RULE 13.−SAILS.
There shall be no restrictions as to sails, or the manner of setting and working
them; but manual power only may be used for hoisting and working them.
A yawl is not rated for a mizen staysail; neither is a schooner for
main topmast staysail.
’ under booms, &c., are not allowed unless
Water sails or “save alls,”
rated.
Special rules are frequently made for cruiser races in which balloon
canvas is not allowed. In such cases the committee should clearly, not to
say minutely, define all the sails, which are disallowed. It is not sufficient
to say “balloon sails are not allowed,” as no satisfactory definition of what
is a “balloon sail” exists. -
A question was referred by the Royal Western (of Scotland) Yacht
Club as follows:
R. W.Y. Club v. Marguerite.
Marguerite, in a match in which balloon canvas was prohibited, carried what her
owner contended was her working fore staysail, as she has no smaller, and she carried it
174, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
in all weathers, and it is made of duck, has reef points and reef cringle, all this being
admitted by the club. The owner also states that he has a much larger Bail made of
cotton, which is his balloon staysail, and contends that all the Royal Western matches are
sailed under Y.R.A. rules, and these rules contain no definition or prohibition of balloon
sails. The committee on the other hand contend that balloon sails were specially pro-
hibited in the match in question, and that Marguerite's is a balloon fore staysail, inasmuch
as the clew of it extends abaft the aftermost shroud of the main rigging.
The matter was considered by the council, and the following decision was unanimously
adopted :
“That from the information placed before the council by both parties, the sail carried
by Marguerite in the way described must be considered to be a working staysail.”
The Royal Northern Yacht Club referred the following case to the
Y.R.A. for decision :
Stranger v. Amphitrite, 1889.
The yacht Stranger competed in a match in which it was advertised that “spinnakers”
would not be allowed. The Stranger, however, set a bowsprit spinnaker, once “flying ”
and once hanked to topmast stay, and was protested against. Her owner, however,
contended that he had no intimation of a notice posted in the club on the evening previous
to the match that bowsprit spinnakers would be also prohibited ; and as his sail was
hanked to the topmast, it was not a spinnaker as ordinarily understood. The committee
decided to disqualify the yacht, but, at the request of her owner, referred the case to the
Y.R.A.
The council now decided that the term “spinnakers” included all descriptions of the
sail, and that the decision of the club must be upheld.
See “Balloon Canvas” in the Appendix.
RULE 14.—CREW LIEAVING A YACHT DURING A MATCH-
CREW AND FRIENDS.
There shall be no limit as to the number of paid hands, and no restrictions as
to the number of friends, or to their working. No paid hand shall join or leave a yacht
after the signal to start, except in case of accident or injury to any person on board.
[This rule is not intended to apply to Corinthian matches.]
Under most old club rules no one was allowed to join or leave a
yacht after the preparatory gun had been fired. This rule was called
into existence on the Thames in consequence of the practice of having
a number of hands on board a yacht prior to the start to assist in hoisting
the canvas, and these men were turned out into a boat directly the canvas
was hoisted. But even supposing that such a practice should be pre-
vented, there would appear to be no reason why a mere passenger should
not join or leave a yacht during a match, and under Y.R.A. rules it is
simply enjoined that no paid hand shall join or leave a yacht during a
match. This of course gives permission to a passenger or owner to
leave, but no paid hand could go from the yacht in a boat to put the
passenger on shore; but in the case of accident or injury to some person
on board, he could be put on shore or on board some other yacht by
the crew.
Leaving a Yacht During a Match. 175
In the case of a man leaving a yacht by falling overboard, it is
assumed to be an accidental circumstance; and if the man has been
recovered again by the yacht’s own boat or a life buoy, or picked up
by another yacht, neither the yacht that lost the man nor the one that
picked him up would be disqualified if one or the other afterwards became
entitled to a prize by coming in first or by time allowance. But if a
yacht or yachts had been in such a position that she or they would in
all probability have won the match had it not been for rendering
assistance to recover a man, the committee can order, if they so please,
the race to be re-sailed between the yachts which were prevented
winning as stated and the yacht that actually did win. Nothing
is said about the yacht that lost the man overboard being allowed
to take part in the match if ordered to be re-sailed, whatever
position such yacht may have been in at the time of the accident ;
and the inference is that a yacht which is deprived of her chance
of winning a race by losing a man overboard must abide by the
consequence of her own accident and not be given another chance. (See
also Rule 28.)
The following case occurred, in 1876, in a match sailed by the Royal
Cork Yacht Club :
In a match sailed by three small yachts one went ashore, and two of her crew got
overboard to assist in showing her off. She came in first, but was objected to because two
of her crew had left the yacht, and because she had used means for getting afloat other
than “her own anchors, boats, warps, &c.”
The case was referred to the Council, who held that the crew leaving the yacht under
such circumstances was not within the meaning of Rule 13, and that the fact of the crew
assisting in shoving the yacht off the ground from outboard was not an infringement of
Rule 22.
Another curious case occurred in 1879. Several yachts were started
from Weymouth for Torquay in a match, but owing to heavy weather they
put into Portland Roads for shelter, Latona, yawl (152 tons), among them.
- They remained four days weather bound, and Latona’s steward went on
shore for provisions; she eventually arrived first at Torquay, and her
owner claimed the prize. Upon signing the declaration that the rules
had been conformed to, he inserted a statement that the steward had
been on shore, having previously mentioned the fact to the officials of
the regatta. The prize was handed to him ; but subsequently the com-
mittee, on seeing the statement on the declaration, requested him to return
it. This was not done, and the committee appealed to the Council of
the Y.R.A. The Council replied as follows:
That as there was no concealment on the part of the owner of Latona as to his
sending his steward on shore for provisions, he having told the regatta officials of the
176 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
fact, and having stated the circumstance in the declaration, and as the committee,
notwithstanding, gave him the prize, the Council is of opinion that the return of the
prize should not be pressed for. -
The following year the Y.R.A. made an exception in the rule as to
g y p
paid hands leaving a yacht in case of accident or injury, but this does not
appear to meet such cases as those just referred to.
In 1887 the Royal Nova Scotia Yacht Club put the following case
to the Council :
Under Rule 3 it is enjoined that no paid hand shall join or leave a yacht after the
signal for the start; in Rule 16 it is laid down that yachts are amenable to the rules after
the first gun. How are these rules to be reconciled P
The Council replied that a paid hand can join or leave a yacht any time before the
signal for the start, and Rule 16 in no way controverts it.
RULE 15.-FITTINGS AND BATTLAST".
All yachts exceeding a rating of 10 shall be fitted below deck with the ordinary fittings
of a yacht, including two transverse bulkheads of wood. The following shall apply to all
yachts: their platforms shall be kept down, and bulkheads standing. No water shall be
started from or taken into the tanks after the signal to start has been made. No more
than the usual anchors and chains shall be carried during a race, which must not be used
as shifting ballast, or for altering the trim of the yacht. No bags of shot shall be on
board, and all ballast shall be properly stowed under the platform or in lockers, and no
ballast or other dead weight (a centre plate or board excepted), shall be shifted or trimmed
in any way whatever during a race.
No ballast or other dead weight shall be shifted, shipped, or unshipped, so as to
increase the length of the immersion beyond the marks at the bow and stern, placed by
the owners to define the racing length, after a yacht has been entered for a race No
ballast shall be shipped, unshipped, or shifted after 9 p.m. of the day previous to the race.
A race re-sailed shall be regarded as a new race so far as the 9 p.m. condition is concerned.
RULE 16.- BOATS AND TLIFE BUOYS.
Every yacht exceeding a rating of 30 and under a rating of 90 shall carry a boat on
deck not less than 10ft. in length, and 3ft. 6in. beam ; and every yacht rated at 90 and
over, one of not less than 12ft. in length, and 3ft. 6in. beam, with oars lashed in them, ready
for immediate use. Each yacht shall carry at least one life buoy on deck ready for use.
RULE 17.-STARTING, &c.
The yachts shall start from moorings, anchors, or under way, as directed by the
sailing committee. Fifteen minutes before the time of starting one of the following
flags of the commercial code shall be hoisted as a preparative flag for the yachts of each
successive race; in case of a start from anchors or moorings to take up their stations for
the start with headsails down, or all sails down as the sailing committee may direct ; or
in case the start be a flying one, to approach the starting line, viz.:
B of commercial code for the yachts of the 1st race.
Ø
C 3 3 * 3 3 * 2nd 5 2
D 22 2 3 3 3 3rd 32
F 25 2 3 3 3 4th 2 3
and so on.
Five minutes before the start the preparative flag shall be lowered, a blue peter
hoisted, and a gun fired, after which the yachts in the race shall be amenable to the rules.
At the expiration of five minutes ea'actly the blue peter shall be hauled down and a second
Starting. 177
gun fired as a signal to start. If the start is to be made from anchors or moorings, lots
shall be drawn for stations, and springs shall be allowed on the same bridle or anchor
chain or warp as the bow-fasts, but are not to be carried to a buoy, pier, other vessel, or
fixed object.
If any yacht lets go or parts her bridle before the signal to start, or if she drags any
moorings or anchor to which she is made fast for the purpose of starting, she shall be
liable to be disqualified, unless such parting or dragging be explained to the satisfaction
of the committee, or unless she has returned, after the signal to start, within the line of
starting buoys 80 as not to obtain any advantage by the accident.
In a flying start if any yacht, or any part of her hull, spars, or other equipment be
on, or across the line before the signal to start is made, she must return and recross the
line; a yacht so returning, or one working into position from the wrong side of the line.
after the signal to start has been made, must keep clear of all competing yachts.
Should the gun miss fire, the lowering of the blue peter shall be the signal to start.
A yacht shall have completed a race as soon as any part of the hull or spars be on
or across the winning line.
In the foregoing rule it is enjoined that the signal flag (of the
Merchant Shipping Code) denoting the race shall be hoisted a quarter of
an hour before the signal to start is made. This is sometimes supposed
to mean that there must be a separate quarter of an hour between each
race; this, however, is not the case, and so long as the signal flag for
a race is hoisted a quarter of an hour before the time appointed for the
race to be started, the rule will have been complied with. This may
be of great importance at some regattas where several matches are to be
sailed.
The flag denoting the race must be hoisted for ten minutes before
the time set down for the start, and then pulled down so that the blue
peter may be hoisted for the remaining five minutes; but, as before said,
there may be any interval between distinct matches which a committee
may find convenient ; or the matches may be started all together if
their quarter of an hour flags were hoisted together. To start several
matches together, however, would be dire confusion, and a suitable interval
should be chosen. For half hour and quarter of an hour intervals between
the races the starts could be thus arranged :
ſ - - - - - - -- -- - - - - -------- --
} |
! Time of hauling * * e
Signal flag down signal nº, ºne º
| º Time for hoisting * ~ 1.5 down blue peter,
* "ºº" tº tº
preparatory gun. * Nº M. º.º. 1 ºf,
H. M. H. M. IH. IMI.
B | 9 45 9 55 ! 10 ()
C 10 () 1() 10 10 15
D 10 15 10 25 i 10 30
- F 10 3() 1() 40 10 45
| G. 10 45 - 10 55 : 11 ()
H 11 30 11 40 11 45
J 12 () - 12 10 12 15
There are two ways of starting yachts in a match by Y.R.A. rules—
N
178 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
------------- - --------------- - - -- ~~~~…
one from anchors or moorings, and the other under way; the latter is
frequently termed a flying start.
If the start is from anchors or moorings, the yacht should be taken to
her station in good time ; and to wait for a yacht that is late in getting
to her station would not be fair, as it would certainly spoil the start of
those which were in time.
If there is a great difference in the size of the competing yachts, the
owners of the small vessels might prefer a start with all sail down, as they,
being able to haul up their canvas quicker, gain an advantage. This is
not fair to the yachts of larger tonnage, and the most just plan is to
start yachts under way, or with after canvas set.
Another reason why, when starting from moorings, yachts, if the
state of the tide and wind permits, should be allowed to set after canvas
previous to the signal for the start, is that when a start has to be made
with all canvas down, extra hands must be carried to get up the canvas
quickly. Of course the larger the yacht the greater is the number of
these “canvas hoisters,” and years ago the practice was to turn them
into a boat, waiting alongside, directly the canvas was up. To prevent
this practice a rule was passed that no one should join or leave a yacht
after the preparatory gun had been fired. The Y.R.A. have modified
this by limiting its application to paid hands. (See the section “Leaving
a Yacht during a Match.”)
As a rule yachtsmen prefer under-way starts, so as to get their sails
properly set, and to know exactly what sail to set.
Each yacht is assigned a number, and in case of her crossing the line
too soon this is hoisted as a recall, and it must be observed.
In May, 1882, the Royal Mersey Yacht Club put the following
question to the Council :
Whether, in case of starting from anchors, mooring by the stern instead of by the
bow is allowable P
The Council replied that mooring by the bow only, in the usual way, was allowed
under Y.R.A. Rules.
STARTING AND FINISHING.
To assist sailing masters in judging whether their vessels are over
the line or not, it is desirable that there should be two marks on one
end of the line, so that by bringing them into one it can be seen exactly
when a vessel reaches the line. There should be a flag boat to limit the
length of line at the other end, otherwise the start and finish might be of
a very sprawling character.
Sometimes it is convenient to have two marks on shore which have to
be brought into one to form the starting line. A church tower and tall
Starting. 179
chimney, a flagstaff, or any conspicuous objects on shore will answer the
purpose. These shore marks, if they stand out well, are to be preferred,

Q
.S
S
Starting Zºne § .: + * = a- = * * * * = O
3% Chimney
Committee, | | | -
TVessel
FIG. 64.
as the look-out on board can judge by them better, and so can the
committee. In case of the marks forming the line being on shore, the
committee vessel should be kept in the same line. The “flag boat,”

Inside
Jearºng ºne C -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Marke
AZag Veyreſ,
Boat FIG. 65.
forming the outer boundary of the line (Fig. 65), and not the direction of
the line, need not be strictly in a line with the “mark vessel” and inner
mark, whether the latter be on shore or not. In such a case the time
would be taken as the yachts brought the two marks, forming the line,
into One.
Of course the “flag boat’’ and mark vessel must form “marks in
the course,” and must be cleared on the right side at the start and finish ;
otherwise at the finish a helmsman might be tempted to shoot up round
the flag boat and get the gun when the yacht could not clear it, and, in
fact, actually foul the mark after gun-fire. To prevent this a yacht at
the finish should clear the marks fairly in passing them, and then keep
clear of all other competing yachts. This would prevent all disputes.
It is not contended that a yacht could be disqualified for fouling a
mark after she had finished a match and received the gun, as the rule says
distinctly “a yacht shall have completed a race as soon as any part of her
hull or spars be on or across the winning line.” Still, to prevent disputes
and possible damage a yacht, as before said, should well clear the marks
at finishing, just as she does at starting.
It is enjoined that if a yacht gets over the line too soon she must
recross the line; the rule then goes on to say, “A yacht so returning, or
N 2
L80 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
-- - - - -----------"
one working into position from the wrong side of the line after the signal
to start has been made, must keep clear of all competing yachts.” The
question is often asked how long “a yacht so returning or working into
position from the wrong side of the line'' would be required to keep clear
of competing yachts which are crossing the line properly ; or how far up
above the line she would have to sail before the ordinary rules would affect
her again At first sight it would seem unreasonable that the time or
distance should be indefinite ; but we do not see how exceptions or quali-
fications could be safely introduced. If a yacht is on the wrong side of
the line at gunfire, it is no great hardship that she should keep clear of all
yachts which are going for the line from the right side; but, if a time.
limit or distance limit were introduced into the rule to govern this obliga-
tion, it would certainly lead to misunderstandings, and consequent collisions.
So also might regulations which overrule the usual rule of the road; but
the case of starting is an exceptional matter, and a yacht which has
bungled the start should not be allowed to impede those which are about
b
to cross the line properly. The only way to prevent this is by some such
rule as the Y.R.A. has adopted; it is a single exception to the ordinary
yacht racing rule of the road, and was made for a definite object, and is.
now well understood ; that is to say, a case of non-observing it rarely
OCCl11’S.
CASE REFERRED BY THE ROYAL DORSET YACHT CLUB.
Castartet v. Reverie, August 20, 1892.
In consequence of a collision, at the start of the third race at the Royal Dorset
Yacht Club Regatta, held at Weymouth on August 20th, between Reverie and Castanot,
a protest was received from the owner of Castanet as follows: -
Castanet being over the line at the start, the sailing committee were of opinion
that, according to the paragraph in Rule 17 relating to yachts over the line at the start.
having to keep clear of all competing yachts, there was no penalty attaching to Reverie,
although such action on her part would have led them to disqualify her had not Castanet.
crossed the line too soon.
However, the case being one which it is believed has never cropped up before, it was
decided to ask, from the ruling body of the Y.R.A., for an authoritative decision on the
point.
Two plans (Fig. 66) are subjoined giving positions of the yachts both at gunfire and
at the time of collision. These plans have been examined and approved of as correct
by all the members of the sailing committee.
The owner of Reverie contended that Castanet was over the line, and hor number
hoisted before Reverie reached the committee vessel. It was therefore incumbent on
her to get out of the way, however difficult it might be.
In reply to a query as to whether Castanet's helm had been altered with the object
of luffing up under the committee vessel’s stern and making a fresh start, the owner of
Castanet answered :
“Castanet's helm was not altered for luffing under committee vessel's stern, as when
Reverie Struck us we had not seen the recall numbers.”
The sailing committee of the Royal Dorset Yacht Club, without expressing any
opinion as to whether Castanet furnishes an example, would ask the Council of the Y.R.A.
Recrossing the Line. I 81
to consider whether the sentence in Rule 17, “A yacht so returning or working into
position from the wrong side of the line after the signal to start has been made, must
keep clear of all competing yachts,” applies to a yacht which has crossed the line too
soon, but is proceeding on her course to the first mark boat when she is run into. Do
they consider that such yacht can be said to be “returning ” or “working into position
from the wrong side of the line P” If they do not consider such yacht to be fulfilling
either of the above conditions, but still consider her blameworthy, it is suggested that
an alteration of the paragraph in question be made, by substituting the word “on” for
$ º t
* * *
* * *
* * =
*** - - - - -
* = * =
* * = s.s.
* * =
* =
PLAN No. I.
Position of J'achts at the Starting Gun.
A—Committee vessel. Head to wind.
B–" Reverie."
º, -'' Castanot."
D—“Creole." * &
E–Imaginary line between Committee vessel and pier end,
F–Course to Mark Boat No. l.
s
* - --
* =
* =
º
* =
* ==
*
* *
* *
* - - -
* *
* =
** - - -
* as
*
Plá N No. 1 i.
Position of y’achts at the time of collision.
A—Committee vessel. Head to wind.
B–" Reverie."
C—“Castanet."
D—“Creole.”
E—Imaginary line between Commit ce vessel and pler end
F F-Course to Mark Boat No. 1.
FIG. 66.
the line commencing “so returning,” which would give the following amended reading
“A yacht on the wrong side of the line after the signal to start has been made must
keep clear of all competing yachts.” If, however, the Council should not deem such
yacht, by a too hasty start, to have placed herself entirely outside the pale of their
protection, they will doubtless see their way to safeguard her interests.
DECISION OF THE COUNCIL.
Although the recall numbers of Castanet and Creole were displayed, these yachts
had not, under the circumstances, an opportunity of getting out of Reverie's way; and
the latter was not justified in attempting to force a passage between them and the

182 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
committee vessel, there not being room; Reverie must, therefore, be adjudged to blamo
for the collision. The sentence quoted from Rule 17 (a yacht so returning, &c.) does not
apply to a yacht which has crossed the line too soon, but is proceeding on her course to
the first mark.
The Council appear to have taken the view that Castanet had not got
into a position to be returning to recross the line, in fact, according to the
statement of Castanet, the recall had not been observed. The decision of
the Council, therefore, only applies to a special case like that of Castanet
which, in spite of being over the line, was sailing on for the first mark.
It frequently happens that when a yacht has been recalled that those
on board her have been positive that she was not over the line. There
probably have been cases where committees have made mistakes, but this
much is certain, that a committee must be the sole judge of when a yacht
is over the line and has to be recalled.
NOT AT THE RENDEAVOUS IN TIME.
A question has often arisen as to whether a yacht which is not at the
rendezvous when the signal to start is made can subsequently start.
A case occurred in the Thames in 1881 in a match started from Greenhithe
to Ramsgate, Magnolia being in Long Reach when the other yachts started.
Magnolia won the prize, but was protested against, on the ground that she
was not really in the race, as she was not on the station at the time when
the starting signals were made. The Council decided as follows:
“As Magnolia was properly entered, and crossed the line from the proper side after
gunfire, she must be considered to have been in the race, although not on the station at
the time fixed upon.”
STARTING TO QUALITY ANOTHER.
A straggling starter like this is sometimes put over the line to merely
qualify a yacht when a club condition is made that “two are to start, or no
race ; ” or when the second prize is to be withheld unless there are three
or more starters, and such like conditions.
In 1893, the following case was referred by the Kirkcubbin Regatta,
Committee :
“Natica and Eurynome entered for race, Natica starts but Eurynome remains at
anchor until after starting gun is fired, she then leisurely commences lifting her anchor,
and eight minutes after starting gun moves off with only a trysail on, and towing a
punt. She sails a short distance and returns to her moorings. Natica gets half prize
for a sail over course, but Eurynome maintains that her start under Y.R.A. Rules was
a legitimate start and entitled Natica to claim full money. Is that so P.”
The owner of Eurynome stated :
“I sailed from Stranford to Kirkcubbin under trysail solely for the purpose of
giving Natica a start and entitle her to the prize, the conditions being ‘no race unless
two yachts start,” which appears to be in contradiction of Rule 8 of the Y.R.A., under
the rules of which the Regatta was held. I had a punt in tow, as I had some ladies on
Amenable to Rules. 183
board, whom I intended to land at Kirkcubbin. When I reached Kirkcubbin I anchored
on the right side of the line for starting, and as it was blowing and raining very hard
I could not land the ladies, who were to take the punt with them. When the first gun
went, I proceeded to weigh my anchor, and I crossed the line about three minutes after
the Second gun, and rounded the first mark-boat, and then returned to Kirkcubbin. I
preferred to Bail under trysail to putting three reefs in a new mainsail. -
I contend that neither starting late, nor towing a punt, nor sailing under trysail,
prevented my start from being sufficient to entitle Natica to the prize.
The Council decided that the Eurynome made a legitimate start
according to rules. -
WRONG INTERVALs BETWEEN THE GUNs.
Cases have occurred of a timekeeper giving the wrong time interval at
a start. If the error is discovered at once the yachts should be recalled,
or, at any rate, stopped as soon as possible. If, however, the start is a
very level one, and no protest is made, the starters and the result need
not be interfered with. If the start is a straggling one in consequence of
the mistake in the gun, one of the competitors might protest and claim the
prize if his yacht finishes within the space of time the gun was too soon,
and providing the yacht is clear of time of all other competitors. The
rights, however, of a competitor in the case of mistakes made by committee
are not at all clear. (See “Protests,” farther on).
FINISHING. -
A yacht is held to have finished a race as soon as any part of her hull
or spars is across the winning line ; but, if she is at anchor and sheers
across the line, she is not held to have finished the race. (See the case of
Hypatia farther on under the head of “Anchoring,” Rule 26).
AMENABLE TO RULES.
In a match a yacht is held to be amenable to rules directly the
five minutes gun has been fired or the blue peter hoisted ; and she ceases
to be amenable to the rules directly she has completed the course by
reaching the winning line, flagboat, or mark, and is timed by the committee
or any person they may appoint for the purpose. A yacht, however,
should, after finishing a contest, be most careful to keep clear of all
other yachts that have not completed the course, even to the extent of
giving way to one sailing free on port tack if she herself is close-hauled
on starboard tack.
A question formerly often arose whether a yacht could be disqualified
for fouling one of the marks afloat forming the starting line; but there is
now no doubt about the matter. (See Miranda—Samoena case). The follow-
ing case has been adjudicated upon by the council of the Y.R.A. :
A yacht fouled the flagstaff of a mark boat with her spinnaker boom as she was
starting half a minute after the second gun had been fired, i.e., the signal for starting.
184, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
She returned and recrossed the line, and, being the first to finish the race, claimed the
prize. The second yacht, however, protested that she was disqualified from the start.
The Council decided as follows: The yacht must be disqualified, as yachts are
amenable to the sailing rules after the first gun has been fired, and in this case not only
the first gun but the second as well had been fired when the foul took place. If a mark
is fouled at the start, after the first gun has been fired, nothing a yacht may subsequently
do, such as returning and recrossing the line, will absolve her from the consequences of
the foul.
It frequently happens that two yachts get into a luffing match after
the first gun has been fired, and the question has often arisen as to
whether an overtaken yacht has the right to luff the one overtaking
her over the line. We take it that she would have the right; but if two
yachts, say, are overlapping before the first gun, it would be rather
straining the intention of the rule for the leeward yacht to luff the other
Over the line; however, the rules must be observed at all costs, no matter
whether or not a yacht, by observing them, is herself forced over the line.
(See “Luffing ” and “Bearing Away.”)
A curious case occurred at a finish of a race in 1893. Two yachts
were approaching the winning line on opposite tacks; A, the yacht on
port tack, being a little ahead, did not give way for B on starboard tack,
but got across her and obtained the winning gun. Immediately afterwards
a collision (which, under the circumstances, was inevitable) occurred. It
was contended for A, that having obtained the winning gun, she had
completed the race and could not be disqualified.
However, according to the decision of the Council in the Egeria v.
Olga case (See Port and Starboard Tack section, Rule 18), she would be
disqualified because she, before the gun was fired, clearly infringed the
rule by risking a collision in getting across B instead of giving way.
RULE 18, YACHTS MEETING SO AS TO INVOLVE RISK OF
COLTISION.
When two yachts are approaching one another, so as to involve risk of collision, one
of them shall keep out of the way of the other as follows, viz.:
A yacht which is running free shall keep out of the way of a yacht which is
close-hauled.
A yacht which is close-hauled on the port tack shall keep out of the way of a
yacht which is close-hauled on the starboard tack.
When both are running free with the wind on different sides, the yacht which has
the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the other.
When both are running free with the wind on the same side, the yacht which is
to windward shall keep out of the way of the yacht which is to leeward.
A yacht which has the wind aft shall keep out of the way of the other yacht.
a. CLOSE-HAULED AND SAILING FREE.
According to the Y.R.A. rule, a yacht which is sailing with the
wind free must keep out of the way of one which is close-hauled, and
Port and Starboard Tack. 185
there appears to be only one exception to this rule, which will be
alluded to under the “Meeting end on ” section. In match sailing
yachts are likely to get into positions where one going free might foul
one that is close-hauled under the following conditions:
1. In beating for a mark when a yacht which is close-hauled might
meet one that has already rounded.
2. In running for a mark when the yacht which is before the wind
might meet one that has rounded, and is now close-hauled.
In either case it is the duty of the yacht which has the wind free
to give way to the yacht that is close-hauled. In most cases it will
be safer for the yacht which is free to go under the stern of the other,
as by crossing ahead she might compel the yacht that was close-hauled
to bear up or luff, and if she did so, the yacht that had the wind free
would be disqualified. (See the last paragraph of “Meeting end on ”
section.)
b. PORT AND STARBOARD TACK.—CROSS TACKING.
One of the most frequent causes of protest arises out of the b section
of the foregoing rule, which provides for keeping vessels clear of each
•other when crossing on opposite tacks. The Y.R.A. rule is simply that of
the Board of Trade, which says that “a ship which is close hauled on
the port tack shall keep out of the way of the ship which is close hauled
on the starboard tack.”
In the first place, it must be clearly understood that the rule was
not intended to put any penalty or odium on a vessel for being on the
port tack; the rule was solely intended to keep vessels clear of each
other, and for this purpose it was necessary that the rule should say which
of two positions should be the one which must always yield. It was
decided that the port tack should be chosen, but there could be no
particular reason for preferring the port tack to the starboard tack for
the purpose. It undeniably gives an advantage to starboard tack, and
often, so far as match sailing is concerned, a seemingly unfair one ; and
hence, perhaps, there is often some feeling imported into the situation
when two yachts are crossing on opposite tacks.
A yacht on the port tack may be so far ahead of the one on the
starboard tack as to be able to almost cross clear ahead of her, but not
quite. If there is the least doubt about it, the yacht on the port tack must
give way, however hard or apparently unfair it may seem for her to do so.
If she does not so give way and fouls the other yacht, or if that other
yacht has to bear away or luff to avoid a collision, the yacht on the port
tack must be disqualified without hesitation.
But frequently the yacht on the port tack could have crossed clear
186 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
ahead of the yacht on the starboard tack, providing the latter had not
luffed at the last moment, and by so luffing succeeded in striking the lee
quarter or boom end of the yacht on the port tack.
Apart from the obligation * of conforming to match sailing rules, if it
were proved in court that no collision would have happened if the vessel
on the starboard tack had not luffed, the decision would be that the vessel
on the port tack should not be liable for any damage done to the other
vessel; or that each vessel should pay her own damages. The Board of
Trade rule is that, when one of two vessels has to keep out of the way, the
other shall hold a steady course, and also that no vessel shall neglect any
ordinary precaution in special cases. On the other hand, the decision of a
sailing committee, in such a case as just quoted, would properly be that
the vessel on the port tack was alone in fault. In competitive sailing, the
temptation to make close shaves is very great, and any decision which
would tend to encourage such practices should be avoided as the risks are
So great.
By the Y.R.A. rule the yacht on the port tack is bound to give
way if a risk of collision is involved. It is usual for the vessel on the
nip ’’ a little when one on the port tack is coming
towards her ; and this tells the vessel on port tack that she must not
expect her to give way. If, however, a vessel on the port tack is
crossing just clear ahead of the other, and that other luffs and touches
the quarter of the vessel on port tack, as before stated, the case is
somewhat altered, and involves wilfulness on the part of the vessel on
the starboard tack; but the answer manifestly is that the vessel on the
port tack is not justified under the rule in placing herself in a position
where the other can touch her, as the risk of collision is clearly involved.
However, as the rule was not intended to give a special advantage to
the vessel on starboard tack, she should not needlessly bully the unfor-
tunate one on port tack by luffing for the purpose of making a foul.
The right of luffing has been claimed for the starboard tack, because
some old yacht-sailing rules enjoin that the vessel on the starboard tack
should never bear away, but luff or tack if a collision is imminent ; no such
rule now exists, and the right of luffing is claimed by the yacht on the
starboard tack on the ground that the vessel on port tack has under
Y.R.A. rules unconditionally to get out of the way. Nevertheless, if a
man luffed his yacht and wilfully struck another yacht on port tack, which
starboard tack to “
* If two yachts agree to sail under and be bound by particular rules, such as those of the
Y.R.A., and whilst sailing under them a collision or damage occurred, it would not be right to
repudiate such a contract for the sake of appealing to another set of rulos, such as sanctioned
by an Order in Council under the Merchant Shipping Act, which might be different.
Port and Starboard Tack. 187
would have gone clear but for the luffing, and loss of life or injury to
person ensued, it would not avail him in a court to plead that the yacht
on the port tack was bound to get out of the way whatever the yacht on
starboard tack did. A sailing committee might, as before said, reasonably
hold that view, but no court of law would. Frequently we hear an
ignorant sailing master threaten to give another yacht (which is crossing
him on port tack) the bowsprit or stem; it need scarcely be said if a
collision did ensue that a court would properly take account of the
threat, and in case of loss of life a more serious charge even than that
of wilful injury would be made against the person responsible for the
collision.
It has already been said that it is the practice to nip or luff the
vessel on starboard tack a little when approaching one on the port tack,
to show the latter that she must give way; and it is most important
that the vessel on the starboard tack should never begin to bear away
under such conditions unless she positively intends to go under the stern
of the one on the port tack. By bearing away it will encourage the
belief on board the vessel on the port tack that she is to pass ahead ;
then if the vessel on the starboard tack luffs, and says she will not allow
this, it may be too late for the vessel on the port tack either to bear
away or to go about to avoid the risk of collision. The safer thing for
the yacht on port tack to do under such circumstances will be to luff
or tack, as this will deaden her way. The vessel on the starboard tack
should also luff up, and the two will probably come alongside. A
protest will follow, and the vessel on the port tack will excuse herself
by saying it would not have happened if the vessel on the starboard tack
had not begun to bear away. This may be true, but, inasmuch as it
was the duty of the vessel on the port tack to keep clear, no matter
what the vessel on the starboard tack might do, the former would be
disqualified.
Further, the practice of bearing away by a yacht on the starboard
tack when approaching one on port tack is a dangerous one, from the
fact that, if the vessel on the port tack also bears away, a collision is
almost inevitable, and under the aggravated conditions of accelerated
speed. Beyond this, in the event of the vessel on the port tack not
giving way, there is generally great difficulty in proving that it was
necessary for the vessel on the starboard tack to bear away to clear
her. Legal decisions could be quoted in which, in the case of collisions,
the vessel on the starboard tack has been distinctly blamed for not
having luffed, instead of having kept away ; but the Board of Trade
rule is absolutely silent on the point, and gives no instructions whatever
188 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
---------"
to the vessel on the starboard tack further than enjoining that when
one of two vessels has to keep out of the way, the other shall keep her
course; the Y.R.A. rule is equally silent on the point, and it was found
Inconvenient to stipulate (on account of the “Luſſing and Bearing
Away” rule, and some of the rules as to rounding marks) that where
one of two vessels has to keep out of the way the other shall keep her
Course.*
However, many cases do occur, when it would be much easier for the
vessel on starboard tack to avoid one which has actually and improperly got
across her on port tack, by using a little weather helm instead of lee helm ;
in fact, if the vessel on starboard tack is to strike the other on the starboard
quarter (well aft), it is evident that the collision could be better avoided by
the vessel on starboard tack bearing away than by luffing. Of course this
assumes that the vessel on the port tack has fairly got across the other,
and is thus unable to do anything herself to avoid the impending collision.
It is quite natural that the masters of square-rigged ships should prefer
bearing away to going about, on account of the ease of the one operation
in comparison with the labour of the other ; but if there is any law (beyond
the seaman-like custom of the sea) which condemns them in penalties for
the consequences of bearing away instead of tacking, the Board of Trade
rule ought clearly to warn them of it. In the merchant navy the general
practice is for the vessel on port tack to go about some time before she gets
near the other ; but in the case of yachts in competitive sailing the vessel
on port tack invariably holds on to the last moment, and the vessel on
starboard tack, knowing that the other, according to the rule, ought to
give way, does the same. And the result is that the question generally
amounts to this—What is best to do —and not what the sailing rule
says ought to be done. So far as we know, the rule that the vessel on
starboard tack should luff, and not bear away, has never been general;
and, although some clubs formerly went so far as to say what the vessel on
the starboard tack was to do, we cannot call to mind any case where a
yacht has been mulcted in a penalty for bearing away instead of luffing.
The clubs which had an instruction on the point before their adoption
of Y. R. A. Rules were Royal Dart, Royal Victoria, Royal Cornwall, Royal
Albert, Royal Welsh, Royal Cinque Ports; all the others (including Royal
Squadron and Royal Thames) were silent on the point, simply requiring
the vessel on port tack to keep out of the way of the other. The Royal
Victoria rule was the most explicit, and ran as follows: “ Yachts on the
* For instance, the “luffing and bearing away ’’ rule is contrary to the spirit of such a
direction as this, but it has been argued that the overtaken vessel should neither be allowed to
bear away nor luff to prevent another passing.
Port and Starboard Tack. 189
port tack must give way to those on the starboard tack; and wherever
a doubt eaſists of the possibility of weathering the one on the starboard
tack, the one on the port tack shall give way; if the other keep her
course and collision occurs, the yacht on port tack shall pay all damages
and forfeit all claim to the prize. The yacht on the starboard tack shall
never bear away; but if she is obliged to luff or tack to avoid the
other yacht, the yacht on the port tack (so obliging her to luff or tack)
shall lose all claim to the prize.”
We believe this rule was framed by the late Mr. G. Holland Ackers,
who had a very strong opinion on the point, and published it as a kind
of axiom in his Signal Book, &c. The effect of the rule would be, if
stringently enforced, that no protest would stand if the vessel on starboard
tack kept away instead of luffed. Would this check the dangerous practice
of bearing away ? We think not. We believe that the greatest safeguard
will be in sailing committees and the council of the Y.R.A. firmly
administering the very letter of the rule, as it now exists, in all cases
wherever a risk of collision has been proved through the vessel on the
port tack not giving way. It is much too late to talk about disqualifi-
cation and penalties after a collision has occurred.
A vessel on port tack approaching another on the opposite tack
should never be “nipped '' in the hope of weathering. It will not aid
her if the other “ nips” also, and a collision may be the result. A
trusty hand should be placed in the lee quarter to watch the other
vessel. Pilots, as a rule, cannot be trusted for this task; they are
unused to vessels of such speed, and the vessels, so to speak, slip from
under their feet, and so their judgment is entirely at fault. If the look-out
in the lee quarter has the least doubt about weathering, and if you know
he can be trusted, put the helm down at once so as to tack some distance
clear ahead to leeward of the other vessel, and not have to hustle round
close under her lee bow and get a tremendous Smothering whilst in stays.
If it is decided to bear away, begin in good time so that the vessel on
the starboard tack may know what you are going to do. It should be
always remembered that the whole onus of keeping clear rests with the
vessel on the port tack.
As a rule, a sailing master, when he has stood on to the last moment
on the port tack, will prefer bearing away to tacking, as less ground is
lost, and the risk of getting a Smothering is avoided.
In bearing away a hand should be always sent to the main sheet
(whether it be the vessel on port or starboard tack), to slack out some if
necessary, to enable the vessel to get off the wind more rapidly. (See also
“ Approaching a Shore Close-hauled.”)
I9() Yacht and Boat Sailing.
J.-----------------"
A yacht on the port tack can therefore be disqualified under the
following conditions :
1. If she is struck by a yacht which is on the starboard tack, no
matter how that striking was brought about.
2. If she herself strikes a yacht which is on the starboard tack.
3. If she causes a yacht which is on the starboard tack to luff or
tack to avoid a collision.
4. If she causes a yacht on the starboard tack to bear away to avoid.
a collision. r
The following case occurred in 1876, and illustrates an instance of
disqualification for causing a yacht to bear away :
Igeria v. Olga.
The owner of the Egeria gave evidence that she was on starboard tack, and Olga on
port, as they met in cross tacking. The helm of the Egeria had to be put hard up to the
weather rail to get under Olga's stern, and avoid striking that vessel. Even then Egeria
was only just able to clear Olga. He and a friend assisted the sailing master in hauling
the tiller up to windward.
The owner of Olga stated that he was watching Egeria from under the boom as the
two yachts approached for crossing, and to the best of his observation Egeria did not
alter her course, but he could not see whether any movement in her tiller was made. He
would not assert that it was not moved, but he could detect no alteration in the vessel’s
course. As they crossed, he heard some one hail—“You have made us bear up.”
Several witnesses were called, on behalf of Olga, who declared that, so far as they
could see, Egeria did not alter her course. Another witness said he saw Egeria end on
for Olga's beam, about two lengths off, when her sailing master began putting the helm
down; but he looked under the boom and saw the position of the yachts, and steadied the
helm. At that moment Olga passed ahead, and the next instant he could see two or
three persons holding the helm up or to windward.
It will be gathered that the evidence was pretty conclusive that Egeria did bear up,
and the only question was as to whether she was obliged to. The owner of the vessel
stated positively that after bearing up a considerable distance his vessel was only just
able to clear Olga; on the other hand, on the part of Olga, it was declared that she cleared
Egeria by a distance variously estimated at 100ft., 30 or 40 yards, and two lengths. It
was quite useless to attempt to arrive at what would appear to be a just and positive con-
clusion from such conflicting evidence, and the Council appear to have based their decision
upon the fact that a risk of collision was run, as, after disqualifying Olga, they made the
following note :
“Any infringement of Rule 19 [this was the rule as to port and starboard tack in
1876] which may be brought under the notice of the Council, will invariably lead to the
disqualification of the vessel on the port tack in all cases where the slightest risk of
collision may be satisfactorily proved.”
TACKING WHEN THERE IS NOT ROOM TO TACK.
We have often heard it contended that if two yachts are standing on
port tack, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 67), A can go on starboard tack,
although she has not room to do so without coming into collision with B,
or force her to tack also. This is an entire mistake, as A has no such
HOUe T0 and Port Tach. 191
right, although it might be greatly to her advantage to do so if B were
overtaking her. (See Gem v. Maud case, also “Rounding Marks,”
Af

A
FIG. 67.

“Obstructions to Sea-room,” and the section “Luffing and Bearing
Away.”)
A protest was referred to the Y.R.A. by the Royal Southern Yacht
Club as follows:
Vreda v. Dragon, 1889.
In a match on Southampton Water, Vreda tacked close under the lee bow of Dragon,
and the bowsprit of the latter subsequently fouled the mainsheet block of Vreda; where-
upon the owner of Vreda protested against the prize being awarded to Dragon. The
club, however, decided that the Wreda was to blame for the foul, in consequence of the
position in which she tacked. The council having considered the statements of the
parties concerned, decided that the decision of the club must be upheld.
In 1892 the Royal Torbay Yacht Club referred the following case to
the Council :
Wild Rose v. Doreen, August 23, 1892.
Both yachts crossed the line on starboard tack, Doreen about a length ahead under the
lee bow of Wild Rose. Doreen thinking Wild Rose was going round to port, put her
helm down and got across Wild Rose, who held on to starboard tack. A foul ensued.
The decision of the Council was as follows:
“The Doreen was not justified in attempting to tack under the circumstances
admitted by her owner, and thus place herself in a position where she brought about a
foul with Wild Rose.”
How E TO ON PORT TACK.
Ordinarily, if a yacht is hove to on port tack and another yacht is
approaching her, close-hauled on starboard tack, the one on port tack
should in good time fill and get way on and tack or bear away so as
to clear the other yacht. But if the yacht on port tack is disabled she
could hardly be expected to do this, and the yacht on the starboard
tack should keep clear; so also if the yacht on the starboard tack is
free and the yacht on the port tack is hove to (whether disabled or not),
the former should keep clear.
192
Yacht and Boat Salling.
c. MEETING WITH THE WIND FREE–MEETING END ON.
In sailing with a beam wind, or if one yacht has the wind abaft
the beam and another yacht has the wind on the bow, and they be
going in opposite directions, they may meet each other end on SO as
to involve a risk of collision.
Formerly in such a case it was the duty of each yacht to put her
helm to port : that is, the yacht on the port tack bore away, whilst the
yacht on the starboard tack luffed.
The new rule which came into operation September, 1880, has been
incorporated in the Y.R.A. rules, and enjoins that when yachts are
sailing with the wind free on opposite tacks, the yacht with the wind
on the port side must keep out of the way of the other.
The new rule is an improvement on the old “meeting end on ” rule,
as frequently two ships not actually meeting end on would port and
risk a collision, when, by each holding on her course, they would have
gone clear. Also frequently when meeting end on, one might be close-
hauled and the other free; in such a case it was still the duty of both.
to port, but often the close-hauled ship contended that the one which
was free ought alone to give way. By the new rule, in all cases
of yachts meeting end on, or nearly end on, the yacht on port tack
must keep out of the way of the yacht on starboard tack; and it is.
understood that the yacht on the starboard tack must keep her course,
and not endeavour to prevent the yacht on port tack passing to wind-
ward.
In Fig. 65, let A be a yacht close-hauled, and B one with the wind
on the quarter ; it is quite plain if B attempted to pass to leeward
that she might go ashore; B would therefore haul out and pass on the
weather side of A, and A would get a temporary blanketing; also, if
there were no shore, B could elect to pass on the weather side of A.
Her duty is to keep clear, and A would not be justified in frustrating
her movements.
But the close-hauled vessel might be on the port tack (see C, Fig. 68).
In such a case it would be the duty of D (although having the wind on
the starboard side) to keep clear.
If sailing along a shore D would not risk getting aground, but would
haul out and pass on the weather side of C.
But it may so happen that the two yachts may be free and be crossing
on opposite tacks. Thus, say the wind is W., and one yacht is steering
N.N.W., and the other S.S.W., each a point and a half free, they will
Rounding Marks. 193
be approaching each other at an angle of 134°.
the duty of the yacht with the wind on the port side to keep clear of
In such case it will be
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FIG. 68.
the other, as this would be a clear case of crossing on opposite tacks,
and not of “meeting end on.” This, however, is a situation not likely
to occur in match sailing.
d. SAILING FREE WITH THE WIND ON THE SAME SIDE.
In sailing free, if two yachts have the wind on the same side, the one
which is to windward must keep out of the way of the other. (This is
explained under the head of “Luffing and Bearing Away.”)
e. YACHT WITH THE WIND AFT.
This section requires no explanation.
RULE 19.-ROUNDING MARKS.
When rounding any buoy or vessel used to mark out the course, if two yachts are
not clear of each other at the time the leading yacht is close to, and actually rounding the
mark, the outside yacht must give the other room to pass clear of it, whether it be the
lee or weather yacht which is in danger of fouling the mark. No yacht shall be
considered clear of another yacht, unless so much ahead as to give a free choice to the
other on which side she will pass. An overtaking yacht shall not, however, be justified
in attempting to establish an overlap, and thus force a passage between the leading yacht
and the mark after the latter yacht has altered her helm for the purpose of rounding.
APPROACHING MARKS ON THE SAME TACK FOR Round ING.
By the Y.R.A. rule, yachts must give each other room at marks, but
a yacht is not justified in attempting to establish an overlap at the last
moment, when it may be impossible for the outside yacht to give room.
A yacht in rounding a mark, whether she is hauling round or wearing
O .







I94. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
-- - --~~~~~
round, always deadens her way more or less, and if a yacht is close astern
so as to be only just clear, it is quite easy for her to make an overlap ;
but this is just what she is not allowed to do. The overtaking yacht
must have, beyond all dispute, established an overlap before the other
has altered her helm to round; this means before the other has altered her
course and is actually rounding the mark. It frequently happens in light
winds that a yacht gets jammed by the tide at a mark, and can only just
hold her own abreast of it. A yacht that comes up astern can pass between
such other yacht and the mark if there be room ; but, if there be not room,
she must pass outside.
The following case was adjudicated upon by the Council of the Y.R.A.
in August, 1877:
Britannia v. Coralie, 1877.
Coralie and Britannia were reaching for a mark at Falmouth, two or three points
free. According to the evidence of the owner of the Britannia, she caught Coralie when
about twenty yards from the markboat, her bowsprit end being nearly up level with
Coralie’s runner. When at the mark, Coralie put down her helm and luffed across
Britannia, the latter being unable to luff on account of being so close to the markboat,
and could not bear away under Coralie's stern.
This was confirmed by the skipper of the Bloodhound, who was close astern of
the two.
On the part of Coralie it was urged that she did not put down her helm, but only
drew in her main sheet, and this brought her across Britannia, but the latter had plenty
of room to bear up and go under Coralie's stern. Britannia struck Coralie just abaft the
runner. Britannia caught Coralie whilst the latter was shifting her balloon foresail.
The Council, in coming to a judgment, considered it clearly made out that the
collision took place at the markboat, and not after the markboat was rounded; also, that
from the part where the Coralie was struck being so far forward it was equally clear an
overlap was established at or before the time when the markboat was reached; and, finally,
that the Coralie made no attempt by putting up her helm to give Britannia room. Coralie
was therefore adjudged in the wrong.
Roberta v. Sweetheart, 1882.
In a case which occurred in the Tenby Regatta, 1882, the Roberta overtook Sweet-
heart before or at a mark, and a foul ensued. The case was referred to the Y.R.A.
Council, but, as usual, the evidence was most conflicting.
On the part of Sweetheart it was alleged that the owner or master told Roberta to

SWEET HEART'S D1AGRAM.

S – Is– sº
R
FIG. 69.
Reep away under Sweetheart's stern when asked for room. At the same moment Sweet-
heart’s helm was put down for rounding, and the collision occurred a moment afterwards
when Sweetheart was half round the markboat.
Rounding Marks at the Start. 195
On the part of Roberta it was alleged that she overtook and was overlapping Sweet-
heart. Some considerable distance away from the markboat, and requested room as she
could not bear up across Sweetheart’s stern without striking her.
From statements placed before the Council it appeared that Roberta’s bowsprit first
struck Sweethcart on the rail 23ft. abaft the mast. The representative of the Roberta
Said he felt no concussion aft, and Roberta's bowsprit was across Sweetheart's deck by
the mast. He had no doubt, however, that the bobstay had scraped along the rail.
ROBERTA'S DI AGRAM .
There was positive evidence, however, that Sweetheart was first struck 23ft. abaft
the mast, which would be 10ft. or 11ft. ahead of the sternpost.
The diagrams, which are facsimiles of those put in (see Figs. 69 and 70), agree that
Sweetheart was well round the mark when the collision occurred, and that Roberta had
not apparently quite got into a position for rounding.
The Council concluded that there must have been a mistake made as to the statement
that Roberta was overlapping Sweetheart before the mark was reached, and decided that
she (Roberta) was in the wrong.
MIRANDA-SAMCENA CASE.
At a start it frequently happens that yachts approach the line from
different directions, and very nice steering and a great deal of “give and
take ’’ are necessary to keep them clear. A case occurred on Southampton
Water, in August, 1881, in a regatta of the Royal Southern Yacht Club,
and, although it did not come before the Council of the Y.R.A. so far
as the prize was concerned, it did on a question of alleged foul sailing
on the part of the master of Miranda, under Rule 31, which see.
Before the start the Miranda and Samoena were reaching up Southampton Water on
port tack; both then stayed (Samoena first) to starboard tack and reached down towards the
line formed by the schooner Star of the West and a flag boat (See the diagram, Fig. 71).
The wind was abeam of whole sail strength. When both were sailing down for the line
Samoena was ahead, and to windward, and was also to windward of the Star of the West;
Samoena had, therefore, to keep away to get to the line, and she bore away across the
Miranda's bows, and hauled to under that vessel's lee bow near the Hornet. (See Fig. 71.)
The two vessels were very near together as they crossed, and the Miranda was going the
faster through the water. When, therefore, Samoena straightened for the line, the
Miranda came on her weather quarter. Miranda, still going the faster through the
water, overlapped SamCena as they approached the line; and it was alleged that Samoena
luffed across Miranda, and the latter to avoid a collision put down her helm also. Miranda

O 2
I96 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
*T*-*-*-------------------------------------------- . . . ~~. ---, ----------------- ---
was thus forced a little too far to windward to clear the Star of the West, the result
being that Miranda's fore-starboard rigging caught the boom end of the Star of
the West, and two or three gentlemen were thrown into the water, one having his
arm broken.
On the part of Samoena, it was alleged that when about three-quarters of a length
ahead, and a little on the weather bow, if anything, of Miranda, the latter was luffed
across her stern, and then, going the faster, made an overlap after Samoena had altered
her helm to pass close under the stern of the Star of the West, the contention being that
Miranda had no right to luff across Samoena's stern when so near the mark-boat, which
both, to get all the advantage possible, were bound to shave, as it was on the weather end
of the line.
It will be gathered from the foregoing that the evidence was very con-
flicting as to the nature of the luffing, and as to the overlap ; but it was
A *
Af
,’ Af J/or” bet
(at anchor)
Miranda.
g 4/
2^ 22'
/ *
,’
2^
|/ .”
2^
. C!//70, O6270,0ſ.
/
Starting /, ine
Star of the West
FIG. 71.
also very clear on three points: 1st, that the Samoena did cross Miranda,
as alleged in position A (Fig. 72); 2nd, that she immediately straightened
again to position B when 150 yards, or less, from the Star of the West,
and, continuing to luff, Miranda luffed also ; 3rd, that Miranda, sailing
the faster, had established an overlap upon reaching the Star of the West
when they came in the position C. The diagram of these three positions
(Fig. 68) was testified to by witnesses who were watching the two yachts
from on board the Star of the West.
It can be taken for granted that, even if no actual overlap had
been established before the Star of the West was reached, that, at
Overtaking at Marks. 197
any rate, Miranda had got so close up that she could not bear away
across Samoena’s stern without some risk of striking her, she going, be it
remembered, the faster through the water.
The question of foul sailing thus turned upon the point whether
Miranda was justified in luffing when Samoena luffed whilst in position B,
the yachts being so close to the mark-boat. The Sailing Committee
decided that she was not so justified, and withheld the prize from

ſtar of the Wººl
- E-TºDT

N C.
N
A.
\ - y
| /
|
FIG. 72.
Miranda. The Council took a different view, and decided as follows as
to the charge of foul sailing :
“The charge has not been made out, as the evidence shows that the Miranda must
have been overlapping the Samoena before the mark vessel was reached.”
May v. Tara.
Occasionally a case is complicated by a vessel overtaking and passing
a vessel just before reaching a mark. Such a case occurred in the regatta
of the Royal Dart Yacht Club in August, 1883, and ultimately came before
the Council on Nov. 27 of the same year.
The Tara, 40 tons, had led May, 40 tons, over the greater part of the course, but
approaching a mark under spinnakers to starboard, wind very light, May overtook and,
as alleged, passed clear ahead of Tara. They had to get in spinnakers and gybe round
the mark to leave it on the port hand, and after gybing, May, when abreast of the mark,
luffed up across Tara to get on her course for the next mark; and Tara, which was on
May's weather quarter, having the inside berth, fouled her—Tara's bowsprit striking
May's mast. On the part of Tara it was contended that May had not at any time
a clear lead in the meaning of Rule 18—that is, Tara had not a choice as to whether
she would cross May’s stern and take an outside berth, or stick to the inside berth as
they got near the mark.
The question really turned on a question of fact as to the position of the yachts at
the time when May altered her helm to round, which can be taken in this case to be the
time when she gybed.
198 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
On behalf of May, it was contended that she had this clear lead, and the committee
of the club, who saw the occurrence, supported this contention, although they only had
an end on view.
It should be stated that, when about a mile from the mark, the yachts were the
best part of a quarter of a mile apart in a broadside direction, and Tara at that time, it
was admitted, could have luffed out across the stern of May; but this would have thrown
her considerably out of her course, as the two yachts were in reality converging towards
the mark from different positions.
Ultimately the council, after reviewing the very conflicting evidence, felt bound to
give a decision in accordance with the independent testimony of the committee of the
club as follows:
The sailing committee having testified that May had passed Tara and had a clear lead
when she altered her helm to round the mark-boat, the May was not responsible for the foul.
It frequently happens that when yachts are approaching a mark close
hauled (or free), that the leading yacht may be a little to leeward, as in
Fig. 73. The yacht A cannot tack to round the mark on port hand,
WIND, because she could not clear
Z B, and she must therefore
wait until B chooses to
tack.
It should be noted that
it does not matter which
*- tack the yachts are on ; A
has no right to tack until
'A she can do so clear of B.
Often a yacht in the
/B position of B proves very
obstinate, and “ reaches
FIG. 73. herantagonist along” until
both have stood farther than is necessary, but B has a right to do this.
A case bearing on this happened on the East Coast, and the dispute
was decided by the Y.R.A., in August, 1884. The case was as follows:
Gem v. Mawd.
After passing a mark the Maud was reached off by the Gem, the latter being astern
on Maud's weather quarter. Maud tacked but could not clear Gem, and a foul ensued.
The Council decided that Maud was not justified in tacking until she could do so
without bringing about a collision, and must therefore be adjudged in the wrong.
(See also “Obstructions to Sea Room.”)
In considering the undoubted right of a vessel in the position of B
(Fig. 74) to reach A on out of the course, it must not be overlooked that
under certain conditions it may not be right to do so, as it would be
contrary to the rules of fair play.
It can be supposed that two vessels are standing on a course for a buoy,
and B, the one to windward, can weather an obstruction, such as a pier

Hailing a Yaeht to Tack at Marks. 199
(see Fig. 74), and A, the one to leeward, cannot ; but after the obstruction
is weathered they can bear up two or three points for the buoy which
has to be rounded. A, the leeward yacht, hails B, the windward yacht, to
go about, and the latter complies, and both come on the starboard tack,
with A now on the weather quarter of B. (See Fig. 75.) It would be no more
than fair if A tacked again directly she could weather the obstruction ;
but she might elect to reach B on, and we have heard it justly con-
tended that, although as a general right A is allowed to do this, she

Ater


FIG, 74.
ought not to be permitted to do it where she has gained the position
solely by hailing the other vessel about under Rule 22. The remedy, of
course, would be to give B the right to hail A to go round again directly
she can weather the obstruction.
HAILING TO GO ABOUT AT MARKs.
If, instead of being at the pier, the yachts had been at the buoy,
A could not have hailed B to go about, as under Rule 22 marks are
excepted.
200 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
APPROACHING A MARK ON OPPOSITE TACKS FOR Round ING.
It frequently happens that two yachts are approaching a mark on
opposite tacks, and the one on the port tack may be able to weather the
mark, whilst the one on the starboard tack cannot do so until she goes on
\\ (c.
FIG. 75.
the other tack. In Fig. 76, D will be the mark, A a vessel on the
starboard tack, and B the one on port tack. It would be the duty
of B to give way, even though it were at the finish of a race, and
that she was in a position to cross the line E; she would be clearly
ahead of A, but might not be able to quite weather her, and so would
have to give way. We recollect a case similar to the above happening
at Cowes between the Kriemhilda, 106 tons, and Arrow, 107 tons, in 1874,
in a match of the Royal Albert Yacht Club; the Arrow was on port tack

Port and Starboard Tacks at Mark S.
2()]
-----------~~~~~~"
and gave way, but the late Mr. Chamberlayne said he never gave way more
reluctantly in his life; yet, as it was clearly his duty to do so, he ordered
the helm of the Arrow to be put down, and the Kriemhilda got round the
mark first.
Another case happened at Plymouth, in 1879, between the Formosa,
cutter, 102 tons, and Florinda, yawl, 135 tons:
There was a very strong westerly wind, and Florinda was going for the Penlee mark
on port tack, and Formosa on starboard. Florinda was expected to stay, but she did not,
and if Formosa had held on she would have struck her about the main rigging. Formosa's
Helm was, however, hauled hard a-weather, and her head payed off almost sufficiently
to clear Florinda, but not quite, and the mizen of the latter was knocked out. It was
never for a moment contended that Formosa was in any way to blame for this collision,
and we think she could not have been expected to do more than she did. If those on

– ~~
_ -'
_^
_2 <
_^
2’
,”
2 =ſlº Buoy
Af “Srºsſ--
~~~~
A ~ 2 S-'
49
Z
/
z
/ B
/d
/
/
Z
\
\
\
Y
\
\
\
N
\k
*\
N
^
Ys
*
*
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Y--
FIG. 77.
board Formosa had given way earlier—which she would scarcely have been justified in
doing—it would only have encouraged those who always reluctantly give way when on
port tack, because they know, if the vessels do not actually touch, how difficult it is for
the yacht on starboard tack to prove her case.
A case occurred during the summer of 1890, which varied somewhat
from the foregoing as follows:
The yacht A, on port tack, had come from the direction indicated by the arrow d,
and the yacht on starboard tack from the direction indicated by k. A commences to
bear up to round the buoy, and B, instead of bearing up to go under A's stern, luffs in
between her and the buoy. A foul ensues, and A claims to be in the right, because she
had altered her helm for the purpose of rounding, when B luffed between her and the
buoy. But clearly A had no right to bear away whilst she was across B, and compel B
202 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
****-- ~~~~<---- - - - - - ------------------"
to bear away also to go under her stern ; and B could claim the right to luff, as the onus.
of getting out of the way does not rest with her; indeed, in many cases B could claim
and prove that had she not luffed the consequences of the collision might have been much
more disastrous. A, by bearing away to round the buoy when she was across B, increased
the risks of collision, and it was her duty to have gone into the wind and have conceded
the passage to B. Of course there is the contingency that if A tacked she might ho
reached on past the mark by B; but, although such a proceeding is permissible under the
rules, it is usually considered rather bad form to exercise the privilege under such con-
(litions as just recited,
The foregoing cases are very clear, and there can be no doubt as to
what the vessel on the port tack should do ; but the case would be more
difficult to deal with if the yachts were in the position with regard to a
mark shown in Figs. 78 and 79. Also if the vessel on port tack
is nearest the mark which has to be rounded, as at B (Fig. 79),
she must give way to a vessel on starboard tack in the position of
A when both are close hauled approaching a mark, as D, to proceed.
" * - -
* - -
-- *
4 -
x * § 4 Tº 2 Z
D W == JD W. Lº
~ $º- a T-2'--
SES:S - Sºº-ºº::"
•º. --→ *-
* T * ~ *
---------
A2
FIG. 78. FIG. 79.
in the direction of (say) E. It is evident that B must get out of the
way by bearing up and passing under the stern of A, unless B is so.
far ahead as to be able to stay round the mark clear of A. In such
a case the following conditions must be considered : A is the yacht.
on the starboard tack; B the yacht on the port tack; D a buoy which
the yachts have to round and proceed in the direction of the arrow
E. B goes into stays under the lee bow, but a little ahead of A, so that.
when they arrive at the buoy they are in the position of A 2 and B 2.
(Fig. 79), and a collision ensues. B will claim the foul, and argue that A
should have given her room at the buoy ; A will claim the foul, and
say that B should not have gone into stays in a position where A
could strike her. B in this case would be in the right, provided always
that the foul would not have occurred if A had not allered her helm by
putting it up. But B would not be justified in tacking in such a position
if she thereby caused A to put her helm down or luff to avoid a collision;
nor would she be justified in so tacking if a collision ensued, and A

Port and Starboard Taeks at Marks. 203
did not alter her course one way or the other. On the other hand, A
would not be justified in putting her helm up, and so cause a collision or
a fouling of the mark.
The following case occurred in the regatta of the Royal Yacht
Squadron in 1885:
Galatea, Irex, and Tara were standing for the Yarmouth markboat on starboard
tack, Galatea leading under the lee bow of Irex, a couple of cable lengths ahead, and
Tara as far off Irex, and up on her weather quarter. Galatea stayed to port tack to stand
for the mark, and at once came across Irex, the mark now being about a couple of
hundred yards ahead. It was plain from the first that Galatea could not clear Irex, and
the latter hove round under Galatea's lee, and the pair came into the position on port tack
shown in the diagram (Fig. 80); Irex would thus have cut her out at the mark; but
CALATEA



TARA
FIG. 80.
here a fresh difficulty presented itself—there was still Tara on starboard tack to
reckon with, and she refused to give way, going straight for Irex’s rigging. The latter
at last eased her helm, and Galatea, too, did the same, the pair going nearly up head to
wind. It was too late, however, for them to clear Tara, and the latter had to hustle
round to avoid striking Irex. Directly Tara had given way, Galatea and Irex filled on
port tack again, smothering up Tara, and nearly jamming her on to the mark, and it
looked as if Irex's mainsail did actually foul Tara. Luckily there was not much weight
in the wind, or the result might have been very serious.
It is quite clear that Galatea brought about this embroglio through
having forced Irex round to port tack (see “Tacking when there is not
room to Tack,”); and it would be a moot point whether Irex could
also have been held to blame through being in a position which caused
Tara to go about to avoid a collision.
204, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
RUNNING IFOR A MARK ON OPPOSITI, GypIs.
The following case occurred at Plymouth in 1892. Two yachts A
and B, are running for a mark with main booms on opposite sides. They
arrive near the mark in the following positions:
º Mark
º A
| =====s*
uſ

Tide
FIG 81.
A, it will be seen has to gybe to get round the mark, and B is
preparing to cut in between her and the mark as the gybe takes place.
"The next position is shown by A, B, on the left of Fig. 82, A having run


—X-
Tide
FIG. 82.
well on before letting her boom over, probably to make sure of not being
carried on to the mark by the tide. The collision occurred as shown in the
second position near the mark, Fig. 82.
Hard Cases. 205
It was held that A was bound to keep clear of B; and B knowing
that A could not get round the mark without gybing, was justified in
taking advantage of the room. A had left. Supposing A had elected to
run on, for, say another two lengths, it could not be maintained that B had
not the right to cut in between A and the mark. A case like this, how-
ever, must be decided on its merits; and the points in the one illustrated
are that A had left so much room as to justify B in choosing an inside
berth, and that A should have been met with the helm after bearing up to
get her boom over, and not have tried to shut out B.
FoECED ON TO A MARK By A Rowing BoAT.
A case occurred on the Mersey in the autumn of 1891, which is not
met by any of the sailing rules. A competitor was reaching for the
winning mark and was forced on to it by a large four-oared rowing boat.
The rowing boat was regarded as a vessel which had wrongfully forced the
yacht on to the buoy. This was in accordance with the decision of the
committee of the Royal Yacht Squadron in 1872, when, in order to avoid
sailing over a yacht’s gig, the schooner Gwendolin ran into and sunk the
mark boat. The committee held that under the circumstances she should
not be disqualified for fouling and sinking the mark boat.
HARD CASEs.
The following must be considered as “hard cases,” and much too
difficult to prove to the satisfaction of a committee. In light weather
and with a foul tide, yachts frequently drive back past a mark after
fairly rounding it. Two cases have occurred, one in 1879, and the other
in 1893, which involved the following conditions: In the diagram, Fig. 83,
A is a buoy which has to be rounded on the port hand. B is a yacht
running before the wind for the buoy; she hauls round the buoy and stands
close hauled to C, where she is fairly above the buoy. The yacht is put
about at C, and stands across towards the buoy again, but fails to weather
it on account of the tide; she fetches the point D in slacker water, and
stands towards E. It was contended that B, not having weathered the
buoy in standing from C to D, did not round it on the port hand. But
it is quite clear that if the yacht when at C was clear ahead of the buoy
A, the rounding would be a good one.
Let it be supposed that the yacht B was beating to the buoy from
C to round it on starboard hand, and weathered it, sailing on to D, and
then ran up past the buoy to E or to a point abreast of C ; it could
not be maintained that the buoy had not been rounded (it always
206 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
being understood that a mark has not to be “circumnavigated *). If,
when the yacht arrived at E or abreast of C, the wind fell light, and
she, failing to anchor, was carried by the tide back past the buoy, and
ultimately repassed it on the side D, that would not affect the first rounding,
which would be held to be a good one; the difficulty in the first case, it will
be seen, rests in proving that the yacht was actually up past the mark when
in the position C.
This case can be differently illustrated: at the finish of a race a mark
boat had to be left on the starboard hand in the direction of the arrow
D
N.
*
... •
... * *
ſ
‘.f
&
\*
\
^*
*~
A
*
*
*
*
^
FIG. 83.
(Fig. 84). The yacht instead passed up, leaving the mark on her port
side in the direction of the dotted line from A to B ; then round the mark
until fairly below it at D, where she turned and repassed the mark, leaving
it on her own starboard side, thus fulfilling the conditions.
In cases like these, the point to decide is whether the yacht has
been in a position to make the rounding a good one. In the first case
(Fig. 83) when at C, it would be required to be proved beyond all doubt
(which would be an exceedingly difficult thing to do) that the hull and
D
→–º
<-->
AMark Bootc. \
* ---------- -----------------"* B
FIG. 84
spars were fairly clear of the buoy in a line at right angles to the last
course (the course in the direction of B to A), and unless the yacht were
clear of the mark by such a test, the rounding would not be a good One.
A similar test would decide the other case (Fig. 84) by the position at D.
CIRCUMNAVIGATING MARKS.
It frequently happens that yachts have to go round various marks in a
sort of ring, with instructions, say, to round the marks on starboard hand.
If the yachts were, in addition to this, forbidden to pass any of the marks at
Circumnavigating Marks. 207
•------------ ***-- - - - - --------- - -------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------------ -
any time on the port hand, it is plain that the marks as a whole would have
to be circumnavigated ; otherwise the yachts could work in and out the
marks at will, but each in turn would have to be passed in the way
prescribed in the instructions.
The following case occurred in a match of the Castle Yacht Club :
Humming Bird v. Cock-a-TVhoop.
“The course to be across the starting line from the northward, round the three
Bramble Buoys, leaving them on the starboard hand, to the Spit Lightship,” &c. The
Cock-a-Whoop and Babe after rounding the E. Bramble stood on port tack, as shown by
the dotted line, Fig. 85, past the N.W. Bramble. They then tacked and stood for the
W. Bramble, and rounded it on starboard hand. They then sailed on past the N.W.
Bramble, passing it on starboard hand. The owner of the Humming Bird protested that
they should not at any time have passed the N.W. Bramble on the port hand.

NW o * - *
k ſº —º: E
Brambly sº 6 ramble
\!
W
.
- W.
Bramble
FIG. 85.
The committee, having considered the protest by the owner of Humming Bird
against Cock-a-Whoop and Babe for “leaving the N.W. Bramble Buoy on the port hand
before rounding the W. Bramble,” decide as follows: The committee consider that the
words in the sailing instructions, “round the three Bramble Buoys, leaving them on the
starboard hand,” do not compel a yacht to circumnavigate the three buoys collectively, any
more than the same words applied to a single mark; and by the rules of yacht racing and
precedents decided by the Yacht Racing Association it has been decided authoritively
that a mark can be “rounded " without circumnavigation, the mark being left on the
proper side—the point to decide being whether a yacht has been in a position to make
the “rounding ” a good one.
In the case in point, the committee consider that any yacht “rounding ” the marks
eorrectly and consecutively fulfils the requirements of the instructions, the word
“rounding ” being employed in the usual way applied to yacht racing. Consequently
when Cock-a-Whoop and Babe left the E. Bramble Buoy, the next mark was the
W. Bramble Buoy, and the manner in which they sailed to it was immaterial.
When the W. Bramble was “rounded " the N.W. Bramble became the next mark ;
and had to be “rounded "leaving it to starboard. Cock-a-Whoop and Babe did this, and
the committee consider that they sailed the course correctly.
35
2()8 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
- --...- ----...-----------" "
Moreover, from the point of view adopted by the protester, viz., that the yachts.
should pass the N.W. Bramble Buoy, leaving it to starboard, and before rounding the
W. Bramble Buoy, it so happens in this particular instance that unwittingly this was
performed, the angle at the N.W. Bramble Buoy subtended by the E. and W. Bramble
Buoys being a right angle, or less than a right angle. Consequently, in rounding the
W. Bramble Buoy and leaving it to starboard, the yachts must all of them have placed
their hull and spars fairly clear of the N.W. Bramble Buoy in a line at right angles to
the line joining the E. and N.W. Bramble Buoys.
From every point of view, therefore, the committee decide that the Cock-a-Whoop
and Babe followed the instructions correctly, and that the protest against them fails.
In this case the instructions issued to the competitors simply said the
yachts were to go from Calshot round the east, west, and north-west
Bramble Buoys, leaving them on the starboard hand. One of the yachts,
after leaving E. on starboard hand, reached down past N.W. on port hand.
She then tacked, and reached past N.W. again on port hand and on
to W., rounding it on starboard hand. She then proceeded to run
back towards N.W., now passing it also on the starboard hand. It
was contended that, according to the wording of the instructions, all three
buoys had to be “circumnavigated,” as a whole, and that the circum-
navigation scheme was never accomplished ; but W., according to the
instructions, did not become a mark to be rounded until E. is rounded, and
similarly N.W. did not become a mark until W. is rounded. Therefore we
think the committee rightly contended that the buoys had not to be circum-
navigated in the manner the objector protested they should be. Each buoy
is a separate mark, which, in proper order, has to be passed on the star-
board hand. We can illustrate the case in another way by the Royal
Victoria course at Ryde. Starting from Ryde, the Nab Lightship, the
Spithead Markboat and the Cowes Markboat have to be left on the port
hand. Supposing, in beating from Ryde to the Nab, a yacht passed the
Spithead mark on the starboard hand, and then, after rounding the Nab,
passed it on the port hand; could it be maintained that the Spithead mark
had not been properly rounded ? So far as we can see, it did not become
a mark until after the yacht rounded the Nab, and if it had been fouled
previously to such rounding we do not think a yacht could be disqualified
for the foul. This is quite an important point in various ways, particularly
in a case which might arise under Rule 22. The rule says: “if two yachts
are standing towards a shore or shoal, or towards any buoy, boat, or vessel,
and the yacht to leeward is likely to run aground, or foul of such buoy,
boat, or vessel (a mark vessel excepted), and is not able to tack without
coming into collusion with the yacht to windward, the latter shall at once
tack on being hailed to do so by the leeward yacht.” A “mark vessel
excepted ” was inserted in the rule to prevent a leeward yacht, on rounding
a mark or finishing a race, from robbing a yacht to windward of an
Obstructions to Sea Room. 209
advantage she held owing to superior weatherly or other qualities. But in
the cases quoted, if the buoys and mark vessels are to be at all times
regarded as marks, the yacht to leeward would not have the right to hail
under the rule. We, however, think the correct view of the case is as we
put it just now, that nothing in the course becomes a mark to be observed
until the mark next before it has been disposed of.
The following case occurred at an Irish Regatta in 1893:
The instructions said “all red marks to be left on the starboard hand.” The course
formed a triangle, the committee boat (red) being the apex. The yachts started for a
mark (red) to the South, and, having rounded that, had to go to another mark (red) to
the north. On the way northward Natica and Eurynome stood to the north-east, and
passed the committee boat on the port hand before reaching the north mark. The
Aº *s
* • S
FLAC SHIP
R. E. D.
*—tºº."
FIG. 86.
owners claimed that in going from the South to the north mark the committee boat was
not a mark, and could be left on either hand.
The council decided that the committee boat was not a mark within the meaning of
the rules when the yachts were going from the south mark to the north mark.
RULE 20.-OBSTRUCTIONS TO SEA ROOM.
When passing a pier, shoal, rock, vessel, or other obstruction to sea room, should
yachts not be clear of each other, the outside yacht or yachts must give room to the yacht
in danger of fouling such obstruction, whether she be the weather or the leeward yacht :
provided always that an overlap has been established before an obstruction is actually
reached.
SAILING ALONG A WEATHER SHORE OR LEE SHORE—OVERTAKING.
In sailing along a weather shore always remember that, although a
yacht may “luff as she pleases to prevent another yacht passing to
windward,” she may not shove the other yacht ashore or on to any
obstruction; on the other hand, a yacht overtaking another yacht should
not attempt to make an overlap just upon reaching an obstruction. This
means that the leading yacht can keep her luff up to the very moment that an
obstruction is reached, even supposing that an overlap will occur simultaneously
with reaching an obstruction. If the overtaking yacht goes ashore or in
any way receives or inflicts damages under such circumstances, she is solely
ºresponsible.



210 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
In all cases remember that the windward yacht can only demand
room in case she would, by holding to her course, actually strike an
obstruction or take the ground.
It frequently happens, when sailing along a shore, bank, &c., to shun
a tide or otherwise, that an overtaken yacht allows one astern to come
up on her weather, being fearful of getting into a luffing match when so
near the ground; in such a case the overtaken yacht often warns the
other that she is coming to windward at her own risk, and that no.
further room will be given her. Presently an arm or outward bend in
the bank, or a shallow, warns the overtaken yacht to bear away a little,
but she is careful to do so only just far enough to clear the ground
herself, and leaves no room for the overtaking yacht on the ground
that a warning was given the latter that she came to windward at her
own risk. The warning, however, would be of no avail if the windward
yacht got ashore or if a foul ensued, providing always that the over-
taking yacht had established an overlap with her bowsprit or some part
of her hull before reaching the obstruction.
In sailing along a lee shore, the weather yacht in all cases is bound
to give the one to leeward room.
A yacht is not justified in making another yacht either bear away or
luff to avoid striking an obstacle of any kind.
Several protests have been decided by the Y.R.A. under this rule,
notably the Vanessa v. Enriqueta case, in 1879; and the Silver Star v. Tara.
case in November, 1883. In the “Silver Star v. Tara, ’’ case the decision
rested on a question of facts, and, as usual, the evidence was most con-
flicting. This much, however, can be said, that the decision is not likely
to encourage a yacht to try to get the inside berth in sailing along a
weather shore.
The “Vanessa v. Enriqueta' case presented some peculiarities:
Vanessa v. Enriqueta, 1879.
After rounding the Nore, they were returning along the Jenkyn Sand, Vanessa leading
by about ten lengths, both yachts being on port tack a point or so free. Vanessa took the
ground, and Enriqueta did so also. She was the first to get off, and reached up close
under Vanessa’s lee just as the latter got off again. A foul ensued, Enriqueta's cross-
trees getting hung up in the leech of Vanessa's mainsail.
The owner of Vanessa protested on the ground that Enriqueta, being the overtaking
vessel, was bound to keep clear; and, moreover, Vanessa at the time of the foul being
barely afloat, she herself was unable to do anything to avoid a collision. Enriqueta, on
the other hand, had plenty of sea room to leeward, but instead of bearing away luffed
into Wanessa.
The owner of the Enriqueta declared that at the time of the foul the yachts had got.
into deep water by bearing away. Enriqueta had been drawn-to again on her course, but,
Vanessa, in spite of a warning that there was plenty of water, continued to bear away,
Obstructions to Sea Room. 211
and thus caused the foul. After the foul Enriqueta passed Vanessa, and luffed across
her, having plenty of water.
The owner of Enriqueta gave the positions of the yachts as follows (See Fig. 87):
A shows Enriqueta ashore; B shows Vanessa ashore; E shows Enriqueta bearing away
after she got afloat, and reaching up level with Vanessa just as the latter began to
move ahead again; K M shows the yachts as they came into collision.
The Vanessa's pilot stated that at the time of the foul the Vanessa only had about
9ft. of water under her. The pilot of Enriqueta, on the other hand, declared that there
were four and a half fathoms. Neither took a cast of the lead, and each spoke to having
a perfect knowledge of the depth of water from fishing over the ground almost daily.
The Council came to the conclusion that the evidence of the pilots was quite worth-
less, but that, judging from the admission made by the owner of the Enriqueta of the easy
manner he reached past to leeward of Vanessa when in the position K M, they were
inclined to think that the owner of Vanessa was correct in saying that she was barely
afloat at the time when she was bearing away, and through which it was alleged by the
owner of the Enriqueta that the foul occurred; and that they were not in such deep
water as represented by Enriqueta's pilot, and as indicated in the diagram.
FIG. 87.
Whether or not Enriqueta did or did not luff into Vanessa it would be impossible to
say on the evidence, but a foul occurred, and the sole question was “had Vanessa the
right to bear away and ask for room P” At the time when Enriqueta luffed clear across
Vanessa they were no doubt in deeper water, but that must clearly have been a minute
or two after the foul took place.
In the end the Council adjudged Enriqueta to be in the wrong for not giving room
when Vanessa was bearing away to get clear of the sand.
Lil v. Verena, August 14, 1886.
Case referred by the Royal Southampton Yacht Club : Both vessels had rounded a
markboat and were reaching up the Southampton Water, south shore. Lil was the
weathermost vessel and had overlapped Werena, while the latter was luffing to prevent Lil
passing to windward. Verena continued to luff, and her owner considered that he was
justified in so doing, under Rule 20. Lil at last hailed for room, but Verena took no
notice of the hail, and at last drove Lil on shore. The owner of Werena admits that Lil
had established an overlap some time previously to her going on shore, her bowsprit-end
being level with Verena's rigging.
The Council decided that under Rule 19 Verena was bound to give room, as the
overlap was established before the obstruction was reached.

P 2
212 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
A case where another kind of obstruction was involved occurred at
Falmouth in 1882, and was adjudicated upon by the Council as follows:
Volante v. Chough.
The Volante, yawl, 7 tons, and Chough, cutter, 23 tons (with others), started in a
yacht match, Volante leading with main boom on port side; Chough started from the
opposite end of the line, and with boom on starboard side was overtaking Volante, as
shown in the diagram, the wind being dead aft, Chough perhaps running a little by the
lee (See Fig. 88).
Two schooners, A B, were at anchor in the course, and Volante had a small Bailing
boat on her lee bow and Cockatoo (in the match) on her lee quarter.
Chough caught Volante and put her bowsprit over Volante's quarter, between the
mizenmast and rigging. Chough starboarded her helm (she could not port to any extent
without gybing), and took the mizen mast out of Volante. The latter was turned round
by the Chough, and she struck the schooner B with her bowsprit and carried it away.
On the part of Chough, it was stated that she could not keep away and go the other
side of the schooner B, because she would have struck some moorings near the schooner.
. COC Kar at
ſ * ~. OO JBo
. - - - - - -- s=– º
VO LANTE
u: –3_
& B
- wºrd & . -y . . ~~
| 32---T 2 - " .. r.W.
$: "course sº wou%
§
ſº
S.
C^)

º FIG. 88.
It was contended that Volante had room, and should have starboarded her helm, instead
of which she ported.
The owner of Wolante submitted that he did not port, and could not have done SO, as
his yacht would have struck the schooner B, as she subsequently did when whisked round
by Chough. If he had put his helm to starboard, he would have struck the accompanying
sailing boat, which was under his lee bow.
The Council does not appear to have attempted to reconcile the conflicting evidence,
but decided that as “Chough was in the position of an overtaking vessel, she was bound
to have kept clear, and must be held responsible for the collision.”
Humming Bird v. Dolphin.
It frequently happens that a yacht overtakes a number of other yachts,
and finds it difficult to make a passage between them on account of one
forming an obstruction to windward. The following case was referred to
the council of the Y.R.A. by the Solent Yacht Club in November, 1890 :
Troublesome, Dolphin, Mliss, Humming Bird, and Cock-a-Whoop, were started in a
Yachts Obstructing Each 0ther.
213
race, the Humming Bird being a few lengths astern of Troublesome and Dolphin. They
overtook the Nancy Bell, as shown by Fig. 89, as they neared the Warden Ledge Buoy,
all reaching broad to avoid being set the wrong side of the buoy by the tide.
º i i_j
Jºe’
a t/OY
i
FIG. 89.
Dolphin was luffed in the hope of drawing across Nancy Bell's bow, but failed, and
dropped back again to the position shown in Fig. 90, where she was overtaken and fouled
by Humming Bird; the latter then luffed into Nancy Bell, who in turn luffed into
__*
Troublesome.
§
w:
*
S.
O
&§
TIG. 90.
On behalf of the Humming Bird it was alleged that she, as overtaking vessel, had
elected to go to leeward of Troublesome and Nancy Bell, but as there was ample room
between Nancy Bell and Dolphin she sought a passage there. It was further alleged
that she would have kept clear of both had not Dolphin luffed across her bows and brought



214 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
about the foul. It was further contended that, supposing there was not room for
Humming Bird, Dolphin was in a position to bear away and give room, and ought to
have done so, as she was overlapped by Humming Bird before the obstruction to wind-
ward (Nancy Bell) was reached.
On the part of Dolphin the luffing was denied, and witnesses were called to prove
that Dolphin did not luff; also, that as she and Nancy Bell were not more than a length
apart (in a broadside direction), there was not room for Humming Bird between them;
and they had been in such position some time before Humming Bird overtook them;
and, moreover, as Humming Bird was the overtaking vessel, she was bound to keep clear
of the others, and could have gone to leeward of them. It was further claimed by
Dolphin that the nature of the collision showed that she was not luffed, Humming Bird’s
starboard channel striking her twice; first on the port quarter, 3ft. abaft the rudder
post, and then 4ft. ahead of it, a hole being knocked in Dolphin's side at the latter point.
In the foregoing case Nancy Bell would be regarded as an “obstruc-
tion’’ under Rule 20; and under that rule the question would have to be
considered whether Dolphin had the right to luff and shut out Humming
Bird, or whether she was bound to bear away and give room. Dolphin, it
was alleged, had been sailing for some time under the lee of Nancy Bell,
and whilst Humming Bird was a length or two off—astern of Nancy Bell
and Troublesome. Dolphin had therefore arrived at the “obstruction”
(Nancy Bell) before Humming Bird made the overlap which resulted in the
foul, and it is clear she could not, under such circumstances, claim room
under the provisions of Rule 20 so far as causing Dolphin to bear away is
concerned. It also seems clear that Dolphin would have had the right to
luff and shut out Humming Bird before the latter made an overlap. In
short, a yacht sailing in between two other yachts which are in positions
resembling those occupied by Nancy Bell and Dolphin does so at her own
risk, and if Dolphin had kept away to give room she would have had a
grievance against Humming Bird.
The council of the Y.R.A. appear to have taken this view of the case,
as their decision was as follows: “ The Humming Bird was to blame for
the collisions, and the Dolphin did not contribute thereto.”
(See also “Hailing to go about approaching marks.”)
RULE, 21.-OVERTAKING YACHTS–LUFFING AND BEARING
AWAY.
A yacht overtaking any other shall keep out of the way of the overtaken yacht; and
a yacht may luff as she pleases to prevent another yacht passing to windward, but must
never bear away out of her course to hinder the other passing to leeward—the lee side to
be considered that on which the leading yacht of the two carries her main boom. The
overtaking vessel, if to leeward, must not luff until she has drawn clear ahead of the
yacht she has overtaken.
The Council of the Y.R.A. have decided that if a yacht allows another
yacht to come up on her weather and to be actually in the act of passing
clear ahead, the yacht to leeward may not deliberately luff for the mere
Overtaking—Luffing and Bearing Away. 215
purpose of causing a foul. If the overtaken yacht allowed the other to
come up and be passing ahead (say) before she luffed, it is obvious that the
weathermost yacht may be unable to luff also to keep clear; in such a case
a foul would be the deliberate act of the leeward yacht, and the foul could
not be claimed.
The question has often arisen as to how long a yacht which is rightly
luffing an overtaking yacht can continue to luff. The plain answer is, so
long as she likes; but it has been contended that this may mean that she
may luff until she comes head to wind and fills on the other tack, compelling
the other vessel to tack, and then gaining the weather position. It is
quite clear that no such luffing as this was ever contemplated under the
rule, and would not be allowed; but luffing head to wind or nearly so is a
frequent practice.
An overtaking yacht, if to leeward, is not allowed to luff so as to
cause the yacht to windward to luff to avoid a collision until she (that
is the overtaking yacht) has drawn clear ahead. Thus the overtaking yacht,
under such circumstances, continues to be “overtaking ” until she has
drawn clear ahead.
It must be clearly understood that the foregoing relates to “ yacht
racing ” alone. Yachts ordinarily are subject to the customary rule of the
road, which enacts “ that if two yachts are running free with the wind
on the same side, the yacht which is to windward shall keep out of the
way of the yacht which is to leeward;” and “every vessel overtaking any
other vessel shall keep out of the way of the last-mentioned vessel;” and
“when one of two ships are to keep out of the way the other shall keep
her course.” It is thus quite clear that by the ordinary rules of the sea
a yacht that is being overtaken must neither luff nor bear away to prevent
an overtaking vessel of whatever description passing her. (See “Head
Reaching,” farther on.)
By the rule of the road before referred to, a steam yacht must keep
out of the way of all sailing vessels; but there is one position in which
the sailing vessel would have to keep clear of the steam yacht. It
frequently happens that a sailing yacht is overtaking a steam yacht, and
in all cases the overtaking vessel, whether she be under steam or sail,
or both, must keep out of the way of the one she is overtaking. The
popular opinion was, that in all possible directions of approach, the steam
yacht must keep out of the way of the sailing yacht ; but by the new
regulations which came into force September, 1880, there is, as shown,
one direction of approach under which it is the duty of the sailing yacht
to keep clear of the steam yacht. A vessel, it must be understood, is
only considered as an overtaking one when she is steering in the direction
216 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
of the one ahead or in the wake of the one ahead, and only in such case
would the sailing vessel have to keep clear of the steamer she might be
overtaking. - -
Several cases under this rule have been brought before the council
of the Y.R.A., and the right of the leading vessel to luff to prevent
another passing to windward has been maintained. When the overtaking
vessel has failed to luff also and keep clear, she has been held responsible
for the foul. The following cases illustrate this : -
JBoadicea v. Samaena, August, 1881.
According to the evidence, Boadicea was overtaking Samoena, and the latter luffed,
and either Boadicea, did not see Samoena luff and did not herself luff at all, or, seeing her, did
not luff sufficiently to keep clear. In the end, the jib boom of Boadicea went through
the mainsail of Samoena, and considerable damage was done. The Council decided that
Boadicea was in the wrong.
Ratie v. Buttercup, Dec. 7, 1882.
The Buttercup was overtaking Katie, and the latter luffed; Buttercup also luffed,
but a foul ensued. The Council, after hearing the evidence, decided as follows: “The
luffing having commenced at a time when Katie had a right under Rule 20 to luff to
prevent Buttercup passing to windward, the latter was bound to keep clear, and as a.
foul ensued Buttercup must be held to have been in fault.”
Hinda v. Vanessa, August 14, 1886.
Case referred by the Bristol Channel Yacht Club: Hinda and Vanessa were running
down to a mark, the wind being dead aft, and spinnakers were boomed out to starboard.
Vanessa overtook and ran up on Hinda’s starboard (weather) side, the overlap being a
little more than the length of bowsprit, according to the owner of Hinda; and the bow-
sprit and half the length of hull, according to the owner of Vanessa. Hinda was luffed
to prevent Vanessa passing to windward, and the latter luffed also and hauled main boom
aboard. A foul, however, ensued, Hinda’s spinnaker boom touching Vanessa's balloon
foresail.
The question asked was—“Had the Vanessa ceased to be an overtaking vessel, under
Rule 20, when Hinda’s helm was ported for the purpose of luffing.”
The Council decided that Vanessa had not ceased to be an overtaking yacht, and was.
bound to keep clear.
The Council has, however, been careful that no unfair advantage.
should be taken of the rule on the part of the overtaken vessel by wilfully
or vexatiously bringing about a foul, as the following cases will show :
Senta v. Rival, March, 1881.
Rival, it was alleged, overtook and nearly passed clear ahead of Senta, when the latter-
luffed, and, with her bowsprit, struck the after cloths in Rival’s mainsail. Senta claimed
the foul; but, on the part of Rival, it was alleged that Senta luffed nearly head to wind
for the Bole purpose of causing a foul. The council decided that from the position.
of the yachts, and from the spar and sail which came into contact when the foul took
place, that the helm of the Senta could not have been altered to prevent Rival passing
to windward, as allowed by Rule 20, but for the purpose of making a foul, and Senta must.
therefore be adjudged in the wrong. -
Overtaking–Luffing and Bearing Away. 217
Freda v. Lowise, June, 1881.
Freda overtook Louise, and, after sundry luffing bouts, the two had borne up for their
mark; Freda out on the weather bow of Louise, having so far got past her. They were
sailing parallel courses when Louise was suddenly luffed, and Freda luffed also, but
Louise's bowsprit struck the after leech of her mainsail. The owner of Louise claimed
the foul under Rule 20, but admitted that his vessel was luffed for the purpose of causing
the foul. The council decided that a yacht could not claim a foul under the conditions
disclosed by the evidence. -
The following case was referred to the Y.R.A. by the Royal
Southampton Yacht Club :
May v. Mohawk, 1888.
May and Mohawk were with other yachts in a race, and, whilst running from Lepe
Buoy to the Calshot Spit Lightship, a foul ensued between the two named. Both yachts
protested, and the officer of the day undertook that the case should not be decided without
the owner of Mohawk having an opportunity to give evidence. However, some of the
sailing committee had witnessed the occurrence from a steamer which accompanied the
race, and, being unaware of the undertaking given to the owner of Mohawk by the officer
of the day who was on board the station vessel, proceeded to adjudicate upon the case, and
decided in favour of May. The prize was subsequently sent to the owner of that yacht.
The owner of Mohawk objected to this decision, and asked to have the case referred
to the Y.R.A. To this the club assented, but the owner of May declined to take any part
in the proceedings, on the grounds that the club referred the case without consulting his
wishes, and because the matter had already been decided by the club committee and the
prize paid over to him.
The statement of the members of the committee who saw the foul was as follows:
The yachts rounded Lepe Buoy in the following order, May, Neptune, Mohawk, a
short distance between each. Mohawk overhauled May, and passed her to windward,
The Mohawk, when about two lengths ahead, and a little on May's starboard bow.
took in her spinnaker in order to gybe over, then the May suddenly, and not before,
became the overtaking vessel. The May, running as dead as possible, was then
steering clear of Mohawk, and passing clear of her on her port side when the Mohawk
gybed, but, finding she could not head the May, she had to gybe back again, and
it was during this second gybe that the foul took place. These facts being confirmed by
another member of the sailing committee, who was in his yacht and saw the foul, the
sailing committee decided in favour of May, on the ground that it was an error of
judgment on the part of Mohawk, she not having established a sufficient lead before
attempting to cross May’s bows, Rule 18 requiring that “no yacht shall be considered
clear of another yacht unless so much ahead as to give a free choice to the other on which
side she will pass.” Rule 20 also bears on the case.
The owner of Mohawk stated she passed on May's weather. After this Mohawk
obtained a lead of four or five lengths, and both had got so far to windward of their
course that they could not run for the Spit Lightship, and both were by the lee in trying
to do so. Mohawk was still four lengths ahead, when she took in her spinnaker
preparatory to gybing. May kept hers on, and, blanketing Mohawk, came upon her very
fast, Mohawk being at the time a little on May's starboard bow, or nearly dead ahead
of her, both still by the lee. Eventually Mohawk's main boom came over to starboard
quarter when the yacht was about two lengths ahead of May. She was immediately
afterwards run into by May, whose bowsprit struck Mohawk's taffrail on the port side,
and grazed along the rail until brought up by May's whisker getting hung up in the fair
leader on Mohawk's port quarter. During the foul Mohawk's mainboom swung on board
again and rested on May's headsail, but the boom was pushed back again to starboard
quarter. Mohawk sprung to a little when she gybed, but she was not luffed.
218 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The sailing master of Mohawk and the mate gave similar testimony, and declared
that the fact of May running so dead after Mohawk brought the latter's boom over before
they were quite ready for it, and when they were about a clear length ahead. The foul
took place immediately afterwards. If May, when she began to overtake Mohawk, had
got in her spinnaker and gybed she could have avoided the foul.
All the witnesses declared positively that Mohawk only gybed once, and that the foul
took place immediately after that gybe.
It was stated that the club steamer was from a mile to a mile and a half away from
the yachts at the time of the foul, and about abreast of them.
The council having remarked on the unsatisfactory circumstance of being called upon
to give a decision without any direct evidence from the May, unanimously resolved as
follows: “That from the evidence before them the council decide that the May was the
overtaking yacht, and therefore alone to blame for the foul.”
The following questions arising out of cases which had occurred
under the luffing rule in 1894, were asked by the Royal Northern Yacht
Club :

A
B
A B
A
3 .
'T) *
D
FIG. 91. b
Question : (1) A. and B. are both reach- FIG. 92.


ing on starboard tack. B. is overtaking Question : (2) If B. draws right abeam
A., meaning to pass her to windward with A., and the latter luffs (Fig. 92).
(Fig. 91). a. B. refuses to luff, and strikes A.
(1) When B.'s bowsprit overlaps A.’s b. B. luffs all he can, but cannot
counter by (say) 1 yard, A. luffs avoid A., who continues to luff
across B.’s bow, and a collision until the boats touch.
follows. Answer: a. A. right.
Answer: A. right. b. A. right.
Cases Under the Luffing Rule.
219


/
FIG. 93.
Question: (3) When B. has drawn
nearly ahead of A., so that B.’s counter
overlaps A.’s bowsprit, A. luffs sharply,
and strikes B. (Fig. 93).
Answer: B. right.
FIG. 95.
Question : (5) Further—If the boats
are running dead before the wind (Fig. 94),
would that make any difference in the
decision P
Answer: If the yachts were dead
before the wind, that would make no
difference.
e--------------- B
—º
FIG. 94.
Question: (4) If (1) is decided in
favour of A.; and (2) and—or—(3) in
favour of B.; then at what point does A.
lose the right to luff P
Answer: When from the position of the
yachts it is apparent that A. has luffed
too late to prevent B. passing to wind-
ward, and a foul ensues, the act of A. could
not be upheld.


FIG. 96.
Question: (6) A. and B. are both close-
hauled on starboard tack, and B. is astern,
but a little to windward of A. B. is
sailing more water than A., and A. is lying
a better wind than B. B. runs into A.,
striking the latter on the counter with
her bowsprit (Fig. 95). Which is in the
right P
Answer: A. right.
220 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Question . (7) Assume that B. was first round the lee mark, and that A. has caught
her to windward, does this fact make any difference P (Figs. 96 and 97).
Answer: B. right, and A. would have to keep clear.
Asºº sº gº sº º
g %
(In connection º
with the above, A CYANE YANE
—º CYAN
see “Head Reach- A / \ \ ^ TSY'T' ------~~ B
ing and Weather- [ º----------
in or ’’ Pow{k, on. ALVN |DA sº
ing ” farther on). B * ALW IDA \\}ºws: A3
t |
|
* = ** sess sº sm ºn a s ºme a m- º - * * * * * •= sºme as sº sº tº
A - º
FIG. 97.
The following case was referred to the council by
the Aghada committee 1884:
The facts were as follows: After first gun, Alwida came under
Cyane's lee while both were working into position, as shown in the
diagram marked A.
At gunfire both put up their helms, and squared away for line,
crossing some moments later (see B.).
Alwida slightly ahead, Cyane overlapping, they continued in
the same position relatively to each other, towards next mark C
(both carrying spinnakers to port), when Alwida luffed Cyane and ^
fouled her. Papoose, also in the race, was to windward of both Xy CYANE PAPOOSE
boats at the time Alwida luffed (see Fig. C.). Al-WIDA
Alwida won the race, but protested against the awarding of a FIG. 98
2nd prize to Cyane, on the grounds that she refused to luff, and
caused the foul.
The committee decided that Alwida was not luffed for the bond fide purpose of
preventing Cyane's passing on her weather, but in order to cause a foul.
The case was subsequently referred to the council of the Y.R.A., who
decided as follows:
“Alwida under the circumstances had the right to luff as she did, and Cyane should
have luffed to avoid her.”
RULE 22.-REQUIRING A YACHT TO TACK WHEN APPROACH-
ING A SHORE OR OTHER OBSTRUCTION CLOSE-HAULED.
If two yachts are standing towards a shore or shoal, or towards any buoy, boat, or
vessel, and the yacht to leeward is likely to run aground, or foul of such buoy, boat, or
vessel (a mark vessel excepted), and is not able to tack without coming into collision with
the yacht to windward, the latter shall at once tack, on being hailed to do so by the
Hailing a Yacht to Tack. 221
owner of the leeward yacht, or the person acting as the owner's representative, who
shall be bound to see that the leeward yacht tacks at the same time.
When two vessels are standing on the same tack for the shore, a
shoal, or other obstruction, and the leeward yacht cannot tack without
coming in contact with the windward one, she may hail the windward
yacht to go about, but she must herself at the same time tack; but if
the obstruction is a mark in the course, such as a buoy or vessel, &c.,
which has to be rounded, the leeward yacht cannot so hail the windward
One to go about and give her room to tack. If the leeward yacht requires
to tack to weather the mark she should ease her helm, and wait till the
other one has drawn clear.
When one of two yachts has to tack, the common practice is for
the windward one to wait until the other has actually put her helm down
before she does so herself; if this is not done she will probably find that
the yacht which was to leeward of her has shot up on her weather quarter—
some distance astern perhaps, but still on her weather quarter—instead
of under her lee beam or lee quarter. This will be annoying, but naturally
it is the thing that the vessel which was to leeward will endeavour to
effect; and if previous to tacking her position was under the lee bow
of the other, she is almost certain to effect her object whatever the other
might do.
The rule clearly says that the windward vessel shall tack directly she is
hailed to do so (it being assumed that the vessel to leeward is in actual
danger of running aground if she holds on any longer), and that the leeward
vessel must at the same time tack; but what the sailing master of the lee-
ward vessel generally does is to gently ease the helm down, and sail his
vessel to the last moment, so as to bring her round well on the weather
quarter of the other. This is not always achieved, for the reason, as before
said, that the windward vessel waits until the other is fairly tacking, or else,
in staying, sails round in the same way that the leeward vessel does.
If the yachts are abeam and very close together—say not more than a
length apart—the windward yacht should put her helm down directly she is
hailed. If she waits until the other is putting her helm down, and then
eases her own helm, the bowsprit of the leeward yacht may strike the
counter of the other, as the bow of the One will be swinging round against
the stern of the other. Therefore, in such a case the windward yacht
should be very prompt in putting her helm down, and if the other fails
to put hers down at the same time she can be protested against.
The leeward vessel is the judge of her own peril, but this does not
justify her in needlessly putting another vessel about, and in all cases
actual peril of striking the ground or other obstruction must exist.
222 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Some pilots and sailing masters will venture much closer in shore than
others, and give way reluctantly, or not at all, when hailed; but, if there
be reasonable grounds for believing a yacht to be in danger, the weather-
most one is bound to tack when hailed; she could, however, protest if
wrongfully put about by the leewardmost yacht tacking when the latter
was not in immediate danger of going aground or striking an obstruction.
This rule must be interpreted by the ordinary customs dictated by prudence,
and such careful navigation as yacht racing admits of.
The following are decisions of the Council of the Y.R.A. on the point :
Silver Star v. Tara, 1883.
Tara and Silver Star were reaching across the Thames on starboard tack (Silver Star
on weather quarter of Tara), and they fetched to within some two hundred yards of the
West Blyth Buoy. Tara hailed Silver Star three or four times to go about, and the
latter did not comply. Tara's helm was eventually put down, and she struck Silver Star
when head to wind or filling on port tack. Silver Star alleged that there was no reason
for Tara hailing, as, after the collision, they stood on for two hundred or three hundred
yards, and still found 3% fathoms by the lead, when she stayed. To this Tara replied that
this might be so, as both yachts when hung up drifted up with the tide into deeper water.
It was also averred on the part of Silver Star that Tara could have avoided the collision
by keeping her helm hard up after filling on port tack, and so pass under Silver Star's
stern; instead of which she put her helm down. Tara's crew, however, adhered to their
statements that Tara was in stays or filling when the yachts struck, and further averred
that if Silver Star had gone about when hailed the last time or when Tara's helm was put
down, that the collision would have been avoided, whereas nothing was done on board
Silver Star to avert a collision.
The helmsman and owner of Silver Star declared that the reason they did not go
about when hailed was because the pilot informed them there was plenty of water—over
4 fathoms by the lead. Tara's pilot, on the other hand, declared there was not more than
2% fathoms, and, being a fisherman, he knew the ground well; Tara was inside of a straight
line from the buoy to the beacon on the point.
The Council decided that Silver Star, when hailed, should have gone about, and, if
the owner considered that he had been hailed without reason, he could have protested;
and with regard to Tara, they arrived at the following decision :
“The council is unanimously of opinion that the Tara was justified in tacking as she
did, and consequently decide that she ought not to be disqualified.”
If, when a vessel has just tacked for water, she meets another vessel
standing in on starboard tack, she should promptly hail that vessel to go
about; but if she herself has gathered way on the port tack, and is reaching
along, the one on starboard tack can force her round again ; and it is no
excuse for non-compliance if the vessel on the port tack says, “We have
just tacked for water.” If she has room to tack again without getting
aground, she must do so, and then immediately afterwards can, if necessary,
hail the vessel on her weather to tack, to enable her to avoid striking the
ground. As a rule, it is a dangerous experiment for a vessel that has
just stayed to attempt to clear another by putting her helm up, as she
may have little or no way on; the safer plan is to put her helm down.
Port and Starboard Tacks. 223
In December, 1879, a question was asked by a yacht club as follows:
In the event of a yacht on the port tack having only just gone about for water, and
meeting a yacht on the starboard tack immediately afterwards, is the yacht on the port
tack bound to give way?
The Council of the Y.R.A. decided as follows:
PORT AND STARBOARD TACKs.
In all cases the yacht on the port tack should give way, if she has room to do so, by
bearing up clear astern of the vessel on the starboard tack or by going about if she has
room to stay clear of the ground. If she apparently has room and does not give way,
the yacht on the starboard tack should endeavour to avoid striking her and protest. The
onus of proving that the yacht on the port tack had not room to give way would then be
thrown on that vessel,
Bedouin v. Halcyone, 1885.
Bedouin and Halcyone, in Belfast Lough, were working along a shore with a smart
breeze; both were on starboard tack, with Halcyone (H) under the lee bow of the other (B, as
FIG. 99.
shown in Fig. 99), from thirty to forty yards off. Halcyone, when as close in shore as she
dared go (see Fig. 100) tacked, and hailed Bedouin to do so also; this the latter declined
FIG. 100.
to do, as there was room for Halcyone to go under her stern or to tack again. In the
end they got' into the position shown in Fig. 101, and Bedouin had to go about, and
Halcyone had to shoot up in the wind to avoid a collision. Bedouin protested against
Halcyone that the latter, being on port tack, caused her to go about to avoid a collision.



224, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
—-º
It was stated that when the yachts met (as in Fig. 101) and Bedouin had to go about, that
if Halcyone had tacked again they could have kept reaching a considerable distance on
starboard tack without danger of getting ashore. The Council decided that, according
to the evidence placed before them—1st, that the Halcyone had no right to hail Bedouin
to go about; 2nd, that she should have tacked again to avoid Bedouin; or, 3rd, that she
could have gone under Bedouin’s stern. The Council therefore adjudged Halcyone to be
in the wrong.
"
This protest was referred by the Royal Forth Yacht Club, and decided
Aug. 17, 1889, by the Council of the Y.R.A.:
Georgie v. Enriqueta, 1889.
It appears from the evidence that the yachts were close hauled on the starboard tack,
Inriqueta leading under the lee bow of the other. Enriqueta stayed to port tack, and
Georgie was crossing her bows, when she was struck in the lee runner by Enriqueta's
bowsprit end.
It was contended on behalf of the Enriqueta that at the time she struck Georgie she
had just stayed for water, and had not gathered way, and the sailing master averred that
she was only three lengths from the shore at the time. He also declared that when
remonstrated with for going so close in shore, he replied he did so in order to give
Georgie room to round the markboat, which was (according to the owner of the Enriqueta)
100 yards distant. The staysail sheet was not home, and the helm was still a-weather.
On the part of Georgie, her sailing master said at the time of collision they were
about fifty yards from the markboat, and they, after losing the bowsprit, stood on another
100 yards before staying to port tack.
Mr. G. R. Rimer, who represented the owner of Georgie, stated that when Enriqueta
stayed to port tack she was 300 yards from the markboat. The collision occurred after
this, when the yachts were about seventy-five yards from the markboat. He heard shouts
from Enriqueta just before the collision, but could not distinguish what was said. He
heard one of Georgie’s crew say, “Reep her sailing, we are on the right tack.” After
the collision the Georgie stood on in shore, and, after seeing her man who was knocked
overboard safe on board Enriqueta, they put about to port tack. At the time of the
collision Enriqueta had very little way on, but she would have had way enough had she
not been kept hanging in the wind.
The owner of the Georgie made the following statement: “The Enriqueta had
stayed, and the sole cause of the collision was that in place of bearing way, as she ought,
she was kept shivering in the wind attempting to weather the Georgie, apparently. Had
the Georgie bore away or luffed at the last moment, I do not think the collision could
have been averted, and disastrous results might have followed, for which Georgie, had
she disregarded the rule of the road, would have been solely to blame. The sole cause of
the collision is very clear, and that is the Enriqueta being kept hanging in the wind, in

Port and Starboard Tacks. 225
place of in time bearing away and allowing Georgie to pass ahead as it was her bounden
duty to do.”
There were other witnesses on both sides.
The sailing committee found as follows: “1. That at the time of the collision the
Georgie was on starboard tack. 2. That at the time of the collision the Enriqueta was
on port tack. 3. That the Enriqueta had stayed a considerable time before the collision,
and that she was not in stays at the time of collision. 4. They find that either yacht
could have avoided the collision, and decide that both yachts be disqualified.” The
committee supported their decision as follows:
“ENRIQUETA.—The main point which the committee had to consider in respect to
this vessel was the assertion by Mr. Robertson, owner of the Enriqueta, in his protest
that, at the time the collision occurred, his yacht was hanging in stays, and they found
that the allegation was not supported by evidence. The witnesses for Enriqueta all state
that at the time of the collision the yacht was in stays and had not gathered way, but this
statement conflicts with their own evidence as to the respective points at which the
vessel stayed and the collision occurred. The pilot, lately a petty officer in the navy,
and presumably a man accustomed to judge distance at sea, states that the point of staying
was about three cables' lengths (600 yards) distant from the markboat, and the master
confirms this by stating that he was only 150ft. from the shore; while Mr. Robertson
states that the collision occurred 100 yards from the markboat, and Georgie's crew and
the markboat men state the point at from forty to seventy yards. Taking, therefore, Mr.
Robertson's extreme distance (100 yards) as correct, the Enriqueta must have travelled
500 yards to reach the spot where the collision occurred, and the committee considered
this fact incompatible with the allegation that she was hanging in stays. Again, the
evidence of Georgie's crew and the markboat men is unanimous as to the fact that she
(Georgie) stood on her course forty to 100 yards after the collision, which she could not
have done had the collision occurred at Enriqueta's staying point, viz., 150ft. from the
shore.
“GEORGIE.—The committee found this vessel in fault in so far that the steersman,
seeing a collision imminent, made no endeavour to avoid it, but deliberately courted it.
They hold that, life and property being at peril through collision, it was his duty to luff,
or even to have put about, in order to avert the mishap, and in accordance with the
general rule of the Board of Trade that at all cost collisions must be avoided when
possible, and then protested against Enriqueta for having forced him to do so. It is
proved by the evidence of the master of Enriqueta, Mr. Rimer, member on board Georgie,
and a paid hand on board Georgie, that the steersman’s attention was directed to the
imminence of the collision before it occurred by the calling of one of his crew, “ Keep her
sailing, we're on the right tack,” and that there was actual danger to life is proved by the
fact that Georgie lost a man overboard, who was picked up by Enriqueta.”
The owner of the Georgie was not satisfied with this decision, and the club referred
the case to the Y.R.A. The Council decided as follows:
“The facts are in accordance with the foregoing statement of the committee, and
they rightly disqualified Enriqueta, she being alone to blame for the collision; the Georgie
would not therefore be disqualified also.”
It was contended on the part of Enriqueta that she had only just
stayed close in shore—that she was, in fact, hanging in stays without way
on, and could do nothing to avoid Georgie. The evidence, however, showed
that she must have sailed 200 or 300 yards after she stayed, and that she
consequently could have stayed again, or, with proper management, have
kept away, and gone under the stern of Georgie. The committee, there-
fore, very properly disqualified Enriqueta, but, in addition, found Georgie
Q
226 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
in fault also, because she did not adopt means to avoid a collision, which
those on board must have seen was imminent. The committee accordingly
disqualified Georgie also ; but their decision appears to have been based
more upon the international “ Steering and Sailing Rules” than upon
yacht racing rules.
Undoubtedly, a vessel would not be justified in standing on so long as
Georgie did under ordinary circumstances, as she would be bound to do her
best to avoid a collision, and, on the facts, a Board of Trade inquiry would
probably have resulted in much the same decision as the committee of the
Royal Forth Yacht Club gave. The Council of the Yacht Racing Associa-
tion had, however, to consider the inducements to run risks in match sailing,
and found Enriqueta solely to blame for the collision. Any yachtsman
accustomed to racing would hold that Georgie, under the conditions, was
justified in crossing ahead of the other, and those on board had a perfect
right to assume that the Enriqueta would do the right thing, and either go
about, luff up, or bear away. Georgie, when she got so far across the bows
of the other yacht, could do nothing to avoid the collision ; and, unless she
could by the rules be proved to be wrong in so getting across the other
yacht’s bow when one had just tacked for water, we cannot see how she
could be found in fault.
HAILING A WESSEL TO GO ABOUT AT A MARK WESSEL.
Irea, v. Jane Elizabeth, 1890.
The Irex, pilot cutter, was standing for a mark under the lee bow of the Jane
Elizabeth in much about the same positions shown in Fig. 74, page 199, substituting a
mark vessel for the pier. The Irex hailed the Jane Elizabeth to go about, as she, the
Irex, could not weather the mark. The Jane Elizabeth did not go about, and a foul
ensued. The Irex protested, and claimed that Jane Elizabeth ought to be disqualified
for not going about when hailed.
The case was referred to the Council of the Y.R.A., who decided that the Irex had
no right, under Rule 22, to hail the other to go about, and must, therefore, be held to
blame for the collision.
RULE 23.−RUNNING AGROUND, &c.
Any yacht running on shore, or foul of a buoy, vessel, or other obstruction, may use
her own anchors, boats, warps, &c., to get off, but may not receive any assistance except
from the crew of the vessel fouled. Any anchor, boat, or warp used must be taken on
board again before she continues the race.
In August, 1880, the Council decided, in spite of Rule 25, on a case of
“ poling ” to get afloat after taking the ground as follows:
“A pole or spar can be used for the purpose of getting afloat after running
aground.” (For a decision in a case of getting out board and shoving off, see Rule 13.)
Means of Propulsion. 227
RULE 24. — FOULING YACHTS, MARKS, &c.—CAUSING A
MARK WESSEL TO SHIFT HER POSITION.
Each yacht must go fairly round the course; and must not touch any buoy, boat, or
vessel used to mark it out, but shall not be disqualified if wrongfully compelled to
do so by another yacht. Any yacht causing a mark vessel to in any way shift her
position to avoid being fouled by such yacht shall be disqualified. If a yacht, in conse-
quence of her neglect of any of these rules, shall foul another yacht, or compel other
yachts to foul, she shall forfeit all claim to the prize, and shall pay all damages.
By the Y.R.A. rules if a mark boat shifts her position the race shall
be re-sailed again if a committee chooses to so order it ; and if a yacht
causes a markboat to shift her position, by veering out chain for instance,
a yacht can be disqualified. In light weather, when yachts have been
driving with the tide, chain has frequently been veered out by the man
in the markboat to enable a yacht to clear without fouling ; but if a
yacht is drifting helplessly on to a mark she must let go her anchor.
It has been objected that the man in the markboat might get frightened
and veer out chain when the yacht did not require it to be veered out
to enable her to avoid fouling ; but a man is hardly likely to get frightened
when a yacht is slowly driving in a calm, and if there was any breeze
at all he would have no time at the last moment to give chain to his
vessel. Generally a yacht goes “
straight for ” the markboat, and clears
it by an alteration of the helm at the last moment. If, under such
circumstances, a man in a markboat got scared, and imagined that he
could avoid an impending danger by veering out chain, it would show
very great folly, as if the markboat was to be struck it could not be
avoided by veering out chain at the last moment.
If a markboat in a tide way or strong wind straightens her mooring
chain or rope, and a yacht’s keel fouled it and brought about a collision
with the markboat, the yacht would be held to blame for not taking more
room, and would consequently be disqualified.
RULE 25-MEANS OF PROPULSION.
No towing, sweeping, poling, or pushing, or any mode of propulsion except sails,
shall be allowed, except for the purpose set forth in Rule 23.
PROPULSION BY SCULLING.
The practice of sculling small boats by moving the rudder backwards
and forwards (see “Sculling ” in the Appendix) is common in calms, and
considerable progress can be made by this means. The question has been
raised on several occasions as to the permissibility of such sculling during a
Q 2
228 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
----- ...-----… ----------"
match, and two or three protests have arisen out of the practice. It is very
useful to scull even large yachts occasionally when they will not come round
in light winds, and no one could contend that this was not a legitimate
use to make of the rudder—it would be simply “steering; ” but as no
means of propulsion but sails are permissible, sculling, if used as a means
of propulsion, is not allowed. The Council, in March, 1879, decided that
sculling with the rudder is only permissible for actual steering as follows:
“Sculling with the rudder to propel a boat or yacht is not allowed under Rule 24,
but Sculling with the rudder to legitimately alter a vessel’s course could not be considered
an infringement of the rule.”
In 1889 the Eastern Sailing Club, Granton, stated a similar case, in
which it was alleged that a competitor in a match had used the rudder as a
means of propulsion by sculling with it. The owner of the yacht protested
against declared that the rudder was only moved to keep the yacht straight
in a tideway during a calm. The secretary was directed to reply that
sculling with the rudder is not allowed, but that moving the rudder as
stated to legitimately alter a vessel’s course could not be considered an
infringement of the rule.
PROPULSION BY KEDGING.
In 1891 the Island Sailing Club referred the following case to the
Y.R. A. :
The committee, acting under the latter part of Rule 30 (disqualifying without
protest), disqualified the yacht Minnow in a race sailed under Yacht Racing Association
Rules, on September 23rd, on the statement of her owner, that he had, during a calm,
propelled the Minnow by means of kedging, thus infringing Rule 25.
The owner contended that the use he made of his anchor was legitimate, and such
use is not excepted in Rule 26, which allows a yacht to anchor, and that as the anchor
was both let go and weighed at the stem head, he had a right to use any impetus or way
thus given to the boat to his advantage, there being no record of a protest against any
yacht for so doing. Also that it is undoubtedly a custom among racing yachts to use
their anchors in this way, and as it was only done at intervals of about ten minutes, and
the boat's ordinary anchor and warp used, the rules had not been infringed. That
Rule 25 does not refer specifically to this method of propulsion as an exception, and
that if the Council consider that it should not be allowed, a new rule is necessary to
provide against it, and the committee had no power to disqualify under the existing rules.
The Council of the Y.R.A. decided that the decision of the committee
disqualifying Minnow was correct.
RULE 26.-ANCHORING.
A yacht may anchor during a race, but must weigh her anchor again, and not slip.
No yacht shall during a race make fast to any buoy, stage, pier, or other object, or send
an anchor out in a boat, except for the purpose of Rule 23.
Yachts may anchor during a race, but must weigh again, and not
slip. Several instances have occurred where a yacht, when kedging in
a tideway on foul ground, has been unable to get the kedge on board
Kedding Across the Line. 229
again. In such a case the crew would heave on the warp until it burst;
but if the yacht had let go her bower and chain this could not be
done, and the yacht would be compelled to slip and buoy the chain.
No adjudication has been made by the Council that exactly bears upon
these cases, but the common sense view would appear to indicate that
if a yacht burst her warp in endeavouring to recover her kedge, she
should not be disqualified on the grounds of slipping; and, from the same
point of view, neither should a yacht be disqualified if after making every
endeavour to weigh her bower, she failed and slipped. Yet when we
consider how many cases would occur of bursting warps and leaving the
anchor behind, in order to be away sharp, there is not much doubt that
the rule must be rigidly adhered to. We recollect that the late Mr. R. Y.
Richardson once retired from a race in Coryphée, at Dover, after failing
to get her kedge through bursting a warp.
Cases have occurred in calms where kedging has been resorted to
as a means of propulsion. The kedge has been dropped over at the
FIG. 1.02.
bow, and the crew walked aft with the warp, hauled the kedge up over
the stern, and let it go again over the bow; or the kedge has been let
go over the stern, and recovered at the bow. To get round a mark
against a tide such kedging might be successfully practised, but under
the rule “ that no mode of propulsion except sails shall be allowed,” it
is clearly forbidden. (See page 228.)
The following cases have been decided by the Council of the Y.R.A. :
Katie v. Hypatia, 1883.
The Hypatia, yawl, was finishing a race in a calm with the tide running at an angle
with the line to be crossed. Hypatia had to let go her kedge when close to the line in
order to prevent her driving away. (See Fig. 102.)
She was then sheered across the line, and the committee fired the gun in ignorance
that the yacht's kedge was on the ground. The Council decided that Hypatia, not having
weighed her anchor, in accordance with rule 25, before she crossed the line, had not, there-


230 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
fore, completed the race when the gun was fired, and the prize must be awarded to the
first vessel within her time which crossed the line, in accordance with the rules.
Warping : Fair Geraldine v. Satellite, 1884.
It having been proved to the satisfaction of the committee that the Satellite held on
to and used for the purpose of canting a warp fast to a mooring buoy after the firing of
the first gun, the Council decides that the committee were correct in disqualifying her.
RULE 27.-SOUNDING.
No other means of sounding than the lead and line allowed.
In the Y.R.A. rules it is enjoined that no instrument other than
the lead and line shall be used for sounding. This rule was adopted
many years ago by the Thames clubs to stop the practice of shoving a
boat along by a pole, yard, or sweep under the pretence of sounding
with the same; and, moreover, a very heavy weight or “sinker” might
be used as a sort of kedge to drag the yacht through the water in a calm
under the plea of sounding; and so the “hand lead '' is always understood
to be meant.
RULE 28.—SIDE LIGHTS.
All yachts sailing in a race at night shall observe the Board of Trade rule as to the
carrying of side lights.
In this rule it is enjoined that all yachts sailing in a match at night
shall observe the Board of Trade rules as to the carrying of lights. This
rule interpreted strictly would mean that the side lights are to be put
in their places at Sundown. Sailing masters exhibit an extraordinary
aversion to exhibiting side lights in a match, for the reason, as they say,
that it is not politic for any vessel to let another know what she is
doing. This is a reason which will not hold water, and owners should
insist upon lights being carried in their proper places. Of course if a
match is within a half hour or so of being concluded at sundown, in
“broad daylight,” the rule would not be enforced, but where a case of
“ sailing at night ° is involved, it would be inexcusable not to carry
lights. It is sometimes supposed that it is sufficient to have the lights on
deck ready to show, but, obviously, if all the yachts in a match did this the
lights would be useless, as if the yachts could see each other so as to
know when to show their lights, there would be no occasion for exhibiting
them at all, and no need of the rule.
This is one of the rules which owners should see observed as a matter
of honour, and no occasion for protest should ever occur under it. Also as
a matter of protection of rights in case of damage by collision.
Protest by Showing an Ensign. 231
RULE 29.-MAN OVERBOARD.
In case of a man falling overboard from a competing yacht, all other yachts in
a position to do so shall use their utmost endeavour to render assistance; and if it should
appear that any yacht was thereby prevented winning the race, the committee shall have
power to order it to be resailed between any yacht or yachts so prevented and the actual
W1111101".
RULE 30. PROTEST.S.
Should the owner of any yacht, or the person acting as his representative, consider
that he has a fair ground of complaint against another for foul sailing, or any violation
of these rules, he must, if it arise during the race, signify the same on first passing the
committee vessel, by showing an ensign conspicuously in the main rigging. The protest
shall be made in writing, and under such regulations (if any) as the sailing committee
may have determined, within two hours of the arrival of the protesting yacht, unless such
arrival shall be after 9 o'clock p.m. and before 8 o’clock a.m., in which case the time shall
be extended to 10 o’clock a.m.; and the protest shall be heard by the sailing committee
and decided after such inquiries as they may consider necessary. A protest made in
writing shall not be withdrawn.
A sailing committee shall also, without a protest, disqualify any yacht, should it
come to their knowledge that she has committed a breach of the rules.
The practice of making protests and afterwards withdrawing them
was at one time very common, and in 1878 the Council was asked if such
could be done. The reply was as follows:
“A protest made in writing may not be withdrawn unless satisfactory evidence is
given to the committee that it was made on insufficient grounds.”
In June, 1879, the following case occurred on the Thames:
Vanessa protested against Enriqueta for a breach of rules, but as there were two
prizes it was agreed to withdraw in order to share the money: whereupon the owner of
the third yacht claimed that the committee had no right to permit such a course, and the
case was referred to the Council of the Y.R.A., which body decided that the sailing
‘committee, under the rules, must call such evidence as might be necessary to arrive at the
facts involved in the alleged breach of the sailing rules, and adjudicate accordingly,
notwithstanding the circumstance that the owners of the yachts had withdrawn their
protests. The cause of protest was ultimately brought before the Council, and one of the
yachts was disqualified. The third yacht was thereupon awarded second prize, which
otherwise, with the first prize, would have gone to the two yachts which had given rise to
the protest.
DISPLAYING THE ENSIGN.
It will be noted that in the rule it is enjoined, if a yacht desires to
protest, she must make the fact known “on first passing the committee
vessel by showing an ensign conspicuously in her main rigging.” It so
happens, as for instance at Cowes, Ryde, Kingstown, Bangor, and other
places, no “committee vessel” is employed, the signals being all managed
from the shore. In 1894, the owner of a boat excused himself for not
232 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
showing the ensign because there was no “committee vessel” to pass,
the committee being stationed on a pier head.
It was, however, held that for the purposes of the rule the station of
the committee would be equivalent to a “committee vessel.”
In connection with the displaying of an ensign in the rigging, a
curious case was referred to the Y.R.A. in 1894, under which, in a cross
protest, it was sought to have a yacht disqualified for not displaying the
ensign as enjoined when she had a cause for protest.
Achilla v. Knockcrockery.
Immediately after the conclusion of the race, a representative of the Knockcrockery
lodged a formal protest with the officer of the day against Mr. Harvey’s Achilla, on the
ground that he did not comply with the conditions of the race, in that, during a portion
of the same, his yacht was steered by a paid hand. The owner of the Achilla acknow-
ledged such to be the case, but lodged a counter protest to the effect that the protest of
the Knockcrockery was informal, in that they did not comply with Rule 30 of the Y.R.A.,
and display an ensign in the rigging on passing the officer of the day on duty at the
line, or at any time during the race.
The owners of the Knockcrockery acknowledged such to be the case, and alleged
that no protest was necessary.
The committee investigated the case, and decided that, although no protest under the
circumstances might have been necessary, as the owner of the Achilla could not sign the
declaration certificate; still, as the owners of the Knockcrockery saw fit to protest, and
that as the protest was informal, the race was null and void, as both parties infringed
the rules.
The matter was then referred to the Council of the Y.R.A., who
decided as follows:
The race is not null and void, as the failure of Knockcrockery to show an ensign in
her rigging would not disqualify her.
The prize must be awarded to Knockcrockery, and the committee should have dis-
qualified Achilla under the powers given them in the last paragraph of Rule 30.
It must be understood, however, that the failure of a competitor to:
display the ensign as required, or to hand in the protest in time, accom-
panied by the fee (if any), would render a protest invalid. This would
not prevent a committee taking up the protest under the latter part of
Rule 30. -
DISQUALIFYING WITHOUT A PROTEST BEING MADE.
The rule enjoining that a sailing committee shall disqualify a yacht.
without protest, should it come to their knowledge that a breach of the
rules has been committed, has never been quite understood. Some com-
mittees interpret it to mean that it gives them the power, but that they
may please themselves about exercising it. We think that this interpre-
tation—at any rate, so far as the letter of the rule goes—is incorrect. The
rule, as we understand it, leaves no choice whatever, and a sailing com-
Disqualifying Without a Protest. 233
mittee, whether it is agreeable to them or not, must disqualify any yacht,
if they have positive evidence that she has committed a breach of the rules.
There were several reasons why this imperative rule was made, but it
should be clearly understood that not one of them was intended to relieve
competitors from the responsibility of protesting. One of the principal
reasons was, however, to prevent collusion between competitors, who had
severally committed breaches of the rules, not to protest, as in the Thames
case just quoted, that each of two yachts had cause for protest against the
other. To strengthen the hands of sailing committees who might suspect
collusion, the Y.R.A. made an addition to the protest rule, that a protest
made in writing shall not be withdrawn. This gives a committee the
power to inquire into a case which owners might wish to withdraw from,
even though they had deliberately placed the cause of complaint in writing,
and lodged it with the sailing committee. However, the real difficulty a
sailing committee sometimes feels in the matter is over the words “should
it come to their knowledge that a breach of the rules has been committed.”
We have often heard a question asked, what is the nature of the informa-
tion a committee must have to warrant them concluding it “has come to
their knowledge that a breach of the rules has been committed : ” If they
saw a thing with their own eyes of course that would be direct knowledge,
and there is no doubt what their action should be. Also if they placed a
man in each of the markboats—as was formerly sometimes done—to report
on cases of fouling, it could be said that such reports conveyed direct
knowledge ; in fact, the object of placing the men would be to obtain
knowledge for the committee to act upon. But supposing a competitor
came on shore, and stated to the committee that he had seen a yacht on
port tack put one on starboard tack about, could it be said it had come to
the knowledge of the committee that a breach of the rules had been
committed 7 We think not, because all cases which arise under the port
and starboard tack rule require sifting, and unless a committee had seen
the case themselves, and were thus in a position to almost positively judge
who was to blame, we do not think it could be affirmed it had “come to
their knowledge that a breach of the rules had been committed.” Beyond
this, it must not be overlooked that if the owner of the yacht on starboard
tack knew that his vessel had been improperly put about, it would be his
duty to protest, and not leave the matter to the casual intervention of
another competitor or informer. So also in tacking for water the vessel on
starboard tack might be in fault, and similarly it would be the duty of the
owner of the vessel on port tack to protest. Of course, there might be
cases where a committee would be justified in acting (when no protest has
been lodged) on second-hand knowledge, and opening an inquiry into an
234 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
alleged breach of the rules. For instance, it might not have come to the
knowledge of the owner most concerned that a breach of the rules had
occurred until after the time for handing in a protest had passed, and then,
if the alleged breach is clear and well defined, and the facts undisputed,
we think a committee would be bound to disqualify a yacht, although no
protest had been made. In fact, a yacht has been disqualified, without any
protest being lodged, on information such as we have just described. The
entry might be bad or the rating wrong ; in short, a number of cases might
arise under the rules in which a committee would be bound to disqualify a
yacht, although no protest had been lodged. º
Another point here suggests itself. (Wide the May-Mohawk case.)
Supposing a committee are witnesses, say, of a port and starboard tack
case, or bearing down case at the start, and are reasonably certain that one,
or it may be both yachts are in fault, what should the committee do 7
Clearly it would not be just for a committee to disqualify a yacht without
giving an owner an opportunity of having his version of the matter con-
sidered; but if they disqualified her off-hand that is what they would be
doing. On the other hand, if they had made up their mind to disqualify
the yacht, the owner might be aggrieved if an intimation were not at once
made to him (if practicable) of the intention. He could then please him-
self about continuing the race, according as he considered whether he had
or had not sound and good reasons to urge why his yacht should not be
disqualified. Under any circumstances we do not think a committee should
do anything tantamount to ordering a yacht out of a race, and the most
they could do would be to open an inquiry into the case at the conclusion
of the race. At the same time, if a yacht owner has committed a breach
of the rules, and knows or feels that he has no answer to the case—as, for .
instance, fouling a markboat by misadventure or faulty steering—he ought
to do the “happy despatch" himself, and retire from the contest, and not
by continuing in it possibly interfere with some other vessel’s chance of
winning.
In the case of disqualifying without protest, a committee are not
bound by the “two hours” clause in the rule, and would be justified in
putting their prerogative in force any time before having actually disposed
of the prize in dispute.
PROTESTING AGAINST THE ACTS OF A COMMITTEE.
A sailing committee is practically all powerful, and it is a difficult
matter to successfully question any of their acts without resorting to the
Law Courts.
For instance, on the Clyde in 1894, there was an error in timing at
Penalties for Breaches of Rules. 235
the start, and one of the competitors demanded that the race should be
resailed; but there is absolutely nothing in the Y.R.A. rules which directly
indicates what shall be done in the case of an error in timing, whether
at the start or the finish. The protest rule only says what shall be done
in case the owner of a yacht has infringed one of the sailing rules. This
rule, apparently, does not contemplate any protest against an ultra vires
act of the sailing committee; neither is there in the rules any right given
to an owner to demand a race to be re-sailed; but by Rule 29 (man over-
board) and Rule 31 (removal of mark boat), a sailing committee can do
as it pleases in ordering a race to be re-sailed. The matter is left
absolutely, in these cases, to the discretion of the sailing committees.
Also, under the general spirit of Rule 1 as to the management of races,
“all doubts, questions, and disputes” are left to the final decision of the
sailing committee unless they choose to refer the matters in dispute to the
council of the Yacht Racing Association. In most cases of dispute
between themselves and competitors, refer to the Y.R.A., for, although
in Rule 1 finality of decision is given to a sailing committee, yet the rule
in the concluding paragraph says, “No member of the sailing committee
shall take part in the discussion or decision upon any disputed question in
which he is directly interested.” According to this, the inference is that
a sailing committee ought not to decide a case on its merits in which they
are directly interested.
RULE 31.-REMOVAL OF FLAG BOAT.
Should any flag vessel or other mark be removed from its proper position, either by
accident or design, the race shall be resailed, or not, at the discretion of the sailing
committee.
The following case occurred at Southampton in 1877, and was adjudi-
cated upon by the Council of the Y.R.A. in August of the same year.
Four yachts started knowing that a buoy had been removed, the secretary of the
club telling the owners “to do the best they could without it.” One yacht turned at a
spot where the buoy ought to have been, the other three went a mile farther on to a
different buoy altogether. The first-mentioned yacht on passing the committee vessel
was told she had done right and was to go on, whereupon the other yachts gave up and
protested. The Council decided that the race must be resailed round fixed marks.
RULE 32. PENALTIES FOR BREACHES OF RULES.
Any yacht disobeying or infringing any of these rules, which shall apply to all
yachts whether sailing in the same or different races, shall be disqualified from receiving
any prize she would otherwise have won, and her owner shall be liable for all damages
arising therefrom, which are by law recoverable.
236 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Should a flagrant breach or infringement of any of these rules be proved against the
owner of a yacht, or against the owner's representative or amateur helmsman, such
owner, his representative, or amateur helmsman, may be disqualified by the Council, for
any time the Council may think fit, from sailing the yacht in any race held under the
rules of the Yacht Racing Association; and should a flagrant breach of these rules be
proved against any sailing master he may be disqualified by the Council, for such time
as the Council may think fit, from sailing in any race held under the rules of the Yacht
Racing Association. -
Until 1895, the first paragraph of this rule ended with “all damages.”
In the Valkyrie v. Satanita Collision Case (where Valkyrie was sunk) the
judge held that “all damages meant ’’ such damages as are by law
recoverable under the Merchant Shipping Act, which limits the amount
recoverable to 8l. per ton on the registered tonnage of the offending
vessel. The Y.R.A. upon this added the words in italics to the rule, “all
damages arising therefrom which are by law recoverable.” The case was
taken to the Court of Appeal where the Master of the Rolls held that the
Valkyrie and Satanita had contracted themselves out of the provision
referred to of the Merchant Shipping Act, by agreeing to sail under
Y.R.A. rules, and that “all damages” in Rule 32, meant absolutely the
amount in money value of all damage.
THE RESPONSIBILITY OF PILOTs.
In February, 1877, the Council was requested to recommend that
pilots should also be liable to be disqualified for flagrant breaches of the
rules, but the following reply was made :
The Council is of opinion that it would be unwise to hold pilots responsible for the
acts of a yacht during a match. The duty of a pilot is to keep a yacht clear of the
ground, and to see that she is not placed at a disadvantage on account of the tide; but
the actual directions for the handling, the manoeuvring, and the sailing generally of a
yacht must be held to rest solely with the sailing master. If an attempt were made to
render a pilot responsible under the sailing rules for the acts of a yacht during a match,
it would tend to relieve the sailing master of the sense of responsibility he must
necessarily be made to feel.
YACHTS IN DIFFERENT MATCHES.
On regatta days many matches are started over the same line to sail
in the same waters, and, as far as the rule of the road is concerned, the
Ç
various races are regarded as “one match.”
RULE 33.−CRUISING TRIM.
When yachts are ordered to sail in cruising trim, the following rules are to be
strictly observed :
1. No doors, tables, cabin skylights, or other cabin or deck fittings (davits excepted),
shall be removed from their places before or during the race.
2. No sails or other gear shall be put into the main cabin in yachts exceeding a
rating of 60.
Rig Allowances. 237
3. Anchors and chains suitable to the size of the yacht shall be carried, one at the
cathead (or in yachts rated at 60 and under, at the usual place on the bow), which
anchor shall not be unshackled from the chain before or during the race.
4. Every yacht exceeding a rating of 30 and under a rating of 90, shall carry a boat
on deck not less than 10ft. in length and 3ft. 6in. beam ; a yacht rated at 90
and over, her usual cutter and dinghy.
5. No extra hands, except a pilot, beyond the regular crew of the yacht, shall be
allowed.
These conditions are always stringently enforced. Two cases—the
Olga, schooner, in a match to Harwich in 1876, and the Constance, yawl,
at Ryde in 1885—have occurred of yachts being disqualified for not
having the anchor on the bow, although it was clear it was an oversight
in each case.
Several cases have also occurred of yachts being disqualified for
having an extra hand or hands on board, although substitutes have
been allowed in the case of any of the crew being actually on shore ill.
BYE-LAWS.
The Yacht Racing Association further recommend for the consideration
of sailing committees:
1. MIXED RIG RACEs-That as mixed races are no satisfactory test of the relative
speed of yachts, the different rigs should, whenever practicable, be kept separate; but
when mixed races are unavoidable, the following rule shall be observed :
The rating of schooners and yawls to be reckoned for time allowance as follows
viz., schooners at three-fifths, and yawls at four-fifths of their actual rating; provided
that in case of a yawl, her mainsail does not exceed 37 of her total sail area, and that her
mizen is not less than '06 of her total sail area. In the case of a pole-masted yawl, her
mainsail shall not exceed 46 of her total sail area, and her mizen shall not be less than
'075 of her total sail area. In schooners the foreside of the mainmast shall at the deck be
not farther forward than the middle of the rating length.
Retches and luggers shall be reckoned for time allowance at three-fifths their rating;
provided that in a ketch the distance between the masts does not exceed half the rating
length of the yacht, and that the smaller sail is carried aft. In the case of a lugger, to
be entitled to the rig allowance, the yacht must have two or more masts, and the after,
or the middle mast, at the deck must not be forward of the middle of the rating length,
and in the case of a two masted lugger if the area of the after lug be less than half the
area of the main lug, she will be rated as a yawl.
In calculating the deduction for difference of rig, the rating by certificate to the
exact fraction must be used. The time allowances to be calculated from each yacht's
reduced rating; but schooners and yawls shall not be allowed to qualify to enter by their
reduced rating in a class race.
2. TIME TO BE CALCULATED AT REDUCED RATING ALL THROUGH.—In races
for mixed rigs, the time allowances between yachts of the same rig must be calculated on
each yacht's reduced rating.
3. FIYING STARTs.—That flying starts should be adopted whenºpracticable, but no
time should be allowed for delay in starting.
238 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
4. No LIMIT To RACE.-That any limit to the time for concluding a race should
be avoided as far as possible.
5. CLASSIFICATION BY RATING.—That the classification of yachts should, when
practicable, be as follows:
For yachts whose rating, by Rule 3, does not exceed 2:5
Above 2.5 and not exceeding ... ........... 5
53 5 55 3 3 • * * * * * * * * * * * * * 10
,, 10 33 53 - - - - - - - * * * * * * * * 20
,, 20 y? 9 x * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 40
,, 40 55 3 y • * * * * * * * * * * * * * 60
,, 60
6. LENGTH OF COURSES SHOULD BE EXACT.-That as distance is an important
element in the calculation of time allowance, the marks and flag boats should be placed so
as to mark as accurately as possible the length of the course, for which time is allowed.
7. Roun DING MARKS IN HEAVY WEATHER.—That in heavy weather it should be
arranged, if practicable, for yachts to stay instead of gybe round marks.
8. Room AT STARTING-That sailing committees should be particularly careful to
provide ample room between the points marking the starting line.
C H A PTE R IX.
YACHT RACING: HANDLING A YACHT IN A MATCH.
ONE of the principal causes of success in yacht racing is that of being
“always ready; ” ready with the entry, ready with the vessel whether she
requires copper scrubbed or trim altered, ready with the sails and gear,
ready with the instructions, ready in getting into a berth, ready to start,
ready for every shift of canvas, ready for every evolution in sailing, and
ready to receive the first gun at the finish. Therefore, always be ready and
never be above being prepared. The experienced racing man knows that
if he is prepared with his spinnaker, and another man is not, after bearing
up round a mark, that an enormous advantage will be gained. Or in
hauling round a mark if he has got everything in time made snug, and
sheets laid along and manned ready for rallying aft, and another man has
to luff round with everything adrift on deck, and the boom off the quarter,
his vessel will get a quarter of a mile out on the weather of the sloven before
the latter has got his boom aboard or jib sheets in. If proper preparation
is made for every shift of canvas or manoeuvre in sailing, the vessel will be
worked as if all the gear and sails were parts of machinery, but if no pre-
parations are made, everything will be in confusion on board; there will be
shouting and bawling and running about, sails sent up head downwards,
sheets and halyards bent on foul, or fouled among the numberless coils of
ropes on deck, the crew will be distracted, the sailing master hoarse and
furious, and the owner mortified to see such an utter want of discipline and
system on board his vessel. On the other hand, if everything is ready
beforehand, the crew will understand exactly what they have to do, each
man will fulfil his task with a cool head and ready hand, the sailing master
will be tranquil and manage the vessel cleverly, and the owner will be
delighted, and think that half the pleasure of match sailing is in seeing a
good crew, who know their work, set about it in a seamanlike and syste-
matic manner. There must be no shirking ; whatever a man is set to do,
he must do thoroughly, and with a will; if he does not do this he should be
24() Yacht and Boat Sailing.
unshipped without compunction, as one lazy, Slovenly, or half-hearted hand
on board will spoil three good ones. -
Various things have to be done on board a yacht when sailing
a match, at one and the same time, and it will be patent that it is desirable
that each thing should be done by the same hands each time, if possible.
Nothing looks worse on board a racing yacht if when such a simple order
as “check the fore sheet a trifle,” a half a dozen men or so jump up and
rush into the lee bow, when one of the crew could have quietly executed
the order. On the other hand it shows a worse spirit if the men begin
talking among themselves as to who shall go to do it ; but if one hand is
told off as the fore sheet man, he will know that he has to check the sheet,
and if the sheet has to be got in instead of eased, the mate will send
another hand or more to help. For the more important stations men always
are told off; thus one hand is always selected for masthead-man, bowsprit-
end-man, &c.; and so far as the number of the crew will admit, there
should be a just and effective division of labour.
CREWS.
Under the Y.R.A. rules, in the classes of 10-rating and under,
there is no restriction as to the number of hands a yacht may carry
in a match, and this plan is found to work best, as no sailing master
will carry more hands than are absolutely necessary, and if crews
were limited, sails must be limited also, or a yacht would be frequently
short handed. The only argument used in favour of limiting hands,
is that a man who has a large income and a disposition to spend it,
would, by carrying a great number of hands, get an advantage over
a man with less money or differently disposed about spending it. The
plain answer to this is that no sailing master ever dreams of carrying
more than the number of hands considered necessary for properly
working the ship, and every yacht should be allowed to carry that
number.
For match sailing, the table overleaf will be found to accord pretty
regularly with present practice. The numbers include master, mate,
and boatswain, but not pilot, cook, or steward.
It is usual, however, for cook and steward to muster on deck during
a race and assist in hauling, &c., and if they do so they justly claim
“racing money ’’ the same as received by seamen.
The Character of Yacht Sailors. 24]



'dinº, rºl fºr Crow of 4
Rating of º Extra, ſº º f º (º ğ.
Yacht. º, º Hands. Crew.” Amateurs. Amateurs. º %. ! Čutterſ
5 2 3 5 5 7 1 1.
1( 2 4. 6 7 9 2 2
15 3 4. 7 7 7 2 2
20 4. 4. 8 7 11 3 3
40 7 4. 11 7 14 3 4.
60 8 5 13 9 17 | 4. 5
75 9 7 16 — — 5 6
100 12 8 20 — — 7 9
125 13 9 22 - — 9 11
150 14 11 25 — -— 10 13
175+ 15 12 27 — — 11
200 16 12 28 — — 12
225 17 12 29 — — 13
250 18 12 30 - --- 14
275 18 13 31 - — 15
300 18 14 32 - a- 16
* Cook and steward not included ; nor sailing master in yachts above 20 rating, nor mate
nor pilot above 75 rating. Some 40 raters only carry five hands besides the master ; whilst
others carry the full racing crew all through, and never engage extra bands.
+ Schooners only above 150 rating.
The number of the ordinary standing crew given for a racing
yacht is in excess of what a cruising yacht would carry, as will be seen
upon reference to the last column, but as the spars, sails, and gear of a
racing yacht are so much heavier, the crews must be heavier also.
For racing it will not matter what the rig is, whether cutter,
schooner, or yawl, the same number of hands will be required. In a
cutter, the sails, spars, and gear are heavier to handle than in a schooner,
or yawl of similar tonnage, on the other hand, the number of sails and
the extra gear of a schooner or yawl require more hands.
A sailing master will generally endeavour to make up a racing crew
from men who have been in a racing yacht before ; this of course cannot
always be done, and it follows that somebody must ship the green hands.
However, excepting the circumstance that a hand who has been in a
racing yacht is already “proved and rated,” there is no disadvantage
in having one or two green hands, as a couple of matches will make
them perfect, if they have been trained as good yacht sailors in other
respects. The most approved plan is to have the same crew season after
season, as the men by constantly working together become much more
expert in handling the yacht.
Men widely differ in their smartness and in their habits; and a man
may be tolerated in a racing yacht in spite of his moral delinquencies and
faults of temper, because he is a very Smart seaman, but a sloven should
be given a very wide berth, as he will not only be offensive to the rest
of the crew, but in all probability not a good seaman. As a rule, the
smartest men (i.e., the cleverest and most active) are the most cleanly in
R.
24.2 . Yacht and Boat Sailing.
their habits, the most prompt in doing their work, and in obeying orders,
and the most satisfied, not to say proud, of their lot.
A sloven quarrels with the catering, with the work he has to do, with the
liberty he gets, and with the places he visits. Such a man should find no
berth in a racing yacht, and if a sailing master unfortunately ships such a
creature, he should instantly unship him.
Sometimes what is known as a “sea lawyer” is met with ; a man
who is always standing on his rights, and is ever on the look out
to see that another member of the crew is not requested to do something
which he is not compelled to do by Act of Parliament. He is generally
brimful of “instances,” which as a rule are about as āpropos as a fiddle
at a funeral, and perpetually debating whether he is obliged to do what
he is told or not. The “sea lawyer” will upset and make dissatisfied
any crew, and should be cut adrift on the first opportunity.
It is frequently said that the men who come from this place, or that
place, are better or smarter than others; but this is entirely a mistake.
Good Cowes men are as good as good Southampton men; good Colne
men are as good as either; and as there is no difference in the degrees
of worth of the men, so is there no difference in the degrees of their
badness. At Cowes, or Southampton, if a man is shipped who has
never been in a yacht before, the probability is, that he will be no
seaman at all—a sort of half waterman and half labourer. If such a
one is shipped from the Colne, the probability is that he will be a
thorough seaman as represented by a smacksman, and will be good at
hauling, good at belaying, good at reefing, and good and trustworthy
in bad weather, and respectful in his manner. He will also very rapidly
accommodate himself to yacht customs, and earn and deserve the respect
of owner and sailing master.
THE COST OF YACHT RACING.
The cost of yacht racing is a very important item, and, of course,
so far as crew expenses go, will depend upon the number of matches
sailed. The other expenses, which relate to the hull, sails, spars, and
rigging, can be put down at from 50 per cent. to 60 per cent. greater
than those for the cruising yacht. The crew expenses will also be a
heavy item, as the number will not only be greater, but there will be
the extra money, and food and drink or “grub money” on racing days.
Formerly, the invariable practice was to give the men meat, bread, and
beer (or, on wet cold days, rum), on the days when matches were sailed;
no doubt this practice is in much favour among the crews, as frequently
Expenses of Yacht Racing. 243
enough food is left to supply the mess another day. However, a fashion
has been introduced of paying the men half-a-crown each on racing days,
and making them find themselves. This greatly simplifies the accounts,
and prevents the owner's good nature or inexhaustible means being
imposed upon.
The expenses of a 20-rater will serve to show the nature and extent
of the cost of yacht racing. It will be assumed that she commences to fit
out on the 1st of May, and is laid up on the 30th of September, therefore
that she is in commission twenty-two weeks, and sails thirty matches.
EXPENSES OF A Twenty-RATER. & S. d.
Sailing master (per annum) ......................................................... 50 0 0
Three Seamen, twenty-two weeks, at 26s. ....................................... 85 16 ()
Clothes for master and men ..................... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 20 0 0
Four extra men for twenty matches, 10s. each .................. .............. 40 () ()
Winning money for the same, for (say) ten matches, another 10s. each... 20 0 0
Food and drink money for twenty matches with paid crew at 2s. 6d. per
head “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 15 0 ()
Winning money to master and men for (say) twenty matches, 11. each ... 80 0 0
Losing money (if paid) for the same, for twenty matches, 10s. each ...... 40 () ()
Pilot for the thirty matches sailed, at 21. a match.............................. 60 0 ()
Entrance fees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..................... ... ... ... ... 20 0 0
New mainsail f ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 0 0
Fitting out expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 0 0
Ship Chandler ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 0 0
Store ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 0 0
Hauling up and launching ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15 0 0
0 0
Insurance for four months... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15
39526 16 0
As a set off to these expenses, there will be, of course, the prizes,
which would probably amount to 200l. But even deducting this, it will
be seen that racing a 20-rater is a very expensive amusement.
Of course, these expenses could be very greatly reduced. In the
first place, no more than twenty matches need be sailed; next, amateur
crews might be more often made use of ; losing money need not be paid ;
a pilot need not be had so often if the owner or his master, or one of the
owner’s friends is well acquainted with the waters in which the matches are
sailed; and a new mainsail need only be had every other year. However,
if forty matches were sailed in one season, a new mainsail would be a
necessity.
The expenses of a 15-rater will not greatly exceed that of a
10-rater, and the general cost of keeping one, irrespective of racing, will
* Until the year 1880 the invariable practice was to find the men in food, beer, and grog,
and many years' experience proved that the liberality of the owner was almost systematically
abused ; consequently the practice of giving “grub money ’’ was introduced, and has been
found to work well.
+ The old mainsail will about pay for other new sails, repairs to sails, &c.
R 2
244. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
not be much in excess of the smaller vessel. But in a 20-rater, although
two hands might very well manage her, the sailing master takes the
form of a regular “skipper.” In a 10 or 15-rater, the master works
just as the man does; turns out at six o'clock to scrub down, takes
his turn with the other hand at every kind of work and liberty. In a
20-rater, the skipper does not show on deck until after breakfast, and
his greatest exertion is usually steering the vessel and talking to the
owner, the same as it is on board other large yachts.
RACING MONEY.
With regard to one branch of the expenses enumerated, that of
“racing money ’’ or the extra money given to crews on racing days, has
long formed a vexed question, and hitherto all attempts to introduce
a uniform system have failed. Formerly it was 11.* all round and 5l. for
the skipper, but gradually since 1860 a practice has sprung up of giving
the men 10s. for racing and losing, and ll. for racing and winning,
and in most cases 2s. 6d. per head grub money; but some owners find
the men in beer, beef, and bread.
The general practice now is to give ll. for a first prize, 158. for a
second, and 10s. for third, or £1, 10s., and 5s. Nothing for losing.
The sailing master is rewarded by a per-centage on the nomina,
amount won; a “crack skipper” will expect 10 per cent, on the total
year’s winnings, but it is unusual to pay more than 5 per cent.
It need scarcely be said that the yachts whose owners pay both
winning and losing money are more in favour among the men than the
yachts of those who only give the 11. for Winning, and the result is that
those who ship in the latter have a standing grievance if no prizes are won ;
or only two or three “seconds.” Occasionally an owner who has no
knowledge of the customs of yacht racing appears to place an undue
value upon the exertions of a crew, and when victory is secured rewards the
sailing master and crew out of all proportion to their services. The answer
may perhaps be made that the importance of the services is proportional
to the desire of the owner to win; this may be so, but the practical effect
of such excessive liberality on Sailing masters and crew, is to make the
former foolishly vain and presumptuous, and the crew insolent and
indifferent about everything but racing. Fortunately this evil appears
to work its own cure, as the owner soon finds that instead of winning
more prizes by paying liberally or foolishly, he wins fewer and finds
* It was quite common until about the year 1870 for the owner of a yacht, such as belonged
to the Royal Yacht Squadron, to present the crew with 2l. each aſter winning a prize; but then that
prize would most likely be the only one of the season, and won in the only match the yacht sailed.
Starting. 245
that his vessel and crew are hated with undisguised zest by the crews
of all other vessels.
It has been argued that if racing money is given at all, the 11.
for winning and nothing for losing system does not seem just. A
vessel cannot win by the exertion of the crew alone, and if she could,
it may be taken for granted that the crews would exert themselves to
the utmost without the stimulus of extra pay. A yacht’s success
depends upon her excellence as compared with the excellence of other
vessels, upon her canvas, upon her sailing master and crew, and upon
the varying fortune of wind. It therefore does not seem just that if a
crew exert themselves to the utmost and lose, that they should have
nothing, whereas if they had won, a douceur of 11. to each man would
have been given. It may be argued that many owners would not race
if they had to pay 10s. losing money, because they know their vessels are
not so good as some others, and therefore that their chances of winning
are more remote. This it has been said may justify the owner in not
racing, but it is hardly fair to the crew if he does race. If the 11. winning
money is fairly earned, the 10s. losing money is equally well earned, and
the difference of 10s. between the two douceurs is quite sufficient to maintain
the desire to win. But there is still another very strong argument to be
advanced on behalf of the 10s. losing money plan. The extra men get
10s. for coming on board to race, and if these men are given 10s. besides
their ordinary day’s pay to come out of a strange vessel, it certainly is no
more than just that the regular crew of the yacht should have 10s. besides
their day’s pay as well. The extra men have comparatively little work to
do beyond the pulling and hauling during the race, but the regular crew of
the yacht have most likely a hard day’s work before the race, and a harder
one after the race. It is not the fact that the work is no harder on board
a racing yacht than on board a cruiser ; in reality there is no comparing
the two, and the life on board a cruiser is ease, luxury, and indolence,
compared with the worry, discomfort, and work on board a racing yacht.
TEIE START.
It will be assumed that the race is for 20-raters; and, as the method
of starting and general conduct of a race is the same for yachts of all
sizes, a 20-rater will answer the purpose of illustration as well as one
of larger size. If the start is from moorings, go up to the buoy to pick
it up just as you would to pick up any other buoy. (See “Seamanship.”)
If the yacht is before the wind, lower all sail and go up to the buoy
with way so much deadened that the yacht scarcely moves, due allowance
of course always being made for tide, whether foul or fair; in beating
*
246 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
up to the buoy, the yacht must be rounded to and made shoot head to
wind up to the buoy. Get hold of the buoy and hawser and haul about
ten or twelve fathoms on board; then bend on the quarter spring to
the hawser, veer out the hawser again and belay the spring with some
slack aft. In starting from anchors, if the chain has to be slipped, the
spring will be bent to the chain as it would be to the hawser. If the
anchor has to be weighed, no spring will be bent on. If a yacht
starts from her own anchor and slips and the anchor has to be got
by a boat, it is best to bend a trip line to the crown of the anchor
with a buoy. Also if the anchor has to be weighed in a 5-tonner, it
will be found best to put a trip line on the anchor and pull it up over
the bow regardless of the cable, which can be got in at leisure.
Too much of the hawser should not be hauled in, as the yacht
may drag, and this would render her liable to disqualification; neither
should the rudder be put hard across, as that will cause the yacht
to sheer and bring the stream of the tide on one bow, or on the broad-
side, and the force of the stream acting on such a surface may cause
the yacht to drag, and this would render her liable to disqualification.
- Sometimes when starting from moorings or anchors, permission is
given to set after canvas prior to the gun for the start being fired;
but if the yacht is riding head to the tide with the wind blowing astern,
she could not keep at her moorings with mainsail set. In such cases
the sail will not be hoisted till the last two or three minutes. But
everything must be got ready long before the five-minutes gun.
The breeze we will assume to be of whole-sail strength, that is that
the biggest topsail, not being a ballooner, can be just carried on a wind,
and that the first part of the course lies to windward. See that the
topsail is bent to the yard, and that the halyards are properly bent;
also bend the second topsail, roll it up on the yard, and stow it away
with the other spare spars on deck “ready when wanted.” Haul No. 1
jib in stops out by the traveller, hook on the halyards, and let it lie on
the bowsprit ; get the mainsail (with boom well topped) and the foresail
ready for hoisting. If the jib topsail will be wanted, hank it on to the
topmast stay, stow it on the bowsprit end, and bend the sheets. See
that the sheets are clear for hauling in aft.
See that everything is stowed below that will not be required on
deck, and also see that everything that is on deck and not in immediate
use is securely lashed. Have an axe ready to cut the quarter spring
in case it jammed.
At the five-minutes gun place the crew at their stations.
The helmsman of the day then takes the helm ; with him aft will be
Starting. 24,7
the pilot, who will also look after the quarter spring and attend to the
main sheet; the mate will cast off the spring or hawser forward, clear the
jib halyards for hoisting, and with another hand hoist the jib and take
in the lee jib sheet; one hand will hoist the foresail and attend to the
lee fore sheet if necessary; three hands will man the peak halyards, and
two the throat alternately, the jib and foresail men tailing on directly
they have pulled these sails up. This will be work for nine hands; if
the pilot is not allowed to work, a peak-halyard hand will go aft and
cast off the spring and jump forward directly it is done.
As the time approaches for the firing of the gun to start, try to
realise that everything must be done at once. If the yachts are lying
head to wind and tide, and have to fill on starboard tack, the helmsman in
the last fifteen seconds will put his helm to starboard, so as to make sure
of the wind catching the yacht on the starboard bow. As the gun fires
the mate will throw overboard the bow fast, and the quarter spring will
be hung on to until the yacht is fairly filled on the right tack, when it
will be thrown overboard by the pilot; all hands will hoist away. The pilot
will overhaul some of the main sheet and drag it in again directly the yacht
begins to move through the water, and the helmsman will gradually bring
her to the wind. Get all the sails set and properly purchased as quickly
as possible is advice that cannot too often be repeated, and when they
are so set coil up all ropes, &c., and “clear the decks.”
If the yachts are to proceed against wind and tide, and to fill on
starboard tack (i.e., cast to port), the helm will be put to starboard just
before the start, in order to sheer the yacht’s head to port or off the wind
(in reality the stern will come more to windward than the bow will go off
to leeward). Great exertion must be made to get the mainsail up quickly
if it is not already set.
In starting to run with the tide and wind, hold on the quarter
spring until the vessel is fairly swung round before the wind. If to
run before the wind against the tide no quarter spring will be required,
although one is generally bent on. In all cases get the canvas set as
quickly as possible, and directly the hands who are hoisting the head
sails have got them up hand taut, they should jump on to the main and
peak halyards; the purchasing will be done after the sails are fairly
hoisted all round.
In starting every caution must be exercised to avoid fouling other
yachts; but frequently a foul cannot very well be avoided if a yacht
has no way on, and is simply moving with the tide; but if the
vessel has gathered way she is under control, and no foul should take
place.
248 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
In an under-way start great care must be exercised that no part of a
yacht (her bowsprit, boom, and sails included) is on the line before
the signal to start. (In case of a calm a yacht is not allowed to have
her anchor out over the line to haul across with when the gun has beer,
fired for the start ; nor may she warp.)
The strength of the tide and the wind should be so well judged
that the yacht can, with full way on, go over the line at the very
moment the blue peter is lowered and the gun fired. In all cases the
master should strive for a weather berth, especially so if the start is for a
thrash to windward. If the yacht is a little too early she must be stopped :
yaw her about ; haul the foresail up to windward ; haul the main boom in ;
or if the vessel is by the wind it can be run well off her quarter—this only
if there be plenty of help to get it in again. In extreme cases the yacht,
can be put about, but she should not wear unless there be a lot of time,
as it will take her right away to leeward.
If the wind is steady and it is a reach to the line, it is a good plan to
sail up above the line and back again, taking the time each way and
noting the difference. Then when the first gun is fired, a good idea can
be formed of how far to get away from the line and return so as to reach
it just as the starting gun is fired.
If the yacht is on the wrong side of the line when the gun fires she
must be careful to keep clear of all yachts which are crossing or have crossed
the line properly; SO also must it be recollected that in under-way starts all.
yachts are amenable to the sailing rules directly the preparatory (five
minutes) gun has been fired ; however, there is a special rule that yachts.
coming into position from the wrong side of the line after the signal to start.
must keep clear of yachts which are starting or have started properly.
Whether the start be from moorings or under way the master should,
to the best of his judgment, get the exact canvas up at first that can be.
carried; and if it is a case of reefing, always remember that it is a great,
deal easier to let out a reef than take One in.
After a start and run down wind, a reef may be required when the
yachts draw on the wind; in such cases the practice is to start with a reefed.
mainsail and jib-headed topsail over it. Before hauling by the wind the
topmast is housed ; or got on deck in the case of a small yacht which has.
the topmast rigging fitted on a funnel.
OVERTAKING : LUFFING AND BEARING AWAY.
If, when before the wind, a yacht is ahead, and you cannot pass her,
run dead in her wake or a little to windward of her wake so as to cover-
her ; you may do her a little harm in this way and prevent her getting away.
Overtaking–Luffing—Head-Reaching. 249
farther. If you are overtaking a vessel and desire to pass her, give her a
wide berth either to windward or to leeward; to leeward for choice, as, if the
vessels are dead before the wind, your antagonist cannot bear away after you
to do any harm; if you try to pass to windward, a senseless luffing match
will most likely be the result.
If a vessel is coming up fast astern and threatening your weather
quarter, and you make up your mind that she shall not pass to windward,
do not wait until her bowsprit is over your quarter before you luff, but
take a wipe out across her when she is fifty yards off or so. If she is the
more weatherly vessel, and faster withal, and once gets a weather quarter
overlap, she cannot be stopped by luffing. If you luff in time she will
know what you mean to do, will probably be unable to get on your
weather at all, and more probably will not try it. If she bears up to
attempt to go through your lee, do not follow her off; if you do, it will
probably end, after frequent backing and filling, in her ultimately getting
her bowsprit over your weather quarter, and a long luffing match will
ensue, followed up perhaps by a protest for bearing away.
When one of two yachts which are close together succeeds in going
through the lee of the other yacht, the latter, if possible, should run dead
in the wake of her antagonist that has just passed her. If the wind is
very light, she may succeed in holding her. But the yacht which has
just passed through the lee of the other should luff out to a clear berth,
and she may thus be able to rid herself of the intended covering. If
there be an obstruction to sea room she will be unable to luff out clear
perhaps, and may very likely try to get clear by running off to leeward;
but here she will find that the sternmost yacht can follow her, and
generally running off the wind in such a case is of no avail. It must
be understood that the prohibition contained in the Y. R. A. rule on
“luffing or bearing away” is not involved here, as it is presumed that
one yacht has passed clean through the lee of the other, and if she
drops back again that other yacht which was passed becomes in the
position of an overtaking yacht. An overtaking yacht is not precluded
from bearing away provided she does not cause the yacht overtaken to
bear away also to avoid collision; but an overtaken yacht is forbidden to
bear away to hinder another passing to leeward ; that is, a yacht that is
overtaken by another yacht must concede an unmolested passage to leeward.
HEAD-REACHING TO WINDWARD.
If two yachts are standing by the wind in close company on the
same tack, and the weathermost yacht head-reaches so much as to get
250 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
into the other’s wind, the latter may require to tack; but she must not
do so until she can clear the stern of the weathermost yacht, as fouling
in attempting to stay under such conditions would be cause for disqualifi-
cation. (See page 198, and the section “Weather Bowing,” page 252).
HEAD-REACHING TO LEEWARD : TACKING.
If, when two yachts are beating to windward, and standing in close
company on the same tack, the yacht to leeward head-reaches and requires
to tack across the other’s bow, she must not do so until she can tack
without interfering with the windward yacht whether she is going to either
starboard or port tack.
HEAD-REACHING AND WEATHERING.
It is assumed that the yachts in the match are close-hauled
standing on starboard tack on their first board in the beat for No. 1 . .
markboat ; jibs have been purchased up till the luff is as straight as the
forestay, peak purchased up, main tack bowsed down (if the mainsail be a
loose footed one), topsail tack hauled down and clew sheeted home,” and
sails trimmed to the exact inch of sheet. With water just squeezing
through the lee scuppers, there is plenty of weather helm to play upon in
luffing to the “free puffs.”
Two yachts have started abreast of each other, but one a hundred
yards or so to leeward. The one in the lee berth holds much the
better wind, and is gradually eating up to the other and head-
reaching too. At last she is close up under the lee bow of the
craft to windward, and in another half-minute her weather quarter-
rail will strike the bowsprit or lee bow of the other; which has to
give way ?
To begin with, we must clearly understand what is taking place.
Close-hauled means sailing so close to the wind as a vessel can be sailed
with a view of economising distance or time, or both, in reaching a
particular object. The vessel that is “weathering,” and at the same
* As a matter of fact, a gaff topsail is seldom “sheeted home '’ in a racing yacht ; there
is usually a foot or so drift of sheet between the gaff and clew cringle to insure being able
to sheet the sail flat. When the cringle is “home '’ the foot of the sail will very likely not
be stretched, and will belly away from the gaff; it will then be time to think about getting a pull
qn the topmast stay ; or topsail halyards, if the topsail has settled down, as it frequently
will, especially if the halyards be new. A gaff topsail will usually require “sheeting ” after
the main peak has been purchased up.
Head-Reaching and Weathering. 251
time head-reaching, can in this case be taken as a standard for the
condition of being close-hauled. It is thus quite clear that the vessel
to windward does not fulfil that standard, and is in the condition—an
uncontrollable one it can be admitted—of bearing away on the other.
This, under Rule 21 of the Y.R.A. (the Luffing and Bearing Away rule),
a yacht is not allowed to do, and she must luff up to enable the other
to clear her. However, the general practice in such a case is for the
leeward yacht to be given weather helm to keep clear of the one to
windward ; then when she has drawn clear ahead the weather tiller lines
can be eased, and she will literally fly out across the bow of the other.
This, on the whole, is the better course; and further, it is the course
which must be followed if the leeward yacht head-reaches from a position
astern, as by the Luffing and Bearing Away rule “an overtaking vessel,
if to leeward, must not luff, so as to interfere with the yacht she has
overtaken, until she has drawn clear ahead.”
It may possibly be argued that the leeward yacht is not luffing,
that she is (for her) only a bare close-hauled, and that it is the windward
yacht that is bearing away. Such a dispute can only be settled in
One way: the leeward yacht was in the position of the overtaking
vessel, and should have kept clear of the yacht to windward. There-
fore in all cases if the leeward yacht is head-reaching, and at the same
time weathering, we think it is good policy for her to keep clear of
the yacht she is likely to foul to windward. It will not do for the
yacht to defer using a little weather helm until her weather quarter is
so close under the bow of the yacht to windward that the fact of
putting her helm up would have the effect of swinging her quarter on
the bow of the other. The Y.R.A. decided cases according to this
interpretation of the rules in 1895. (See page 220.)
In connection with this head-reaching and weathering, the following
case often occurs. We will suppose that two yachts have to fetch by two
or more boards from the buoy, A., to some other mark. The boat, B., is
the more weatherly of the two, but D., astern, got some free puffs and
crossed ahead of B. at E., and tacked to port on the weather quarter of D.
The leading boat, when the crossing took place at E. (Fig. 103), was un-
doubtedly D.; but B. being the more weatherly, and D. the faster, the
pair rapidly converged, and the question as to which was the overtaking
boat, and which had to give way arose. B., owing to her superior
weatherliness, was the overtaking boat, and this would have been surely
proved had the yachts been cross-tacking instead of working board and
board. In deciding such a case, it should be considered that, if D. tacked,
as shown, on the weather quarter of B., or on her weather beam or bow,
252 Yacht and Boat Sailing. *
B. would clearly come under the category of an overtaking vessel; and
B. would be the yacht which had to give way. (See page 220.)
FIG. 103.
If a yacht hangs under the lee bow of the one to windward, the latter
would frequently do well to tack, as it is almost as bad to have a yacht
close under the lee bow as on the weather bow.
HEAD-REACHING AND SAGGING TO TIEEWARD.
But it may happen that the yacht which is to windward is head-
reaching, although not holding so good a wind as the other; in such
a case the yachts may converge, and the lee quarter of the windward
yacht may be likely to foul the weather bow or bowsprit of the leeward
yacht. In this case it will be the duty of the windward yacht to keep
clear of the one to leeward, as she is in the condition of a yacht bearing
away, and is the overtaking yacht and must keep clear of the other;
and moreover, by the rule before referred to, a yacht in the position of
the one to leeward, that is being overtaken, may luff as she pleases to
prevent another passing to windward; and further, when two yachts have

Head-Reaching to Leeward–Soaking Together. 253
the wind on the same side, and if no question of overtaking is involved
the yacht which is to windward must keep clear of the other. The
decision of the Y.R.A. on this point (see page 219) was in accordance
with this exposition of the rules.
If the windward yacht has deferred luffing, or shaking up if necessary,
until such time as the bowsprit end of the other is close to her lee
quarter, it will be too late to luff, and a little weather helm will probably
take the yachts clear. The leeward yacht will be pretty certain to have
been well blanketed by the one to windward ; her way will therefore be
stopped, and the other, under the influence of her weather helm, will lift
her stern to windward and forge clear.
If the yachts are not too close when the blanketing takes place,
it is the practice for the helmsman of the leeward yacht to put the
helm down as the sails begin to shake, and make a shoot to wind-
ward clear of the wash of the other ; but care must be taken not to
keep the vessel shooting so long as to lose her way, as she might get
in irons.
When the leeward yacht is passed like this, it will be a good
time to choose for getting a pull on any of the purchases that may
require it.
The following case occurred in 1893:
Three yachts cross the line at gunfire abreast, close-hauled; A. is about two lengths
to windward of B., and B. about the same distance from C.
B., though travelling equally fast, is gradually sagging on to C.’s weather quarter.
After travelling some time, it becomes evident that B. will have to luff or tack to prevent
B. and C. soaking together. Meanwhile A. has maintained her position abreast of the
other two; but, due either to making leeway or being sailed somewhat harder, has
diminished the distance between herself and B.-say to one length. Can B. call upon A.
to luff or tack P. If she can and A. should refuse, would A. be disqualified P
The ruling was, that “A windward yacht must keep clear, so B.
could luff A. to avoid C.” In this case the ultimate result would probably
be that B. would fall astern of the other two.
SOAKING TOGETHER.
When two yachts are reaching along in close company, great care
should be taken if there be much wind that they do not soak together.
If the large hollow wave on the weather of the leeward yacht and the
almost equally large wave under the lee of the windward yacht merge
into one, the pair are bound to come together. A case like this occurred
with the Kriemhilda and Fiona in the year 1873, and a similar case
with Irex and Marjorie in 1886; both cases happened inside the Isle of
Wight, off Osborne.
254. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
OVER-TREACHING.
In beating to windward for a mark great care must be taken not to
over-reach ; that is, not to stand on so long as to be able to more than
fetch a mark when the yacht is put about. In most cases a cutter yacht
will fetch a mark (if not more than half a mile distant) on the next tack
if the mark is brought to bear abeam—i.e., at right angles to the keel,
or eight compass-points from the direction of the vessel’s head. This
is supposing that there is no tide. If the tide be going to windward,
so much need not be allowed; if the tide be going to leeward, more
than eight points must be allowed. The helmsman, by watching his
vessel and objects on shore or around on previous tacks, will be able
to judge how much should be allowed for tide; and he should always
remember that it is better to err by allowing too much than too little,
providing of course that the vessel does not over-reach so ...uch as to
lose her position in the match,
Frequently when working across a lee-going tide it looks, when
the yacht is put on her last board for the mark, that too much has
been allowed for tide ; this may or may not be the case, but great
judgment should be exercised in ramping along, as not to fetch after
over-reaching would be an error fatal to the reputation of a sailing
master.
When working by long boards and a vessel tacks for her mark, say a
mile off, and can just lie for it, she should be sailed along a good full, and
not be nipped or squeezed; if in the end she does not fetch, it cannot be
helped, but it is certain that she will not have lost so much ground by
having to tack again as she would by sailing out a long board with her
sails lifting.
WEATHER BOWING.—BEARING AWAY.
A favourite pastime of a sailing master is to “weather bow ’’ another
vessel in working board and board to windward, or otherwise in cross tack-
ing, that is in tacking to place his own vessel in such a position on the bow
of the other that she immediately intercepts the wind of that other vessel,
and causes her head sails to lift. If the vessels are pretty evenly matched,
the leading one will be able to put the other under her lee quarter every
time they tack. The one to leeward may ramp off, but she will never
get clear unless she is a very much faster vessel. The object of the
leeward yacht will be to get into cross tacking, and this her adversary
will try to prevent, and tack as frequently as she does. This diversion
Weather Bowing—Bearing Away. 255
may possibly be a bad thing for both, so far as the prize goes, if there
are other yachts in the match, as their frequent tacking cannot be other-
wise than a gain to the yachts which are working by longer boards.
If the leeward yacht finds that the one to windward will not permit
her to get into cross tacking, she will probably, as aforesaid, ramp off and
endeavour to get through the lee of the weather yacht. For the leeward
yacht to do this successfully, that is, to be able to reach far enough
ahead to tack across and weather the other one, she must be the faster
vessel, or otherwise she will still find the other on her weather bow every
time they tack. As the lee yacht is ramped off, the weather one is
commonly sailed hard too, or what is known as a “good full.” But
the helmsman must be very careful with his weather helm, as the
windward yacht is supposed to keep her luff, and is not allowed to bear
away so as to prevent the other yacht passing to leeward ; thus, the
windward yacht should be kept no more than a “good full and bye ’’
whilst another yacht is under her lee.
In speaking of “bearing away ” it must not be assumed that the
yachts get very much off the wind; if they did—say three or four points—
the effect would be that the leeward yacht would come out clear ahead
of the other. This is not the kind of “bearing away ” which is practised.
Strictly speaking the “bearing away ” is simply sailing “ ramping full,”
with a heavy hand on the weather tiller lines. It would be difficult to
disqualify a yacht for this under the “bearing away ” rule; but, never-
theless, if one yacht is sailing hard, when close hauled, to endeavour to
get through the lee of the windward yacht, it would be most unfair for
the other to ramp off after her.
A common practice to escape the vigilance of the “weather-bowing ”
craft is to make a feint at tacking, or, as it is sometimes called, to make
a “false tack.” The master sings out “ready about !” loud enough to
be heard perhaps on board the windward yacht, and the crew go to their
stations as if about to tack. The master eases the helm down, but is
careful that the yacht does not pass the head to wind point ; he keeps her
shooting, and one hand hauls the fore sheet up, and perhaps takes in the
slack of the weather jib sheet. The master of the windward vessel thinks
it is a real tack, and puts his vessel about ; the other thereupon reverses.
his helm and backs his vessel’s head off on the same tack again. This
trick does not always succeed, but it does sometimes. In practising this
subterfuge great care must be taken by the leeward yacht that she is not
so close to the windward yacht as to bring about a collision by putting
her helm down. If a collision ensued the leeward yacht would be held
to blame.
256 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
-----------~~
In standing across another yacht with the intention of tacking, to
give her a weather bower, great judgment must be exercised or the
yacht may escape the intended blanketing. If the yacht crosses close
ahead she must tack close ahead (a little to windward), and even
then she may just miss getting on the weather bow of the other.
The latter will know this, and instantly commence to ramp along
and clear her wind; perhaps the next time she stays, if to starboard
tack, she may be able to put the one which offered her the weather bower
about.
If a yacht in standing across another is some three or four hundred
yards to windward, and desires to weather bow her, the master must be
careful not to stand too far, as if he does he will find himself on the
weather beam of the other instead of weather bow when he stays. If
the yacht crosses say ten lengths ahead, she should be tacked after she
has passed clear four lengths; or, say when the other is seven lengths off
her lee quarter. She will then be, allowing for the time or distance lost
in tacking, exactly in her rival’s wind.
A yacht that is head-reaching to windward of another yacht is
frequently sailed hard so as to pass close on the weather of the other,
as the “shake up ’’ is effective in proportion to the closeness of the
yachts to each other. This process of “ killing ” an antagonist was
formerly very much practised ; very few sailing masters now, however,
ramp off after a vessel they are already beating by head-reaching. This
insidious manner of giving a vessel weather helm is not perhaps “bearing
away to hinder a yacht passing to leeward,” as forbidden by the Y.R.A.
rule; nor yet the bearing away which was sensibly forbidden by the
old rule, which said, “a yacht may not bear away out of her course
so as to cause another yacht to bear away to avoid a collision.” It
is a kind of jockeying which every helmsman very soon becomes acquainted
with. -
- A great deal of time would be wasted by a sailing master attempting,
by “weather bowing,” to stop every vessel which came in his way, big
or small ; this would be very foolish. The first aim should be to get
all the speed and advantage possible out of a vessel ; secondly, if you
come across a vessel that appears to have as good or better a chance
of winning than yourself, endeavour to stop her by legitimate means, but
do not needlessly waste time with a vessel that has little or no chance
of winning ; thirdly, if you are beating a vessel that, next to yourself,
has the best chance of winning, by keeping with her, do not leave her;
fourthly, if, when sticking to a vessel you are being beaten by her, part
company and try your fortune on a different cast.
Before the Wind Under Spinnaker. 257
—
BEFORE THE WIND UNDER SPINNARER.
The crew ought to be able to rig and to have all the spinnaker
gear ready in five minutes; thus in ordinary weather about that time
should be allowed for getting the boom out and spinnaker halyards
and outhaul bent, and shifting backstay aft, before bearing up round
a mark. If it is to be a dead run, take care that the boom is on the
right side, so that the vessel can be run for the next mark without
gybing ; allow for the tide, if any, scan the wind, and determine which
side the spinnaker boom shall be on. If after bearing up it is found
that a mistake has been made, and that the vessel will not run for
the mark in consequence of the main boom being on the wrong quarter,
do not try to make her and run by the lee. When running by the lee
the mainsail will be doing little or no good, and, further, the main
boom may come over suddenly and pull down the topmast by striking the
preventer, or break itself on the runner. Haul up to windward a little, and
fill the mainsail; but if it involves hauling up more than a point, and the
“run” be a long one, gybe over at once and run straight for the mark.”
If the boom has to go square off, ease up the topsail sheet a little if
the topsail tack is to windward of the gaff, and ease the topsail lacing and
tack too, if it strains badly across the peak-halyard blocks. If the peak
of the mainsail falls aboard, ease the peak purchase a trifle, but not until
after the topsail sheet has been eased, as the sudden strain thrown on the
after leech and sheet of the topsail might cause something to burst.
Take in the slack of the weather topping-lift before easing up the peak
purchase, or the boom may come down on the rail.
The weather topping lift should always carry the weight of the boom
in running or reaching with the boom broad off. In a sea the boom
should be topped up three or four feet, so as not to strike more than
the mere top of the combers.
Be careful, if there be much weight in the wind, not to ease the
boom off so far as to allow the gaff to press heavily on the lee rigging,
as the jaws of the gaff might thereby be broken.
In strong winds the small spinnaker only should be boomed out,
and if the boom rears on end, the tendency can be checked by giving
sheet as the boom commences to rear ; also by pressing the boom down,
but the boom should not be stopped down with a rope, as it is certain to
* If the run be 12 miles, and the vessel haul up a point and run, say, on port tack for
half the distance, and then gybe over and run on the other tack, she will increase her distance
to 12% miles.
S
258 - Yacht and Boat Sailing.
break. Frequently when the topmast is housed the second spinnaker is
boomed out with a Spanish reef in the head; i.e., the head of the sail made
into a bight, and the halyards bent to it ; or sometimes the head of the sail
is tied up in a knot.
In heavy weather it will not be prudent to run with the boom
square off, nor to run dead before the wind; keep a little to windward of
the course, and then gybe over and run for the mark on the other tack.
With the weight of the boom and spinnaker boom shifted forward
the vessel will go down by the head, and if she does not like the trim the
crew should be placed abaft the tiller lines or on the quarter deck.
If the run be a dead one, the helmsman will have two objects in
view : 1. To run straight for the mark, or at least try to make the mark
without having to gybe. 2. In endeavouring to carry out the first object
the second aim will be to be careful that the mainsail is not gybed through
getting by the lee. To accomplish these ends an average course will
have to be made by running off when the wind will permit, and drawing
to again as the wind shows a tendency to draw on the lee quarter.
GY BING ALL STANDING.
The helmsman has already been warned against running the risk of
“gybing all standing ” when before the wind, if by the lee, or caught
by the lee, or through carelessness. Most serious consequences might
ensue, and if the main boom once begins to get steam on in coming over,
nothing will stop it until brought up by the preventer backstay, or what
was the lee runner. It would be useless putting the helm down, but after
the accident every care should be taken to steady the vessel.
Many accidents have happened through gybing all standing, and the
consequences may be fatal, especially if the mainsail is not laced to the
boom. In the year 1871, during the regatta of the Royal Harwich Yacht
Club, the Volante “gybed all standing,” and the boom broke against
the runner. The aft end flew to windward and pinned a man on the rail,
clean through his chest, killing him instantly.
ROUNDING MARKS.
In running for a mark to haul round, it is generally prudent (if not
hauling against a foul tide) to keep well to leeward of the mark, and haul
up gradually to it, so that by the time the mark is reached all the sheets
are flattened in; in fact, the vessel should be almost “brought to ” by the
mere hauling aft the sheets, and with as little helm as possible. If the
yacht has to be “brought to ” against the tide, only a short sweep should
Sailing Towards Marks for Rounding. 259
be made in rounding; but the sheets must be got aft smartly, so that
when the vessel is actually rounding the mark they are properly trimmed.
This is particularly necessary if the yacht has to be brought by the wind,
as, otherwise, when the helm is put down she will not come to quickly,
and a yacht that may be astern could, by a better hauling of her sheets,
come up and cut her out.
If the mark has to be gybed round and the wind is light, the yacht
should be run dead for the mark, and should gybe close at the mark,
always allowing for tide. The boom can be handled easily, and the
shorter the circle the vessel can be turned in, the better. But if there
is a strong wind, and an attempt is made to make a short turn by wearing
close round the mark, it will probably end in disappointment or disaster.
Instead of attempting a short turn, the vessel should haul up to wind-
ward of her course a little, and gybe over when one hundred yards or so
from the mark; there will then be time to trim the sheets properly, and
the vessel will not overshoot the mark nor lose any ground. When a vessel
is judiciously rounding a mark like this, she may find one ahead that has
attempted to make a short turn of it by gybing at the mark, more or less
“all standing.” This vessel, before she can be met with her helm, will
probably fly to ; so look out and go under her stern, if there is room to
do so without striking her, and then through her lee. If an attempt is
made to keep on her weather, a luffing match will be the result ; or
perhaps a disastrous collision, as your vessel that gybed first will have
great way on, whilst the other, gybing and then flying to, would have
almost stopped dead. If a collision under such circumstances did occur,
the overtaking yacht would be held to blame, as, although it might have
been a lubberly thing to have allowed the leading vessel to fly across the
One that was coming up astern, still the latter, being the overtaking yacht,
would have to keep clear. Therefore keep a sharp look-out, and, as before
said, if there be room, go under the other vessel’s stern, and you certainly
will be able to get through her lee. If there be not room to so go under
her stern, be ready to give lee helm if necessary to clear her to windward,
and you probably will succeed in passing her.
In gybing always be smart with the topmast shifting backstays
and the runners; get them hauled taut before the boom actually goes
over, and let go the weather backstay and runner as the boom comes
amidships.
If, when sailing pretty nearly close-hauled, the mark has to be
rounded short by wearing or gybing, so as to return on a parallel course,
the rounding will be an awkward one. If there is much wind it
will be prudent to keep well to windward of the mark. Begin to bear
S 2
260 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
up when a hundred yards or so away from it, easing the main sheet
a little, and mizen sheet if it is a yawl, but not touching the head
sheets ; then as the yacht is nearly close to the mark hard up ; as
the vessel wears round to nearly before the wind, steady the helm and
let the boom go over as easily as possible. Be careful not to ease
too much main sheet ; steady the helm directly it is seen that the
vessel has had enough to bring the boom over. The object will be to
turn the vessel slowly at first, making a long sweep; then quickly, and
then slowly again at the last. In bearing up round a mark in this way
care must be taken that neither the boom nor any of the lee rigging
touches the markboat ; and if the markboat is flying a large flag, be
careful not to touch it, as although merely touching such a flag might not
be held to be a foul, still there would be the risk of the flag getting hung up
in some of the yacht’s gear, and this would be considered a foul; and,
moreover, in such a case the mark boat itself might be dragged alongside.
In rounding markboats in a strong wind or tide way care should be
taken to take plenty of room, so that the keel does not foul the mooring
chain of the markboat, if it be stretched out taut and straight. If the
chain were touched it would probably bring the markboat alongside, and
such a foul would involve disqualification under Rule 24, which enjoins
that a yacht must not foul a mark, nor cause one to shift its position.
SETTING UP THE SAILS.
As a hauling mark is approached always get the sails well set for
coming on the wind. Anything that requires setting up should be
attended to before the mark is reached. If a jib requires shifting, do
not forget that it can be done more easily whilst before the wind than
on the wind. Very frequently a vessel is run off the wind on purpose
to get in the jib ; but this can only be done at a great loss of distance.
Sails will require frequent “setting ” during a match, and a sharp
look round must be taken constantly, especially when coming to wind
from sailing off the wind. Before getting a pull on the topsail tack do
not forget to ease the sheet first ; and also see if the topmast requires
staying forward. In setting up the peak of a mainsail always take the
weight of the boom with the topping lift. In setting up a jib always
see that the runners are taut.
RUNNING ASHORE.
In Sailing along a weather shore, if the yacht drags the ground,
promptly ease off the boom and put the helm up, and send all hands
Running Ashore. 261
forward. The boom is run off to give the vessel greater list, so as to
lighten her draught, and also to prevent her coming to, and so forge
further aground. The object of sending the men forward is, that by
tripping the vessel by the head, the draught is lessened. If the vessel
drags whilst running along a lee shore, haul the boom in and put the
helm down.
If other efforts fail run a kedge out broad on the weather bow,
or aft a little over the weather quarter.
CHAPTER X.
C ENTRE - B O A R D B O AT S.
THE centre-board, it appears, was invented, or rather adapted, from some
form of lee-board by Captain Schank, of the British Navy, some time prior to
1771. We have not come across any contemporary record of the invention,
but in Charnock’s “History of Marine Architecture,” published in 1802, the
FIG. 104.
fact is alluded to, together with a description of a boat with a sliding
keel built by Captain Schank at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1771, for Earl
Percy (afterwards Duke of Northumberland). The engraving (Fig. 104)
represents this boat, and, so far as we know, is the oldest authentic
*a-
— -
FIG. 105.
record of the sliding keel. At about the same time Captain Schank was
very strongly urging the English Government to cease building deep ships,
and to build shallow ones, fitted with one or more sliding keels. The
Admiralty were not, however, to be persuaded into such a startling revolu-

The Origin of Centre-Boards. 263
tion in naval architecture; still they so far humoured Captain Schank, that
in 1789 a boat was built and fitted at Deptford Dockyard with three boards,
according to the plan shown in the engraving (Fig. 105).* The use of the
three boards was as follows: In tacking, or laying to, the centre-board and
after board were raised; in wearing the centre-board and fore-board were
raised; also in Scudding the centre-board and fore-board were raised ;
going over shallows the three boards were raised. On a wind the three
boards were lowered, each to such depth as seemed best to balance the
sails. The report of the trials made with this boat seem to have very
favourably impressed the Admiralty, and Captain Schank was instructed to
design a cutter of 60ft. length and 20ft. beam, with three sliding keels.
She had a midship section something like a barge, and a draught of water
of 6ft. 6in., and was named the “Trial.” In an elaborate report she
was claimed to be a good sea boat, and very handy; but two other
vessels with centre-boards, named the Lady Nelson and Cynthia, were
less favourably reported upon, and the Admiralty, we believe, built no
more centre-board ships. So far as we were concerned, the sliding
keel was lost sight of until the visit of the America in 1851 drew attention
* In 1889 a gentleman, who resides in Formosa, sent me a model of a surf sailing-boat used
loy the natives of that island at Tai-Wan-Foo. The boat is called Tek-pai and Chu-pai (the
latter Mandarin), “Tek’’ or “Chu ’’ meaning bamboo, and “pai” platform or tray. The boat
*Consists of a number of bamboos lashed together as a raft, and curved somewhat like a butcher's
tray. It has three movable centre-boards (like those shown in Fig. 105), which are pushed down
between the bamboos, and shifted about as the sailing or management of the boat requires.
A tub in which the passengers sit, is lashed just abaft the mast. The mat is used as a weather
screen to keep off spray. There is no doubt that this method of using the centre-board was
that which gave Capt. Schank the idea of utilising it for deep bodied vessels, as recorded in
Charnock’s “History of Marine Architecture.” The European Magazine for 1792, in discussing
Capt. Schank’s “invention ” of the three sliding keels, as fitted to H.M.S. Trial, Lady Nelson,
&c., says: “If the discovery of the sliding keels is great, the public are indebted for it to the
Indians of South America, whose balsas, described in Ulloa's voyage (A.D. 1735), have these
sliding keels; and from these the idea has been taken and very ingeniously improved upon.”
But these sliding keels of the Indians were seen by Pizarro two centuries earlier (A.D. 1535).
In Prescott’s “History of the Conquest of Peru,” we read: “As he (Pizarro) drew near, he
found it was a large vessel, or rather raft, called balsas, consisting of a number of huge timbers
of a light porous wood, tightly lashed together, with a frail flooring of reeds raised on them by
way of deck. Two masts or sturdy poles erected in the middle of the vessel sustained a large
square sail of cotton ; while a rude kind of rudder, and a movable keel made of plank and
inserted between the logs, enabled the mariner to give a direction to the floating fabric, which
held on its course without the aid of oar or paddle.” Whether a Chinese raft got blown to
Peru, or whether a Peruvian log-raft got blown to China, and so communicated the idea, cannot
now be determined, but there is no doubt that the British have no more claim to the actual
invention of the sliding keel or centre board than any of the United States citizens have. Capt.
Schank, it is evident, as remarked in the Ewropean Magazine, merely adapted the South American
sliding keels to the hulls of deep sea-going vessels; whilst Capt. Shuldham, of the English Navy,
further improved on the adaption in 1809 by pivoting the board at one corner, and it was for the
first time then termed a revolving keel. It is also worthy of note that Evelyn in his diary
(November, 1622) records that Sir William Petty invented a “vertical keel hung on hinges for
the improvement of the sailing of ships.”
264 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
to it. Not that the America had a centre-board, but other American
yachts had, and Englishmen about this time became much interested about
Transatlantic naval architecture.
The “centre-board” of America was, however, the “revolving keel ”
invented by Capt. Shuldham (also of the British Navy), and, instead of
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FIG. 106,
being dropped equally fore and aft, was pivoted at the fore-end, as shown
in the sketch (Fig. 106).
Capt. Shuldham devised his pivoted board plate whilst a prisoner of
war at Verdun, in 1809, and made a model of a boat with the plate fitted.
The plate was of lead, and, so far as shape goes, there it differs little from
the triangular plates of the present day. The model made by Capt. Shuld-
, sham at Verdun was deposited in the museum at Ipswich about the year
.." £820, and is still there. On Plate XIII. is an outline sketch of the model.
" . The small centre-board American sloop Truant was brought over here
in 1853, and, although only 20ſt. on the water line and 1.ft. 2in. draught,
beat all the crack 7-tonners in the Prince of Wales' Yacht Club a quarter
of an hour in a thrash from Blackwall to Northfleet in a nice breeze, and
was very roundly abused for her success. All sorts of stories were current,
about her shifting ballast, and her crew having their pockets filled with
lead shot | After this success Truant went to the Mersey and Lake

PLATE XIII.
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is härzy. -
Metal Plaſe.
Capt. Shuldham's Centre-Board,
1809,
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Double Centre-Boards. 265
Windermere, but what ultimately became of her we do not know. Her rig
was as shown in the accompanying drawing (Fig. 107), and is the same as
BE
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- FIG. 107.
the fashionable sloop of the present day, excepting that the foresail or jib is
laced to a foot yard, and tacked at about one-fifth its length from the outer
end of the yard on a bumpkin.
The Una was the next importation to this country from America, and,
although generally resembling the Truant in hull, differed in sail plan, as
the mast was stepped farther forward, and she had no headsail whatever.
The double centre-board was much advocated in America in 1871, but
we believe that no large yacht was built on the plan. However, in 1876
the idea occurred to Mr. W. Jeans, of Christchurch, to have a small craft
_2^
*—ct
N} º
ic
...”
o: 2’
_2^ *
". - ~~
FIG. 108. FIG. 109.
provided with two boards, and he published the following description of the
boat and drawing (see Figs. 108 and 109):
The letters a a a a, show the fore trunk; b, lever; c, chain; d, keel; e,
aft trunk; f, wheel; s, chain; h, aft keel.




















266 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The fore keel has its trunk in the cuddy. The trunk of the aft
keel is the dead wood in the run of the boat. The keel is lifted by
a small wheel and winch, the wheel being large enough to take up the
chain in one turn without overlapping, a dog catching it at any required
depth. Since the date given two centre plates have often been fitted to
sailing canoes.
The advantages of the two boards would be similar to those
claimed by Capt. Schank for his three boards, as follows: The keels
take up no room in the body of the boat; they can be regulated to
carry any kind of helm. By lifting up the fore keel in wearing the
boat is much sooner round. If there is a doubt of her not coming
about in a seaway, wind up the aft keel, when she will immediately
shoot into the wind, dropping it again as soon as she fills on the other
tack.
Perhaps the two boards may be found useful under exceptional
circumstances, but the single centre-board is much to be preferred. A boat
fitted with a single board will be more sensitive to slight alterations
of her helm, and generally will be more agreeable to sail on a wind;
and, although she may be knocked off occasionally by combers on
the bow, yet will she spring to more readily than if she had such an
unusual amount of gripe as a board under the fore foot would give.
The strongest reason for having two boards would be in the case of a
shallow vessel which had to keep the sea, and might have to scud in
very disturbed water and generally to encounter heavy weather. How-
ever, a yacht of the deep type, with fixed keel, would be better adapted
for such work.
As a rule the centre of area of the board should be in the same
vertical line as the centre of effort of the sails, unless the centre of lateral
resistance shows a very great departure from the centre of effort, when the
board may be used to adjust the centres.
There is no doubt that where a boat has to be of shallow draught, so
that an effective area for lateral resistance cannot be obtained by a fixed
keel, a centre-board or shifting keel of some form or other is a most
valuable contrivance ; and in the case where there is no restriction on
beam, as, for instance, in the “Y.R.A. classes,” the centre-board might
be of value. Since 1888 the contrivance has been permitted by the
Y.R.A., but the draught of water has not been much reduced when
a small centre plate has been fitted and worked through the lead
keel, and not showing above the cabin floor. The gain in weatherliness
to these deep keel boats has not been apparent ; and if there was any gain
at all it was only whilst working against a foul tide.
Centre-Boards and Stability 267
It has been found that a board with a long leading edge of the dagger
type is more effective than a short edge and great surface. (See the
Sorceress centre plate 1-rater; also “Yacht Architecture,” page 76.)
A belief sometimes exists that a centre-board adds to the stability of a
boat : So it does if made of iron or other metal, just the same as an iron
or other metal keel would; but if the material be wood not heavier than
water, the tendency of the board would be to upset the boat, as the wood
would strive to come to the surface, or, in other words, to float: thus, the
larger a wood board were made, and the deeper it were lowered, the more
urgent would be its tendency to assist in upsetting a boat. A board,
however, causes the process of heeling to be a little more slowly performed,
O |
TIG. 110.
as the board has to be moved through water, and the resistance to the
board being so moved is of the same nature as the resistance of the water
to any plane moved in it. Thus, when a boat is once permanently heeled,
or has settled down on “her bearings,” as it is termed, the board will be of
no more use for stability, as its tendency will be to float or come to the
surface. If the boat is struck by a squall which only lasts, say, four or
five seconds, the board may possibly prevent an upset that otherwise would
take place; but if the squall continues, and is of a strength to upset the
boat without the board, the boat will be assuredly upset with the board,
only it may take two or three seconds longer to do so.

268 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Numerous contrivances have been suggested to obviate the inside
housing of the board and one practical plan proposed consisted of a single
plate of iron pivoted at the fore end, and stowed, when hauled up, on
one side of the keel. An extension of this plan by adding to the plates
and forming them into a kind of fan has been adopted both in this
country and in America. The plan will be found illustrated by Fig. 110.
The leaves of the fan are pivoted to the side of the keel at a. The keel
OAK KEEL
gas
FIG. 111. FIG. 112.
is cut away, and a plate, a, bolted over the chamber, so as to form a
kind of box or case to take all the leaves when the fan is shut. See the
Small sketch. The leaves k, k, k, are connected at their after ends by
studs and slots. The fan is closed by a bar, working in a pipe p, as
shown. The bar is attached to the lower leaf by a stud, which works in a
fore and aft slot, s. The lifting bar should be jointed, so that when the
fan is closed, the handle part, h, will fold down by the side of the pipe.
The slots should be cut wide enough to insure the studs working
--> --
FIG. 113.
easily in them. The heads of the studs should be thin, and the edges
nicely bevelled off. The number of leaves could be of course increased, but
two would in most cases be probably found sufficient and less liable to get
locked or jammed.
In 1870 a boat was built by Messenger, and called Wideawake, with
a kind of shoe keel. The boat or rather canoe was 15ft. 10in. long, and
3ft. 2in. beam, depth, gunwale to keel, 1.ft. 4 in. She had an oak keel





Plans for Centre-Boards. 269
increasing in depth from 2in. forward, to 6in. aft. To this keel was fitted
a hollow galvanised keel—a kind of case, in fact, to take the oak keel—
12ft. long, made of #in. iron (see Fig. 111). The keel was pivoted forward
4ft. from the stem plumb to load line. Care was taken to make the iron
case fit the oak keel. The case was raised by a wire fastened to the stern
end of the case, and passing through a tube as shown by A B, Fig. 112.
The wire passed over a pulley on deck and was secured at mainmast. The
keel weighed 281b.
FIG. 114.
A better plan than the shoe keel was fitted in 1874 in a small
boat, Robin Hood, by Searle, for Sir W. B. Forwood. She had an oak
keel 5in. deep, in the under side of which a slot 9ſt. long and 3in. deep was
cut ; into this slot a galvanised iron plate #in. thick, 9ft. long, and 3in.
deep was fitted. It was raised and lowered by a rod at each end, working
in upright lead pipes. (For other plans for centre-boards see the articles
“Centre-board” and “Lee-board ” in the Appendix.)

270 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Occasionally a boat is met with which has a fixed centre-plate or fin
of iron (see Fig. 113). The plate is let into a slot in the wood keel, and
held in position by screwed bolts with nuts counter sunk. Fin keels and
fin bulb keels are now often fitted in this way in the smaller classes; in
1885 the author pointed out in this work that there is no reason why the
usual piece of wood false keel should be fitted at the fore end and aft
end of any yacht ; and without it a considerable saving would be made
in immersed surface. Four or five years later the fin keel became common
in the classes of 5-rating and under.
Among the many curious contrivances to prevent leeway, one exhibited
at the Exhibition of 1851 is as strange as any. The designer’s idea appears
to have been, that to obtain the greatest advantage in the way of stability,
a yacht should be very broad and big above water, and very narrow and
Small under it (see Fig. 114 above); and that to get a large amount
of lateral resistance, two keels should be had instead of one shaped
longitudinally as shown by Fig. 115.
So far as the question of stability is concerned, we need scarcely say
*s- = I
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z-L rºº
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º
more than that it would be much increased if the greatest beam were put
T-E-
FIG. 115.
on the water line; but as the idea of parallel keels is continually cropping
up, it may be well to point out that they cannot be of any advantage.
In the first place, there is an extra surface for friction provided by the
doubling of the keels, and as surface friction enters so largely into the
aggregate resistance of a vessel double keels should be condemned
for this reason alone. Secondly, the actual increase in the lateral
resistance would be only a very small percentage of the added surface,
as the water would practically be locked up between the two keels,
and so really out of the four sides of the keels, only one side (the leeward
one of the leeward keel) would meet with lateral resistance.
Among many other contrivances, the time-honoured lee-board may be
mentioned, and the “horizontal keel,” swinging keel, &c., descriptions
of which will be found in the Appendix.

CHAPTER XI.
CENTRE-BOARD BOATS FOR ROWING AND SAILING.
ALTHOUGH it may be difficult to say what is a boat and what is a yacht,
when we are speaking of small craft, yet we think a great deal of this
difficulty will be removed if we define a boat to mean a vessel which is not
wholly decked, and that can be rowed. In selecting one of these craft
that is either open or partly open, the main guide, of course, will be the
locality. Thus, if the boat is for Brighton, one of the shallow centre-
board beach boats used thereat will be the most suitable, inasmuch as they
can be readily “beached” or hauled out of water, it being necessary that
they should be so hauled up, as there is no sheltered or safe anchorage at
Brighton. For the Thames above bridge, where the winds are light and
baffling, a very light centre-board gig is the most useful, as it sails well in
light winds, and is easily rowed in calms. On the Mersey, where the boats
can lie afloat, and where generally there is more wind and sea than any
Ordinary boat could well tackle, a heavier and deep keel sailing boat is in
use. At the same time, a keel boat quite as light as the Surbiton boats
has been introduced on the Mersey; but, in order that they may safely
encounter the rough water, are nearly wholly decked in. On the south
coast all sorts of sailing boats are to be met with, from the old-fashioned
skiff and wherry to very many versions of the Itchen boat.
The boat most generally in request on the Thames is the one for
“rowing and sailing,” or centre-board gig. This boat, for the man who
likes the exercise of rowing and the pleasure of dodging a wind between
the banks of a river, is admirably contrived. But he who has one need be
content to limit his cruises to the water upon which she was intended to
sail, until he has become a perfect master of the art of boat sailing. He
should not be tempted into “cruises * down the river to Sea Reach, to
Sheerness, Leigh, or Shoeburyness, as he may be “caught ° in a nor’—
wester; and then, if he has only been used to open-boat sailing in smooth
water, and to very little of that, it may go hard with him. He will find it
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Boat for Rowing and Sailing. 273
impossible, even supposing he can reef down and so far handle his craft as
to tack her, to get to windward against a lee tide and yeasty sea; and the
probability is that, even if the tide be a weather-going one, the sea will be
so bad that she will be blown farther to leeward every tack than the tide
will carry her to windward. Under these conditions there will be no
alternative but to “up helm ’’ and run for it ; and, as it may be no more
practicable to get into Sheerness than up Sea Reach, the situation of the
“ outward bound ’’ boat sailer would be decidedly unenviable. Why not
put her head to the sea and row her ? she is a boat for rowing and sailing.
Well, a man cannot row a boat head to sea and wind with much success,
and the need of doing so would be a rather severe argument against the
sailing qualities of the boat. Then rig and throw overboard a floating
anchor, ride to that, and wait till the turn of the tide. Very capital
advice, and an old hand might do it, but not a frightened novice. The
broad truth is, that a light centre-board gig, easy to row, and not an
indifferent performer under canvas in smooth water, is not fit for open
water where there might be a real sea—as different to the “magnificent
furrows” of up-river as a chalk-pit is to a fox-hole; and even in the
hands of a skilled boat sailer, such as a coast waterman, they would be
out of place in Sea Reach under canvas.
The annexed diagrams (Figs. 116 and 117) show a design by the
author of this work for a centre-board gig which has been largely built
from for river, lake, and coast work. The boats proved to be fast sailers,
and very light to row. The drawing is made to half-inch scale; but, as
it is rather small to work from, the table which follows can be referred to
in laying off.”
* Full instructions for laying off will be found in “Yacht Architecture,” but a brief
outline of what has to be done can be given here. In the first place, the stem, keel, dead-
wood, and sternpost should be laid off full size ; if a floor cannot be obtained long enough to
lay the keel off in one piece, it can be divided in two or three pieces; or a floor can be improvised
by placing a sufficient number of deals or planks together, both for the keel and body plan.
When the floor is prepared, strike in the load water-line with a chalk line or straight edge ;
then, at right angles on either side of this line, set off by aid of an L square all the sections
1, 2, 3, 4, &c. On each section mark off the distance from the load water-line to the top
of the keel; and from the top of the keel to its under side. Place a batten (made of inch
fir or American elm) over these marks or “spots,” as they are called, and chalk in the shape of the
keel. The batten can be kept in its place by a nail on either side of each spot. (Of course if the
keel has no curve it can be laid off by a simple straight edge or chalk line.) The rounding up
of the fore-foot can be obtained by putting in a couple of lines between No. 1 station and the fore-
side of the stem, at right angles to the load water-line, and transferring the distances measured on
these lines from the sheer plan to the floor. A mould out of a piece of half-inch fir can be made
from the drawing on the floor, including stem, dead wood, and sternpost ; but if the keel is to be
cut out of a piece of American elm ten or twelve inches deep, then it can be laid off on the
timber, striking the load water-line (or a line parallel to it) and sections as described. The
remaining portion of the timber can be sawn into floors, &c. The body plan will be laid off by
simply transferring the drawing from the paper to the floor. First, the load water-line w will be
put in ; then the middle vertical line o, and the perpendiculars p ſp; the base line m will follow ;
T
274, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The references to the body plan (Fig. 117) are as under : w is the load
water-line (L.W.L.); a a 1 and a a 2; b b 1 and b b 2; c. c 1 and c c 2 are
“ diagonals;” o is the middle vertical line, from which all distances are
measured; p p are perpendiculars denoting the extreme breadth ; m m is
a kind of base line 10in. below the load water-line, and parallel thereto ;
a, is a water-line.
The numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., denote the respective sections or timbers,
and their stations in the sheer plan and half-breadth plan. No. 9 is the
“transom,” and of course will be a solid piece of wood, and not a “frame.”
LAYING OFF TABLE (FIGs. 116 AND 117).

Nos. of Soctions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Sheer Plan and Half-breadth Plan. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in, ft. in. ft. in. ft. in-
Heights above L.W.L. to top of
gunwale .... ...................... 1 10; 1 9} | 1 8% 1 74 || 1 6% 1 5% 1 5; 1 6 1 6%
Depths below load water-line to
top of keel ........................ 0 2 || 0 33 || 0 4} | 0 5 || 0 53 || 0 5% | 0 5% |0 54%|0 5
Depth of keel ........................ 0 3 || 0 33 || 0 33 || 0 33 || 0 4 || 0 4 || 0 4 |0 4 |0 4
Half breadths at gunwale ...... 0 7 || 1 63 || 2 2 || 2 7 || 2 9 || 2 8% 2 6 2 1 1 5%
Half breadths at L.W.L. ......... 0 2% | 0 11% 1 83 || 2 3 || 2 5% 2 5% 2 0%. 1 3% 0 13.
IBody Plan.
Diagonal a ........................... 0 3} | 0 103 || 1 24 || 1 4} | 1 6% | 1 6% | 1 4} |0 11%. 0 3
32 ºz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 6% 1 6 || 2 13 || 2 5% 2 7#| 2 7% 2 4} |1 10# 1 0%
2 3 C 0 9 || 1 11 || 2 7% 3 0} | 3 2} | 3 2% 2 11%. 2 6 1 9
and then the diagonals a, b, c. The distances given for No. 1 section will be taken from the table
and set off on the diagonals a, b, c, each distance to be marked by a “ spot'’ or small cross on the
diagonal; the height of the section from the load water-line to the gunwale, and the depth from
the load water-line to the top of the keel, will be taken from the table or from the sheer plan ;
the half breadth of the section at the gunwale, and at the load water-line, will be taken from the
table or from the half-breadth plan. All the “spots” having been put on the diagonals, and on the
water-line, and at the point representing the gunwale height and half breadth, a batten will be
placed over the “spots,” and its shape chalked in. The batten should be about 6ft. long, #in.
deep, and from #im. to #in. thick. The batten will be kept to the “spots” by nails on either side
of the batten, not through it. If the curve be unfair, the nails must be slightly shifted until the
curve show 3 fair. If great accuracy is needed, the diagonals can be laid off in long lines to represent,
a half-breadth plan to further fair the design ; this, however, will be scarcely necessary. Moulds
will be made to represent each half section; but the midship mould and two others, Nos. 3 and 7,
should be a whole one. The moulds can be made from rough šin. deal. A piece 2in. wide
will represent the middle line o, and the curved parts will be nailed together as required,
and fitted with saw, plane, or spokeshave to the lines on the floor. The load water-line
must be carefully marked on each mould, both on the perpendicular (0) and on the curve.
Having got the building blocks in readiness, set up a line by the aid of a spirit level, at a
convenient height above them, to represent the load water-line—a straight edge would do.
Put the keel on the blocks, and wedge it up until into its proper position with the load
water-line. Then, having got the stem and sternpost into position, fix the representative load
water-line to them inside, from the aft side of stem to fore side of stern post. A chalk line
should be struck up the centre of both stem and sternpost. The transom and the “full”
moulds will then be adjusted and fixed at their proper stations by ribbands. Presuming the
rabbets to have been cut, the planking can be proceeded with, and the floors and timbers fastened
in as the planking proceeds. The ribbands will be removed as the planking requires.
* Depth to top of dead wood, 3%in.
Boat for Rowing and Sailing. 275
The distance a (Fig. 117), above the load water-line, w, is 3%in.
measured on the vertical line o. The distances a 1 and a 2 from the
vertical line o, measured along the horizontal line m, are 2ft. 3%in.
The distance b, above the load water-line (w), is 1ſt. ; b cuts the
perpendicular p at b 1 and b 2, 2in. below the load water-line w.
The distance c, above the load water-line w, is 2ft. 2in. ; and c cuts the
perpendicular p at c 1 and c 2, 3}in. above the load water-line w.
at is a water-line struck 3in. below w, but will be of no assistance in
laying off, as it does not intersect the frames sufficiently at right angles.
All the half-breadths, and the distances measured from the middle
vertical line 0 along the diagonals to the various sections (as given in the
O
BODY PLAN. OF FIG. 116.
C
|
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9 | 3 22.
Cº.,
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&
FIG. 117.
* ty
tables), are without the plank; so in laying off no allowance will have to be
made for the thickness of the plank.
The length of the boat is 17ft., and the breadth 5ft. 6in., and the
extreme breadth, with the plank on, 5ft. 7%in. Weight of displacement of
boat to L.W.L. about 12cywt.
The sections 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., are 2ft. apart, and No. 1 is 1.ft. from
the fore side of the stem at the L.W.L.
The frames actually will only be 1ſt. apart ; but every other one is
left out in the Body Plan.
The scantling of the boat will be as follows: Keel, sided (thick)
amidships 4%in., tapering gradually to 2%in. forward, and 3%in, aft. The
moulded depth of the keel will be found in the table.

T 2
276 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Stem, 2%in. sided ; 4%in. moulded (i.e., its fore and aft thickness) at
head, and 5%in. at knee Scarph.
Sternpost, 3in. sided and moulded at heel; 2in. moulded at head.
Floors, #in. sided and 2in. moulded (deep) at heels, the moulding
gradually tapering to #in. at heads. The floors will be joggled to sink
%in. across the keel. Timbers at the sides of and above the floors, #in.
square.
Plank, #in. thick. Gunwales, lin. thick, 1%in. deep.
Stringers (lettered a in the Sheer Plan) lin. square, fastened through
timber and plank. Seats and rowlocks as at b b c c.
The centre-board or plate will be 5ft. 4 in. long, pinned or pivotted in
the keel below the garboard strakes, as shown in the Sheer Plan and Half-
breadth Plan (Fig. 116) at d, 5ft. 9in. from fore side of the stem at L.W.L.
The slot in the keel to admit the plate will be 5ft. 7in. long by Éin. in width.
The floors where this slot comes will have to be cut through. The heels of
these floors will be fitted with #in, jogs, and let in to the under side of
the centre-plate case, as shown at k k l k l k in the Sheer Plan. One 4 in.
copper nail through each heel (outside the centre-plate case) will be suffi-
cient to fasten these floors to the keel. (The case must be very carefully
fitted to the shape of the keel, and luted with white lead or strip of
canvas saturated in thick varnish.) The centre-plate case will be fastened
through the keel by long galvanised iron (#in.) bolts, from three to four
bolts being on each side, and one not more than 6in. from each end.
The bolts will have heads and be rivetted up on the under side on rings.
The case will be made of inch pine, and the ends will be rabbeted into
the sides and through fastened ; the plate of #in. iron. *
Sometimes the case has been made of galvanised iron, and fitted into
the slot. With such cases it will be best to fit a keelson over the heels of
the floor, as at k k, &c., on either side of the case. These keelsons would
require to be about 3in. deep and 2in. broad, with one fastening between
each pair of floors. However, as a rule, no such keelson is fitted, a couple
of screws or nails in each heel of the floor being considered sufficient. The
case would be prevented dropping through the slot in the keel by two
small iron knees on either side, riveted to the case and fastened to the
keelson. !
The following plan has been adopted in fitting a galvanised iron
* If the sides of the case have to be in two pieces, put the broader piece obtainable for the
lower portion, and the narrower at the upper side. The wood should be free of shakes and
knots. In boring the planks through from edge to edge with a long gimlet or augur like that
used by bellhangers, place the plank in a horizontal position. A straight edge should be laid
on the plank occasionally, to test the directness of the gimlet by bringing the straight edge over
it, and observing whether the stem of the gimlet is parallel with the straight edge.
Centre-Board Cases. 277
centre-board case. a (see sketch A, Fig. 118) is the iron case, passing
through a slot in the keel and flanged up underneath as at c. Over these
flanges, c, an iron keel-band is fitted, as at 8 in Fig. A ; and 8 in Fig. B
shows the under side of this keel-band. There are bolts through the keel-
band, the flanges, and the wood keel, the bolts being set up on the top of
the keel with washer and nut, as at o 0. (The keel-band and flanges are
ºs-S-E--->
==
==
FIG. 118.
shown a little apart for the sake of distinctness; of course, in setting up
the bolts all would be drawn close together.) Two small T angle-iron
knees are fitted each side of the case (a), riveted through the case and
screwed down to the keel k, as at t t, with coach screws. The ends of the
angle irons are rounded off as shown. Without these knees the case is
likely to get wrenched on one side or the other unless well secured to a

278 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
thwart. To prevent leakage, a piece of canvas doubled, and well luted
with Stockholm tar or varnish, should be laid in the angle of the
flanges of the case before screwing it up with the keel-band. The latter
can be made of #in., lin., or even thicker iron, as it will serve as outside
ballast.
Fig. C shows a view of the case and its fittings, looking down from
the inside of the boat ; a is the inside of the case ; k the keel; t the iron
knees; f f two floors. w is a piece of wood forming one end of the
case, and through-bolted or screwed up, as shown, with luted canvas
between.
The dead wood, knee, and sternpost aft will be through-fastened, as
shown in the Sheer Plan; and the sternpost should be tenoned into the
keel. At the fore end the keel and stem will be box-scarphed into each
other, and through-bolted, as at n. The apron (s in the Sheer Plan) will
be bolted through keel and stem. The stemson tº is a kind of filling-up
piece, and serves as knightheads for additional plank fastenings forward.
The upper through bolt in the stemson should have a mooring or towing
ring through it, as shown.
The gunwale (or inwale, equivalent to the clamp or shelf in a
yacht) rests on the timber heads, and will be secured to the stem forward
by a “breasthook,” as shown by a, diagram A (see Sheer Plan, Fig. 116).
This breasthook will have one fastening through the stem, and two through
each gunwale and top strake, as shown. The gunwale and top strake will be
through-fastened between each pair of timbers, and secured to the transom
by the knee, as shown at m in the Half-breadth Plan. A Tastening will
also be put through the gunwale and strake into the transom.
The floors should reach from the keel to three or four inches above the
load water-line; and the timbers from the gunwale down the sides of the
floors to within eight or nine inches of the keel.
The transom will be 1%in. thick, fitted at the back of the sternpost, as
shown in the Sheer Plan.
The rudder will be shaped as shown by the diagram B (under the
Body Plan, Fig.117). Pintles will be dispensed with, and instead gudgeons
and braces used, through which a brass rod will pass. This arrangement is
necessary, as the rudder will hang considerably below the keel. If the
braces are fitted over the gudgeons on the sternpost and a transom at g h
(Sheer Plan), the rudder will lift on the rod if the boat drags on the ground,
and will not unship.
The rabbet in the stem will be cut at about 2in. from the inner edges
of the stem piece as shown by the ticked line v in the Sheer Plan. The
rabbet in the keel (being a continuation of the rabbet in the stem) should
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0ceana : Boat for Rowing and Sailing. 279
He cut not less than about one inch from the upper edge, and not less
than one inch deep, so as to take a good fastening through the garboards
(see Fig. 119). The rabbet in the dead woods should be at least one inch
from their upper edges.
Sometimes the upper part of the keel (A, Fig. 119) is a separate piece
of timber : it is then termed a hogging piece.
The boat will take about 4cyt. of ballast with three hands on board; this
ballast should either be in the form of shot bags, or flat bricks of lead cast to
rest on the top of the floors, but sunk between them. These bricks would
be under the platform or bottom board, which should be securely fastened,
but at the same time be readily movable. If there is no objection to a
cast-iron platform, the “bottom boards " can be dispensed with, and a thin
iron slab cast to fit over the floors on either side of the centre plate. For
such a boat as the design given the slabs would be 6ft. long by 1ſt. 6in.
broad, and 1%in. thick near the keel and #in, nearest the bilge. They
would be cast with grooves to fit the floors, and the grooves would
gradually deepen from nothing at the bilge to #in. depth at the keel side.
In the stern the usual bottom board or “stern sheet ’’ would be fitted; and
forward either a board or a grating would be similarly fitted.
Of course, no plan of lead or iron ballasting will make such a shallow
boat as the centre-board gig stiff or uncapsizable, in the ordinary meaning of
the terms, and the large sails (plans of which will be given hereafter) should
not be set unless two or three hands are on board to sit to windward.
The plate or board is smaller in area than was usual at the time (1878)
of making the design; but experience has proved it to be ample, and its
proportion is now usually adopted.
THE OCEANA ROWING AND SAILING BOAT.
The design shown on Plate XIV. was made by the author in 1886, and
the Oceana was built from it by Mr. Turk, of Kingston-on-Thames. The
boat was rather heavily built of all teak, but she proved a fast sailer and
easy to row. She carried about 4 cwt. of ballast inside, and had none

280 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
on her keel. She was yawl rigged, with balance lugs. The foreside
mainmast is 3ft. from foreside of stem at gunwale, and a suitable height
would be 18ft. gunwale to hounds (see Sail Plan of Ruby, further on); main
boom 13ft., yard 11 ft. 6in. The mizen mast is stepped 2ft. inside of stern-
post, and with mizen boom 7ft. and yard 6ft. 6in. ; bowsprit outboard 6ft.
A table of offsets has not been given for this boat, as the scale
of the drawing is sufficiently large to take measurements from.
The Oceana, like the boat depicted by Fig. 116, was designed
with a view of making the rowing qualities of first consideration, but
they also showed excellent capacity for sailing.
CENTRE-BOARD BOAT FOR SAILING AND ROWING.
A centre-board boat, somewhat deeper, with more rise of floor, also
with less length to beam, than the one of 17ft. length, shown by the
design, Fig. 116, may perhaps be a handier boat in rough or narrow
water where frequent tacking is inevitable, and at the same time be
O
very little more laboursome to row. The lines for such a boat as given
on Plate XV., with body plan represented by Fig. 120, was designed and
published by the author in 1878, and has been frequently built from since
that date, one notable example being the 15ft. Mistletoe, built in 1893 by
Sir George Greaves, and successfully raced by him on the Welsh coast up
to the present date, 1895.
In order that the drawing may be utilised for boats of varying sizes,
tables have been compiled to different scales, so that a boat of 10ft., 12ft.,
14.ft., or 15ft., can be built therefrom.
The displacement (or weight of water which the boat displaces when
immersed to the load line, or, in other words, the weight of the boat,

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10ft. Sailing Boat. 281
including everything she carries) of each boat, as given, is not mathema-
tically correct, and need not be so considered; it is only given as a guide
for the builder in ballasting, and it may be necessary or convenient to sail
the boat lighter or deeper.*
With regard to ballast, it will be found in practice that every passenger
on board who sits to windward is of more value than an equal weight of
ballast in the bottom of the boat would be ; but as a rule, for good perfor-
mance, two passengers besides the helmsman will be considered sufficient
for a 12ft. boat. When sailing in smooth water, shifting the ballast to
windward can be largely indulged in if a practised hand besides the helms-
man is on board to look after it; but in a sea the ballast should be well
secured in the bottom of the boat, and not shifted to windward.
The dimensions of the sails given are for cruising, and are not so
large as those of the gigs raced at Surbiton; the difference is about equal
to one-seventh the linear dimensions—that is to say, the sail of the 14ft.
boat, or any of the other boats given, would be one-seventh longer in the
foot, one-seventh longer in the head, one-seventh longer on the luff, and
one-seventh longer on the leech for a racing outfit.
In setting the sail, attention should be paid to the position of the
slings on the yard, and it may be found possible to improve the “sit ’’ of
the sail by a variation from the positions given in the tables.
In all cases where measurements are given they must be adhered to,
as the drawings are too small to work from. The process of “fairing ”
the waterlines or moulds will be performed on the “give and take ’’ plan,
the battens being let out and taken in from the various “ spots.”
In the case of each boat the measurements are without the plank.

BOAT OF 10F.T.-PLATE XV.
No. 1 | No. 2 | No. 3 | No. 4 sº 5
Section. Section. Section. Section. i. IOIl.
T8...IISODOl.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Height above L.W.L. to gunwale .................. 1 2% 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
Depths below L.W.L. to top of keel ............... 0 4 0 5% | 0 6 0 6} | 0 7
Half-breadths at gunwale.............................. 1 0 1 7% 1 10% 1 9 1 0
Half-breadths at L.W.L. .............................. 0 7+ | 1 4 1 8 1 4} || 0 1
Half-breadths 8 diagonal .............................. O 5 0 84 1 93 || 0 8 0 1
Half-breadths on a diagonal ... .................... 0 8} | 1 2% 1 4} | 1 1% | 0 4
Half-breadths on b diagonal ........................ 1 04 || 1 7% 1 104 || 1 8 0 104
* The displacement of these boats can thus be found approximately ; multiply the length
on the load line by the beam on the load line, and the depth amidships to the rabbet of the keel ;
next multiply the product by the co-efficient 0°4, and the product will be the displacement of the
boat in cubic feet nearly. The co-efficient will of course vary according to the sharpness or
fulness of the boat. The co-efficient for yachts varies from 3 to 4; the common co-efficient
being 32. There are 35 cubic feet of salt water in 1 ton. (See “Displacement per inch of
Immersion ” in the Appendix.)
282 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Distance No. 1 section is from fore side of stem........................... 1ft. 7in.
2 3 No. 2 , No. 1 section .............................. 1ft. 7in,
2 3 No. 3 ,, No. 2 × .............................. 2ft. 2in.
2 3 No. 4 , No. 8 ' '.................... . . . . . . . . . 2ft. 4 in.
3 2 No. 5 , , (transom) No. 4 ,, .............................. 2ft. 4 in.
The water lines are 2%in. apart.
T)iagonal a is struck 4 in. above L.W.L., and a 1 and a 2 are 1.ft. 7in. from the middle
vertical line o. Diagonal b is 11 in. above L.W.L. The diagonal 8 at 8 1 and s 2 is 9%in. from
the vertical line o. Plank #im. mahogany.
Length, 10ft.
Breadth, 3ft. 9in.
Pin of centre plate from fore side of stem, 3ft. 3in.
Length of plate on top edge, 3ft. 6in.
Length of plate on under edge, 3ft. 10in.
Greatest breadth of plate, 1ſt. 2in.
Least breadth of plate, 4%in.
Thickness of plate, áin.
Weight of plate, 40lb.
Weight of displacement of boat when equipped and immersed to L.W.L., 33 cwt.
Weight per inch of immersion at L.W.L., 1cwt.
BALANCE LUG SAIL.
Mast, thwart to sheave hole ....................................... 10ft. 0in.
Luff of Sail ............................................................ 4ft. 0in.
Peech .................................................................. 13ft. 3in.
Foot .................................................. .................. 10ft. 0im.
Head..................................................................... 10ft. 3in.
Tack to peak earing .......................... tº e s e º e º e º e s a e º s s a e e s a s 14ft. 6in.
Clew to weather earing ............................................. 10ft. 0 in.
Area of Sail ............................................................ 80 square ft.
BOAT OF 12FT.--PLATE XV.

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5.
Section. Section. Section. Section. | Section.
ft. in. ft. in ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
FIeights above L.W.L. to top of gunwale ......... 1 5% | 1 3} | 1 2% 1 24 || 1 3}
T)epths below L.W.L. to top of keel ............... 0 4% | 0 6 0 7 0 7} | 0 8
Half-breadths at gunwale.............................. 1 2% 2 0 2 3} 2 13 || 1 3
Half-breadths at L.W.L. .............................. 0 84 || 1 7 2 0 1 7} | 0 14
IHalf-breadths 8 diagonal .............................. 0 6 0 10 0 11% 0 9} 0 1+
Half-breadths on diagonal a ........................ () 10 1 5% 1 8 1 4% 0 4}
Half-breadths on diagonal b .................,,..... 1 2% 1 11% 2 3% 2 0 1 0}
No. 1 section is 2ft. from the fore side of stem.
No. 2 section is 2ft. from No. 1.
No. 3 section is 2ft. 6in. from No. 2.
No. 4 section is 2ft. 9in. from No. 3.
No. 5 (transom) is 2ft. 9in. from No. 4.
The water lines are 3in. apart.
Diagonal S at S 1 and s 2 is 11%im. from the middle line o.
Height of diagonal a above load line, 4%in. ; a 1 and a 2 are from the middle line o, 1ſt. 11 in.
Height of diagonal b on middle line o of Body Plan above L.W.L., 1ſt. 13 in., and at b 1 and
2 is 3in. below L.W.L.
Length from fore side of stem to aft side of transom, 12ft.
14ft. Sailing Boat.
283
Greatest breadth moulded (i.e., without plank), 4ft. 7in.
Aft side of mast from fore side of stem, 3ft.
Weight of displacement of boat when immersed to load line, 6% cwt, ; weight per inch of
immersion, 1}cwt.
Pin of centre plate from perpendicular at fore side of stem, 3ft. 11in.
Length of plate on its under edge, 4ft. 8in.
Length on its upper edge, 4ft. 3in.
Greatest breadth of plate, 1ſt. 4 in.
Least breadth, 5%in.
Thickness, #in. -
Weight of plate, 50lb.
Siding (thickness) of keel amidships, 4in. ; ditto at stem, 2in ; ditto at sternpost, 2%in,
Moulded depth of keel, 33in. Plank #in. mahogany. -
BALANCE LUG SAIL.
Mast, thwart to sheave hole .......................................
Luff of sail
Tack to peak earing
Clew to weather earing
Area .....................................................................
Halyards bent to yard, 5ft. from lower end.
Tack, 1ſt. 6in. from fore end of boom.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e º e s a s a s a s e g º a s e
e s e s a tº e º s e º e s a 9 s 4 ~ * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e s e º 'º - tº a e º e e s e s e
• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s a º º e º 'º e º e º is g º º
BOAT OF 14FT.—PLATE XV.
. 0in.
. 6in.
. 0in.
. 0in.
. 3in.
. 6in.
. 0in.
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5
Section. Section. Section. Section. Section.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Beights above L.W.L. to top of gunwale ......... 1 8% 1 6 1 5 1 5 1 6
Depths below L.W.L. to top of keel ............... 0 5; 0 7 0 8 0 8; O 9%
Half-breadths at gunwale ........................... 1 5} 2 4 2 8 2 6 1 5%
Half-breadths at L.W.L. .............................. 0 103 || 1 103 || 2 4} 1 10% 0 1%
Balf-breadths s diagonal .............................. 0 6; 1 0 1 13 || 0 11 0 1%
Balf-breadths on diagonal a ........................ 1 0 1 8+ 1 11; 1 7% 0 5+
Half-breadths on diagonal b ........................ 1 5% 2 3; 2 8% 2 4% 1 3
No. 1 section is 2ft. 4 in. from the fore side of stem.
No. 2 section is 2ft. 4 in. from No. 1 section.
No. 3 section is 2ft. 10in. from No. 2 section.
No. 4 section is 3ft. 3in. from No. 3 section.
No. 5 section (transom) is 3ft. 3in. from No. 4 section.
The water lines are 3%in. apart.
Diagonal a above L.W.L., 5%in. ; a 1 and a 2 from middle line o (see Body Plan, Fig. 112),
2ft. 3in. ; diagonal b above load line, 1ſt. 4 in., and at b 1 and b 2 is 3%in. below the L.W.L.;
diagonal s at s 1 and s 2 is 1ſt. 13 in. from the middle line o.
Length from fore side of stem to aft side of transom, 14ft.
Greatest breadth moulded (i.e., without the plank), 5ft. 4in.
Aft side of mast from fore side of stem, 3ft. 6in.
Weight of displacement of boat when equipped and immersed to load line, 93 cwt.
Weight per inch of immersion at load line, 13 cwt.
Pin of centre plate from perpendicular at fore side of stem, 4ft. 6in.
Length of plate on its under edge, 5ft. 5in.
284. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Length on its upper edge, 5ft.
Greatest breadth of plate, 1ſt. 6in.
Least breadth, 6in.
Thickness of plate, 3in.
Weight of plate, 1101b.
Siding (thickness) of keel amidships, 4in. ; ditto at stem, 2%in. ; ditto at sternpost, 3in.
Plank #in. mahogany.
Moulded depth (i.e., depth from top to under side), 4in.
BALANCE LUG SAIL.
Foot ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 14ft. 0in.
Head, measured along the ticked line (a) ... ... ... ... ... . 14ft. 3in.
Leech - t • 19ft. 9in.
Luff ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6ft. 0in.
Tack to peak earing 21ft. 0 in.
Clew to weather earing ... ... ... ... ... ... ..................... ... ... 14ft. 8in.
Area. ... ... ... ... -
Yard is slung 6ft. from lower end. Tack is bent 1ſt. 9in. from fore e
BOAT OF 15FT.—PLATE XV.
. 155 square ff.
nd of boom.
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5
Section. Section. Section. Section. Section.
ft. in ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights above L.W.L. to top of gunwale ... ... ... 1 10 1 7} | 1 6 1 6 1 7%
Depths below L.W.L. to top of keel ... ... ... ... ... 0 6+ 0 7% 0 8% 0 93 0 10
Half-breadths at gunwale .........................., 1 6% 2 6 2 10 2 8 1 7
Half-breadths at L.W.L. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 11 2 0% 2 6% 2 0} | 0 1%
Half-breadths 8 diagonal .............................. 0 7 1 0% 1 2; 0 11% 0 1%
Half-breadths on diagonal a ........................ 1 1 1 10 2 1 1 9 0 5%
Half-breadths on diagonal b........................... 1 6} 2 6 2 10% 2 6% 1 4
No. 1 section is 2ft. 6in. from the fore side of stem.
No. 2 section is 2ft. 6in. from No. 1 section.
No. 3 section is 3ft. 13 in. from No. 2 section.
No. 4 section is 3ft. 5%in. from No. 3 section.
No. 5 section (transom) is 3ft. 5%in. from No. 4 section.
The water lines are 3%in. apart.
Diagonal a above L.W.L., 6%in. ; a 1 and a 2 from middle line o (see Body Plan, Fig. 112),
2ft. 4%in. ; diagonal b above load line, 1ſt. 5in., and at b 1 and b 2 is 3%in. below the L.W.L.;
diagonal 8 at S 1 and S 2 is 1ſt. 2%in. from the middle line o.
Length from fore side of stem to aft side of transom, 15ft.
Greatest breadth moulded (i.e., without the plank), 5ft. 8in.
Aft side of mast from fore side of stem, 3ft. 9in.
Weight of displacement of boat when equipped and immersed to load line, 12% cwt.
Weight per inch of immersion at load line, 2cwt.
Pin of centre plate from perpendicular at fore side of stem, 4ft. 9in.
Length of plate on its under edge, 5ft. 10in.
Length on its upper edge, 5ft. 4 in.
Greatest breadth of plate, 1ſt. 9in,
Least breadth, 6in.
Thickness of plate, #in.
Weight of plate, 1301b.
Siding (thickness) of keel amidships, 4%in. ; ditto at stem, 2%in. ; ditto at sternpost, 3in.
Moulded depth (i.e., depth from top to under side), 4in. Plank #in. mahogany.
The Centre-Board Gig Ruby. 285
BALANCE LUG SAIL.
Foot ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14ft. 0in.
Head, measured along the ticked line (a) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15ft. 3in.
Leech ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..., 20ft. 0in.
Luff ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7ft. 0in.
Tack to peak earing ... ... ... ... .................................... 21ft. 6in.
Clew to weather earing ... ... ... ... ... ... ............... ... ... ... ... 15ft. 6in.
Area ... ... ... ... * ... ... ... ... ... 168 square ft.
Yard is slung 6ft. 3in. from lower and Task i. bent 2it. from fore end of boom.
The 10ft. boat would weigh, inclusive of centre-plate and case, sails,
and spars, about 2cwt. Thus it would take #cwt. of ballast and one person
of 8st. (1Cwt.) to bring her down to the intended load line; but she might
with advantage carry one more passenger or 1Cwt. more ballast. Every
additional cwt. would sink her an inch deeper. For light rowing the plate,
ballast, and sails could be removed.
The 12ft. boat, fully equipped, would weigh about 3% cwt., and should
have at least 3cwt. of ballast, or one person and 2Cwt. of ballast, besides
the helmsman, for sailing with the large balance lug sail. Burgoine’s price
would range from 30 to 40 guineas.
The 14ft. boat would weigh about 4}cwt., and would require from
3cwt. to 4cwt. of ballast, according to the number of passengers on
board.
The 15ft. boat would weigh about 5cwt., and would require 5cwt. or
6cwt. of ballast, according to the number of passengers on board.
THE CENTRE-BOARD GIG RUBY.
One of the most successful of the Surbiton centre-board gigs is the
Ruby (see Plate XVI. and Fig. 121), built by Burgoine, of Kingston-on-
Thames, in 1876, for Mr. E. Allen. This craft has won over sixty prizes,
and is undoubtedly the best of the fleet. The boat was awarded a silver
medal at the Inventions Exhibition, and her model (half full dimensions,
or on a scale of 6in. to the foot) has been placed, at the request of the
Commissioners, in South Kensington Museum. Although she has less
proportional beam for her length, she much resembles * the design given
on Plate XV., and in all respects is representative of the popular boat
for “rowing and sailing.” -
The iron keel is about 4in. thick, and weighs 3}cwt., and she has
3cwt. of iron ballast inside. Weight of centre plate #cwt.
* For instance, if the table for the 14ft. boat, page 283, be taken, and the spacing increased
between the sections so as to make 17ft. 10in., a boat almost identical with Ruby would be
produced. The spacings would be increased to (1 and 2) 2ft. 10in., (2 and 3) 3ft. 5% in., (3, 4,
and 5) 3ft. 11;in. = 17ft, 10im.
286
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Burgoine's price for a similar boat of pine, with mahogany fittings,
iron ballast, calico sails, is 75l. ; all mahogany, lead ballast, Cotton
canvas sails, 95l.
“R U B Y "
EODY PLAN 1876,
Incher O f 2 3.27%
--~1–1–1–1–. | | | | |
FIG. 121.
DIMENSIONS OF “EUBY’’ 1876.
Ilength over all ...... 18ft. Leech of mainsail ... 25ft. 9in.
Length on L.W.L. ... 17ft. 8%in. Foot of mainsail ...... 16ft. 6in.
Beam extreme ......... 5ft. 2 in. Head of mainsail...... 17ft.
Draught of water Tack to peak ......... 27ft. 3in.
extreme............... 1ft. 5in. Clew to throat ......... 18ft. 4 in.
Displacement ......... ‘85ton (17cwt.) Area of mainsail ...... 236 sq. ft.
Centre of buoyancy Area of jib ............ 42 sq. ft.
aft centre of length 0-4ſt. Length of spinnake
Luff of mainsail ...... 10ft. 9in. boom .................. 18ſt.
TABLE OF OFFSETS OF “RUBY.”—PLATE XVI. (FIG. 121).
Numbers of Sections ........... .................. 1 2 3 4. 5 6 7
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft, in.
Heights above L.W.L. to top of gunwale ...... 2 4 || 2 0 || 1 9}| 1 8%| 1 8 || 1 8}| 1 8%
Depths to rabbet in keel........................... — | 0 8 0 9 || 0 9}| 0 10 || 1 5 || –
Draught of water.................................... * 1 1%; 1 4 || 1 5 || 1 5 || 1 4%| 1 4
Half-breadths at gunwale ........................ * 1 7 || 2 4 || 2 6 || 2 3 || 1 9%| 1 1
2 3 1ft. above L.W.L. ............... — | 1 64] 2 3}| 2 7 || 2 3 || 1 9:# 1 3
22 6in. above L.W.L. ............... — | 1 4 || 2 2}| 2 6 || 2 2 || 1 8 || 0 6
22 on L.W.L. ........................ — | 1 0%| 2 0# 2 3}| 1 9%| 1 0 || 0 13.
22 on W.L. 2 ........................ — 0 9 || 1 9%| 2 1%| 1 3}| 0 6%| 0 1+
22 on W.L. 3 ........................ — | 0 53 1 4 || 1 6%| 0 9 || 0 3+| 0 1
No.
are 3ft. 7in. apart ; 5, 6, and 7 are 1ſt. 9%in. apart.
overhang aft at transom 3in. ; at stem żin.
2 section is 3ft. 7in. from the fore side of the stem perpendicular. Nos.
The water-lines are 3in. apart.
Half-breadths include plank.
2, 3, 4, and 5
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PLATE XV]ll.
“RU BY” as altered 1891.
Length over al/ 29, 6”
on L.W. L. /9: Beam 5.2%
amºsºsºmºrº-mº sºmmemºssºm mºmºsºm-º smºsºm-mm-mm sºmmemºmes sºmeºmºsº - -** *-** *-* *===== *= *=== <======== a -smºs-- a-sis-e-
*-- - -— ...—
ALFRED BURGO/WE,
Riverside, Hampſon Wick,
March 3, 189/.
O 4. 6. 'ſ & & 70 f 2 § ;
. El-L-E-LEELE ºrº | E- E-IT ſ 5 7 s &
, Sea/e of Żó' A/ /o Zºzºo/,






Plate XIX.
==
º==
|
"MYSTERY”
Designed & Built by
John MESSER ESQ.
1882.
; Scale # Inch=l Foof.
eg===
”//ozonta/ &ction of Fu%r _T
0nders/oſe of too/art of?udø6/. -
D r /
------" RUDDER FITTINGS
7 —r— (3





The Centre-Board Boat Mystery. 287
THE RUBY AS ALTERED 1888.
In 1888 Mr. A. Burgoine adapted the Ruby to the “Mystery’ form
of afterbody (see Plate XVII.). She, however, still retained a deep keel,
although it had to be taken out and altered aft, and the iron keel re-cast.
The mid-section and sections in the forebody remain unaltered, and the
alterations to the afterbody were not very considerable. Plate XVII. shows
the alterations made to the afterbody and the counter which was added.
The mast was shifted to 5ft. 9in. from the foreside of the stem head, and
the bowsprit shortened 2ft. 6in. The abºrations proved to be a great
success, but she was defeated by the Mystèry in an unexpected manner
in the match for the Thames Sailing Club Challenge Cup in May, 1888.
THE RUBY AS ALTERED 1891.
In 1891 Ruby was further altered by being lengthened at the bow and
given an overhanging stem, and a sort of “fin" lead keel, besides the
centre plate. She was opened well back abaft the midship frame and her
beam increased 1 inch. She is now 19ſt. on the water-line, 5ft. 3in.
beam, and 28ft. over all. When she first appeared in 1876 her sail area
was 150 sq. ft. This year it is quite 350 sq. ft. Her sail plan is shown
farther on, such as she raced with until 1888. The present sail plan is
similar, but greater in area. She has already justified the latest improve-
ments by competing with success. (See Plate XVIII.)
THE MYSTERY.
In 1882 Mr. John Messer, of Reading, had the Mystery (Plate XIX. and
Fig. 122) built from his own design, somewhat on the lines of a coble without
dead wood aft. He gave her a very flaring bow, and fitted her for coast
cruising. She proved to be well adapted for the purpose, and, being decked
in forward, she was successfully taken round the east coast, rarely stopping
for weather, as she is exceedingly dry in a head sea. In 1885, when put
into a match of the Upper Thames Sailing Club, she had a very easy
victory, and subsequently won the Thames Sailing Club Challenge Cup,
beating Ruby six minutes after two hours and a quarter hard sailing in a
hard wind. Her “turn about ’’ capabilities were found a great advantage
in narrow water, and the fashion of cutting away the dead wood aft
became general. There is a joint in the upper part of the iron rudder,
so that it doubled up when touching the ground, or could be doubled up
288 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
at will for beaching. The rudder works in an oak trunk Ain. by 4in.,
bored out to take the rudder post, which consists of 1%in. galvanised iron
pipe. The trunk has an internal brass ferrule at each end, the bottom one
being flanged to prevent leakage. The rudder consists of two parts hinged
together. On Plate XIX. the rudder is shown by A, in use with the drop
piece. The rudder is made of #im. galvanised iron plate (see B and C).
A strengthening piece a under the hollow iron rudder post is riveted on.
The long bolt b works in this hollow post (see B). To get the parts of the
rudder together a list is given to the boat, and the bolt is then screwed
in. The collar c (in A) prevents the rudder dropping, and is made uneven
on the underside to counteract the tendency of the rudder to fall on
either side, owing to the post tumbling in. k is the key. The figures D
show different horizontal views of the rudder. d is the rudder post with
bolt in the centre, a the strengthening pieces, and h the hinges.
Deck Plan.
FO
ſº Winch
*—
Fºr-ce ntre Case
Pump
, he
FIG. 122.
The Mystery has usually 4}cwt. shot in square, flat, stout, well painted
Canvas bags, a board top, and rope handle (Fig. 123). The canvas nailed to the
edges of the board, as shown. She has no outside ballast, the inside ballast
being increased as required for match sailing. Her working jib has a boom,
FIG, 123.
but is not laced, and works itself in stays without any attention. The balloon
jib overlaps the mainsail, and has to be pulled clear of the yard by a light
brail when going about. The brail is fast to the leech of jib, and leads
through cringles down the luff of the jib, along the fore deck, into the body
of the boat ; but little difficulty is thus experienced in tacking. The main
boom telescopes into a copper tube 3in. diameter, and revolves round the
mast. (See Fig. 124).






Dimensions of the Mystery. 289
The boom being thus secured, the yard and sail when lowered drops
between the topping lifts without falling on the fore deck as usual. In
reefing, the pin or stop is removed, and the boom runs into the pipe ; a
FIG. 124.
rope strop on the reef cringle of the after leach of the sail is then put
over the boom end and the boom shoved out as required, and stopped.
The owner adapted the “Bembridge rig,” as a shorter mast could
be used.
DIMENSIONS OF THE MYSTERY.
Length over all … .....…....... 20ft. 10 in.
Length on water line................................................ 16ft. 6in.
Beam extreme ...................................................... 5ft. 8in.
Displacement......…..….................................... 0-87 ton.
Weight of centre plate............................................. 1cwt.
Weight of rudder ................................................... 1 cwt.
Weight of ballast ......… 4}cwt.
Mast, deck to hounds ............................................. 20ft. 9in.
Main boom extreme ................................................ 18ft. 7in.
Main yard .................. ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18ft.
Foot of mainsail ................................................... 18ft.
Head of mainsail .................................... . ............ 17ft. 4 in.
Luff of mainsail...................................................... 10ft. 6in.
Leach of mainsail ....................... ........................... 26ft. 6in.
Clew to weather earing .......................... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 20ft. 6in.
Tack to peak earing .......................................... ..... 26ft. 8in.
Area of mainsail ................................................... 272 sq. ft.
Slings of yard from lower end.................................... 8ft.
(The sail plan of Mystery will be found farther on, Plate XXIII.)

290 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
THE ZYTHUM.
A larger kind of open sailing boat, well adapted for sea work, was
designed in 1880 by Mr. R. C. Carline, of Lincoln, and built for him
by Patrick of that town. (See Plate XX.)
The centre-board is so arranged that it is not in the way, as the
box stands up only lin. above the floor boards, except the aft end thereof,
and the greater portion of it is under and abuts up to the aft thwart.
Only 9in. of it projects on the fore side of the thwart, so as to enable
a folding rod to work the board up and down. By the side of this
raised part is fixed a square wooden force pump, which discharges the
bilge water into the centre-board box. The chambers are 3in. Square,
and the exposed side of the pump can be readily taken off if required.
It works easily, and gets rid of the water most rapidly—a very desirable
thing in an open boat. The ballast consists of a lead and iron keel
weighing 5cwt., with about 1 cwt. of iron inside.
The main and mizen sails are batten lugs, with very high peaks,
and it will be observed that the yards are slung so that the masts cut
the yards nearly in the middle. This prevents the sail sagging to leeward,
and the yard and boom can be kept very nearly at the same angle.
Mr. Carline says he found that a boat can carry a greater area of canvas
with battens than without. This is a common experience.
The boat carries her canvas well, and for racing is under-canvassed.
She is a capital sea boat, handy and fast, although her centre of buoyancy
is rather farther aft than is usual.
Length over all ...................................................... 20ft.
Length on load-line................................................... 19ſt. 6in.
Beam...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 5ft. 9in.
Draught-Water......................................................... 2ft.
Displacement ......................................................... 1:4 ton.
C. B. aft centre of length .......................................... 1-2 ft.
Mast, gunwale to truck ............................................. 22ft. 6in.
Yard, extreme ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... 20ft. 6in.
Main boom, extreme ................................................ 14ft. 6in.
Mizen mast, gunwale to truck .................................... 14ft. 6in.
Yard, extreme ... . . . . . . ................................................ 10ft. Oin.
Mizen boom, extreme .......................................... ..... 8ft. 3in.
Luff of mainsail ............................................... . . . . . . . 8ft. 6in.
Luff of mizen ......................................................... 6ft. 3in.
Bowsprit, outboard.................. ................................ 6ft. 9in.
Foreside of mast from fore side to stem ........................ 5ft. 9in.
Area mainsail ......................................................... 230 sq. ft.
Area mizen ............................................................ 75 sq. ft.
Area jib. ............................................................ 70 sq. ft.
Total area ............................................................ 375 sq. St.
Centre-board boats are peculiarly adapted for shifting-ballast, as the
centre-plate case makes a kind of fore-and-aft bulkhead which will always
PLATE XX.
The Open Sailing Boat “Żythum."

Decks for Boats. 291
prevent the ballast sliding to leeward. Still, sliding is not the only danger
accompanying the practice of shifting ballast. If a man is single-handed,
he might be unable in an emergency to trim his shot bags or other dead
weight in time, or his mate may be unable to do so, and it cannot be too
often impressed upon the young boat sailer that he must well look after
loose ballast in the bottom of a boat (secure it if possible), and never
be tempted into carrying a lot of sail on the strength of the ballast being
shifted to windward.
DECKS FOR BOATS.
The question of decking is one which will naturally arise in selecting
a boat. No doubt a locker of some sort, to stow cushions, gear, and sails
in, is a desideratum in a boat; but a deck forward and aft, with waterways
amidships, as shown in a sketch given farther on, must increase the weight,
- * sº. ººm-º º
= = = = = * = a- - - * * * * * * * * *º
= - - -, - = = *, *, * * * * * * * * * * *
SS;
* * * * * = mº, as ºs = ** = * * * *= * *-* * * * * * * * * = smºs º sº.
FIG. 125.
and for up-river sailing are quite unnecessary. However, if the boat-sailer
is equal to the “stress and the strain of the wind and the reeling main,” and
can confidently knock about in Sea Reach, he will find the decks and water-
ways a great comfort. They will keep out all the water likely to lop on
board, and nothing worse than spray need ever get into the well amidships.


U 2
292 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
A boat built from the design (page 272) has been partly decked and
successfully raced at such places as Deal and Ramsgate, and the Mystery
and Ruby have made trips round the coast ; and, whilst they behaved just
as they ought in a breeze with some sea, they were not too heavy to row
if occasion arose. t
A thick heavy caulked deck would of course not suit these light boats,
and it is usual to cover them in with #in. match board and then canvas it.
The canvas duck is cut the shape of the deck to be covered. The deck is
then coated with thick paint and the canvas stretched over it, as shown by
the dotted line in Fig. 125. The rail A is then fastened on. In case it is
an old boat, and it would be inconvenient to remove the rail A, a fillet B
can be worked over the edges of the canvas (Fig. 125).
If there is no rail, the edge of the canvas is carried over the side to top
strake and secured by the rubbing piece C.
COWES WATERMAN’S SKIFF.
The boats used by the Cowes and Ryde waterman are considered
excellent of their kind, and as about as safe as an open boat can be made.
In form they are not unlike the rowing and sailing boat shown on
Plate XV., and also they much resemble a yacht’s dinghy or cutter.
They are, however, flatter in the floor than either of these boats, and
broader in the stern. The latter quality is given them because, as a
rule, the greater portion of their passengers have to be seated in the stern.
On Plate XXI, ºne of these boats is shown of the size usually in use
among watermens-that is 15ft. long by 4ft. 9in, in beam. The position
for a centre-board is shown in the plate.
These boats sail very well with a sprit sail rig, and usually have a
mizen and foresail, the latter having its tack laced to the stem head. A
far better rig, however, would be a standing lug or balance lug sail, with
or without battens. The dimensions for such a sail would be
Foot … ..…....... ...................................... 13ft. 6in.
Head ... ….................................. .................. 12ft. 10 in.
Leech ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 18ft. 3in.
Luff....................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6ft. 6in.
Tack to peak-earing................................. . ............ 19ſt. Oin.
Clew to weather-earing ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 14ft. 0in.
Main boom tacked from fore end .............................. 1ft. 9in.
Yard slung from lower end ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 4ft. 6in.
Area of mainsail ................................................... 134 sq. ft.
Area of foresail......... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s 2 & e º e < * * * * * 30 sq. ft.
Mast gunwale to sheave ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12ft. 9in.
Mast stepped from stem head.................................... 3ft. 6in.
Bowsprit outboard ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... 3ft. 9in.
Foot of foresail... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5ft. 6in.
Plate XXI
cow Es water MAN's SKIFF.
Length ........................... 15 - 0
Breadth................................ 4 - 8
d
O ! 2 3 4. 5 6 7 8 3 /O - // 12 /3 /4
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Sail Plans for Boats. 293
With such sails the boat, if built of the usual strength, would take
about 5 cwt. of ballast. (See Plate XXV.)
The position for fitting a centre plate is shown.
YACHT’S OUTTER.
An ordinary yacht’s cutter, such as a yacht of 156 tons would carry,
is shown on Plate XXII. She is 22ft. long, by 5ft. 4 in. broad, and 2ft. 2in.
deep, measured at the gunwale height to rabbet of keel. It is now a
favourite practice to race these cutters, and an Association has been
formed to regulate the competitions. Its rules are as follows:
Objects.-The association is formed for owners to race their bond fide yachts' gigs,
cutters, and dinghies, under a uniform code of rules.
Boats.-Every boat competing in a match must be clincher built, and not have any
outside ballast, and the draught, with all ballast on board, shall not exceed #in. to a foot
of length on the L.W.L. in boats exceeding 16ft. Boats 16ft. and under allowed a
maximum draught of 12in. The overall length of boats under 20ft. L.W.L. shall not
exceed the L.W.L. by more than 6in., and the overall length of boats of 20ft. and
upwards on L.W.L. shall not exceed the L.W.L. by more than 9in., any excess of overall
length to be added to the L.W.L. length for measurement.
Centre-boards or Plates.—In boats under 20ft. L.W.L., the weight of centre-board
or centre-plate not to exceed 1cwt., and in boats of 20ſt. L.W.L. and over, 13 cwt.
Rating.—By Y.R.A. rule of length and sail area, with the exception that actual head-
sail and spinnaker be measured as follows: If head-sail or spinnaker or both be carried,
the actual area of same shall be taken, the area of the larger sail only being measured.
The spinnaker-boom must not exceed the length of the foot of the spinnaker.
Time Allowance.—Y.R.A. scale, but no rig allowances.
Classes.—15ft. on L.W.L. and under = } rating ; over 15ft. and not exceeding 20ft.
on L.W.L. = 1 rating; exceeding 20ft. on L.W.L. = 1% rating.
Crews.-Boats under 20ft., total number three ; 20ft. and over, four, including
helmsmen in both cases.
Helmsmen.—Helmsmen must be amateurs, who are members of any Royal or
recognised yacht club.
According to these regulations the sail area allowed for different
lengths would be as follows:
}-RATERS. 1-RATERS. 1}-RATERs.
10ft. on water line... 300 sq. ft. 16ft. on water line... 375 sq. ft. 21ft. on water line... 428 sq. ft.
11 ft. 22 ,, ... 272 , 17 ft. 2 3 ,, ... 352 . 22ft. 32 ,, ... 409 ,
12ft. 2) ,, ... 250 ,, 18ft. , ,, ... 333 , 23ft. 23 ,, ... 391 .,,
13ft. 5 y ,, ... 230 , 19ſt. 2 3 ,, ... 815 , 24ft. 3 × ,, ... 375 ,,
14ft. 33 ,, ... 214 , 20ft. 22 ,, ... 300 , 25ft. 2 3 ,, ... 360 ,
15ft. }} ,, ... 200 ×
It must not be assumed that the possible area for the given length and
rating will always be adopted ; but we believe the 18ft. and 20ft. cutters,
when racing have the full allowance.
The sail plans of these boats are usually of the standing or balance
lug type, a specimen of which will be found on Plate XXV. in the
294, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
next chapter on sails for centre-board boats. The mainsail is usually '8
of the total sail area allowed. For a 20ft. boat the following would
be suitable dimensions:
Mainsail, luff .................................... .................... 7ft. 9in.
Mainsail, leach ................................................ ... 25ft. 9in.
Mainsail, foot ................................. - tº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 18ft. 0im.
Mainsail, head ...................................................... 18ft. 0 in.
Mainsail, tack to peak-earing .................................... 25ft. 0im.
Mainsail, clew to weather-earing................................. 19ſt. 6in.
Boom, tacked to mast from fore end ........................... 1ft. 4 in.
Area of mainsail ................................................... 240 sq. ft.
Area headsail ......................................................... 60 sq. ft.
Total area ............................................................ 300 sq. ft.
Mast, gunwale to sheave pin ................................. .. 16ft. 6in.
Mast, stepped aft foreside of stem .............................. 4ft. 0im.
Bowsprit outboard................................................... 4ft. 0in.
To carry these large sails the boats are heavily ballasted with lead, a
15ft. cutter having about 8 cwt. on board, and a 20ft. cutter 15 cwt.,
and sometimes more. To render them safer, and to keep them drier
when hard pressed, they are fitted with movable wash strakes above the
gunwale of from 4in. to 6in. deep. However, open boats with such sail
spreads as quoted, and heavily ballasted, cannot in any way be described
as “ safe,”
and require very skilful management even by experienced boat
sailers. No person who is not most completely versed in open boat sailing
should be in charge of such ballasted boats as these, and the whole crew
should also be experts and able to swim. Even then it would be only
common prudence for the whole crew to wear life belts.
CHAPTEER XII.
SAILS FOR CENTRE-BOARD BOATS.
OPINIONs are very much divided as to the best kind of rig for a centre-
board gig ; but the balance lug in some form or other appears to be
most generally in favour. It has been contended that a boat rigged with
a single balance lug is likely to miss stays, and this is perhaps true in
what is termed a “lop; ” but a boat with one large sail in the hands of a
clever boat-sailer, need never miss stays in smooth water at least, unless the
wind headed the boat round, and then of course she would miss stays, what-
ever her rig. It is an advantage to have the sail all in one piece for going
to windward—tacking out of the question—and for a single hand it is of
course convenient to have no head sails to work. No description of boat
will stay quicker or with more certainty than the American cat-boat, or Una,
and, if not brought head to wind by too free a use of the rudder, they lose
very little way in tacking.
On the other hand, a boat with one sail may fail to go about in a
disturbed sea, or in light baffling winds, and may get in irons; whereas if
she had a foresail the operation of tacking, without getting stern way
on, might have been successfully performed by keeping the head sheets
a-weather. A clever boat-sailer will always work his head sheets without
inconvenience even in a lop, as he will see his craft safely filling on the
opposite tack before he attempts to “let draw,” and, as the head sheets will
lead aft, he need not move from his seat. The argument pro and con.
the foresail can, therefore, be summed up thus: In light winds it is an
advantage to have the sail all in one piece, especially for beating, and the
trouble of working the head sheets does not exist; but in strong winds
and rough water there will be more security in a smaller mainsail, with the
addition of a headsail; and, although there will be the trouble of working
the head sheets, there need be no difficulty about it even for one hand.
Concluding that it is “ safest to be safe,” it will be best to be provided
with a foresail for sailing in rough water.
296 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Another very strong argument in favour of the foresail or jib in
addition to the balance lug is this: if there be much wind, the boat when
Sailing “along,” or off the wind, will exhibit a very great tendency to come
to against her helm, that is, she will require a great deal of weather helm to
keep her out of the wind; this tendency will be greatly relieved by the jib.
Again, if there be any sea, the boat will have to be constantly “chucked ”
up in the wind to avoid a comber that may be coming in on the weather
bow, for it will not do to sail open boats very hard in rough water; yet must
they be kept full, and to avoid getting into irons after luffing to a comber,
or to meet a heavy puff, a foresail will be found very useful. The foresail
can either be set on a bowsprit, like the Ruby’s (Plate XXIII.), or
on a bumpkin like Mystery’s, as shown on the same Plate.
Many experienced boat-sailers recommend a mizen instead of a foresail,
and they argue that a mizen can be made as great a help to a boat’s staying
as a foresail. There is not much doubt that a mizen is a powerful lever to
assist in throwing a vessel’s head to wind; but it is of no use for paying a
boat’s head off, if she gets in irons. However, as shown in Mr. Baden Powell’s
sketch, if the tiller is carried aft (say 2ft.) of the rudder, to act as a mizen
bumpkin, then each time the tiller is put down, or to leeward, the mizen will
be brought to windward and may help in pushing the stern round. This may
be so, and, if the boat kept moving through the water, she would no doubt
ultimately describe an arc of a quadrant through the wind acting on the
mizen ; but when a boat is in irons she does not move through the water—
at least not ahead, although she may get stern way on. Now if the mizen
is kept across the boat whilst she is in irons, it will, if it has any effect at
all, drive her astern as well as tend to push the stern on one side. As the
latter motion will be counteracted by the direction the rudder is necessarily
turned (presuming that the boat is making stern way), we doubt if the
mizen can be manoeuvred so as to be of much service in the case of a boat
that has no head sail getting into irons. In fact, the proper thing to do, if
a boat in a “lop,” when under main and mizen sail, did get into irons,
would be to let the mizen sheet go, and reverse the helm, and then
haul the mainboom over to the side which is to be the weather one
when she has filled; then, with stern way on, the boat’s head will be
boxed off, and she may be helped by a timely kick from a cross sea.
Thus far the conclusion is forced upon us that, if two sails are decided
upon, the foresail and mainsail have a slight advantage over the mizen and
mainsail.
There may possibly be some advantage in open water in the main and
mizen rig, if warning of a “kick-up ’’ has not been taken advantage of to
reef. Going into the eyes of an open boat to reef her foresail in a “lop "
TLATE XXIII,
* ſº
“R U B Y
18 Fº Gig.
- -ss-
-ºr---- sº--es-
-º-º-º-
"MYSTERY”
Sheer& Sail Plan,
1...d.º.f- t 2 3 4. 5



Sails for Boats. 297
is by no means a pleasant or safe operation to perform, and indeed it should
not be attempted unless a counterbalancing weight is put in the stern ;
the boat will then plunge violently, but there will be less danger of her
being swamped. Now, with the main and mizen rig there will be no
foresail to reef, and as the mainsail will be all in board, reefing when in
eatremis will be a comparatively easy operation. Again, if the mainsail has
to be lowered in a hurry, the mizen will bring the boat to the wind, instead
of taking her off as a foresail might. But the danger as last indicated can
easily be avoided by letting go the head sheets before lowering the mainsail.
Then the foresail might be found of service for scudding before a strong
wind at sea. On the other hand, the mizen might be of use in rowing, in
keeping the boat’s head to the wind at sea. However, as Snugging down
should be never deferred, with a rising storm, until the sea got up so as to
make reefing a foresail a matter of danger, we still cast in favour of the
sloop or main and foresail rig for small open boats.
The question here naturally arises, if the mizen is of use as well as
the foresail, why not have both 7 We certainly do not see why both
should not be had ; and, if the wind is so strong as to necessitate
the mainsail being stowed, the boat will be fairly handy and manage-
able under mizen and foresail, although the canvas would scarcely be
large enough to get her to windward with the wind dead on end or against
a foul tide.
The fashion of lacing the sail to the boom of small boats is now
general whatever the rig, and no doubt the plan has many advantages.
—the principal of which are that the foot can be kept straighter, and
thereby the sail generally flatter, and in easing the sheet little or much
the sail does not go into a bag; on the other hand without the boom,
if the boat be struck by a squall, the wind will be spilled from the
sail directly the sheet is loose ; but the case is different with a boom
sail; and if the squall be heavy it will be necessary to luff the boat.
up in good time and then ease the sheet, and prepare to lower the
sail in case the squall should not abate. -
To the question of how much sail it is prudent to give an open boat,
the answer very much depends upon the requirements and capabilities of
the boat-sailer. Sail areas” of open boats, we find, vary very considerably
—from 1 to 3 times the product of the length multiplied by the breadth.
Thus we find some cruising gigs, 17ft. long by 5ft. 6in. in beam (equal
to 93.5 square feet), with about 90 square feet of canvas in their sails;
a boat like the Ruby has a sail area (small jib and mainsail) equal to the
* The area of a lug sail will be found in the manner described on page 153 for an ordinary
mainsail.
298 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
product of her length and breadth multiplied by 3 (L x B. × 3). Other
'boats, only 14ft. by 5ft. 3in. (L × B equal to 73 square feet) which
are raced, have single-sail areas of 180 square feet, or 2-4 times the
area of that found by multiplying the breadth into the length. The
latter proportion will only be safe in the hands of an expert, and the
novice should begin with very small sails, or, in other words, the sail area
should not exceed the length of the boat multiplied by her breadth.*
Sometimes in the sloop rig the jib or foresail, instead of being tacked
outboard to a bumpkin, is laced at its foot to a boom; the sail is then
“ tacked” by this boom to the stem head, so much sail being forward of the
stem as the space between the mast and the stem requires. A pair of
sheets are required as usual, and the weather one should always take the
weight of the sail; the lee one is consequently slack, but only so slack
that when the boat is put about it takes the strain as the weather sheet.
Thus the sheets need no trimming in tacking. The objection to this
“revolving jib '' is that it cannot be readily “spilled,” as after the
sheet is gone the sail will sometimes be balanced by the wind; hence the
sail may not only be an inconvenient one, but a dangerous one. This
objection can be somewhat removed by having the tack fast some distance
ahead of the centre of length of the boom.
The “balance lug,” Fig. 126—which is an adaptation of the Chinese
lug, and was introduced at Surbiton by Mr. Burgoine (boat builder, of
Kingston-on-Thames), about the year 1870—is a sail so arranged that it
requires no dipping in going about ; that is, it lies on the mast on one
tack, and from the mast on the other. In this respect it resembles the
“standing lug' of fishing craft and the lug sails now commonly used
in small racing yachts; but the Surbiton lug has a large piece for-
ward of the mast to “balance” the after part of the sail; hence the term
balance lug. But in reality if a sail has a yard or gaff and boom
“balancing ” the sail is nothing more than an arrangement to admit of
the mast being stepped farther aft than it otherwise could be.
The boom and yard are generally of about the same length, and the
length of the mast is in a measure governed by the amount of peak, or round
given to the head of the sail. If the yard is slung in its amidships, the sail
should have great peak, and it will stand or sit better than if the sail be cut
flat-headed. If the yard be slung nearer its lower end than amidships, the
* The most successful gigs that compete in the matches of the many sailing clubs of the
upper Thames have enormous sail areas, often in one piece as a balance lug. These sail areas
frequently equal three times the area, found by multiplying the length of the boat by the
beam ; and the boats, being dexterously handled, carry the sail well, and appear wonderfully
handy. Of course it would be madness for a mere tyro to think of handling such a sail, even with
plenty of live ballast on board.
Balance Lug Sail. 299
sail, if not cut with a high peak, is apt to sag to leeward; and the same
might happen if the sail be very flat-headed and slung, say, one-third of
the length of yard from the lower end or heel of yard. A good place for
FIG. 126.
the slings of a well peaked and round headed sail will be about one-tenth
the length of yard from its amidships. (The head and foot of the sails
are always laced to yard and boom.)

300 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The Surbiton boats originally had the yard slung at about two-fifths
its length from the lower end, but a squarer sail and a better standing
one can be obtained by slinging the sail nearer amidships (as shown in
Plate XXIII. representing the Ruby and Mystery) and giving as much
round to the head as shown in the drawing; the luff will be shorter than
is generally given, but this probably will be found an advantage.
About one-seventh of the foot of the sail should be forward of the mast,
and in slinging the yard and in bending the tack to the boom care must be
taken that this proportion is not much exceeded. If too great a proportion
of the sail is put forward of the mast it will not “balance,” and in luffing to
squalls, especially with the boom off the quarter, it will be found that,
although the boat may come to a little, the sail will not spill. This peculiarity
may be attended by some danger in the case of squalls or in clearing an
obstacle, and may be accounted for by the fact that the ardency of the wind
pressure on the fore part of the sail will be so great that it will more than
balance the pressure on the greater area of the after-part, which, ordinarily,
with the aid of the rudder, should bring the boat head to wind speedily.
No rig is handier for tacking in smooth water than the balance lug,
and should a boat So rigged by any mischance show a tendency to miss
stays or get in irons, her head can easily be paid off by holding the foot of
the sail over to the side which is to be the weather one. This, of course,
will stop the boat, and press her bodily to leeward or force her astern,
and the sail should never be kept a-weather a moment longer than is
necessary. Should the boat not gather way again quickly after the boom
has been put over on the lee quarter again, the main sheet must be eased
a trifle. -
The sail is hoisted by a single halyard; to one end of this halyard a
block is spliced; the other end is rove through a sheave hole in the mast
head and bent to the yard; through the block a rope is rove, the standing
part of which is made fast to the mast thwart and the hauling part through
a block at the mast step. This forms a whip purchase, but if the sail be a
large One a gun tackle purchase is used. The halyard is bent or hooked to
a thimble-eye strop on the yard. The sail can be kept to the mast by a
parrel thus contrived : a grommet strop, with thimble-eye seized in it, will
be put on the yard about 6in. above the slings; another similar strop will be
put on the yard at about 2ft. 6in. (for a 14ft. boat) below the slings; a
line must be spliced to the lower thimble, and rove through the upper
one round the aft side of the mast, back through the lower thimble.
Thumb cleats must be put on the yard to prevent the strops slipping.
When the sail is set, the line must be hauled as taut as it can be got
and belayed. r -
Rigging for Sailing Boats. 301
But a neater plan than this is the mast iron, as shown in the
diagram ; the halyard is fast to an eye in the iron, and the latter is
hooked to the thimble-eye strop on the yard. The disadvantage of
the iron traveller is that the tack and sheet of the sail must be let
go when the sail has to be lowered, or otherwise the sail will not
lower. As the sail comes down the fore-end of the boom must be
carried forward.
If an iron mast traveller be used the yard will be slung as shown in
Fig. 126 if a parrel be used instead of the iron, the yard will be slung a
little lower down, as the strop will be hauled close up to the sheave hole ;
consequently the sheave hole will be a little lower down, and the mast may
be a trifle shorter (see “Mast Travellers” at the end of the chapter).
A downhaul should always be bent to the yard.
The tack will be bent to the boom abreast of the mast and lead
through a block, either on mast thwart, or deck, as may seem most handy.
The Surbiton plan for the tack is thus worked : a thimble is stropped to the
boom abreast of the mast, and to the thimble 5ft. or 6ft. of line is spliced;
the line is passed once round the mast, back through the thimble, then
through a galvanised iron eye-bolt screwed into the mast some convenient
distance below, and belayed to a cleat on the mast. For a 15ft. or larger
boat a gun tackle purchase forms the tack. In setting the sail the luff can
be got taut by Swigging on this tack after hauling on the whip purchase
of the halyards.
If topping lifts are used (they may be handy whilst reefing, or to
brail the sail up), one part will be made fast to the masthead and lead
across the sail, and through a thimble made fast under the boom by a
seizing (or it can pass through the thimble in the strop of the main-sheet
block) and up the other side of the sail, through a block at the masthead
and the “fall” down by the side of the mast.
A wire forestay is generally set up to the stem head, and it is better that
a gun-tackle purchase, or double-block purchase should be used for the setting
up instead of a lanyard, as the mast (sails and all) can be lowered by it for
passing under bridges, &c. The mast should be stepped in a tabernacle,
which tabernacle will be open on the aft side and fitted in the aft side
of the mast thwart. The forestay will go over the masthead by an eye;
a thimble eye will be at the other end of the stay to take the lanyard
or hook of the setting up tackle. In boats of 14ft. and under there will be a
single wire shroud each side of the mast fitted the same as the forestay, but
set up by lanyards to the eyes of neat chain plates fitted to the gunwale.
Sometimes, however, the lanyard is rove through a thimble seized to the
thwart or to a timber, or through a thole hole in a rowlock.
302 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The main sheet is arranged thus; standing part fast to the boom, then
through a single block under one gunwale, then through a block stropped
to boom and belayed under the other gunwale ; for the 10ft. boat, thimbles
might be used instead of the blocks.
In the 10ft., 12ft., and 14ft. boat, the “Una ’’ plan of main sheet may
be suitable. An end of the sheet is fast to one quarter; the other passes
through a block on the boom, and through another block on the opposite
quarter. For sailing on a wind it may be found that with the blocks on the
gunwales the boom cannot be hauled in flat enough ; so, unless the blocks
are on the transom at the extreme stern, the blocks should be fitted inside
the gunwale. Another plan is to have the standing part of the sheet fast
to the extreme end of the boom ; other end through a double block with
traveller on a horse; then through a single block on boom back through
the double block, and belay by hitching the hauling part round the parts of
the sheet above the double block.
Some of the Surbiton boats have the mainsheet thus fitted: A single
block on main boom and one on a horse, also one on the deck a little ahead
of the horse. The sheet is fast to the block on the boom, then leads through
the block on the horse, back through the block on the boom, through the
block on deck, and belay.
It will be seen that Ruby is fitted with bowsprit and foresail, and by
an ingenious arrangement patented by Mr. Burgoine the foresail can be
taken off or shifted or set without one of the crew going farther forward
than the mast. Fig. 127 shows this arrangement in detail.
It is no doubt desirable that the sheaves C should be of good size,
say 23 in., with a deep score, and fit closely (and yet work freely) in
the shackle. The inner edges of the shackle on the traveller should be
rounded off to admit of the outhaul running freely.
The traveller is on the bowsprit as usual, but the tack of the fore-
sail is attached to the traveller and outhaul by a running eye, or bight,
and shackle, as shown by Fig. 127. In getting in the jib by hauling on the
foot (which serves as an inhaul) the traveller runs up to the stem head, and
by continuing to haul on the foot the rope H is further overhauled, and so
the sail is hauled in close to the mast, and then lowered.
The sail plan of Ruby would do very well for the 17ft. boat given on
page 272; but the sail would have to be cut down about 7ft. in leech, and
4ft. 6in. in luff.
Another form of the lug known as the “standing lug’’ or settee sail
has been referred to, and is shown in Plate XXIV., adapted from the lugs used
in the boats belonging to the New Brighton Sailing Club on the Mersey.
(A detailed description of the New Brighton rig will be given further on.)
PLATE XXIV.
Sail Plan for a 17ft, Boat (see page 272),

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304 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
It will be seen that the tack of the sail is close to the mast, and very little
canvas is consequently forward of the mast. The dimensions and areas of
the sails shown on Plate XXIV., and adapted for the 17ft. boat (page 272),
are as follows:—
MAINSAIL.
ft. in. ft. in.
Head (measured along the yard) ...... 15 0 Luff ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 3
Leech ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18 0 Tack to peak earing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 17 0
Foot ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11 9 Clew to weather earing ... ... ... ... ... ... 13 0
This sail is drawn with 1.ft. 4 in. round to the head.
FORESAIL.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in
Leech ... .................. 8 6 Foot ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6 6 Luff ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 9
MIZEN.
ft. in. ft. in.
Head ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9 0 Luff ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 6
Leech ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9 6 Tack to peak earing ............... ... ... 10 6
Foot 6 6 Clew to weather earing ... ... ... ... ... ... 7 0
AREAS. sq. ft.
Mainsail ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 119
Foresail ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 27
Mizen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 38
Total ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 184
Area of reduced mainsail for single-hand sailing, 85 sq. ft. (4ft. 6in. to
be taken off yard). -
The sail area shown in the drawing is a large one, but with three or four
hands sitting to windward the boat would carry it well enough in moderate
breezes and smooth water. For ordinary single-handed sailing it would be
prudent to have a smaller mainsail, reduced as shown by the ticked line a ; the
sling would then come at c. The foresail should also be 2ft. shorter in hoist,
and 6in. Nº on the foot ; the mizen would be shortened 2ft. on the head.
The boat could be sailed with mainsail alone without shifting the mast,
but she would probably be handier if the mast in such a case were shifted
1ft. farther forward. For turning her into the sloop rig, the mizen would
be unshipped, the mainmast shifted 3ft. farther aft, and the foresail tacked
to the stem instead of to the boomkin.
For a tyro who knows little or nothing of sailing, the 10ft. centre-
board dinghy, rigged with a single balance lug, is a suitable craft for
Schooling, and, if he is fortunate enough to be located near a place where
there is some shallow water, he may find out all about sailing without the
assistance of a coach.
Sails suitable for a Cowes 15ft. skiff or a 20ft. cutter (not a racing
suit) are shewn on Plate XXV.
|PLATE XXV,
—||
ae’ – ~T =ZWZ=7#34
_2~~T *-*.
…? : * : *—tº 1–1–1 ––––––––. Sail Plan for Y.R.A. 1-Rater, Mainsail, 268.4; Headsail, 553-323.7ft.
-i ––––––– " " " " " " ' Jcale of Keez.
Rig for a Yacht's Cutter or Cowes Skiff.
sail Plan of a Yacht's 20ſ. Gutter. Area of Mainsil, 210 sq. ft.



PLATE XXVI.
452222 2/6%. 272.2% zºo a zºoz.
“Le Lison,” French Centre-Board Boat,

A French Rig. 305
For centre board boats of the Una type various rigs are used, and on
the Seine the French have brought into use an adaptation of the “sliding
gunter rig.” The drawing on Plate XXVI. illustrates this rig.
The rig, it will be seen, although of the sloop character, differs from
the sloop in detail. The mainsail is a kind of sliding gunter, and the
arrangements for hoisting and setting it are as follows. The mast is
stepped on deck and pivoted in a tabernacle, by which it can be readily
lowered for passing underneath * |
bridges, warps, &c. a shows the
heel of the yard (see Plate XXVI.
and A, Fig. 128). On this yard
is a wire rope span from c to a
(see large sketch), which passes
through a block at k. The
details of the arrangement will
be more clearly understood by
studying the smaller diagrams
(Fig. 128). In A, a is an iron
hoop traveller on the mast. Into
the arms of this traveller the heel
of the yard is inserted, and is so
hinged as to form what is known
as a universal joint. The hoist-
ing halyard n is made fast to an
eye in this traveller and passes
through a cheek block on the
mast at a. Sometimes a block
is on the traveller, then (see F)
one end of the halyard is put
through the cleat on the mast
as shown at y, and then has a
!
A.
| |
ſº
Aſ |
editiº
knot tied in it to prevent it I
unreeving. The other end is
passed through the block on the
traveller, and then through the cheek block at a. If the sail is a very
large one a whip purchase is also used. A block is seized to the hal-
yard n, and through this block a rope is passed, one end of it being
fast on deck.
In Fig. A, c represents an eye splice in the lower end of the wire
rope span kept from slipping by a thumb cleat. This span passes through
an iron block j. To this iron block a small wood block k is seized, and
X
FIG. 128.









306 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
through the latter the halyard m is rove. The halyard m, in the first
place, is rove through a cleat on the mast (see Fig. B) f; then through
the block k, and over the sheave in the cheek block h (Fig. B). The
halyard at f is stopped by a wall knot. In the diagram A., m is the hauling
part or fall of the halyard. In the smaller sized vessels the block k is
not used. One end of the halyard is seized to the iron or brass block j,
and then passes over the sheave at k.
In Fig. B, the upper sheave above h is used for the foresail
halyards; one end of the halyard is stopped by a wall knot after being
rove through the hole above f; the other end is then passed through.
a block hooked to the head of the foresail, and then over the sheave
above h.
The sheave below h is used for topping-lifts; one end of the topping-
lift is stopped at the hole below f; the other is passed through a thimble
seized on the under side of the main boom and is then carried up over the
sheave below h. The large sheave hole at g, Fig. B, is used for spinnaker
or square sail halyards. Mast hoops are not often seen. The sail is kept
into the mast thus: Diagram D is a section of the mast; o 0 are two brass
plates screwed to the lips of a channel cut on the aft side of the mast. p.
is a traveller about two inches deep which works in the channel formed by
o o ; the traveller has an eye to which one of the eyelet holes or cringles in
the luff of the mainsail is seized. Generally as many of these travellers are
used as there would be hoops if hoops were used.
Another arrangement is shown by E.: g is a T-shaped bar of iron
screwed to mast (or sometimes instead of a T-iron a plate of simple bar-iron is
screwed over a fillet of wood, as shown by s, for lightness); t is the small
traveller about two inches square which is shipped over g; i is the eye for
seizing the luff cringles of the mainsail a.
If either of these travellers is used, the iron mast-traveller for the
yard is dispensed with. A traveller (made with a socket to take a goose-
neck on end of the yard) is inserted in the channel o o (see D) or over the
guide q (see E).
One end of the main sheet is fast to the boom end; it from there leads.
through a double block on deck, through a single block on the boom, back
through the double block on deck again, then through another single block
on the boom and belay.
The bobstay is made of wire rope; one end has an eye in it, and this
eye encircles the bowsprit at v (see large sketch); it then passes through a
block on the stem at the water-line, through another block on the bowsprit
end; a tackle is hooked to this end of the bobstay (at bowsprit end) to set.
it up.
Rhode Island Rig. 307
The foresheets are very well arranged for handiness. In diagram H,
a represents the line of the foot of the foresail, c being the cringle in
the clew of the foresail. To this cringle two short pieces of rope are
spliced with thimble eye at d d as well. The foresheet is fast on the
deck to an eyebolt at 8 ; it then passes outside the channels k through
the thimble d and through the coamings of the well at a. and is then
º || |
H ſº 2.
|
21-2 7. º-cº <&lt |
=éé < --- f
e
– == E−x=r-—
C
|
|
i
|- T ſ
}}}}
d
- –-mº-º. …- º:
-º T I – £:
- - *-** º:
*~. à
FIG. 129.
belayed. It will be observed that in the diagram the foresail is represented
hauled amidships.
A very similarly worked mainsail is used in America for the
boats" of Rhode Island. An illustration of this rig as given me
by Mr. R. B. Forbes, of Milton, Mass., is shown by Figs. 129 and 130
a is a boom laced to the sail and used for reefing. r is a tackle for hauling
C &
cat



x 2
308 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
the reef down. The halyard c comes down to and belays to a cleat on the
|
S-I. | Ar"-s-
heel of the yard at d, close to the traveller t. By simply slacking the
halyard e, and hauling on r the sail is reefed (see Fig. 130).
CHINESE OR BATTENED LUG SAILS.
The Chinese plan of battening a sail has been very much recom-
mended, and there is not much doubt that battens will keep a thin calico
duck sail from going into a bag; the only objection to them of any
importance is that they so much increase the weight of the sail. For a
sail of the proportions given in Plate XXVII., the battens are 1.ft. 6in.
distant at the luff of the sail, and 2ft. at the after leech.
The sketch shown on Plate XXVII. (scale #in. equal to 1ſt.), made
by Mr. W. Baden Powell, shews the arrangement of battens. Mr. Powell
thus describes the gear and fitting of the sail :

PLATE XXVII,
====E=
E!:º-E:tº:lº- :----> * *
ſtſ'
~ — `...,
~sº
* ---------------- ~~~~º"
Chinese Lug Sail: Main and Mizen Rig,





Battened Lug. 309
“Rig.—Mainsail of the largest size the boat will carry in a steady
moderate breeze, placed forward so that its centre of effort comes ahead of
the centre of lateral resistance of the boat ; mizen of the same cut as main,
but of such size and so placed as to bring the centre of effort of the whole
sail plan aft of the centre of lateral resistance.
“Fitting.—The mainsail is fitted with a yard, a boom, and three or
four battens; the sail is laced to yard and boom; the battens put into
pockets formed by sewing a ‘reef band’ across the sail to take the batten.
The battens are made of pine, and taper at the ends. They are about
1áin. deep, by 1in. thick in the middle. The reef earings reeve through
thimbles on the boom.
& 4 Halyards.--Toggle on the single part to a becket or strop on the yard.
The battens and the yard are kept in to mast by toggle and becket parrels.
“ Tack is a single rope, leading from the well to a block on deck
at side of mast ; it then toggles to a becket on boom, about one-eighth the
boom’s length from fore-end.
“The mast fitted on a ‘tabernacle” and pinned above deck, is a sine
quá mon, whether the boat be used for river or sea work ; bridges and
tow ropes come against your mast in river work—ships’ warps in harbours;
and, when at anchor fishing, &c., unshipping the mast will permit the boat
to ride easy. *.
“A topping-lift is fitted, standing part fast to masthead, then down
one side of sail, to reeve through sheet block strop thimble ; then up on
other side of sail to and through a block at masthead, and down to the deck.
Being through sheet block strop, which toggles on to boom, this topping-
lift remains with sheet on mast when sail is taken off and stowed away, and
is thus ready for a change of sails.
“A kind of gathering line, or sail keeper, is fitted to hold the sail
up clear of the deck at the mast when it is lowered down, thus: one end
fast at masthead, then down the side of sail on which the mast is not,
and round under boom, and up, making it fast round the mast about 1ſt.
above the boom ; thus, when going to set up sail, you place forward end of
boom, yard, and batten all in a bunch, between the mast and gathering
lines, then the after ends through between the two parts of the topping-lift;
toggle the sheet, tack, and halyard on, and the sail is ready to set ; the
* A tabernacle is a perpendicular square trunk, usually open on the aft side, made to take
the lower part of the mast ; if the mast is stepped on deck (as those of the river barges are) the
heel of the mast will be pivoted on a bolt passing athwartships through the sides of the tabernacle
above the deck, as shown in Plate XXVII. Brass or iron plates should be fitted to the tabernacle
where the bolt passes through, and there should be an iron band or ring on the heel of the mast.
In an open boat the mast can be pivoted near the bottom of the tabernacle on a bolt through the
tabernacle (athwartship); on the heel of the mast are two scores 1%in. deep cut in it to fit the bolt.
31() Yacht and Boat Sailing.
–-º-º-º:
batten parrels can be toggled at any time afterwards, as they only effect
a good “sit ’ to the sail.
“The tiller should be formed as if double, i.e., one part leading aft,
and used as mizen boomkin, and the other on fore side of rudder with a
U bend in it, to allow it to clear mizenmast. Thus fitted when working
ship, on putting the helm down the mizen is brought to windward, and helps
bring the boat to ; or when the helm is put up, mizen helps the boat off.
“A battened sail can easily be reefed ‘in stays,’ i.e., while going about,
without even checking the boat’s way, for the battens do not require
the reef points to be tied, except for neatness, unless it is a very deep reef.
“A boat thus rigged can be hove-to in bad weather at sea, or, when
waiting for tide into harbour, thus: take the mainsail off the mast, bunch
FIG. 131.
“AB, mast; EF, head of sail; EG, luff of sail; ab, battens; CD, line of gunwale ; GH, foot
of sail; FH, leech of sail; ac, loops or parrels; AK, brail leading through eye at K, the position
of the brail on starboard side of sail being shown by dotted lines KL, AL, and LM ; the letters
bN denote sheets hanging loose (over the sail instead of abaft it, as they would be when hauled
in for sailing), leading into a single one, NO.”
yard and boom together, and span it with a rope: to the centre of the
span fasten your boat's hawser, let the sail and battens hang loose, heave it
overboard, and pay out the hawser; lower the mainmast, and haul mizen
sheet fore and aft. Thus she will ride head to wind, and the sail will
break much of the sea. The storm main lug may then be got ready, in
case you have to cut and run.”
In gaff sails made of stout canvas, where the peak halyards assist in
keeping the sail flat, or in any sail that is well cut and can be kept flat,
the advantage of battens will not be great.

Battened Lug Sails. 3II
In China, where battens are almost invariably used, the shape and
“rig’’ of the lug much varies; but all are provided with a brail, which
resembles in its uses a topping-lift.
To each batten is fastened a loop or parrel, made of rattan or rope.
"The shape and position of these loops are indicated in Fig. 131. There is
mo tack proper, but the lower batten is made fast to the mast at the point
where they intersect. The luff projects about one-seventh of the breadth
of the sail forward of the mast. The sheets generally lead from several
of the lower battens, one from each, and are united into one sheet in such
a way that the pull is everywhere equal. The brail or topping-lift is fitted
S
*&
.
/3
§
*.
-
S.
-*-
-•
*>*
ſ- .
--
FIG. 132.
in a very simple and efficient manner. A line leads from the masthead
down the inside of the sail (i.e., the side on which the battens are),
through an eye 1ſt. or 2ft. from the after end of the lower batten, up
again on the outside of the sail through another eye rove in the end of a
short pendant from the masthead, and down again to the point where the
lower batten and mast intersect, where it is made fast ready for use. The
sail thus hangs in the bight of the brail as in a sling.
At Shanghae the completely battened lug sail is in much favour, as
illustrated by Fig. 131.
Battens are shown by 4 (Fig. 132) on plan. The bridles lead into two
bowlines (7), and the bowlines again into one part, the latter leading


312 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
to a double block on the bumpkin (8), so that hauling on this single
part brings an equal strain on each bowline-bridle. To keep the sail
into the mast a lacing (5 in the drawing) rove through parrels which extend
from the luff of the sail to well into its belly; these parrels are distinguished
by 6 on the sail plan. Beyond this, a hauling parrel is used to keep the
yard into the mast, marked 12. The standing part is made fast to the
yard, passing round the mast, then through a block on the yard, the
hauling part leading to the deck. The topping-lift shown by No. 9
explains itself, the line denoted by figures 10 being the topping-lift on the
port side. The topping-lift passes through a single block at the masthead.
The other figures indicate as follows: 1, the mast; 2, the boom ; 3, the
yard; 11, main halyards; 13, forestay ; 14, shroud.
MOUNT’S BAY AND FAILMOUTH LUG SAILS.
The Mount’s Bay craft have foresail and mizen (Fig. 133). The mizen-
mast has more hoist than is necessary for setting the ordinary mizen, so
F L O AT L | N M
I
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t
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as sº a sº ºn tº *
FIG. 133.
that the second foresail may be set in its place in light weather. A
longer outrigger than that shown would be then required. The Falmouth
boats have no foresail, and the mast is stepped farther forward. The
omission of a jib in the Falmouth boats is for the convenience of dispensing
with a bowsprit whilst running alongside shipping. Fig. 134 is a sketch of
the Falmouth waterman’s rig. It is in use for boats from 14ft. long up to
substantial little craft of 18ft. These boats go out in all kinds of
weather, and, although the mast being so far forward might tend
to increase their pitching, it could not make any considerable difference.
to their fore and aft motion, as the mast after all is very light and


Sprit Sails. 313
the bowsprit is dispensed with. There should be a horse of galvanised
iron across the stern for the main sheet, with a single and double block,
the double block grommeted to a thimble traversing on the horse. A
FIG. 134.
collar should be welded on the horse at each elbow, to prevent the
traveller getting round the bends, and so getting jammed.
SPRIT SAILS.
Sprit sails formerly were in high favour, but since 1860 they have
gradually fallen into disuse. It is still a favourite rig, however, among
watermen about the Solent, and they probably adhere to it because
there is so little gear. The old Ryde wherries, celebrated for their fine
weatherly qualities, were sprit-rigged, but of late years they have generally
adopted the gaff instead of the sprit. The advantages of the sprit over
a gaff for setting a sail in a small boat cannot be denied, as by crossing
the sail diagonally it takes up all the slack canvas in the middle of the sail,
even if it be an old sail. Also, by taking down the sprit, a nice Snug
three cornered sail can be had. On the other hand, a sprit is an awkward
spar to handle, and it need be much longer and heavier than a gaff to set
similar sails.
In small boats the luff of the sail is usually laced to the mast through
eyelet holes about 2ft. apart ; the throat is secured to an iron traveller, or
sometimes to a grommet strop. In large sails galvanised iron rings or
mast hoops are used. The tack is lashed to a small eyebolt screwed into the
mast. The sail is hoisted by a single halyard and belayed to the gunwale
to serve as a shroud. The foresail is also belayed by a single halyard,

314 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
and belayed to the opposite gunwale. The sprit is supported on the mast
by a strop called a snotter; this strop is a piece of rope with an eye
spliced in each end; it is put round the mast, and one end rove through
Mast. ZT = 2. ---
_” A
(D-
1––
FIG. 135.
an eye; the heel of the sprit is put in the other eye. After the sail is
hauled up on the mast the upper end of the sprit is put into the eye or
cringle on the peak of the sail, and then shoved up and the heel slipped


Sprit Sail Fittings.
315
If the sail
The sail is then peaked by pushing the snotter and
heel of sprit as high as required; the sail is then sheeted.
into the Snotter.
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FIG. 136.
is large and the sprit heavy, a traveller and whip purchase are used for the
(See Fig. 135.)
sprit.









316 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
A pendant with a running eye in it is fitted over the masthead; at the
lower end of this pendant is a block, through which the hauling part is rove,
one end being fast to the thwart. Sometimes a gun-tackle purchase is
used instead of the whip purchase. Either is to be preferred to the snotter
alone, as without any other support the snotter will be continually working
down. If the heel of the sprit got jumped out of the snotter it might go
through the bottom of the boat; this accident has often happened. The
waterman’s remedy against working down is wetting the mast, but the
single whip purchase is to be preferred, and is necessary for large sails.
Mr. A. Strange has adopted the following plan for hoisting the
sprit. (See Fig. 136.) There is a traveller on the mast, with halyard as
shown. A dumb cleat on the mast keeps the hauling part of the halyard
clear of the traveller. On the traveller are two blocks, B. B. A grommet
has two eyes seized in it, and again two eyes in the halyards, A. A., are
spliced round the eyes in the grommet. The sprit halyards are spliced
at C ; and the fall leading from C is belayed round the heel of the sprit
at D. Lowering the sail or sprit is therefore one operation.
THE SLIDING GUNTER.
The sliding gunter, it has been claimed, has all the advantages of the
lug sail; has lighter spars compared with sail area, and is less dangerous.
S C A L. E . |
0 2 2 3 4, 6 & 7 & 2 ſo 4/ 22 yº //, //7 276 27 / ?"
| | l | f ſ | | | | | l | 1–1
FIG. 137.
This is true of the old-fashioned dipping lug, which no doubt is a dangerous
sail, but the gunter cannot compete with the balance lug, for effectiveness.
The mast, it will be seen by Fig. 137, is in two pieces, the upper part

Lateen Rig. 317
sliding on the aft side of the lower by two irons. When hoisted the lower
part of the luff of the sail is laced to the mast. The irons should be of brass
or of galvanised iron, covered with leather, and they should be kept well
soaped or greased. The irons are fitted to the hoisting part of the mast, a
(usually termed the topmast or yard), and should fit the lower mast, b,
very loosely, as a common peculiarity of the iron is to jam either in hoisting
or lowering—mostly during the latter operation—especially if the boat be
heeled. The irons can be in two parts, d being freed when the sail has
to be stowed, and then lowers on the hinge e. A connecting rod is
shown by f, which is also the fore side of the lower mast. The yard is
hoisted by a single halyard rove through a sheave-hole at the lower mast-
head. The halyard is fast to the heel of the yard, and a score is cut
out for it on the fore-side of the yard ; it leaves the yard at the upper
iron. The gunter rig is sometimes applied to long boats with three masts,
a stay foresail being invariably used. The sketch given shows a sail fit for
a 17ft. boat (such as that on page 272), and has foresail and Mudian mizen.
LOWESTOFT LATEEN SAIL.
Although the lateen rig is met with all over the world, it has not
been much adopted on the English coast owing probably to the length and
weight of the yard required, and the awkwardness of the reefing arrange-
ments. Sometimes the sail is reefed along the foot, as shown in the
engraving of an old Lowestoft lateen (see Fig. 188), and sometimes along

318 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
both foot and head yard. In the sketch given, the sail is shown with very
great peak, but the sails are sometimes planned with the yard more across
the mast, and with a longer boom. A lug mizen is generally a part of the
rig. The boom is kept to the mast by an iron traveller or ring.
The settee sail is an adaptation of the lateen; the yard does not
reach quite down to the tack, so that a short up-and-down luff is obtained
to the extent of two or three reefs, as shown in Plate XXIV.
MAST TRAVELLERS.
A good mast traveller for small boats is a thing very much in request,
not only for facility in hoisting, but above all for lowering without jamming.
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FIG. 139.
Such a traveller has been patented by Mr. R. D. Ferguson (of Messrs.
Ferguson and Co., sailmakers, Roslin-street, Greenock). From Fig. 139 it



















Mast Travellerg. 319
will be seen that it somewhat resembles an ordinary parrel, but instead of
a rope being rove through the reels, the latter are put on a stout steel
wire, which will keep in shape (see A.). The ends of this wire are per-
forated, and, as will be seen in Fig. 139, meet in a slot in the hook ; they are
then connected by small steel wire as shown, or by split pins. Further, it
should be said, if a particularly neat appearance should be required, the
connection could be made by a right and left screw nut ; or the holes in the
hook could be tapped so as to form right and left screw nuts, providing it
was not required to take the traveller off the mast. We have had no
actual experience of this traveller, but we consider that it will do what Mr.
Ferguson claims for it—run freely either in hoisting or lowering. Beyond
FIG. 140.
that, it admits of the yard or throat cringle of a boat’s sail being hoisted
close up to the sheave in the mast, and will hold the sail close in to the
mast. It should be said that the ring can be hinged at the part opposite
to the hook, and it can then be put on the mast without the mast being
lowered.
It should be noted that a sail, the yard of which is kept to the mast
by a traveller, is likely to jam under the following conditions, depending
on the shape of the sail and the position of the slings: -
1. If the length from clew to tack, added to the length of the yard
from slings to throat, is greater than the length of the diagonal from clew
to throat, then the yard will jam as soon as the diagonal becomes tight.

320 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
In this case the jamming may be prevented by letting go the outhaul
before lowering, thereby reducing the distance from clew to tack to any
desired extent.
2. If the luff of the sail is shorter than the part of the yard from slings
to throat, the yard will not lower right down without unhooking the tack ;
but this should never be the case in a properly shaped sail, and in fact very
seldom is.
To avoid the yard jamming Mr. W. W. Lloyd, of Castletownsend, Co.
Cork, used a span on the yard, as shewn by Fig. 140, and he thus described it :
“A strong wire span, A, is spliced at both ends round the yard. The
upper eye to be a couple of inches above the usual spot for slinging the
yard, the lower eye a couple of inches below the spot on the yard that
would come abreast of the mast when the yard is down.
“This span is put on as taut as can be got, and a seizing put round
yard and wire just where the splice comes at both ends, the seizing put on
somewhat slack, and finished off with enough turns under the wire to make
it stand well clear of the yard; the object of the seizing is to prevent the
traveller hook jamming.
“In hoisting, as the yard goes up the traveller hook, B, slips along the
wire into its proper place at the upper end, and in lowering as soon as the
yard comes to the sticking point the wire slips along the hook, and down
it comes.
“The objection to any plan that entails extra length of halyard is, that
if fitted with whip or gun-tackle purchase there is not enough drift between
the blocks.
“A neater plan than the wire span would be a galvanised iron horse.”
See also the Mersey Sailing Boats.
CHAPTER XIII.
SMALL CENTRE-BOARD YACHTS.
UNA BOATS.
THOSE wonderful little crafts called “Una ’’ boats were introduced to us
in 1853, in this way: the late Marquis of Conyngham (then Earl Mount-
Charles), was in America in 1852, and in the boat building yard of Robert
Fish (now well known as a yacht designer), saw and purchased the boat
since celebrated as the “Una.” He sent her to London by steamer,
whence she was transported by rail to Southampton, and then towed to
Cowes, having meanwhile spent a summer on the Serpentine, but without
exciting the interest she did at Cowes. In fact, the Cowes people almost
regarded the Una as a little too marvellous to be real. To see the Una
dodging about on a wind and off a wind, round the stern of this craft,
across the bows of that one, and generally weaving about between boats
where there did not look room enough for an eel to wriggle, astonished
the Cowes people, who had never seen anything more handy under canvas
than a waterman’s skiff with three sails, or an Itchen boat with two, or
more unhandy than a boat with one sail—the dipping lug; but the Una
with her one sail showed such speed, and was so handy, that in less than
a year there was a whole fleet of Unas at Cowes, and about the Solent.
The genus was named Una after Lord Conyngham’s importation, and to
this day no class of boat is a greater favourite for smooth-water sailing.
In America, the Una or “ cat-rig ’’ as it is termed, is very popular
and at Newport, Rhode Island, where the rig is mostly seen, the boats enjoy
a great reputation for handiness, weatherliness, and speed. There is no
doubt that the one sail plan is the best for weatherly qualities and for
handiness, if there be no sea, and if it is all turning to windward. In a sea,
however, the heavy mast, stepped so far forward, makes the boats plunge
dangerously, and the boats themselves are so shallow that they are not
very well adapted for smashing through a head sea. Off a wind they
are extremely wild, and show a very great tendency to broach to.
This tendency of coming to against the helm is common to all
Y
322 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
--------------- ~--"
shallow boats when they are sailed off the wind; and if the rudder of a
boat has to be kept right across her to check the tendency, speed is of
course very much retarded. The rudder should be long—a fifth of the
length of the boat—with a large piece out of water so that the stern wave
may be made use of to assist in turning the boat (see the Plate of the
“Parole”). In strong winds the boom should be well topped up when
carried off the quarter, and if the boat gripes so badly that the helm will
not take her off, the main sheet must be played upon. The first symptom
of griping should be intercepted by the helm. As a rule it is found that
lifting the centre board greatly relieves the weather helm ; and as the
board is not wanted off a wind to increase the lateral resistance, it is
always better to haul it up ; the boat will often steer all the better for it,
and there will be less surface for friction.
Some boat sailers have used a small jib on a short bowsprit when
sailing off a wind; but of course this destroys the “Una” or one sail rig. The
bowsprit would run out through an iron fitted to the stem head, and the heel
could be lashed to the mast if no bitts were fitted, as there need not be. A
shroud would be required each side, and a bobstay, but if the bowsprit were
a mere bumpkin only three or four feet long, no shrouds would be required.
A few years ago a boat built on the model of the Una, had her
mast shifted to 5ft. abaft the stem and a foresail added and mainsail
reduced ; she was found very easy on her helm when sailing off the wind,
as might be expected; but on a wind she would not lie so close, and quite
proved the inferiority of the two sails, so far as sailing to windward in
smooth water went. The advantages of the one sail are almost wholly
confined to sailing to windward in smooth water, and, as putting small
boats to windward under such conditions is the principal charm of sailing
them at all, the Una rig will retain its popularity.
Una boats, of course, are prone to capsize, and a person might be
tempted into pressing them, because of the enormous stiffness they show up
to the time that their gunwale or deck becomes level with the water.
However, with skilful management “ Unas.”
are safe enough, and on the
whole are not so dangerous as an open boat of similar length. They
should always be luffed to squalls before their cockpit coamings have a
chance of being immersed, and a foot or two of main sheet (which should be
held in the hand) given them if they cannot be relieved sufficiently without
their being brought head to wind—a course never desirable if it can be
avoided, as the boats soon lose steerage way. It is never advisable to let
the main sheet go altogether with a boom sail, as it is with one without a
boom, as the sail will not spill, and the boom may get in the water, which
would be awkward, to say the least, if the boat got stern way on.
The Una or One Sail Rig.
323
The “Una’s” stores, copied from an inventory of the same, made
when she was packed off by rail to Southampton, were as under : “One
mast, one boom, one gaff, one pair of oars, one sail, one sail cover, one
Hatch cover, one rudder and tiller, four blocks, one main halyard, two
bell-metal rowing-pins, four pigs of lead ballast.” All that need be added
to this list is a “baler,” and it would do for a Una of the present day.
SAIL PLAN “UNA BOAT ºf INCH SCALE.
FIG. 141.
The rig, it will be seen upon reference to the sail plan, Fig. 141, is
simple in the extreme, and even the famed balance lug cannot beat it
in this respect. The sail is hoisted by a single halyard. The standing
part is made fast on the gaff at a, then leads through a double block
at j on the mast, through a single block s on the jaws of the gaff,
up through j again, and down to the deck where the fall leads through

Y 2
324 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
a block n by the side of the mast, and belayed on the aft end of centre-
board case. The fall can then be taken aft to the hand of the helmsman,
who, in case of need, can drop the sail between topping-lifts (not shown
in the drawing) without leaving the tiller. The Una had no stay at all,
but the Cowes fashion now is to have a forestay, which prevents the mast
going aft when sailing on a wind ; and a slightly lighter mast can be
carried if a forestay is used. All Una boats should have topping-lifts, as
it is necessary to top the boom when sailing off the wind in strong breezes,
and a lift is handy in setting, stowing, or reefing the sail.
The main sheet is made fast to an eye bolt on one quarter, close
to the intersection of gunwale and transom; it then leads through a block
on the boom, and through a block on the other quarter, the fall coming
into the well or cockpit to belay. This plan of fitting the main sheet
is still known as the “Una,” just as the plan of working the halyards
all in one is.'
Practically, the Cowes Una boat of the present time differs very little
from the original. The floor, it will be found, upon reference to the
diagrams and tables, is a trifle flatter than the Una’s ; the quarters are
lifted a little, as will be seen upon comparing the transoms; and there
is more freeboard—the latter being a very desirable addition. The load
water-line of the two crafts are almost identical, as will be found by
comparing the half-breadths for the same. The centre-boards are of
about equal area, the only alterations being that the modern plan is to
pivot the boºl in the keel below the garboard, whilst formerly they were
pivoted in the case inside the boat. The Cowes Una has a trifle less
draught forward than the original, and the stem piece does not tumble
aft; but, in other respects, there is not much difference in the two
sheer plans, always of course remembering the increase in the free-
board. The draught of water of the Cowes Una forward appears to be
excessive, and off a wind at least she would be lightened by the head
to the extent of three or four inches.
The design for a Cowes Una (Plate XXVIII.) has been made so that it
is adapted for either a real “Una ’’ of 15ft. 6in. in length, or one of greater
size 21 ft. in length. The sail plan of the Cowes boat is a smaller one than
the Una had, but it will be found large enough for ordinary sailing. The
sail, of course, will be laced to the boom, and a topping-lift would be found
of service to keep the boom up when the peak is lowered, or when running
off the wind.
The Una is still in existence on the estate of Lord de Ros, in Ireland,
the late Marquis of Conyngham having presented her to that nobleman
in 1873.
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Dimensions of Una Boats. 325
DIMENSIONS, &c.
UNA. 15ft. 6in.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Length, extreme ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16 0 15 6 21 0
Beam, extreme ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6 6 6 6 8 8
Keel sided amidships ... .. ... ... ... 0 7 0 4% () 6
Keel sided fore end ... ... ... .. ... ... ... 0 2 0 2 0 24
Keel sided aft end ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 2 0 2 0 2}
Moulding (depth) of keel ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 0 23 0 4 O 5
Floors sided ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 0 } 0 1 0 1%
Floors moulded e - : 0 13. 0 1% 0 2
Timbers sided ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 } 0 1 0 1%;
Thickness of plank ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 0 # 0 #
Thickness of top strake ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 0 ; 0 ; 0 1
Mast, deck to hounds... ... ... ... .. 16 0 14 0 18 6
Boom * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 18 0 15 6 21 0
Gaff ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9 3 7 6 10 0
Luff of mainsail ... ... ... 12 0 9 9 13 0
Foot of mainsail ... ... ... . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 17 6 15 6 20 8
Head of mainsail... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9 0 7 0 | 9 6
Leech of mainsail ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 0 17 8 23 6
Tack to peak earing of mainsail ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 0 16 0 21 0
Clew to throat earing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 0 17 0 22 9
Centre of mast from the fore side of stem at L.W.L............. 2 0 2 0 || 2 6
Diameter of mast at deck .........................., | 0 43 0 4% O 5
Diameter of mast at hounds ..................... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 2% 0 23 0 2%
Weight of displacement of boat to L.W.L. (approximate)... ... 13 cwt. 14 cwt. 1-4 ton.
LAYING-OFF TABLE, COWES UNA AND UNA 1852, 31N. SCALE.
|
1 2 3 4. 5 6 7 8
|
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights to top of timbers above L.W.L. 1 6}| 1 3} | 1 #: 0 1 0 11% | 0 11 || 0 11%. 1 1
Una of 1852 2 3 2 3 0 11 || 0 93 0 83 0 8 0 8 || 0 83 || 0 9 |1 0
Depths below L.W.L. to rabbet ... ... ... 0 6% * | * 9 || 0 8% | 0 6% —
Una, of 1852 2 3 3 x . . . . . . . . . 0 73 — -* — 0 84 || 0 8 || 0 6% —
Half-breadths on deck ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 8;|1 9 2 53 2 11 3 24 || 3 13 || 2 10 2 14
Una, of 1852 3 2 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... O 7# 1 7 2 4 2 11 || 3 24 || 3 1 || 2 93 2 3
Half-breadths on L.W.L.... ... ... ... ... ... 0 4}| 1 2 1 11+ 2 5; 2 93 2 8 || 1 11% —
Jna, of 1852 3 2 ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 4 || 1 1 1 10; 2 6 || 2 9; 2 8% 2 1 || –
Half-breadths on diagonal k ... ... ... ... 0 73|1 64 2 24 2 8% 2 11}| 2 103 |2 5, 1 43
Una, of 1852 3 3 ... ... ... ... 0 7 1 54 2 2 2 8% 2 11+ 2 10% 2 53 |1 6+
Half-breadths on diagonal m. ... .. 0 6 || 1 2 1 8 2 0 || 2 23 2 1 || 0 9 |0 53
Una of 1852 3 5 - * * 0 5}| 1 13 1 83 2 1% 2 3} 2 1 || 1 7 |0 6
Half-breadths on diagonal a || 3:19 ºf Q 101 || 3 || 3 || 1 , || 9, –
Una of 1852 2 3 ... '0 3}| 0 8 || 0 1 || 1 23 || 1 3 || 1 0} | 0 7% —
All the half-breadths are without the plank.
In the body plan of the Cowes Una the midship section is shown on
both sides of the middle line, o, between Nos. 4 and 6 sections. The
station for the midship section is shown at No. 5 in the sheer plan.
No. 1 section is 1ſt. 3in. from the fore side of the stem ; all the other sections are 2ft. apart,
but No. 8 (transom) is 2ft. 3in. from No. 7 station.
In the case of the Una of 1852, No. 8 (transom) is 2ft. 9in. from No. 7 station.
Diagonal k is struck 10}in. above the L.W.L., and at k 1 and k 2 cuts the side perpendiculars
p p 1%in. below the L.W.L.
Diagonal m is struck 4%in. above the L.W.L., and at m 1 and m 2 is 3ft. out from the middle
vertical line o. -
Diagonal aſ is struck 13 in. below the L.W.L., and at a 1 and a 2 is 1ſt. 6in. out from the
middle vertical line o.
The base line a a is 9in. below the L.W.L., and parallel thereto.
326 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
- - - - ------------------"
LAYING-OFF TABLE FOR 21 FT. “UNA’’ BOAT, #IN. SCALE.
| ! |
| ft. in. ft. in. it. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights above L.W.L. to top of timbers 2 0% 1 8% 1 6 1 4 3 : 1 3 1 3%. 1 5}
Depths below L.W.L. to rabbet ... ... ... 0 8% — - — 1 0 || 0 11%. 0 8% —
Half-breadths on deck ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 11% 2 4 || 3 3% 3 11 || 4 3 || 4 2 3 9%. 2 10
Half-breadths on L.W.L. ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 6% 1 7 || 2 6% 3 4 || 3 8 || 3 6%. 2 74 —
Half-breadths on diagonal lº ... 0 10%|2 0}|2 11}| 3 7% 3 113 3 10, 3 3, 1 83
Half-breadths on diagonal m ... ... ... ... 0 8 || 1 6% 2 3 || 2 8 2 11% 2 9} * 1%. () 7%
Half-breadths on diagonal aſ - 0 40 10 1 24 1 4; 1 7 | 1 5%. 1 () ---
- i | |
All the half-breadths are without the plank. No. 1 section is 1ſt. 10in. from the fore side of
the stem; all the other sections are 2ft. 8in. apart, but No. 8 (transom) is 3ft. 2in. from No. 7
station. Diagonal lº is struck 1ſt. 2%in, above the L.W.L., and at le 1 and k 2 cuts the side perpen-
diculars p p 2 inches below the L.W.L. Diagonal ºn is struck 6in. above the L.W.L., and at m 1
and m 2 is 4ft. out from the middle vertical line o. Diagonal ſº is struck 2%in. below the L.W.L.
and at a 1 and a 2 is 2ft. out from the middle vertical line 0. The base line a a is 1ſt. below the
T.W.L., and parallel thereto.
On Plate XXIX. are the lines of the large Una boat Mocking Bird,
built by Messrs. Stockham and Pickett, of West Quay, Southampton, for
Mr. Prescott Westcar, from a design by the author in 1882. A lead keel
as shown was, however, fitted instead of the centre-board, but the limited
draught which had to be observed did not admit of the keel being deep
enough for good weatherly qualities. -
The Mocking Bird sailed a match against the American cat boat
Gleam in a strong wind, and beat her by twelve and a half minutes; but it
was about two-thirds reaching, and by the wind the Gleam showed herself
to be the more weatherly craft ; the case, however, might have been
different had Mocking Bird been fitted with a centre-board. The Gleam
usually had several hundredweight of shifting ballast, or a crew of a dozen
to sit to windward in strong winds; otherwise she could not carry her
large sail. The lines of Gleam are given on Plate XXX.
The following table gives the dimensions, &c., of the two boats :
“t MOCKING
Gloam. || "..."
Length on load-water line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25ft. 2%in. 30ft.
Breadth, extreme....................................... 11ft. 1ín. 10ft. 6in.
Draught of water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2ft. 3}in. 4ft.
Length of centre-board ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8ft. 11OI19
Board pinned from stem .............................. 11 ft. ----
Displacement ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 3°5 tons. 7 tons
Lead on keel............................................. 2} cwt.iron. 2 tons
Lead inside ............................................. 16 cwt. 2 tons
Mast deck to hounds ................................, 27ft. 6in. 28ft.
Boom, mast to pin of sheave ........................ 35ft. 4 in. 36ft.
Gaff, mast to lacing hole.............................. 19ſt. 18ft. 6in.
Luff of mainsail . . . . . . . . . .............................. 23ft. 6in. 22ft. 9in.
Mast from fore-side of stem ........................ 1ft. 7%im. 2ft. 2in.
Area of Hail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 760 sq. ft. 760 sq. ft.
Y.R.A. tons ........................... ................. 8-6 10
PLATE XXIX.
- - - - - - - - - - - - • • • • • • • • • • • ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - • • • • • • • ** ****------>
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"GLEAM"
Designed and Built by
N.G.HFRRESHOFF,
ał Rhode Island U.S.A.for
F. ALLEN COWER ESQ.
1877.



PLATE XXXI.
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T--— 7 : 3 ºf 7 39 #6 ºf +2 43 ſq.
Rudder* U-7- - =--- T ——f f : f : * : * * * * * * *
*F± ſ 8 7 6 5. 4. 3 2 7 -
Sail Plan of the American Centre-Board “Parole.”
|
* * *—#—?—#—?—?–?—*–7–?–?—t—?—t—t—l-tº-f_* {–?—f f * * 1 liuli-ul
A Lt. 13tºrs


The American Sloop Parole. 327
THE CENTRE-BOARD SLOOP PAROLE.
The light draught beamy centre-board boat is in high repute in
America, and the sloop rig is quite as much the fashion as the cat
rig. The “jib and mainsail boats,” as they are characteristically termed,
for speed in light winds and smooth water are probably unsurpassed,
and the handling of them is followed with keen enjoyment by a large
number of boat sailers on the American seaboard. Their length on
water-line varies from 24ft. to 28ft., and their breadth from 10ft. to
11 ft. 6in.
The drawing on Plate XXXI. shows the lines of Parole, one of the
fastest boats yet built by Mr. Jacob Schmidt, of Tompkinsville, Staten
Island, New York. He also built other successful boats, amongst which
were Dare Devil, Pluck and Luck, Susie S., &c.; and he is one of the
best open boat sailers in New York Bay.
The drawing is to #in. scale, and the water-lines are 4 in. apart. The
scantling of the timbers of American elm would be 1%in. moulded by
2in. sided, and be spaced 1ſt. apart. The plank would be #in. thick;
stem and stern post 2%in. sided. The centre-board appears to be
unnecessarily large, and might very well be less in depth.
The sail plan shows the racing outfit. The main sheet is led through
two blocks on outriggers extending some distance over the stern (an
invention of Mr. Schmidt), and through a block travelling on a horse.
The inner block on the boom is a snatch block, and only used when
the boat is close-hauled.
The mast is 10in. diameter at the deck, and 5%in. at the truck.
The mast is stayed on each side by one shroud with a “spreader” (a
kind of crosstree, a view of which is given at a) about half-way up ;
b is the shroud. There is also a “spreader” for the bowsprit shrouds,
or whiskers, as we should term them.
In racing, a crew of seventeen is sometimes carried, although it is
difficult to see what good so many men can be on board a boat except
to sit to windward and shift ballast.
The ballast of Parole consists of seventy-seven sand bags, the average
weight of each being 45lb., or about 1% ton in the aggregate.
TABLE OF DIMENSIONS, &c., OF PAROLE.
Length on load water-line ....................................... 27ft.
Breadth, extreme... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 11 ft. 3in.
Breadth on load water-line............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 10ft.
Draught of water.......................................... . . . . . . . . . 1ft, 8in.
Draught with board down ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7ft. 3in.
328 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
TABLE OF DIMENSION 8, &c., of PAROLE (continwed).
Displacement ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 4°1 tons.
Centre of buoyancy abaft centre of length of L.W.L. ... 1*1ft.
Centre of buoyancy below L.W.L............................... 0-6ſt.
Centre of lateral resistance abaft centre of length of
L.W.L. (with board down or up), inclusive of rudder . 2-3 ft.
Centre of effort of sails (mainsail and jib) abaft centre
of lateral resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 0°4 ft.
Area of immersed board................ ......................... 25 sq. ft.
Area of mainsail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1056 sq. ft.
Area of jib ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 484 sq. ft.
Total area of Sails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1540 sq. ft.
Luff of mainsail ................................................... 30ft.
Leech of mainsail................................................... 48ft.
Foot of mainsail ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 38ft. 6in.
Tack to peak earing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. 46ft. 6in.
Clew to throat ...................................................... 46ft. 6in.
Luff of jib ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 46ft.
Leech of jib ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35ft.
Foot of jib. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27ft, 6in.
Mast, deck to upper cap......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38ft. 3in.
Fore side of mast from fore side of stem ..................... 8ft. 2in,
Bowsprit, outboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22ft. 1 in.
The water-lines 1, 2, 3, &c., are 4:in. apart. The other measurements
can be taken from the drawing, Plate XXXI.
tº
"['HE SORCERESS.
The shallow saucer form of body so strikingly exemplified in the Una
type of craft has been imitated in this country a great many times, but in
no case more successfully than by Mr. Linton-Hope with his well-known
1-rater Sorceress, which has sailed most successfully on the Thames during
the season 1894. She was designed by her owner for the Royal Corinthian
and Junior Thames Yacht Club’s circular courses at Erith and Greenhithe,
with the idea that an extreme type of skimmer would be more likely to prove
successful on the average than an ordinary ballasted centre-board or bulb
fin boat. As both these courses are in fairly smooth water except with
certain winds, and also because the races are usually sailed late in the
afternoon (which, as a rule, means that the wind dies away towards the
end of the race), this idea proved correct, and she won every race sailed
on these waters. (Plate XXXII.)
She also did very well in the London Sailing Club races at Hammer-
Smith, winning every race she started in there except one, and then only lost
first prize through starting very late, being over the line at gunfire. Out
of fifteen races sailed under Y.R.A. rules she won fourteen first prizes
and one second prize, also the Muriel Challenge Cup (£50) of the Royal
Corinthian Y.C., which she holds for the year.


Page Missing
in Original
Volume




Page Missing
in Original


Volume
PLATE XXXII.
T-
T--
ºr- ºr- - - - - - - -
Sorcarass" / AA7A/7.
AMAS/GMA/) Awo OVWWAZ) &rA/W//////ſ.
@%/y//7/A 7/4/M4.5 WAC///4/////W6 &/º
— /M4AC//594. —
/A/VG 7//aw & W.L. 18.88'ſ Area of AWA. . //.6 sq.ft
... o. A. . . 27. 99' . . wºrſfoºvºrace /0557.F.
BEAM . - 8. (20 ° , , /M/0 SEC7/0// .__2.5 .
£)/TAU6/7 whov/ CA. O. 55. . . MA/A/ SA/L 264.7 ...
* wih C.A. 6.25 ' . . //EAA) SA/L 54.3 .
A/S/MACEMEA/7 . /470/4sſ . 70744. SA/A 3/9. O.
———* *
Ormérº &ase 4
Timbers šin. sided, §in. moulded,
spaced 6in. centre to centre.
Carvel worked planking of cedar,
§in.
Reel 10in. by lºin. pitch pine.
Deck covered with painted canvas.
1 *
Aºudagar Casa T-2 %
Tºzzº /
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tº
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=-
WºRSEP ITNES






















PLATE XXXIII,
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/*Aſsº M/A6E.
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|
P
|
|
Built and Designed by
AIFFED BURGO/WZ.
/or
H. Wozrow, Esq.
/EM67A O.A. 26.’6”
L.W. L. /8° 0"
BEAM 5'6"
/JRA A/CA/7 /'9"
A" wrº P.A7& 4.3"
SAſ, AREA 333 Sq/?
/89/
&cale % to //oof.






|PLATE XXXIV.
* * 4 a.
Sºsé22—
2-y-
*--
MOVA"
Built and Designed by
AirRED BurgoLVE
for
7./os/AA /(Wowzas, ASQ.
AA/V67% (2A, 22’6”
/. W/. /6 '6"
BEAM 5'6"
AJRAvohr /'2"
D9 waſ, P.A7A 3'3"
SA/4 Area 309 &/?.
AºA7//wg S.A.A. '85
/893.
Scale & Žo //oo/*.
|
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'AXXX EHIWTIGI



Plate XXXVI.
– T
C E N T P E P L A 7" E
G A L. 1 R O N T
3 C W T.
"El OLLY" ºran *
&\2\\ bººk lºº!" | RATER, SCALE OF / / NCH TO / F00 T.
5 6 7 8 S O It. _2
Designed by DIXON KEMP -------- g A 2 3 4 f |
TEIGN MOUTH SHIP & YACHT BUILDING C9 - *—— -===Fºr-T * -- -
F O.R. —F------ `f`--→ -
S I R G . GREAVES, G. C. B. ~~|~ __ –-T ~i===
I * __-T º T->
Length over all-------------- 79 4" _--" _PT
Length on L.W.L. crew on board, 77 ſ &#" -
Beam -----------------------6 6. _2^
Draught Water ----_2 ; 3. º
Displacement, crew on board, 7-7 tons.
Main Sail Area, 237% –
Head Sau Area_88 % e
_---------T_ –-TT
Tºtal Sail Area_325 % * T



\ SA I L P L A N
- “RAG AM UFF IN III:-
ºri-
H Plate XXXVT1.
!”
tº
- "|RA (GATMſ Uſ IF IF TN |[ Iſ | º - - M41N.---------------155 zer,
FORE TRA A/GLE___4.0 PEET
5 R A T E R — º
\
\
\
\
TOTAL 195 FEE r
--~~~. - - DES I C N ED FOR H. WELCH-THORN TON, ES Q.
T-I- - T -T - - BY H. C. S M ITH,
—t 1 * 3 4. 5 6 7 § § ſo {1 #2 £3 {4 {5 16 *— {8 {9 30. I ox Fo R D.
ScA LE / " To / FT.
C. L. R.
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- *-*-* = *-*T*-- * * **m; m m. -- <><
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WE1 GHT OF PLATE 3 CWT. _* F N+---
–––-------------- - ------, --- ~~~~ - º - - - - - ------ - -- " *----- - ------------- - !– * - - - | -- - - -
cºr.
DISPLACEMENT 10. 28. W. L. N
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#" To f 5 T S CAL E.









Centre-Board Boats : The Holly. 331
time), and three against boats of the Upper Thames and London Sailing
Clubs. The remaining eight races have been sailed this year in
Inatches of the Upper Thames, Thames Valley, and Thamesis Clubs, and
the result shows that Challenge is a faster boat than when she was first
launched in the spring of 1893; for she was then beaten in several
successive races by Mirage, which craft, however, she has this year
vanquished on the five occasions upon which, up to the present date,
she has met her.
Her handiness is in a large measure due to the easy form of her
ends, the concentration of weights amidships, and the nice adjustment
of her centres of propulsion and resistance.
Challenge’s best point of sailing is to windward, and it is in hard breezes,
when the ratio of area of hull exposed to area of canvas which can be
carried is largest, that her superiority is most marked. A more or less
successful attempt to disguise the absence of sheer has been made by
sheering the rubbing wale more that the deck. Up as far as the wale
the hull is black leaded, above it is painted vermilion, and the line where
the black cuts the vermilion is the line which catches the eye. There
are many features about the rigging which distinguish the boat from
the rest of the Upper Thames fleet, but, with the exception of the main
and jib sheet, all the running, as well as the standing rigging, is
of flexible steel wire. Jib and main halyards lead dºgct on to drums
controlled by a winch handle which can be geared º drum it
is desired to work.
The main halyard, instead of leading through the usual sheave or
block at the masthead, reeves over a special sheave fitted in a metal
casing, which rotates on a vertical spindle, whereby the nipping of the
wire is entirely avoided, owing to the fact that the sheave, instead of
being always in a fore and aft line, is free to swing on the spindle which
fits into a bushed hole in the top of the mast, thus allowing the whole
block to swing as the sail gybes.
THE HOLLY.
This centre-board 1-rater was built by the Teignmouth Ship and
Yacht Building Company for Sir George Greaves, from a design by the
author. She was intended for sailing in the 1-rating matches of the South
Wales Branch of the Minima Yacht Club, and was most successful in all
kinds of weather. It will be seen that she is more of the cruiser type
than the fashionable racer, and proved a fast, dry, and comfortable sea
332 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
boat. She has the full sail area for an 18ft. 1-rater of the ordinary
standing lug type, and carried it well. (Plate XXXVI.)
Length over all ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19°4 ft.
Length on L.W.L., with crew on board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.8ft.
Breadth extreme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6'6ft.
Draught of water without centre-board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2'3ſt.
Displacement with crew on board ... . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . 1°7 ton.
Ballast on keel ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 15cwt.
Ballast inside ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3cwt.
Area mainsail ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 sq. ft.
Area foresail (Y.R.A. headsail) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 88 sq. ft.
Total Bail area ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 sq. ft.
This sort of craft could be easily turned into a single handed cruiser
of the type illustrated further on.
RAGAMUFFIN III. (Now LA FRIVOLINE).
This centre-board 1-rater (Plate XXXVII.) was built by Mr. H. C.
Smith, of 78, Kingston-road, Oxford, and was successfully sailed on the
Solent by Mr. Welch Thornton, under the usual lug rig. She is now the
property of Mr. T. J. Bennett, of the Oxford University Sailing Club.
For sailing in the matches of this club a gaff mainsail is considered more
suitable, and under such a sail she was raced during the season 1895.
Her total Y.R.A. sail area is 187 square feet.
BRIGHT ON BEACH BOATS.
The Brighton beach boats, although very shallow, enjoy a very high
repute on the South Coast, and no doubt they are very capable little
vessels, and well adapted for the work they are put to. As there is no
sheltered anchorage at Brighton, the boats are hauled up on the beach 3
and a more or less flat floor is necessary for this operation, in order that
the boats may be floated as far up on the beach as possible. The boats
are fitted with stout bilge keels three or four inches deep, on one of which
a boat rests as she is hauled up. Ways are laid down for hauling the
boats up and launching them off by a capstan, an anchor being laid out
in the sea ahead. The latest boats are built with much more rise of floor
than formerly, and their sailing qualities have been improved thereby.
There are many advantages justly claimed for the Brighton beach
boats. They can be run over a sandbank in a foot or two of water to
the “smooth on the other side; ” whilst the deep boat, of equal length
perhaps, must remain pile driving outside in the lop. They can be allowed
to take the ground without fear of their being bilged or filling; and, if
necessary, they can be run ashore to effect a landing. The counter has a
long fore and aft slot or trunk in it, to admit of the rudder being lifted
out when the boat is beached stern first.
PLATE XXXVIII.
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IBF IGEIT ON THE A C H B O AT .




Brighton Beach Boats. 333
Mr. Thomas Stow, of Shoreham, and Mr. Hutchinson, of Worthing,
have built many successful beach boats, and the design, Plate XXXVIII.,
was made by Mr. Thomas Stow.
The usual rig is that known as the cutter, and the boats, it will be
seen, have large head sails, and in match sailing they are not spared so far
as canvas goes.
The boats are decked-in up to the mast, and the counter is also
decked, whilst a water-way is built round the midship sides of the boat
about 1ſt. wide, with 5in. coamings. The centre plates were formerly
much larger than that shown in the design; but, with so much keel
under the boat, very little plate is necessary, and, indeed, the boat would
hang to windward very well without any plate down at all.
The general floor construction of the boats is shown by Fig. D,
representing a floor section at No. 6. The floor is jogged to the keel
as shown, and shaped to the mould at each section; the floor is then
taken out and jogged and bevelled to receive the plank, as the boats
are generally clench built. Where they are carvel built the construction
is shown by Fig. A., representing the midship section ; in either case the
heels of the floors are cut through to admit the centre plate. As a rule the
heels of the floor timbers are cut off a trifle short, so that they do not go
right through the case, as shown in A. The heels of the floor timbers are,
in fact, tenoned into the centre-board case. The construction at No. 7
station is shown by Fig. B, where considerable depth has to be given to
the throat of the floor. Sometimes the floors aft and forward are steamed
and bent into their stations, being afterwards removed to be jogged (as shown
by Fig. C, representing No. 2 station forward) if the boat is clench built.
As already explained, the counter is generally fitted with a kind of
long fore-and-aft rudder trunk or slot, enough to allow the rudder to be
lifted up through the counter before beaching stern first.
The centre-board case is generally of wood with a knee, as shown
by a, Fig. A, to keep it in its place, and to generally strengthen the
floor of the boat.
Greatest length from fore side of stem plumb at L.W.L. to aft side of
stern post on deck ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21ft.
Greatest beam moulded ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6ft. 10;in.
Greatest beam extreme ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 7ft.
Weight of hull (exclusive of iron plate, iron keel, and ballast, spars,
sails, and crew) ... ... ... . ... 14cwt.
Iron keel ... ... g 4cwt.
Centre plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... 13 cwt. ,
Ballast inside ... ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 cwt.
Spairs, sails, and gear ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7cwt.
Crew ... . . . . . 8cwt.
Total weight of displacement to L.W.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... 2tons.
334
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Moulding (depth) of wood keel from top to under side, 5in.
Siding (breadth) of wood keel 4 in. amidships, tapering to 2%in. forward and 3in. aft.
Siding of stern post, 3in.
Siding of stem, 2%in.
Siding of floors,
#in
Siding of timbers, 1%in.
Distance floors are apart from centre to centre, 10in.
Thickness of plank, Žin.
(Clench work.)
Length of iron keel, 12ft.; depth, 4in., tapered in breadth fore and aft to shape of wood keel.
SPARS. ft. in.
Mast, deck to hounds 19 ()
Boom, extreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 20 0
Gaff, extreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ()
Topmast, heel to hounds . . . . . . . . 16 0
Topsail yard ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 0
Bowsprit, outside stem... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 16 0
Mast stepped from the fore side of stem 8 0
Luff of mainsail... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ()
Head of mainsail 15 6
Foot of mainsail 19 3
Leech of mainsail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 ()
Tack to peak caring ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3
Clew to throat 24, 9
Foot of foresail . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 8 0
Luff of foresail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 ()
Leech of foresail... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 ()
Foot of jib ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 0
Luff of jib ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 0
Leech of jib • * * * * * * * - - - - - - - * * * * * - - - - - s a 9 s a s - - - 16 0
Luff of jib topsail ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24 ()
Foot of jib topsail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 12 0
Leech of jib topsail 15 ()
LAYING-OFF TABLE.—PLATE XXXVIII.
No. of Section ............................. ......... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 {) 10 11
SHEER PLAN. ft. º ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in, ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights above L.W.L. to deck"............... 2 93 2 6 || 2 3}| 2 1%| 2 0 || 1 10}| 1 9 || 1 9%. 1 10 I 11 || 2 0
Depths to upper edge of rabbot............... — 2f 1 3}| 1 4}| 1 5 || 1 6 || 1 7f 1 3f — — -
Depths to top of wood keel..................... — 1 0 | — sm- - - — | 1 w - * -
HALF-BIREADTH PIAN. |
Half-breadths on deck...........................] 0 10 1 11}| 2 4 || 3 3}| 3 2 || 3 () 2 j () 2 7 || 2 |}}
Half-breadths on L.W.L........................] 0 || || 1 93 2 3 || 3 24 2 9, 111 || 0 | | – || –
BOJ) Y PLAN. :
Diagonal a ................... | 0 9; 111 || 2 8; 8 & 3 bil 8 by 3 83 & 13 2 10 9 5 2 0,
Diagonal b .......................................... O 9}; 1 10 2 83| 3 4 3 6%| 3 6 || 3 3}| 2 11; 2 5}| 1 || 0 | 1 ()
Diagonal c 2................…..............] 0 & 1 & 2 G | 3 || 8 || 3 & 8 0 |2 54, 1 03] 1 03 –
Diagonal d ......................................... 0 64; 1 5 || 2 13] 2 7# 2 9; 2 8 || 2 4 1 83| 1 0 — —
Diagonal 6 .............................. | 0 4} 0 11}| 1 34 1 64. 1 7}| 1 7 || 1 4 || 0 10 || 0 * – —
| t


* The deck is flush with the gunwale.
+ The heels of the floors at Nos. 2, 7, and 8 stations are not joggled as those at Nos. 6, 5, 4,
and 3 are (see diagram B).
2%in. from the top of keel.
The ticked line in the drawing represents the lower edge of the rabbot
The Pollywog Centre-Boards. 335
No. 1 station is 1.ft. 6in. from the fore side of the stem. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
8tations are 2ft. 6in. apart. No. 9 station is 1ſt. 9in, from No. 8. No. 10 is 2ft. from No. 9,
No. 11 is 1ſt. 6in. from No. 10.
a diagonal is struck on the middle vertical line o (see body plan) 2ft. 2in. above the load
water-line ; it cuts the side perpendiculars pp at a 1 and a 2 at 1ſt. 3in. above the load water-
line.
b diagonal cuts o 1ſt. 8in. above L.W.L.; cuts p 4in. above L.W.L.
c diagonal cuts o 1ſt. 1%in. above L.W.L.; cuts p 4in. below L.W.L.
d diagonal cuts o 6%in. above L.W.L.; cuts p 1ft. 13in. below L.W.L.
e diagonal cuts 0 1 in. below L.W.L.; and at a 1 and a 2 is 1ſt. 3in. below L W.L., and
1ft. 4%in. out from 0.
All the half-breadths given are without the plank.
THE POLLYWO G.
The Pollywog is a 3-ton centre-board cutter, built for sailing in
Milford Haven, the lower half of which, ten miles in length, varies from
one and a half to three miles in breadth; and the upper portion, navigable
for a further distance of thirteen miles, averages half a mile in width.
There are also numerous creeks, locally called “pills,” having a narrow
deep-water entrance, but inside expanding to from two to four square
miles in area, the greater portion of which is dry at half tide (Plate XXXIX.)
The object aimed at was a boat light, handy and quick in stays
for the quiet upper waters of the Haven, having sufficient weight and
power to face the rougher and heavier seas of the lower portion, with
light enough draught for the “pills,” large enough to accommodate half
a dozen people for an afternoon’s sail, and small enough to be worked
single-handed ; to be, above all, safe, comfortable, and fast. This is
the result : As regards speed, nothing of her size in the district has
nearly equalled her. She is very dry, and a good sea boat in spite of
her heavy spars, and is exceedingly quick in stays; she has frequently
been worked single-handed by her owner in a strong breeze and a
heavy sea, and has always behaved very well.
There are several peculiarities in her construction worth noticing.
The centre-board, weighing 14cwt., is pivoted in the usual manner
in the keel, and has the usual rope at the after end to pull it up with ;
but, as 170lb. is rather a heavy weight for one man to lift in a hurry,
another cord is shackled to the centre-board a few inches in advance of
the former one; it leads over a sheave at the top of the centre-board
case and down the fore end, where it divides; i.e., another cord is
spliced in. These lead through two pulleys at the foot of the mast, and
back, one on each side of the case under the platform ; an end of each
is fastened to an indiarubber spring, somewhat similar to a large chest
expander, but with a thimble at each end, and requiring a weight of
about 60lb. to stretch it 3ft. The other end of the spring is hooked to
336 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
a floor right aft. When the centre-board is hauled up, the springs are
relaxed, but upon its being lowered they are in tension and supporting
about 120lb. of its weight, leaving only some 40lb. to be lifted by hand;.
if therefore the boat runs over a rock or bank, the board rises almost
as easily as a wooden one would do. The springs are 14in. diameter,
4ft. long, weigh about 21b. each, and were obtained from R. Middleton,
Chester-street, Birkenhead, the price being 98. per pound.
The centre-board case was made of 1 in. American yellow pine, and
thus fitted (see Fig. 142): A rabbet lin. deep was cut in the keel to.
cho. 16 a.c."
º Iron keel
Centre plate
FIG. 142.
exactly take the case, three oak dowels being fitted on each side; the .
case was well luted with white-lead putty, and driven home; three.
iron supports on each side were screwed both to the case and to
the keel; there has been no leakage from this joint since the boat was
launched.
The Pollywog is half-decked, with waterways; and two bulkheads,
one aft of the mast, the other about 2ft. forward of the sternpost ; these
are entered by close-fitting hatches; she is therefore practically a ſife-
boat. A 3%in. pump with ball valves, and discharging on both sides,
will rapidly clear her of any water that may find its way in.
The spinnaker boom is in two pieces, with a simple socket joint
(similar to a tent pole); the two ends, which are alike, have each a hole.

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Sails and Rigging of Pollywog. 337
through which a piece of small line is passed, and, knotted or spliced,
forms a loop. The spinnaker halyard is an endless rope leading from
the masthead down each side of the forestay, with a piece about 3ft.
long spliced in. The spinnaker itself has the sheet spliced into the clew
cringle ; the luff rope has a loop at the upper end, and is left about
4ft. long at the tack. The sail is thus set : The sheet first made fast
to the bitts, the free part of the halyard bent to the head of the sail,
the tack passed through the loop at the end of the boom (end immaterial),

\ * > Sail Plan of Pºwegº
º, Scale # in -/ſhot.
| | | |yſ
| | | |M| | | | |
%" | | | | | | | | | | \
~~~~ }
FIG. 143.
and bent to it with a clove or other hitch, a guy passed outside the shroud
and bent to the same end of the boom. The sail is then hoisted, and
as it goes up the boom is fitted together and launched forward ; the
loop on the inner end dropped over any pin on the spider hoop, and
then squared by the guy. In gybing, the inner end is lifted off the
pin and launched aft, the guy being let go and passed round the mast
and outside the shrouds to the other quarter; the sail is then lowered
and run up the other side, without casting off, tack, sheet, or halyard ;
Z
338 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
as soon as the mainsail has swung over, the spinnaker boom is launched
forward as before and squared by the guy.
The topsail is on the American plan, the yard being up and down
the mast, and projecting about 5ft. above it. (See Fig. 143.)
The dinghy is 7ft. 6in. long over all, 3ft. 8in. beam, and 2ft. 2in.
deep ; weighs 90lb. with bottom boards, &c., but without oars or rowlocks,
and has carried two ladies and three gentlemen at a time to the yacht,
with about 5in. of freeboard. Its keel, gunwale, timbers, thwarts,
garboards, and bilge strake are American elm, stern and stem oak,
planking yellow pine. It tows well, and can be lifted easily by one
man into the Pollywog, where it fits comfortably into the well.
The yacht was designed and built by Lieut.-Col. Barrington Baker
during his leisure hours of the winter of 1880-81, with the occasional
help of a man for rivetting, planking, &c.; the item of wages therefore
FIG. 144.
only came to 7l. ; but, if built entirely by paid labour the wages would
probably come to 35l., more or less, according to the locality, and the skill
of the men employed. The cheapest plan would be to employ one man,
and get help as required for setting up in frame, clenching, &c.
The Pollywog has on several occasions sailed at a very high rate of
speed for a boat of her length. In July, 1881, the distance between
Dale Point and Pembroke Dock, nine statute miles, was covered in one
hour and twenty-five minutes, being at the rate of 6.29 statute miles, or
5.46 knots, per hour. The wind was of lower sail strength abeam, and
water smooth; but the boat was twice almost becalmed for a few minutes
when passing under the headlands of South Hook and Weare. The tide
was a very slack neap, but what little there was was against the boat.

Dimensions and Construction of Pollywog. 339
The party on board consisted of five ladies and two gentlemen, who were
all up to windward. Her best recorded speed, however, was on her
return from Saundersfoot Regatta, near Tenby, in September, 1881,
when she ran under all sail and spinnaker (with a gybe half way) from
the Monkstone (3.33 P.M.) to Giltar Head, 3% statute miles ; then
hauling up with the wind just forward the beam to St. Govan’s Head,
10 statute miles (5.30 P.M.); good steady breeze and nearly smooth
water, slack meap tide, favourable first hour, then against her ; the
total distance to St. Govan's being 13% statute miles in one hour and
fifty-seven minutes, being at the rate of 6.92 miles, or 6.01 knots, per
hour. From St. Govan’s Head to Linney Head, six statute miles, almost
close-hauled under all plain sail (topsail doused), tide nil, being in the
slack water, took exactly fifty-nine minutes, being at the rate of 5-28
knots per hour.
These headlands are very well marked, and were passed within from
ten to twenty fathoms, and the time carefully taken. The distances
are from point to point, but the boat actually sailed a little more on
account of other headlands projecting slightly.
DIMENSIONS, &c., OF POLLYWOG.—PLATE XXXIX. AND FIG. 144.
Length on L.W.L., 18ft.
Length over all, 21 ft. 6in.
Beam, extreme, 6ft. 8in.
Draught of water aft, 2ft. 3in.
Draught, including board, 4ft. 10im.
Plank (yellow pine), šin.
Rail (American elm), #in. by 2in.
Seats, &c., teak.
Sections are without plank and 18in. apart.
Mast, deck to hounds, 17ft.
|
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}
|
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i
|
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|
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Displacement, 1 ton 15cwt. Mast, deck to truck, 25ft.
Balſast on keel, 4}cwt. Mast, diameter at deck, 4%in.
Centre-plate, 13 cwt. Boom, 23ft.
Ballast inside, 16cwt. Diameter at sheet, 3%in.
Total ballast, 22cwt. Gaff, 13ft.
Reel (American elm), sided amidship, 5in. Diameter, 2%in.
Keel, moulded, 6in. Bowsprit, outboard, 11 ft. 6in.
Stem and sternpost (oak), sided, 3%in. Bowsprit, diameter at gammon iron, 3%in.
Worked timbers, sided, 1 ; in., spaced 18in. Spinnaker boom, 23ft.
Bent timbers (American elm), šin., moulded, Centre-board, Éin. boiler plate.
by 13 in., sided, between each pair of worked. Area of board immersed, about 12 square feet.
The sail plan is shown on page 337 (Fig. 143), and it will be seen that it
is a very liberal one. However, the remarkably good performances of
Pollywog shows that the plan was made with great judgment. The rather
long boom and short gaff are “features” which tend to make the sail
stand well to windward. The areas of the sails are as follows:
Area of mainsail ................................................... 284 sq. ft.
Area of foresail ... .............................. .................... 40 sq. ft.
Area of jib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 84 sq. ft.
Area of topsail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 sq. ft.
Total area of sails........................... * * * * s : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 458 sq. ft.
Area of spinnaker ................................................... 250 sq. ft.
340 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
LIST OF BLOCKS, CORDAGE, &c., OF POLLYWOG.
BLOOKS, | CORDAGE.
ºs- ------- ------ - —--- REMARKS.
Number. Size. Fathoms. Size.
in. | Cir. in.
Main halyard........................ 2 4. 9 1}
Peak halyard ........................ 3 4. 15 1}
Jib halyard........................... 2 4. 10 1%
Fore halyard . . . . . . . . ............... 1 3 || 6 1
Topsail halyard ..................... - — 9 # | 1 thimble instead of block.
Spinnaker halyard.................. - -- 10 # | 1 thimble instead of block.
Main sheet ........................ { : : # } 18 14 | double block.
Jib sheet.............................. - — || 7 1
Fore sheet ........................... - — || 5 1 leads through eye-bolts on deck.
Topsail sheet ........................ - — || 10 # thimbles instead of blocks.
Topping-lifts (each) ............... 1 3 6% 1
Bobstay purchase ......... ........ 2 3 : 6 1} iron blocks.
Spinnaker guy ..................... - — 5 #
Reef pendants and outhauls...... - — ' 20 1%
Warp ................................. - — 25 2
Wire shrouds, one on each side - — 12 1
Wire bowsprit shrouds ......... - - 3 #
|
To obviate the stretching of lanyards, Colonel Baker invented the
The hooks, a c, are of #in. by lin. galvanised
There is a hole in the head of the pin.
The nut is formed by c, the dotted
plan shown on Fig. 145.
iron, and the screw, b,
FIG. 145.
7 &
TG 111.
lines show how the
strengthened by making them
hooks could be
into
links. The rigging screws illustrated on
page 52 would, however, be usually
preferred.
The cost of materials only :
Timber ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3910 0
Copper nails, &c. .............................. 3 0
Ironwork (galvanised) ........................ 7 0
Centre-plate .................................... 2 0
Iron keel ....................................... 2 0
Ballast ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 2 0
Indiarubber springs ........................... 2 0
Spars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 10
Cordage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0
Wire rigging ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 10
Sails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 15 0
Blocks ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … ......... 2 0
Anchor and chain.............................. 3 10
Cork cushions ................................. 1 ()
Warp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1 0
Painting and extras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 0
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . £60 0
(
).

PLATE XL.
O laſast tabernacle
Muzzen
Shduna Hatch
as ºr ºf
*s, * *
* * * *me as
... … ºr sº a “* *
| g = z = * * * * *
- - - - ... - - - ... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - “h * * * * * * * * * -----------. * * * * *
- = -2 = a- -, -, * = * * * * = * * * * * * * * * * *
— — — — r - - - - - - - - * * * * * * *
g
- - - - - - -
º
9
e
* * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * sa ss ºf sº sº ºr tº * * = gº º ºr tº emº ºm sº * * * * * * * * * - sº * = * = sº sº as mº, sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
APabbet
* * * * * * = sº see sm as * * * * * * *
centhe Board. 23 cwt
" HAZ E * rºx.c.
18 C.B. Lugger, 3.09 Tons 0°M.
BUILT BY MEssasſistow &son. SHOREHAM
Decº 27%. 1886.
FROM A Design BY THE owner
Mr Linton Hope.
Scale #" 1Foot.
4.
S H E E R PLA N.
;
j
as sº ºssºs º ºssº
J
/7 C
c6 se &
P/oor
S/iding
atch
Table
Locker
}
- - - - - - - - - - * * * * *
* * * = * * = -
* * * - - J. T.' * - - -
* * =& *
* * * = * = a- -
- - - - - - - - - -
gº
... • *
sº sº
* * = * * =
* * * * * *
* * * * *mess
" * - - - - - ** * =e se -
* * * * = a- - * * * * * = amas sºme sº º sº assº sº tº
• * = = ** = **
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Seat
*
tº * as
sº
* - -
* - -
* = ...
* ~ *
* *
** -
*
*s s
sº dº
sº sº
- - - *
* = = *
* = - - ~ **
*** - ...~ **
* = *
-
*
... → *
* *
as “
== * *
sº - - - *
* = - = * * * *
* = * = s.s., sº *
* * * = * *
* * * = s.s as as e < *
* * * * * * = ** = ** = as me • * * *
HALF BREAD T H & D EC K PLAN |
t——t—t—t—t—t—" 13
4
f
7
o Feet
{ 1, 1 ill i = 1 a 1.1
SAIL PLAn of “HAZE”
18ft Single-handed Cruiser,
474. SQ. FY SAIL AREA
SP
30
3/2
13
17

















































The Centre-Board Cruiser. 341
THE SINGLE-HANDED CENTRE-BOARD CRUISER HAZE,
BATANCE LUGGER.
THE Haze was built during the winter of 1886-7 for Mr. Linton Hope from
his own design (see Plate XL.) Like other boats of this class she
has a broad keel, it being 18in. across amidships. The object of this is to
get the floor and lead low, and to get the largest displacement with a
draught of 2ft. 6in., and a sharp rise of floor, also to give her great strength
to knock about on the ground. She has a sliding hatch over the cockpit
made to push forward on to a movable piece of the booby hatch, which then
lifts up, and the two pieces can be stowed away below. To prevent leakage
round the joint between the movable and fixed pieces of the booby hatch,
there is a water course in the carlines, which carries off any water that may
come through the joint. She has 4ft. head room, and four persons can
sleep on the folding berths.
TABLE OF OFF-SETS.–PLATE XL. AND FIG. 146.



º - Tran-
No. of section ....................................... Stem. 1 2 3 4. 5 SOIſlø.
ft. ft. in. ft. in.lft in.lrt in. ft. in. ft. in.
Height above L.W.L. to covering board ...... 3 || 2 6 2 3 |2 - 0 || 1 || || 1 11 || 2 2
Depth below L.W.L. to rabbet .................. — | 1 8 1 11 || 2 0 || 2 0 || 1 9 —
Half breadth on deck .............................. - 2 6 || 3 6 || 3 10% 3 8 || 3 0 || 2 1
Half breadth on 1st W.L. ........................ º, 2 2 3 3 || 3 9 3 6 2 7 || 0 1
Half breadth on L.W.L............................ *- 1 9 || 3 0 || 3 6 || 3 1 || 1 11 -
Half breadth on 3rd W.L. ........................ -*- 1 3 || 2 6 3 0 || 2 8 || 1 8 -
Half breadth on 4th W.L. ........................ * 0 9 || 1 11 || 2 4 || 0 2 || 0 10 -*
Half breadth on 5th W.L. ........................ - 0. 5 || 1 3 || 1 8 || 1 3 || 0 5 -
1st buttock line, 1.ft. 9in, from centre. 2nd buttock line, 3ft. 6in. from centre.
The following are the sizes of the spars, &c., of the Haze, as shown in
the accompanying sail plan (Plate XL.) :
SPARS.
Mainmast, deck to sheave ....................................... 20ft,
Main yard ............................................................ 22ft.
Main boom............................................................ 20ft.
19ft. 6in.
Three oval pine battens .......................................... } 18ft.
16ft. 6in.
Mizen mast, deck to sheave................................ tº e s e º 'º - 12ft.
Mizen yard................... © & e o e º e s w w tº e a e º e º w w w e s e º e º 'º e º e º e = * * * * * * * 14ft.
Mizen boom ......................................................... 9ft.
Mizen jackyard ...................................................... 10ft.
Mizen bumkin, outside stern .................................... 4ft.
Fore bumkin, outside stem ....................................... 3ft. 3in.
Jibboom, outside stem ............................................. 14ft.
342 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
SAILS
Mainsail (three battens), duck ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .* G s e s e s a tº s º t w a 270 sq. ft.
Jackyard mizen, calico............................................. 104 sq. ft.
Jib, for reaching, calico ................................. . . . . . . . . . 100 sq. ft.
Storm mizen, duck ................................................ 50 sq. ft.
Storm staysail (set when the main lug is stowed), duck ... 60 sq. ft.
It will be seen, on referring to the sail plan, that the centre of effort
is considerably forward of the centre of lateral resistance; but the jib is not
used except for reaching, as she is very light on the helm without it, though
she will carry a jib going to windward. -
The rigging is arranged as follows: Mainmast, one pair of shrouds
each side, and runner tackles, forestay and tackle to set it up, all about
HAZE.
...— — — — — — — — - - - - - -
- - - - - -4
t
|
|
f
t
|
|
t
1
r
g
|
t
Centre board
|
!
l
y
Aº
|i
BODY P L A N .
EIG. 146.
1}in. wire rope; mizen mast, one pair of shrouds a side, about gin. wire
rope. The after-mizen shroud each side is set up to a small iron outrigger;
mizen bumkin, one shroud a side (set up to the same outriggers as the after-
shroud), and bobstay, about gin. wire rope. This gear is necessary to the
mizen bumkin, as the jackyard mizen puts a great strain on it in gybing.
The jibboom has a light bobstay rove through a single block at the crantz
iron, and hooked to the same eye as the standing bobstay, and a light pair
of shrouds; it is unrigged very quickly, and is seldom in use. The bobstay
to the fore bumkin is a galvanised iron rod, #in. thick, and the jibboom
runs out through a cap at the end, in the same way as a schooner's jibboom.
The fore halyards consist of a 2in. Manilla tye, running over a large
sheave in the masthead, and a tackle (two single 4%in. blocks). The sail





Lough Erne Yachts. 343
is hoisted by this, and then set up by a tack tackle (two double and one
single Bin. blocks). The main sheet has a double block on the boom, a
single block travelling on a horse, and a leading block on one quarter, the
standing part being fast on the opposite quarter. The main topping
lift is double, leading through an iron double block at the masthead,
and th n spliced, so that the sail falls between the two ports when
lowered. There is also a line from the masthead to just below the
boom, to confine the sail in the same way. The jib and mizen are set in
the usual way.
Mr. Linton Hope says he tried her in all weathers, and found it the
handiest rig he ever had for cruising, though she has not nearly enough
canvas for light winds, as she will carry a whole mainsail and jackyard
mizen when the other boats of her size have a reef down.
LOUGH ERNE YACHTS–THE WITCH.
The shallowness of the upper waters of Lough Erne, and the turbulence
of the lower, have necessitated a kind of compromise between the shallow
American centre-boarder and the deeper-bodied English yacht. A large
fleet of various sizes from 18tt. to nearly 40ft. in length—some thirty or forty
in all—of these centre-board yachts are on the Lough, and most of them
were designed and built by their owners. The Witch (Plate XLI.)
was designed and built by Colonel Edward Saunderson, M.P., in 1878,
and is a very capable boat, both on the smooth and narrow water of
the Upper Lake, and in strong breezes on the rougher water of the
Lower Lake.
Sometimes whilst sailing in shallow water the after end only of
the dipper is raised; and at all times with the fore end below the keel
the lateral resistance is found to be very effective.
Colonel Saunderson altered the Witch in 1880 by filling out the bow
and rounding up the fore foot; these alterations are shown on the drawing.
The alterations were pronounced improvements. During the winter of
1882 Colonel Saunderson further altered the Witch by giving her
an over-hanging swan stem, and she now is as pourtrayed on Plate
|XLI.
The centre-plate or “dipper' is made of #in. boiler plate. A slot
is cut inside the case at the fore end 14 in. deep, and 2in. wide, the lips of
which are protected by iron plates. A short iron bolt or stud projects on
either side of the plate, and travels in the slot. The board can
be raised bodily by two winches; but it is usual only to raise the
after end.
344 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The Witch has oak frames spaced as shown, with #in. wrought iron floor-
knees. Between each pair of frames is a steamed timber of American elm.
TABLE OF OFFSETS FOR WITCH (PLATE XLI.).


No. of Section ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 2 4. 6 8 10 | 12 || 14 | 16 || 1 7
ft. in...ft. in.ft. in...ft. in.ft. in...ft. in...ft. in. ft. in.ft. in...ft. in.
Heights above L.W.L. to top of
covering board ... ... ............... 3 9 |3 5 |3 0 |2 7%|2 4 12 2 |2 0 |2 1 2 3 2 5
Half-breadths on deck ............ ... 1 11 |3 1 |4 6 5 6 6 1 |6 2}|6 0 |5 6 |4 6 3 10
Half-breadths on W.L. 1... ... ... ... 1 2 |2 4}|4 2 |5 5}|6 1 |6 3 ||6 0}|5 6 4 6 |3 7%
Half-breadths on W.L. 2............ i0 8 |1 9}|3 8 |5 2 |6 0%|6 3 ||6 0 |5 4}|3 5 —
Half-breadths on L.W.L.......... ... [0 23:1 2%|3 0 |4 8}|5 10}|6 2 |5 10}|4 5}|0 3 —
Half-breadths on W.L. 3............ — 0 10 |2 5}|4 13.5 5 |5 10 |5 2 |2 10}|0 3 —
Half-breadths on W.L. 4............ — |0 4}|1 7 |3 1}|4 5}|4 743 8 |1 2}|0 3 || –
Half-breadths on W.L. 5............ — — 0 5}|1 2 1 11 |2 2}|1 4 0 4}|0 3 || –
Half-breadths on keel ... ... ... ... ... — — |0 4 |0 5 |0 6 0 6 |0 6 |0 4 |0 3 || –
Depths below L.W.L. to underside
of false keel and lead keel ... ... — |2 1 |3 3 ||3 11 4 3;4 6 4 5 |4 2 3 9 || –
Depths to underside of main wood
keel.................................... — | – |2 4 |2 9 |3 1 3 4 3 633 8 || – || –
No. 1 station is 6in. from the fore side of stem at the L.W.L. No. 2 is 3ft. 2in. from
No. 1. The other stations to No. 9 are 2ft. 6in. apart. Nos. 9, 10, and 11 are 2ft. 4 in. apart ; and
from No. 11 to No. 15 2.ft. 6in. apart. No. 16 is 2ft. 10in. from No. 15, and No. 17 is 3ft. from
No. 16.
W.L. 1 and W.L. 2 are 1ſt. apart. ; W.L. 2 and L.W.L. 10%in. apart ; L.W.L. and W.L. 3
are 7in. apart ; W.L. 3 and W.L. 4 8:n. ; and W.L. 4 and W. L. 5 1ſt.
All the half-breadths include the plank.
DIMENSIONS, &c., OF WITCH.
Length on load-line ............................................. 38ft. 9in.
Beam, extreme ................................................... 12ft. 6in.
Draught of water extreme .................................... 4ft. 6in.
Displacement...................................................... 15°8 tons.
Lead on keel ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ 5 tons.
Lead inside............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 2 tons 9 cwt
Iron centre-plate ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 11 cwt.
Iron floors ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 3 cwt.
Mast, deck to hounds .......................................... 33ft. 6in.
Masthead ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 6ft.
Main boom... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 43ft. 6in.
Main gaff ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 27ft. 6in.
Bowsprit outside stem ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 19ſt. 6in.
Topmast fid to shoulder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 24ft.
Topsail yards (extreme) ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36ft, and 22ft.
Fore side of mast from foreside of stem at L.W.L....... 15ft. 3in.
Head of mainsail .................... … 26ft. 9in.
Foot of mainsail ................................................ 42ft.
Leech of mainsail................................................ 53ft. 6in.
Luff of mainsail................................................... 29ft.
Clew to throat ................................................... 47ft.
Foot of foresail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20ft. 6in.
Foot of big jib ................................................... 30ft. 6in.
Area of mainsail ................................................ 1200 sq. ft.
º, jib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 sq. ft.
,, foresail............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... 300 sq. ft.
Total area of lower sail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . ......... 2000 sq. ft.
PLATE XLI,
cupper 5% fron et are n cwr.
‘‘W ITC H,”
CENTRE-BOARD CUTTER, 19 TONs,
Designed and Built by
COLONEL SAUNDERSON, M.P., 1882,
OF CASTLE SAUNDERSON,
CO. CAVAN,
ºvuºuſ---4---4---4-- - 3 -" -








The Bembridge Rig. 345
BEMBRIDGE BOAT FOR ROWING AND SAILING, SELF-
RIGHTING UNSINKABLE.
The following is a description written by Captain Ernest Du Boulay
of a 17ft. centre-board boat for rowing and sailing, and which is also
a self-righting lifeboat. She was built by him in 1887, and was well
tested in different weathers. (See Fig. 147.)
The boat is a model of the Mersey sailing canoe, 17ft. long, 4ft. 9in.
beam, and 2ft. depth, and is one of several boats built at Bembridge,
for the use of the members of the Bembridge Sailing Club ; planking,
#in. yellow pine, garboards and top strake elm, timbers American elm
FIG. 147.
spaced 10in. apart, deck of #in. matchboarding, covered over all with
one piece of unbleached calico from stem to sternpost.
The centre-board is made of #in. boiler plate, galvanised, and
weighs 80lb. ; it works in a case made of two pieces of sheet iron, as
described in page 277. Nothing could look neater than this case, which is
only lin. wide, and does not come above the level of the thwarts.
The board is raised or lowered its depth of 15in. by a flexible wire-rope
running over a sheave in the after upper corner of the case, worked by a
small tackle under the after thwart. By this means no water can possibly

346 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
splash into the boat from the case. A hand pump discharges the bilge-
water into this case.
A water-tight bulkhead cuts off the after 3ft. of the boat; this is made
of a sheet of the thickest Willesden paper, clamped by battens and screws
against the fore side of an extra stout timber cut to fit the planking, and
bedded in red lead. The paper is protected from injury by a guard board.
The buoyancy of the fore part of the boat is obtained by an air case each
side under the fore thwart, and reaching up to within 2ft. 8in. of the stem,
so as not to interfere in any way with the stowing of the oars, spars, and
gear forward. These cases are made of Willesden paper, tacked round a
light wood skeleton frame, built up to fit close against the planking. They
are lashed in their places, and a guard-board protects the inner sides and
tops from injury, the outer sides being protected by fitting close against the
timbers all along. This boat has been filled and capsized several times,
but she cannot fail to right herself, and her buoyancy is such that when
full of water she floated her ballast, centre-board, &c. (weighing some
420lb.), with her owner and another person (22 stone total) standing dry
footed, one on the fore deck and one on the after deck. She was kept
thus for forty-five minutes, before pumping her out.
246lb. of cast lead stow under the floor on each side of the centre-
board case, making, with the latter, a total weight of 400lb.
The rig consists of staysail, mainsail, and mizen, made of duck and
ochred. The staysail is hoisted and lowered by the same rope ; pulling
one way it is a halyard, and the other way a down-haul, when a turn round
a pin with the slack stows the sail snug, supposing it is not practicable to
get up right forward and unhank it.
The mainsail is often cut on the Monte Video plan (see Plate XXIV),
the yard is a male bamboo, fished with an elm batten ; the boom is a hollow
bamboo, and revolves to reef the sail; the sheet hooks on to a swivel
fitted at the after end, whilst the forward end ships on to a gooseneck on
the mast ; a small hump on the gooseneck fits into a recess in the boom
end, and prevents it from revolving.
In reefing, therefore, it is only necessary to slacken the halyard a little
(this leads aft close to the seat), the boom is then unshipped along its
gooseneck an inch and a half, when it can easily revolve, and the sail is
then rolled up or unrolled ; the boom is then pressed home again, the bump
on the gooseneck fits into its recess, and a pull on the halyard jams the
boom, so that it cannot become unshipped. This form of sail seems to me
to be peculiarly adapted for small boats, as it sits wonderfully flat without
the excessive strain on the halyards necessary with a lug. The mizen is a
jib-header, with a boom at the foot : the step of the mast is round instead
PLATE XLII.
O28
(2
Bembridge Rig.

The Bembridge Rig. 347
of square, so that to reef it is only necessary to turn the mast round in its
step and roll up the sail; the outhaul leads through a sheave in the boom
end, and is rolled round the mast the opposite way to the sail, so that if
6in. of canvas be rolled up on the mast exactly 6in. of outhaul are slacked.
2
\, % Vo |
`s, K %
**, *, %| B
*s 2^ %
* 6\, % O
SS SS * O #=
», « * % Collar with lugs for upright yard.
`, “, % (.
SA **)
* % º º
, º 'º'
ors Sºl B
%
Bºe O
% H
V
%
% FITTING JIB ROLLIER..
% A Hardwood chock.
% ~) B E B Forestay.
||||| Cry e
% | C Bowsprit.
% |CU *
ſº D Jib roller.
% Š E Line for rolling up jib.
%
ſ |
ſº .
A :- E
% l C-,
IRON WORK FOR YARD AND BATTEN. E ... **== B
A Claw on mast with iron socket for batten.
B Straps and ring joint for yard.
C Claw leathered.
*>. ºr
lſº ſt
A.
º
• * * *
* * *
sº a 9
a g º º
A Cap for end of main boom. Section of jib roller, showing A Brass reel on jib roller.
B Goose neck pin, showing locking arrangement C. how hollowed out. B Steel tube for pivot.
FIG. 148.
up, and vice versä. Besides, leading as they do, one balances the other,
and the mast has no tendency to revolve itself, though it can easily be
made to do so with one hand. The tiller works the rudder, as usual in.
these boats, with two yokes, but an improvement is added in the form of a













348 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
mahogany boss containing a nut, which screws down on the spindle on
which the tiller works, so that half a turn will lock the tiller in any
position it is placed in. This is particularly useful for tacking, wearing,
mackerel or pollack fishing, and reefing.
With the above tiller and reefing gear the boat has been repeatedly put
about and a reef taken in the mainsail and mizen before she filled on the
opposite tack. As everything leads aft, a waterproof apron buttons over
the well for bad weather. At moorings it completely covers in the latter,
and when under way the portion unbuttoned comes up under one’s chin,
making a very snug boat of her. In calm weather she is easily Sculled
along, and she can be shoved over the sand in 9in. of water. A locker is
fitted aft, between the backboard, which is hinged, and the watertight
bulk-head. It has a perforated zinc bottom, so that everything inside is
perfectly ventilated, and instead of things getting mildewed they actually
dry if put away wet.
Mr. Damp, the boatbuilder of Bembridge, Isle of Wight, can build these
boats for 35l. complete.
Plate XLII., and Fig. 148, represent the improved Bembridge rig
for small boats, which has been fairly tested in all sorts of weather, and
has proved thoroughly serviceable and trustworthy. It is particularly
adapted for single-handed racing and cruising, as both the sails are reefed
by rolling, which can be done in a very few seconds. The mainsail has
only one halyard, though in shape and size it represents a gaff mainsail and
topsail, which require five or six ropes to set them. It requires only a
short mast for its area, and, when the mainsheet is in, it sits very flat indeed;
the latter works on a swivel at the boom end down to an outrigger horse
abaft the transom, made of galvanised iron gas pipe for lightness. The
luff of the topsail portion is seized to an upright pine yard of oval section,
the lower end of which finishes with an iron eye and straps; this eye works
on another eye clenched on to the claw which embraces the mast; this
claw is forged with a hollow socket at the other end, which is driven tightly
on to the lower end of the batten (made of a male bamboo); this batten
lies in a pocket in the sail, and is hidden; its upper end projects some few
inches, so as to haul the sail out by as it grows slack. The main halyard
consists of a tie of flexible wire rope working over a sheave in the mast
just under the hounds—one end is spliced into the traveller on the mast,
and the other into a double block for the purchase.
In order to keep the yard vertical and close into the mast, the traveller
has two hooks, as shown in the diagram, and the upright yard just fits
between them. On the yard, and at about two-fifths of its length from the
lower end, is fixed the iron collar, which has two lugs sticking out of it,
The Bembridge Rig. 349
one each side. These lugs engage into the two hooks on the traveller, and
make a strong connection, which can be hooked or unhooked in an instant
if required.
In order to reef, the main halyard whip is slackened a little, the main
boom is then pulled aft for 2in. on its gooseneck pin, when it is quite free
to revolve. The requisite amount of canvas is then rolled up on the boom,
the main halyard being eased, handsomely, at the same time; the boom is
again pushed forward so that the flattened portion of the gooseneck pin
locks it from revolving. Setting up the main halyard jams the boom so
that it cannot become unshipped again till required.
The jib is cut full size and with a low foot like a balloon foresail;
instead of a luff rope, a small wire cord runs through the selvedge, the jib
is seized taut on to the jib roller by sail twine at each end and at intervals.
This jib roller is made of yellow pine, and has a hole right through it for
the forestay to lead through.
As this hole cannot well be bored, the spar is sawn down into two.
unequal parts, and a groove ploughed out in the larger portion, as shown
in the diagram, the smaller portion is then put back, with a layer of varnish
or waterproof glue between, and fastened with copper nails at intervals. The
seizings of the jib also assist these fastenings. On the lower end of the
roller is driven a small brass reel, and a piece of galvanised seamless steel
tube is driven up into the axis so as to project about 2in. A piece of hard
wood of the right bevel is screwed on to the top of the bowsprit, with a hole
through it in which the steel tube revolves as a pivot, this hole is continued
right down through the bowsprit, and is rounded off so that the forestay
can lead fairly, and without any sharp nip, down through the jib roller,
and pipe in the hard wood block, right through the bowsprit and back
underneath it to the stem head where it is set up.
One end of a small Manilla line is secured through a hole in the upper
flange of the brass reel, the other end is then wound round the reel the
requisite number of turns, and it them goes through a fair lead on the
bowsprit and into the boat, where it belays on a rocking cleat.
It will now be seen by the sketch that a pull on this line, with the jib
sheet slackened, will instantly reduce the jib, first of all to an ordinary jib
for working to windward, and then further to any smaller size required, at
the same time raising its foot (which is very requisite in rough water). A
pull on the jib sheet, when the line is slackened, as instantly gives the boat
her full jib for a run or reach.
The advantages of setting one’s jib instantly when getting under
way, and particularly of rolling it up completely just before picking
up moorings, so as to have a clear fore deck, and no chance of one’s
350 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
------
hat being knockeu off, to say the least, can only be appreciated by
those who have tried it.
The jib roller being hollow and made of yellow pine only weighs a few
pounds, and even should it be broken by fouling anything, this would not
interfere either with the forestay or the working of the boat; neither is it
so conspicuous as might be imagined, as a roller 1%in. diameter is quite
sufficient for a half-rater.
All these sails and spars, and ironwork, can be supplied by Mr.
Woodnutt and Mr. Damp respectively at Bembridge, Isle of Wight.
CHAPTER XIV.
MERSEY SAILING B0 ATS.
THE Mersey Sailing boats, or what are known as the New Brighton
Sailing Club boats, have undergone considerable alteration since 1880.

FIG. 149.
Originally the boats were allowed to be “50ft.” club measurement,”
with a counter. In 1881 the Y.R.A. tonnage rule was adopted, and
# The measurement rule of the New Brighton Sailing Club was as follows: “Take the
extreme length from fore part of stem to after part of sternpost ; girth at greatest circumference,
by passing a line from gunwale under the boat's bottom, and back to the same point on the same
352 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
decks allowed. Since then the club has reverted to their girth rule of
measurement, and allowed neither counter nor deck, and the boats must
now be clincher built.
An open centre-board boat class was introduced by the New Brighton
Sailing Club on the Mersey in 1888. One of the most successful all
round boats was the Venture (Plate XLIII.), designed and built
by Mr. C. Friend, Tower Chambers, Liverpool, for Messrs. Dulley
and Birkbeck, for the 40ft. class by the club rule of measurement
*TNſ| (see page 351). Venture had
about 2 cwt. of ballast (in-
cluding & cwt. in her centre
||||
N SN
%Z
*
% 1|| plate).
ſy | ~ The Deva was designed by
/ Mr. Charles Livingston for Mr.
%
T. G. Thompson, who sailed her
with great success.
|
º
|
| % tº º t
º The rig is the standing lug,
which for some years has been
fashionable on the Mersey, and
i is illustrated by Fig. 149. There
º is 1.ft. round to the head, and
§ r N % the foot is sometimes laced to
4 | Ö C the boom. The mast traveller
Tr ºu €7° is arranged as follows: An eye
is welded on the traveller, a,
FIG. 150. the halyard, e, is rove through
the sheave hole in the mast, and then through the hook, d, and the
eye in the traveller, a. A knot, c, is then made in the end of the
halyard. b is an eye strop on the yard. The part of the halyard
between e and c is usually covered with leather (see Fig. 150). This
arrangement has been adopted to facilitate the lowering of the sail. If
the traveller jams, the sails will still lower by the halyard running
through the eye of the hook.
The spinnakers of these boats are worked without a topping lift or
outhaul. The after guy is spliced to the tack cringle of the sail, to which
is also spliced a rope eye. After the sail is hoisted this eye is slipped
over the end of the boom, and is kept from running in by two thumb
cleats. The after guy is passed aft, and the boom shoved out forward
gunwale. The total size of the boat is obtained by multiplying the girth by 1ſt. 7in. (1:58ft.), and
adding the product to the extreme length. The boats to be raced in one class, and the maximum
size of the racing boats to be 40ft. club measurement.”


T'late XL.
* Nyls, NTUIRE”
|
|
|
|
;
|
|
|
|
&
f
J.H.DULLEY & J.B. BlrKBECK,
built in 1892 from a design by
MESSR;
SCALE OF / //WCH TO / FOOT
| Li Li | 1 | | | |
M. C. FR l E N D.
SCALE '% /N. To / FT.





Plate XLIV.
|
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N - tº E.
*—
4
| cent Reboarden.
||
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SCALE OF | | WCH TO / FOOT
BRIGHTON SA | LING CLUB.
|
Óð 99
D) If Y A.
D. E. S I G N E D For -
G. T H O M P S ON, ES Q.
B Y
CH A R L E S L I V 1 N G S T O N ,
I 89 .


PLATE XIV.
4.
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3
D | | T - I :
8 7 6 f
| ScALE # Inch-I Foot
/O
“Z | N N A"
oard boat built for
..STEWART, Esq.
FROM A DESIGN BY
G. H. WILLMER.
|888.
Centre
A.












Venture, Deva, and Zinnia.
353
and then squared aft.
Length over all .................................
Tength on water-line,...........
Beam, extreme .................................
Draught of water aft ........................
Draught with centre-board down .........
Length of centre-board....................... *
Breadth of centre-board
Centre-board pivoted from fore side of stem
Displacement ....................................
Fore side mast from fore side stem.........
Mast, gunwale to halyard sheave
Bowsprit outboard
Main boom, extreme
Main yard, extreme ...........................
Luff of mainsail......... .......................
Leech
Tack to peak earing ...........................
Clew to weather earing
Area of mainsail
Area of foresail
Area spinnaker
Total sail area
* * * * * * * * * > e º s e º e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º s &
s s a 4 º' is a g is tº g º º e º 0 ° ºr e º e
a s is a w w w w w e s a º º ſº º g º e < * g g º º e º q + 6 tº a tº
s e s 4 e s - s - tº e º e º & e º 0 e s 6 º' - - - - - - * * * * *
Venture.
18ſt.
17ft. 11 in.
5ft, 8in.
10in.
2ft. 10in.
4ft. 10in.
1ft. 5in.
6ft. 4 in.
*65 ton.
4ft. 6in.
12ft. 9in.
5ft. 6in.
13ft. 9in.
21ft. 6in.
4ft.
23ft.
22ft. 6in.
14ft. 6in.
160 sq. ft.
40 sq. ft.
80 sq. ft.
280 sq. ft.
Deva.
18ſt.
17ft. 10in.
5ft, 8in.
10in.
2ft. 9in.
4ft. 9in.
1ft. 5in.
6ft. 2in.
'63 ton.
5ft. 6in.
12ft.
5ft. 6in.
13ft. 6in.
21ft. 4 in.
4ft.
23ft.
22ft. 6in.
14ft. 6in.
160 sq. ft.
40 sq. ft.
80 sq. ft.
280 sq. ft.
Zinnia.
18ft.
17ft. 9in.
6ft.
1ft.
2ft. 8in.
5ft.
1ft. 10%in.
6ft. 3in.
0-6 ton.
5ft.
280 sq. ft.
These boats can be built (exclusive of the cost of the design) for 40l.
The boats are given two coats of paint inside and out, and they have the
following equipment for the sum named: Two yards; two booms; one
The heel of the boom has a hole burned in it, through
which a rope is rove for securing the heel to chain plate, rigging, or mast.
bowsprit and spinnaker boom; two ash oars, 12ft.; one boat hook; two
rowlocks; one anchor; one warp, 1%in. and 12 fathoms long. Sails, by
John Fraser, of Birkenhead, of 15in. cloths, consisting of two main-
Wire shrouds, halyards, sheets,
sails, three jibs, and One spinnaker.
tacks, blocks, ironwork, lifebelts, &c., complete.
TABLE OF OFFSETS FOR “ZINNIA.”—PLATE XLV.

No. of Section .............................. 1 2 3 4. 5 7
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights above L.W.L. to top of gun-
wale ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 || 1 8# 1 5}| 1 3}| 1 1+| 1 1}| 1 23| 0 11
Depth from L.W.L. to rabbet of keel. 0 6 || 0 7#| 0 8 || 0 8%| 0 9 || 0 9}| 0 8 || 0 3
Half-breadths at gunwale ............... 0 5 || 1 4%| 2 1}| 2 8; 3 0 || 3 0 || 2 83| 2 24
Half-breadths 6in. above L.W.L. ...... 0 33| 1 13| 1 11}| 2 7# 3 0 || 2 11}| 2 53 1 5}
FIalf-breadths on L.W.L. .............., 0 23| 0 9%| 1 64] 2 3 || 2 73 2 5, 1 9 || 0 73
Half-breadths on No. 2 W.L............. 0 2%| 0 8+ 1 3} 1 11}| 2 3 || 2 0 || 1 3}| 0 3
Half-breadths on No. 3 W.L............. 0 2 || 0 63| 1 0 || 1 6 || 1 9}| 1 53| 0 93 0 13
IHalf-breadths on No. 4 W.L............. 0 13| 0 4}| 0 8 || 1 0 || 1 13| 0 11 || 0 5 || 0 1+
Half-breadths on No. 5 W.L............. 0 1 || 0 13| 0 13| 0 5 || 0 6 || 0 4}| 0 1 || 0 14
The sections are 2ft. 3in. apart, and No. 1 section is 11%in. from the fore side of stem.
The water-lines are 2in, apart.
Clincher built, #in. larch plank; bent timbers, 1%in. by Éin., and tapered to heads; gunwale
1in, by 1%in. ; rising, 1%in. by 3in, ; keel, 6in. by 2in. ; centre-board case, #in. pine; iron centre-
plate, 4in. ; weight, 50lb.
A A
354; Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Venture won the Champion Cup of the Mersey for 1895, and it
became the property of her owner. She is better than Deva in light
winds, but the latter is the faster when it comes to a case of the crew
hanging out to windward. Zinnia is a good all-round boat, and can
still occasionally win prizes against the later boats in almost any kind
of weather. - - -
The lug sails on the Mersey are cut with great roundness to the head
(about 1ſt.); it is recommended as an expedient for making a sail sit flat.
Yards are made straight, but bend to shape of sail when set. *
The yard is 3in. in diameter at the centre, and tapers well towards
the ends. The yard should be made longer than at first required, as the
head of the sail frequently requires pulling out.
The tack of the sail is set down by a gun-tackle purchase, or
double purchase, leading from an eye-bolt on the keelson of the boat.
FIG. 151.
Unless the luff of the sail is kept taut, the peak drops and lets the boom
down; the peak should therefore be kept well set up, and a taut luff will
generally succeed in doing this. The tack, the tack cringle, and luff rope
of the sail must be strong, to stand the strain put upon it. The head of
the sail must be tightly laced, and the lacing holes are best sewn, instead
of “eyeleted.”
The boom is sometimes fitted to the mast by a goose-neck, made to
ship and collar, nut, or pin; but when laced mainsails came into use a bolt
was fitted through the boom by the mast, with a hook on top for the tack
cringle of the sail and an eye below for the tack tackle, the boom in this
case having jaws. This plan has been retained by most of the boats,
though laced sails have given way to loose-footed ones.
The clew of the sail must be free whilst the tack is bowsed down.
The clew is sometimes hauled out on the boom by a traveller similar to a

Management of Mersey Open Sailing Boats. 355
bowsprit traveller, but more generally the boom is fitted with a horse and
hook same as a cutter's. The sheet is a gun tackle purchase.
In tacking, the heel of the yard is pulled the other side of the mast
by a short line fast to the heel of the yard. The reef bands are 2ft. apart.
The tack and clew of a mizen are made fast to its boom by
lashings.
The bowsprit is shipped through an iron hoop on the stem, and the
heel fitted into a socket in the mooring bitt, ahead of the mast ; the bobstay
is of wire, a single length of just sufficient length to shackle to plate on
stemhead when bowsprit is bent down a bit.
The sprit rig as formerly in use on the Mersey is represented by
Fig. 151. This is the rig of the gig used by the “speculation ” men which
hover about the mouth of the Mersey, except that they carry no jib. A
very Snug rig was made by stepping the mainmast in the thwart where
shown by the dotted line; jib tacked to stem head and mizen reefed.
If a sprit sail boat shows signs of missing stays, a hand going into
the bows tends to bring her head to wind (this being a recognised dodge
with Liverpool speculating gigmen).”
THE MANAGEMENT OF MERSEY OPEN SAILING BOATS.
In the case of a working mizen being carried it is found that hauling
in the last inch of the jigger sheet, just as the helm is put down, is
advisable in racing, as it helps make a boat come to quickly ; and then
easing it off and not taking it in again until the boat is well under
way, allows her to start again quickly.
The lug yard requires a little handling : the easiest and best way
* The practice of going into the lee bow of a boat as the helm is put down is a very
old one ; by immersing the bow to leeward, the pressure is said to be increased and the boat's
head forced to the wind. On the other hand, by collecting the crew on the weather bow as the
helm is pºwt wip the boat will wear, or bear up faster. The author of an article on Seaman-
ship in the Encyclopædia Britannica, in allusion to this subject, says “A practice of seamen
in small wherries or skiffs, in putting about, is to place themselves to leeward of the mast.
They even find they can aid the quick turning motion of these light boats by the way in
which they rest on their two feet, sometimes leaning on one foot and sometimes on the other.
And we have often seen this evolution (tacking) very sensibly accelerated in a ship-of-war
by the crew running suddenly to the lee bow as the helm was put down. And we have
heard it asserted by very expert seamen, that after all attempts to wear ship (after lying to
in a storm) have failed, they have succeeded by the crew collecting themselves near the weather
foreshrouds the moment the helm was put up.” The man who goes into the lee bow to
help bring the boat head to wind should not remain there, but move aft to the quarter on
the opposite side; this will assist the boat's head in falling off. The real reason why going into
the bow will make a boat stay or wear quicker is, that by causing a greater immersion forward
and lighter aft, the centre of gravity of a boat is shifted forward, thus bringing about a longer
lever for the rudder to act upon. (See also “Sternway ” in the chapter on “Seamanship.”)
A A 2
356 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
to get it over is by fixing a couple of light ropes, about a fathom long,
to the foot of the yard, the ends being allowed to drop down at each
side of the boom, and by hauling in the weather one, just before the boat
comes upright in stays, the yard bends slightly, and passes round the left
side of the mast, and flies into its position to leeward, ready for the next
tack, this can be done by one hand without jerking the boat unnecessarily,
for the most essential element for speed in these as in all other light boats
is to get the crew to keep quiet, and if necessary to lay well up to wind-
ward, often to the extent of getting one leg and part of the body over
the weather side—as the spare spars and sails are lashed up to the sides of
the boats, they assist the crew in keeping this position.
Most careful handling of the helm is necessary in rough water, as a
very slight touch will often keep a sea out. It is generally found that the
light displacement boats are the liveliest, and driest, in rough weather; and
those that take a large quantity of ballast have a high freeboard to keep
them dry. A full section forward prevents a boat dipping and taking in
volumes of water over the bows, but it is decidedly detrimental to speed
in lumpy water, as it hammers on the top of the seas, and so stops the
boat’s way ; a long floor with hollow sections near the keel under the mast
seems to answer best.
In setting the spinnaker, the guy is passed outside the rigging; the
halyards and sail are on the fore side of the mast shrouds and hoisted
chock-a-block, being passed through the space between the mast and the
rigging the sheet is secured to the bowsprit, or lee gunwale ; the guy
is bent to a small rope cringle in the tack of the sail; the cringle is of
sufficient size to take the spritted point of the spinnaker boom, which is
then pushed forward, and the heel of the boom goes into a snotter on the
rigging. It is drawn aft by the guy, and trimmed to the wind.
Some of the boats use a boom with jaws, which fit on to the rigging.
In taking the spinnaker off the guy is hauled aft until the boom is fore and
aft, when the halyards are let go and the sail falls into the boat. This
proves to be a quicker way of getting the sail off than taking it in forward
in the ordinary manner.
CHAPTER XV.
CLYD E SAILIN G B OATS.
OPEN boat sailing has long been very popular on the Clyde, and this
is hardly to be wondered at, as the Firth offers special opportunities
for such a pastime. Snug anchorages, fairly smooth water, little or
no run of tide, and the facilities given by the railway and steamboat
companies for readily getting from the city to the coast, induce most
young men who are in the least degree nautically inclined to keep a
boat of some sort ; and during the summer months, in the bright
northern evenings, from every coast village may be seen a fleet of little
vessels flitting along the shore in the smooth water, and lying over
to the land wind, which in good weather, rises as the sun sets. Many
of these boats are racing craft, and as each principal watering place has
its club, there is no lack of sport on the Saturday afternoons, there
being always one, and sometimes two or three matches for the little
ships. The class of boat has been gradually improved, and while in
1875 they were simply ordinary fishing skiffs, ballasted with stone
or sand bags, these gave place to such powerful craft as shown in the
drawing, with lead keels, spinnakers, and all the modern racing outfit.
The boats are divided for racing purposes into three classes, 17ft.,
19ſt., and 22ft. The drawing shows a 19ít. boat on a scale of #in. = 1ft.,
but tables of offsets and proportional scales are given, so that it can be
used for all three sizes; there are also a few 15ft. boats, but the principal
racing is among the larger ones. Prior to 1878 the only dimension
taken into account was length, that being measured over all, but as this
was thought likely to produce a fleet of “Popophgas,” the ordinary Y.R.A.
rule was adopted by the Royal Western and Royal Rothesay Clubs, the
classes being fixed at 14, 2%, and 3% tons, so as not to unclass existing
boats. As far as possible time allowances are discouraged, and no new
boats are given time, but those built prior to 1878 get time from their
358 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
larger rivals according to the following scale, which has worked fairly well
in practice: For 17ft. boats, 12 seconds per } ton per knot.
For 19ſt. boats, 10 25 3 3 22
For 22ft. boats, 8 33 5 J 3 *
Excepting one or two of the earlier boats, all are built with Square
sterns, the increased power got by this form apparently making up for the
unavoidable drag aft, while the over-all measurement, which prevails in
most of the clubs, precludes a counter. It is questionable, however,
whether a short neat counter could not be made “to pay,” at least in
heavy weather, and when the boats are necessarily travelling at a high
speed; though at Small inclinations, and speeds up to three or four miles
an hour, this form of after end leaves the water smoothly enough, the
stern board being then fairly out of water.
The first boats did not displace much more than half a ton, and
carried about 6 cwt. of ballast (all inside), but the modern boats are
deeper, and some of them displace as much as 4 tons and carry 24 tons
of ballast, the sail spreads being in proportion. -
The boats were generally entirely open, but the Largs and Western
Clubs allow a deck, while one or two clubs even now permit the boat
to be coºed from the mast forward, the space below forming what is
called. “. § den,” where provisions, &c., may be kept dry, and where
the luxuriºſis owner and friends sleep when away on a cruise, covering
the other four feet of their bodies with a tarpaulin.
There being no inducement, under the measurement rule, to cut
down free board, they are given plenty of it, some as much as 24in.
the average, as may be seen from the table, being about 22in, for a 19ít.
boat, which is not found too much for the heavy sea which a sou’-wester
tumbles up between Cumbrae and Porten Cross. Even with this a quantity
of water gets aboard, and employs any spare hand baling besides the man
at the pump. All the best boats are fitted with large pumps, 2%in. and
3in. in the barrel; they are generally on the aft thwart with discharge to
both sides, or through the bottom. An ingenious, albeit expensive, kind
of pump has been adopted in one or two instances; this is shown in the
mid section and general plan (Fig. 153, and Plate XLVI.)—the barrel is
pivoted at the foot so as to cant over to either side of the boat, the pumper
being thus able to sit up in the weather bilge while at work. The
discharge of this pump was through the lower part of the stern board,
possibly after the idea of Ruthven’s jet propeller.
Another pump, made, and we believe patented, by Messrs M'Conechy
and Co., Glasgow, attains a like object in a simpler way. It is a lever
pump, and by a very simple but effective arrangement, the lever can be
PLATE XLVI.
| liſh-l |2 |3 |. |5 |6 |7 |8 9 |10 m |2 |13 |ſ. |5 |16 m
lulullult |2 |3 4. |5 |6 |7 |8 |9 ſo It He |13 |ſk |[5 |16 |17 ||8 19 lso let ed
Clyde Sailing Boat: General Plan.


Dimensions, &c., of Clyde Lug Sail Boats. 359
shifted to either side, thus securing all the advantages of the other, and
being much more easily worked. -
The general construction and arrangement of these boats is shown in
the drawings (Plate XLVI.), and the scantlings are in pretty close
accordance with the following tables, but some of the fittings, being, as
far as we know, peculiar to these boats, deserve particular mention, such
as the ballast shelf, main-sheet horse, &c. These are illustrated in the cuts,
and their uses further explained by the text.
In the larger boats, and where there is an extra heavy lead keel, a
keelson may be advantageously adopted.
The weight of a 17ft. boat built to these scantlings would be about
5cwt., hull, spars, sails, &c., complete, of a 19tt. boat 7cwt. to
8cwt., while a 22ft. boat would weigh 15cwt. to 186wt. The dis-
placements, if built to this drawing, being 22cwt., 31% cwt., and 49cwt.,
would leave 17cwt., 23cwt., and 31 cwt. for ballast and crew. Of this
ballast, one-fourth might advantageously be put on the keel, but, unless
lead were used, this amount could not be got in the space at disposal.
TABLE OF SCANTLINGS AND IDIMIENSIONS OF SPARS.
Length of boat .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . 17ft. boat 19ſt. boat 22ft. boat
Peam, extreme ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5ft. 4%in. 6ft. 7ft.
Depth from top of gunwale to top of keel amidships... 3ft. 0%in. 3ft. 4 in. 3ft. 11%in.
Keel, of American elm, sided .............................. 2in. 2#in. 2#in.
Reel, of American elm, moulded ........................... 6in. 7in. 8in.
Apron, of American elm ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 3#in. X #in. 3%in. × 1in. 4in. × 1%in.
Frames, all bent, sided ....................................... 1in. 1%in. 1%in.
Frames, all bent, moulded............................... .... #in. #in. 1#in.
Frames, spaced centre to centre ........................... 8in. 9in. 9%in.
Floors, of oak (in every alternate frame space), sided 1%in. 1;in. 2#in.
Floors, moulded at throat.................................... 3in. 3%in. 4%in.
Stem, of oak, sided..................... ....................... 1 in. 2in. 2łin.
Stem, of oak, moulded (about) .............................. 6in. 7in. 8in.
Sternpost, of oak, sided........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2in. 2#in. 2%in.
Sternpost, of oak, moulded at keel ........................ 7in. 8in. 9in.
Sternboard, of oak, thick .................................... lin. 1%in. 1%in.
Gunwale, American elm....................................... 1;in. × 1%in. 2in. × 1%in. 2+in. × 1%in.
Planking, garboard strake, elm ........................... 6in. X #in. 6in. X #in. 6in. × #in.
Planking, thence to sheer strake, yellow pine ......... 5in. × ſain. 5in. × #in. 5%in. × #in.
Planking, sheer strake, mahogany ............... ........ 5%in. × #in. 5%in × 3 in. 6in. × #in.
Thwarts ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7in. X lin. 7in. × 1%in. 7in. × 1%in.
Thwarts, mast thwarts ....................................... 7in. × 1;in. 7in. × 13 in. 7in. × 1;in
Wirings, elm ....................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . 3in. × flin. 3%in. × 1in. 3%in. × 13 in.
Mast beam, double-kneed, with lodging knee to wiring 2in. 2%in. 2%in.
Mast, deck to hounds ....................................... 18ſt. 19ſt. 6in. 20ft.
Mast, hounds to truck ............'........................... --- - 9ft.
Mast, diameter at deck ....................................... 3#in. 4.in. 4;in.
Yard or gaff, length extreme .............................. 18ft. 20ft. 14ft.
Yard or gaff, diameter at slings ........................... 2#in. 2#in. 2%in.
Cruising yard or gaff, length extreme..................... 15ft. 17ft. *
Cruising yard or gaff, diameter at slings ............... 2%in. #in. *
Boom, length extreme ..................... ... .............. 16ft. 18ft. 18ft.
Boom, diameter at sheet .................................... 2%in. 2#in. #in.
Bowsprit, outboard ....................... .................. 5ft. 5ft. 6in. 10ft.
Bowsprit, diameter at gammoning iron ... ............... 2in. 2+in. 2.Éin.
Spinnaker or shadow sail boom, length extreme ...... 16ft. 6in. 18ft. 6in. 21ft.
360 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The usual rig for boats 19tt. and under is a single standing lug, as
shown in the plan (Plate XLVII.), but for cruising, and for racing in some
of the clubs, a standing lug, with boom on foot, and short bowsprit with
jib, are used; these are shown in the plan by dotted lines. For the
single lug the mast is stepped about one-seventh of the boat’s length
from the stem, for the lug and jib, about 18in. further aft. Most of the
boats are fitted for both rigs, and, farther, have several mast steps, so
that the rake of the mast may be altered. One of the mast beams is
|
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generally bolted to the gunwale, this being strengthened at the part
by a heavy clamp piece running two to three feet fore and aft. The
mast is further supported by a wire shroud on each side, and a forestay
(1} steel). These are shackled to the cranse at the masthead, made as
shown in Fig. 152, and have a large thimble spliced in at the other end
to take the lanyard. Many of the boats are fitted with “channels,” to
give more spread to the rigging, the mast being so far forward, so lofty,
and the boats so fine in the nose, that without these the shrouds would



PLATE XLVI[.
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Sail Plans of Clyde Lug Sail Boats. 361
give little support; they are of the “skeleton’ kind, being made as
shown in the sketch. The lengths and diameters of mast and spars
are given in the table. A traveller works on the mast, and in
construction is identical with that of the New Brighton boats described
at page 352, the hook being welded solid on the ring, and hooking
into a Selvagee strop on the yard, the halyard (2in. tarred hemp) being
spliced into its eye. But into the other end of the halyard a double
block is spliced; and a fall rove through this, and a single block at
the foot, forms a luff tackle purchase for hoisting. The single thick
rope is cut a foot or eighteen inches short, so that the yard has to be
lifted up and hooked on ; this of course is necessary, that the sail may
be hoisted “ chock-a-block.” In the later boats a wire tie of #in. or #in.
flexible steel wire rope is universally adopted. The tack is simply slipped
on to a hook in the mast beam, the tackle on the halyards bringing the
necessary strain on the luff to peak the sail. The main-sheet is a gun-
tackle purchase, the upper block shackling on to the clew of the sail, while
the lower has a thimble spliced on to its tail, which works on the horse
across the stern, as shown in the sketch (Fig. 153). When the boom
lugsail is in use, the same sheet is simply shackled into a strop on the
boom, thus doing for both. It is evident that by carrying the horse
back, say a couple of feet (which might easily enough be done), all the
advantages of a boom sail could be retained; there is, therefore, a rule
which enacts that “if a horse is used it must be at right angles to
the keel.”
The spars and sails carried by these boats are enormous; one 19ſt.
boat, indeed, having a mast 21ft., deck to hounds, or 18in. longer than
the five-tonner Diamond. She, however, was exceptionally heavily
sparred, the general proportions being :
Luff. Head. Foot. Leech.
ft. in.
ft. in. ft. in ft. in
19ſt. boats ............... 12 6 | 16 0 || 14 6 25 6
17ft. boats ............... 12 0 || 14 6 13 6 23 0
With such canvas aloft, the latest improvements in ballasting must
be adopted, and the new boats are all fitted with metal keels, 3 cwt.
to 5 cwt. in weight. In one or two, all the internal ballast is also
lead ; but, whether lead or iron, it is neatly cast in blocks, weighing
about a hundredweight, which fit close down to the skin, but hang
entirely on the keel and floor timbers. As shifting ballast is allowed
in the Largs Club, most boats, whether belonging to this club or no,
362 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
are fitted with a shelf for stowing weather ballast in each bilge, as
shown in the arrangement plan and midship section (Plate XXXVI. and
Fig. 153). This shelf also makes a capital seat for the crew, where they
The celebrated Largs
are well up to windward and also in shelter.
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FIG. 153.
boat Neva (possibly borrowing the idea from the China clippers, which
when racing, hung water-butts over the weather side) used to get her
ballast still farther to windward, by slinging pretty nearly all of it




Clyde Lug Sail Boats. 363
(some 6cwt.) right outside. The Royal Western Yacht Club (of Scotland),
however, has most stringent rules against shifting ballast, and rigidly
enforces these rules, also limiting the crew to three in the 17ft. and
19tt. boats, and four in the 22ft. boats, so as to prevent, as far as may
be, “ live ballast.”
These boats go out in pretty well any weather, the sail reefing
down very snug, and when not recklessly driven they are most
seaworthy little craft. Accidents of any kind are therefore rare, and
we cannot call to mind a fatal one, owing doubtless to the excellent rule
enforced in all the clubs, that “every boat shall carry life-saving apparatus
sufficient to float every person on board.” The modern boats seldom or
never miss stays, but in the event of their doing so, it is admissible to use
an oar to put them round, “but the strokes are to be backward, and in no
case to be ahead,” a very necessary clause, as before its introduction, a
morbid horror of missing stays prevailed, especially in calm weather. At
one time in running, the Western Club did not permit extra sails, and
did not even allow “booming out,” but the Western now follow the
rule of the other clubs and allow spinnakers, or more generally “shadow
sails.” The shadow sail is generally an old lug sail hoisted opposite the
other, and the boom shipped into a snotter on fore side of mast.
The 22ft. boats are invariably rigged as cutters, with mainsail, fore-
sail, and jib, and small topsail on the pole mast. They carry also the
usual balloon canvas for running to leeward, and occasionally indulge
even in jib topsails. In the following table we give particulars of the
best boats in this class, the “Thisbe,” built by McLaren, of Kilcreggan,
and owned by Mr. Allan Macintyre, and the “Ayrshire Lass,” built by
Fife for Mr. Thomas Reid, of Paisley. It is by the courtesy of these
gentlemen we are able to give the following particulars. Alongside
are given those of a 22ft. boat built to our drawing.
Name .......................................... THISBE. AYRSHIRE LAss. DESIGN.
Length, extreme .............................. 21ft. 11 in. 22ft. 22ft.
Breadth, extreme ........................... 6ft. 11in. 7ft. 7ft.
Draught of water aft ........................ 3ft. 8in. 3ft. 6in. 3ft. 2in.
Draught of water forward............... ... 2ft. 2ft. 6in. 1ft. 9in.
Displacement (about)........................ 3:15 tons 2-4 tons 2°45 tons.
Ballast (total) ................................ 2 tons 5cwt. 1 ton 10cwt. 1 ton 11 cwt
Ballast lead inside ........................... 1 ton 9owt, 1 ton 4cwt. 18Cwt.
Ballast iron inside ........................... - 10cwt. -
Ballast on keel .............................. 16cwt. (3cwt. 13cvt.
Mast, deck to hounds.................... ... 20ft. 6in. 19ſt. 20ft.
Boom, extreme .............................. 18ft. 19ſt. 18ſt.
Gaff, extreme ................................. 14ft. 15ft. 14ft.
Bowsprit, outside ........................... 10ft. 12ft. 10ft.
Area of plain sail ........................... 513 sq. ft. 520 sq. ft. 500 sq. feet.
364, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The Clyde boats are invariably clencher built (see Fig. 153). In
building to our drawings it would be necessary to fasten a “roof tree *
or stout batten to the top of stem and stern post; then make half moulds
for, say, 2, 4, 6, and 8 sections, pivoting these on their centre lines to
the batten and keel so as to swing round and do for both sides. She
may be planked to these moulds, the frames then bent in, and last of
all the floors, as if the floors are put on before planking it is unlikely
that the bottom will be kept as fair. The sections, as shown in Fig. 154,
can be drawn down full size from the table of offsets on the next page.
In all cases the water-lines are named from the load, or first
water-line downwards. The diagonals are also named in like manner,
|
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Nº
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FIG. 154.
the top one being first diagonal, and so on. The gunwale heights and
breadths explain themselves. The dimensions given are in all cases
moulded, that is, to the inside of the plank. If it is desired to make
calculations of any elements of these boats, once and a half the thickness
of plank must be drawn on.
The stations (see Plate XLVI.) are spaced exactly ſºoth of the
extreme length apart, and are at right angles to the water line. The
shape of stern-board is shown in projection on the body-plan; in laying
it down for building, the rake of post would have to be allowed for to
get the actual shape. -


Clyde Lug Sail Boats. 365
TABLE OF OFFSETS FOR A 17PT. BOAT.
| -
7 • to
| i { ;
No. of Section ..................... 1 || 2 | 3 a | 6
! | |
r i |
ft. in ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft infº. in...ft. in. ft. in. ft. inlit in.
Heights above L.W.L. to top of | :
gunwale ........................ 2 2ſ2 1; 1 11: 1 10%. 1 941 831 731 741 8 1 8;
Depths below L.W.L. to rabbet I 0.1 1; 1 2; 1 4 1 #1 6;1 #1 8; 1 84 –
Half-breadths at gunwale ...... i 14|1 94 |2 2, 2 4; 12 6 2 6.2 5;|2 4, 2 1+1 9
Half-breadths at L.W.L. ...... 0 51 0# 1 6; 2 0#2 3 2 3;2 2;|1 10° 1 9;ſº lº
Half-breadths, No. 2 W.L....... 0 330 8%. 1 1, 1 6th;1 831 8, 1 6.1 0; 0 540 0%
Half-breadths, No. 3 W.L. ...... 0 1 0 33 0 740 10"O 1130 110 830 5; 0 20 0;
Half-breadths on 1st diagonal . 0 10}|1 64 2 0} 2 5 2 74.2 842 732 53 2 131 73
Half-breadths on 2nd diagonal. 0 8 |1 2; 1 8; 1 11; 2 2 |2 2, 2 0#1 9; 1 340 74
Half-breadths on 3rd diagonal . .0 530 10,41 1; | 3% | 4}|1 4:1 33:1 º 740 1%
| | |

The stations are spaced 1:7ft. apart (1ft. 8%in.), No. 1 station being the same distance
from fore-side stem.
The water-lines are a bare 53 in. apart ; the more exact way to lay them off will be to
measure 16in. below the load line, and divide it into three equal parts.
The side lines are parallel to the centre line, and 2ft. 7#in. out.
The first diagonal cuts the centre line 1ſt. 3%in. above the load line, and cuts the side line
7in. above the load line.
The second diagonal cuts the centre line 7%in. above the load line, and the side line 7% in
below it.
The third diagonal cuts the centre line at the load line, and cuts the third water line
1ft. 3.}in. out.
TABLE OF OFFSETS FOR A 1917T. BOAT.
. | | |
No. of Section ..................... 2 a . . . . . 7 8 || 9 || 10
| | |
| |
|
i
|
|
|
ft. in ft in it inft inft in ft in it in. ft. in ft. in. ft. in.
| ! | | d
Heights above L.W.L. to top of
gunwale........................... 2 6
| ſ -
2 4 3 2+2 141 11:#1 10#1 103 || 10; 1 103 || 11}
Depths below L.W.L. to rabbet 1 13 |1 #! 4#1 6.1 ºf 8#1 10; 1 11:#1 113 || –
Half-breadths at gunwale ...... 1 2% |2 0 2 #42 842 9:210 2 93 2 7#2 44 2 0
Half-breadths at L.W.L.......... 0 & 1 1:1 9.2 3.2 6#2 7#2 5; 2 0#1 23 0 1%
Half-breadths, No. 2 W.L....... 0 33 0 931 331 8#1 1131 11+ 1 .. 8; 1 240 5% 0 0;
Half-breadths, No. 3 W.L....... 0 1 0 4 0 740 1141 141 1,010; 0 6 Q 250 0}
Half-breadths on 1st diagonal... º 11%. 1 9 2 332 8$2 1133 032 113 2 9 2 4%. 1 9%
Halib wagºns on 2nd diagonal... ." § 1 #1 1933 232 + 3 + 2 3i 2 0 1 5; iO 8%
Half-breadths on 3rd diagonal... º 6T's 10 lish 3#1 sil 6#1 6# 1 5+ 1 240 8% 0 2
i i 3 i
The stations are spaced 1.9ft. apart (1ft. 10%in.), No. 1 station being the same distance
from fore-side stem.
The water-lines are spaced exactly 6in. apart.
The side lines are parallel to the centre line, and 2ft. 11in. out.
The first diagonal cuts the centre line 18in. above the load line, and cuts the side line
8in. above load line.
The second diagonal cuts the centre line 8+in. above the load line, and the side line 8%in.
below it.
The third diagonal cuts the centre line at the load line, and cuts the third water-line
1ft. 5%in, out.
366 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
TABLE OF OFFSETS FOR A 22PT. BOAT.
No. of Section........................ 1 2 3 4. 5 6 7 8 9 1()
ft. in.ft. in.ft. in.ft. in.ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights above L.W.L. to top of $
gunwale ........................... 2 1042 842 642 5 2 3: 2 2; 2 1/2 132 1:2 24
Depths below L.W.L. to rabbet... 1 3}|1 531 7;|1 841 10% 2 0 2 1:#2 3}|2 3%| –
Half-breadths at gunwale ......... 1 5 |2 342 943 13.3 2, 3 3; 3 233 0#2 842 3}
Half-breadths at L.W.L. ......... 0 7#1 3412 042 74.2 11th 3 0#2 10#2 4:1 430 2%
Half-broadths at 2nd W.L. ...... O 40 11}|1 5:1 1132 2% (2 2ſ. 1 1181 40 640 1
Half-breadths at 3rd W.L. . . . . . . 0 130 40 9:1 041 3, 1 2; 0 11%0 7:0 230 0%
Half-breadths on 1st diagonal ... 1 1}|2 0#2 8};3 133 44, 3 5; 3 5 [3 2+2 94.2 .1%
Half-breadths on 2nd diagonal... [0 10}|1 7}|2 2+2 7}|2 93 2 10 |2 8 |2 3#1 830 10%
Half-breadths on 3rd diagonal ... 0 7#1 1 1 541 841 10 1 10 1 8 || 4:30 lº #

The stations are spaced 2.2ft. apart (2ft. 23in.), No. 1 station being the same distance from
fore-side stem.
The water lines are spaced exactly 7in. apart.
The side lines are parallel to the centre line, and 3ft. 4%in. out.
The first diagonal cuts the centre line 1ſt. 8%in. above the load line, and cuts the side line
9in. above load line.
The second diagonal cuts the centre line 9%in. above the load line, and the side line 10%in.
below it.
The third diagonal cuts the centre line at the load line, and cuts the third water line
1ft. 84 in. out.
As to cost, a modern racing 19tt. boat is a pretty expensive toy.
About the most successful builder of them, Walter Paton, of Millport,
N.B., charges 228. to 23s. per foot, and other builders are pretty much
the same ; the items, therefore, would sum up about as follows:
38 s. d.
Hull and spars, 19ít., at 23s. per foot ........................... 21 17 0
Plain pump, and other fittings not supplied by builder 3 10 0
Lead keel, 6cwt., at 23s. per cwt.................................. G 18 0
Internal ballast, 10cwt., at 22s. 6d. per cwt. .................. 11. 5 ()
Shot in bags, 4cwt., at 32s. per cwt............................... (; 8 0
Blocks, running and standing rigging ........................... 8 0 0
Sails ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 0 0
Three life belts, at 15s. ............................................. 2 5 0
Total for boat complete and ready for racing ...... 3975 3 0
If internal ballast is of iron, deduct 8l. 10s.
Iron masts were successfully introduced in 1881 in several of the
boats, they being found as light as, and much stiffer than, the wooden ones.
They were made of boiler tube, about 4 in. diameter, and #th to #im.
thick, tapered at top by slipping a small piece inside, and then a smaller,
They
have, however, been discarded, and although bamboos and hollow wooden
somewhat after the fashion of the Chinese bamboo fishing rods.
spars have also been tried, the old fashioned solid stick has after all been
found most reliable; and this it can be said is the common experience all
round the coast.
Clyde Lug Sail Boats. 367
Lead and everything else being now much cheaper, 5l. might be
deducted from the cost as just given of a 19ſt. boat of the old type.
The cost of a 2%-tonner (corresponding to the old 19ſt. class), with all
lead ballast, racing sails, and gear would not fall far short of 150l.
In 1879 nearly all the clubs adopted the Y.R.A. rule of measure-
ment, with the effect that a number of miniature yachts which in no
way possess any special features as to hull, sails, or ballasting, appeared.
They are simply models of big yachts; in one or two instances,
indeed, they were built direct off the lines of five or ten tonners, the
scale being altered to suit. Three-and-a-half, two-and-a-half, and one-
and-a-half ton yachts have therefore been competing in the old 15ft.,
19ſt., and 22ft. classes, the new boats being one-third to one-half longer,
and having half as much displacement again as their rivals, while
they have the further advantage of carrying a large proportion of the
ballast outside, the result being that the old type of boat is likely to
be improved off the face of the water. One or two of the builders,
however, stuck pretty closely to the old type of boat, simply adding a
counter; the present build may be somewhat deeper than the vessel shown
in the plate, but if a counter be drawn on (the buttock lines will give a
reliable guide as to its outline) she will very fairly represent them.
After a few races it became perfectly evident the old class of boats
had no chance with the model yachts, and the leading clubs arranged for
separate matches for the yachts and open boats. This is found to work
well where club funds admit of it. A new 15ft. class was started in
1884, and to encourage the building of such boats it was determined that
no outside ballast should be allowed, and that they should be driven
by only one sail, it being anticipated that these restrictions would reduce
the cost. But lead was found to be as dear carried inside as out, and
the “one sail" was made as big as two, the result being that the
cost of such a boat, say 15 × 5 × 5ft. deep was about 50l. But few
new boats have been built in the other classes, and these fifteen-footers
probably represent the latest ideas in lug sail boats: they are simply a
development of the boat shown in the drawing, but deeper drawn, with
more displacement, more ballast, and more sail. The particulars of one
of the most successful of them—the Mascotte, belonging to Mr. Dickie—
may be interesting :-
Length, extreme ...................................................... 15ft.
Length on L. W. L. ................................................ 15ft.
Breadth, extreme ....................... ........................... 5ft.
Draught of water, extreme ....................................... 3ft.
Weight of ballast ................................................... 21 cwt.
|Mast, gunwale to cranse ............. • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s is tº a tº 18ft.
Area of sail............................................................ 190 sq. ft.
368 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
For a couple of years after 1884 there were few or no new lug-sail
boats built, and though this form of racing was by no means extinct, and
races were given for these little craft by all the clubs, there was not the
same keen interest taken in it as heretofore. 1886 and 1887 each saw a new
15-footer which spread-eagled the existing boats, but showed no remarkable
novelty in form, being very similar to the Mascotte, previously described,
but deeper drawn and carvel built, and with all the lead outside.
The Clyde Canoe Club had, however, been meditating a change in its
constitution, the members concluding that with increasing years, and waist-
coats, their craft might be increased also, and in the fall of 1885 it was
decided that three lug-sail boats should be built for the use of the members
of the club.
The Royal Clyde Yacht Club also built three 19tt. boats, all six being
identical in form, construction, ballasting, and sail area (see Plate
XLVIII.) On summer evenings, and especially on Saturday afternoons,
members about the club caring to sail, chose three crews, generally by
ballot, and some most enjoyable races have resulted, as, the boats being
alike, winning depends solely on the Smartness and good judgment of the
crew. These boats are fine powerful vessels, and wonderfully fast con-
sidering the small sail area and mode of ballasting; they are extremely
moderate in cost, and would suit admirably for many other harbours about
the coast, such as Plymouth, Falmouth, Harwich, Cork.
"ees.
~ * DIMENSIONS, &c. (PLATE XLVIII.).
Length, extreme...................................................... 19ft. 2%in.
Length on L.W.L. ................................................... 18ft. 1%in.
Breadth, extreme ................................................... 6ft. 0#in.
Depth, top of gunwale to rabbet................................. 3ft. 10in.
Depth, top of gunwale to under side of metal keel ......... 4ft. 8%in.
Draught, extreme ................................................... 2ft. 9in.
Freeboard, minimum ................................................ 2ft.
Weight of iron keel .................. ......... “… 7cwt. Ogr. 111b.
Weight of cast ballast....................................... 4cwt. 1gr. 161b.
Weight of old furnace bars, about........................ 10cwt.
Build, clincher.
Rig, lug sail and jib.
Mast, gunwale to pin of sheave ................................. 16ft. 8in.
Mast, centre to fore side stem at gunwale .................. 5ft. 1 in.
Yard, hole to hole ................................................... 15ft. 9in.
Boom, mast to pin................................................... 18ft.
Bowsprit, outboard to outside of cranse ..................... 5ft.
The boats were built by McAllister, of Dumbarton, from designs
presented to the club by Mr. G. L. Watson, the total cost for each boat,
including sails, gear, anchor and chain, being 32!.
Early in 1888 a conference of yachtsmen interested in small boat
Plate YLVIII.
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Designed for the Club by
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Length, on Water Line 18.1% | Displacement
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Draught of Water 2.9" aſt. C. L.W. L.
Beam, extreme
Length over all,
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Plate XLIX,
Designed for the Club by
G.L WATS ON
21
Royal clyde YACHT CLUB,
SAI LING B OAT 23 FT CLASS.
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Clyde Restricted Classes. 369
sailing was held in Glasgow, members of the various Clyde clubs being
invited to send delegates. Among other rules, the following for regulating
the building were agreed on :-
“III.-Length Class—17ft. on L.W.L., and not exceeding 19tt. over
all. Sail area limited to 530 sq. ft. No time allowance. Mainsail or
lug sail not to exceed 75 of total sail area.
“IV.—15ft. C.B. class—Boats not to exceed 15ft. over all; sternposts
in a straight line; beam not to exceed 5ft. 6in. ; keel not less than 2in.
deep ; depth of boat at one-third from aft not to exceed 2ſt. 6in. Depth
at any other part not to exceed 3ft. outside measurement. No decks
allowed. Gunwale not to exceed 3in. broad. Weight of centre plate
limited to 60lb., and metal band on keel not to exceed #in. thick; no other
outside ballast allowed; boats all to be clinker built, and sail area not to
exceed 150 sq. ft.”
The rules definitely fixed, and with the understanding that they
should remain unaltered for a term of years, a number of new boats
were at once laid down in the 19-foot and 15-foot centre-board class.
The new 19-footers, three of which were built from Fife's designs and
two from Watson’s, are fine powerful boats, all of them carvel built and
half decked. All have the full allowance of sail—530 sq. ft.—thus bringing
them to 1:5 rating, but we question if they would not have been just as
well with a trifle less, say 480 to 500 sq. ft. The other particulars are as
follows:—
Length, extreme ................................................... 19ſt.
Length on L.W.L.................................................... 17ft.
Breadth, extreme ................................................... 6ft.
Depth, extreme ...................................................... 6ft. 8in.
Draught, extreme .................................................. 5ft.
Freeboard, minimum................................................ 22in,
Ballast on keel ...................................................... 1 ton 15 cwt.
Ballast inside, about..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 4 cwt.
Area, lug sail (part behind mast only) .............. * * * * * * * * * * 397 sq. ft.
Area head sail (by Y.R.A. rule) ................................. 132 sq. ft.
The 15-foot centre-boarders are simply broad dinghies with a centre
plate in them, not unlike the Kingstown Water Wags.
In 1890, the Royal Clyde Yacht Club, to accommodate those younger
members wishing to make a more protracted cruise than was possible in
the 19-footers built two 23-foot cutter rigged boats (see Plate XLIX.).
These were also from Mr. G. L. Watson’s designs, and have proved most com-
fortable and able craft, and quite large enough for young fellows enjoying
a week’s holiday on board, as, with the help of their partial deck, and
spreading a tent over the cockpit, two or three can sleep on board comfort-
ably. These boats are the property of the club, but any member or
B B
370 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
members have the right of hiring them, and they form admirable training
ships for the younger yachtsmen. The particulars of these boats are as
follows (Plate XLIX.):
Length, extreme ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23ft.
Length on L.W.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22ft.
Breadth, extreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 7ft. 1 in.
Depth, extreme ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6ft. 3in.
Draught, extreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4ft. 6in.
Freeboard, minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2ft. 3in.
Weight of iron keel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 2% tons.
Build, carvel, half-decked.
Rig, cutter.
Mast, deck to hounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 ft.
Pole, hounds to hounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7ft. 6in.
Mast, centre to fore side of stem at gunwale .................. 8ft.
Boom, extreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20ft. 6in.
Gaff, throat bolt to pin of sheave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14ft.
Bowsprit, outboard to inside of cranse ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 9ft.
Cost, 98l.
Among the 19-foot craft no particular novelties have appeared,
although-sºyeral new boats have been built since 1888, any developments
taking tº direction of increased depth and breadth, the displacement
remaining about the same.
In 1890, a 24-rating class was fairly established by the building of two
2% raters. These were simply model yachts, rigged with lugsail and very
small staysail, the rig found most successful in the Solent 2%. In anything
of a breeze they simply lost the old boats against which they were pitted,
though, on one or two occasions, the tables were turned in light breezes.
In 1891 the class was fully developed, as Fife built five identical craft
for local amateurs, and Watson two. These boats, however, presented no
very special features, as they differ but slightly in design from the larger
creations by these gentlemen.
CLYDE RESTRICTED CLASS, 1893.
During 1890 some capital sport had been enjoyed between the two
23ft. Royal Clyde Club boats Mayflower and Thistle, and a third boat, on
the same lines, owned by Mr. Robert Wylie, and called after the American
champion, Volunteer. But in 1890 a boat of the same length, but lead
ballasted, and with much larger sail plan, was built, in the Erica, by Mr.
Fife. Erica, knocked the older boats out, and in turn was, in 1891
knocked out by the Verve, which Mr. Wylie had built for him by Watson
to replace the Volunteer.
By 1892 the 23-footers had crystalised into a class, and in November
of that year a meeting was held in Glasgow, at which the Royal Northern,
}
5
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Breadth...... --------------8 97
Ö6 . . . Araught of Water -- 7.3"
-- sy Jſ - JD) A. 99 AMSp/acement---------------- 6 tons
Q Alea’a. Aſee/ . . . . . ... -- 3-6 tons
23 F: L.W. L. C. LY DE CLASS. Area Mansaſ/...------------ 600 sq. ft.
B U L T F O R
Area. Head Saſ/ KAPA. /50 sq.ft.
7ota/Sai/Area Y. A. A...... 750 sq.ft.
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7




Clyde 23ft. Class, 1893. 371
Clyde, Western, Largs, Corinthian, Mudhook, and West of Scotland Yacht
Clubs were represented.
The resolutions adopted at the meeting resulted in the following
conditions, and came into force 1893 :—
I. In the 23ft. L.W.L. Class : (1) Over-all measurement restricted to
30ft. ; (2) total sail area limited to 750 sq. ft., whereof the mainsail or
lugsail not to exceed 80; (3) centre-boards or plates, fin and bulb keels
excluded; (4) these conditions to remain in force for five years.
II. In the 17tt. L.W.L. Class : (1) Over-all measurement restricted to
19tt. as formerly; (2) total sail area limited to 470 sq. ft., whereof the
mainsail or lugsail not to exceed 75 ; (3 and 4) same conditions as for
23ft. class.
N.B.-The hulls and sails are to be measured in terms of the Y.R.A.
rules in force in 1893, and a certificate by a Y.R.A. measurer produced.
The certificate will specify the length over-all and on load water line, the
total sail area, and the proportion thereof in the mainsail or lugsail.
Three new boats were built for the 23ft. class by Mr. W. Fife, jun.,
and as many by Mr. G. L. Watson. Mr. Watson’s Vida and Fife's
Thaber getting the bulk of the prizes. All these were fine, wholesome
vessels. Could beat the 2.5 raters turning to windward in pretty well all
weathers, though failing a little reaching and running. They were fine
sea boats, and, above all, were admirably fitted for young fellows of
moderate means, as a couple of them could live on board with the greatest
comfort, there being also a cot for the man forward. There was just head
room under the skylight for dressing, while a fairly roomy cockpit made
them most useful boats for day sailing.
Vida (the lines of which are given on Plate L.) is a fair representative
of these boats. 1895 has seen two new boats—Klysma, by Mr. Fife, and
Vida II., by Mr. Watson. Both these have more beam and less displace-
ment than former productions, and are nothing like so comfortable for
cruising, while it is doubtful if they are appreciably faster than Thaber or
Vida.
Vida’s (Plate L.) record is: 1893—starts, 29; first prizes, 19; second
prizes, 7; third, 1 ; total, 27. 1894—starts, 30; first prizes, 18; second, 6;
total, 24. 1895–3 first prizes for 5 starts up to June 1st.
The smaller class of 17-19 footers has been but slightly augmented.
The very great success of Mr. Fife's Hatasoo, built in 1894, having
somewhat paralysed enterprise in this direction. Hatasoo is the most
extreme boat of the class, being of great breadth and very small displace-
ment. She has shown herself a good all-round boat in every weather, but
her greatest successes have been made in light airs.
B B 2
372 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
For 1895 yet another restricted class was instituted at Helensburgh
for sailing in the Clyde weekly regattas. (Plate LI.)
The design to which all the boats are built was prepared by Mr.
Linton Hope, of Greenhithe, and the following are the chief dimen-
sions: Length over all, 18ft.; length on waterline, 16ft. ; beam, 7ft. ;
draught of hull, 10in. ; draught with plate, 6ft. ; sail area, actual,
275 sq. ft. ; Sail area, per Y.R.A., 261 sq. ft.; rating, 07; displacement,
1818lb., or 0-81 tons. No ballast to be carried, and the crew is limited
to three for racing. The boats are fitted with dagger centre-boards of the
Sorceress type, but broader. They are decked, all but a roomy cockpit, at
the fore and after end of which are watertight bulkheads which will give a
certain amount of safety in a case of a not improbable capsize. From
these particulars it will be seen that they are much more powerful boats
than the Dublin Mermaids. Mr. Allister, Dumbarton, built the whole
fleet. The cost of each for hull and spars was 33l.
PLATE LI.
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CHAPTER XVI.
KING ST (). W N B0 ATS.
KINGSTOWN, in addition to being an important yachting centre, giving
racing for all classes from the largest to the 0:5-rater, has evolved the above
unique class, at first purely local, but now known all round the globe.
This class is the germ of the one model class, and has well carried out
its initial objects, viz., restrictions on the advantage of a long purse ;
preservation of the selling value of the boat and combination of a service-
able aud racing boat.
The Water Wags Association was started in 1887, and its origin was
to provide several residents at Shankill, Co. Dublin, a portion of the coast
where there is a shingly beach open to the surf of the Irish Channel, and
where the boats have to be beached and carried up often by only two men,
and where ballast is consequently inadmissible, with a light, strong, safe boat
that would sail well to windward without ballast, and without a keel—rather
a difficult problem to solve, but one that has been proved an accomplished
fact. The design (Plate LII.) of a boat 13ft. long by 4ft. 10in. beam,
sharp at both ends, but rounder in the stern than the bow, with a flat floor,
high sides, and a good sheer, was selected, to which was added a small
centre-board to give the necessary grip when afloat ; and, in order to
enable the fleet to have close races in the class, to preserve the healthy
lines, and to save the expense of outbuilding, it was agreed that all the
boats should be built on the same model, and the canvas was limited to a
maximum of 75 sq. ft. fore and aft, and 60ft. in a spinnaker. There was no
restriction as to how it should be applied, but all the boats put it in one
very pretty standing lug (Plate LIII.), designed by Messrs. Lapthorne
and Ratseys, with the mast stepped 18in. from the bow, so that all the
boats are practically identical. Although these boats were originally
designed for beach boats, and are best adapted for that purpose, they have
been principally used in Kingstown Harbour, where they make an exceed-
374, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
**--------------4---------------- - - ------------> →
ingly handy boat to sail in and out through the large fleet of vessels usually
anchored there, as they spin round in their own length, never miss stays,
and make little or no leeway. They have ventured on several occasions
across Dublin Bay, and even as far as Malahide and Wicklow, and have
been out in very rough water, and surprised their skippers at their good
behaviour. As a proof of their stability it may be mentioned that with
two persons sitting to windward eight or nine of them have been dismasted
without capsizing. But with seventy-five square feet of sail, and no ballast,
any 13-foot punt is liable to heel over in a puff till the water comes in, and
the water wag is no exception to this. So the main sheet is never belayed,
and the man at the tiller should always keep his weather eye on the look
out to luff or ease the sheet if the squall looks stronger than the canvas set
can bear. A standing lug is found much safer in this respect than a
balance lug, because the wind can bé completely spilled out of it, and there
is no portion forward of the mast to retard her head flying up in the wind.
All persons who use these very lively little boats should know the rudiments
of open boat sailing, so clearly laid down in Chapter VI. of this book.
When these boats do go over they do not go to the bottom as a boat with
ballast will do, but will even support their crew if they do not try to climb
up on them.
As to their cost. There are now a fleet of between forty and fifty in
and around Kingstown. Of these, Robert McAlister, of Dumbarton, built
most, and he turns them out from 15l. to 20l., according to finish. Doyle
of Kingstown, and Atkinson of Bullock, Co. Dublin, and Holloway of
Dublin, built several, and they charge about the same, and Fife of
Fairley built the remainder, but he charges 25l., as he says such small
boats are not in his line, and it would not pay him to give his attention
to them for less. Many of the boats intended only for racing are now
built of cedar, and are beautifully turned out as regards fittings and finish,
and cost fancy sums over 25l. Lapthorn and Ratsey furnish a cotton
sail for 21. 108., and a silk one for 21. 158., and anyone will make
the spinnaker for a few shillings. The silk sails are best for very fine
weather, but the cotton stand flattest in a breeze. The best way to
set the sail is by a single halyard running through a single sheave
at the mast head, and a tack tackle for getting taut the luff, and so
peaking the yard. (If the clew is attached to the boom before the sail is
peaked, its weight should be relieved by the hand while the tack tackle is
being hauled on.) A single main sheet, passing round a single peg or
snatch block on the lee counter, and then to the hand, is the best, the sheet
being passed over while in stays. With the single halyard, the sail will run
down the moment it is let go, and no traveller is needed for the full sail as
• • • • • -- → → → → → → → • • • • • • •* • •= =• •=
PLATE III.
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Boomſ, MAST to PIN of SHEAVE
YARD, HOLE to Hole
MAST overall
D* , TOP of Keel to PIN of SheaV0
* s = sº as * * *
Centre Mast from FORESIDE STEM . . . 1 .
Clew to Weather Earing . . . . . 10' 6"
Tack to Peak Earing. . . 14' 6"
Luff. 5' 0"
Leach. . . . 15' 0"
AREA of SAIL 75"
12
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10 Feet
10 Lugsail by
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The Water Wags. 375
the yard will be chock-a-block, but for a reefed sail, it is well to have a mast-
hoop on the mast that will hook or can be lashed to the yard when needed.
These boats give plenty of sport to men of limited incomes in races
among themselves, as the old boats are well in it with the new, the original
lines being strictly preserved.
As rowing boats they carry seven well, and can be rowed by either
one or two persons, and they make a very handy dinghy for a yacht, as they
are well adapted for exploring harbours and creeks, or for fishing, or
rowing large parties on shore, and altogether they have proved themselves
a favourite, and are now to be found in Argentine, Australian, and Chinese
waters, besides in many other ports.
The draught of water, with centre-board up, is about 9in., varying
according to the number of crew. The centre-board drops about 16in.
The following are the principal limitations of the water wags, but any
person wishing to race should get the full limitations from the Hon. Sec.
before he builds.
Length over all, 13ft. ; beam, 4ft. 10in. ; lines, those of the club model.
Centre-board to be of iron or steel. Length shall not exceed 4ft.
When hauled up flush with top of casing, no portion shall project below
keel. Immersed surface below keel shall not exceed 2% sq. ft. Thickness
at any point shall not exceed #in., or less than #.
Keel outside garboard strake, inclusive of thickness of keelband, if
any, shall not exceed in depth 1% in , or 3in. in width. Keelband of iron,
brass, or copper, not to exceed in thickness #in., or less than #.
Stem and stern post—moulded depth of, to be clear of hoods by not
less than 2in.
Mast not to exceed over all 13ft., measured from top of keel to truck.
Fore and aft sails not to exceed 75 sq. ft. in area.
Spinnaker not to exceed 60, or less than 50 sq. ft. in area, and is
only to be used before the wind, and in no case as a jib.
Boats not to carry more than three, or less than two persons during a
match, all of whom shall be amateurs, and all matches shall be steered by a
member or a lady.
Each boat shall carry a pair of oars not less than 8ft. long, with spurs
or rowlocks for same ; also one solid cork ring-shaped life buoy, not less
than 22in, in external diameter, or two life cushions, with loop lines, of the
same floating capacity.
Object of the Water Wag Association.—The promotion of amateur
seamanship and racing in safe and useful boats, which are similar, and
where the contest shall be one of skill.—Hon. Sec. : J. B. Stephens, Esq.,
No. 8, Clarinda Park, E., Kingstown.
376 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The following particulars refer to the plates:
No. 1 section is 2ft. 1 #in. from the fore side of stem.
No. 2 section is 4ft. 3in. from the fore side of stem.
No. 3 section is 7ft. from the fore side of stem.
No. 4 section is 10ft. from the fore side of stem.
The water lines are 4%in. apart.
Plank #in. on bottom, Hºrin. top sides. Rabbet on stem and stern
set 2in, back. Timbers šin. by Éin. ; spaced 5%in. apart centre to centre.
Centre of mast thwart 1.ft. 6in. from stem ; second thwart, 4ft. 3in. ;
third thwart, 7ft. 6in. Thwarts 7in. wide. Stern seat 1ſt. wide, and
fore edge 11ſt. from stem. Side seats 6in. wide from stern to third
thwart.
DUBLIN BAY SAILING CLUB.
This club, which has its head quarters at Bullock, Kingstown,
Co. Dublin, was established during the year 1884, with the object of
ancouraging open boat ºailing. At the time of its inauguration, it was
intended to have only onsºlass of boats, limited in length to 21 ft. over all.
Owing to the addition of a very fast and improved class of boats, it was
found necessary to form a class, to which the old boats were relegated; a
further addition was made in 1888, of a third-class, to be 13ft. over all,
and in this class centre-boards were optional. At a general meeting held
In October, 1890, it was decided to introduce a new 18-foot centre-board
boat, and the club boats are now classed as follows:—Class A.: All fixed
keel open boats, not exceeding 21 ft. over all ; no deck or counter allowed,
unlimited sail area, and to be ballasted so that with crew and gear on
board the draught will not exceed a tenth of length over all. Class B. or
Mermaid class : Centre-boarders of 18ft. over all and of 6ft. beam, with
sail area limited to 180 sq. ft., divided as follows: 153 sq. ft. in mainsail,
and 27 sq. ft. in jib, with a mast-head spinnaker not to exceed 80 sq. ft.,
the centre-boat to be of metal # in. thick, with a superficial exposed area
not to exceed 5 sq. ft., steel band to be # in. thick; anchor not to exceed
22lb., the only ballast allowed to be water not exceeding 22 gallons in
wooden tanks. -
Since the former edition of this book was issued this club has made a
most radical change in its constitution. Heretofore it existed for the
encouragement of open boat sailing ; and, having very fully fulfilled that
condition, it was decided, after very careful consideration by the committee
of the club, to advise that the word “open” be eliminated from the rules,
so as to enlarge the club's usefulness. This, however, was not so easily
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!
|8 FT CENTRE BOARD BOAT.
DESIGNED BY R. FRY ESQ., COMMODORE, DUBLIN BAY S. C.
BUILT BY ATKINSON, BULLOCK.
—l 1891.
|
* I D | MENS iONS OF SPARS.
Exposed Area of Centre Board 6 Square feet, Mastgunwale to pin of halyard Sheave. 14' 6"
Drop 7:11: Leading edge 411" Poorn............---------------….. . . ... 75, 8.
\ = Yard, hole to hole................................. 77' 0.
JBurnpkirv outside stemv.............. . . ...... . ... 7 6.
Aſast stepped aft stem......................... . 4. 7.
+ f #
Spinnaher Boczn/............................. ... 73. 0.


Kingstown “Mermaids.” 377
accomplished, as a number of the members felt that to make so decided a
change would be injurious to the club. The committee, however, were
determined that the club should not come to a standstill, and after the
subject had been very fully considered by several general meetings, it was
not until the meeting held March 21st, 1893, that the recommendation of
the committee was carried.
As a result it was agreed to admit a Class of Boat, subject to
limitations, the following being the most important, viz.:
(a) Length, 20ft. over all.
(b) Not to exceed one rating, Y.R.A. Rules.
(c) Minimum of ballast on keel, 10 cub. ft.
(d) Draught with crew not to exceed 3ft. 6in.
(e) Area of main sail not to exceed 80 per cent. of total sail area, &c.
It was, however, found that the restrictions were not of such a nature
as would encourage members to build under them. It was therefore
agreed, at a general meeting held on November 10th, 1893, to limit the
restrictions on the A Class as follows:
A CLASS.
The A Class to comprise all boats that have raced in the old A. Class,
together with other boats, under the following restrictions:—
(a) Not to exceed one ton rating, in accordance with Yacht Racing
Association Rules.
(b) Boats of one ton rating to carry as a minimum of ballast 5 cwt.,
which may be of lead. Smaller boats in same proportion.
(c) Boats to be decked, the area of cockpit not to exceed area of deck.
At a General Meeting, held on 9th April, 1895, it was agreed to admit
half-raters, and for that purpose the following rule for the B Class was
approved :—
The B Class shall consist of Boats not exceeding 0-5 rating, together
with Mermaids, which shall be sailed strictly in accordance with
their rating under Y.R.A. Rules, provided they are not altered so
as to exceed 0-7 rating.
Thus the club consists of three classes, A and C restricted, B unre-
stricted, but all sailed under the rules of the Y.R.A. and in strict accordance
with their rating.
The season 1895 of this club promises to be most successful, as already
the A Class is represented by thirteen 1-raters (seven of which joined the
fleet this year) and three of the old Class boats; the B Class has four Mer-
maids and ten Boats under 0-5 rating; while the Wags now muster thirty
Boats.
378 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Races are sailed on all the Saturdays of May, June, July, and August,
when, in addition to the ordinary club prizes, special ones are offered for
competition, and at the close of the season prizes are given for helmsmen,
crews, and most successful boats.
The roll of members is now close on 300. The club is governed by a
committee of eleven, which includes Commodore, Hon. Treasurer, and Hon.
Secretary.
On Plate LIV., the drawing of a boat for this class, designed by
Mr. R. Fry, Commodore, and built by Atkinson, boat builder, Bullock,
|Kingstown. The lug-sails are supplied by Lapthorn and Ratseys, Gosport,
and are similar in shape to those shown on Plate LIII.
Class C.: Boats similar to those sailing in Water-wags Club. Plate LV.
represents another Mermaid, designed by Mr. C. Livingston, of Liverpool.
The Hon. Sec. of the club is Mr. P. J. O’Connor-Glynn, 14, Braffni-
terrace, Sandycove, Co. Dublin.
The C Class Boats, which shall be known by the distinctive name
“Wags,” to be centre-boarders not exceeding 0-4 rating, 13ft. Over all,
and 4ft. 10in. beam, to be built according to drawings marked A
(deposited with the Hon. Secretary, December, 1892), and in accordance
with the following limitations:
The moulds shown on the drawing shall be set up vertical and level
along the keel, or inbreast, and the Boat between the fore and aft moulds
shall not be rocketed. No additional mould shall be used, save one, which
mayº be placed-nºt more than 12in. from the outside of sternpost, and
wº. shall not touch more than the gunwale, and three upper lands of
the planking.
Boats shall be built with not less than ten, or more than eleven planks
on each side, and no plank shall exceed five inches in width outside
measurement. The garboard and next four planks shall not be less
than gin. thick, and the remaining planks not less than #in. thick. All
planks shall be laid in clincher fashion, viz., the planks shall overlap, the
outside lands being at least two thirds the thickness of the plank itself
(except within 12in. of the bow and stern) but an arris, not exceeding in.
may be taken off the outside edge of the land. All nails shall be rooved.
The keel outside the garboards, inclusive of thickness of keelband, shall
not exceed 1%in. in depth, and 3in. in width, and after the 1st January,
1896, shall not be less than 1jn. in depth between the moulds. Every
boat shall carry a keelband, which shall be made of iron, brass, gunmetal,
or copper, and every keelband which, after 1st June, 1894, shall be put
upon a boat, shall not be more than #in., or less than Hºrin. thick, and shall
not be less than 1jn. wide between the moulds. -
"M ER MAID."
18 F. C. B. OPEN BOAT.
D E S I G N E D F O R ... '
L. M. E. L. D. O. N., E S Qº
BY CHARLEs Livine ston,
7TH J A NY 1891.
Hº ºn ºf º-'º - m = *.m. ººm-
PLATE Lv.
|-|--|--|--|--|--
ſ
4
6
Scale ſºro / Fr.
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§
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Sutton Yacht and Boat Club. 379
No balanced rudder shall be allowed. The rudder shall be made of
wood, and shall not exceed 2ft. in length, and 6in. in depth below the level
of keelband and sternpost.
Timbers shall not be less than gin. by 4, spaced not more than 5%in.
apart, centre to centre.
Beam stringer shall not be less than gin. by #in.
Gunwales shall not be less than 1+in. wide, and 14in. deep. Width
to be measured from outside of shearstrake.
The position for the centre-board is optional.
The centre of the mast shall not be placed further aft than 21in. from
outside of stem. Each boat shall have, in addition to the mast-thwart, two
other thwarts, one near each end of the centre-board casing, and not less
than 7#in. by #in., permanently fixed with double knees, and not more
than 8in. below the gunwale, also a thwart, or seat support of at least 2in.
sectional area, permanently fixed, with the front face not less than 18in.
from the after edge of sternpost.
Battens shall not be used in sails, except in the leach of the lug, and
in that case they shall not exceed 2ft. in length.
The spinnaker boom must be stepped on the mast, and shall not be
attached to any part of the boat forward of the mast.
The spinnaker guy shall not be led to anything outside the gunwale ;
it may, however, be held out by the crew without appliances.
The spinnaker sheet shall not be led to anything more than 2in,
to leeward of the centre line of the boat, or abaft the mid-length of
the boat ; it may, however, be held in any position by hand.
The word “led” as here used refers to the direction in which the rope
is brought direct from the boom or sail.
Each boat shall carry, when racing, all her platforms, floorings, and
thwarts all fixed in their proper positions, a pair of oars not less than 8ft.
long, with spurs or rowlocks for same. No ballast allowed.
No alteration or addition to any boat or to any part of her, or to
her gear shall be made, except in accordance with the above limitations,
and whenever an alteration or addition of any kind is made, notice of same
must be given to the Hon. Secretary, so that the Committee may, if
necessary, re-examine the boat.
SUTTON YACHT AND BOAT CLUB.
The Sutton Yacht and Boat Club was started in September, 1894–
just ten years after the start made by the Dublin Bay Sailing Club. There
is not much water at the point of Kosh, where the Club-house is situated—
380 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
only about 3ft. at low water—but quite suitable for the class of boats used
by the members, which are 18ft. about, open boats. Half-raters, with drop
keel, C.B., and wags restricted by the same rules that govern the Wag
Club at Kingstown. Most charts are not correct in giving the channel up
to the Club-house ; it is far more north, it having moved northerly within
the last ten years. However, the Club have got down good buoys to mark
its course. C.B. boats are most suitable for both Howth and Sutton, as in
the harbour of Howth there are only a few boats drawing say 6ft. of water
that can find a berth in which they float at all stages of the tide. It is to
be hoped that something will be done soon to remedy this defect, as all of
us can remember the strides made in this enjoyable pastime at Howth. Ten
years ago it was such a busy port for herring fishing that yachts, to say the
least of it, could not come into the harbour, it was so crowded with the
fishing craft ; but now the tables have turned, and there are only a few
fishing boats (long line cod fishing), and the harbour is full of all kinds of
pleasure craft from, say, 10 or 12 tons down to the Linton Hope,
0°5-raters, and Wags. A great advantage which Sutton has is that the
channel runs up a long way inland, and affords a splendid place for rowing,
on which the Club has also provided accommodation for the members by
the erection of a long boat-house and splendid slip.
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O H.A. PTE R XVII.
ITCHEN BOATS.
THE boats of the Itchen Ferry fisherman have a very high reputation in
the Solent, and no doubt they are equal in model to any fishing craft
on the coast. For more than a century match sailing amongst them has
been an annual occurrence, and probably the contests on these occasions,
combined with the true racing spirit which animates all the Itchen-
Ferry-men, have tended to produce and maintain a model adapted for
speed ; and the nature of the work the boats are put to has happily
prevented their sterling qualities as hard weather craft being in any way
sacrificed to the exigencies of competitive sailing. The standard of value
for competitive sailing among these boats has always been simple length,
and as a consequence there has been no inducement to cut down the
beam, which remains about one-third the length, more or less, according
to the fancy of the designer; and although of late years gentlemen fond
of racing small craft have built boats on the Itchen model, to compete
under the “length rule,” they did not become less broad in the beam,
but deeper, and of greater displacement. The designs shown on Plates
LVI., LVII., and LVIII. represent the fishing boats, and the racing
craft, such as they were until 1878, when heavy lead keels and overhanging
stems and counters were introduced, as shown by Plate LIX. The over-
hang forward, shown on this plate, was not, however, introduced until 1882,
when the Bonina and Keepsake were built.
The design of the Gipsy, shown on Plate LVI., represents one of the
old-fashioned craft, and was made by W. Shergold, a well-known draughts-
man of Southampton, to compete in the 27ft. class in 1877.
This boat was built from the design for Mr. A. F. Fynne in 1885,
the builder being Trethowan, of Falmouth. She was decked over with a
cockpit aft, and yawl rigged. She proved a very fast and an exceptionally
382 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
good sea boat. Mr. Fynne named her Daphne; but, upon his selling her
to Capt. T. V. Phillips, R.A., her name was changed to Gipsy. She is
well known on the west coast. -
A scale has been made to suit this drawing for a 30ft. 4-in. boat.
The 25ft. (Plate LVII.) boat was designed by W. Shergold for
Mr. Fay, who successfully raced her under the name of Salus; she was
subsequently re-named Israfel, and then Wild Rose. Under the latter
name she was raced very successfully in the 25ft. class up to 1879.
The 21ft. (Plate LVIII.) design represents that of the Centipede, the
most successful fishing boat, so far as speed goes, ever turned out by the
late Mr. D. Hatcher. In the drawing, the design is represented as for a
boat of 22ft. 8in. length, but all the sections are exactly as they were
in the 21 ft. boat, the spacing between the sections only having been
increased, so as to bring the length up to that necessary to make 5 tons
with the same 8ft. beam. The water lines, with the extra spacing as
shown, look very much better than they did in the 21ft. design, and no doubt
a boat of the extra length would be a faster and still more capable craft.
The Centipede, we might say, had very much less weight in her
iron keel than given in the table, and the siding of her wood keel was
less: the siding of the keel has been increased solely with the object of
getting more lead underneath it; but it by no means represents what a
21 ft. racing boat of the present day has.
The Itchen fishing boats are always carvel built, and are usually decked
forward, with a stern sheet aft, and are open amidships with a water way
and coaming round. The floor construction is variously contrived, but the
most approved plans are those shown in the designs for the 30ft. and
23ft. boat respectively (Plates LVI., LVII., and LVIII.). Sometimes a
hogging piece, or keelson, of wood, iron, or lead, was worked upon top, the
main keel of about half the siding of the latter, so as to form a stepping
rabbet for the heels of the frames. A sectional view of this construction
is shown at midship section, Plate LVI. The heels of the timbers rest
on the top of the main keel, and are spiked to the keelson. The
whole is secured by iron floor knees, bolted through frame and
plank. Aft a stepping line to take the heels of the timbers has to
be cut in the dead wood. The spaces between the plank floor and
keelson are filled with concrete made with cement and boiler punchings, or
cement and lead shot. This is smoothed off level with the top of keelson.
In the 21ſt, design (Plate LVII.), no keelson is worked. A stepping
line is set off on the keel and dead woods, as shown by 8. At each
station for a frame, a joggle is cut in the keel and dead wood, b b, for
the heel of the frame to be step-butted in, as at a, a, a. A sectional
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Itchen Boats. 383
view of this fitting is shown by A. The heels of the frames are bolted
through the keel, and the whole is secured by iron floor knees. This
plan is to be preferred, unless the keelson is of metal, on account of it
having an advantage for ballasting. Any spaces left between the sides
of the keel and the plank should be filled with concrete, made as before
described. The rabbet (r) will be cut as shown, and the garboard strake
should be fastened with as long spikes as practicable. -
All the Itchen fishing boats have what are known as “raking midship
sections; ” that is, the broadest width of each succeeding water line is
progressively farther forward, from the load water-line downwards. This
peculiarity is most apparent in the Centipede. It will be seen that her
greatest beam on the L.W.L. is very far aft of the greatest breadth of
the lower water line.
With regard to the great proportion of beam to length there is no
evidence that the proportion will grow less, in spite of the introduction
of the heavy lead keels in many fishing boats. The fishermen patronise
beam, without any apprehensions, and one of the most successful boats in
their class has 9ft. breadth to 21 ft. length. *
Until 1876 an Itchen boat was never seen with a counter, the
Rayonette being one of the first to have one in that year; now counters
have become common, but, as the regular Itchen boats are square
sterned, we have so represented them in the preceding designs. A
counter of course gives them a more finished appearance, and helps
hold the boats a little if much pressed on a broad reach. They, how-
ever, make very little back water wash off the lee quarter, as the
transom is so high set. If a counter were given to the preceding
designs, the buttock lines would be dropped a little at the transom,
according to the length of overhang. The transom would have to
be a little wider, too, as otherwise the counter would be very narrow at
the arch board.
* There is not much doubt that a heavy lead keel (and a little less beam if thought desirable)
is safer than so very much beam and very little outside weight. The fishing boats formerly had
very little siding to their keels, and the weight of iron that could be got underneath was consequently
very small. It is generally thought, however, among the fishermen, that a foot or so extra beam
will more than compensate for the absence of a ton or so weight on the keel. There is a very
great mistake about this, and the beamiest of the Itchen boats, as they are necessarily the
shallowest, and have, moreover, little or no weight outside and loose ballast inside, are by far
the most unsafe, as, although very stiff at first, they lose their righting power as they get near
their beam ends. In 1880 one of the beamiest of the Itchen boats (19ſt. by 9ft.) was capsized in a
squall through the loose ballast shifting, and a beamy Itchen boat with no great weight on her keel
requires as much looking after in a squall as a Una. The value of a heavy keel is now, however,
so much recognised that some of the fishing boats recently built have a trifle less beam and
lead keel. Lead is chosen in preference to iron because there is less trouble with the fastenings,
and it does not “waste ’’ So much.
384 Yacht and
Boat Sailing.

(Z!
2./
_X. Z 72/
FIG. 155.
DIMENSIONS.
Length over all ..................... 27ft. Main boom ........................... 17ft.
Tength on L.W.L. .................. 26ft. 9 in Gaff ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15ft. 8in.
Beam extreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8ft. 6in Luff of mainsail ..................... 17ft. 6in.
Draught of water extreme ......... 5ft. Luff of mizen ........................ 14ft.
Displacement ........................ 7 tons. Foot of mizen ........................ 8ft. 6in.
C.B. aft centre of length ............ ‘7ft. Area of mainsail ..................... 306 sq. ft.
Iron on keel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1“5 tons. Area of foresail ........................ 100 sq. ft.
Iron moulded inside, 3-3 tons; lead 0.7 tons. Area of mizen ........... ............ 64 sq. ft.
Total ballast ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5' 5 tons. Total area .............................. 470 sq. ft.
Mast deck to hounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21ft.
BOAT GIPSY, PLATE LVI. and FIG. 155).



No. of Section ..................... 1. 2 3 4. w 5 6 7 8
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights to covering-board above |
L.W.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 3 5 || 3 0}| 2 8%| 2 6 || 2 5%. 2 4}| 2 4 || 2 4}| 2 6
Depths below L.W.L. to step-
ping line ........................ 2 1 || 3 () 3 2 || 3 2 || 3 2 3 2 || 3 0 || 2 3 || –
Depths below stepping line to
under side of wood keel ...... 3 7 | — - - sºme - -* — | 3 10
Half-breadths at gunwale . ... 1 3 || 2 7 || 3 6 || 4 0 || 4 0}| 4 0 || 3 10 || 3 4 || 2 5
Half-breadths 2ft. above L.W.L. 1 2 || 2 6%| 3 5%| 4 0#| 4 1 || 4 0}| 3 10%| 3 4+ 2 5%
Half-breadth= 1ft. above L.W.L. 1 0 || 2 4}| 3 4}| 4 0}| 4 1%| 4 1%| 3 10%| 3 2%| 1 6}
Half-breadths on L.W.L. ...... 0 9 || 2 0 || 3 14| 3 10 || 4 0 || 4 0 || 3 6 || 2 3+| 0 2
Half-breadths on No. 2 W.L..., | 0 4}| 1 3}| 2 4 || 3 0# 3 24 3 2%| 2 4}| 0 9%| —
Half-breadths on No. 3 W.L.... 0 1%| 0 6%| 1 1 || 1 5}| 1 5%| 1 4}| 0 9 || 0 3 || –
Half-breadths on No. 4 W.L.... | – || 0 2 || 0 3}| 0 4}| 0 4}| 0 4}| 0 2%| — -
Half-breadths, Diagonal a . . . . . . 1 3 2 7%| 3 7}| 4 2%| 4 3}| 4 3}| 4 1 || 3 6 || 2 6
Half-breadths, Diagonal d ... ... 1 3 || 2 7#| 3 8}| 4 4} 4, 6; 4, 6%| 4, 1}| 3 4}| 2 2%
Half-breadths, Diagonal f...... 1 2%| 2 6 || 3 6%| 4 1%| 4 3 || 4 3 || 3 94 2 10%| 1 4%
Half-breadths, Diagonal k . . . . . . 0 11}| 2 1%| 2 11}| 3 5}| 3 6%| 3 6 || 3 0 || 2 0 || 0 5%
Half-breadths, Diagonal m...... 0 9 || 1 7%| 2 3}| 2 8 || 2 8; 2 7}| 2 2 || 1 3}| 0 13,
Half-breadths, Diagonal m...... 0 4}| 1 0 || 1 5}| 1 8%| 1 9 || 1 8 || 1 3 || 0 73 —
Half-breadths, Diagonal 8 ... ... 0 1%| 0 6 || 0 9}| 0 11 || 0 11}| 0 10; 0 7%| 0 3+] —
|

Itchen Boats. 385
No. 1 section is 2ft. 8in. from the extreme fore side of stem. All the other stations are
3ft. 6in. apart, but the aft side of transom is only 3ft. 4in. from No. 7 Section. The midship
section is midway between No. 4 and No. 5 sections.
The water-lines are 1ſt. apart.
Diagonal a is struck 2ft. 8%in. above the L.W.L., and at a 1 and a 2 cuts the perpendiculars
p p 1ſt. 5%in. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal d is struck 2ft. 2%in. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal f is struck 1ſt. 7%im. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal lo is struck 9in. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal m, at m, 1 and m, 2, is 2ft. 7in. from the middle vertical line 0.
Diagonal n, at n 1 and m, 2, is 2.ft. 6in. from the middle vertical line 0.
Diagonal s, at s 1 and s 2, is 1ſt. 1in. from the middle vertical line 0.
All the half-breadths are without the plank, but the drawing represents the boat with
the plank on.
The iron keel will be 21ſt. long, 8in. deep at its fore end, 1ſt. 1in. at the midship section,
1ft. at No. 7 section, and 9in. at its after end ; breadth, 6in. amidships, 3%in. forward, 4in. aft
on its upper side; breadth on its under side, 3%in. all through.
LAYING-OFF TABLE FOR 30F.T. 4IN. BOAT (SEE PLATE LVI. AND FIG. 155).

No. of Section..................... 1 2 3 4 × 5 6 7 8
| |
f inft inlit in it in ft in ft. in ft in it in ft in
Heights above L.W.L. to top | ; !
timbers ........................ a 10 |& 5 & 1 |2 10 2 9 2 9 2 5 2 & 2 9,
Depths below L.W.L. to step- t
ping line ........................ 2 3 3 4 |3 7 ||3 7 3 7 ||3 7 3 4 |2 6 || –
T)epths below L.W.L. to under- | : |
side of keel ..................... 4 0 - mºm — , — — — — 4 3
Half-breadths at gunwale ...... 1 5 2 11 || 3 11 |4 5% 4 6% 4, 6 4 3 || 3 9 || 2 9%
Half-breadths on L.W.L. ...... 0 103 |2 23 ||3 5; 4 3 |4 5% 4 5% — - -
Half-breadths on diagonal a ... 1 4; i. 11}| 4 0} |4 8 4 94 4 9; 4 7 || 3 113 || 2 10%
Half-breadths on diagonal d ... 1 4% 2 11% 4 13 || 4 10% 5 0# 5 0% 4 8 || 3 9% 2 5
Half-breadths on diagonal f... 1 34 2 93 || 3 11 |4 7 4 9 || 4 8:#|4 2 || 3 1% 1 6
Half-breadths on diagonal kº. 1 , |2 4, § 4; 3 10; 4 3 ||3: 4; 3 #| ||
Half-breadths on diagonal m... 0 10 1 9% 2 6% 2 11}|3 0 2 11, 2 4; 1 4; 0 13
Half-breadths on diagonal m... 0 5 |i 1} | 1 9 || 1 11+ 1 11% 1 10% 1 5 || 0 8% 0 1;
Half-breadths on diagonal s ... 0 13 || 0 6% | 0 11}| 1 § 1 03 || 1 0 || 0 8 || 0 3 || 0 13
| | }
No. 1 section is 3ft. from the extreme fore side of stem. All the other sections are 3ft. 11in.
apart, but the aft side of the transom is only 3ft. 10in. abaft No. 7 section. The midship section
is midway between No. 4 and No. 5 section. The water lines are 1ſt. 1+in. apart.
Diagonal a is struck 3ft. above the L.W.L., and at 0 1 and a 2 cuts the perpendiculars p p
1ft. 8in. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal d is struck 2ft. 6in. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal f is struck 1ſt. 10in. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal k is struck 11%in. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal m, at m 1 and m 2, is 2ft. 11in. from the middle vertical line o.
Diagonal m, at m 1 and m 2, is 2ft. 9in. from the middle vertical line o.
Diagonal s, at S 1 and s 2, is 1ſt. 2in. from the middle vertical line o.
All the half-breadths are without the plank; but in the drawing the boat is represented with
the plank on.
The lead keel will be 23ft. 6in. long, 9in. deep at its fore end, 1ſt. 3in. amidships, and
11in. aft.
The breadth of the keel on the top at its fore end will be 4in, ; amidships, 7in. ; aft, 4in. ;
uniform breadth of the under side, 3in.
C C
386 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
LAYING-OFF TABLE FOR 25IFT. BOAT (SIEI, PLATE LVII.).


No. of Section .............................. 1. 2 3 4. 5 6 7 Trm
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights to top of timbers above L.W.L. 3 2 || 2 10 |2 7% 2 5% 2 4} || 2 4% 2 5% 2 7
Depths below L.W.L. to rabbet line... 1 6 || 2 9 || 3 1 || 3 2} | 3 2 || 2 10 || 1 8 -
Half-breadths at gunwale ............... 1 3} |2 11 || 3 9 || 4 0}|4 0} || 3 8% 3 0 || 2 5
Half-breadths on L.W.L. ... ... ........ 0 6 || 1 11 || 3 3 || 4 0 || 3 11 || 2 10% | 0 9% | 0 1%
Half-breadths on diagonal le ............ 1 23 || 2 10% | 3 11% 4 6 || 4, 5} || 3 11}| 3 1 || 2 6
Half-breadths on diagonal m. . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0} || 2 74 || 3 8; 4 4% 4 3 || 3 6 2 4} | 1 9
Half-breadths on diagonal m ............ 0 8+ | 1 11 || 2 10 || 3 34 || 3 0 || 2 2% 1 1 || 0 5%
Half-breadths on diagonal aſ ............ 0 13 || 0 10 || 1 3} | 1 6% | 1 34 || 0 8 || 0 13 || 0 1
No. 1 section is 2ft. from the extreme fore side of stem ; all the other sections are 3ft. 6in
apart, but the transom is (at the deck) 2ft. from No. 7 section.
The water-lines are 1ſt. apart.
Diagonal lo is struck 2ft. 6in. above the L.W.L., and at le 1 and lº 2 cuts the side perpen-
diculars p p 11%in. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal m is struck 1ſt. 9in. above the L.W.L., and at m 1 and m 2 cuts the side
perpendiculars p p 6%in. below the L.W.L.
Diagonal n is struck 7%in. above the L.W.L., and at n 1 and m 2 cuts the side perpendiculars
p p at 2ft, below the L.W.L.
Diagonal a is struck 1ſt. below the L.W.L., and at a 1 and a 2 is 3ft. 4in. from the middle
vertical line of the body plan.
All the half-breadths are without the plank just as the others are, in readiness for setting off
in the mould loft; but the design is shown with the plank on. The design also shows a keel of
only 3in. siding amidships, instead of the thickness we have given in the table.
LAYING-OFF TABLE FOR 22RT. 8IN. BOAT (SEE PLATE LVIII.).


No. of Section.................. 1 2 3 4. 5 6 7 8 9 10 | Trm.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in...ft. in...ft. in.ft. in. ft. in. ft. in...ft. in.ft. in.
above L.W.L. º
Depths below L.W.L.”
6
#
2
5
2
3
2
1
#
2
0
%
Heights to top of timber
# |1 11}|1 11 |1 11}|1 11:#|2 0}|2 1
O
stepping line (s)...... . . . . 1 8 |2 0}|2 1}|2 2 |2 3 |2 3}|2 3 2 1 |1 8 |0 6#| — &
Half-breadths at gunwale ... 1 642 6%|3 2%|3 6}|3 8}|3 9 |3 843 533 2 |2 9 2 5
Half-breadths on L.W.L. ... |0 8#1 8 |2 6}|3 3}|3 8 |3 9 |3 6#3 0}|1 83|0 3}|0 1
Half-breadths on 2nd W.L... |0 3}|0 9 |1 4}|1 10 |2 1%|2 0 |1 5+0 830 3 |0 1 || –
Half-breadths on diagonal i. 1 7#|2 7#13 4}|3 10%|4| 2 |4, 2}|4 1 |3 10 |3 5}|2 10%|2 7%
Half-breadths on diagonal le. 1 5%|2 5 |3 2 13 9}|4, 1+4. 2 4 0}|3 8 |3 1%|2 3}|1 10
Half-breadths on diagonal m. 1 2+2 0}|2 8}|3 2}|3 6}|3 6}|3 4}|2 11 |2 2}|1 3 |0 10%
Half-breadths on diagonal m. |0 9 |1 4;|1 11 2 3 |2 4}|2 4 |2 1}|1 8}|1 1 0 4 |0 1
Half-breadths on diagonal ſº. |0 2%|0 6}|0 10 |1 0}|1 1}|1 0}|0 9%|0 6}|0 34 — —
No. 1 section is 2ft. 4 in. from the extreme fore side of the stem. All the other sections are
2ft. 2in. apart, but the aft side of transom is only 10in. from No. 10 section.
The water-lines are 1ſt. apart.
Diagonal i is struck 2ft. 5in. above the L.W.L., and at i 1 and i 2 cuts the perpendiculars p p
10in, above the L.W.L. -
Diagonal k is struck 1ſt. 10in. above the L.W.L.
Diagonal m is struck 1ſt. 1%in. above the L.W.L. -
Diagomal n is struck 3in. above the L.W.L., and at n 1 and n 2 is 2ft. 10in. from the middle
vertical line o, and 1ſt. 7in, below the L.W.L.
Plate LIX,
*M. I. N. J. M. A.”
Trégnäd by ARTHUR PAYNE,
- AND BUILT FOR
$: JULIEN ARABIN, ESQ.
by MESSAs PAYNE & SONS,
SOUTHAMPTON.
1386.
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Dimensions and Scantlings for Itchen Boats.
387
Diagonal a is struck at the 2nd water-line, and at a 1 and a 2 is 1ſt. 3in. out from the middle
vertical line o, and 1ft. 9%in. below the L.W.L.
The side perpendiculars p p are 3ft. 11 in. out from the middle vertical line.
All the half-breadths are without the plank, and the boat is represented in the drawing
without the plank.
T}epth of lead keel at its fore end, 7in. ; at its amidships, 8%in. ; at its aft end, 5%in.
Width (siding) of lead keel at its fore end, 2%in. ; at its amidships, 5%in. ; at its aft end, 4in
Length of lead keel, 14ft.
N.B.-In all cases in laying off the boats the table of offsets should be
relied on rather than measurements taken from the Plates; and care should
be taken to note if the plank is included in the measurements or not.
21 FT. BOAT.
For the 21ft. boat the same laying-off tables will be used, the sections
being identical with those of the 22ft. 8in. boat.
sections is, however, less.
The spacing between the
No. 1 section is 2ft. 2in. from the extreme fore side of the stem ; all
the other sections are 2ft. apart, but the transom is only 10in. abaft
No. 10 section.
DIMENSIONS, &c.
Length, fore side of stem to aft side - -
transom on deck ..................... 30ft. 4 in. 27ft. 25ft. 22ft. 8in. 21ft.
Breadth (moulded) ..................... 9ft. 4 in. 8ft. 4 in. 8ft. 7in. 7ft. 10in. 7ft. 10in.
Breadth with plank on.................. 9ft. 6in. 8ft. 6in. 8ft. 9in. 8ft. 8ft.
Draught of water, extreme ... . . . . . . ... 5ft. 4 in. 4ft. 10in. 4ft. 1 in. 3ft. 4%in. 3ft. 4%in.
Displacement .......... ... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 9 tons 6-5 tons 5-8 tons 3-8 tons 3-5 tons
Displacement per inch of immersion -
at L.W.L. .............................. 9cwt. 7cwt. 6cwt. 53 cwt. 4; cwt.
Weight of ballast inside ............... 3% tons 2% tons 2 tons 1% tons 1} ton
Weight of lead keel ..................... 2 tons 8cwt.1 ton 16cwt. 13 tons 1 ton 18cwt.
Tonnage Y.R.A............................ 93; #} 6# 4}} #}
SCANTLINGS.
30ft. 27ft. 25ft. 23ft. 21ft.
Siding of stem ........................... 3%in. 3in. 3in. 2;in. 2#in.
Siding of sternpost ..................... 4.in. 33in 3%in. 3%in. 3in.
Siding of keel amidships ............... 7in. 6in. 6in. 5%in. 5in.
Siding of keel fore end ............... 33in. 3in. 3in. 2}in. 2%in.
Siding of keel aft end .................. 4.in. 3%in. 3%in. 3$in. 3in.
Moulding (depth) of keel............... 7in. 63 in. 6in. 5%in. 5in.
Siding of timbers ........................ 2in. | 2in. 1;in. 1%in. 1%in.
Space centre to centre.................. 1ft. 11in. 1ft. 9in. 1ft. 9in. 1ft. 1in. 1ft.
Thickness of plank” .................. 1in. lin. | 1in. #in.* #in.*
Thickness of garboard strake......... 1łin. 1%in. 1% in lin. lin.
Thickness of top strake ............... 1łin. 1łin. 1}in- lin. lin.
Thickness of clamp ..................... 1%in. 1%in. 1%in. 1%in. 1%in.
Thickness of transom ................. 2%in. 2#in. 2in. 2in. 2in.
Breadth of rudder ..................... 3ft. 2it 9in. 2ft. 6in. 2ft. 3in. 2ft.
* An inch strake as a wale should be worked above the water-line at the broadest part
of the boat ; this will make the boat the required width.
C C 2
388 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
SPARS AND SAILS.
30ft. 27ft. 25ft. 23ft. 21ft.
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in ft. in ft. in.
Centre of mast from fore side of stem on deck ... 11 6 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 2
Length of mast, deck to hounds ............ ........ 25 0 22 6 21 6 19 6 18 9
Length of mainboom extreme ........................ 27 6 26 0 24, 4 21 9 19 3
Length of main gaff extreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 20 6 18 6 17 9 16 3 14 3
Length of bumpkin outside .................. . . . . . . . . 2 6 2 4. 2 () 1 9 1 3
Length of bowsprit outside ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 0 || 14, 6 12 6 | 12 0 11 6
Length of topmast fid to sheave........... . . . . . . . . . . | 20 6 19 6 18 () 17 0 16 0
Length of topsail yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24; 0 23 0 21 0 20 () 18 ()
Length of topsail yard ................................. 18 0 17 () 16 () 15 0 14 0
Length of spinnaker boom” ........................... 27 6 25 0 23 () 21 () 19 ()
Luff of mainsail.......................................... 23 0 | 20 0 | 19 3 | 17 9 16 6
Leech of mainsail ......... ............................. 38 () 34 () 33 () 30 () 27 6
Foot of mainsail ....................................... 27 0 25 9 24 0 21 4 18 10
Head of mainsail ....................................... 20 2 | 19 0 || 17 6 15 8 || 14 0
Tack to peak earing .................................... 40 0 36 0 34, 6 31 6 28 6
Clew to weather earing (throat)..................... 33 6 31 0 28 6 26 6 23 9
Area of mainsail ........................... ........... 634 sq. ft. 544 sq. ft. 480 sq. ft. 410 sq. ft. 318 sq. ft.
Area of foresail .......................................... 153 sq. ft. 142 sq. ft. 120 sq. ft. 100 sq. ft. 80 sq. ft.
Area of jibf ............................................. 200 sq. ft. 175 sq. ft. 154 sq. ft. 138 sq. ft. 120 sq. ft.
Area of topsail .......................................... 204 sq. ft. 180 sq. ft. 165 sq. ft. 142 sq. ft. 120 sq. ft.
Total area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1181 sq.ft|1041 sq.ft|919 sq. ft. 790 sq. ft. 630 sq. ft.
* As they only have one spinnaker, it has to be set on the bowsprit occasionally; hence the
length of the spinnaker boom is usually about the length from the mast to the bowsprit end.
+ With a reef down the boats are frequently sailed without a jib, the bowsprit being run in
and stowed.
Bonina and Keepsake were the first two of the length class type of
yacht which was fashionable from 1882 to 1887. The Bonina was built
from a design by the author by Watkins and Co., of Blackwall, for Mr.
Arthur O. Bayly, in 1882. She in under water body plan much resembles
the old Itchen type, with the usual rake to the midship section. She had
a displacement of 13:2 tons, and a lead keel of 7-5 tons, the sail spread
being 1746 sq. ft. by Y.R.A. rule.
The Keepsake was built by Messrs. A. Payne and Sons, in 1882,
from a design by Mr. C. P. Clayton, and is of 13-7 tons displacement, and
has 7-8 tons of lead on her keel.
It being evident that both Bonina and Keepsake were very much
under-canvassed for their stability, the sail plan was increased in later
boats to 2200 sq. ft., and a 21ft. boat had 1340 sq. ft. º
The Minima (Plate LIX.), represents what the 21ſt. Itchen class came
to. She was designed by Mr. Arthur Payne for Mr. St. Julien Arabin,
in 1886, and proved the most successful of the class, especially to wind-
ward.
These new-fashioned Itchen boats were the natural outcome of a length
on water-line measurement, there being no restriction on overhang of hull
PLATE LX
q/rº q; / 3 0
• • • • • - - -> •
- - - - - - - - -> - - - - -> • • - - -
*
·
la
!
}
{
|
·
!
|
|
|
|
!
{
|
|
+
*
- ~ *
... -
7:0
ITCHEN BOAT, 188O.
NDS = 1 FOOT,
3_
º
º;
SCALE
}íł
ſſſſſſſz 33°
ºſ ºjo
| W:



Itchen Sailing Punts. 389
either forward or aft, and no restriction in sail area. The result was a
rather expensive type of boat, with excessive overhang, and enormous
sail spread. By the new rating (* à #" **) the 30-footers, 25-footers,
and 21-footers became obsolete, as a boat longer on the water-line, with
less sail spread for any given rating was more than a match for any length
class boat.
THE RIG OF ITCHEN BOATS.
In rig the Itchen boats have undergone very marked changes. Up
to 1850 the common rig was foresail with tack fast to stem head, and
sheet working on a horse ; mainsail without boom, with sheet working
on a horse, and occasionally a mizen was added. The mast was long,
and the gaff short, and the rig was generally commended because all the
sail was in board. However, it would seem that the boats were lacking
in head canvas, as “bumpkins’’
and bowsprits were introduced in 1851,
and boom mainsails in 1856.
The introduction of the boom mainsail soon caused an increase of
canvas, with a long piece of the boom over the stern. Specimens of
the rig in fashion in 1878, and that of the 1882-87 rig are shown on
|Plate LX.
The dimensions for the sails given in the table on page 388 are intended
for a racing outfit for the boats described. For a “fisherman’s ” outfit the
mast would be reduced in length about one-ninth, and the boom and gaff
about one-seventh.
All the Itchen pleasure boats formerly had the bumpkin, which is a
small iron bar (see A, Plate LX.) fitted to the stem head as shown
at d ; the bumpkin has an iron stay (s) welded to it, and bolted to the
stem at k. The forestay is set up to the bumpkin by a lanyard, as shown
at m. The boats have two shrouds a-side, a pendant and runner, topping
lift, topmasts, backstays, preventers, and all the rest of the usual yacht
gear, including, of course, purchases.
ITCHEN SAILING PUNTS.
Until 1877 the boats of this class sailing in the local match for
punts 13ft. long were little better than ordinary rowing skiffs rigged
with a foresail on a short bumpkin, and a sprit mainsail without a
boom. In 1879 lead keels were added (see Plate LXI.) and the sail plan
much enlarged.
390 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
They originally carried sprit mainsails, as shown in Fig. 156; but
the latest fashion is shown by Fig. 158, on page 391, the sail plan of Wril.
*
i
|
º
..Sperºr.cc/or boom. Nº - O SN `s
——---- * ===
*= ** 43 º ag | - N
º, 4 - " " - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x
Sºº-tsº-EF= £ >
FIG. 157
The punts are mostly owned by fishermen, yacht sailors, and yacht
masters; and in some the lead keels (also the pieces of false wood keel





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Sail Plans of Itchen Punts. 391
fore and abaft this lead) are put on with nuts and screws, and can easily
be taken off, leaving the boat a serviceable punt (see Plate LXI.)
In the sprit rig the halyards are worked as shown by Fig. 157. In A,
the head of the foresail is shown by 1; the standing part of the halyard
is put over the mast at 2. The hauling part is rove through a cheek
block ; see 3 on B, which is the mast head viewed from astern.

*
§
2
sso
/5 & A fre/ne -—
=\,
J- 8'
Sail Plan of “Wril”
1, 1,7 | # 2 # # 19 /5 29
FIG. 158.
The jib, or spinnaker halyards are similarly fitted; the standing part
is at 4 in A, the hauling part is rove through 5 in B. The main
halyard is fast to a mast traveller and then passes over a sheave in the
Imast at 6 in B.
The lead keel soon developed into a fixture with a moulded garboard
like the larger boats. The last built and most successful of all was the
392 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Wril (Plate LXII.), designed by Mr. Arthur Payne in 1880. The design,
of course, is far away ahead of the original Itchen punt, and the truth
of this was very apparent, especially to windward, Wril on that point
of sailing probably eclipsing anything before achieved by a 13ft. boat.
She has a lead keel of 13cwt., and a sail area of 276 sq. ft., 190 of which
was in the mainsail.
TABLE OF OFFSETS OF ITCHEN P'UNT “ WRIL.”--PLATE LXII.
No. of Section ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . .
Half-breadths at gunwale ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Half-breadths at L.W.L.... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Half-breadths at No. 2 W.L. ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Half-breadths at No. 3 W.L. ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Half-breadths on diagonal A ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Half-breadths on diagonal B ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
2 4. 6 8 9 10 º:
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
1 & 2 .2%| 2 7, 2 # 2 23| 1 10}| 1 73
0 11}| 1 11}| 2 5+ 2 13' 1 6#| 0 8 || 0 3}
0 7# 1 6 || 1 10%| 1 3} 0 8 || 0 2 || 0 1+
0 4 || 0 8%| 0 1%| 0 5% 0 2 || 0 1 || 0 1
1 4}| 2 5%| 2 11 || 2 8%. 2 4}| 1 11}| 1 8
1 1%. 1 10%| 2 1%| 1 9%. 1 54|| 0 11}| 0 7%
The sections are 1.ft. 3in. apart.
The water lines are 6in. apart.
Diagonal A is struck from 1ſt. 8%in. above the L.W.L., and cuts the L.W.L. 2ft. 9in. out.
No. 1 section is 1ſt, from the fore side of the stem.
Diagonal B is struck 7%in. above the L.W.L., and cuts No. 3 W.L. 2ft. 2%in. out.
“W. R. I. L."
I3 FT | T C H E N P UNT
Built in 1880 by ARTILUR E.PAYNE.
Beam 5.2
Draught 3.3"
Lead Kee//33 Cwt.
Scaſe, #" – / fº
* -- \ \ / ------- ------ - N
i
Plate LXll.
_ _ == * * *
_ _ - - -
_ - - - - -
–
N ~ º
|
Scaſe, 3% /mch to //oot.
§
S
I
6
N
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| | | |








CHAPTER XVIII.
FALM 0 UT H Q UAY P UNTS.
THESE boats bear some resemblance to those of Itchen Ferry and the
Clyde, and are wonderfully handy and seaworthy. Boys—some as young
as ten years—constantly knock them about the harbour single-handed,
whilst it is the event of every day and night for a man to go “Seeking”
in them alone, in all weathers, to the Lizard and even beyond, getting
away as far as forty miles from harbour, and they remain at sea some-
times for a day or two. These boats have no hollow in the entrance, and
vary in size from 20ft. to 30ft. over all, and from 7ft. to 10ft. beam,
drawing from 3ft. to 6ft. of water; they are decked in to about two-
fifths of their length from the stem; they have waterways 1ſt. wide, and
coamings, and all have square sterns—no counters. Freeboard, 2ft. 6in.
to 3ft. The rig is uniform also (see Fig. 159), viz., gaff mainsail with boom,
jib-headed mizen, and foresail set on a short iron bumpkin-simplicity itself
—and, with patent blocks everywhere, and small ropes, everything is well
within the strength of an ordinary man.
The forestay wire ; bobstay chain or wire; one shroud a side wire;
Manilla pendant and runners; mizen shrouds wire. Single blocks for
foresail halyards and down-haul and peak halyards; throat halyards and
main sheet, double and single blocks working on a horse; mizen sheet
single block; fore sheet one block and belayed aft with half turn under
a pin in the only thwart astern. The main boom is seldom fitted with
reef cleats, but when reefing the sail is lashed down by a lacing through
the cringle and round the boom.
The cost of one of these boats, as used by the local men, is about
30s. per foot; but if fitted up, rigged, and canvassed in yacht-like form
the cost would be as much as 250l., more or less, according to the size,
material, work, and finish.
The boat depicted on Plate LXIII. was built by Thomas, of Falmouth,
and is one of the best boats about the port. These punts have scrap iron
for ballast, and stow it all amidships to keep the ends light.
394, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
A jib and bowsprit are sometimes used in summer; then also a square-
headed mizen is sometimes carried; but the working boats never have a
topsail, because it would be in the way in going alongside shipping.
É
a
2
3:- --
l
FIG. 159.
The forestay is set up to an iron bumpkin, which has a chain bobstay.
A span-shackle is generally fitted on the bumpkin for a bowsprit.
DIMENSIONS.
Length over all...... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26ft. Ain.
Length on water-line ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 25ft. 9in.
Beam, extreme ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8ft.
Draught of water ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5ft. 3in.
Area of mid-80ction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ........................ ... 15.3 sq. ft.
Displacement ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..................... 6-8 tons
Mast, deck to hounds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..., 20ft. 6in.
Main boom... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16ft.
Main gaff ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15ft.
Luff of mizen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .................. 13ft.
Foot of mizon ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ........................... 8ft.
Foreside of mast to foreside of stem head ... ... ... ... ... ... 8ft, 3in.

FALMOUTH QUAY PUNT
-
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Sail Plan of Thames Dabchick Class,










CHAPTER XIX.
THAMES DABCHIO KS AND BAWLEY BOATS.
THAMES DABCHICKS.
THE “one class, one design º’ racing boat was introduced on the Thames in
1895. The design (Plate LXIV.) of Mr. Linton Hope was adopted, and the
little craft in many ways are similar to the Clyde unballasted class, by the
same designer. They were built by Messrs. Forrestt and Sons, of Norway
Yard, Limehouse, and are 20ft. over all, 15ft. water-line, 6ft. beam, sail
area 200 sq. ft., 0.5-rating. They are ribbon carvel, built of cedar, and the
total cost, including sails (of stout Union silk), running and standing rigging,
oars, crutches, boathook, anchor, and cable, 50l. They compete mostly in
the matches of the Royal Corinthian Yacht Club at Erith, and, like all un-
ballasted boats, require careful handling under sail, although their non-
sinking is pretty well assured.
THAMES BAWLEY BOATS.
THE Thames bawley boats in some respects resemble the old-fashioned
Itchen boats, but they are heavier, and have not quite such deep keels
as the Southampton craft have—a feature which enables them to work
Over the flats on and about the Thames.
They are exceedingly handy little vessels, and may be seen in great
numbers in the mouth of the Thames and Medway, and more especially
in Sea Reach. For knocking about in all weathers in these waters, it
would, perhaps, be impossible to find a better type of boat.
During the last fifteen years the bawley has grown considerably in
size, and varied somewhat in build, the fishermen having to go farther
afield and carry heavier nets and gear. The size of the boats ten or twelve
years ago was about 22ft. by 8ft., with a draught of about 3ft.; they were
clinker built, of oak, very strongly put together, and were fitted with
fish wells. The more modern boats, however, are carvel built, and “dry
396 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
bottomed,” as it is termed, that is without wells, the altered conditions
of the fishing rendering them unnecessary.
Recognising the good all-round qualities of the bawley, yachtsmen
have occasionally bought them, and with slight alterations converted them
into homely, but comfortable and serviceable cruisers, and the way in
which they soak to windward in a strong wind and kick-up down Sea.
Reach is remarkable.
The lines given are those of a 32ft. bawley, built not long since by
N
N
BAW LEY.
FIG. 160.
Mr. Douglas Stone, of Erith, and designed by him to give as much speed
as could be obtained with the carrying capacity and light draught required
by her owner. This boat has turned out very speedy, and is probably the
fastest bawley of her length in the river.
It will be seen by the accompanying lines on Plate LXV., and sketch
of the sails Fig. 160, that the beam of the bawley is very great compared
with the length, while the draught is very easy. Another peculiar feature
is the low freeboard aft, and the high sheer forward, which enables them to
make light work of the nasty short sea in the Hope when a 10-ton yacht



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Thames Bawley Boat. 397
would be head and shoulders into it. The Mayflower, it should be said,
has been given a little more freeboard amidships than usual; this has been
found to be a great advantage in a sea, and no disadvantage for working
the nets, &c. As a matter of fact, the men generally trim them more by
the stern than is shown on the accompanying sheer plan of the Mayflower.
There is another class of bawley hailing from Harwich and Maldon
of about the same proportion of length and beam, but with rather more
draught of water.
The mainsail of the bawley is without a boom, and the sheet travels
on a horse about a foot or so inboard, the lower block having an iron
belaying pin through it to make the mainsheet fast. Brails are fitted, and
Help to make the sail a very handy one, often saving a heavy gybe, &c.
The mast is put well forward in order to get a good breadth of
mainsail, and as a consequence the foresail is rather small. The bow-
sprit is usually of moderate length, without shrouds; and it is only off the
wind that a large jib is carried. On a wind a very small jib is set, and
it seems to be ample for the boat. A fleet of these boats cross-tacking in
Lower Hope or Sea Reach in the grey dawn has a most weird effect, as
they slip through the water so noiselessly, and look like shadows with their
tanned sails.
Mr Stone estimates the cost of a boat similar to the design at about
140l. ; and when one considers the accommodation and pleasure which
can be got out of a craft of this size it is hardly to be wondered that
there are so many inquiries respecting the Thames bawley.
DIMENSIONS, &c., OF BAWLEY BOAT.
Length, fore side of stem to aft side transom on deck ...... 32 ft.
Breadth ............................................................... 11 ft. 4 in.
Draught of water, extreme ....................................... 4ft.
Displacement ... ...................................................... 13:3 tons.
C.B. aft centre of length .......................................... 0-6ft.
Weight of ballast ................................................... 6 tons.
Centre of mast from fore side of stem on deck ............... 11 ft. 6in.
Length of mast, deck to hounds ................................. 20ft.
Foot of mainsail...................................................... 19ſt.
Length of gaff, extreme .......................................... 20ft.
Length of bowsprit outside stem .............................. 17ft. 6in.
Length of topmast fid to sheave................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18ft.
Leech of mainsail ................................................... 32ft. 6in.
Tack to peak earing ................................................ 32ft. 6in.
Clew to weather earing (throat) ................................. 25ft. 6in.
Area of mainsail...................................................... 394 sq. ft.
Area of foresail ................................................... .. 100 sq. ft.
Area of jib ............................................................ 180 sq. ft.
Total area ...................................................... ..... 674 sq. ft.
398 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
TABLE OF OFFSETS OF THE “MAYFLOWER,” BAWLEY BOAT (PLATE LXV.).

No. of Section ............ .......................... 1 2 3 4. 5 6
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights above L.W.L. to deck .................. 3 0 || 2 7 || 2 4 || 2 3 || 2 3} | 2 5.
Depths below L.W.L. to rabbet of keel......... 2 11 3 1 * * 3 2 **
Depths below L.W.L. to underside of keel ... 3 6 * *E* -- * 4 0
Half-breadths on deck.............................. 3 0 5 0 5 8 5 5 4, 5 || 2 11
Half-breadths on L.W.L.......... .......... ....., 2 2 || 4 5 5 6 || 5 5% 4, 1} | 0 1%
Half-breadths on W.L. 2 ........................... 1 6 || 3 9 5 2 4, 10 || 2 10 || 0 1%
Half-breadths on W.L. 3........................... 0 11 2 4 || 3 4 || 3 0} | 1 5 || 0 1%
Half-breadths on Diagonal a ........... ......... 3 0 5 2% 6 1 5 9% 4, 10 3 3
Half-breadths on Diagonal b ..................... 2 8% 4, 11 6 0 5 9 || 4 7 || 2 8
Half-breadths on Diagonal c ..................... 2 3% 4, 2} | 5 2% 5 0 3 9% | 1 6%
Half-breadths on Diagonal d ..................... 1 10 3 0 3 4 3 3 2 5 0 2
No. 1 section is 4ft. 1in. from the fore side of the stem at the L.W.L., and 4ft. 5in. from the
perpendicular. The other sections are 5ft. 3in. apart ; and No. 6 is 6ft. 7in. from the aft
perpendicular.
The water-lines are 1ſt. apart.
CEIAE2TER XX.
LAKE WINDERMERE YACHTS.
THE Windermere yachts were formerly distinguished for their long
immersed counters. This fashion of immersing the counter, it appears,
Originated in 1872 out of an intended evasion of the rule of measurement,
which at that time was simple length between stem and sternpost on deck.
The Windermere Club, with a view of checking the advantages gained
by immersion of counter, supplemented the rule by a condition that the
counters abaft the sternpost should not exceed 6ft. 6in. in length.
We imagine that the advantages of getting an excess of length by
immersing the counter were discovered in this way : The Windermere
craft were more or less full in the bow, and consequently bored by the
head, and, with a deep fore foot, carried a very great deal of weather helm.
Hence they were being continually trimmed by the stern, and always with
Some advantage ; and thus it was realised that an immersed counter is
an advantage if length cannot be obtained in any other way without
paying a penalty for it.
In the autumn of 1881 the Windermere Club adopted the water-line
as the basis of measurement, but in 1883-4 the club made another rule
limiting the length, draught of water, and spars.
The Windermere yachts, owing to their under water depth and
amount of dead wood, have been distinguished for their good weatherly
qualities, and they are as safe as could be built for sailing on the deep
waters of a lake, as they are really uncapsizable, just as modern yachts
are ; and if wholly decked in, or having a very wide waterway and high
coamings, are practically unsinkable. The “Una boats’’ which have
come into fashion on the Lake are made quite unsinkable by having
water-tight bulkheads forward and aft. In the case of the sudden squalls
met with on the lake the boat should be lufted into it directly the first
breath of a squall is felt ; but in a match the boats are always sailed
through them by easing the helm a trifle, and if the squall be very black
400 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
and heavy, the jib sheet is eased so as to luff quickly ; but the main sheet
is never in such cases started.
The sails of the yachts are made of duck, and usually by local sail-
makers. The sloop rig, it has been proved by experience, is much the best
for going to windward on the smooth water of the lake, and no difficulty
is ever experienced in handling it.
The general rig and sail plan is shown by Plate LXVI. The bowsprit
goes over the stem and fore deck, the heel usually passing through the
E.
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FIG. 161.
coaming round the waterways and jamming against the mast. Iron rods
are used for bowsprit shrouds and bobstay, set up with screws. There are
two jib halyard blocks, the upper being a double, and the jib is set taut by
means of a tackle.
The hulls are painted and pumice-stoned outside, and finished as
smooth as a carriage, and the portion below the water-line is then black
leaded and polished with a brush, very great attention being paid to the

















Royal Windermere Yacht Club Rules. 4.()]
condition of smoothness of the bottom. (See the article on “Black
leading ” in the Appendix.)
Ways are laid for hauling up, as shown in Fig. 161.
During the last ten years the form of the boats have very much
altered ; the deep fore foot and full bow having disappeared, and the boats
built under the club rules do not now much differ from the boats built
under Y.R.A. rules, with the exception that plumb stems are compulsory.
The following are the Club measurements for racing yachts:
(a) Length of yacht on load water-line from fore side of stem to after
side of rudder port shall not exceed 20ft., and the total length from fore
side of stem to extreme end of counter shall not exceed 25ft. 6in., and no
part of stem above or below water, or stern post below water, shall project
beyond the 20ft. gauge. A yacht shall be considered to be on her load
water-line when she lies, adrift from moorings, in smooth water, without
crew, with all sails set, and racing gear on board.
(b) No yacht, when on her load water-line, shall have less than 2ft. 6in.
freeboard at the stem, and the deck of the yacht shall be carried aft from
that point in a fair or reasonable line or shear.
(c) Beam (extreme outside measurement) shall not be less than 6ft. 6in.
or more than 7ft. 6in. without beading or moulding.
(d) The draft of water shall not exceed 5ft. 6in. when the yacht is on
her load water-line.
(e) The yacht shall show at least one quarter of an inch of her rudder
post clear of the water when on her load water-line.
- (f) No part of the counter shall intersect a triangle or the produced
perpendicular thereof described as follows: Base, 5ft. 6in. on load water-
line produced and perpendicular 1ft. 4in, from water.
(g) The length of the mast from deck to truck or end of pole shall not
exceed 26ft. 8in. ; the bowsprit, from fore side of mast to extreme end, shall
not exceed 19tt. in length ; the boom, from aft side of mast to the end,
shall not exceed 21 ft. 10in. in length ; and the gaff (measured parallel to
the boom) shall in this case not exceed 15ft. in length, and for every inch
added to the length of the gaff 2in. shall be taken off the length of the
boom, but the length of the gaff shall in no case exceed 16ft, 8in. ; if in
any case an outhaul is used, the boom shall be measured from aft side of
mast to the aft side of sheave hole, and the foot of the mainsail shall not
extend outboard of the sheave hole. The topsail yard shall not exceed 18ft.
in length. *
(h) The hoist of mainsail, from thimble to thinble, shall not exceed 16ft.
(i) From deck to pin of jib halyard sheave or pin of block, when
hanging parallel to mast, shall not exceed 23ft. 9in., and block (if used)
IS) D
4()2
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
*-------------------- * ... wº. --- - - - - - - - - - - -
shall be attached to a point as low as possible on mast to permit of hanging
as aforesaid.
(j) The mast, from deck to pin of topsail sheave, shall not exceed
25ft. 9in.
(k) No yacht shall have less than 32cwt. of ballast, and no ballast shall
be carried inside of yacht. -
(l) All yachts are to be constructed with natural frames, spaced not
more than 2ft. apart, with steamed timbers between, with single pine, larch,
oak, pitch pine, American elm, English elm, baywood, or teak planking and
decks. Iron floors are allowed, but no iron or steel frames.
(m) Lead keels shall be affixed to wooden keels not less than 6in. in
thickness at any point at the widest part between the rabbet line and the
lead keel, and the lead shall not project beyond the wooden keel in a fore
or aft direction.
The above rules are to remain in force until the 1st of January, 1899.
Fore and aft sails, namely, mainsail, jib, and topsail only, and no
square sails, or other sails set as square sails, are to be used, and no footslicks
or jack yards shall be allowed to the gaff topsails, and no booming out of
the sails shall be permitted.
No yachts which are fitted to shift keels or otherwise alter their forms,
and no yachts constructed with steel keels or plates fitted with lead in bulk,
cigar, or other shapes attached to such plates are allowed.
It will be apparent from the foregoing that very strict rules as to the
form, construction, and dimensions of the Windermere yachts are insisted
upon, and consequently comparatively little scope is left for the yacht
designer to exercise his ingenuity. The rules, however, have since 1880
been found to work admirably, and the sailing committee of the club will
not countenance any departure from the letter, or from the spirit of
the established rules, and no yachts are allowed to race which, in the
opinion of the committee, may have been built, altered, or rigged to evade
the club rules, or which they may consider not to be a properly constructed
sailing vessel.
In the winter of 1889-90 a new boat was built for Mr. T. D. Lingard
by John Shaw, who also designed her. She is known as Rosita, and has
been fairly successful as a racer on the lake. (See Plate LXVI.)
The lines of another successful Windermere yacht, the Midge, are
shown on Plate LXVII. She was designed by Mr. C. Livingston, of
Liverpool, and built for Mr. A. D. Hannay, 1890, by Messrs. Holmes and
Son.
A number of yachts have been built since the Rosita and the Midge of
designs as various as the strictness of the rules permitted, but it is doubtful
Windermere Una Yachts. 403
whether any very decided improvement has been made, though some of the
newer yachts have had very considerable success, notably the Ruby,
designed by the owner, Mr. A. R. Sladen, and built by G. Brock bank, of
Bowness; and the Snipe, owned by Mr. Edmund Potter, designed by Mr.
G. L. Watson, and built by G. Brockbank.
yacht will be found on Plate LXVIII.
The lines of the last named
TABLE OF DIMIENSIONS AND ELEMENTS.

ROSLTA. MIDGE. |UNA.
Length on L.W.L., including rudder post ............... 19ſt. 10in. 20ft. 0 in. 16ft. 1 in.
Beam, extreme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ; s a s p * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 7ft. Oim. 7ft. 0in. 5ft. 9in.
Draught of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4ft. 10in. 5ft, Oin. 2ft. 10in.
Area or mid-section ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9:5 sq. ft. 9.8 sq. ft. 5.3 sq. ft.
Displacement ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 tons. 3 tons. 1:4 tons.
Centre of buoyancy aft centre of length .................. 0-6ſt. 0°46ft. 0.9ft.
C.E. ahead of C.L.R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ()-2ſt. 0'3ſt. -
Lead on keel . - - - - - a s g º e s - - - - - - - - e s s : * * * - - - - - - - * * * * 1.92 ton. 1'95 ton. 0.7 ton.
Lead inside ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0-05 ton. - -
Area of mainsail ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 sq. ft. - 197 sq. ft.
Area of headsail Y.R.A. . . . . . . . . ........................... 225 sq. ft. - -
Area of topsail ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 sq. ft. - -
Total sail area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 sq. ft. 695 sq. ft. 197 sq. ft.
The scantling of Rosita is as follows: Oak frames 2in. moulded by
1%in. sided ; American elm timbers 1 in. by in ; beams 2%in. by 1%in.;
thickness of planks #in. ; stem is 14in. moulded by 3%in. sided ; stern
post 9in. by 3in. ; elm keel 6in. by 7in. ; planking of yellow pine.
In 1887 Mr. Thomas Dewhurst Lingard, owner of the Janira, and
later of the Rosita, started a Una rig class of 16ft. on the water line,
lead keels, &c., but no centre-board.
(See Plate LXIX.)
designed and built by John Shaw for Mr. Walter Whitehead.
One of the latest and most successful boats is shown on Plate LXX.
She was designed by Messrs. Shepherd, of Bowness, but the design
was modified by Mr. C. P. Clayton.
Whitehead.
She was
She was built for Mr. Walter
These boats are decked in forward and aft with a practically water-
tight bulkhead 7ft. from the stem, and another aft 6ft. from the taffrail.
They have waterways and coalmings round the cockpit. The lead keels
render them practically uncapsizable, and the water-tight bulkheads
unsinkable. There are water-tight doors cut in the bulkheads, so as to
render the spaces useful for stowage, &c.
The boats are very handy, and are comparatively Safe, as they
- D D 2
404 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
need be for deep water like Windermere. They carry no spinnakers,
and the large mainsail of 197 sq. ft. drives them along very fast off the
wind, and carries them to windward well.
DIMENSIONS OF SPARS AND SAILS.
Mast deck to halyard bolt ... . . . . . . . . . 14ft.
Boom ....................................... 17ft. 6in.
Gaff ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Øft. 6in.
Foreside of mast from stem ... . . . . . . . . . 2ft. 3in
Foot of mainsail........................... 17ft. 3in.
Head of mainsail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9ft. 3in.
Luff of mainsail. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ft. 8in.
Leach of mainsail ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 ft.
Clew to throat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20ſ 5.
Tack to peak earing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20ft.
There is a forestay, and
on each side of the mast
a shroud, the eye of
shrouds going over the
mast, and resting on the
main halyard bolt. The
shrouds are set up on
the gunwale 1 ft. abaft the
mast. The peak halyard
FIG. 162. is fast to the mast 3ft.
above the halyard bolt, and then leads to a block about 1ſt. 6in. from
gaff end, back through a cheek block on the pole midway between the
standing part anářhe main halyard bolt.










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and built by
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|894.
D IM ENSIONS.
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* * * = --- -






CIH. A. PTE R X. XI.
SMALL YACHTS AND BOATS OF Y.R.A. RATING.
THERE is not the smallest doubt that the action of the Y.R.A. in adopting
the “length and sail area” rule for the rating of yachts in 1887 had a more
wide-spread effect in promoting competition among small yachts and boats
than it had on competitions between large yachts. Since 1876 the art or
science of yacht and boat designing, and sailing has aroused unusual
interest, and the knowledge of the subject has undergone a very extra-
ordinary development. All the mysteries that surrounded “lines,” and
“centres,” and the shibboleth of technical terms, have been swept away,
and the average boat sailer of the present day knows a great deal more
about the principles which underlie the science of naval architecture than
the average builder did in the sixties. •
In consequence of the practical study of yacht and boat designing
being made subjects of so much interest the production of boats or yachts
of small size for racing was much increased; still, this production
was seriously hindered by the old tonnage rule, used for the rating of
yachts which admitted of an endless drawing out of length of hull
and increase of sail spread for any given tonnage. The “ length and
sail area rule * stopped this by introducing the condition, that if for
any given rating a boat’s length is increased her sail spread will have to be
reduced.
This condition has given extraordinary impetus to the development of
boat building and boat sailing, and, besides all round the coast, every
available watercourse or lake has now its boat-sailing club. The boats vary
in form and length, as might be expected, the most notable features being
that for sailing in salt water—the length of hull is greater and the sail spread
smaller than they are for river or lake sailing. The 2-5-raters, 1-raters,
406 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
-------------
and 0.5-raters are the most popular sizes, and their varying length of hu]]
and sail spread for coast or river work are given in the following table :

COAST. T.J. W. J. R.
P.W.; sail spread L T. sail spread.
Length. sm Spread. /i. Ilongth. '?” " w/ L.
2°5 Rating .................. 26ft. 576 sq. ft. 1-084 21 ft. 714 sq.ft. "...;
1-0 Rating .................. 20ſt. 300 sq. ft. 1'155 17 ft. 353 sq. ft. ()'904
0.5 Rating .................. 16ft. 187 sq. ft. 1-170 14ft. 214 sq. ft. ().957
0-25 Rating ............... 14ft. 107 sq. ft. 1'354 11.5 130 sq. ft. 1-009
The development under the length and sail area rating was in the
direction of small displacement, and, to make up for the deficiency of weight,
great beam was resorted to and the fin bulb keel. These features were
objected to by many on account of the want of depth of hold or standing
and living room on board, although the objection can scarcely apply to
boats of 20ft. length which are built solely for racing. The Dacia
(Plate LXXI.), 5-rater, represents what the rule had produced in 1892,
when she was designed by Mr. C. E. Nicholson and built by Messrs.
Camper and Nicholson for Mr. H. R. Langrishe (afterwards sold to the Earl
of Dudley). The Dacia was a very successful craft, and during the seasons
1892-3 she held her own against all comers, but in 1894 she was defeated
by the broader and shallower boats, such as Flatfish (Plate LXXII., designed
by Mr. J. M. Soper for Mrs. G. A. Schenley).
This development went through all the classes, and Lady Nan,
designed by Mr. A. E. Payne (Plate LXXIII.) represents what the 2-5-raters
were like in 1888 (the second year of the rule), Papoose (Plate LXXIV.),
also designed by Mr. A. E. Payne, in 1892, and Virginia (Plate LXXV.)
in 1895.
Papoose, was a most successful racing craft in the hands of Mr.
Paul Ralli, who sailed her himself in all her matches whilst he owned
her (1892-3). He also sailed her from the Solent to Plymouth in very
coarse weather, and spoke most highly of her good qualities in a seaway.
The lines of Papoose also represent those of two other successful 2-5-rater,
Cockatoo and Yvery, these two, with slight variations, having been built
from the same drawings.
Maharanee, 1-rating (Plate LXXVI.), was designed by Mr. A. E. Payne,
and sailed a most successful career. Another 1-rater, Icipici, was built
from her lines, and beat all comers at the Pola Regattas.
A centre-plate type of 1-rater is well represented by Gaiety Girl
//
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O / 2 LEAD BULB of 5 RATER
| 1–1– | || | 1. | | | & 99
N ‘F LAT FIS H. /
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№
(2.5 RATING)
Designed by A. E. PAYNE
“LADY NAN."
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2 - 5 R
A T E R .
P. A . R A
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Zength overa/............ 34.2" |
-----...---- on A.W.A.----------- 26. 6."
Æreadth.---------------------. 7'3"
Araught of Water...... 5’ 6”
Z/So/acement.-----------.
3 - 22 70A's.

Plate T.YXV.
–T
TTL – T. -- |
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- - -
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V iſ R (G iſ N iſ {\ . |
2 - 5 R A T | N G 7% ſwcH STEEL PLATE :
THE MARQUIS FAZIo DAL Pozzo.
Length over al/------------. 39. :
, on L. W. L.------...- 26, ... :
Beam extreme --------------- 8, 6 |
Extreme draught ----------- 6
Disp/acement -------------- 3 tons :
Sai/ Area Y. R.A.--------578sq. f* LEAD BuLB |
Scale of 34 Inch to / foot. :
BU/LT BY . -
THE TE/G/WMOUTH SH/P & YACHT BUILD/WG C2 - tººl ºf ſ f i f f f f f : p A/ ſº g # A5 ſe ſº f f fo ?, #2 a #4 #5 fe * : *
Designed by D 1X0 W K E M P. .
FEBRUARY |4 ſ” / 8 95.
_-T
--
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-



“Tyſ AHI A R A N E E . Plate LXXVI.
I R A T E R .
DES I G NED FOR F. L. CARS LAKE, ESQ.
BY A. E. P. A Y N E , | 8 93.
AND BUILT BY SUMMERs & PAYNE, 1893.
Zength over aſſ.......... 29 #. 6 in. TT– | T-
*. º T- T-
Length on 1.W. 1....... /8 , 6 in. TT– T-
Breadth extreme .......... 5 , // im. - T- - T- -
Draught of Water........ 4 , 3 in. –T- - Tº Tº
Disp/acement … 1 - 07 ſon. T- `s Tºs Tº
“...? ſ ? 3 f # 6 7 & 3 ſo ſt ſ2 £3 {4 {5 46 47 (8 {9 20
S C A L E 0 F F E E T.
TRs -
IIT-TV- T
! - - - - - - --- Tºº-ººm— - - _T
== ZT-T_2~2– - - ==zF- T--— - .* - - F _r=" *
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...— ... *
*
% ſnch STEEL PLATE
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*…*
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*GAIETY GIRL I RATER.
F. Nor
Designed by C. P cLAYTON , , -":
MAN DARBYSHIRE &
OF LIVERPOOL,
– 1594–
HolkóYD, F sqº
Plate LXXVII.
* -- -- *=
"-- - - - _- - --"
- - *m. - - *– = =-- -- *T*" -- =="
* -—-
- mºst-
- jhintipal Dimisims.
# . - - Z A //75.
- - A /VG 7// OWAAPA/A 26 -//
\ %6" PLATE 2^ - 6. /
\ 9 - 3 P. PT /7.5 /bs 2^ | - ZAW.67// ow Z. W/. 20 - 2
\ - - vº | Overhawo Azz 2970s WAAPA) 4 - 0
\ - 6B + + 2^ -
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\ C. Bº 2^ 2 + /JRA46/7. Ax/RAME 2 - O
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AREA Of Z. W/. 63% ºf
5.4/ZAAAA Y/PA. 296 &
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Top of HANG! NG KEEL
BOTTOM OF LEA D
CO C K P/T
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SCA LE OF FEET.
O | 1 2 3 4. 5 6 7 8 S f0 II 12
l
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1–––––––––1 —#—l— I t 1 # -m-m-

















Plate LXXVll.
(2)
R A T E R ,
y
99
Q
|P.
J ſy
*W (O)
BUILT FOR H. R. LANGRIs HE ESQRE
BY CAMPER & NICHOLSON, IN 1894.
|
|-4-----
|
|
|-
YAC HT BU I LD E R s,
- G O S P O R. T.
DESIGNED BY C. E. NICHOLSON.
-> --------->=1-------|----------------|-----><-
Scale of / Inch to / Foot.
12
10
- ------º'- s
|
-----











Plate LXXVITT .
Q?
9
Y. R. A. O. 5 R A T E R ,
°C D (ſ) U E T TE
S A L | N. G
B O A T
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º@
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C H A R L E S E. N. 1 c Ho L S on
F R
J E S S O P.
)
ș+ ș+ ++==+===+++==+ + + + +*=+==+++==+?=+ +++ +
DIMENSIONS OF COQUETTE.
Length over
all.….........…. 18.
}~ * * * * * * * * * * 4"x 3.
Plank (cedar)............................................
ș*ș#
-----------------------'73
Wrought iron floors on sawn timbers....... %"
Lead keel bolts............................................?"
Bent timbers 3 between each
pair of Sawn timbers..........
Sawn timbers nailed and moulded....../#"
Timbers spaced..........................................24"
Stem sided................................................2" ..
Stern postsided..........................................2% ..
Weight of Jead keeſ................................ º
Draught of water..................................... 3". 0"
Area mid-section..........................................
Displacement.--........................................ f}
Centre of buoyancy aft ce
Length on Water Line............................... 6”
Breadth extreme ........................................4. 6."
====
NG LCC’
`
Jeaſe of B3 ſnch to / foot.
E S Q 5 #
BY
| LT
C A M P E R & N C H o L S on,
A N E B ty
E. .
1891.
i
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“E A B ºr
0.5 R A T E R . º - —
D E S T G N E D F O R
c. B A R T o N, E S Q ºf
a Y A. E., P. A Y N E .
| & 9 4-,
[…? ! : 3 * 5 f 7 8 3 ſo ſ 2 º 14 15 16 17 15 Plate LXXIX .
SCALE OF FEET
— -mº-º-º:
º-º-º-º-º-º:
NSG LT2'24/ - = ==T- k _--- –
`s-He – -*--- T- ----"T
3% BRASS PLATE,
| Araught of Water......... 3.8
Z/32/acement............ /2% CW.

Plate LXXX.
Yard 258 ho/6S
E
{\ , SAIL PLAN of
<--— — — —--- 2.5 R A T E R
*::::
s-
º:
º
-->
* BY
MESSº RATSEYS & LAPTHORN
cow;ES
JULY, lees.
:
***a*-
––––––––– ? 2 / 2 * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * *
SCALE – 3%. Of AW /NCH - 1 F()0T - . §





Small Racing Yachts. 407
(Plate LXXVII.), designed by Mr. C. P. Clayton in 1894, whilst more
extreme types of centre-board 1-raters will be found farther back in the
chapter on small centre-board yachts, page 321.
The 0:5-raters are represented by Coquette (Plate LXXVIII.), designed
in 1891 by Mr. C. E. Nicholson, and by the later style Baby (Plate LXXIX.),
designed in 1894 by Mr. A. E. Payne.
It is generally expected that the rating rule which comes into
operation in 1896 will modify these types by decreasing breadth and
draught of water, and, at the same time, induce more depth of under water
body and larger sail spreads.
A sail plan for a 2-5-rater is given on Plate LXXX., and in shape
would be the same for a 1-rater or 0'5-rater.
CHAPTER XXII.
S IN G L E - H AND E I) () R U IS E. R. S.
SINGLE-HANDED CRUISING.
A GOOD deal has been written about single-handed cruising, and the best
books on the subject are no doubt those written by Mr. MacMullen
(“Down Channel ” and accounts of the various cruises in “Orion,” not
excepting his famous sail round Great Britain and Ireland in the Jubilee
Race, 1887); also the books written by Mr. John Macgregor (especially his
“Voyage Alone in the Yawl Rob Roy’). These books can be obtained of
George Wilson, Yacht Agent, Sherwood-street, Piccadilly-circus, Regent-
street, London.
In selecting a boat or yacht for single-handed cruising, it must be
realised that there is no special vessel adapted for this kind of thing
which can claim to be better than another; the fact is, anything will serve
as a single-hander up to say 7 tons, and Mr. MacMullen made a successful
but laborious essay...at single-handed sailing in the Orion, 19 tons.
It must be rejembered that it is not so much the size of the boat
as the size of the sails which is of importance in single-handed sailing ;
and large sails must, as a matter of course, never be indulged in. The
gear, too, should be as simple as possible; the ropes must not be too
small, and the blocks should be large. This will save labour, and cause
everything to run freely whether in hoisting or lowering. The sizes
of the ropes, &c., of vessel like that shown on Plate LXXXI. should
not be smaller than those for a 5 rater given in the Table, page 40.
A great deal has already been said about the handiness of the various
rigs in the earlier portions of this work, and nothing more need be
said about it here, beyond referring to thé sail plan (Plate LXXXI.) of
the boat designed for Mr. Percy Aylmer by the author. Of course it
is incumbent that all the sheets should lead aft and belay, and for jib
traveller nothing could possibly be better than Burgoine’s patent, shown
on page 303.
The design made for Mr. Aylmer has a raised deck 9in. high, and
would be fitted below something like Spankadillo (Plate XII., page 78).
æ· *
… • ***
=*
Yawl
FOR
S 1 N CLE tº HAN DE D
.#
D
G. PERCY AYLMER, ESQ.
ruis
DESIGN
BY Dixon KEMP,
1885.
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PLATE LXXXI.
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PLATE LXXXIl.





Vivid Single-Handed Cruiser. 4.09
For sailing in inland waters and on some coasts a smaller draught of
water than 4ft. is necessary, and Cigarette (Plate LXXXII.) is a type for this
purpose, but it should be said she always sailed with a paid hand on board
besides her owner. She was built for sailing on the Norfolk Broads, where
in many places a draught of water of more than 3ft. is not practicable.
The design was made for the late Sir George Prescott, Bart., and was built
in 1886 by Stephen Field, of Thorpe, Norwich. In 1888 another boat,
named Düne, was built by Stow and Son, of Shoreham, from the lines of
Cigarette, and she is fitted with a centre-plate. It is pivoted 11 ft. from
stem, is 8ft. long, and drops 2ft. below keel at after end. Both proved
fast and powerful boats.
AYLMER. CIGARETTE. WIVID.
Length over all .............................. 27 ft. 3in. 31 ft. 61m. 29ſt.
Length on deck stem to sternpost ... . . . 23ft. 4 in. 26ft. 4 in. -
Length on load water-line.................. 22ft. 25ft. 6in. 20ft. 2in.
Beam extreme ................................. 6ft. 6in. 7ft. 8in. 6ft. 4%in.
Extreme draught of water .................. 3ft. 10in. 2ft. 10in. 3ft. 11 in.
Displacement ................................. 4-5 tons. 4-5 tons. 4°15 tolls.
C.B. abaft centre of L.W.L. ............... ()' 68ſt. 0.85ft. smºs
Area midship section ........................ 12.5 sq. ft. --- 11:2 sq. ft.
Area vertical longitudinal Section ...... 73 sq. ft. --- ---
C.L.R. abaft centre of length ......... - 1ft. * -
C.E. sail ahead ditto ........ § e e g º g º e s tº e º e º a wº 1 : 5ſt. 1'3ſt. sº-
Weight of lead keel........................... 1°8 tons. 2 tons. 2-3 tons
Mast deck to hounds ........................ 19ſt. 9in. 21ft. 18ft.
Pole ............................................. 8ft. 3in. 8ft. 9in. 9ft. 6in.
Main boom .................................... 16ft. 9in. 24ft. 19ſt. 6in.
Main gaff ....................................... 13ft. 6in. 16ft. 6in. 13ft. 6in.
Bowsprit outboard ........................... 9ft. 6in. 11 ft. 3in. 10ft. 6in.
Bumpkin ... ... ................................ 2ft. - ---
Topsail yard ................................. 16ft. * 19ſt. 9in.
Spinnaker boom .............................. 14ft. --- -----
Foreside mast to fore end L.W.L. ........ 7ft: 9in. 9ft, 6in. 8ft.
Mizen mast deck to hounds ........ ...... 11.ft. — ---
Mizen boom .................................... 7ft. 9in. --- *
Mizen yard ......... .......................... 7ft. --- -
Area mainsail ................................. 264 sq. ft. 430 sq. ft. 309 sq. ft.
Area foresail ................................. 72 sq. ft. -- 77 sq. ft.
Area jib ....................................... 60 sq. ft. 220 sq. ft. 100 sq. ft.
Area mizen .................................... 54 sq. ft. - --- ---
Total area, lower sail ........................ 450 sq. ft. 650 sq. ft. 486 sq. ft.
THE VIVID, SINGLE-HANDER (PLATE LXXXIII.)
The Vivid is a cruising pole-masted cutter, designed by Mr. G. L.
Watson for Mr. Butler, of Dalton-in-Furness, in 1886. She is 20tt. on
the water line, and of a type suited to all weathers and waters, taking the
ground, if necessary, in tidal waters. She is a handy craft, and will work
to windward under head sail alone. She is unique as regards internal
room, there being no timbers, but only floors to the height of the seats,
and the head room being 4ft. between top of floor and under side of deck,
on a draught of water of 4ft., with a lot of storage room under the floor
between the angle-iron floors. She has one bulkhead, with two doors
410 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
between cabin and cockpit, with one movable hatch over cabin, quite
Water-tight, and adjoining cockpit, so that when it is off there is ample
room to move in, and it can be set on the cabin seats, forming a floor
continuous and level with the cockpit floor. There are lockers under the
seats, with two small sideboards at the after end of the cabin, and a pantry
On each side of the mast. Earth closet forward, sail stowage in front of
that and the counter is divided longitudinally into two lockers. Careful
provision has been made for the stowage of “grounding legs,” compass,
lamps, candlesticks, glasses, &c., that they may not tumble about in a sea
way. The floor is 1.ft. 11 in. wide; the skylight hatch is 5in. high, 3ft.
wide, and 6ft. long, shaped to the vessel (oval); the 5in. coaming running
right round the cockpit. She has a beautiful clipper stem, 3ft. Over the
water line and 6ft. counter, giving great deck room and lifting power in a
sea. The bulwarks are 6in. high forward, tapering gradually aft. Her
keel is 24in. by 5in., tapering to form of vessel; outside skin, #rin. teak ;
inside, §in. Cedar. She was cut away at the ends very considerably, to
keep the skin resistance at a minimum, as she has a small sail area. The
mast is 18ft. from deck to hounds; boom, 19ſt. 6in. ; gaff, 13ft. 6in. ;
bowsprit, over water line, 10ft. 6in. She has 2 tons 43 cwt. of lead ballast
on her keel, which puts her down to 3ft. 11 in., or 2in. below the designed
water line. She has 1.ft. 10in. freeboard, which has proven ample. This
extra freeboard gives both power and head room, which amply balances
any loss thereby going to windward. Her beam is 6ft. 4%in., and is only
about 2in. less inside. The head sheets are belayed on cleats on a movable
rail across the cabin doors, but there would have been no harm if it was a
fixture. As the boat is so quick in stays, the usual places on the side of
the cockpit coaming are often found unhandy. The head sheets are worked
through eye-bolts well in on the deck, about a foot from the bulwarks, just
as in a 5 beam boat. The rigging is all set up with screws. She was well
built by the Barrow Shipbuilding Co., all the wood being cut and fitted
like cabinet work, and the iron work all dressed up with a file after
galvanising. All her fastenings are copper and yellow metal; rudder-
fastenings, rigging, screws, and keel fastenings, being gun metal. She is
lined with #in. Cedar battens, open work; sideboards, doors, coamings,
and hatches, teak; all the rest cedar. Her floors are of galvanised angle
iron, and double knees of the same, alternating with hard wood fillings,
tapering off to nothing at the top of seats. The keel side bolts go through
the double knees in the thickening at the neck; the middle bolts through
buttons edged on the angle iron flanges. The main sheet has a double fall,
and there is a jib purchase. She has a working and balloon topsail, and a
small spinnaker. The gunwale construction is shown on Plate LXXXIV.
The general arrangement and sail plan, Plate LXXXV.
Offsets for Vivid.
411

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(IIIXXX'I GILVTĀ) CILAIA—SIGISÈLÈHO HO GITIGTVI,
412 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
THE SINGLE HANDED CRUISER GODIVA.
The single handed Godiva, Plate LXXXVI., was built for Mr. J. M.
Hamilton, jun., Stepney, Hull, in 1890, by J. W. Hodgson, of Hull. She
proved a very handy and comfortable little ship, and has also been fairly
successful in racing against boats of her class. She has cruised on the
Zuider Zee, Friesland Meres, &c., but principally in the neighbourhood
of the Humber, and has been used for wildfowl shooting during the
winter.
To provide for occasionally being shipped by steamer, a portion only of
the ballast is on the keel in the form of a half-ton iron shoe, the remainder,
about one ton, lead and iron, is inside, and therefore easily removed
when required. The mast is fitted to lower after the style of the Norfolk
Broad yachts, but is not provided with counterpoise weights, as it is
seldom necessary to lower it in home waters. The decks are laid double ;
first, wide #im. planks, covered with calico and plenty of paint, over which
the narrow planks, also #in. thick, are secured. By adopting the above
method, a perfectly watertight deck is produced, capable of standing
any amount of sun and weather—an important matter in a small cruiser.
There is room for two to sleep in the cabin, or one in the forecastle, which
is curtained off at the mast. During the winter a small coal stove is used
below, placed to starboard of the mast, the flue pipe leading out through
the fore hatch. As tanned sails are then used, it does not matter about
Smoke.
The canvas used for the mainsail is rather heavier than is generally
made up for sails of Godiva's size ; but with it she stands up to a breeze
better than with the first mainsail made for her of lighter canvas, and has
the advantage of not bagging or stretching out of shape. The cloths are
14in. wide, seams Overlap lin., at foot 3in., and at head 2%in., round on
foot 15in. There are three jibs; the working one is a size different to
the one shown in the sail plan, Plate LXXXVI.
MATIVRIALS USED IN Construction.
Reel, oak, 6%in. Stem and sternposts, rudder, coamings, housetop, &c., oak. Frames, oak,
1%in. by 1%in., and 3;in. at throat, 20in. centre to centre, with two American elm ribs between
each. Planking, 3 in., bottom redwood, top-sides oak, varnished. Covering board, oak. Deck,
1in. thick, redwood, double. Rail, American elm. Counter, bulkhead, and door, cabin doors,
&c., oak and mahogany. Keel, stem and sternpost bolts, galvanised iron, screwed and set up
with nuts inside. All iron work galvanised, copper fastened.


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Scate 1%in. 1 Fool.
pI,ATE LXXXIV,
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Midship Section
Scale l;"|- 1 Foot.
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PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS
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or Load, Water Ivve
BREADTH º ." -- - - - - - - - - l
.......,....Moulded
DEPTH from tº
of wooden Keel-...-------------~~"T"
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7…ans on 31%rd jers, on Centra/
Carºt Tºrnbers &7Aft
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KEEL 24'-5"Tºpered to Form of Wessel
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stERN TIMBER 7 × 4 to 2% 3. SS==% sreanpost-, i.aaºº-º-º- • ‘ºsº-ºº-
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sº as * * * * * ,........, counter 6%2#”
AFTER DEAD WOOD
Fore.......,…, n--?” “” "
AFTER sole PIECF 7"at Føre End tapered.
zºvia, ºn way of ster” 7… Fore End.
Jºel tapered to form. of Stem,
to fºrm of Wessel. at Aſt end
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stem at Keel 54 by 7' t
Harch coaming 6"high. gºousonal ºr inbers
- ..., |\º/ . g-...-., - L.W. L.64 x 4"to 0.
countER of solid english alm to first beam. | t
gº .* * * * * ...,....HEAD 44'x2.É. i
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H E A D-...---- 7 ----f yellow pine
, 194%r°of last bearrv
Weight of Vessel as paº wnto Dock
LEAD KEE". },
Weight, (Rough).------------------- 2Tons sºon OtB5 ...,...spars -----------------------"T 2 2 *
• | 1 || 0 ,----- m^* zºgging £ Blocks.---------------T _ 3 2/3
\ y ----- ...sail & Ropas --------------~~T. 3 0 0
• * * * * ,, ... Anchor (baoice).------------~~~~TT, 4 43
. ------------~~Tri- 4 + 48
7----- m chan -----------------TTTTTT --------T
zah, ...-------------------TTTTTT 4. 1 2 - 7




































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PLATE LXXXVI.
Aſ
The Single-hander Godiva. /2 Æe e Z.


PLATE LXXXVII
LEAD | KEEL /3% cºvć
~ *
-- "
aw
C ENTRE PLArg 3% | N TH | CK
3 3 *
// /O 9
THE SCOURGE
(1-RATER). ,
/o // /3 /º)
"IDesigned by
Capt. H. E. BAYLEY,
and built by
H} - HIOI) G-E, 2.
Dartmouth, 1894.
/


The Cruiser—Racer Scourge. 413
DIMIENSION 8.
Length over all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23ft.
Ditto on L.W.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 ft.
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6ft. 5in.
Draught, with all gear and two men on board . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 3ft. 3in.
Mast, goose-neck to cranse iron ................................ 17ft.
Ditto, pole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5ft.
Boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 16ft. 6in.
Gaff ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14ft.
Bowsprit outboard ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10ft.
MAINSAIL.
Head...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13ft. 8in.
Luff ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13ft.
Foot (new, unstretched) ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 15ft.
Ditto (stretched) ................................................... 15ft. 6in.
Leech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25ft.
For ESAIL.
Luff ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17ft. 2ft.
Foot ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9ft, 9in.
Leech... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15ft.
4.in. blocks for main and peak halyards and main sheet. Halyards and sheets of 13 in.
Manilla rope.
THE SCOURGE–CRUISER-RACER OF 1–RATING
(PLATE LXXXVII.)
Of the many amateur designers, Capt. H. E. Bayly, of Exmouth, has
perhaps won most distinction, and has practised the craft now nearly forty
years. He began with the 15-tonner Ethel in 1856, which had a lead keel
of 13 tons—a really wonderful thing in those days—and since then has
turned out fifty-two designs. In these he has, of course, suited all the
moods of fashion that could be traced from the beamy craft of 1856; the
plank on edge of 1886, and the broad, shallow, pram bowed bulb keeler of
1894. Noted among the racers which he designed and built was the
famous 15-tonner Buccaneer of 1865; the successful Buccaneer (19 tons) of
1879; the extreme 3-tonner Spankadillo of 1882, and then, after 1887,
such well-known names in the rating classes of 2-5 and under as Scara-
mouch, Jack o’ Lantern, Picaroon, Thelma, and Soprano, besides many
cruisers, from the 50-ton Frog to the 20-ton Murre. His latest contribution
to specimens of marine architecture is the 1-rater Scourge, which has been
designed for single handed cruising and handicap racing. The rig is main
and mizen sail of the fashionable leg of mutton lug type; the yard points
in a lime with the mast, and its heel is “jawed” to the mast ; the boom is
goose-necked to the mast. The leach of the mainsail has a round of about
1ft., which is steadied by battens. The mizen is a simple 'Mudian. The
4.14 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
lead keel is “bulbed,” and weighs about 14cwt.; through the bulb a good-
sized centre-plate is fitted, and there will be a small contre-plate under the
fore-foot about 1.5 sq. ft. The boat was built by Mr. Hodge, of Dºrtmouth,
and is quite a stylish looking craft.
DIMENSIONS.–SCOURGE.
Length over all ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25ft.
Length on L.W.L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20ft.
Breadth.................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7ft.
Draught of water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2ft. 6in.
Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-ton.
Centre of buoyancy aft centre of length of L.W.L. . . . . . . . . . ()' 55-ton.
Central lateral resistance ditto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1°4′ſt.
Centre lateral resistance, including centre plute . . . . . . . . . . . . 1’ 1.ft.
Centre of effort of sails abaft C.L.R., plate down . . . . . . . . . . . . ()' 15ft.
Centre of effort of sails (mizen excluded) ahead ditto . . . . . . 1:6ft.
Weight of lead keel.................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13% cwt.
SPARS AND SAIL8, CRUISING!.
Mainmast, deck to pin of halyard sheave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17ft. 3in.
Mainmast boom ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20ft. 6in.
Mainmast yard hole to hole ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17ft. 6in.
Luff of mainsail ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8ft.
Leach of mainsail ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 ft. 6in.
Clew to throat earing .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21ft. 4 in.
Mizen mast, deck to pin of halyard Bheave..................... 11ft. 6in.
Mizen boom ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6ft. 9in.
Area of mainHail ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 sq.ft.
Area of mizen ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 sq. ft.
Total sail area .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 sq. ft.
, to
Q
nºr
THE SINGLE-1ANDED CRUISER “ABRE PERENNIUS.”
In the spring of 1895 the London Sailing Club had a competition for
single-handed cruisers, which the club thus defined: “By the term single-
handed cruiser is meant a craft not exceeding 30ft. Overall, capable of
being navigated single-handed in open waters, such as the lower reaches of
the Thames, and providing cabin accommodation for her crew.” The first
prize was taken by Mr. J. C. Enberg, of Norrökping, Sweden. The design
is an exceedingly good one, and the arrangement under deck excellent.
All the falls of halyards, sheets, &c., lead to the cockpit aft, and the
anchor chain is brought under deck to a ratchet winch in the cockpit,
so that under ordinary conditions the latter craft could be got under way
from the cockpit. This vessel is sloop rigged.
The ballast would be from 40 to 50 per cent. of the displacement
(4.4 tons), according to the sizes of scantling used in the construction of
the boat. She has an alternative yawl rig, as shown on Plate LXXXVIII.
PLATE LXXXVIII
"AERE PERENNIUS”
SINGLE-HANDED CRUISER, Length over aſſ............... 29 Ft. // In.
DES G NED BY Length Oſ) L.W. L. • * * * *s is a “* * * * 23 Ft.
JOHN C. ENBERG. Breadth...............................6 ft 7/n.
No RR Ko PIN G, sw EDEN Draught of Water...........4 Ft. 3/n,
5 ſº Displacement........................4 ſons.
AND AWARDED FIRST PRIZE - -
at the Ballast on Keel..................! ſon. /5 cwt.
LONDON SAILING CLUB COMPETITION, Ballast inside … 9 cwt.
Sail Area … 530 ft
HAMMERSMITH, -
1895.

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'AERE PERENNIUs"
SINGLE-HANDED
CRUISER,
*
iºns iºn si ...+iº-ruk.a. L- ---------------~~~~ -* *-**-*--------
PLATE LXXXVIII. (2)
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416 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
THE SINGLE-ELANDED CRUISER DOROTHY.
The design of the single-hander Dorothy (Plate IXXXIX.) was also in
the London Sailing Club competition, and had the highest certificate of merit
awarded. She was designed and built by Mr. Linton Hope, Greenhithe,
Kent, in 1894, for Mr. E. Gould, and is wonderfully well thought out. She
proved a staunch, fast, and good Sea boat, and has done quite a record
amount of cruising about the estuary of the Thames in all kinds of weather.
Full particulars of the design and internal arrangements will be found on
Plate LXXXIX.
THE SINGLE-HANDER. R.H.E.O.L.A.
The Rheola (Plate XC.) was designed and built by J. Edward
Vaughan, Esq., in 1889, and she was by him planned with a full knowledge
of what is required in this style of craft. Mr. Vaughan’s description of this
well-arranged little craft will be found on Plate XC.
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1. Sail Locker. 8. Chart Rack. 15, Oil.
2. Zinc-lined Cupboard. :9. Gimbal Lamp. 16. Chain.
3. Water (12 gallons). 10, Books, &c. 17. Potatoes.
4, Slide and Skylight 11. Locker. 18. Bo'sun's Gear,
5. Locker (Tools, &c.) 12. Crockery. 19. Dishes.
G. Wine and Tins. 13. Stove 20. Fore Hatch.
7. Sofa Back (forms Bed). 14, Utensils. 21. Paint Store.
- PLATE XC.
22. Fo’castle Table,
23. Chain Pipe.
24, Lamp Shelves.
25 Cot.
R H E O L.A.,
(l"75 Rating.)
DESIGNED AND BUILT BY
J. EDWARD WAUGHAN, ESQ , Scale |
1889
O
—l- |
UIETITITIEEI
Length on L.W.L. ..................... 20ft.
, Overall........................... 25ft.
Beam at L.W.L. # * * * * * * * 5ft. 9in.
, Extreme ........................... 6ft. 3im.
Draught of water ............ ........... 3ft. 10in.
The bulkheads are placed respectively 8ft, and 16ft.
from the fore end of the L.W.L., and the accommoda-
tion is shown by the plans.
FORE, BTULKHEAD.
Scale % to 1 f
–
—
A. CorkScrew. B. Books. C. Cutlery. D. Drawers for papers
and small valuables. E. Cellarette. F. Store shelf. G. Aneroid.
II. Shelf for Small gear, pipe, matches, &c.
2
f
º
5
6
7
:
||||
Tºwn, Table
SOFA AND BET).
A strip of canvas is turned over at one edge and
sewn to form a tube, through which is thrust an iron
pipe or rod Ain. longer than the distance between the
sideboards in a fore and aft direction. Cushions divided
along their middle are made up on one side of the canvas,
ſ Cushion, Rod
77/78/ſ/Lºs
“Ś * * * Ø
#/Bracket
Jocker ==
J3ed extended
JBrocket
whose other edge is tacked to a piece of teak that forms a
narrow ledge continuous with the top of the sideboards.
When required for sleeping, brackets are slipped in
Sockets firmly screwed nearly flush with the locker
fronts, and the ends of the rods are inserted in them;
%" to 1 ft
when not required the cushions are doubled back, the
fore end of the rod is pushed through a hole in the
ceiling, until the other end clears the fore side of the
after sideboard, when the latter goes back into a similar
hole in the ceiling, and is shifted aft until both ends
are secure. The blankets and spare clothes stow away
in the zinc-lined lockers which run two feet back from
the after bulkhead alongside the cockpit.
STORE SEIELF.
13in. long and 6in. from back to front, holds tea,
sugar, coffee (Branson's), two bottles of sauce, jam, and
milk (the last two in glass pickle jars), and a small cruet
stand. It is arranged thus: The tea is in a tin box a
trifle smaller than a cigarette box, which fits a pigeon
hole; the sugar, in a box the same length and breadth,
gº-
b, c, d. Coffee and sauce, e, , Milk and jam
g. Cruet,
but deeper, fits in another below it ; three partitions,
2im, square at the back, hold the coffee and sauce bottles,
in front of which a piece of thin wood keeps these from
falling out, and has two 3in, holes in it to hold the jam
and milk jars; and outside the right-hand side is a
small bracket shelf for the cruet.
a. Tea, and sugar.


















CHAPTER XXIII.
TYPES OF SAILING WESSELS.
PENZANCE LUGGER.
PENZANCE LUGGERs enjoy a very considerable reputation for seaworthiness,
and vary in length from 40ft. to 52ft. length of keel, and have a beam
of usually about 0.3 of the length on deck. The displacement of the fore-
body and the displacement of the after-body are nearly equal, the com-
parative fulness of the buttock lines is compensated for by the fineness of
the horizontal or water lines, as shown in the Half Breadth Plan. It
is said that the Penzance luggers are wonderfully dry in a head sea,
but particularly lively. They have long easy lines; no weight in the
ends ; no heavy bowsprit, or boom, or rigging; and not a large weight
of ballast to carry. The mast, it is true, is stepped rather far forward,
but the absence of a bowsprit compensates for this. A smaller class of
lugger, built on the same lines, but about 30ft. on the keel, for the
pilchard fishing, are open in the middle, and only decked fore and aft.
One of these boats went to Australia in 1848 with five hands for the
“diggings.” She called off the Cape and took the mails to Melbourne,
actually beating the regular packet, although she had to make a raft or
floating anchor of her spars to ride to during a heavy gale.
The design we give (Plate XCI.) is that of the Colleen Bawn,
built at Penzance, by Mr. J. R. Wills, and she was considered one of the
fastest luggers built in the west.
The rig it will be seen, upon reference to Fig. 165 (page 420), consists
of two lug sails, usually made of cotton and tanned with oak bark and
catechu. The fore lug has to be dipped in tacking, but the mizen is a
working one and requires no dipping, the tack being made fast at the
mast. There is no rigging to either mast, beyond a burton to the fore-
mast and a stay to the mizen. The burton is brought to windward of the
mast, and so is the tye-tackle.
The sails are seldom reefed, and they are made with only one reef
H} E
418 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
band. When it is necessary to shorten sail, the mizen is shifted forward
and a smaller mizen set; and this shifting goes on until the small “watch”
mizen (used when riding to the nets with foremast unshipped) is reached.
The boats are usually provided with the large fore lug, and three mizens
besides the watch mizen. They cannot very well be hove to, and have to
be kept “trying ” by the wind or scudding before it ; however, it must
be a heavy gale that causes them to “up-helm,” and then no craft of
similar size afloat can excel them in running for the land.
The sail is hoisted by a chain halyard called a tye and a tackle or
purchase, consisting of two double blocks, the fall leading from the lower
block. The sheave hole at the masthead for the tye has only a “ dead
sheave,” that is, a half sheave fitted in the hole. The mast traveller is
two half hoops jointed together by eyes, and they are said never to jam
(see “Traveller’” in the Appendix). The tack of the fore lug is hooked
to the short bumpkin outside the stem head, but when the other mizen-
lugs are shifted forward the tack is hooked to the stem head. The
fore sheet tackle is hooked to an outrigger outside on the wales just
abreast of the mizen mast.
The mizen stay tackle is hooked to a ring bolt in the centre of the
deck. The mizen chain sheet is fast to the underside of the traveller on
the bumpkin ; then (see Fig. 163) rove up through a sheave hole at
= FIG. 163.
the end of the bumpkin and hooked to the mizen clew. A block is
hooked to the traveller, through which the outhaul is rove, one end
being made fast on board. There are no stays to the bumpkin.
In tacking, the fore sheet is unhooked from the sail as the helm is put
down; as the boat comes head to wind, the halyards are eased up and
the after-leach of the sail hauled down upon until the after-end of the
yard or peak can be shifted round by the fore-side of the mast; the
tack is never started. The sail is gathered in by the foot and leech,
and passed round the fore-side of the mast. By not letting go the tack
the fore-part of the sail acts as a jib, and assists in paying the boat's
head off. If the boat does not pay off readily, the foreyard is kept
into the mast so that only the fore-part of the sail can fill, and the
mizen sheet is let fly.

PLATE XCI.
L____----—────────────────────────────────────────–）
ZºsŻż
_Zoozzz
zrA234.32
PIEN ZATWCE ILU GGIER.


Penzance Lugger. 419
The boats are usually manned by six men and a boy, who are
employed as follows: Two at the capstan getting in the net; one
forward to cast off the stops of the shoot rope; two at the net-room
hatchway to shake out the fish, and stow the net; one at the helm, and
the boy to coil away the shoot rope.
It will be noticed upon reference to the Body Plan and Sheer Plan
that the top of the keel, and not the load water-line, is the base line
from which all heights are measured. All the sections shown in the
Sheer Plan are therefore perpendicular to the base line or keel, and
not to the load water-line. The curved lines shown in the Body Plan
are water-lines; they are set off in this way: in the Sheer Plan
(Plate XCI.) at No. 3 section, measure the distance from h to i ;
set off this distance on the middle line (o) of the Body Plan as at j,
measured from the base line; then draw the ticked line t at right
angles to o, and where this line cuts No. 3 section at v will be the spot
for the water-line on that section. The points in the other sections
will be similarly found, and, when complete, a line drawn through the
spots will represent the water-line, and will be more or less curved.
No. of Section ....... © c s e s e s tº e º 'º s e e º a º 1 2 3 4. * 5 6 7 8 9
SHEER PLAN. ft. in.ft. in.ft. in.ft. in.ft. in.ft. in...ft. in...ft. in..ft. in...ft. in.
Heights from top of keel to cover-
ing board.............................. 7 0 ||6 11 6 10 |6 10 |6 0 6 11 |7 1 |7 5 |7 10 |8 6
Depths from L.W.L. to top of keel |3 5 — — — — — — — — 5 4
BODY PLAN.
Half-breadths at deck ............... 1 9}|4, 2}|6 0 |7 0 |7 3 |7 3}|7 3 6 11 6 4%|5 6
Half-breadths, a diagonal ............ — — | – | – | — 7 10%|7 9 |7 4%|6 4 |4 4
Half-breadths, g diagonal ............ 1 9%|4, 3}|6 237 3}|7 6%|7 7#|7 4 |6 6}|4 11+2 2
Half-breadths, k diagonal............ 1 7#4 1 5 9316 7%|6 9%|6 946 1 4 10 3 2 (0 9
Half-breadths, m, diagonal ......... 1 5 [3 5}|4 7}|5 1 |5 0}|4, 9;|4 0#2 11}|1 830 4%
Half-breadths, m diagonal............ 1 0 |2 3 2 9 |2 10 |2 8}|2 6 |2 0 |1 4}|0 930 3

420 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
All the half-breadths are without the plank, which is 1%in, thick.
No. 1 section is 3ft. 8in. from the fore perpendicular P. The other Hections are 5ft. 8in.
apart, and No. 9 section is 2ft. from the aft perpendicular P 2.
All the half-breadths given are without the plank.
The water-lines shown in the Half-breadth Plan are 1ſt, apart in the Body Plan.
Diagonal a is struck 9ft. above the base line, and cuts the perpendicular p 6ft. above the
base line.
Diagonal g is struck 7ft. 4 in. above the base line, and cuts p p at g 1 and g 2 at 4ft. 9in, above
the base line.
Diagonal k is struck 5ft. 11in, above the base line, and cuts p p at k 1 and k 2 at 2ft. 11in.
above the base line.
Diagonal m is struck 4ft. 2in. above the base line, and cuts p p at m 1 and m 2 at 6in. above
the base line.
Diagonal n is struck 2ft. 5in. above the base line, and at n 1 and n 2 is 3ft. Sin, out from the
middle vertical line o.
The midship section is midway between No. 4 and No. 5 Sections.
The fore bulkhead A, forming the warp room (see Sheer Plan), is 13ft. 9in, abaft the fore
porpendicular. The bulkhead B is 6ft. from A, C 6ft. from B, D 7ft. from C ; E is the companion
entrance to the cabin.
Siding of keel, stem and sternpost, 6%in. ; moulding (depth) of keel, 9in. ; siding of frames, 4in. ;
room and space, 1.ft. 5in. In the drawing only every fourth frame or section is shown.
/
PEINZAN CE IUGGER, .
FIG. 165.
ft. in. ft. in.
Length on deck, stem to sternpost 51 0 C. B. abaft centre L.W.L............. 0 4
Length on keel ............... . . . . . . . . . 48 0 Displacement ........................... 36 tons
Rake of Sternpost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 Displacement per inch at load line... 1 ton 20wt.
Breadth, extreme, with plank on ... 14 10 Tonnage, B.M. ........................ 41 tons
Draught of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 0 Ballast ... . . . ........................... 14 tons
Mid-section ahead of centre to L.W.L. 1 8

PLATE XCII,
sal L. PLAN “YA R mouTH Yawl.”
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Yarmouth Yawl. 4.2.1
ft. in. | ft. in.
Fore mast, deck to sheave...... . . . . . 37 6 | Foot of fore lugsail ............ . . . . . . 34 0
Mizen mast, deck to sheave . . . . . . . . . 29 () Head of fore lugsail .................. 28 0
Mizon pole to halyard sheave ...... 8 6 | Clew to weather earing of fore lugsail 36 0
Mizen bumpkin, outside . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0 Luff of mizen lugsail ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0
Fore tack bumpkin, outside ......... 1 3 | Leech of mizen lugsail ............... 41 0
Foremast, diameter at deck . . . . . . . . . () 11 | Foot of mizen lugsail.................. 29 0
Foremast, diameter at sheave . . . . . . () 6% Head of mizen lugsail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24; 0
Mizenmast, diameter at deck ... . . . 0 10% | Clew to weather earing of mizen lug-
Mizenmast, diameter at sheave ... 0 6% sail .................................... 36 0
Luff of fore lugsail .................. 26 () Area, fore lugsail ........... ......... 980 sq. ft.
Leech of fore lugsail ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 () Area, mizen lugsail..................... 730 sq. ft.
THE YARMOUTH YAWL.
These craft, once famous on the East Coast, are not so numerous as
they were a few years since; and the large class of 60ft. Over all, which
carried three lugs, have gone out of use, steam tugs doing most of the
work. Lowestoft and Caister, however, still maintain their companies
in good numbers, and have several fast yawls, the beachmen also working
the life boats. The general run of the boats now in use is from 45ft.
to 50ft., varying in beam and depth. The beam of this boat is 10ft.,
and depth 5ft. at stem and stern post to rabbet of keel. What was
termed the main lug has quite gone out of use, and now two large sails
are found more effective on most points of sailing. The two sails are also
much handier to work with the smaller class of boats. The yawls used
for racing are handsome models, with fine lines. The midship section
varies, some having an easy rise, whilst others are rather flat, to Guit
the shore they are launched from and the purpose they are used for.
The smaller class now in use also row well, having twelve or fourteen
oars to assist the sails in light winds, &c. For launching skidds or
rollers are used, and the boat is started clear of the beach by a long
spar called a set ; in bad weather a haul-off warp is used. The lines
on Plate XCII. are those of a 50ft. boat, by Hastings, of Yarmouth,
which has won several prizes at regattas. The fore lug has a very
long yard, which has to be shifted every time the boat goes about.
The mizemmast has three burtons or shrouds, one on each side of mast,
the other shifted on either side as required. The fore burtons are
always to windward, and the halyards also help to keep the mast up.
The boats, being very lightly built, wring very much in a sea way. A
storm foremast and storm foresail is used in bad weather. The storm
foresail hooks inside the stem, and the reefed mizen is tacked to the
mast. The ballast consists of iron pigs and sand bags, and runs from
1% to 2% tons, to suit the weather.
Plate XCIII. represents a design for a Yarmouth yawl made by Mr.
422 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
G. L. Watson in 1894. She was tried against the local craft and proved
a fast boat.
The crew are from eight to sixteen men. The gear comprises an
anchor and warp, and spare gear is always on board. A large yawl can
be launched in about ten minutes. They, as might be expected, are very
fast off the wind, but their small draught of water does not admit of good
weatherly qualities.
THE COBLE.
No boat is more distinctive in type than the coble of the north-east
coast. Their high, sharp bow and long, flat floor adapt them for rough
water and for beaching stern foremost through surf. Their speed and
performance in a sea, as compared with the speed and performance of a
yacht of similar length, are, however, no doubt somewhat exaggerated.
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FIG. 166.
The boats are measured for length from the heel of the sternpost
to the scarph of the stem or fore foot, and this length is called the
“ram,” which is about two-thirds of the over all length. The length of
the “ram ” varies from 15ft. to 40ft., and tapers at the fore end and aft
end to suit the siding of fore keel and sternpost; the extreme breadth
is about one-fourth the length over all.
In the drawings, Figs. 166 and 167, the sections are put in at right
angles to the ram, and not to the L.W.L. The actual shape of the

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FIG. 167.

424. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
sections when built is better shown by the body plan (Fig. 166). In
the sections on the sheer plan D D D A show the actual shape of the
gunwale strake above the line B B. The place for the side keels A A,
or bilge keels, is shown in the half-breadth plan. The ends of the
plank are not rabbetted into the steyn, but finished flush. A false stem
is then put on Over the inner stem and ends of plank.
In coble building no moulds* are used beyond a piece of wood about
a foot long, forming a very acute angle to see if the planks are set right.
The boats are built by the eye, and long experience is necessary to turn out
a fast boat. Larch is used almost universally, and the boats are clinker
built, with sawn timbers. The gunwale or inwire is worked outside the
top strake, instead of inside, as in most boats, and the pins for belaying
the halyards project from the underside of it. The bight of the halyard or
stay is put round this pin and set light, and the fall is jammed between the
gunwale and the standing part of the rope, so that one pull will release it.
There are no cleats or belaying pins in the boat, and no place to make the
mainsheet fast, which is not a bad plan as regards safety in any open boat.
The boats are either round or square sterned. The former is coming
more into use for pilots and for fishermen, especially when they have not to
beach the boats. The square-sterned boats are faster on a wind; and
the Whitburn Club allows 18in. in length to a round-sterned boat in racing ;
the round sterned boats are the safest. A flat floored boat is considered
best in strong winds; a round bottom in light winds; a rising floor gives.
easy lines and speed; a flat floor gives stability. The pilots, who frequently
tow at sea long distances astern of screw steamers, prefer the round
sterned boat. The coble is towed stern first, with rudder unshipped.
A pilot coble will draw 2ft. and 2ft. 6in. forward, and practically nothing
aft. Cobles in a breeze, if with the wind abeam, are rowed stern first,
because the high bow acts as a sail, and if rowed bow first they would
make little headway.
Sailing to windward in a breeze, a square-sterned coble will carry
more sail than she can run with. A round-sterned boat will run and go to
windward under the same quantity of sail. Owing to the tumble home in the
top sides, the water is thrown off at the shoulder and midships. The gun-
wale often seems actually below the water level without shipping any water.
The boats carry two masts (see Fig. 168), a long mast for fine
weather, and a short mast, which sets the double-reefed lug, and is used as
a bowsprit where a jib is set in fine weather. The mizen is little use
on a wind, except to balance the jib, and it is the first sail stowed if wind
* The noted “Regina,” a ribbon-carvel coble, was built from moulds, and is faster than any
clincher boat of her size.
The Coble. 425
increases. Standing lugs and split lugs have been tried, but, according
to the local authorities, always without success, for speed. A centre-
board also was tried and condemned, the belief being that the lateral
resistance the boats have is sufficient without it.
There are two steps at least for the mast, and the mast has con-
siderable play fore and aft when the clamp is on, and by means of a wedge
before and one behind the mast, the mast is raked to the exact pitch
required—as much as 10ft. in a heavy sea.
The boat is not luffed up in squalls, but is sailed by the sheet; and,
as there is no boom, the wind is easily spilled out of the sail. Working
Saul Plan
of a
C O B L E.
the main sheet so as to avoid shipping lee water, and to keep the boat
going her best, requires nerve and skill. When sailing against a very
heavy sea in a breeze the sheet is eased, as the men believe the boat will
go so fast through the sea that she may split a plank as the lee bow
falls upon the sea. The pressure of the water makes the tiller vibrate
Very much, and if sailing fast the whole boat and mast quivers and hums.
The sail is generally lowered to tack, sometimes it is dipped, as in the
Penzance boats. At some places it is not dipped in moderate weather,
and the tack is hauled from lee to weather side, and the yard and sail
are to windward of the mast.


426 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The good points of these boats are, they are easily beached, light
to row, and they will work under canvas to windward as long as they
can show sail. The bad points are, the dipping lug is a dangerous sail,
and the square-sterned coble is apt to broach to in running before a
very heavy sea, or the long rudder may break or be unshipped by a sea.
A fisherman’s boat of 30ft. by 7ft. would cost, say, 25l., and a pleasure
or racing boat about 40l.
The Yorkshire cobles are generally round-sterned, and have very
hollow bows at the load line, and a great deal of shoulder above. The
Durham and Northumbrian boats are fuller at the load line. Builders
of these boats are Mr. Cambridge, of Filey; Mr. Hopwood, of Flam-
borough; and Mr. Trotter, of South Shields. The Filey boats are noted
for good qualities under canvas.
At Whitburn there is a squadron of “private ’’ cobles, of which
Sir Hedworth Williamson, Bart., is commodore. The Lalage (Fig. 169),
one of the most noted of this fleet, and winner of four silver cups, is square
sterned; she is now named Proserpine. Her dimensions are as under:
ft. in. ft. in.
Length over all ........................ 31 8 Mizen mast ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 6
Ram ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 8 Head of main lug ..................... 15 6
Breadth extreme........................ 7 0 Foot of main lug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 6
Side ....................................... 2 5 Luff of main lug ..................... 21 6
Mast....................................... 30 5 Leach of main lug..................... 23 ()
FIG. 169.
The lug mizen is, mast for mast, of proportionate dimensions. The
jib is about 10ft. On the foot. The foot of the lug sails shews some round
mainly towards the clew. Standing lugs would probably be found much
handier for ordinary work, as the constant dipping in beating to windward
would be avoided.
The coble Regina (Figs. 170 and 171) was built in 1887, by James
Aitkin, Sunderland, for Mr. Salmon, of Cleadon Park, but is now owned by
the Rev. R. C. Nelson and Mr. L. C. Ridley. She is what is technically
called “ribbon carvel,” built from the design of Mr. William Gardner, of
New York. She was considered to be the finest piece of boat workmanship
ever turned out on the Wear. She was designed with special regard to

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428 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
speed, and she was much admired during construction. She has several
marked features, and is a departure from the ordinary type of coble. The
first reliable opportunity of trying her against a boat of acknowledged speed
occurred on the 2nd of June, 1887; this was the Proserpine, the winner
of four cup races. The wind was of fair strength from the N.N.E., the
water being comparatively smooth. The result was entirely favourable
to the Regina, although she carried a smaller area of sail. This verdict
was subsequently amply confirmed in club matches. She went clean
to windward of the whole fleet, and outsailed them as well.
FIG. 171.
REGINA.
Length over all... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31ft. 9in.
Length on water-line ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 29ft.
Breadth, extreme... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7ft.
Displacement ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..., 2-6 tons.
Mast ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 27ft.
Mizen mast ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18ft.
Bowsprit outboard ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15ft.
Head of main lug... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 17ft.
Foot of main lug ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ............ 19ſt. 9in.
Luff of main lug ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23ft. 6in.
Leech of main lug ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26ft.
Clew to weather earing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23ft. 6in.
Tack to peak earing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..................... 36ft. 6in.
Head of mizen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ......... 11ft. 9in.
Foot of mizen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 12ft. 3in.
Luff of mizen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15ft.
Leech of mizen... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16ft. 3in.
Clew to weather earing .................................... ... ... ... 15ft. 9in.
Tack to peak earing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ......... 23ft.
Area of main lug ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ............... 414
Area of mizon lug. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 180
Area of jib ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... 130
-*-
Total ... … … ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 724

Nos. of sections ............................................. 1 2 3 4. 5 6 7 8 10 11
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Heights above L.W.L. to gunwale ..................... 2 7% 2 5 2 2 1 10% l 6% 1 4 1 2% 1 2% 1 4} | 1 7} || 1 11}
Depths below L.W.L. to underside of ram or keel... 0 0 1 9; 1 10% 1 6% | 1 2} | 1 13 || 1 1 1 0 0 10} | 0 6} | 0 0
Half-breadths at gunwale ................................. 0 5} | 1 6 2 3} || 2 10} | 3 3 3 5} || 3 6 3 3: 2 11% 2 5} | 1 10%
Half-breadths on 0, 9in. above L.W.L................... 0 2 1 1+ 2 0 2 8# 3 2% 3 53 || 3 6 3 3} || 2 11+ 2 3} | 1 5
Half-breadths on k, 4}in. above L.W.L. ............... 0 0# | 0 104 || 1 9 2 6} | 3 1? | 3 5} | 3 6 3 3} || 2 9% 2 0 0 11
Half-breadths on L.W.L. ................................. 0 0# | 0 73 || 1 5% 2 3i: 2 11; 3 4} | 3 4; 3 1? 2 54 1 43 *
Half-breadths on No. 2 W.L......... ..................... - 0 5% 1 1; 2 0 2 93 || 3 23 || 3 2% 2 10} || 2 0} | 0 9} *-*
Half-breadths on No. 3 W.L............................... - 0 3} | 0 103 || 1 7# 2 5} || 2 11; 2 113 || 2 53 || 1 43 || 0 2 *m.
Half-breadths on No. 4 W.L............................... - 0 23 || 0 63 || 1 1% 1 104 || 2 4} | 2 4} | 1 7 0 5} - -
Depths to 1.ft. 6in. buttock .............................. - -- 0 1* | 0 7 0 10 || 0 11 0 103 || 0 93 || 0 55 | 0 0}*| 0 7.3%
Depth to 6in. buttock....................................... - 0 2 0 9} | 1 0} | 1 1 1 0# | 1 0 || 0 11 0 8; 0 4 O 9;
* Above L.W.L.
The sections are 2ft. 10%in. apart. The lines above the L.W.L. are 4in. apart. The water lines below the L.W.L. are 3in. apart.
TABLE OF OFFSETS OF THE COBLE REGINA.
respectively 1ft. 6in. and 6in. out from the middle line.
The buttock lines are
:
§



430 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
HUMPER ‘‘ GOLDDUSTERS.”
A “Goldduster” is 18ft. in length by 6ft. 6in. beam. It is a class of
boat used by the Humber watermen for boarding ships coming into the
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river, and taking the ropes ashore when going into dock, &c. They are
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The Galway Hooker and Pookhaun. 431
American elm ribs about six inches apart. In form they are much like the
Clyde lugsail boat, illustrated on page 359. The ballast is usually of iron,
carried inside. The masts are about 2ft. shorter than the boat, SO as to
stow well inside when down. Both foresail and mainsail are fitted with a
brail at mastheads, so as to take in sail at once when hanging on to a
steamer or vessel under way. They are very handy boats to manage, and
will stay under the foresail alone. The main sheet is a short single rope,
belayed to a pin, which is fixed through the transom knee on either side.
The fore sheet is double, as shown in plan, so that it can be worked from
aft.
There is also a larger class of the same type of boat used at Grimsby,
about 22ft. by 7ft., only instead of sprit sails, two standing lugs are used.
THE GALWAY HOOKER, AND POOKHAUN.
The Galway hookers (Plate XCIV.), average from 11 to 16 tons, and
are noted on the west coast of Ireland for their weatherly qualities. They
are short, broad boats, with very hollow bows; they are exceedingly lively
in a seaway, but seldom ship a sea; perfectly safe in every way except
running when deep, when they have sometimes been pooped, owing to
their lean hollow runs.
Speaking of these hookers, Commander Horner, R.N., says “they
are very bluff above and hollow beneath, and I often tried to persuade
them to alter, and at last, after seven years, found one man, Gill, of
Arran, who promised to do so, and who a year after sent me word that
his new boat, launched just in time for a regatta, couldn’t be looked
at—beating everything.”
The sails were made of a coarse stuff called “band linen,” saturated
with a mixture of tar and butter, which never thoroughly dried.
The main sheet is belayed by a single nipping hitch round the timber-
head on the quarter, taut down, keeping the mainsail very flat.
They carry a strong weather helm, and are quick in stays.
The Galway pookhaun (Fig. 173) is a smaller boat than the
hooker, and used for both rowing and sailing; but it is built with the
same ideas, of great tumble-home of topside to keep the gunwale out of
the water when heeling over, and very raking sternpost, for quickness in
stays. The sail of the pookhaun is single, cut as a triangle, with a
yard on part of fore side, to set as a lug ; and when working to
windward the fore end of the yard is dipped abaft the mast, and
she is brought round very cleverly — often, when blowing fresh, the
man at the tack taking a flying swing round the mast with it. They
4.32 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
sail exceedingly well, and are very graceful and picturesque boats
under sail. É
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through the cringle and back again, round before the mast; the sail


Belfast and Groomsport Yawls. 433
coming down with the greatest ease when head to wind. The ballast
is of stone, built into the bottom of the hooker and making a fire hearth,
with a deck above as far aft as the mast.
BELFAST AND GROOMSPORT YAWLS.
This type of whale boat is said to have been imported from Norway,
and even the Galway hooker and pookhaun exhibit evidence of Norwegian
origin. The Belfast yawls vary in length from 20ft. to 30ft. The larger
G ROOMSPORT Y AW L
Scale % of aru buch to 1 Fooz.
FIG. 174.
craft above 20ft. keel have two masts, the shorter one being stepped
forward. The masts are stepped in the keelson; the main fits into a half
circle cut out of the after side of the thwart, and is kept in position
without any mast clamp. The foremast is put through a hole in the
thwart, and has no forestay. (See Fig. 174.)
The tacks of the sail are hooked to a hook on the gunwales, about
F. F

434 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
5ft. forward of the mast. There are two hooks on each bow, the after
one being used when before the wind. The halyard consists of a tye
and single whip purchase. The standing part of the purchase is fast to
cleats below the gunwale, fitted on the stringers, and the fall is also so
belayed. There is no traveller, and the tye runs over a half sheave at
the mast head. This fitting is in great repute among the Belfast men, as
there is little chance of the yard jamming in hoisting or lowering.
The main sheet is a single rope rove through a bull’s-eye on a
swivel on the sternpost. The sail is extended by a boom, the latter
having a pin at the outer end, which is put into the clew cringle of the
sail. The other end is lashed to the mast. A bowline is sometimes used
as represented in the cut (Fig. 175). This bowline is set up to the towing
bollard or “Samson,” with which these boats are always fitted. The sail is
cut so high in the clew because it should not get into the water during
rolling. In squalls the sheet or halyard is let go. In running, if the
FIG. 175.
bows dive, the halyard is eased a little. For reefing the fore lug is set
on the mainmast. The boat is steered by a yoke and long lines, all the
crew sitting amidships. Stones are used as ballast. If a boat has only one
sail, the mast is stepped amidships (see Fig. 175).
The rig is a very rude one, and it could not be expected that such
craft would do much to windward where short tacking would of necessity
be frequent. Yet with the crew of five, and ballast of about two cwt.
consisting of perhaps only the stones used for the fishing lines, they slip
along very fast and the crew shift the lugs with great expedition. The
Groomsport yawls enjoy a great repute on the coast about Belfast for
speed and weatherliness.

Norwegian Pilot Boats. 435
NORWEGIAN PILOT BOATS.
The lines of a Norwegian pilot boat on page 436, Fig. 177, were drawn
by Mr. Colin Archer, of Laurvig, Norway. It is not often that prettier
or cleaner water lines will be met with ; and if the flare of the bow
were reduced, the fore-foot rounded up a little, a lead keel added, and
a suitable sail plan, we think that a very fast and weatherly yacht could
be built from the lines. Mr. Archer thus describes the boats :
“I doubt if English boats of the same size are as handy with
a small crew in all kinds of weather. A pilot and his ‘boy’ (technically
so called—he may be an ‘old boy’) will go to sea in one of these boats
and stay there (perhaps for a week) till he finds a vessel. When this
FIG. 176.
happens, perhaps somewhere between the Naze and the Skaw, the boat
goes close alongside, the pilot jumps on board, and the ‘boy’ is left to
bring the boat home the best way he can. The sail is a sprit (see
Fig. 176), and, notwithstanding the formidable dimensions, one man is
supposed to be equal to all contingencies.
Whole length of mast about ............................................, 33ft.
Diameter at deck ......................................................... 11in.
Diameter at top ............................................................ 4%in.
“There are no shrouds—only the forestay. They balance on a wind
with the foresail and mainsail, but generally carry a jib or two for
sailing free, and often a jib-headed topsail hoisted on a long pole.”
The mackerel fishing-boat is the same model; they carry about
600 fathoms of nets, three to four hands. These boats will live a long

R F 2
436 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
time in a seaway and keep pretty dry (they are decked); but their
great “forte” is their extreme quickness in answering their helm, a
necessary quality when ships have to be boarded from them in a gale
of wind; and they will work to windward through surprisingly narrow
places, and at a good rate too. These boats are all oak except the
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timbers—thirteen to fourteen strakes 1}in. boards—clinker-built, with
juniper treenails with heads, placed about 4%in. apart. They look clumsy,
chiefly from their upper works spreading so much. If this feature—
which, however, gives them an enormous reserve of buoyancy—were
altered, they might be made to look well enough, though peculiar. The
Stº,
|


Bermudian Yachts. 437
boats carry about one-third to one-fourth of their total weight in ballast,
generally consisting of iron ore, which is plentiful in the neighbourhood
of Laurvig.
Length extreme ........................ 33ft. C.B. aft, centre of L.W.L............. 5ft.
Length on L.W.L...................... 30'2ſt. Mid-section forward of centre of
Breadth extreme ..................... 11'6ft, L.W.L. ........................ ... ... 0°4ft.
Breadth on L.W.L. .................. 10' () ft. Area of mainsail ..................... 500 sq. ft.
Draught of water ..................... 4'2ſt. Luff of mainsail ........................ 24ft.
Displacement ........................... 7' 5 tons. Leech of mainsail ..................... 22ft.
Area midship Section.................. 15 sq. ft. Head of mainsail ..................... 14ft.
Area load water-plane ............... 198 sq. ft. Foot of mainsail........................ 14ft.
BERMUDIAN YACHTS.
Bermudian boats are short, broad, handy vessels, and one remarkable
quality of these boats is their power of shooting in stays which enables
them to work through a channel so narrow that she could not possibly
have beaten through it. The mast (see Fig. 179) is stepped forward, and
rakes aft. There is one small shroud on each side. The mainsail is
laced to the mast, and when once thus laced they cannot reef; if a boat
starts for a race with a whole sail, she must carry it. The Bermudian
favourite point of sailing is to windward.
There is a peculiar plan in these boats for making the mainsail sit flat.
The main boom, instead of being fitted with jaws in the usual manner, has
an eye-hole in the foremost end of it, which runs from 3ft. to 4ft. the
fore side of mast ; the after end of the boom is secured to the clew
of the sail, and the boom is then boused taut aft with a small tackle taken
from the eye-bolt to a strop round the mast; this produces a wonderfully
flat sail. The lines and sail plan given are the most modern.
The solid lines show the ordinary rig ; the dotted lines the racing rig.
Diameter of mast at partners 10%in. ; of racing mast, 11%in.
Length on water line.................. 34ft. Draught of water aft.................. 5ft 10in.
Breadth extreme ..................... 11ft. 2%in. Draught when racing ............... 6ft. 6in.
FIG. 178. BoDY PLAN OF “DIAMOND.”
The drawings made by Mr. Wm. Prattent, of Devonport, and shown
by Figs. 178,179, and 180, are of the Diamond, which was one of the fastest
of the Bermudian boats.

SAIL PLAN OF “DIAMon D.”
FIG. 179.
J
J
º
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º
I
r
t
I
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º
Bermudian Cutter
“D I AM on D”
FIG. 180.




Bombay Yachts. 439
BOMBAY YACHTS.
The Bombay yachts are very peculiar in model, and some are even
more exaggerated than those depicted on this page. The peculiarity of
the boat is that she has a cambered keel, thus making the greatest
C.
º
FIG. 181. BOMBAY BOAT.
FIG. 182. SAIL PLAN of BoM.BAY BOAT.
draught aft, and a deep gripe forward to hold them to windward (see
Fig. 181); the mast rakes forward (see Fig. 182). Instead of tacking as
other yachts, they are obliged to wear; they thus require a lot of sea
room to work in. The sail is reefed on the yard.


440 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
At the South Kensington Museum there is a large model of a Bombay
boat, with a keel much more cambered than shown above, and with even
more overhang forward.
SYDNEY BOATS.
Sydney Harbour is one of the finest places for yachting in the world.
There is a coastline of several hundred miles, formed into all manner
of delightful little nooks and inlets, each of which has its beautiful Sandy
beach and deep, clear, blue, or green water overshadowed by big bluffs
and overhanging gum-trees. Within an hour's sailing from Sydney itself,
there are places which are absolutely as primaeval as when Captain Cook
discovered Port Jackson in 1787. From October to March, the north-
easter comes in, steady, and of fair club-topsail strength. The Harbour
is nowhere more than three miles wide, and the water is always smooth
and never really cold.
The yachts at Sydney have no difference from those in the old country,
except as concerns one or two minor points; but the sailing boats, from
various causes, have developed into a distinct type. Firstly, the water
is smooth and warm, and the breezes steady ; secondly, the universal
system of measurement is length over all, overhang fore and aft being
therefore penalised. The consequence is that a boat has been evolved
which has great beam, little depth, immense sails and large centre-board.
Great numbers as crews are carried, the whole of whom sit up to windward,
holding on to life-lines, and hang flat out over the water on the gunwale
sills.
The boats are divided into length-classes, beginning at 8ft., and
progressing by two feet on to 24ft., which is the largest class that can
be conveniently managed, for a reason that will soon be apparent. Below
14ft. all the boats are built with ribands, a form of riband carvel building,
except that the ribands are so broad as to almost touch one another, and
instead of the outside planking there is painted canvas. This makes a very
strong and light little craft, and as it is easily constructed the Sydney
boys often spend their winter evenings in building “canvassers.” A few
dimensions of such a boat are as follows:–
Length over all ........................... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8ft.
Beam ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3ft. 6in.
Depth ............................................................ 1ft. 10in.
Main-boom ...................................................... 13ft.
Bumpkin (bowsprit)...................................... ...... 6ft. outboard
Gaff ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8ft.
Hoist of mainsail ................................................ 7ft. 6in.
The centre-board—locally termed the “gin'”—is about 4ft. by 3ft.
Sydney (Australian) Boats. 44.1
It is a funny sight to see these mites of dingheys, each “manned ’’ by three
or four boys, flying along under their astonishing press of sail. Their
speed and weatherliness in light weather are extraordinary. The Sydney
people aver that their canvas dingheys are the best school for yachtsmen
that one could well have.
Aſ/W/5//?//

: | /sec10 _/
FIG. 183.
The 24-footers are somewhat different in proportions, but present
the same main principles. The dimensions of the illustration, Fig. 183,
are as follows:–
Length over all ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24ft.
Beam (exclusive of moulding) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10ft.
Depth ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2ft. 9in.
Centre-board length ................................................ 8ft.
25 depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5ft. 6in.
Main-boom ........................ ... ... ... ... ... ... ............... ... 34ft. 6in.
Gaff ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26ft.
Hoist of mainsail ................................................... 25ft. 6in.
Bumpkin outboard ................................................... 17ft.
The mainboom projects about 17ft. 6in. over the “tuck,” as the
square transom is called, and in order to keep it properly down, a stern
outrigger some 12ft. long is necessary, as is seen in the American design for
Parole, a somewhat similar boat. The centre-board is made of thin boiler-
plate, galvanised. The pivoted gin is quite given up in Sydney in favour
of the more effective “drop gin,” and the centre-board shown has three
handles. When it is completely up it projects about three feet or so above
the box, and of course has to be lowered for a gybe. The difficulty of
handling the great drop gin is certainly one of the defects of these boats.
It takes five or six men to get it up Smartly when rounding a windward
mark for a broad reach or run home.
The free-board of the boat drawn, when she has her full crew of
sixteen hands on board, will not be more than 18in. at the outside, and so
very little heel is allowed. However, they habitually sail their boats with
4:42 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
the lee gunwale two or three inches under water, and so a very powerful
pump has to be carried, as the boats are usually completely open. This
pump, in anything like a breeze, has to be kept working the whole
time, at any rate on the wind, and it is very good exercise for the
pumper.
The skipper knows to a fraction of an inch exactly how far his boat can
heel before a luff becomes necessary, and to one unaccustomed to the
conditions it is most exciting work watching the lee gunwale ploughing
through it, while a great volume of water is pouring into the boat.
However, length for length there are no boats afloat which will hold these
Sydney “flat-irons” in a light day. Off the wind they tend to bury, and
their great beam will prevent great speed; but on the wind in smooth
water they have never been beaten by any boat which has been brought
to race them. The great area of lateral resistance, the small displacement,
and the very powerful sail plan are all in favour of weatherly qualities of
no means order.
In running and reaching kites of every description are carried—
squaresails, raffees, jackyard topsails, jib topsails, water-sails, and gigantic
ballooners. Of course, capsizes, especially in gybing, are very frequent.
A 34-foot boom comes over with considerable momentum ; and the writer
has seen four 24-footers go “into the ditch '' one after the other in gybing
round a particularly bad headland.
These boats always have a broad moulding, as shown in Fig. 183,
upon which the crews sit. A novelty was in Surrounding the gunwale
with a hollow box-moulding several inches in width. The special object
of the idea described was to give increased buoyancy when lee-gunwale
under, and to give greater floating power in case of a capsize.
The objections to these skimming-dishes are numerous. In a seaway
they pound frightfully, and a Clyde 23ft. boat would do what she liked with
them in a thrash to windward under such conditions. The huge crews
necessary are a great objection. It is difficult to get a dozen or fifteen
crews, of as many men each, every Saturday afternoon; and the Sydney
man has such an innate objection to dead ballast, that no bulb keel
idea seems to have ever caught on to take the place of some of the
hands.
In races the handicap time allowances are generally given at the
start, and it is very exciting for the little boats to watch the big fellows
creeping gradually up from astern near the finish, when she may be
becalmed and let the little ones run right up on to her, thus saving
their time when all seemed hopeless. But under the Sydney system the
boats at the end of a race are generally packed together within a few
American Sharpies. 443
hundred yards, and bad luck to one will affect all equally. Probably this
System will never become popular here.
THE AMERICAN SHARPIE.
The existence of the sharpie can be traced back to 1835 on the Con-
necticut coast. They are supposed to owe their origin to the oyster men,
who originally pursued their calling in log canoes; but, large trees failing,
they resorted to a flat bottomed boat something like the Wexford flat
bottomed boat. The floor of a sharpie is usually rockered or rounded
up at both ends (see Fig. 184); but Mr. Thomas Clapham, a well-known
builder of these boats at Rosslyn, Long Island, U.S., has introduced a form
of the “skip jack” which he terms the “Nonpariel’’ (see Fig. 185), the bow
FIG. 184.
end being immersed. The bow end was immersed in the Nonpariel with a
view of obviating the “spanking,” or hammering, of the flat floor when the
boats are driven in lumpy water; but this was of no avail of course when
the bow was lifted out of water.
The sharpie varies in her proportions of beam to length from four to
five, but the craft of about five beams to length are said to make the
greatest speed. As a rule, the fore end and aft end of the boat are
decked, and in the larger craft a cabin is built. A sharpie 20ft. by 5ft.
beam on deck would be 4ft. 3in, broad at the bottom, and 1.ft. 8in. deep
from gunwale to bottom amidships.
The foremast is usually about six times the beam in height, and
mainmast shorter, or about five and a half times the beam. The masts

444 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
are very slight and tapering, bending like a bamboo yard. The sails are
leg-of-mutton shaped, extended by a kind of horizontal sprit (d, Fig. 186),
a tackle being on the mast for purchasing out the sprit. b and c are
FIG. 185.
brails used for reefing the sail, reef points are also sewn on the reef
bands as shown.
The centre-board is large, and so is the rudder. The latter is
usually of the balance type, one-third being in front of the rudder
FIG, 186.
post. An iron pipe is fitted into the stern end to act as sternpost ;
through this the rudder post is carried, and secured by a collar. The
ballast, if any is carried, usually consists of sand bags.


American Sneak Boats. 445
a in Figs. 171 and 172 shows where the mast would be stepped if
rigged as an Ordinary sloop. r
With skilful management these boats can be sailed in lumpy water;
but they heel very freely, and great dexterity and quickness are necessary
in sailing them in a breeze. Off the wind it is said that a 40ft. sharpie
will travel 12 or 14 knots an hour, and with everything flattened in
and board down will lie to the wind like a centre-board sloop.
THE AMERICAN SNEAK BOAT.
The home of the sneak boat, or sneak box, or devil’s coffin, as the
contrivance is indifferently termed, is Barnegat Bay, a piece of water some
forty miles long and six miles wide on the coast of New Jersey. It is
separated from the Atlantic by a narrow strip of sand, and is thus cut
off from anything like ocean waves. Large numbers of the sneak boats
are to be seen in the bay, the usual size being 12ft. long by 4ft.
breadth.
The keels are of oak 4 in. wide and #in. deep ; plank #in. thick.
The keel has a crook or bend forward to suit the shape of the boat.
The hood ends of the planks are fitted along the gunwale instead of in
the stem, the bottom plank or garboard running along the keel and up.
round each side of the stem.
A square well is covered with a hatch with lock to stow guns, &c.,
as the boats are largely used for wildfowl shooting. No thwarts are used,
a moveable box forming a seat for rowing. When duck shooting the
crew sit or lie on the floor boards, the deck being covered with sedge.
The rowlocks are fitted in wooden brackets, which fold down to
the deck. A strip of oak on each side aft serves as a washboard, and
also as a rack for holding the decoys.
The most peculiar feature of the boats is the dagger centre-board,
which lifts out of the case entirely, as a sword from its sheath. As a
protection against rough water an apron is tacked to the deck forward
of the well, and set up to a peak by a short spar as shown in Fig. 187.
With their flat bottoms the boats will float in very little water, and
can be dragged with ease over mud or marsh. The rig is a small sprit-
sail, and either an oar or a rudder is used for steering ; the boats are
taken out in all kinds of weather, and may be seen flying about the
bay when larger craft are at anchor; but of course, as in all such boats,
skill and experience in their management alone make them safe.
The “Sneak box * appears to be an adaptation of the old Irish canoe
as found at Kilkee on the West coast. These canoes developed into a

Old Irish Canoes. 447
rowing boat, and were thus illustrated (Fig. 188) and described by
Commander Horner, R.N.
“I recommend any one, wishing for a new sensation, to take a pull
in one after a gale. They never ship a drop of water, and literally dance
FIG. 188.
over the tops of the waves. A six-oared one, such as I went in once
from Arran to Galway, would I think be very useful in going over surf.”
The lower sketch represents a similar boat, the caique of the Bosphorus.

CHAPTER XXIV.
DOUBLE BOATS.
DouBLE boats, in some form or the other, are met with all over the World,
and the principle is adopted with the main object of acquiring great
stability. But, although double boats may have in this way great stability,
it must not be supposed that they are uncapsizable. They could be
capsized by carrying a heavy press of canvas, or they might be thrown
over by a sea, just as a lifeboat is sometimes.
In 1873, the late Mr. H. Melling, of Liverpool, had what he termed
a safety yacht constructed on the double hull principle, as shown on
the following page (Fig. 189), mainly with the object of using her on
the shoal water in the estuary of the Dee and Mersey.
The boards were introduced for the uses as set forth on page 245,
and claimed for them by the inventor, Capt. Schank. Her pontoons
are 30ft. long, and 2ft. 6in. in diameter, representing enormous floating
power.
In the spring of 1868 Mr. John Mackenzie, of Belfast, constructed
a double boat (Fig. 190) without dropping keels. The boats were of equal
size, each 21ft. keel, 3ft. beam, and 3ft. deep. Each boat is divided by
bulkheads into four compartments, two of these being 6ft. 6in. long, so
as to be used for sleeping purposes. A keel is fixed to each boat, 15in.
deep at the heel, diminishing forward to 6in. Bolted to the keel by
strong iron knees are stanchions which rise through the deck, on
which the rail is fixed; to these stanchions the cross-beams connecting
the boats are fixed, the timbers or ribs also rising through the deck for a
similar purpose, where the cross-beams are placed. The skin is 1ín. thick,
being in one board on either side of the keel; the sides are in two, each 18in.
deep, the seams being covered by a continuous strip of wood. The boats
are connected by five trussed beams, the one at which the mast is stepped
being double trussed. A platform rests on these beams, a space of 3in. being
Double Hulled Yacht. 449
left at either side to allow air compressed by a cross-sea to escape from
underneath ; from the mast forward this platform is formed of open-work.
Immediately under the platform is a chest, 2ft. broad and 6in. deep,
3:
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capable of carrying 6cwt. of water to serve as ballast in heavy weather,
It is provided with brass valves in bottom, which in light weather or in case
of accident can be opened, and the water discharged in a few minutes;
G. G.

450 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
--
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SECTION ON LINE A. B.
FIG. 190.
CU,
FIG. 191.





Herreshoff Catamaran. 451
when the box is emptied, by closing the valves a third chamber or boat
is formed, capable of carrying 7cwt. or 8c wt., in case the other two got
waterlogged. This extra weight is required to enable the boat to beat
up in a strong sea. A helm is attached to each boat, and these, being
coupled together by a connecting rod, are worked by a tiller in the centre,
So that both are moved in the same direction.
We have seen double boats which were constructed out of two
halves ; that is, an ordinary 5-tonner, say, was cut in halves in a fore
and aft vertical direction through keel and deck, and then set apart
6ft. or 7ft., and connected by beams. Of course the inner sides of the
halves were covered over with plank, and made a perfectly flat surface.
The late Colonel Conway Gordon built such a boat at Madras, which
he sent to England and sailed about Southsea. Her construction is
shown in Fig. 191. Colonel Conway Gordon built several similar boats
in England, and made unsuccessful attempts to race them against 5-raters
on the Solent.
In America a double boat was introduced in 1876 called a Catamaran.
The boats were designed by Mr. N. G. Herreshoff. The catamaran has
two faults, namely, it is slow in stays, and is prone to “pitch pole,” or
blow over endwise. (Plate XCV. and Fig. 192.)
The Feejee boat and the majority of catamarans possess this objection
—in rough water the separate motions of the hulls will ultimately wrench
- G G 2

452 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
them from the deck, unless the connections are excessively heavy. Mr.
Herreshoff's plan is to make the motion of the hulls independent of
each other.
The Amaryllis, Arion, Teaser, John Gilpin, and Tarantella, the
catamarans which Mr. Herreshoff has built thus far, are substantially
alike, differing only in details and size.
When the stern of the weather boat lifts, it is customary for One
of the crew to sit on it, as shown in Fig. 192.
The Tarantella and Duplex have been imported into this country.
As the reader could gain no clearer idea of the peculiarities of these
boats than by reading Mr. Herreshoff's patent specifications, we subjoin
an extract therefrom, to be read in connection with the accompanying
illustrations of the John Gilpin (Plate XCV.).
“‘A A are respectively the port and starboard hulls, each com-
plete in itself, and constructed with a centre-board case, centre-board,
O, rudder, &c. There should be a tight deck on each, with provisions
for pumping. In large vessels the space below deck in each hull may be
utilised.
“‘Points near the bow of each hull are connected by slightly curved
beams, D, trussed with rods, b, and united to the hulls at each end by
universal joints, C. C. A similar trussed beam is similarly joined to each
hull near the stern. The hulls may pitch independently of each other, and
the universal joints, C, will impose no restraint on the movement. A
º: M, extends longitudinally along the centre, just below
the trºsverse pieces, B, and secured to each. Two straight sticks, D
extend across at a higher elevation, about midway between stem and
stern. An upright, or nearly upright link, E, bears on each hull a little
one side of the centre line, with a universal joint free to work in all
directions. The upper end of each link, E, is similarly jointed to the
under side of the cross-piece, D. G" is a car of light, oval form, G
being a deck, and G" the standing room, with a suitable raised rim or
5
bulwark, adapted to accommodate persons, stores, &c. The car is secured
to both the transverse beams, D, and the longitudinal piece, M. It is
furthermore secured to the mast, H, which it aids to support, and by
which it is in turn supported. The weight of any load upon the car,
G", is transmitted to the hulls, A, through the medium, mainly, of the
cross beams, D, and upright links, E, which bear amidships, and
partly through the other cross-pieces, B, which bear near the ends,
respectively.
“‘Stiff diagonal braces, D', connect the ends of the beams, D, with
the bowsprit, which latter is also firmly connected to the mast.
PLATE XCW.
4,
*,
9, 4, 6, & , º,
Scale of Feet
The Catamaran “John Gilpin.”




Herreshoff Catamarans. 453
“‘A short upright, M', is fixed to the forward end of the piece,
M, and aids to support the bowsprit, I. It also receives a bob-stay, m,
which extends from the forward end of the bowsprit under the piece, M',
to the foot of the mast, H. Another fore-and-aft stay, m', extends from
the foot of the mast to the after end of the timber, M. Two other stays,
h h, connect the foot of the mast with each end of the cross-beams, D,
and still another, h', with the top of the upright, Mſ. A pair of stays,
d d, connect the ends of the cross beams, D, with the front end of the
timber, M, and another pair, d' d', connect the same ends with a point
near the after end of the same beam, M. All these may be steel wire,
galvanised, tinned, or otherwise protected from oxidation. The whole
produces a light framework, supporting the deck and its load, and also
the mast and bowsprit, upon the hulls, with freedom for the latter to
both pitch and roll.
“‘An elastic restraint upon the rolling is imposed through the
medium of arms, A* A*, of ash, or other strong and elastic material,
extending from each hull toward the other, and terminating near, but
not touching the central timber, M. These arms, A*, may be connected
to the boat, through the medium of bolts, with indiarubber washers, or
the like, to increase the elasticity.
“‘Their inner extremities are connected by links, A*, with an inner
piece, G', of ash, or other elastic material, held a little below the deck,
G. When in either a ground swell or choppy sea, one or both the
hulls seek to roll, the motion is arrested simply by this train of elastic
connections. The result is a limited freedom of the rolling, the pieces,
A" and G', yielding upward and downward to accommodate the motion,
and promptly bringing each hull to an even keel so soon as the
disturbing strain is diminished.
“‘The helm, J', is applied, not on either of the rudder-heads, but
on a shaft, J, in the central part of the structure, and further forward
than the rudders. On the lower end of this shaft are arms, Jº, extending
obliquely backward. To the end of each a rod, K, is jointed, which
connects to an arm on the rudder on the opposite side—that is to say,
the rod K from the port arm, Jº, extends to the starboard rudder,
and the rod K from the starboard arm, Jº, extends to the port rudder.
“‘In turning a double boat, one hull necessarily makes a shorter
turn, or describes a curve of less radius than the other. This requires
that the rudders of the two boats should be turned to unequal extents,
the boat which is the inside one, or nearest the centre of the curvature,
having its rudder turned to the greatest angle. Such motion is obtained
through my arrangement.
454. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
“‘If the compound vessel is to be turned to port, the helm is put
starboard in the usual manner; turning the arms, Jº Jº, to the same
extent, but by reason of their oblique position and their being centred
considerably in advance of the rudder-posts, the port rudder is turned
through a greater arc than the other. When on the other hand the
vessel is to be turned to starboard, the helm, J', is put to port, as usual,
and the rudder on the starboard boat, which is then on a similar circle,
turns through the greatest arc.
“‘ Each side, and below the bowsprit, are longitudinal pieces, L, of
hard wood, which, in addition to their obvious service as supports for
men handling the jib, contribute somewhat to the strengthening of the
framework.”
“In the John Gilpin, the space between the deck, G, is divided into
two parts, the after one containing the elastic beam, G', and the forward
being used as a locker. The elastic arms, A', are strengthened by the
diagonal arms, A*. Also the inner or free ends of the elastic arms, A',
connected with the mast by links, P, shewn in the sectional view. The
sheet is run along the longitudinal timber, M, thence through the floor
of the standing room, G".
“The dimensions of the John Gilpin are as follows: Length of hull,
over all, about 32ft. ; width of each hull, on deck, 28in. ; depth of each
hull at ends, 2ft. 5in. ; draft of hulls, with load, Ift. at each end, and
probably about 21in. amidships; distance of hulls apart from centre to
centre, 16ft. ; mast is stepped 12ft. 10in. from extreme bows. The car
is 14ft. 10in. long; length of bowsprit, 22ft. 8in. ; length of boom,
31ft. 4 in. ; length of gaff, 17ft. ; luff of mainsail, 20ft. ; mainsail and jib
are of the usual shape. The upright links, E, are 16ft. 6in. from
extreme bows, and the centre boards, O, are immediately abaft, with
wells 2ft. long on deck. The boats draw 4ft. with centre boards down.
The rudders are about 2ft. long. In every part lightness and strength
seem combined. The mast is very light, being about 5%in. in diameter
at H, and tapered to the foot. The shrouds are each three loose wires
of the usual telegraph size. The iron work is galvanised throughout.
Weight of boat, completely equipped, about 3300lb. (1:47 ton). It will
carry seven or eight passengers, but the best speed is with the fewest
on board. The cost was $1000.”
The Tarantella, more recently built, is 15in. longer, and is said
to have been timed to make 14 knots an hour, with the wind free,
and the maximum speed to windward, Mr. Herreshoff states, is 6% miles
per hour. The boat makes no lee way in smooth water, but a rough
sea lifts her bodily to leeward. She steers very readily, but does not
Herreshoff Catamarans. 455
come about as quickly as a single-hulled boat. The stern of the
weather boat will rise about eighteen inches out of the water, with
the bow submerged, in strong winds. Her motions are easier than any
other boat of the same size, but when driven very hard in rough water
she is very wet.”
CIH. A. PTE R XIX V.
STEAM YACHTING.
THE introduction of steam into the pleasure navy was for a great many
years retarded by two principal influences. In the first place, steam Was
considered inimical to yachting, and it was not admitted to be yachting
at all ; in the second place, the old-fashioned jet condensing engines,
with low pressure steam, were so extravagant in burning coal, that motives
of economy prevented many who had no prejudice about the matter to:
adhere to sail. However, with the introduction of the compound surface
condensing engine working at high steam pressures, the objection to steam
on account of its extravagance was removed, and the many advantages.
the steam yacht has over the sailing yacht have proved too much for mere
prejudice.
The principal advantage of a steam yacht over a sailing yacht is,
leaving cost out of the question, that she can make passages or traverse.
the sea in the weather that is the most agreeable ; that is, in calms and
smooth water, when the sailing vessel would be lying helpless, and those
on board half suffocated with the heat and stagnant air. In a calm
twenty-four hours a steam yacht can reel off 240 miles, or, say, go from
the Thames to Weymouth, whilst the sailing yacht would be waiting for
a breeze, and perhaps when that breeze came there would be more than
an agreeable amount of it to please the passengers on board. Of course,
as a sport or pastime, steaming can bear no comparison to sailing, and,
as a recreation, the advantage is greatly on the side of the yacht with
sails. It is true there are auxiliary steam yachts—yachts fully rigged
for sailing and with small steam power ; but, whilst they have in a
modified degree the advantages of both steam and sail, they are very
costly to work.
In building a steam yacht, the aid of a person well acquainted with
their construction and fitting with engines and their behaviour at sea.
should be sought ; and in buying a second-hand vessel a competent.
Expenses of Steam Yachting. 457
surveyor should be employed to examine her. As a rule, iron or steel steam
yachts are built up to Lloyd’s class, but it is not always, even in such
cases, that the work is of uniform excellence. Mild steel has since
1885 entirely superseded iron in yacht building, and is much to be pre-
ferred.
The first cost of a steel steam yacht, tonnage for tonnage, is not greater
than that of a wood sailing yacht, unless the engines are unusually costly ;
but the accommodation of the former will of course be much inferior on
account of the space taken up in the best part of the vessel by the engine
and boiler; so, in considering the cost, it will be fair to compare two
vessels of about equal accommodation.
A steam yacht 56ft. on the load line, with 10ft. beam and 6ft.
draught of water, would have accommodation about equal to that of a
cruising sailing yacht 46ft. long, with 10ft. beam and 7ft. 6in. draught
of water. The probable cost of the steam yacht, assuming her to be
fitted with compound surface condensing engines by a good builder,
would be from 1500l. to 1200l., according to the character of the build,
machinery, and fitting up. The yacht, however, could be obtained of some
firms for about 1200l. The sailing cruising yacht of 46ft. water line would
cost from 1000l. to 1200l.
The expenses of working the steam yacht would be as follows:
Coals for 3000 miles steaming ................................................ 325 0 0
Engine room stores............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 0 0
Ship chandlers' stores ......................................................... 8 0 0
Repairs and renewals............................................................ 40 0 0
Master, 16 weeks at 50s. ...................................................... 40 0 0
Engineer, 16 weeks at 50s... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 0 0
One seaman at 25s................................................................ 20 0 ()
Clothes for master ............................................................... 10 0 0
Clothes for engineer ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................................... 10 0 0
Clothes for seaman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 0 0
Board wages for master and engineer, 12s. each” ... ... ... ............... 19 4, 0
3234 4 0
* Not often given in this sized yacht.
To this might be added 75l. for interest on first cost, and 100l. for
annual depreciation. Insurance 18l.
The wages for master are put high, as it is assumed he would not
be a yearly servant; however, frequently a master of a small steam
yacht is given no more than 40s. per week under a weekly engagement,
and usually has no board wages.
A fireman or stoker of experience might be obtained for 2b., or
even 35s., a week, who would be able to drive the engines; but in the
end it would be found more economical to obtain the services of a skilled
458 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
engineer even at a cost of 31. per week. There is no rule about boarding
engineers, and frequently no board wages are paid ; but it is the same
thing in the end whether the wages are divided under two heads or not.
If night passages have to be made, a good fireman or stoker
would have to be shipped in addition to the engineer.
Expenses for working a 20-ton cruising sailing yacht :
Ship chandlers' stores .............................. .......................... 310 0 0
Repairs and renewals......................................................... . . . 40 0 0
Master, at 40s. per week ...................................................... 32 0 0
Seaman, as mate, at 27s. per week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 12 0
Seaman, at 25s. per week ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0 0
Clothes for master ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 () ()
Clothes for seamen ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 8 () ()
28141 12 0
Interest on capital, 50l. ; annual depreciation, 50l. ; insurance, 12l.
In making passages of more than twelve hours’ duration, only one
hand at a time would go below for a watch, unless the owner could
take a watch on deck, which would be in the mate’s watch.
It will be noted that in making these estimates stewards and cooks
have not been included. z
A well-built steam yacht of 100 tons would cost about 4500. and have
the accommodation of a cruiser of 60 tons, and the expenses of working
her would be :
|
Engine room stores......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 325 0 0
Coal for 5000 miles steaming......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .º 70 () ()
Ship chandlers' stores ......................................................... 15 0 0
Repairs and renewals...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... 120 0 ()
Master, 16 weeks at 50s. per week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 0 0
Engineer, 16 weeks at 50s, per week ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 0 0
Stoker, 16 weeks at 35s. per week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 0 0
Mate, 16 weeks at 30s. per week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 0 0
Three seamen, at 25s. per week each . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 10 0
Clothes for master . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 10 0 0
Clothes for engineer ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s • * * * * * * * * * * * * 10 0, 0
Clothes for Stoker and seamen ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........., 20 0 ()
Board wages for master and engineer (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 16 0 0
384,78 10 0
Interest on capital, 225l. ; annual depreciation, 300l. ; insur-
ance, 50l.
The stoker would be capable of taking charge of the engine during
a watch, and two of the seamen should be able to stoke. The stoker
would only take charge when making long passages, when he would
have one seaman in his watch; if merely cruising about for a few hours
in the day, the stoker would be in the engine-room with the engineer,
Expenses of Steam Yachting. 4.59
The cost of a sailing yacht of 60 tons would be about 2400l., and
the expenses of working her as follows:
Repairs and renewal of hull, taking an annual average of 5 years ... 370 0 0
Renewal of sails and rigging, taking an annual average of 5 years... 60 0 0
Ship chandlers’ stores, oil, paint, varnish, brushes, charts, flags,
coke, &c. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 0 0
Hire of store ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 10 0 0
Sailing master, at 50s. per week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 0 ()
Mate, 16 weeks at 308. per week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 24 0 0
Four seamen 25s. a week each ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 0 0
Clothes ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 0 0
Board wages for master....................... ................................. 8 0 0
39387 () 0
Interest on capital, 120l. ; annual depreciation, 60l. ; insurance, 30l.
A 300-ton steam yacht would cost about 12,500l., and afford the accom-
modation of a 200-ton sailing yacht, and the working expenses would be :
Engine room stores ...................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 0 0
Coal for 5000 miles steaming ............... .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 0 0
Ship chandlers' stores .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0 0
Repairs and renewals....................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 0 0
Master, at 31, per week .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 0 0
Engineer, at 31, per week ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 0 0
Mate, at 21. 10s. per week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 0 0
Second engineer, at 2b. per week ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 0 0
Three stokers, at 28s. per week .............................. • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 67 4 0
Boatswain, at 30s. per week ... ... ................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 0 0
Carpenter, at 30s. per week ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 0 0
Three A.B.'s, at 288. per week ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4, 0
Three A.B.'s, at 25s. per week ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 10 0
Clothes for master and mate..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0 0
Clothes for engineers .............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0 0
Clothes for boatswain, seamen, and stokers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 0 0
Board wages for officers ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 35 0 0
£1045 18 0
Interest on first cost, 625l. ; annual depreciation, 800l. : insurance, 125l.
The cost of a 200-ton cruising yacht would be about 7000l., and the
working expenses as follows:
Repairs and renewals ......................................................... 3300 0 ()
Ship chandlers’ and other stores .......................................... .. 80 0 0
Master, at 31, per week ......................................................... 48 0 0
Mate, at 2. per week............................................................ 32 0 0
Boatswain, at 30s. per week .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 0 0
Carpenter, at 30s, per week ................................................... 24; 0 0
Three A.B.'s, at 28s, per week .............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4. ()
Six A.B.'s, at 25s. per week .................................................. 120 0 0
Clothes for master and mate......... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 20 0 0
Clothes for crew ......................................... ........................ 50 0 0
Board wages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................ 16 () ()
39.781 4 0
Interest on first cost, 350l.; annual depreciation, 450l.; insurance, 80l.
The accommodation steam yachts of different sizes will afford will be
460 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
best seen from drawings, and on Plate XCVI. will be found represented the
cabin plans of two steam yachts—the Primrose (85 tons), Celia (25 tons),
and on Plate XCVII, the cabin plan of the Amazon (100 tons) ; Plates
XCVIII. and XCIX., a light draught steam yacht of 90 tons named
Linotte; Plate C., a most modern type of steam yacht named Speedy
(140 tons), built in 1895; Plate CI. represents the Marchesa (160 tons),
built 1887; and Plates CII, and CIII., the Maid of Honour (184 tons).
On Plate CIV. are the cabin plans of the steam yacht Oriental
(232 tons), built by Mr. John Inglis, of Point House, Glasgow.
Plate CW., represents the steam yacht Fauvette (420 tons), built
and engined for high speed.
The Capercailzie (529 tons), shown on Plate CVI., was built by
Messrs. Barclay and Curle for Mr. John Burns, and is a good example
of a full power steam yacht, with great engine room space.
The auxiliary steam yacht Soprano, and first known as Marchesa (377
tons), shown on Plate CWII., was built by Messrs. Lobnitz and Co., of
Renfrew, as an auxiliary screw, for the Marquis of Ailsa. She has been
almost continuously employed since she was built in making long voyages.
By the side of the Marchesa the cabin plan of a smaller steel
auxiliary steam yacht is shown, designed by the author, intended to
have power sufficient to drive her about 10 knots only, so as to get the
maximum accommodation by a curtailment of the engine room space, with
steam of 1801b. pressure. If much greater speed were required, the
machinery compartment would require to be shifted aft, as the increased
weight forward could not very well be provided for, and give a satis-
factory vessel. All these things require to be very nicely adjusted, and
one of the most difficult matters in designing an auxiliary steam yacht is
placing the machinery and coal bunkers. Of course, if the machinery is
in the middle of the yacht, as is the case of the Soprano, the difficulty
for the naval architect is somewhat lessened; but it will be seen that in
such a case either the saloon or some of the sleeping accommodation ought
to be forward of the engine room; otherwise the room for owner and
guests below will be very limited for the size of the yacht.
In apportioning power to an auxiliary steam yacht, it is important
that the coal consumption should be considered, as putting in enough
power to obtain another knot an hour speed may entail a serious increase
in the daily consumption ; and this would necessitate either an increase
in the size of the bunkers if long voyages had to be made, or frequent
coaling for coast work if the bunkers were of small capacity. The Oriental
at full speed and 330 I.H.P. made 114 knots, and her coal capacity is
33 tons; assume that she had to steam 3500 miles, with no possibility
| PLATE XCWI.
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Cabin Plan of the Steam Yacht “Celia," 25 Tons, and a similar yacht above.
J
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Plate (CVIII.
sºmºsºmºsºm-º. *==== sºmºsºsº sº-sºmº es e & sºme a ſº º
*E= - rººmsºmºsº *E* sº-, * * * *= * * _ - - - - - - - - - - - - * * *
as a s ºmºmºsºs" as º
As e s ==== < * ~ *-* * * *
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M A S T E R'S
C A B | N
F ---------------------, * \ \ \ t---------------- -y
t
ow N ER's
M A C H | N E RY 8& B O | L E R
COM PART M E N T F \ 7 : No a ..........
O R. E. C. A : S T L E
“L | N O T T. E."
S 4. TONS
COMPOSITE STEAM YACHT
built for
MONS. E. PERIGNON
BY MESS^* WHITE & SONS, COWES.
from designs by
Dl XON KEMP
1888.
s T A T E
Nº 2 S T A T E R O O M
R O O M
* * * * = sº & º ºr *
P A N T R Y
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Nº.
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ST EAM YACHT 90 TONS,
P- BUILT FOR M. PERIGNON,
\ |888.
Plaſe XCIX. From designs by
| *
|
DIXON KEMP,
*NEl-
=
* H EH| | º [==i)
s = | TWTTTTTTTTTTTTTN===
ºs---— –L– -***** **m-…-a <-º-º-º-º:
\
0 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 & 9 /O
1—1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1– 20 30
40 5 9
90' /00 Feet
: & | ſ —l
/ iſ
Sca/e à = / Foot.

PLATE C.
- —- - - -
ams - *
sms -
- *
- - -- *
S. Y. S. P E E D Y
(140 TONS),
BUILT FOR THE EARON BARRETO
BY MESSR.S. RAMAGE AND FERGUSON,
FIROM DESIGNS
23anker
DIMENSIONS, &C.
BY DIXON KEMP, 1895.
-------
Length over all ......... 134ft. 6in.
Length on L.W.L. ...... ............................................ 108ft, -
Length for tonnage on deck ....................................... 117ſt. 10in.
Art /a/ºz, Breadth........ * * * * * * * * * * * g e º 'º - e. 16ft. 2ín.
Depth, top of beams to top of ſloors ........................... 10ft. 4 in.
2&tº Draught of water aſt • * e s e e º e s is e s e - a s = e s s - e s e º a • * * 9ſt. 6in.
- @ Tommage, Lloyd's Y.M. 141 tons.
- - - " " ' Area of L.W.L. .. 1250 sq. ft.
, - - - " .5%are Zºx Area of mid-section 962 sq. ft.
- ~ * , ASAzcze –Zºrz/ Displacement on trial, tanks full and bunkers half full 178 tons.
.*.*.*.2.2% % %azzº 4&ree 4s bºº per inch of immersion at L.W. 1,............. 3 tons.
@ Diameters of cylinders 12in, 19in., and 30in
**** - - Stroke of pistons... ge e º 'º - - - 8 º' - - - - © º - - - - 21in.
Length of boiler................. 9ſt.
Diameter of boiler............ . ... .................... ............ 10ft. 6in.
* * - - Diameter of furnaces (two) 3ft. 2in.
Grate area (total) ............... ...... 36 sq. ft.
Heating surface (total).............................................. tº tº 1003 sq. ft.
Working pressure 1801b.
Screw propeller, diameter - G & º e a e º sº e º 'º fº Q 7ft. 9in.
| * * * * pitch mean ......... ........................... 10ft. IOin,
Surface of all the blades (four) 16 sq. ft.
Revolutions on measured mile .................................... 138 -
Indicated horse power. 395 °
Speed (mean) in knots, natural draught ..................... 13.05
Speed (mean) with forced draught .............................. 13.5 linoſ B
Slip per cent, of propeller º * * * * 11
Total weight of machinery, Steum up............. a s = e º sº tº e º 'º e º a 59 tons.























SAIL PLAN OF
Plate C (2) Ş . Y *g PIE. E. |D) **
o F |40 TONS, Y. M.
built for the
BAR ON BARRET O.
MESSº RAMAGE & FERG USO N,
— LEITH –—
from Designs by
D IXO N KEMP,
— I & 95.-
SCA L E O F /á ſºy To o N E F O o T.
5 /O /5 20 25 30 35 40 46 Fo 55 60 65 70 75 30 35 30 35 100
11 Li I I I 1.











Steam Yacht Coal Consumption. 461
of coaling on the passage, if she started at full speed, and maintained
it by keeping up 330 I.H.P., she would exhaust her coal in 105 hours
(4 days 9 hours), or when she had only steamed 1200 miles; but if she
started at eight knots, on 82 I.H.P., she would be able to steam the
whole distance, 3500 miles, with the 33 tons of coal ; but the time
consumed would be 438 hours (18 days 6 hours), instead of 307 (12
days 19 hours) if she could have maintained full speed the whole
distance ; but to have kept up the speed of 11.4 knots for the shorter
time she would require 97 tons of coal.
In the voyage of the Soprano (Marchesa) to South America Lord Ailsa
very carefully tested the coal consumption when the yacht was under
steam, and found it to result as follows, the bunker capacity being 80 tons :
Coal burnt Speed Total miles Coal per
per 24 hours. pº hour. Coal would last 8teamed. .#
3 tons 8 knots 26 days 14 hours 5104 35lb.
4 tons 8# knots 20 days 4200 43lb.
5 tons 9% knots 16 days 3552 511b.
Thus, by burning 3 tons of coal per day instead of 5 tons, the
Marchesa could steam 1552 miles farther, and would be only ten and a
half days longer over the greater distance. It will thus be seen that
great knowledge and judgment are necessary in designing and providing
an auxiliary yacht with steam power. But it is no less important in a
full power steamer, as, although the alteration of trim due to coal con-
sumption may not be such a serious matter for her ; yet it may happen
to be of the greatest importance that the economical speed should be
known, if the yacht is short of coal and far from a coaling station. It
may be thought that the proper course would be to drive the yacht as
fast as possible and reach the coaling place in the shortest time; but this
may only result in the yacht being unable to reach her port at all, as can
be seen by the particulars already given of the Oriental.
The Capercailzie is an example of a very fast steam yacht, her full
power speed being 13.02 knots, and her bunker capacity 100 tons ; and,
with the daily consumption set forth in the tables, she would steam at the
following rate and distances :
Coal i t Speed *** * * : ** Total miles Coal per
pº, tºº. pººr. Coal would last. steamed. mile.
|
3 tons 8 knots 33 days 6 hours 6394 35lb.
4% tons 10 knots 22 days 2 hours 5328 421b.
10 tons | 13 knots 10 days 7 hours 3235 70lb.
462 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
This simply means that such a yacht (leaving stress of weather out
of the question) could, at 8 knots an hour, steam to New York and
back on 100 tons of coal; but if the attempt were made to reach there
in about ten days, her coal would only last the outward voyage.
In making voyages to distant places it would also be right to
consider the money cost, as coal on the Atlantic or Pacific sea-board,
or even at some Mediterranean ports, cannot be procured for less than
about three times the cost per ton in England.
The coal consumption per mile for yachts of varying sizes will be found
to be approximately as set forth in the following table :

Tonnage of Yacht. Speed. º
50 tons. 8 knots. 15lb.
100 tons. 9 knots. 201b.
150 tons. 10 knots. 30lb.
200 tons. 10% knots. 35lb.
300 tons. 11 knots. 40lb.
The coal consumption given is for good modern triple compound
engines, working at a boiler pressure of about 160lb. to the square inch.
The consumption of coal for engines ranges from 21b. per I.H.P. per hour,
with machinery developing 50 I.H.P., to 13 lb. per I.H.P. per hour, with
machinery of 300 I.H.P.
The advantage of an auxiliary steam yacht may be very considerable
in extended voyages where the trade winds can be made use of, and
even in head winds if she be a fairly weatherly vessel.
Some idea of what can be accomplished by an auxiliary steam
yacht under her sails alone can be gathered from the following facts :
The Lancashire Witch did the distance (4458 miles) from the Falkland
Islands to Natal in twenty-three days, the biggest run being 295
miles entirely under canvas ; and she did the distance from Yokohama
(4400), also in twenty-three days, her biggest run being again 295 miles
in twenty-four hours ; and she did the whole distance from Tahiti to Liver-
pool (11,030 miles) in seventy-nine days, having covered, owing to head
winds, 12,230 miles. The Sunbeam, in her voyage round the world, covered
85,450 miles, and out of this distance 20,400 were done under canvas,
without steam ; she also, like Lancashire Witch, did many good runs under
canvas, having on one occasion logged 299 miles. The Sunbeam’s best
day’s steaming was 230 miles, and Lancashire Witch’s 216.
The first cost of a 300-ton auxiliary steam yacht would exceed that
of the cost of a full steam yacht, as, although the engines might not
Skylight
& Seats
Skylight &
Companion
=l
Engine Room
Skylight
Lockers | W3
Forecastle
This yacht is now named
MARCHESA
And owned by
G. T. KETTLEWELL, Esq.
6% The Steam Yacht
QUEEN MARFISA”
BUILT FOR
GEORGEBEER.ESQ.
by M*W*WHITE&Sons,Cowes,
FROM DESIGNS BY
° DIKON KEMP,-188.
—- - -
Sideboar Bed O B ed B Two bed
º X. -WCT- ed S
* - A - & g Seat
SC Y (X /* State Room T--—
Fº*T State Room State Room Mate and
En
/ Pa sºng." \ $neer
| |
—a H -
Ny Bed Lº l --|-- TV. ©.
State Room State Room State Room Master
—l -º —TH-seat
is -- tº-T d
Sideboard B ed º Bed Bed Bed




























Plate C \\ .
| || || ||
--- * - - -º- ºr sº-c = -smº- ºg -º- - sº- ºr - as
- - sºme -- - -ss- -
Scale of Feet,
Hº-ſ—f-#—f—#–4–4–4–4–4–4–4–4–4:######– 26. 36 * = 32 *— 63 ſº gº 3? ſoo /68 //6
Raº) WAR i Fº
r u Pº PLATE RACKS # B E D ROBE ! COAL BU NK E R º, TTH
cº- D R E S S E R º (2) t -— B S
==T 9 2 P º Q v- l - ***-----
Z Zººſ C LASS &
WARD º CH INAX ROOM @Law NQ 3 - N 9 |
:S º * STATE ROOM STAT E R O OM
- •y - _*\
Hº M A CH IN ERY B O J L E R hºw
NQ 2 CAPTA N -
—TI. .
Lock E R S STEEL STEAM YACHT
G6
MAID OF HONOUR”
-------- &e * N 9 6 4 -
A.
_j x_k^Piº º /
STATE ROOM fiºſº WNº.
WARDINºt- º TAB Le / S – NQ 5 -
i:'yº 3º *---- sº a Tº state Room : STATE R O OM
8 so }º X. º tº sig=LsArt Roo." ^_|- * | L_--—T
~~~~ *tºlºgº <scº BOARD WARD -
**~ RD !
*P* BoARD & Lockeas cupboard Rose B E D B E D . *. COAL BU N KE R —º-
- Built for
* THE RIGHT HON. EARL CAWD OR
W BY
MMERS & C 9
DAY, SU
F R O M D ES GNS BY
DIXON KEMP
| 8 S J .
BRI DC E
(b)
S M O KE
HOUSE
COOK
HOUSE
S KYLIGHT
OVER
E N G | NES
D EC K H O U S E
KYLIGHT
EAT
SKYL J C, HT
i
i
vº
S EAT
B R J DOE













































Engineers for Steam Yachts. 463
cost quite so much, the heavy spars, rigging, and sails would cost probably
ten times as much as those in the steamer.
The 300-ton auxiliary would be shorter and broader, but in reality
the accommodation would be superior, as the engine-room would be
proportionately shorter, and the extra breadth would add to the size of
the cabins.
The cost of working a 300-ton auxiliary steam yacht, so far as
engine-room wages go, would be about the same as the full steam
yacht ; but there would be six additional seamen to provide for,
amounting to 150l. There would be also wear and tear of sails; but,
as the engine and boiler would probably be used less in proportion, a
fair set-off would be arrived at. However, there is no doubt that for
home cruising, or even for cruising to the Mediterranean or Baltic, the
full steam yacht will prove the more economical and most satisfactory.
But a still more important matter to consider is the fact that as
an auxiliary steam yacht has generally more beam to length and a great
deal more under-water depth of body than the full steam yacht, she
is as a consequence a better and steadier sea boat, and on that account
is to be preferred.
In making a long voyage great care should be taken in selecting
an engineer; a thoroughly experienced working man should be obtained—
one who not only knows how to drive an engine, but who is also capable
of readjusting any of its parts and effecting slight repairs. The second
engineer should also be what is known as a “ donkey man.” As much
as 4l, a week and board wages have been paid to an engineer for long
voyages, and 31. to second engineer.
A certificated “second engineer” is frequently engaged to take charge
of a yacht’s engines, and, if a steady, sober man can be found, a certificated
“second engineer'' will be a most invaluable one to employ. These
second engineers have often been “donkey men,” that is, men who, having
acquired a fair education, have risen from firemen to stokers. However,
the Board of Trade second-class engineer must have served some time in
the shop. The qualifications are as follows: “The candidate must be
twenty-one years of age, and have served an apprenticeship to an engineer,
and prove that during the period of his apprenticeship he has been employed
in the making and repairing of engines ; or if he has not served an appren-
ticeship, three years’ employment in a factory or workshop where engines
are made or repaired will suffice; but in either case he must also have
served one year at sea in the engine-room. If he has not been apprenticed
to an engineer, nor worked in a factory for the stipulated time, four years’
service at sea in the engine-room will qualify him. However or wherever he
464. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
-- - - - - - - ----------- ~~~--------- ~~~~
may have been employed, he must be able to give a description of boilers
and the method of staying them, together with the use and management of
the different valves, cocks, pipes, and connections. He must know how to
correct defects from accident and decay, and to repair them, and to
understand the use of the barometer, thermometer, hydrometer, and
salinometer. He must state, when asked, the causes, effects, and remedies
for incrustation; and his educational attainments must be ample enough
to pass in the first five rules of arithmetic and decimals, besides which
he will be questioned as to the construction and fixing of paddle and
screw engines.”
In selecting a “second engineer’ to put in charge of a yacht’s
engines, one who is fresh from the factory or with only one year's Sea
’ who has worked up to
service should be avoided ; the “ donkey man,’
his certificate at sea, on the other hand, will be a thoroughly reliable
engineer to engage.
In engaging an engineer the owner should make it clearly under-
stood to him that he will be under the authority and direction of the
master. This understanding is absolutely necessary.
The actual wages paid on board some steam yachts when in commission
will be found set forth in the table. The Soprano (nee Marchesa) is an
auxiliary steam yacht. The others are full-power steamers.
A—

|
t Capercail- T'ai T. Marchesa, Tºothen, Bulldog, Northern | Celia.
Crew. wºn. º 408 tong. 345 tons. 60 . #". 23 tons.
3 s. £ S. 3 & 28 B. 39 H. 48 s. |. £ 8.
Master ............... 2 18 3 () 3 () 3 1() 2 () 2 0 || 2 0
Mate .................. 1 15 1 15 1 10 2 14 - 1 15 -
Second Mate......... —t - - 2 () - *- -
Boatswain ............ - 1 10 1 8 1 10 - *- -
Coxswain ............ 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 8 - *- | -
Carpenter ............ - 1 8 1 7 1 10 - — —
Seamen ( 7 at 268. 5 at 268. | 10 at 25s. 7 at 26s. 3 at 25s. 2 at 268. 1 at 25s.
* 6 s : * * * * * * * * R 9 2 6 10 12 10 9 2 3 15 2 12 1 5
Poy... ............... 0 16 -s - - - 0 16 --
Engineer ........ ... 2 10 3 () A. () 3 0 3 0 2 10 2 10
Second Engineer ... 2 () 2 0 3 0 2 10 - *- ! -
Fireman............... 1 9 1 10 1 10 1 7 1 10 1 8 -
Second Fireman ..., 1 7 1 10 1 1 0 1 7 * | ---
Third Fireman ... ... - -* 1 10 1 7 -- | --
Steward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15 2 () 1 10 2 0 1 15 1 15 1 10
Second Steward ..., | 0 15 1 10 1 8 1 10 - —
Cook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1 10 1 1() 1 15 2 0 - -- -
Cook's Mate ......... - 1 5 1 () 1 8 - - l -
|
Total per week. ..... 27 4. 29 15 38 5 38 3 12 5 12 16 7 5
------------- - - - - - -- - ---- *-— -----—
With regard to the wages paid on board these steam yachts, there is
some variation so far as the engineers and other officers are concerned, but
Plate Cºlli.
STEEL STEAM YACHT
"MAID OF HONOUR"
F O R
THE RIGHT HON: EARL CAWDOR.
* D/XO/W /(EMP
JAM. ſ.69/.
--~~~~~ //
__--~~~~~~~ - Scale of 6 to one foot.
*
* *
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• *
• *
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* *
• *
* *
sº
• *
• *
* *
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PLATE CIW,
Cabirv Plovrºs .Stearrv Kalc/w// “ORIENTAL!'
cºſ Affy
//O U.S.E.
jº.
2.
Acco-fat o tº a to,
^ *** * * r * g ºf a ſax
§
BU//y P & R.
TABLE 7/8 Lºſ
i
§
~ 0.4 L E U/W/ſ E. F.
...? I 3 + f_4 $ 7 & # 10 II 12 13 & 15 If ſº tº ſº 20 25 so # = 40 45 50 FEEy























PLATE CW.
, S.Y. FAU VETTE,
(Winner of the steam yacht race at Nice, 1894. Mean speed on 75 mile
course to Genoa 15-25 knots an hour.)
J) \ \ WTW_l Hºrºwº-Wºº Pº IITT | | | | | \ \frty . . . . . . . . -t- - - - - - BUILT FOR
, ºr * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - ===H. - E. A. FERI , ESQ.
==== ||||I||||||I|\ || || || |T| || ||. |||||| GNON Eso
***,\ , ; * ... 'H|| || ||#### º § : |U| ... - - - - - * : JMESSRS R.A.M.A.G.E A.W D FERG USOJW".
FROM DESIGNS BY
DIXON KEMP, 1892.
—º-Coc-—
e * * DIMENSIONs, &c.
–– - - * . A. . H. * > \ . * Length over all ........................ ....................... 189ft. 9in.
Aº Length on L.W.L. ............................................. j60ft.
Length for tonnage .......................................... 175ft. 10in.
Breadth ......................................................... 22ft. 8in.
-* *.*.* * *** *- ~ * * ** *** *** -º-º: --- * *ssºs-ºsmºs-º-º: smºs-ºs- ſ Depth, top of beams to top of floors ........ ............ 15ft.
Draught of water aft ....................................... 12ft. 11 in.
Tonnage, Lloyd's Y.M........................................ 420 tons.
Area of L.W.L. ................................................ 2536 sq. ft.
– Area of mid-section ............................ ~~~~ 181 sq. ft.
Displacement on trial, bunkers and tanks full, boats
in davits, and 40 tons ballast on board ............... 491 tons
Displacement per inch of immersion at L.W.L......... 6 tons.
g - - -- * ~ * ..., 24 : Diameter of cylinders ....................................... 18in., 30im., and 48in.
: \ \s : Stroke of pistons ............................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32in.
. § f º S (" (' ~ Length of boilers (two)......................... … 9ft. 4 in.
| | |m| > & : ſ S. : E}=#| º G D Diameter of boilers ........................................., 11 ft. 10im.
. | Q fi | § . —-º-º-º:----tº-l * ~º Diameter of furnaces (two in each boiler) ............... 3ft. 6in.
* |}}}# § Grate area (total) ............................................. 84 sq. ft.
{ ---. 11. Ys.... t Heating surface (total).................. .................... 2300 sq. ft.
* * * * * * * *- - - - - - - #! - - 1 -- Working pressure ...... ............ ....................... 160lb.
sº Screw propeller, diameter ...... ............ ............. 10ft. 9%in.
33 pitch mean ................................. ..... 17 ft. Sin.
Surface of all the blades (four) ........................ .. 45 sq. ft.
Revolutions on trial .......................................... 100
Indicated horse power ....................................... 1150
Speed (mean) in knots ........................ … 15-6
Slip per cent. of propeller..................... .............. 10:6
Total weight of machinery, steam up ...... .............. 167 tons.
REFIERENCEs.
as sº sº a º * = s. s. s. ss sº as ºr sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * --- Fº A, Deck Saloon. B, Deck Dining Room. C, Store Rooms. D, Venti-
, -ST - - * *S. lators. E, Staircase. F, Coal Bunkers. G, Kitchen. H, Mess Rooms.
I, Passage. J, Cabins for Master, Mate, and Engineer. K, State Rooms.
L., Owner's Saloon. M, Engine. N, Boilers. O, Crew Spaces. P, Passage.
Q, Near Engine Room for Stokers. R, Boiler for Electric Light Dynamo.
S, Sail Room. T, Stoke Hold. U, $team Steering Gear. V, Stairs.
W B, Water Ballast Tanks. X, Fresh Water Tanks. Y, Chain Cables,
Z, Sideboards. ca, Companions. c c, Skylights,
dºgs ºs -: * sºme ºne s = s. * * * * * * sº sº s sº gº ºs º ºs
& sº * = & sº A7%zze A'oozz


















PLATE CWI.
`s, Rico inc PLAN
O 9
STEAM YACHT 'CAPERCAILZi E”
S
*~
*
* * * - - - -
º
a P.
CA8 |N PLAN
OF
STEAM YACHT “CAPERCAILZIE’.




PLATE CWII.
@ Zresser
Aazury
2.ocł.€219.
as ºn - * = * * * * * - as as “w a º
r — - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - F - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
* - - - - - - - - - - -
* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Engine & Boiler Room,
Jºoke Bož fºrward. .
* * * * * = • * = • *
* - - - - - - - - - - - - A y\\ 1 : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Forecastle
** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
i
|
|
coal Burder
tºtaro, d ( * cc
A.S. YACHT “MARCHESA”
408 Tons B.M.
BUILT BY LOBNITZ & Cº. RENFREw,
For THE MARQUIS of AbiSA.
(NOW NAMED ''SOPRANO,”)
2 Berths
—ll Books Jocker | A ed Ped
* Vºl. His fºr Fºº-
& Talºs Ele Red Aength, on 4. W. Z. 113 fº
le ºf - - @ —º Breadth, 21 fº
. § Passage Coals below / y Engineers Zºravage—0M 215
TL- 4. Eſſi, º
44doen → i
Binky for 2 firemex, Mess |-
Salo on. azuderneath steward Galley
Jkylight Engine Room 20×9' º* - - - sºme -- sº ; * C r e w
Room, E-
Table | ©l Master Mate O
(3) | - º Co all & Aed. ca B N PLAN of
Złed, (apboº JBed. º: Jofo. lovervill AUX. STEAM SCHOONER YACHT,
o,” Vlaret :
ºf TL.E.FT& _-T
m Designed by
i DIXON KEMP, 1880.
Cºerneath. Saloon,
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *_____º


























O H. A. PTE R XIX VI.
ICE YACHTS.
FASCINATING pastimes like yacht and boat sailing ought to sink into
insignificance when compared with the fascinations of ice yachting, if
speed alone be the cause of excitement. It is, however, difficult for a
Briton to realise the extraordinary enthusiasm ice-boat racing or sailing
gives rise to in Canada, the United States, and some parts of Europe.
The mere idea of being conveyed through the air in a boat at a rate
equal to the speed of the fastest express train repels rather than fascinates;
however, those who have experienced the extraordinary velocity of an ice
yacht say that when the first dread of the lightning-like flight is over-
come, the longing for the fast travelling of an ice yacht becomes quite
a fascination.
Ice boating in England has been attempted on many occasions, and
in Folkard’s “Sailing Boat" are numerous plans for making such con-
trivances; however, none of these agree with the American plan of making
ice boats, but, as the Americans have had more experience of ice-boat
sailing than any other people in the world, we may take it for granted
that their plan is in every way better adapted than any other for
the attainment of high speed and safety. A winter seldom occurs in
America when no ice-boat sailing is possible; and on the Hudson and
smaller lakes of Canada the sport is as much a winter amusement as
cat-boat sailing is at the watering-places during the summer months.
In the British Isles we do not often get a long enough duration of frost
to render ice boating possible; but ice boats have been constructed and
sailed, and the frequent inquiry for information concerning them would
lead one to think that, with suitable opportunities, ice-boat sailing would
become as popular here as it is in North America; and, as the boats are
very simple and inexpensive in construction, there is no reason why the
amusement should not be taken up by anyone who knows anything at all
The Ice Yacht Haze. 467
about boat sailing or boat steering. The engraving, Fig. 193, which we give
of the American ice yacht, Haze (owned by Mr. Aaron Innes, of Pough-
keepsie, U.S.), is, we presume, a fair example of Transatlantic ice yachts,
although they are not all exactly alike in every detail. The different
parts of the yacht and the mode of construction can be readily understood
from the engraving, and all we need do is to describe these parts, and
FIG. 193. THE AMERICAN ICE YACHT “HAZE.”
give the sizes of the material, such as used in the construction of the
Haze.”
The keel, or centre timber, is 24ft. 6in. long, 3in. wide, and 9in. deep
(an ordinary “deal”). The side frames are 23in, thick and 4in. deep.
At the mast a timber, 1ſt. wide, by 3in. deep and 7ft. 6in. long, is
fitted on top across the side frames. Underneath the mast timber is the
* The engraving is copied from the Scientific American.


H H 2
468 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
-------------------------------- *
“runner” plank, of 1ſt. width, 8in. depth, and about 16ft. long, the
side frames, mast plank, and “runner” plank being all bolted together.
Sometimes the side framing is continued forward of the mast timber round
to the bowsprit, and thus makes the construction look more boat-like.
The after part of the frame is bottom-planked with inch boards to
form the deck. - - . . . .
The “runners” are three in number, one fixed to either end of the
runner plank (which crosses the keel at right angles), and the third is
fitted aft to the keel timber and rudder post, and is used as a rudder,
the pintles being “ upside down.” This rudder-runner is usually somewhat
Smaller than the other two, and is fitted with a tiller.
The runners are securely fitted, in a line parallel with the keel, to
the ends of the runner plank. They are 6in. deep, 2in, thick, and 2ft. 6in.
or 3ft. long. Each runner is shod with steel, and rounded up at the fore
end. The shoe is solid, and is 1%in. deep. One inch of this depth is
ground to an angle of 90° V ; the remaining #in. forms the upper part
of the shoe, and is square with the top, which is 2in. wide. The steel
is “ tapped ” on the upper side about an inch deep. Into these taps in.
bolts are screwed, and are long enough to pass through the runner and
runner plank; their heads are then secured with counter-sunk nuts before
the runner is fitted to the “runner plank.”
As a rule, nothing but the two sails are carried, and the ice yachts
of Toronto have but one lateen sail. These lateen sails are similar to
the sail shown by Fig. 194. The dimensions of the spars of the Haze
are as follows: -
Mast, step to cap...................................................... 20%t.
Mast, diameter at heel ............................................. 5in.
Mast, diameter at cap ............................................. #in.
Bowsprit, beyond mast ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... 16ft. 6in.
Bowsprit, depth at mast.................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6in.
Bowsprit, depth at outer end....................................... 3in.
Bowsprit, width: ................................................... #in.
* In the Naval Museum, South Kensington, there is the model of a Finland ice boat.
The runners of this boat are large Skates, 7in. or 8in. deep, about 2ft. long, and about lin.
thick. They are very much rounded up at the fore end, like a Dutch skate. They are fastened
by transverse bolts to the sides of pieces of timber of the same length as the skates. The
cross timber, or “runner plank,” is sunk into the top of the pieces of timber to which the
two side skates are bolted. The after centre skate (there are three skates in all, including the
rudder skate) is of similar pattern, and is fixed as a rudder. The keel of this boat is 24ft. The
breadth across the runners is 12ft. The Finland model is also said to represent a “Canadian ’’
ice boat. It is of the T form, with timbers fitted to it in an X form for strength. An ice boat
constructed in 1878 for Lake Windermere had the “skates’’ pivoted to the runners, so as to
have a fore and aft motion. The idea was to ease jolting in coming upon irregularities in
the ice, but it is difficult to understand that the jolting could be relieved by such a method.
# The bowsprit is fitted to the keel by a clamp iron #in. by 4in., and by a through-bolt
abaft the iron. The bowsprit can be a mere continuation of the keel timber.
The Ice Yacht Jack Frost. 469
ft. in
Jibboom, length (when one is fitted) ..................... . . . . . . . . . 15 3
Jibboom, diameter at centre ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 2%
Jibboom, diameter at ends.............................................. 0 2
Mainboom, length ...................................................... 29 4
Mainboom, diameter at centre ....................................... 0 4%
Mainboom, diameter at ends ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 24
Gaff, length................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 9
Gaff, diameter............................................................ 0 2
Mainsail, luff ............................................................ 14 6
Mainsail, foot ............................................................ 28 0
Mainsail, head ......................................................... 8 0
Foresail, leech............................................................ 15 0
Foresail, luff ............................................................ 22 0
Foresail, foot ............................................................ 14, 6
-*. - . . " . . . . . . ,< *...* - - - - - -- ~ *
FIG. 194.
The ice boats are usually of about the dimensions given; but one,
the Icicle, owned by Mr. J. A. Roosevelt, has a framework 32ft. long,
is 26ft. between the runners, and the runners are 7ft. 6in. These
appear to be extreme dimensions.
Another very successful ice yacht was the Jack Frost, designed and
built by Mr. Archibald Rogers, and here represented by Figs. 195, 196, 197.
The favourite points of sailing are with the wind a point or so before
the beam, right abeam, or a point abaft the beam. With such a wind,
a straight course over perfectly smooth ice, free from hummocks and
cracks, and a gale of wind, it is claimed that these yachts can and do
travel at the rate of sixty or more miles an hour. Every winter we see
numerous records of such time made, and they are apparently well authenti-
cated; at any rate, it seems incredible that, year after year, American
gentlemen should enter into a conspiracy to deliberately publish false times.

470
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
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472
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
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The Speed of Ice Yachts. 473
There is not the shadow of a reason for believing that the time given for
making a mile (a statute mile is understood) is persistently exaggerated.*
An elucidation of the phenomenon of a vessel sailing faster than the
wind has frequently been attempted, but, up to the time when this was
written in 1879, with no clear conception of the mechanical principles
involved. In the first place, it must be distinctly understood that a boat's
speed before a wind which blows with a constant velocity cannot equal the
speed of the wind; under different conditions it is conceivable, and in
accordance with mechanical principles, that the speed of a boat may equal,
and greatly exceed, that of the wind. If the boat were before a wind
which is travelling at the rate of 30 sea miles an hour, the direct impulse
of the wind on the sails, if fiatures, would be equal to 6lb. per square foot.
But the sails are not fixtures, and move before, or away from, the wind;
the pressure is thereby gradually diminished until it is balanced by the
resistance met with by the boat on the ice. As the resistance of an ice
boat is very small, a high speed—nearly equal to that of the wind—is
reached before the resistance and the wind-pressure become uniform.
Thus, say the velocity of the wind were 30 miles an hour, and the
speed of the boat 20 miles an hour, the resultant pressure of the wind
would be only of that due to a wind speed of 10 miles, or about $lb. per
square foot. But if the wind makes a more or less acute angle with the
line of advance, the conditions are entirely altered ; the pressure of the
wind does not diminish with the advance of the boat, and its effective
impulse is determinable on mechanical principles, which will admit as
possible a speed of the boat much greater than the actual speed of the
# The following extract from a letter, copied from the Spirit of the Times, March 1, 1879,
whilst it gives a denial to the fictitious speed attributed to some ice yachts, confirms the report
of the amazing speed an ice yacht is capable of : “As to the speed of ice yachts much has
been said, and a great deal has been said devoid of truth. A wind on the beam—what we
call three-quarters free—is the wind for speed, and there are times that a yacht attains a
speed of sixty-five to seventy miles per hour (in fact, there is no limit to their speed, conditions
of ice and wind favourable); but the yacht is not able to maintain this high speed long, as
the helmsman is continually obliged to deviate from a straight course, on account of hummocks,
cracks, or rough ice, and the course of a yacht is always zigzag instead of straight. I have
often, in company with Commodore Grinnell, of the N.H.I.B. Club, raced with the express
trains on the Hudson River Railroad. We would beat down on a train with a good west wind,
and often run side and side with the train over a mile ; then the wind would light up, and
the train would draw ahead. At other times we would pass a train like a rocket, and run a
mile and a half ahead, when we would be compelled to tack across the river and bear away
again. Meantime the train would crawl up, only to be beaten again for a mile or two. The
fastest time between Poughkeepsie and New Hamburgh that I know of was made this winter.
The distance is nine and three-quarter miles, and the run was made by the yacht Zephyr,
of the N.H.I.B.C., in ten minutes. The Phantom made the same run, some years ago, in
twelve minutes. The yacht Whiz was reported, and has a record of the same course of nine
and three-quarter miles in seven minutes. This is another mistake as she never made the
time, but it went the round of the papers all the same.”
474 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
wind. However, it is scarcely possible that any water-borne boat
propelled by sails could ever be made to exceed the speed of the wind
which impelled it, on account of the enormous growth of the resistance
due to wave-making; but “ice boats” may be regarded as having almost
no head-resistance; the slightest force will give them motion, and keep
them in motion. The only friction is from the lee runner, as when
sailing the weather runner seldom touches the ice, and the lee runner,
cutting into the ice, prevents excessive leeway.
To illustrate the principles involved, it will be assumed as a fact
P
FIG. 198.
that ice boats in America have been timed to sail at the rate of one
mile in a minute by the aid of a force due to a velocity of thirty sea
miles an hour of the wind. Such a wind force is termed a “fresh gale”
by sailors, and a ship would be under reefed topsails, reefed courses, or
possibly fore and mizen topsails furled. In Fig. 198 we will suppose A B
to be an ice boat fixed so that it cannot move. The line w d represents on
a scale the direction and force or speed of the wind equal to 30 miles
an hour. The line S 8 represents the balance lug sail of an ice boat. It
is obvious that the wind, blowing on the sail from the direction shown
would tend to drive the boat in the direction of its own motion. But

The Speed of Ice Yachts. 475
the force w d is made up of two components—one, c d, is acting at right
angles to the sail, and the other, d k, acting along the plane of the sail
without any potent effect. The component c d can be further regarded
as a force made up of three other components—one, c a, acting at right
angles to the keel of the vessel, and tending to drive her to leeward;
$77,
A
º
|
t
B
f
ſ
|
ſ
* *
* *
** = -
*
* *
*
FIG. 199.
FIG. 200.
another, a d, acts in a line with the vessel’s keel, and tending to drive
her ahead. The third force is resolved vertically in a downward direction,
and need not be considered.
Hitherto we have only dealt with the “real wind,” and we have now
to consider what takes place when a boat, under the influence of a d,
gathers way, or commences to move in a direction to meet the wind at


476 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
a more or less acute angle. In Fig. 199 A B is the boat set in motion *
by the component of the wind a d, and is proceeding in the direction
of the arrow m 'm ; the difference between the arrow and the keel line
represents the angle of leeway, or amount of leeway made. The dotted
line w d represents the direction and velocity of the real wind, as in
Fig. 198; but the wind apparently will now be blowing more ahead, and
it is the apparent wind with which we have to deal. The apparent wind
is thus determined : On a line parallel to m 'm set off a distance (see d n,
Fig. 199) by scale (same as the wind scale) to represent an opposing motion
equal to the speed of the boat (assumed in this case to be sixty miles an
hour, or double the velocity of the wind). Join m w, and the dotted line n w
will represent the force and direction of the apparent wind.
This apparent wind must now be regarded as the propelling force,
and not the real wind as shown in Fig. 198. In Fig. 200 let the dotted
lime w m represent the direction and force of the apparent wind; by a
parallelogram of forces the line of force w n has two components, one
acting in the direction w c, or k n, and the other in the direction c m.
The component e n is farther resolved into three components, as before
shown by Fig. 198, represented by c D and D m in Fig. 200, and another
acting vertically, not shown. It is the component D n which impels the
boat forward. It will be seen that the force D n is very small, or only
about one-seventh of the force & D, which is striving to drive the boat to
leeward ; but the resistance to leeway is very great, whilst the resistance
to headway is very small. Consequently the boat moves a scarcely
perceptible distance in a broadside direction, but gathers speed in the
direction of her keel, or rather in the direction of the line m. m., which
includes the broadside motion or leeway. The boat continues to gather
way or increase in speed from the rest position shown in Fig. 198 until
the resistance she meets with, from friction of the skates on the ice and
resistance to the rigging, &c., equals the force shown by D m. The speed
of the boat then remains uniform so long as the wind is constant.
If the speed could be increased, by diminishing the resistance, beyond
sixty miles an hour, with the same wind force, the apparent wind would
draw more ahead, and then obviously the effective impulse, D m, would
be further diminished, until the apparent wind were brought right ahead,
when D m would disappear altogether; the sails would “ lift,” and a fresh
start would have to be made. t -
From what has been said it will be concluded that on any point
of sailing between a quarterly wind and a wind on the bow, if any great
$: The sail is represented as hauled flat in. In practice the sail would be well off at the
moment of starting, and would be gradually hauled aboard as the speed increased and the
apparent wind drew more ahead.
The Speed of Ice Yachts. 477
speed is realised, the boom must be hauled close aboard, the exact angle
with the keel being determined by the speed of the boat or by the direction
of the apparent wind, and not by the direction of the real wind. When
a point dead to leeward has to be made, it is thought that the point
is reached more quickly by hauling up to 45° from the course, and then,
when half-way, gybing or tacking, and making for the point to be reached,
thus traversing a right angle.
The subject of the speed of ice yachts is frequently cropping up,
and the mechanical principles involved in propelling them at speeds
greater than the velocity of the wind has already been explained.
The subject is, however, of ever recurring interest, and the paper
read in 1893 at the Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture Congress
in the United States, by Mr. Archibald Rogers, imparted new interest
to ice yacht sailing. The scientific exposition of the phenomenon of
sailing faster than the wind (or the propelling force) is travelling was
supplied by Mr. Nathaniel Herreshoff, the well-known Rhode Island
engineer, the general result of the investigation being as follows: “The
closest the boat will sail to the real wind is 30°, or 23 points. The best
course, or the one which will take the boat farthest to windward, is 60°, or
54 points from the wind, when the advance to windward would be at the
rate of half the velocity of the real wind. . . . The greatest speed of
the boat is attained when 120°, or 103 points from the wind, then her speed
is twice that of the real wind.” In connection with this matter, Mr. Archi-
bald Rogers says: “One point must always be borne in mind, and that is
that an ice yacht is always sailed with her sails trimmed flat in, whether in
beating to windward or driving off the wind.” The fact is, the wind which
has to be dealt with in propulsion by sails is what scientists term the
“apparent wind,” which always appears to blow more or less ahead,
according to the speed of the vessel propelled, excepting when sailing dead
before the wind. Mr. Rogers gives records of speeds made on various
courses, from which it appears that his own ice yacht Jack Frost has made
the best recorded speed by sailing round a square course of twenty miles at
the rate of one mile in 1min. 34.sec., or 39.4 miles an hour. The quickest
time on a measured mile, recorded under the most favourable conditions for
speed, is 59sec, or at the rate of 61 miles an hour. Mr. Rogers, however,
states that in sailing up and down the Hudson between known points,
passages have been made at the rate of 80 miles an hour. He, however,
continues as follows: “That this great speed is probable or possible is not
to be doubted, but it occurs very seldom on the Hudson, as the danger of
colliding with the rocky shores makes each helmsmen keep his slippery
charge under control.”
RACES FOR THE ICE-YACHT CHALLENGE PENNANT OF AMERICA.
Distance Number Total Calculated Apparent Calculated
Name of Winning Yacht. Club. Date. *...* •º Fº ; §: Time. Tºer º,
in Miles. Over. Miles. Miles. 8. Mile.
New Hamburg III. S. II]. S. IIl. S
Phantom ........................... } 2)S. March 5, 1881 ......... ......... 20 ! ......... 57 14 2 51 -
Poughkeepsie
- Poughkeepsie
Avalanche or Robert Scott ... } ^)S. ; February 6, 1883 10 Once 20 31.38 57 0 2 51 1 49
New Hamburg
Poughkeepsie
Jack Frost ........................ } Q)S. ! February 23, 1883 2% Five 25 39.20 14 35 2 59 1 54
North Shrewsbury -
Poughkeepsie
Haze ......... .................... } º).S. { February 9, 1884 64% Three 20 31.38 5 30 3 16 2 5
North Shrewsbury
Poughkeepsie }
Haze .............................. } Q)S. * | February 14, 1885 2 Five 20 31.38 1 15 3 3 1 57
New Hamburg y
Poughkeepsie
Northern Light .................. } º).S. ! February 18, 1885 2% Four 20 31.38 8 42 3 26 2 11
North Shrewsbury
Hudson River
Jack Frost ........................ } 2)S. } Rebruary 14, 1887 2 Four 16 25.10 43 40 2 43 1 40
Poughkeepsie
Hudson River
Icicle } 2)S. } March 8, 1888 2 Three 12 18.83 36 59 3 4 1 57
North Shrewsbury
Hudson River
Icicle .............................. } Q)S. } Tebruary 25, 1889 2 Four 16 25.10 51 41 3 13 2 3
North Shrewsbury -
Hudson River
Icicle .............................. } ^)S. ; February 5, 1892 1+º, Five 14%; 22.92 46 19 3 9 2 1
North Shrewsbury
Hudson River
Jack Frost ........................ } 2)S. ; February 9, 1883 2 Five 20 31.38 49 30 2 28 1 34
Orange Lake
;
:
English Ice Yachts. 4.79
Sailing for a point dead to windward is not such rapid work, and
we believe ice boats do not make a course nearer than 3% points of the real
wind, and their speed over the ice is not one-half of what it is with a
beam wind, but it is believed to just about equal the speed of the wind.
The usual mode of coming to rest from a high speed is by running
off to dead before the wind, and then luffing to sharply until head to
wind. The boat is “anchored ” by turning the “rudder runner” right
across the keel.
The ice yachts just described would be much too heavy for sailing
on the thin ice of our lakes, and in 1883 Mr. Herbert Crossley,
FIG. 201.
of Windermere, built one of very slight construction, as shown in
Fig. 201.
The fore-and-aft frames are made of yellow pine, 34ft. long, 9in. deep,
and lin. thick. These are spaced 1ſt. 3in. apart (inside measurement) with
a bottom plank of equal thickness; thus the structure forms an open box.
Besides the bottom plank the fore-and-aft frames are connected forward by
a cross piece of pine 9in, by lin., in which is an eye-bolt for the forestay.
Aft is a similar cross piece 9in. broad fixed 2ft. 6in. from the
end, and forms a seat for the steersman.
The foreside of the runner frame is 10ft. 6in. from the fore end
of the frames, and is also of lin. pine, 3ft. broad and 12ft. across from

480 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
runner to runner. The runner frame is secured by screw bolts and
nuts to the bottom plank, and also by 1in. iron stays, screwed up
by a nut on an iron stanchion of lin. iron. The stanchion is fitted
with a shoulder at its lower end, and is screwed up with a nut
underneath the bottom of the box and the runner frame. Two other
stays of #in. iron connect the head of the stanchion with the top edge
of the fore-and-aft frames. This construction will be seen in Fig. 202.
The runners are 4ft. 3im. long and 3in. deep, also of lin, pine,
securely attached to the runner frames. On the lower edge is the steel
skate, #in. thick and 2in. or 3in. deep. The lower edge is bevelled
to make a sharp edge of about 45°. The flat side of the sharp edge
is outside. These skates are rounded up at the ends like an ordinary
skate. They are screwed to the side of the runner, or they can be let
into a channel ploughed out of the underside of the wood runner and
then be secured by screws.
The after runners are glass bullseyes, as shown by b in Fig. 203,
FIG. 202. FIG. 203.
about 8in. in diameter. The bullseyes were cast with shoulders as
shown, and secured to a wood circular chock by clamps, c c c, Fig. 203.
The wood is 2%in. thick, and between it and the glass is a sort of
buffer made of #in. felt ; india rubber will not do, as it gets hard or
freezes. The bullseye is 1%in. thick, #in. of the thickness forming the
shoulder for the clips c c c to take hold of. Through the centre of
the wood a bolt with a broad head is passed (the head is sunk into
the wood) and screwed up by a nut through the bottom plank on the
under-side of the fore-and-aft frame. These glass runners are fitted
nearly as far aft as the seat of the steersman.
The bullseyes were introduced to admit of the boat being readily
swung round under the influence of the rudder. t
Fig. 202 shows the rudder, 1.ft. 3in. long, Ain. deep, with a handle
lft. 9in. long. The rudder is of iron with under edge of steel ground
to 9° thus, V. The under edge of the rudder has a longer bearing
than shown in Fig. 202, or is deeper under the bolt a. The bolt a

Design for an Ice Yacht. 481
passes through two iron plates which are secured to a cross piece of 2in.
deal, worked above the bottom board. It will be seen that the rudder
is capable of an up-and-down motion as well as lateral. The bolt (t
is 2ft. 9in. from the fore edge of the seat of the steersman. To allow
of the lateral motion of the rudder, a large dove-tailed slot P is cut
out of the bottom board, 1 ft. 9in. long, and 1ſt. across at the after
end. The bolt a comes at the pointed end of the slot. A circular
piece is cut out of the side of each fore-and-aft frame to allow the
handle of the rudder to be put well over. The rudder, of course, is
not intended to be used as a runner, as it is in the American ice
yachts, but is used to assist in stopping the yacht by pressing it into
the ice.
Six inches forward of the fore edge of the steersman’s seat a
cross piece is fitted, projecting on each side to form a place for the
feet. Of course, this cross piece is fitted to the underside of the
frame.
The mast is stepped in a chock on the bottom plank, 10ft. from
the fore end of the frame, and is secured by three iron stays attached
to an iron band round the mast 2ft. above the bottom plank. One stay
forward, and one on each side leading a little aft. Besides these stays
the mast has a shroud on each side, set up by a lamyard to the runner
frame and a forestay.
Mast from the bottom plank to shoulder 22ft., luff of mainsail 11 ft. 6in.,
leech 29ft. 6in., foot 20ft., head 17ft. 3in., tack to peak earing 26ft. 3in.,
clew to weather earing 25ft., slings 6ft. 3in. from weather earing.
The boom works on the mast by a gooseneck fitted into a socket
on the iron band which goes round the mast for the lower stays before
referred to.
The sail, it will be seen, is a standing lug.
During the severe winter of 1890-91 an ice boat was made by
“Belooch '' for use on the Ruislip reservoir, near London. He thus
described it in The Field: The drawings (Plate CVIII.) give all the
necessary details for building a boat which will pack in a small space, and
can be put together easily in half an hour by two men. The greatest
length when in pieces is 12ft. 2in. The greatest breadth is in the runner
plank, viz., 1ſt. 6in, with blocks attached. These blocks should never be
removed when once accurately fitted, as it is of vital importance that the
runners should be always parallel. The actual irons are easily removable
for portage by drawing the pins on which they rock. A canvas laced to
the frame battens forms a most luxurious lounge for the crew and passengers.
For clamping all the parts together, eye bolts are the handiest form. These
I I
482 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
should screw into plates fixed on the lower surface of the runner plank.
In the stern the eyes should be on opposite sides, for the purpose of attach-
ing the sheet. The use of eye bolts obviates carrying any wrenches or
other tools. All planks and battens throughout should be of best yellow
pine. Runner blocks and stern piece of oak, or other hard wood. The
whole to be carefully varnished, as snow water is most penetrating.
The rudder-post should be covered with brass tubing, as it is likely to
get fixed in a frost if the wood has become wet. The tiller must be kept
high, to clear the reclining crew, and be about 5ft. long.
The best runners are wrought iron, shod with steel. They should be
pivotted on a stout pin, slightly in advance of their centre, so as to trail on
the ice, thus correcting any small deviation from their true course. A
right angle bevel offers the least resistance, combined with sufficient grip
to prevent leeway. When putting the runners away they should be
carefully coated with Aspinall or other paint, as rust will considerably
§
t
t
Rabius
5 ET.
1. scALE | IN. To FOOT
- FIG. 204.
retard the boat’s progress. A good makeshift runner can be made of flat
3in. by lin. bar iron, the surface next the ice being honed up. The curve
of a Canadian canoe bow is a very good One to imitate in the fore
part of runner. Lighter runners with more curve than those shown on
Plate CVIII. are better for light boats.
This pattern is of hard wood, shod with square section 1 bar iron or
steel, 2ft. long, by 4%in. at greatest depth, 1 #in. thick. Curve of iron on
the ice a radius of 5ft.
An ice boat of the above description has been running on Ruislip
reservoir, near Pinner, for the last four winters, and has certainly attained
a speed of over twenty miles an hour at times when there was no snow on
the ice. Let the novice beware of getting any part of his person in front of
the runner plank, as a sudden puff of wind would be likely to break both
his legs at once. Extra passengers can get a very comfortable seat on the
runner plank, with their feet towards the stern. The skipper must never
let go the tiller, for should the rudder scoot sideways, something will break.

PLATE CWIII.
N/Nºva
.* SEC sº tº ºr -
LGP TION A----B ſ] | (O)
H E j -] EHEH
I-l F- T || Dºll II
U-2 i- I i-
A
< O; O - i
SS
SCALE | IN. TO | FOOT
|
! i
: |
|
|
!
|
:
|
_=T
|
|
| f
ſ |
: -]
t
l
/ H
! J-
: scALE # IN. Tio I Foot [T]_[T]
|
<= o;o L
£;
PLAN of AN ICE| BOAT,
SECTION C-----D
SCALE | IN. TO | FOOT
-> *
L.
scALE # IN. To I FOOT
SIDE VIEW OF RUDDER
SCALE | IN - TO [ FOOT
ad
PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF AN ICE BOAT,
|
º
|
1.
ºr




Sails for Ice Yachts.
FIG. 205.
FIG. 206.


I I 2
484 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
To stop, run the boat into the wind, and put the helm hard over, as she
will not start with the runner across.
Extreme length... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18ft.
Extreme breadth ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9ft.
Runner plank... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9ft. x 8in. × 3in
Thwart ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7ft. × 8in. × 13 in.
Mast hole ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3im.
Side battens ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 12ft. 2in. × 3in. × 2in,
Middle battens ... ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12ft. x 3in. × 2in,
Space between middle battens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3in.
Stern, front width... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1ft. 4 in.
, back width... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11in.
, , side ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9in.
» depth ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6in.
,, gap for battens ... ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . 3in. × 2in.
Rudder skate, length ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . 2ft.
3 2 » height ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6in.
2 3 , width... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2in.
Rudder block, length ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1ft. 6in.
33 , height ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6%in.
25 » width... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6in.
3? ,, gap for skate ... ... ... ... ... ... 2in. × 3in.
Shoulder on rudder block, on which stern
rests ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . height, 1%in.
Runners—skate, length ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3ft.
7 3 ,, height ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . - 6in.
5 5 ,, width ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2in.
33 block, length ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Ift. 6in.
2 3 , height ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6%in.
25 ,, width ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6in.
5 3 gap for skate ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2in. × 3in.
A standing lug sail.
Duff ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9ft. 3in.
Teach ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30ft.
Foot ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19ſt.
Head ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18ft.
Tack to peak earing... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26ft. 6in.
Clew to weather earing .................. ... ... 21 ft.
Yard to be slung 9ft. from the weather earing.
A small jib could also be carried.
Figs. 205 and 206 show two views of the ice boat under sail.
CHAPTER XXVII.
() A N 0 E IN G.
NAUTILUS CAN O Es.
BRITISH canoeing includes such various branches of work, and so
many forms of canoes, each adapted particularly to its own branch
and generally to all the others, that a consideration of canoe designs
can hardly be successfully entered upon without first glancing at the
rules and practices which at present guide the members of the Royal Canoe
Club, who form the majority of British canoeists.
To construct a concise definition to comprehend a “canoe '' is not an
easy matter. No doubt the rules of the Royal Canoe Club do in a measure
dictate what is and what is not a canoe; but there are still many loopholes
left by which a canoe can be invested with qualities which strictly do not
belong to the “canoe" proper. The disintegrated materials from which
a concise definition might be abstracted are, among others, some of the
following : A canoe is a vessel propelled with a paddle or with sail by
a person or persons facing forward; she is a vessel capable of navigating
shallow water as well as open rough water; and she is a vessel not too large
or heavy for land portage by two men when her ballast and stores have
been removed. Therefore, a vessel propelled by oars or machinery, which,
either by bulk of hull or weight of fixed ballast cannot be lifted by two
men, is not adapted to the requirements, nor entitled to the appellation,
of a “ British canoe.”
The cruising work, for which a British canoe is mainly constructed,
demands that she shall be as small and as light as possible compatible
with sea-going qualities and carrying capacity ; but the occasional
sailing matches in which such a craft may compete, suggest an increase
of power by size and weight for sail-carrying purposes; and, therefore,
in order to protect the majority and to foster craft of the cruising type,
486 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
it has been found necessary to check by club rules the introduction of
mere racing machines, which, by lead, beam, and sail-area, might desert
the canoe definition and become miniature yachts.
The Royal Canoe Club, however, does not attempt to define or limit the
size, design, construction, or crew of canoes, except as regards sailing and
paddling matches; and, therefore, provided the canoeist does not intend
to compete in the club matches, he may build his craft in any manner
his experience or fancy may dictate. But there can be no question that
under the club rules a most serviceable type of canoe for general cruising,
and also a very perfect class of sea-going sailing canoes have been pro-
duced; and as the canoes we are about now to consider are to conform
strictly to the club rule, it may be advisable to set the rule out in full.
CANOE Y AWILS.
DEFINITION OF CANoF YAw Ls.—The definition of a Canoe Yawl is as follows:–
e length of L. W.L. x sail area.
Beam not less than 3ft. Rating ( g 6.000 ) not to exceed 0.5. She shall be
5
sharp at each end, with no transom or flat stern, and no deck seat shall project beyond
the perpendicular of the sides, *
The certificate of such rating granted by the club or the Y.R.A. or the Thames Boat
Sailing Association shall be deemed the yawl’s rating, subject to verification by the
R.C.C. if necessary, and no boat shall be allowed to start in a race until her certificate of
rating has been produced to the sailing committee or officer.
The L.W.L. length shall be marked at each end, and such marks shall be above
water when the yawl is lying in smooth water in complete and usual racing trim.
CRUISING CANOES.
A cruising canoe, to be classified for racing purposes, shall be sharp at each end;
with no transom or flat stern. Any metal keel, centre plate, or ballast shall be detach-
able from her; and any “bucket well” fitted within the sleeping compartment shall
be detachable. Dimensions—Maajim/wm.—Length over all shall not exceed 16ft. Beam
not over 42in. Sliding seat, if any, when rigged in to be within the beam of the boat.
Her fixed draft including keel, or drop keel when hauled up, shall not exceed 14in.
Extreme length of any spar shall not exceed the load water line length or rating length.
& Iength of L. W.L. x sail area. & g tº g o
Rating ( g 6,000 ) not to exceed 0.3. Minimum Dimensions—Depth
inside from deck to skin (to be taken at any distance within 3ft. of mid overall length and
at not less than 10in. out from the middle line), shall not be less than 14in. Depth
outside from top of deck at middle line to under side of keel (taken anywhere up to one
foot from either end), shall not be less than 12in. Sleeping space not less than 5ft. 6in.
in length, with hatchway thereto of not less than 18in. in width for a distance or length
of 3ft. The rule as to certificates and marking L.W.L. shall apply to Cruising canoes.
SAILING CANOES.
A sailing canoe for racing purposes shall be sharp at each end. No transom or
counter or flat stern shall be allowed, and the rudder shall be hung abaft the stern.
Dimensions.—Length overall shall not exceed 16ft. Beam shall not exceed 36in. Sliding
g length L.W.I.. x sail area. s
seats allowed. Rating ( g 6,000 ) not to exceed 0.3. The rule as to certificates
and marking L.W.L. shall apply to Sailing canoes.
PLATE CIX.
scALE # - Nc H = Foot
SH E ER. Pl-AN .
JBODY-PLAN -
DEC K - PLAN
9
l
2. - \ . *
l 5 4- S \, 6 t 7 8 9 |O ! I | 2
“Nautilus.” Paddleable-Sailing Canoe, designed by W. Baden Powell, Esq.

Nautilus Canoes. 487
CLASSIFICATION−PADDI,ING CANOES.
1ST CLASS.—Any canoe.
2ND CLASS (ROB ROYs).—Any material or build, decked with wood; not to exceed
16ft. in length, and greatest beam not to be less than 26in. Minimum depth from level
of topstreak to underside of garboard streak 8in., and from inside of centre of deck
to garboards 11 in.
A “CANOE.”
The definition of a canoe is “a vessel with or without sails capable of being propelled
with a paddle or paddles by one or more persons, who face forwards, according to
the number that it is intended to carry.”
NAUTILUS PADDLEABLE SAILING CANOES.
The design and construction of the paddleable-sailing canoe Nautilus,
Plate CIX., has originated several craft highly successful both as
cruisers and racers; but the design has been slightly altered so as to
embody such improvements as were suggested by practical tests. The
sails have been arranged conformably to the dictates of actual trial; and
the various fittings are the tried results of the experience of many good
Canoeists.
Where paddling and sailing are to hold equal sway, 15ft. length
by 30in. beam ; and where sailing is to be the chief mode of propulsion,
and where sleeping afloat is contemplated, 14ft. length by 33in. beam.
The “sheer plan * is that from which all the heights, depths, and
lengths are taken, and is shown at the scale of #in. to 1ſt.
The “body plan * gives the measurements for the moulds.
The deck plan is inserted to show the well coamings and locker and
the foot-steering gear. Scale #im. to 1ſt.
All the plans include the plank, so that in making moulds allowance
must be made for the thickness of plank. A piece must be cut out of
the moulds to fit over the inboard portion of the keel.
Canoes, like other small boats, are usually built up from a straight-
edge building block, and therefore the rocker, or upward curve of the
keel from that straight-edge is given; the heights of stem and sternposts,
and their “set ’’ or “rake,” will be taken from the drawing, and they will
be fixed in position to the keel before the latter is fixed to the building
block. The heights for the sheer will be taken from the sheer plan table,
page 502, for the moulds; and, to insure these moulds being in position, the
load water-line should be marked on both stem piece and stern post and on
each mould ; and a hole should be bored through each mould at the
cutting of the water-line with the middle fore and aft line; or, if the
whole mould be not solid a batten should be mailed across each, the top
edge of which batten should be level with the load water-line; then a
488 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
tightly-stretched chalk line, nailed to marks on stem and stern posts, should
cut the aforesaid water-line points or battens on the moulds. Without this
precaution moulds and “lines” are useless.
In Plate CIX. the timbers are 1ſt. apart, and No. 1 is 1.ft. from fore
side of stem. The heights are measured from the load water-line to the
upper side of the deck at gunwale; and the depths are measured from
the load water-line to the lower edge of the rabbet on the keel.
The rocker or upward curve of the keel above the straight edge is
at the sternpost lin., and at the fore end (at 6in. in from perpendicular
of stem) the rocker is 4%in. ; at No. 1 station it is 3in., at No. 2 it is lºin,
at No. 3 it is #in. ; fore edge of stem at load water-line is 1%in, in from
perpendicular of stem ; sternpost at L.W.L. from aft perpendicular is 1%in.
The keel, from No. 3 to No. 7 sections—i.e., in the wake of the
centre-board slot—is sided at rabbet line 2in, and is 1%in. at lower
edge; the siding—i.e., thickness—at rabbet line forward and aft of this
should not be less than 1+in. The cutwater of stem should be reduced
on the fore edge to about #in.
Selecting the wood for the keel will be a matter of choice. For hard
work teak is recommended; for great strength and weight greenheart; but
red pine (not pitch) is quite strong enough for all ordinary work.
A combination of mahogany and cedar, well seasoned and properly
fastened, forms for a sailing canoe as strong and light a planking as
can be desired; the three lower strakes mahogany (the garboard very
wide), and the three upper strakes of cedar, ranging from about a
quarter to three-eighths of an inch in thickness.
Various modes of planking have been tried with the object of ob-
taining a smooth outer surface, and a light but strong skin; of these
the most successful are the “clincher,” the “ribband carvel,” and the
“double skin.” The “double skin' plan is as follows: When the stem
and stern posts have been set up and fastened off, and the building
moulds carefully and strongly fixed in position, and firmly battened round
at their heads by a kind of temporary gunwale, and the centre-board
case or cases fitted and fixed, this framework is turned upside down,
and again fixed in position. Thin, well-steamed planks of cedar, about.
“wager boat '' thickness, are tacked in position edge to edge, over the
moulds, as if for carvel-planking ; over this is then laid, plank by plank,
a somewhat thicker skin of steamed cedar, the edges of which come
over the centres of the planks of the inner skin. The two skins are:
then fastened off as if one, along the rabbet line, with brass screws; the
edges of the outer skin are then pierced along and copper nailed as in
ordinary building. The craft is then turned up and the nails are clenched.
Canoe Construction. 489
oft on the inside. It will also be found necessary on some strakes to
nail along the inner skin edges also. In such case the holes will be bored
from inside and nails driven from outside. Very few timbers will be
needed, and the double skin will be found to possess great strength. A
good coat of varnish or strips of varnished calico between the skins
would no doubt add greatly to the strength and watertightness of the
structure.
In the ribband-carvel build (see Fig. 207), the planks of, say #in. to
#in. stuff, are tacked on to the building moulds edge to edge. Ribbands
of clean-grained oak, about 1%in. wide and #in. Or #in. thick, are laid
along on the inside of the joints of the plank between the timbers
which are placed in the vertical positions shown in the sheer plan; the
edges of the planks are then pierced and nailed through the ribbands,
and clenched on the inside, or they may be screwed into the ribbands.
A stronger plan is to work a #in. ribband in whole lengths, cutting out
SBSSSSSS;
Z |
Q
%|s
§ / /
º %
% Šſ
$/ 'S
<āśi Sº-
<º W 22º 0ſ
ºw º º kº- 0
FIG. 207. FIG. 208.
notches in the backs of the timbers and moulds to take each ribband. In
all cases a strip of varnished linen should be laid over the joints of the
plank before the batten is fitted, and the linen should be continuous
from end to end. The timbers are about £in. sided by #in. moulded.
No doubt this mode, and that of the double skin, give a very fine outer
surface; but the number of nails required is nearly double that employed
in a clincher-built boat, and with neat workmanship a clincher boat can
be built with next to no “lands ' showing on the outside, and yet be of
sufficient strength.
The garboard plank will be 6in. or 8in. wide at the broadest part,
and the other planks will be as broad as the shape of the canoe will
admit of being worked, and will of course vary in breadth and shape.
The construction of the section at slot in the keel and centre-
board case is shown by Fig. 208.

490 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The most convenient mode of “laying off" a canoe for building
will be obtained by working in the following manner : Take a sheet of
common wall paper of 15ft. length, and on the reverse side draw in,
with a straight edge, a strongly marked and straight “load water-line;”
then, by measurements from the scale drawing and from the table
draw the “sheer plan * at full size. On similar paper, and in like
manner, draw the “body plan,” and from the body plan cut out moulds
of stiff brown paper from which to make the wooden building moulds,
taking off a margin from the paper or from the wood mould to allow
for the thickness of the planking. As before said, the load water-line
must be carefully marked across each mould ; or, better still, a batten
should be nailed across the mould to represent the load water-line. (See
“Boat Building’’ in the Appendix.)
The mast steps, centre-board case, bulkheads, coamings, rudder, and
centre-board can all be laid off on the sheer plan ; and provided the
points of measurement are correctly placed—no matter how rough the
drawing—the builder will have a clear eye to his work, and the trouble
of laying her off on a mould floor will be avoided.
PADIDLEABLE SAILING CANOE.—TABLE OF DIMENSIONS.
ft. in.
Length over all, stem to sternpost ................................................ 13 ()
Beam, extreme ............................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 10%
Depth from deck to garboard, fore end of well................................. 1 3%
Centre of mainmast from fore side of stem .................................... 2 4
Centre of mizenmast from aft side of Sternpost .............................. 1 2
After bulkhead from mid-length................................................... 2 8
Foot yoke for a 5ft. 8in. man forward of midships ........................... 1 6
Rudder : depth of fore side, 1ſt. 7in. ; extreme length, 1ſt. 7in. ; length
at head, 3in. ; length at 6in. down from head, 3in. ; length at load
line, 10in. ; depth below load line at centre of rudder, 11in.
TABLE OF HEIGHTS AND DEPTHS. (See PLATE CIX.)
Number of Section ..................... | 1 || 2 | 8 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10 | 11 12
SHEER PLAN.—FIG. 1. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
Height of gunwale, including deck
above load line ........................ 14% 12% 11 9} | 84 7% | 7 || 7 || 7} | 8 || 9 || 10;
PIeight of gunwale at stem above
load water-line = 16 inches.
Ditto at Sternpost– 12 inches.
Depths—Lower edge of rabbet below
load line................................. 3% | 5 || 5% 54 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 44
Depth of top streak ..................... 2% — 2% | – || 2% | – || 2% — 24 2 1} | #14
Rocker of keel above straight edge . || 3 || 13 | #| || – || – || – | – | – || – || – #
BODY PLAN.—FIG. 2.
Diagonal A is started on middle
line at 12in, above L.W.L. ......... 5% 10% 14} | 16%|19 20 |20% 20% 19% 174 14 | 84
Diagonal B, 6in, above L.W.L. ...... 43 8% 114|13; 14%| 153 |16 15; 15 13% 103 || 6
Diagonal C, at L.W.L................... 24 4#| 6 || 7 || 7#| 8 || 8 || 7 || 7 || 6 || 4; 24
Half-siding (width) of keel at rabbet % # #| 1 1 1 1 : 1 7. } #! }
* Taper to #in. at 8tern.
Paddleable Sailing Canoes.
49].
Diagonal A cuts the L.W.L. at 1ſt. 5%in. from the middle vertical
line ; diagonals B and C are each parallel to A, and 5in. apart.
SHEER PLAN.—PLATE CIX.
o, the perpendicular at the fore end of load
water line.
(o), the perpendicular at the aft end of load
water-line.
a, the centre-board Hlot and case.
b, centre-board, lowered for sailing.
(b), centre-board, housed in the case.
c, knee, which steadies the centre board case
at point of greatest pressure.
d, foot steering yoke of wood, and d 2 is a
side chock to prevent the foot slipping off.
E, foot-steering gear deck-yoke.
R, rabbet line, lower edge.
j, upper side of deck at middle line.
g, upper side of deck at sides.
h, forward side-coaming of well.
i, coaming of sailing flap, or opening in side
deck.
(i), flap, side deck.
j, back-board and shifting beam, used for
paddling.
(j), back-board in sailing position.
k, water-tight bulkhead.
l, locker Hide-coaming.
m, floor boards.
m, sternpost and metal gudgeons.
p, a line showing upper side of keel.
X, position of greatest beam.
q, centre-board sheave hole.
ºy, keel scarphing.
DECK PLAN.
(i i), supports for flap deck.
s, wire steering-lines, passing round brass
buttons at m.
t, beading to keep flap, when open, from jam-
ming the steering wires. |
w, locker lid and hinge.
v, mainmast hole and case.
(v), mizenmast hole and case.
ne, apron beam for “well ?” cover.
z, rudder-yoke.
RUDDER.
(o), aft or sternpost, perpendicular.
a, rudder pin or rod.
b, gudgeon metals.
c, (shaded part) is brass cap for yoke to fit over.
The fore-and-aft positions of the various fittings have been settled
in compliance with the following requirements: The weights must be
crowded as near midships as possible, so as to give easy performance in
rough water; consequently the after end of the centre-board and the
fore side of the man must be brought as close together as possible,
allowing, however, sufficient room between them for the shifting ballast
to cross the floor. The centre-board must not come much abaft amidships,
because the centre of lateral resistance would thereby be thrown so far
aft that a large unhandy mizen would have to be carried to properly
balance the centre of effort of the sails with the centre of lateral resist-
ance of the hull.
necessitate very full lines aft; at the same time the weights would be
The man must not sit too far aft, as that would
separated, and being nearer the ends, bad performance in a seaway would
be the result.
the centre of buoyancy and the distribution of the weights, is not that of
The performance, governed by the longitudinal position of
power to carry sail, nor even sailing or steering performance in smooth
492 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
water, provided the normal trim has not been altered; but it is the per-
formance of the canoe in a sea—whether she takes kindly and dryly to a
head sea or a following sea without plunging and diving violently. The
masts, in order to get spread for the sails, have to be placed far forward
and aft; but their weight is small compared with that of the man, Centre-
board, and ballast.
CENTRE-BOARDS.
The foot steering gear requires the centre-board case to be sufficiently
low at the locality of the foot yoke—i.e., 3ft. 9in. forward of the man’s
back—to allow the foot yoke to swing at eight inches above the foot
boards. This, combined with reducing fore-and-aft weight, has suggested
the form of centre-plate shown in Plate CIX. In later “Nautilus’’
canoes, however, the centre-plate has been placed forward of the well,
and the case open at top, so as to lift the plate out when housing or
handling the canoe on shore.
The centre-board should be made of #in, iron “boiler plate,” and
hould be galvanised; the measurement should be taken from the drawing,
and laid off full size on paper; the paper mould, having the pin hole
and chain hole marked on it, should be sent to the foundry, and great
care should be taken in seeing that the plate is perfectly straight. Cast-
iron centre-boards are often used, but they are bad, in that sudden
breakage is the common result of a hard lateral bump on the ground,
and also that, to obtain the same weight as “boiler plate,” a thicker plate
must be carried.
On the position, forms, and areas of the centre-board or boards and
rudder depends, to a very great extent, the successful sailing (apart from
actual speed) of the canoe. As has been already pointed out, the position
of the centre-board is determined by the requirements of space for the man
and the stepping of the masts; two or three canoes, noted for their sailing
qualities, have been ingeniously fitted with “fan º' centre-boards, which
collapse into a case which does not come above the floor boards. Such centre-
boards can, of course, be placed regardless of the well seat and steering
gear; and, provided they are of a pattern and make which gives
sufficient rigidity when in the sailing position, they are undoubtedly of
service.
But the position of the sails in a canoe does not admit of much
variation. Leaving out of the question extraordinary rigs, the centre
of effort of the mainsail-and-mizen rig (which is the most popular in
canoes) will be generally found to be about the mid-length, or thence
to 6 inches forward ; then, the canoe being of shallow draught, the
Canoe Centre-Boards. 493
rudder, to be effective, has to be somewhat large in area, and, being at
the extreme end of the vessel, naturally carries the centre of lateral
resistance considerably aft; then, to bring the centre of lateral resist-
ance forward and near to the vertical of the centre of effort of the sails,
the centre-board has to be placed slightly forward of midships; therefore,
it is evident that the position and area of the centre-board is of the first
importance, and its mechanism merely a matter of convenience.
Two square feet area of centre-board has in practice been found
amply sufficient, even in match sailing; and whether this area be given
in one large plate or two small ones is practically immaterial as far as
lateral resistance is concerned, but in relation to turning and manoeuvring
there is a great deal to be said on both sides. In the first place, the
single board and the double board are equally efficient in counteracting
leeway, but the single board is the more delicate and perfect for eating
to windward; and the double is more perfect than the single for reaching
and running, and is undoubtedly the more powerful weapon for manoeuvring
when skilfully handled. With the single board the canoe on a wind will
answer the least touch of her helm or alteration of her sheets; and,
except for shoal water, the board need not be touched from start to
finish. It is often asserted that a single centre-board (of course in relation
to other centre-boards) is not so good for beating in rough water, for the
reason that her head is easily knocked off the wind by every sea ; but
it should be remembered that a boat does not eat to windward by
virtue of gripe or forefoot; she works on her common centre of
lateral resistance, and, though the bow may be knocked off the wind
by the seas, a like facility of movement exists for bringing her to, and,
further, the single-plate boat is able to take advantage of smooths or
free puffs for getting a screw up and a rapid fill away again. It is the
crest of the wave that will knock the bow off the wind, but this is almost
an advantage, and it places the vessel in the best position—“three
corner ways on ”—for dropping gently down the back of the sea, off the
wind, and, consequently, “all full,” and gathering way for a neat luff up
the face of the next sea. t
No doubt the double centre-boarder, in the hands of a skilfu
canoeist, has many advantages over the single-plate craft; but, to utilise
these advantages to their full, a judgment and quickness are needed,
which can only be obtained by long and constant practice. The
experienced hand in a double centre-boarder will use his boards, by
alternate lifting and dropping, when on a wind or reaching, almost in
preference to his rudder; in fact, the working of the boards will be
attended to before working the sheets. If from any accident the mizen
494, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
is lost or has to be stowed, the canoe will be handy under mainsail if
the after board be hauled up ; and if caught in a squall, the mainsail
can be stowed and the canoe hove to under mizen and fore centre board.
Without going into details of intricate manoeuvres, it may be stated that
when the canoe is sailing, say, close-hauled, if the afterboard be suddenly
hauled up, the craft will fly up into the wind’s eye. Similarly, for quick
bearing away, the after-board would be kept down, the fore-board lifted,
the mizen-sheet eased off, and the helm put up.
Beyond these qualities, the double board permits of space for
the owner to sleep on board, and this, in some waters, is no small
advantage.
The leading measurements for fitting a canoe of the dimensions
shown in the design (Plate CIX.) will, with two centre-boards, be as
follows: The fore end of the slot for the foremost plate will be 3ft. 10in.
forward of midships; the length of the slot, measured on the lower edge
of the keel, will be 2ft. 4 in. ; length of lower edge of plate, 2ft., and drop,
1ft. 3in. ; the forward end of the after slot will be 3ft. 3in. abaft mid-
ships, and the length of the slot will be 1ſt. 8in. ; length of lower side
of plate, 1.ft. 6in., and drop, 1ſt., giving a joint area of 2-5 sq. ft.
The inboard shape of the fore plate, i.e., that portion which remains
in the keel and case when the plate is lowered for sailing—should be as
small, especially at the fore-end, as is consistent with keeping the plate
rigid laterally ; many canoes are fitted with the centre-board case ex-
tending up to the deck and open along its top; in such cases the plate
is usually hung by its fore-end from a bolt at the deck, and at its after-end
by its hauling-up gear, the advantage being that a plate so fitted (instead
of being bolted at its fore-end through the keel) can be lifted out of the
canoe through the deck, and thus be speedily removed when requisite
without having to lift the craft herself out of the water.
The after-plate should be inclosed in as small a case as possible, so
as to give stowage space in the locker; a case of triangular form, the after
end of which comes up to the deck, will be found to act well. Such a case
gains support from the deck, and permits the hauling-up gear to be worked
above deck; the after-board should be light, and may be made of zinc, as
lateral resistance only is required, and weight should be avoided.
The after-end of all centre-board cases should be raked forward at
its upper end in order to prevent the water heaping up and overflowing at
the chain-hole when the boat is moving rapidly, or when in lumpy water.
A very heavy centre-board is by no means an unmixed good in a
canoe. In smooth-water sailing it doubtless adds considerably to the
canoe’s stiffness; but in lumpy water its thumping leverage will soon be
Canoe Steering Gear. 495
felt by the boat, and, sooner or later, something will start unless
the craft and centre-board case are built and fastened with unusual
strength.
The hauling-up gear in the single-plate fitting (Sheer Plan, Plate
CIX.) would be a small galvanised iron chain, shackled to the hole in
the forward upper corner, and cut to the exact length between that hole,
when the centre-board is down, and the upper edge of the sheave (q)
in the top of the centre-board case ; to this end of the chain a small
single block, metal stropped, should be shackled, with a thick india-rubber
ring placed on over the shackle to act as a buffer; the standing part of
the hauling line is then spliced into an eye-bolt at the after-end of the
top of the centre-board case, and the hauling-part, having been rove
through the block, is finished off by having a wooden toggle spliced in
its end at such length that when the board is down the toggle is at
the block, and when the board is up a turn is taken on the hauling-
part round a patent tumbler cleat, fitted on the after end of the upper
side of the centre-board case.
For a light plate, a split-ring handle may be put into the last link
of the chain, the buffer, however, being placed over the chain first.
STEERING GEAR.
There are many ways of fitting the steering gear; in fact, so many,
that it would only be confusing to attempt to describe and consider each
kind. The two most common modes are where, in the one cº ſe, the
yoke lines are led direct to a foot-yoke; or, in the other, to a deck-yoke,
which is connected to the foot-yoke. The most serviceable of these is
undoubtedly the deck-yoke gear; this gear is shown in the sheer plan
and is marked d, d”, and E, and in the deck plan d”, E m and z, S.
The rudder-yoke fits over the brass-capped rudder-head, and should
be 14in. wide, with an eye at each end. The foot-yoke is made of hard
wood, 16in. wide, and of sufficient strength to act as a stretcher for
both feet, for it will be thus used when the canoe is being paddled;
the yoke rod should be a round brass tube inclosing an iron or a steel
rod, the heel of the rod steps in a block on the top of the centre-board
case, the upper end having been pushed up through a brass-bound hole
in the deck, a shoulder of brass, with a squaring above it of about 1%in.,
is soldered on to the rod, and to this the foot-yoke is tightly clamped;
it should be at such a distance from the lower end of the rod as to
bring the foot-yoke, when in position, about 8in. above the surface on
which the skipper's heels are to rest; the head of the rod should project
about 1%in. above the deck. At #in. above deck the rod is filed
496 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
square, for the deck-yoke to ship on to, and the squaring is carried up
about #in., that being about the thickness of the boss of the yoke; then
the last half an inch of the rod is formed into a screw, on to which a
thumb nut (E) is screwed to keep the deck-yoke in its place. The
deck-yoke requires an eye at each end; and the yoke should be of
iron, as neither copper nor brass is strong enough for fittings 18in. or
20in. long.
The yoke lines should be made either of solid brass or copper wire,
and must be stout, and may be fitted thus: Having fitted a copper or
brass thimble into each of the four eyes of the rudder and deck yokes,
with powerful nippers, simply take the ends of the two wires, and,
having passed them round the thimbles in the rudder-yoke, twist the
ends round their own standing parts; then at the fore end fit in
like manner to two thimbles, making the wires of such length as will
place these two thimbles at about one foot from the eyes of the deck-
yoke when it and the rudder are shipped in position. A small lashing
line is now spliced to each of the fore ends of wire, and, being rove
through the yoke thimbles and the wire thimbles, say three turns, makes
a powerful but easily workable gear.
The wires would naturally thus lay along near the middle of the
canoe; but to keep them clear of the canoeist, and also of the deck
flaps, locker, &c., little brass studs are screwed into the deck, as shown at
'm and m in the deck plan, a single one opposite the fore end of well, and
two diagonally placed, are put in abreast of the after end of the well.
One great advantage of this plan is that, for unrigging, simply the
rudder-yoke and deck-yoke are taken off, and the wires folded round
them. The lines do not lead down below through the deck, coaming,
or bulkhead, and are not in the way when stowing or unstowing spars
under the side deck. The yoke on deck is very handy for hand steering
whilst kneeling up working at the mast gear.
In the case of foot-yoke only, the wires are fitted much in the
same way as above; but they have (before being fitted at the second
end) to be passed through perhaps both coaming and bulkhead, in
order to get a fair lead to the stretcher-yoke ; and the rudder-yoke
ends should be fitted with snap swivels, so as to be detachable from
the yoke.
The rudder-pin (a, Rudder Plan, Plate CIX.) should be, as shown,
of the whole length of the sternpost; the gudgeon metals (b) are so placed
as to allow the rudder to travel up the pin when it strikes the ground.
These rudder fittings—and indeed all the metal fittings of a canoe, should
be of copper, or gun metal, or brass.
Canoe Aprons. 497
APRONS, &c.
The apron to cover the well is thus fitted: A piece of macintosh
of suitable size is fixed by nails to two battens (see Fig. 209). The
battens are of the length of the fore end of the well, and are kept in
position by two fillets, which are nailed to the deck, near to and parallel
to the coaming. The macintosh is nailed about an inch or an inch and a
quarter from the edge of the batten, and a flap is left to go over the fillet,
as shown. The macintosh is also secured to the top edge of the batten by
a nail, and half round fillet. The side battens being fitted to the exact
span of the coamings, stretch the macintosh tightly across the well. The
fore end of the macintosh is a loose drop piece over the coaming, and
tucked under an india-rubber band across the deck.
The parts of the sides of the macintosh which come from the flap
deck aft have no battens, but have an indiarubber cord in the bottom edge,
and a button-hole at each corner to button on to a small stud screw at the
aft end of the flap piece (a small brass drawer handle will do for a stud).
When sailing the apron has to be unbuttoned on the weather side.
Mazzzzzzz fºlle& A/2cznáosh,
Max!
A&/Zeč--> S Well,
Tjeck,
FIG. 209.
Across the well is a shiftable beam, which supports the apron if heavy
water comes on it. The whole thing comes away immediately if a capsize
takes place, or any sudden “jump up” is required. When not in use
the whole apron can be rolled up into a very small space.
For canoe travelling a macintosh coat is required, such as used
in the Nautilus canoe. The coat is long, and closed in front from
the bottom to the breast, where there is a neck opening with three
buttons. Fixed by waterproof glue close under the arms is a macintosh
flounce ; run through the bottom hem of which is an elastic cord. The
hem of the flounce is placed over the hatch and hatchway coaming, and
abaft the backboard, thus forming a kind of tent. The flounce should be
full behind to allow stooping forward without detaching its hold on the
coaming. Elastic bands round the cuffs of the coat will prevent water
K K

498 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
running up the sleeves. The object of having a long inside coat is that it
will do duty as a macintosh for shore walking, the coat being then
turned inside out, so that the flounce is out of sight.
MAST FITTINGS AND TABERNACLE.
The tabernacle for lowering the mainmast is a matter of importance.
The ordinary method is to cut a well through the deck for the mast
heel to travel in (as described for the Nautilus racing canoe), but,
as the bow of a canoe is very frequently immersed when working
on rough water, it is undesirable to have any opening in the deck.
The tabernacle is thus fitted: Two pieces of oak placed in the ordinary
form of a tabernacle, c (Fig. 210), secured at the heels by a block (G),
(G)
FIG. 210.
and passing up through a blocking piece under the deck a (Fig. 210),
and through the deck b. The two heads are each 6in. high by 23in.
wide fore and aft, and half an inch thick, the heels being considerably
tapered off for lightness; (c) in the sketch is a blocking piece, firmly bolted
in between the uprights, and let through the deck and deck block. Against
this the mast heel lodges. The mast heel should be 13 in. square, from

Nautilus Tents. 499
heel to half an inch above the tabernacle ; then round and taper to Jin.
at head. The mast is bolted between the tabernacle heads, at three-eighths
of an inch from the top of the heads at d. At e is a through bolt, on
to which, between the heads, the halyard blocks hook. The mast heel
and the outer sides of the tabernacle heads should be brass plated, and
there should be a small piece of indiarubber screwed on the heel as a
buffer (G). The mast is set up by a forestay, which should be small
galvanised wire about one-tenth of an inch in diameter, from the swivel
clip (clipped to a thimble in the masthead block strop) down to a small
single block, which, when the mast is up, comes about four inches above
the stem-head. The fall is fast to stem-head, and then leads through the
stay block and through the stem block or cheek sheave, and into a cleat
near the well. So long as the mast is set up, the halyard blocks f
cannot be unshipped from the bolt e, but when the mast is lowered
as far as shown by the dotted line, the halyard blocks can be
unhooked.
The mast is fitted with a ferrule joint at 4ft. 6in. above the tabernacle
pin, and then the upper portion, 4ft., including a 6in. ferrule to ship over
lower mast, makes a total of 8ft. 6in. pin to truck. With the exception
of unclipping the forestay, all the gear remains on the masthead, and the
sail is kept on the upper part of the mast, with its halyards bent on
and parrels in sailing position.
THE NAUTILUs SHORE TENT.
The Nautilus tent for camping on shore is of the “Alpine” form,
but divided into two pieces by a joint of buttons and holes along one
side of the ridge rope, and this junction is protected above by a flounce
or bonnet stitched on the opposite side of the ridge rope, and buttoned
to small buttons on the joint side of the tent; four slight poles are
embedded in a hem at each corner, their lower ends sticking into the
ground, and their upper ends are held in strongly stitched pockets;
only one rope, the ridge rope, is needed, and is set up either to a
couple of pegs driven into the ground, or to tree stumps; two pegs
are used on each side in windy weather. The poles should be jointed,
and need only be slight in diameter; the Nautilus had ash, but bamboo
would be equally good and much lighter. The ground space is 6ft. by 6ft.,
and the height under the ridge is 7ft. The ends join down the middle, and
are double flap jointed, with button and hole as a fixer. A kind of curtain
lft. deep goes round the lower part of inside, stitched on about 6in. above
the edge, and is used for tucking under the ground sheet.
K K 2
500 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
THE NAUTILUs AFLOAT TENT.
The tent, for use afloat, has a slanting roof of mackintosh or dressed
calico, with stout calico perpendicular sides and angular fore end. It is
fitted as follows: the roof is 7ft. long by 4ft. wide; along the centre
of this on the inside runs a ridge rope, the fore end of which is half-
hitched round the furled mainsail and its spars, and then leads down to
an eye-bolt at mast or stem on deck; the after end is then rolling hitched
to the mizen mast at 4ft. above deck, and the end is hitched to the
aft ring at sternpost as a backstay; the main boom is then triced up
to a height of 2ft. above deck at fore end, and 4ft. at after end, the
tent being well stretched along underneath it.
The calico side pieces are triangular in form, being 2ft. 6in. deep
at after end, and 6in. deep at fore end; they are stitched on to
roof at 2in, inside its edge, so that the edge overhangs and shoots rain
off. At the fore end is a triangular piece which forms a sharp-ended
wind shoot to the tent ; a bamboo spreads out the after end of roof,
and the sides hitch to the various sailing cleats along the deck by
little lanyards; the after end of the tent is closed in by a curtain of
calico. Any part of the tent sides or ends can be cast adrift and triced
up in a moment, or the whole can be cast off from deck and tucked up
over the boom, if necessary to shift the canoe's berth, or in daytime if
not getting under way.
With this form of tent the canoe rides at anchor head to wind,
and there is ample room inside for the skipper to change his clothes
and cook his dinner, &c., afloat, and so be absolutely independent of
landing, which is often difficult, dirty, and dangerous after dark.
A good thick blanket, an air pillow, and an air cushion (4ft. by
lft. 6in.) is all that can be desired for bedding, and if they are carefully
kept by day wrapped up in the mackintosh part of the tent, a dry and
comfortable bed is always at hand.
LIGHTS.
If cruising in navigable waters, a good riding lamp is absolutely
necessary; and the same lamp should have a green and a red slide to
fit over two-thirds of its globe, the remaining third being reflector. In
practice it is amply sufficient warning to other vessels if the proper
colour, of good size, is shown on its proper side in good time, viz.,
green to starboard side or red to port side, or white to any vessel coming
up astern. To attempt to exhibit two permanent side lights or one
combination fixed lamp in a canoe is a great mistake; one lamp is quite
Nautilus Racing and Cruising Canoes. 501
enough to have to trim and look after, and should be capable of doing
duty as cabin lamp, anchor lamp, and side lamp in turn.
PUMPING AND BALING.
Last, but by no means least, in fittings, we come to the pumping
or baling gear. For river or small lake work a sponge and an ordinary
bowl baler will be ample; but for sea or large lake cruising it is almost
a necessity to have an effective pump. The points to be achieved are
a powerful pump of small size and light weight, if possible of double
action, so as to pump in bilge as well as at kelson. The pound or two of
extra metal to be carried by the canoe fitted with a pump will not be
grumbled at by those who know the danger of taking on board a lumping
sea when a mile or two away from land.
THE “NATUTILUS” RACING AND CRUISING CANOE OF 1881.
This Nautilus (Plate CX.) was designed and constructed for
cruising on navigable rivers, lakes, and the sea. Being intended chiefly for
cruising, many sailing points have been put aside for cruising requirements;
still, she has performed well as a sailer.
The leading idea of the design is to have large accommodation for
sleeping afloat; in addition to this, a light draught, powerful sailing lines,
and water-tight compartments. Experience suggested the advisability of
one centre-plate only, and that the balance be made up by a deep rudder ;
the result of this is a roomy locker aft, with less gear to work, and
smaller risk of leaks.
The plank, decks, and fittings of this Nautilus are mahogany; her
keel is of pine, and frames of oak. She is planked on the ribband carvel
plan, and her deck is laid in three pieces on each side—first piece
from stem to fore end of well, second piece alongside of well to its
after end, and third piece from after end of well to sternpost, on each
side. The centre-board case extends right through the craft so as to
enable the centre-plate (§ iron) to be lifted out. The case is made of
#in. mahogany, and is rabbeted to the keel, and is supported by the
deck, the bulkhead, and by a knee on each side, placed abreast of
the plate hump. The hauling-up gear is fitted so as to lead straight
into the well through the fore coaming, thus giving a direct pull, and
avoiding the splashing of the gear in the water when the lee deck
becomes immersed, which is common to gear fitted along the side deck.
At the fore side of the well there is fitted to the deck a cleat rack,
502 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
with side pieces attached to the well coamings; this forms a convenient
place to stow the rope coils in, and keeps the halyards and reef lines
clear of the deck yoke, and further acts as a breakwater to Water washing
aft along the deck. -
The following table and key will show the various dimensions and
leading points of the design :
NAUTILUS RACING AND CRUISING CANOE, 1881. (See PLATE CX.)
9 || 10 | 11 | 12 || 13 14
5
6
7
8
No. of Section .............................. 0 | 1 || 2 || 3 || 4.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in, lin, lin. in lin.
Height above L.W.L. to under side of
deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 16|14}|12 |11 10 || 9 || 8"| 83|8%| 8}| 84 93.10%|11}|13%
Depths below L.W.L. to rabbet,.... . . . . — | 5 0 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 6 || 5%| 4%| –
Depth of keel and metal band below
rabbet .................................... — | 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1%| 1%| 2 || –
Half-breadths at deck ..................... – || 6 ||10 |12||14}|15}|16}|16}|16%|16%|16 14||12|| 8%
Half-breadths at L.W.L. to outside of
plank ....................................., | – || 3 || 6 || 9,12314||15||16%|16%|16 |15 |13%| 9%; 4%|--
Half-breadths at 3in. below L.W.L. ... — | 1 || 4 || 7 ||10 |12||14}|15%|15%|14}|12%| 9 || 4%| 1%| –
Diagonal half-breadths from 6in. above
L.W.L. to L.W.L. at No. 7... . . . . . . . . . – || 4 || 84|11}|13;|15%|16;|17}|17}|17|16%|14}|11}| 7 || –
LEADING DIMENSIONS.
Total length, 14ft.; beam, 2ft. 9in. ; depth inside, 16in. ; keel, 2in. ; draught, 7in.
Sections 1ſt. apart, No. 1 being 1ſt. from fore end L.W.L.
Stem and stern posts sided at rabbet, 1%in.
Keel from No. 2 to No. 7 sections sided 2in. tapers to ends.
SHEER PLAN.
A, Main and mizen mast cases
B, Fore and after ends of centre-plate case.
C, Centre-plate of iron.
Fore bulkhead with door.
E, Drain pipes, one each side of centre-board, draining fore compartment.
F, Foot-steering yoke and rod.
G, Deck yoke connected with F.
H, Centre-board lifting handle.
I, Centre-board chain sheave, chain and buffer hauling-up gear.
J, Cleat rack leading ropes clear of yoke, &c.
R., Fore hatch, fitting over coamings of well.
JD, After hatch.
M, Paddling thwart, shiftable, forms middle floor board when not in use.
N, After bulkhead and door.
O,
P,
2
2
D,
T'loor boards.
Paddling backboard beam, shiftable.
JR, Ring-bolt at each end, bolted between apron and post.
S, Sheave for rudder tricing line.
DECI, PLAN.
The same letters denote the Hame things as in Sheer Plan. Dotted lines show beams, carlines,
and knees below deck, and hatches above coamings.
PLATE CX.
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Nautilus Racing and Cruising Canoe. 503
The chief characteristics of this craft are—first, that sailing is the
chief mode of propulsion; that so long as any wind exists, sailing will
be the most successful mode of making progress. Second, wind
failing, the canoe can be paddled with the double-bladed paddle
with ease, or the half-paddle may be used in conjunction with the foot-
steering gear.
As to paddling against a head wind in open water in any but a long,
low, narrow paddling canoe, it is hard labour; sails would do the work
in far less time, and with ease and comfort to the canoeist (of course
assuming the craft to be properly fitted with centre-plate and proper
sail plan).
The craft is fitted with a large, deep rudder, so fitted that it can
be hauled up in shallow water by a tricing line passing through the
sheave 8. The rudder can be fitted so that the yoke is held at the
sternpost head, and the rudder head can be raised or lowered through
the yoke by means of the tricing line; thus fitted, the yoke lines remain
level with the deck, and the yoke not being raised does not foul the
mizen or necessitate its being topped up or kept set high on the mast.
The bulkheads are water-tight, and are fitted with doors, which when
closed prevent any but a dribble of water getting into the compartments;
drain pipes are fitted at e, so that the compartments may be drained whilst
under way without any trouble.
The well is covered in either of two fashions—one being wooden
half-hatches, which stow on top of one another aft when not in use;
the other being a mackintosh apron with an elastic-banded edge, and
supported by a light flat board of 10in. length and the width of the
coamings, which rests on the coamings, and slides backwards or forwards
as the apron is to be extended or reduced. A telescoped bamboo rod
draws out underneath the apron as the wooden support is drawn aft, and
this supports the middle line of the apron forward.
During cruising this canoe has carried her centre-plate of 831b. and
100lb. of shot in bags, her sail plan being 95 square feet in mainsail
and 25ft. in mizen. Fishing rods stow in the fore compartment on one
side, and a long light box containing all food stores and eating gear is
stowed in the other fore compartment. The roll of tent, in which is
wrapped bedding and night clothing, is stowed across the floor at fore
side of after bulkhead under l, in a dressed duck bag. The clothes bag
(a mackintosh double-necked round bag) stows inside the locker, and in
the two corners of the locker, against the bulkhead, hang the cuisine in
its bag and the lamp.
504 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
CANOE FOR TWO PERSONS.
TABLE OF HEIGHTS, DEPTHS, AND BREADTHS (PLATE CXI.)
No. of Sections ........................... 0 | 1 || 2 || 8 || 4 || 8 • 8 • 10 11 |12 || 13 | Stºn.
Height of gunwale, including deck,
above load line ........................ 13 11}| 9 || 8 || 7 || 65|| 63, 6 || 6 || 6+ 6%| 6%| 7%. 8%| 10
Depths, lower edge of rabbet below
the load line ........................... — | 3 || 4}| 4 || 5 || 5 || 5 || 5 || 5 || 5 || 5 || 5 || 5 || 4:#| –
Rocker of keel above building straight |
edge ....................................... 7 2}| 1 | }. — |—||—||—||—||—||—||—||--|-| 5
Half-breadths of gunwale, g, from |
mid-line, without beading ............ # 5}| 9}|12 |13414 ||14}|14}|14}|14}14 |12}|10 || 6 | }
Half-breadths on diagonals. Fig. E A — — 9} — — .14%| – 15%| – –14; — 10}| – || –
B | – — 6}| – — 134 — 15}| – || – 14 ||—|| 9 || – || –
C |— — 34 — — 9%| – |12}| – ||—|| 9 ||—|| 5 || – || –
L.W.L. widths at 2, 5, 7, 10, 12 ...... ––|4}|—||—|12||—|14}|—|—|18 |-| 7 |-| –
The diagonals are placed (Fig. D): A at 10in. above the load line
on the middle line (marked D D in Fig. E), and 5in. above the load line
on the side perpendiculars; B starts from a height of 5in. on the middle
line, and cuts side perpendiculars at load line; C starts from middle line
at load line, and cuts side perpendicular 5in. below load line.
The whole of the half breadths are to the outside edge of plank,
so that, in building from them, allowance should be made for the thick-
ness of the plank at every section (see dotted lines (2), (5), Fig. E);
thickness of deck in the heights is included; therefore, in making the
building moulds 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, the thickness of deck should be deducted
from the heights above water-line.
The double-handed canoe (drawing B) is a craft which has become
exceedingly popular, not only as the “married members’ canoe,” but as
a travelling craft ; there is a good deal to be said in favour of a craft
which will carry two men on a cruise, and yet be not too large for one
to manage in the absence of the rest of the crew. In the first place
the original cost is for one canoe, and though she is some 2ft. or 3ft.
longer, and has a few more fittings, yet her cost should not be more
than about 3l. Over that of a “ single ; ”
“housing ” by the year is for one canoe; so also her cartage, railway,
steamboat, and such portage charges, are for one canoe ; and many
similar points might be invoked to show that her working expenses are
not much over those of a “single,”
secondly, her “ keep ’’ or
and very considerably under those
of two canoes.
Two good hands could, in travelling, work the double-handed canoe
nearly twice the distance in a day that two single-handed canoes could
be worked in the same circumstances. At Sailing in a reaching wind
PLATE CXI.
IAWCHES
“Nautilus” Cruising Canoes, Single and Double-handed, designed by W. Baden Powell, Esq.

Canoe for Two Persons. 505
she would be faster than the short single, in lumpy water she would
have more weight to carry her way on ; in a calm or head wind both can
pound away with the paddle, and work can be continued “watch and
watch '' if need be ; so that literally the double-handed canoe could be
kept going on her course day and night with scarcely more hardship to
the crew than is entailed in working a 5-ton yacht down Channel.
The design is arranged for two moderate weights, such as
twelve stone and nine stone, which we may take as average for a
“ married member’s ” canoe; in that craft the “better half,’’ i.e., the
heaviest weight, should be in the forward seat, and them the “light
weight' and the baggage in the locker will bring about the correct
balance. When it becomes necessary to jump out and shove off from the
ground when running a rapid, it is the “heavy weight' who should do
so, and should do so from the fore end, so as to prevent her swinging
broadside to the stream. When the canoe is being towed, and the after
sitter remains on board to steer her, the foot yoke forward is connected
by two wires, (s) Fig. B, to another foot yoke which is fitted into a
step on the keel and into a notch or chock on the afterside of the back-
board beam of the fore compartment; the after well is covered by a
macintosh apron abaft the half hatch. When the canoe is to be worked
by one man only, he would sit in the after place and put the luggage
under the fore hatch and join the two hatch covers together.
The canoe shown is for about twenty-one stone of crew ; for two
men of twelve stone the sections from No. 7 each way should be 1ſt. 3in.
apart, i.e., length 17ft. 8in. The placement of the masts and centre-
board should be the same, measuring from the ends, as in the “single *
canoe; a slight advantage might be found, where much lake work is
contemplated, in having a small centre-board aft in addition to the One
forward, but as its case takes up valuable space in the locker, and as
centre-board cases are apt to get out of order on long rough journeys,
and leak, on the whole, it will be better to omit the after centre-board
where rough work is anticipated.
The same rig and sails should be given to the “double '’ as to
the “single,” for though longer and more heavily weighted, she may
often have to go single-handed, and even when double-handed sufficient
speed will be got out of the suggested rig and area.
The hatches by which the well is covered may be seen in the
drawings, and it will be noticed that on the after end of the fore hatch,
and on the fore end of the after hatch, are small coamings, with a beading
on them; these coamings are for the purpose of holding the “ coat
apron’’ flounce.
506 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
One side under the fore deck, forward of the foot yoke, should be
as nearly as possible filled up by a macintosh air bag or air bed. Such
a bag is of little weight, and makes it impossible for the canoe to sink.
If sleeping in the canoe, or indeed any camping out is contemplated, an
air bed will be found a great comfort. It should be specially made,
having one end smaller than the other, so that when folded lengthways
and blown out it just fills the space on one side under the fore deck.
If a bed, it should be wrapped up in a macintosh sheet, which for
sleeping in the canoe will form the tent between the masts, or ashore
acts as ground sheet. The canoe should be fitted with a strong pair of
slings, ready for hoisting her on to steamers or quays, &c. For each
end of the canoe a strong webbing band, with an eye at each end, is
passed under the keel, the eyes meeting over the middle of the deck,
at about 3ft. in from the end ; a piece of 1in. or 1%in. manilla is spliced
into the two eyes, and is of such length as, when fitted at its other
end with a pair of clip-hooks, to reach the mid-length of the canoe;
here a large-sized galvanized iron ring, having the after sling rope spliced
to it, and also coming to the mid-length, hooks on to the fore sling, and
the steamer's crane hook hooks into the ring. The sling thus fitted can be
shipped or unshipped in a very short time, even when afloat in rough water.
Sails for the cruising, or travelling, canoes will be found described
further on under the head of “Canoe Sails.”
SAIL CARRYING POWER OF CANOES.
Paddling demands an upright position of the man’s body, but sailing
equally demands a lowering of the weights, and consequently a reclining
position; and further, when running dead before a strong wind under
a press of sail, even though a spinnaker be set, the head of the lug will
get forward of the right angle, and cause violent, if not dangerous, rolling.
Comfort, combined with safety, will be obtained under these circumstances
by lying back, and firmly wedging one’s shoulders between the two sides of
the after well-coamings. To obtain this the bulkhead is placed 6in. to 1 ft.
further aft than it would be for the Ordinary back board, and the back board
is supported for paddling by a shiftable beam, which can be removed when
sailing, and then the back board is inclined against the bulkhead.
A British sailing canoe, of racing build and equipment, is undoubtedly
the most delicate of all sailing craft in the world to handle. Her sail-
carrying power almost entirely depends on the artificial shifting of her
centre of gravity to windward by moving her ballast or crew. The small
depth of body and keel, coupled with the necessarily large proportion
Sail Carrying Power of Canoe, 507
and weight of crew, spars and sails, to the small hull, cause a far
higher position of centre of gravity in a canoe than would be found
in any other class of vessel.
As soon as the canoe begins to heel, the canoist must hang well
Over to windward.
Suppose a canoe to be sailing, and heeled over to an angle of about
20°, and working short tacks where there is no time to trim ballast over,
and where the wind is coming in sudden puffs, it will often be found
necessary to do a multitude of things at the same moment ; such as to
sit over to windward, to luff sharply before steerage way has been lost
in consequence of the sails banging about, to ease off the head sheet
and flatten in the mizen, and, perhaps, to lift the centre-board for shoal
water, and then have to go about suddenly, and perform much the
same thing on the other tack, with perhaps the addition of taking in
or shaking out a reef or two.
The necessity of performing the operations quickly in a canoe
suggest and somewhat dictate the various fittings and arrangements :
for instance, sitting up to windward can best be performed when the
craft has been fitted with side deck flaps; to luff or bear away at the
same moment that one’s hands are engaged about the sheets and halyards,
pointedly suggests the advisability of steering with one’s feet. To work
the sails smartly, and keep the canoe bottom downwards, it is essential
that the chief sail should be, with its gear, forward of the man, and the
various ropes and centre-board lifting gear must all be close at hand,
so as to be readily worked by the man without leaving his sitting position.
The canoe, limited in its dimensions by the club rules, is essentially
a craft of small displacement—a craft, in fact, in which balancing the
crew out to windward has more to do with, and is more successful at, sail
carrying than any weight of ballast stowed below.
To allow a good and sufficient margin for heeling over and for rough
water, freeboard in sailing canoes is very seldom less than 6in., and much
more often will be found to be 8in. Taking this as a fair margin, the
depth of the canoe’s body, from water-line to garboards, will be 6in. ;
weight of boat, gear, and man will not put the foregoing size of canoe
down to this depth of immersion; consequently, ballast must be taken
in until she has come near to, or down to, her marks. The arrangement
of this ballast will be a question of how best it can be handled in working
the boat; the heavy man will possibly require no more ballast to put his
boat down to her designed load-line than he can conveniently handle as
shifting ballast ; whereas the light weight may have much more than he
could possibly shift, and, consequently, must stow some below the floor.
508 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Having arrived at the correct weights, and the most useful way of
stowing them, the next question will be as to how much sail the canoe, so
weighted and balanced, will stand; it is a point that can scarcely be
found out by calculation, but can be most surely ascertained by experiment.
A suit of Sails will never be wasted, for in making them and trying them
much experience will have been gained, even if the sails are never used
again ; the same masts and rigging will, or should, be available for each
and every suit of sails the canoe is fitted with ; and in making them for
a new canoe it should be kept in mind that once a spar is cut no amount
of watering will make it grow longer; so it will be well to have all spars
and ropes longer than actually necessary at first; then, when the craft
has been carefully tried, the owner will know how much may be cut off.
The rigging scheme should be this—give the craft sails of the full
length she can use, and in hoist stop them at the area it is anticipated
FIG. 211.
she will be able to carry to a moderate breeze; leave the masts long
enough for larger sails, then the same spars and gear will do throughout.
If she is found to be over-stiff for the first rig, either ballast can be taken
out or more sail added, and in such case it is only a matter of increasing
the hoist, taking care, however, that the relative sizes are kept up so as
not to disturb the position of the centre of effort.
Thus far we have looked at the sail carrying power of canoes where
the skipper sits below deck, but a far more powerful mode of balance is
that obtained by the “crew ‘’ sitting on the side deck, with his toes tucked
under a strongly fitted strap or batten in the lee bilge ; the steering being
carried on by hand by means of a tiller fitted to a yoke on deck, just aft
of the well, and connected in the usual way by a wire rope to the rudder
yoke. In this position, as the canoe heels over to the force of the wind, the
crew leans out to windward, holding the tiller in one hand and—in
rough water—grasping the well-coaming with the other. (See Fig. 211.)

Canoe Deck Seats. 509
The sheets may, in steady breezes, be both made fast, for it is almost
impossible for the canoe to capsize—the weight of the crew out to
windward, laying flat out, will heave her up even from being on her beam
ends unless an unusual amount of water is shipped. Indeed, it is safer not
to have the sheet in hand, except in very bad squalls, as the sudden
letting go of the sheet would almost certainly send the crew overboard to
windward; and, further, if the craft is knocked down by a strong puff the
sails are kept more out of the water by the sheets being kept fast, and so
the righting is facilitated; and it must be remembered that when the craft
is heeled so far as to take water in over the well-coaming, the angle at
which the sail is then being presented to the wind causes an enormous
-Z (NDIA RUBBER
EAES FRICTION PIECF
FIG. 212. But LER’s DECK SEAT.
decrease of wind pressure. It has often occurred in recent racing that the
crew so sailing has had his shoulders wetted to windward by laying out.
In America this position of power has been extended by the use of a
sliding seat board which is shoved out to windward, and then the “crew ‘’
coils himself up on the outer end of the board; but such wholesale shifting
is not permitted under the Royal Canoe Club rules, for otherwise it places
too much advantage in the hands of a quasi-acrobatic performer as against
the sailor.
DECK SEAT (FIG. 212).
This sketch shows the form of deck seat used by Mr. Paul Butler.
It will be seen that it can be slid out for some distance, thus enabling the
canoeist to get his weight at the end of a good long lever, and so
enormously increasing the sail-carrying power. The seat is prevented


51() Yacht and Boat Sailing.
from sliding out too far by means of a piece of cord attached to the fixed
piece on which it runs. The sliding part of the seat is an easy fit over the
fixed part, and the necessary friction to prevent it sliding in when the
canoe heels is given by means of a piece of indiarubber between the fixed
and sliding parts.
With the crew sitting on deck it has been found that many gybes
can be made safely, which with the old style of sitting below would have
almost certainly resulted in a capsize, and the worst of squalls may be
sailed through with both main and mizen sheets made fast, the main
halyard being kept in hand instead. For this mode of working it is
essential to have the topping lifts made fast, and then the halyard and
reef line—or the halyard and down haul—may be relied on to keep the
little ship up and travelling.
Another point in favour of the deck position is that in a strong
and varying breeze, or in sailing through lumpy water, a large amount of
muscular action is caused to the crew, the very reverse of the old cramped
and boxed up position below. But it must not be forgotten that the deck
position, especially where the craft is sailed without any ballast and yet
under full allowance of sail, is not that which a child or an old man can
adopt with either safety or comfort; considerable agility is required of the
crew to prevent his being either dropped over to windward on the wind
letting up suddenly, or his being pitched head first through his main
sail to leeward on a puff striking her.
The deck position places a very considerable strain on the masts and
spars in strong puffy winds, as the canoe is not reefed down but the
balance power of the crew resorted to to carry on through the puffs. The
leverage is enormous, and as a result the old plan of fastening the heels of
the mast cases has been proved insufficient. Many mast cases, which had
stood well all the strains brought in racing with from 100lb. to 200lb. of
shot shifted to windward, have given out under the strains of the deck
position of crew.
It is necessary, however, to keep the craft fitted with foot steering
gear and the usual sitting accommodation below, for the purpose of
paddling in calms or sitting below when running under easy sail, such as
when cruising. (The deck fittings will be described farther on.)
The windage of the crew thus sitting out bodily to windward is very
great; but so commanding is the position that in practice it is found that
the light unballasted canoe, with crew out on weather side, can be got to
point as well and go faster to windward than the heavily ballasted canoe in
which the crew is lying down below with barely more than the peak of his
cap catching the wind, and this in a blow, too.
Nautilus Canoe Sails. 5II
NAUTILUS CANOE SAILS.
Almost every conceivable rig and sail has been tried on canoes—
cutter, sloop, schooner, yawl, dandy, and even top-sail Schooner have
appeared; gaff sails, Chinese lugs, standing lugs, dipping lugs, balance
lugs, sprit sails, settee sails, lateen sails, sliding gunters, sliding sprits,
split lugs, and leg-of-mutton sails have all been tested. Now, for racing,
the balance lug main-and-mizen rig is the common favourite in England.
These two working sails and a spinnaker for running appear to give
the best all-round results. Topsails and jibs are often used, but they are
difficult to handle—not of much value as drivers, and they require a
considerable amount of extra gear.
It has been pointed out that the peculiarities of a canoe considerably
dictate the forms and positions of her fittings; but the position of her
masts depends to a great extent on the situation of her centre-board or
boards, and that the proportions and positions of her sails must be agree-
able to the centre of lateral resistance. We now come to the consideration
of the various rigs and rigging adaptable to the requirements of the
canoe; and, whilst considering the subject of sails, it will be well to bear
in mind that the particular cut or shape—such, for instance, as a high-
peaked head versus a low or square head—can be indulged in in accord-
ance with individual ideas of beauty, to any extent, so long as the relative
areas and position of the centre of effort are not disturbed in relation to
the centre of lateral resistance.
A jib in canoes is a troublesome Snare, its driving power is com-
paratively small, and it is only in play when the wind is abeam or forward
of the beam ; yet it entails a lot of extra gear, requires constant watching,
and in a really bad squall is suicidal to the boat.
The two-sail rig is, however, handy and effective on all points of
sailing and manoeuvring, “ before the wind ’’ both main and mizen are
“drawing well,” and in a squall when on-a-wind the mizen luffs the boat,
and the pressure is taken off her by spilling or reducing the big sail;
the centre of gravity of the mainsail is forward of the centre of lateral
resistance, consequently by spilling the mainsail the centre of effort of
sail is thrown aft, and the boat luffs sharply; or, for bearing away, the
main sheet is kept flat in and the mizen eased up, the centre of effort thereby
being thrown forward, and the canoe goes off the wind; both manoeuvres
being, of course, greatly facilitated by the judicious use of helm and
centre-board. The two-sail rig, supplemented, of course, by efficient
handling and reefing gear, should not too lightly be cast aside in favour
512 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
of some, perhaps, prettier fancy rig, for in a really bad and lasting squal
in open water, the presence of the above qualities will decide whether
the canoe will live through it or not.
TRAVELLING SAIL AND RIGGING PLAN.—PLATE CXII.
Plan A, the travelling sail, shows a sail almost triangular in shape,
which, when set, has much the appearance of what is known as a “leg of
mutton sliding gunter.” However, as a fact, it is really a balance lug,
cut with an extremely high peak, and the heel of the yard parrelled to
the mast. As the reefing gear, the boom fittings, the tack, the topping
lifts, and mast blocks of this rig are fitted in the same manner as in the
Nautilus racing and cruising rig about to be described, it is not necessary
here to allude to detail. It will be seen that the only difference is, that
the sail is set with a very small portion forward of the mast ; from 3in. to
6in. at tack is sufficient.
The heel of the yard, beyond the lashing of the throat cringle of the
sail, is worked so as to form a knob head, around the neck of which the
lower bight of the halyard may be drawn tight, and so hold the heel
of the yard into the mast. A couple of small cleats of wood (b) are lashed
on the under side of: -
yard half an inch apart, to prevent the halyard
block strop from slipping up or down the yard.
Let us now follow the halyard. A brass ring is on the mast with
a thimble lashed on to it (a) in the plan. The end of the halyard
is spliced to the ring about half an inch from the thimble ; the halyard
is then rove though the thimble, and from thence leads to a thimble
seised on to the block strop (b) on the plan. It is next rove through
six or eight little wooden beads, which must act as rollers on the mast ; it
is then passed round the mast, and brought to and rove through the yard
block (b) on the plan; then it leads to the block or sheave at mast head,
and thence down to deck and “well’’ in the usual way.
The block strop (b) for the yard is made with an eye and Turk’s head
knot, to button on, or unbutton to take off from the yard, the block and
strop remaining on the halyard and mast. Now to rig the sail, the tack
is fixed like that of a lug; so also the reef batten; the topping lifts are
toggled to the boom, and the main sheet attached. The heel end of the
yard is next inserted in the bight of the halyard formed between the
thimble and the splice on the brass ring on the mast, and the slack of the
halyard is pulled through.
The yard block and strop (b) is pulled down to the proper place on
the yard, and there the strop is buttoned on, the halyard now forming



PLATE CXII.

Nautilus Canoe Sails. 513
a long bight round the mast, with the wooden beads on it. All is ready,
and the first pull on the halyards lifts the peak up, till the yard is up and
down the mast; firmly gripped by the halyard bights, the next pull hoists
the yard exactly as a sliding gunter works; hoist away till well up, and
belay the halyards, then bowse down on the tack rope, and the luff and
yard will be set as rigid as a bar of iron.
The advantages of this rig for travelling are, that it sets on a short
mast, that it lowers very snugly in a squall, that it can be topped up and
down the mast, and with the sheet frapped around makes a neat stowage
either up on end or down on deck for paddling.
Its defects from a sailing or racing point of view are, that a large
area or spread cannot be got without extra long spars; and, even with the
mast stepped as far forward as it can be got, the centre of effort will
be found rather far aft, if the mizen be anything over some 10 or 15 square
feet. With a “Radix,” or folding centre-board (see page 267), which can
be placed amidships, this difficulty would be obviated, and a very effective
sail plan could be made.
The drawing marked A 1 shows the halyard fittings, and the sail peak
lifting as at first pull of halyards. A 2 shows the sail fully set.
For running in light-weather racing, a spinnaker may be set. Such
a sail requires only one extra spar, a boom of about 7ft. to 8ft. length,
and a halyard and outhaul. It is by no means an easy sail to handle,
and should not be set in a breeze until considerable practice has been
gone through in light airs; for the above rig the luff would be 12ft. and
the foot 7ft.—36 square feet.
The mizen is fitted same as mainsail; the lower part of the topping
lift branches into two parts, so as to gather in the sail when lowered,
and thus save the trouble of tying reef points or furlings.
The mainsail should be made of fine calico sheeting in one width,
and the stuff should be nailed out on a floor, and the sail shape marked
off in pencil or coloured chalk, taking the selvedge for the leech. Narrow
stay-binding tape should then be stitched on all round, except the leech,
and the stuff cut outside the tape, allowing sufficient for turning in. Eyelet
holes must be sewn where required for lacings, &c., and the sail should
be strongly roped on the luff and slightly on the head-corner patches,
for strength should not be forgotten. Next the sail may be lightly
set on its yard and boom and hoisted, and then well wetted all over and left
to dry. After this the reef bands and batten bands may be put on.
For spars yellow pine is generally preferred. Many use bamboo ;
but, except for a flying topsail, or other light sail, bamboo offers no
advantage. Well-picked yellow pine spars look well and stand well.
L L
514 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The main tack can be fitted in many ways. A good plan is that
in which a snotter, or short piece of stout rope, or flat Sennit is fitted
to the boom abaft where the mast will be. It is taken round the opposite
side of the mast to that on which the boom lies, and is then rove through
a thimble lashed on the under side of the boom, and finishes with an eye.
The tack pennant is toggled to this eye, and then leads through a block
or thimble at side of mast, and may be used either in single part to a cleat
at the well, or fitted with a block and whip; before topping up boom this
tack must be eased off.
The mainsheet is fitted at one end with a large eye, the splice ends
of which are formed into a good-sized knot, sufficient to prevent it un-
reeving; the sheet is used single when running or reaching, and, when
close hauled, the eye is slipped over a hook on deck aft of the well, and
the sheet becomes doubled thereby.
The battens, which cross the sail at the reef-bands, are usually
made of yellow pine or bamboo, and should be stoutest at about one-
third from the fore end, and be parreled to the mast by a snotter, with
toggle and eye, and, thus fitted, the sail stands without any shifting, as
well on one tack as on the other.
The mainmast should be a “grown '' fir spar, straight and tapering,
if possible, with little more than the bark taken off, cut square at and
below deck, 2%in. diametá at deck, and tapering below to 1%in., rounding
commencing 3in. above deck, taper to 1}in. at head. The mast should
be cut rather longer, say 1ſt., than is at first required, it can then, after
trial, be reduced to the length suitable to the sail. The boom should
be cut 6in. longer than foot of Sail, and reduced at the after end when
the sail has settled into shape. Yellow pine, 1}in. diameter in centre,
taper to lin. at fore end, and #in. at after end. The yard should be
of yellow pine, 6in. longer than head, same size as boom, or a little
less, or it may be a slight spar, with a fish batten of elm seized on its
upper side.
Two double 1%in. or 2in. blocks and a single block should be stropped
with strop and thimble, and lashed firmly to the mast just above the deck;
the double blocks at the after side and the single one on the port side
of the mast, and on the starboard side a stout brass ring, lashed on by
the same lashing, will serve as a leader. At the masthead there should
be a good-sized sheave hole and sheave for main halyards, three single
blocks, 1%in, stropped with strop and thimble, lashed on above the mast
shoulder, so that one hangs each side, and one on the fore side—these
take the spinnaker halyards and the topping lift; a truck above and a neat
brass flag rod gives a finished look to the masthead.
PLATE CXIII,
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Cruising Canoe Sails. 515
All spars, blocks, and lashings should be varnished, the mast being
afterwards glass papered and oiled.
Blocks should be of boxwood, and have metal sheaves.
SAILS FOR SMALL CRUISING CANOES.—PLATE CXIII.
One of the first principles in planning the sails for a canoe is to
keep the centre of effort as low as possible, and where a large sail area
is wanted, it should rather be obtained by long boom and yard than by
a lofty mast and narrow sail. Now stowage of spars demands that they
be kept as short as may be, and also it will be found that where the
masts are considerably towards the ends of the craft a mizen of con-
siderable size will have to be carried; if a fair sail balance is to be made
combining these requisites—a good sail area, a low centre of effort, ease of
stowage of spars, and a good working balance—the sail plan here given
will be found an efficient one for all-round work in small light canoes.
The outline idea is that the main and mizen lugs are to be used in
all weathers up to a “fresh breeze,” and that then for stronger breezes
the mizen lug is to be set on the main mast, and the storm mizen on
the mizen mast. The total lug area is 52 square feet—i.e., 32°5 in the
main, and 19° 5 in the mizen ; and the storm mizen is a sail of 9-5 sq. ft.
The rig itself and the various fittings have been amply tested in practice
afloat, except as to the proposed mode of mast tabernacle, contrived to avoid
a hole in the fore deck. The following letters denote the chief fittings:
a Main halyards. l Stay tackle.
a 2 Hauling part of ditto. m Mast parrel on batten.
b Main topping-lift. m. Cleat on boom for hand reef line.
b 2 Main topping-lift hauling part. o Yard grommets.
c Tack parrel. p Main sheet grommet.
c 2 Main tack. q Main jack stay (dotted).
d Reef batten of bamboo. R Main blocks.
e Reef earing. s Mizen sheet.
e 2 Hauling part of reef earing. t Mizen tack.
f Reef earing blocks and fairleads. w Mizen halyards.
g Reef sister blocks. v Mizen topping lift.
h Hand reef line. w Mizen jack stay (dotted)
* Main sheet. a Main and mizen reef bands.
j Mast joint ferrule. 9 Buttonhole slit in band
k Forestay. z Patches on sails for rings.
In the accompanying sail and gear plans there will be found only such
gear and fittings as have a pronounced value in the working of the
craft and the sails. Not a single thing can be omitted; each has its
use, and has been introduced under the light of experience.
The drawings (Plate LXXXV.) are intended to show the position,
form, and make of the sails, and are drawn to scale; the gear, however,
L L 2
516 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
is put in the drawing in a pronounced manner, in order to make the details
clear to those who may desire to rig in the same manner. The blocks, for
instance, are shown much larger than scale drawing would show them ; the
ropes are shown thick and slack, so that their “lead " and use may be
easily picked out.
The gear at the mast head is either toggled or snap-hooked to a mast-
head strop, k g b, so as to be easily taken off for the various shifts of Sail.
The main halyards are rove from the deck block, R, up to the sheaves in
mast head, and rove through from forward aft and, a, rove through a
grommet (seized on to yard at 2ft. in from fore end), and then taken on
opposite side of the mast to that on which the yard is, and toggled to a
grommet which is seized on to the yard at 6in. from the fore end. Another
plan is to have a flat sennit parrel from the fore end of the yard rove through
the inner grommet, and ending in an eye just above the grommet, and to
this toggle the halyard; fitted thus the sail is held tightly in to the mast.
A jackstay toggled at masthead leads down on the starboard side
of the sail, and snap hooks to a semnit band, which passes under the boom
and up on the port side, and is seized to the mast about a foot above deck;
this jackstay is most useful in keeping the sail steady when being
lowered or hoisted. The batten parrel, m, is either made of flat sennit or
four strand line; the fore end of fore part is either seized or spliced into
the reef block strop, f, and the end finished off with an eye; the after
part toggles to this eye, and the after end is seized to the reef batten, so
that when toggled the parrel binds the batten into the mast. The main
tack parrel, c, is also flat sennit with an eye at each end, the fore end is
seized on to the boom about 3in. in from fore end of boom, and it then
passes on opposite side of mast to that on which the boom lies, and is rove
through a grummet or ring, which is seized on to the boom about 9in. from
fore end, to the after eye of the parrel the tack hauling part c 2 is toggled
and rove through the deck block R. The stay is snap-hooked or toggled to
the mast head strop at k, and its tackle is shown at l. The topping-lift—
without which no sail is either safe or handy—is fitted by toggling the
standing part to the masthead strop at b ; then, passing down the star-
board side of the sail, it is rove through the main sheet thimble, where the
main sheet is spliced into a snap-hook, which hooks to the grommet at p on
the boom; it then leads up the port side of the sail, and is rove either
through a block toggled to a fourth eye (not shown in the sketch) in the
mast strop, or through a sheave in the mast head above the halyards, and
down to and through block R and into hand.
The reefing gear is much the same as that for the “Nautilus’’ racing
canoe. It has been used constantly, not only in canoes but in boats, and
Cruising Canoe Sails. 517
is a most successful and sure working plan. The reef-line, in the first
place, is woven cord. The after part of the earing is fastened to the
boom by a “clench,” or by forming an eye by sewing the end back
to the standing part, and then seizing the eye to the boom. Then lead
the reef earing up through brass rings, which are firmly stitched on
the sail on the patches (2 in Plate CXIII.), and through the block f
(Plate CXIII.) at after end of the batten d ; then through a
thimble or ring stropped in above the next f block in on the batten ;
then through the sister block g, and back to and through the last-
mentioned f block, and down through the rings e, and fasten to the
boom. When the sail is fully hoisted the sister block g should rest
nearly against f block, about an inch off. Next reeve the fore part of
the reef earing. Make the standing part, e 2, fast by clenching it
through the cringle or eyelet hole on the luff of the sail at d (as shown
in the rigging plan); then take it away aft in line with the batten,
and reeve it through the block g; lead forward again to and through
f at fore end of batten ; then down through the rings to and through
block f at fore end of boom; then along the boom to and through
fair lead block f abaft the mast, and then through R and into hand.
The reef blocks for this rig should be not less than lin. blocks, and
should have brass sheaves. The blocks at R should be two double
blocks, 1%in. or 1%in. blocks, with brass sheaves strongly stropped.
Copper wire grommets, if neatly made and seized, will be found to make
most durable strops for blocks; but where much twisting and working
occurs rope only should be used.
The hand reef line h is fast to the batten d, and leads down through
rings on the sail and a ring on the boom, and is finished off by having
a ring spliced into its own end. This line is used for Snugging that
part of the sail where the reef gear does not come, and the ring at
the end of h is in such case taken hold of by means of the boathook till
brought into hand, and is hitched to the cleat m on the boom (Plate
CXIII.). The hand reef line may also be used when the sail has to be
shortened quickly for a short passing squall, and then shaken out again.
The gear on the mizen is fitted in the same way, except as to the
topping-lift. It has been found in practice that a kind of crow’s-foot
form of topping lift is best to keep the sail and reef gear clear of the
rudder yoke when the sail is lowered; but as the mizen lug is to be
shiftable, so as to set as a mainsail and give place to the storm mizen,
it is necessary to be able to detach the topping lift ; therefore the
standing part is fast to the masthead on the starboard side, and the
lift leads down that side of the sail, and at about two feet above the
518 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
boom it divides into two parts by splicing a part to it. These two
branches then go under the boom, reeving through two thimbles (seized
on to the boom in a fore-and-aft direction), and then going up on the
port side of the sail to about two feet above the boom, and there ending
each in an eye splice. The hauling part, which is rove through a
sheave or block at the mast head, comes down to and toggles into
these two eyes (v). The sheet is a single line toggled to the boom
at 8, and reeving through an eye-bolt in the sternpost head, leads in
to hand.
When the lug mizen is used as a mainsail, the storm mizen is
rigged by gathering the lacing together in clear turns, and dropping
them over the mizen mast head; then hitch the end of the tack below
the halyard block, leaving sufficient play for gybing, &c.; then hitch
the head earing through the mast head sheave hole, and toggle the
sheet on to the strop. The brail is kept on the sail, as shown in the
drawing, a line fast to the clue then leading up to and through a ring
on the leech at 2ft. 4in. up, then to a block on the luff at 5ft. 8in. up,
and down to a block at the tack. This sail should be roped all round,
and a light bamboo boom laced on foot.
The area of mainsail, 32.5 square feet, and of mizen lug, 19:5—
52-0 square feet, will be found ample for travelling in moderate winds,
and then when it blows fresh the mizen lug is set forward, and the
storm mizen of 9-5 feet is set aft—equal to 29-0 square feet—a very
Snug suit.
The reef band (a) is made of wide tape, stitched on slack—i.e., the
tape will not stretch, but the sail will when new, so the band has to be
put on slack to avoid girting the sail. The batten bamboo (d) is passed
into this pocket formed by the sail and tape band, and is seized to the
sail cringles at each end. At the stations on the batten where the reef
blocks are to be lashed, the band is slit and button-hole stitched (y).
The slits must be long enough to allow the lashing of the blocks when
the sail has been slacked in along the batten. * *
The yard and boom should be of pine, free of knots when cut to the
right length. The mast may be of yellow pine ; a “grown stick” is best,
though apt to buckle and kink, but is more trustworthy.
With regard to the mainsail, where complete stowage is desired
the sail may be kept on the upper mast—that is, keeping the
halyards fast, let go the tack (c), and pull close up on the topping lift
(b), and lower away the mast by slacking up l till the sail comes to
hand, then unhook main blocks R either by hand or by boat hook, and
roll them and all rope bights and ends into the sail, keeping tack and
Canoe Sails. 519
batten parrels on the mast above the mast joint. Then unclip the fore
stay at masthead, and the jack stay at lower end, and unship the upper
mast, frap the sheet round all, and stow below. Or, if only to be stowed
for a short time, when the sail is set, let go the tack, haul down the
reef, lowering halyards at the same time, tie the sail by gaskets (like
reef points on the yard), and pull the sail “ up and down '' by the
topping lift and halyard, and lower the mast half down. After a little
experience and practice, it will be found that there are many other modes
of dealing with this sail in setting, stowing, reefing, or shifting it.
Since the wonderful sailing of the American canoe Pecowsic—rigged
with two “battened ” triangular shaped sails, laced on to eyebolts on the
after side of her mast—every effort in America has been directed to
rigging the sails of canoes entirely abaft the masts. All kinds of devices
have been tried; and, if we are correctly informed, there is scarcely one of
the crack racing craft of to-day in that country which carries any but sails
abaft the mast—that is, the lugs and lateens have been cast aside. Whether
this is wise policy, whether the all abaft the mast sails have proved them-
selves so much better, so much more effective, than the balance lugs, we
need scarcely inquire, because, undoubtedly, the conditions under which
canoes sail in America are considerably different to those under which our
English matches are commonly sailed. It would be pronounced, indeed, a
peculiar day here which should mete out a non-varying strength of wind
On the challenge cup course at Hendon of five rounds—or ten miles
distance—during the whole time. Hence the American “standing ” rig–
unreefable, not even lowerable in many cases—which has been so successful
in some of the leading races in America, would, if started in England under
the “large suit,” probably have an early “come to grief ?” in a squall or
gybe; or if started under the “small suit,” as for a blow, would experience
a hopeless “leave behind ’’ on the wind dropping off in strength.
The balance battened lug rig undoubtedly gives the best racing results
thus far; but its greater weight, and the unpleasant mode in which it
usually makes its gybes in a heavy blow, has led several of the English
canoeists to try to obtain satisfaction, if not perfection, from a rig having
all the sail abaft the mast.
Two such rigs have been brought out on the Nautilus—one (Figs. 213,
214, and 215), produced in the autumn of 1886, being of triangular form
(in character like that of 1885, but differing in mode of attachment); the
other of the same nature as the 1886 up to the reef batten, but a sprit
sail above the batten, and so fitted as to be both reefable and lowerable.
The sails have been beautifully made by Mr. Jackson, of Northwich,
Cheshire.
520 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
|
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FIG. 213.

Canoe Sails. 52]
The modes of fitting to the mast, of hoisting, of reefing, of stowing, or
letting drop are similar in each rig–in short, the “head '' is the only
point of difference between them (see Figs. 213 and 215). Lacings of
various patterns were at first tried, but, after practice with different modes
of keeping the sail set rigidly abaft the mast, the short jaws with a mast
FIG. 214.
ring above them proved the most satisfactory (Fig. 215). It must be
remembered that the spars, such as boom and battens, must be capable of
topping right up; in such position the jaws, of course, come away from the
mast, but the ring hinged on above the jaw keeps all in position.
The “spreet” spar, it will be seen by the sail drawing (Fig. 215), is
rove in a pocket or broad tape band; for a sail of 70 to 80 sq. ft. the

(B) . 92
NAUTILUS
#Sail
Lowerable Æ coſable Spreč
1888–
FIG. 215.

Canoe Sails. 523
spreet should be 1+in. diameter at the centre, and taper to #in. at lower
end and gin. at upper end. The whole luff and head of the sail is “roped ‘’
with dressed unstretchable rope, as all the strain both of hoist and set up
comes on the luff and head rope. The halyard block is stropped to the
head rope at the throat angle, and the halyard is worked through it
exactly as in the case of the yard block on the balance lug. The foot of
the spreet shackles on top of the reef batten close to the jaw, forming a
hinge joint, as also does the yard in the balance lug sail.
The masthead blocks, both for this sail and for the triangular sail,
are stropped to a brass masthead plate, as described for the balance lug
rig ; consequently, in order to shift sails from the mast, the block plate
is taken off the head of the mast and the sail rings are drawn off the mast,
the halyard and tack being also unrove from their blocks.
Any sail of this nature—i.e., all abaft the mast—if of large area, puts
a considerable strain on the mast ; hence, unless a forestay of wire rope
well set up is used, the mast sags aft at its head, and the leech of the sail
becomes slack and shaky accordingly. The reef gear is similar to that on
the lugs, except that the hauling part is down the luff. These rings have
great advantage over the lugs for cruising purposes, in that they stow
much closer and can so easily be slipped off or on to the mast, whereas
the lugs require parrelling in three places, and a jackstay.
A very snug mizen and small bad weather mainsail can be made on
this plan, as if the sail below the close reef batten were cut off, i.e., just the
head part of the sail, with its spreet and a jawed boom, the halyard
working in the manner above described.
The sizes of the spars may here be given; they are for a mainsail of
75ft. area. Boom of clean spruce 11ſt. long, diameter at one-third from
fore end 13 in., tapering to gin. at fore end and #in. at aft end. Yard
same material and sizes. Battens, cut to length, about 10ft. 6in. ; shape
at fore end oval, of 1 in. by #in. ; taper to aft end oval, of #in. by \in. ; of
clean spruce. Mizen spars nearly #in. less, say śin. in making.
For racing, a neat little “fish batten º’ of mahogany or American elm,
lashed on the yard and boom in the way of the greatest strain, adds greatly
both to strength and looks.
The jaws used in these “abaft the mast” rigs are of stout sheet brass,
nearly in. thick; they are cut out of the flat sheet, and bent to shape for
round of mast and to clasp the end of the batten, the neck part between
being pinched in and rivetted with a brass “screw eye,” to the eye of which
is lashed the luff reef block. The jaw is then covered with leather, and
the arms are securely served on to the spar. The “hump' (Fig. 216),
standing up on one of the parts of the jaw, has a hole drilled through,
524 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
and the mast ring is lashed on and lies above the jaw, and in the case
of the yard-headed sail the yard is shackled to the hump.
FI6. 216.
In setting the sails the first pull on the halyard brings the block on
the yard—or in the spreet sail the block on the throat—close up to the
traveller on the mast. The next pull commences to hoist the sail bodily in
FIG. 217.
each case, and so long as there is any strain on the halyard the block is
kept close in to the mast, and consequently the head part of the sail is set,
but falls aft immediately the halyard is let go entirely (see Figs. 214
and 217).


Cockpit and Fittings. 525
COCKPIT AND FITTINGs.
The port and starboard fore compartments are entered by a hatchway
on the deck on each side of the centre-board case. These hatchways are
2ft. long by 8in. average width—that is, they taper to fore end. The 2ft.
of length is given so as to admit of stepping into them, one leg in each,
and kneeling down, thus being able to work at gear, &c., forward. The
hatches for these hatchways slide on the coamings, and are fitted at their
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FIG. 218.
sides and fore end with a clutch beading, which clutches under a similar
beading on the coaming. (See Figs. 218 and 219.)
The tapering nature of the coaming enables the hatch to be drawn
aft to a tight fit ; the after lap side or end of the hatch is hinged so
as to travel on the coaming, so that when the hatch is home it folds down
over the after end of the coaming, and, if necessary, locks the hatch on ;
—s Hatch.
a hasp on it fits over a swivelled eyebolt in the deck. The after hatch,
for the locker, is fitted in the same manner.
This mode of hatch-fitting may be augmented by an up-standing edge
of indiarubber, a strip of which may be tacked on the inside of the
coaming all round; but this is unnecessary where there is good workman-
ship and good wood, the fit being practically watertight. The well is
arranged for the lying down position in sailing ; the tent and bed-roll





526 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
forming a support for the shoulders and head when cruising, or the air life-
buoy acts the same part when racing. For paddling, a shifting beam fits
into lodgments on the coamings, and a length of floor board set up against
it forms a fair back board in the absence of a more suitable one ; which,
however, is of easy construction, viz., two pieces of wood of suitable
length, about 2%in. wide by #in. to #in, thick, rounded on one side and flat on
the other, joined by two light bars bolted on with bushed holes, so as to
act like a parallel rule; except that when open for use the ends are level.
This backboard takes up little space in locker when not in use. -
A foot stretcher is pivoted on the after end of the centre-plate case,
which comes about 12in. aft of the bulkhead, there being two copper bracket
gudgeons bolted to the C.B. case end; and a deep gudgeon plate on the
fore side of the stretcher; a pin dropping through from above, with
shoulder and eye in its head formed a vertical joint.
Within the fore end of the “well” coaming and just over the foot
steering gear is a shiftable cleat hatch and coil tray, a most effective piece
of furniture. The whole of the mainmast ropes lead to this rack, and may,
when housing the canoe, be left fast to their own cleats, the rack unshipping
and being lashed up with the sail on the mast; thus a considerable amount
of time and trouble is saved when using the canoe for short and frequent
home water spins.
One way of fitting this is by using a strongly-made hatch, about one
foot length over the fore end of the well coaming, bolting to the coaming,
by a pair of brass slide bolts, on the hatch beam at after end of hatch and
on under side of the hatch, the cleats being fixed on top. The rope tray
then slides in beadings, marked black on drawing, on the inside of the
coaming of the well, and is separate from the hatch ; whereas, when the
rack itself slides in the beadings (instead of using a hatch), the rope tray
is suspended below and from it, with indiarubber bands holding the after
end up, forming as it were a horizontal pocket capable of vertical expansion.
The advantage of the hatch and tray is that the hatch may be pulled
on (fitted as described for fore hatch), so as to be watertight, and the well
apron start from the after end of the hatch, the edge tucked under an
elastic cord on fore side of hatch beading, as dotted on drawing at a.
Where much shifting of the hatch is required, when the mainsail is on
the mast, the topping lifts should be cleated on deck for the time; a couple
of cleats on deck will always be found handy in addition to the rack.
With the ropes belayed at the cleat rack there is no rigging of the
mainmast or sail fast to any other part of the canoe; all the gear at the
mast, tack included, leads from the mast strop, thus mast and hatch, being
unshipped, lift clear away from the canoe with all gear attached.
PLATE CXIV.
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‘‘ Pearl ‘’ Canoes. 527
PEARL CANOES.
The Pearl canoe was introduced by Mr. E. B. Tredwen, and is mainly
remarkable for the flat floor. He raced them successfully in all kinds
of weather against all comers.
TABLE OF OFFSETS OF 1882 “PEARL,” PLATE CXIV. (Fig. 220).
Mid.
No. of Section ....................... ............ 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 | 3 || 9 10 || 11 12 13
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
Height from level of rabbet line amidships
to gunwale....................................... 17 15:14%|14}|14 14 14 14 14 14|14}|144.15%
Half-breadth at gunwale........................ 6#11}|13415 15%|16 |16 16 15415 |13;|114, 6%
Half-breadth at 12in. level line ............... 4# 9}|13 |14}|15415, 16 16 15; 14%|13%| 9%. 5%
Half-breadth at 9in. level line.................. 3}| 7#11}|13415;|15; 15%. 15}#15} 14%|12}| 8%. 4;
Half-breadth at 6in. level line..............,..., 2%. 5%| 9}|12414 ||14}#15%. 15%. 14, 12% 9:#| 64 3
Half-breadth at 3in. level line.................. 1}| 3 || 5%; 8411 [12%. 12%. 12; 12 9.4| 64 34 13.
Half-breadth on diagonal line A to A. ...... 4}| 8 |10; 13 14%| — 15% — 15 13:11+ 84. 53.
Half-breadth on diagonal line B to B ...... 2# 4%. 5%| 7 7#| – || 74 — 7% 7#| 6 || 4%. 2;
Rise of rabbet line .............................. | 1 | } } –– — |— — — — #| # 1
The sections are 12in, apart in table, and numbered in feet from the stem. In the drawing
Nos. 6 and 8 are omitted to avoid crowding.
The half-breadths on the diagonals are measured from the centre towards the side.

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21.
“PEARL '’ CENTRE BOARD.
The strength requisite to resist the strain of a heavy centre-board
in lumpy water can be given to the case without much addition of weight.
The sides of the case should be rabbeted into the keel, and fastened by
long screws (a, Fig. 223) three inches apart. The fore bulkhead is stationed
so as to support the centre-board case where there is the heaviest strain.
The sides of the case may be tapered towards the ends and towards the
deck, leaving the greatest thickness along the lower edge. A piece of
wood about one inch square is then screwed with alternate vertical and
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“Pearl ‘’ Centre-plates. 529
horizontal fastenings into the keel and into the side of the centre-board
case (B, Fig. 222). The slot through the keel is cut about two inches
longer than the inside dimensions of the case, so that the cross ends
of the case (oak or ash) go down through the keel, and are through
fastened to the keel. Each side of the case is bound with a strip of
brass from the deck to the keel at the part where the greatest friction
takes place, in order to protect the wood. This brass is marked T in
Fig. 222, and is about 1 in. wide and gºin. thick.
The centre-board of the 1882 Pearl is of yellow metal (ship sheathing
or Muntz’s metal), šin. thick, weighing 60lb. The material was chosen
in order to obtain the smoothest possible surface, and also because it will
not affect the compass as would an iron centre-plate.
In order that the canoe may be easily moved about in general cruising
7- T
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FIG. 222.
and travelling, it is necessary that the ballast and centre-plate shall be
readily removable; 60lb. is quite heavy enough for a plate to be con-
veniently handled, and three square feet of wrought iron plate, #in.
thick, gives about this weight. (See “Weight of Boiler Plate ’’ in the
Appendix.)
The plate, after being cut into the shape and fitted to the case, should
be galvanised to prevent rust, and to preserve a smooth surface, so as to
offer less frictional resistance to the water. The cost of galvanising
should not exceed 146. per pound. The plate is slightly increased in
weight and thickness by galvanising, a fact which must not be lost sight
of in fitting the case.
A heavy centre-board plays an important part in making a canoe
self righting, and a rough-water cruiser with a 60lb. centre-board should
still have good righting power when she is heeled till the water flows in
M. M





530 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
over the lee coamings. The Pearl, in the Challenge Cup Race, 1879, was
thrown on her beam ends, and shipped a large quantity of water, but
aided by the weight of her centre-board she was righted as soon as the
pressure of wind was shaken out of her sails, and she was able to continue
the race. In the event of a complete capsize, the weight of the centre-
board assists the canoe to right, steadies her while her skipper gets in
again, and when running in a cross sea prevents her rolling gunwale
under, and shipping water faster than he can bale out.
The shape of the plate should be designed so as to place the weight
as low as possible, and give a large surface for lateral resistance, but at the
same time there should be plenty of grip in the trunk when the plate is
lowered to the full extent. The ordinary triangular shape is not the best
for a heavy plate, the part left in the trunk being so narrow as to throw
an undue amount of strain on the sides of the case. The annexed diagram
(Fig. 223) A, B, C, D, is a very good shape, its length being 2ft. 9in, and
breadth 1ſt. 4in. The dotted outline shows the part of the plate remaining
in the case when it is lowered 18in. below the keel band, the limit of drop
allowed by the Royal Canoe Club rules.
The corners A and B are reduced in thickness about in. on each side,
to allow room for the fittings, and a #in. hole is drilled through each.
The projecting arm is of the full thickness, and has a hole through its
upper edge, D, which forms a handle by which to lift the plate in or out
of position, and a small hole at E takes a pin above the deck, to support the
centre-board while the chain is being placed in position for hoisting or
lowering. The edges of the plate, from A to C and C to B, are sharpened
to reduce resistance in the water, and the angle C is rounded off to prevent
its catching in the ground when the canoe is being hauled astern with the
centre-board not quite housed in the trunk. If a small area of canvas only

‘‘ Pearl ‘’ Centre-boards. 531
is carried, or if it is not intended to sail in strong winds, it may be
better to use a lighter centre-board, of say śin. plate, and then the pro-
jecting arm, D, is doubled or trebled by pieces riveted on, so as to make
it #in. thick, and prevent undue play in the trunk. The after-end of
the centre-board is raised or lowered by a galvanised short link chain ;
or, better still, by a copper sash chain formed of a number of plates
rivetted together in threes and pairs, which runs more smoothly over the
sheaves than ordinary chain; the end link is longer than the others, and
is shackled to the plate by two brass lugs (B) and two bolts, as represented
in Fig. 224.
If the centre-plate does not exceed 36lb. (#in. iron), it may be hung
on a rope instead of a chain, and the buffer may be dispensed with. The
rope should be the best cable-laid, about #in. diameter, with an eye-splice
worked in one end, lined with a brass thimble, through which the rivet
A.'
passes to fasten it to the two brass lugs or plates on the centre-board,
but copper sash chain, or flexible steel rope, is much better, rope
being so liable to rot and break, thus causing great inconvenience and
danger.
A light centre-board will not require the purchase tackle for hauling
up which is shown on the designs.
The fore-end, A, in the case of a fixed centre-board, is bolted to the
keel by a pin through the hole in the corner; but a rather more compli-
cated arrangement is necessary in order that the plate may be lifted out of
the canoe easily when afloat or aground. (See Fig. 225.)
L in Fig. 225 is the fore-end of the centre-board case sloping forward
in the arc of a circle, with centre at B, radius B A (Fig. 223). The pin,
H (Fig. 225), is bolted through the keel at three-quarters of an inch from
the fore-end of the slot. A brass-bound iron pipe, E (half-inch diameter
outside), in length equal to the depth from top of deck to bottom of keel,

M M 2
532 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
is bound round, half an inch from one end, by a piece of sheet brass, F,
3in. by 1}in., which is securely brazed on. Instead of the brass-bound
pipe, “bin-iron,” in section like the letter U) may be employed, and the
plate, F, may be of iron rivetted or forged on to the rod. The fore-end
of the centre-board, A, is bolted by the rivet, G, to both sides of the
plate, F. The other end of the rod, E, on deck is fitted with a ring to
serve as handle. The bolt, H, prevents the rod, E, from shifting aft, or
dropping below the level of the keel.
In the “Pearl” the centre-plate has been fixed by an arm (A,
|
CENTRE PLATE
C FIG, 226.
Fig. 226) rivetted to the plate at B, so that it turns stiffly. The
arm. A being in a horizontal position, the slot C is open, and the pin
through the keel enters the slot as the plate is dropped into place. The
arm A is then pushed down against the upper edge of the plate, as
shown in the diagram, and the plate locked on the pin. At the upper
end of A is a lanyard, the end of which is looped to a hook on deck, and
by pulling on this the catch is released. The arm A is in two parts of
thin plate, one on each side of the centre-plate. The buffer, O, Fig. 227,
is an indiarubber cylinder, 1}in. diameter outside, with #in. hole through

Spars and Sails of the “Pearl.” 533
it, brass capped at each end. The chain runs through this buffer, which
brings up against the pulley, N, and eases the shock when the centre-
board is let go by the run. Without this check the momentum of 60lb.
dropping 18in. might part the chain.
The pulley (N) at the after end of the slot, on deck, is arranged to
lift off, and the standing block of the purchase (P) is fixed to the top
of the rod at the fore end of centre-board, whence the line, P, leads to
a cleat on the side deck on starboard side, so that the centre-board and
all its gear can be lifted out and cleared away at one operation. The
top of the rod is kept forward by two hooks fixed to the deck on each
side of the fore end of the slot, the ring at the top of the rod being
held by these hooks. The pulley, N, does not require to be fastened to
the deck, but fits down into a frame or rim of brass which is screwed
to the deck to prevent its shifting forward or aft.
Q
! { FIG. 227.
This tackle is all on deck outside the well, so as to be available in
rough-water sailing, when the hatches are battened down, and the well is
inaccessible except at the expense of a good drenching.
SPARS AND SAILS OF THE “PEARL.”
Mr. Tredwen's mode of fitting a fixed or a lowering mast is to
have a trunk or case (as shown by K, Fig. 228), in which the mast is
stepped. The trunk is lined with copper, to prevent any water finding
its way into the canoe through this opening, and a brass pipe (O), from the
bottom of the case out through the keel, empties the water in the same
way as the valves in the bottom of a lifeboat. The mast is encircled,
at the level of the deck, with a square brass ferrule, to which the
blocks for the halyards and other running gear are fixed. The mast
can be raised and maintained in position by a forestay leading from the
masthead through a block at the stem head, or if C and B are both
double blocks, and the end of the rope D be made fast at C and then
led twice from C to B and back again, a sufficient purchase will be
obtained to raise the mast without a mast-head stay. C is an ordinary
double block attached by a sister-hook to the ring in the stem head,

534, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
_*
and B a similar double block and sister-hook hooked to a thimble in a
grommet around the mast at B.
The mast tabernacle (Fig. 228) in length is about 17in, the depth
1ft., and the breadth 2%in. at the deck, tapering to 2in, at the base. The
case is lined with copper, and a pipe from the after corner runs off any
water through the keel (O, Fig. 228). A piece of wood about 2in. Shorter
than the tabernacle, dropped into it, serves as a chock to keep the heel of
the mast forward, when it is used as a lowering mast. The fore part
of the mast heel is rounded away, so that, as the mast is hauled up by
.
*-
FIG. 228.
the tackle, the heel can slide down the fore end of the tabernacle in
front of the wooden chock lying at the bottom (N).*
The sail (represented by Fig. 229, on #in. scale) is a cruising sail
with one reef hauled down, and the dotted outline shows the sail fully
set. The total area of the sail is about 55 square feet, reducible by three
reefs, each reef containing 14.ft., 13ft., and 12ft. respectively. The close-
reef, or third reef size of the sail, will therefore be 16 square feet.
* The chock (N) should have a piece of sheet brass on its underside projecting to the fore
end of case, to keep it from shifting forward.






Canoe Mast Lowering.
535
SINGLE REEFED MAINSAIL
Aoétez' owtºwr-e shears sail
%
ș
“¿¿.*
**º
/w/ſy se2.
Scale # ºn.
FIG. 229,

536 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The material of a canoe's sails should be as light as possible “washed
longcloth,” one-yard widths joined together by seaming the Selvages, or,
when obtainable, the same material in one width. The sail is bound all
round with strong tape, the luff further strengthened by a piece of strong
webbing about lin. wide. The spaces between the battens are 2in, to 2%in.
wider on the leach than on the luff of the sail, so that the after end of the
boom is topped higher as each reef is taken in. Two openings are cut out
of each pocket, at K and L, in order to make fast blocks to the battens
These blocks are made fast by grommets seized with fine waxed twine. At
each of the points J and M other blocks must be made fast. Across the
sail, up and down from K to K and L to L, strips of tape are stitched,
great care being taken to keep the tape slack and at a less tension than
.
: º
W !
tº ſ f º
& a t l | Tape So i !
,, ...F.HTF--------------
ºx-ſº f EITTTT Q. ; : arr
#### ºdººs & scºw cº- =#. & gre!
ſºil.’’:
; § ~~~~<=== ~<=J
! ſ N • f .
: {{ſ} JNsº J SSSNS Sºº
; WN4/ ;| ≤SSSs:
FºllºšūItsºs; J
| | | rºººººººººººººººº.
| º |
Jam
| Wºy
| \!
| º { iº
º I
J a t l : B | J a t l
ſº D |
D ſ
|
! | !
!
| | | FIG. 230
! § IG. tº e
Tape
the sail, so as not to draw, or girt, the sail, and spoil its sit. Along-
these tapes, and also on the luff and the leach, are rows of brass rings
(#in. outside diameter, obtainable at Nettlefold’s, High Holborn, or at
W. Good and Son, Arthur-street East), sewn on at intervals of 2in.
The rings for L L must be of larger size than the other rows, and of
stouter substance. All the rings must be made of rather stout wire, and
be smooth and “clean,” so as to cause very little friction on the running
gear. The running gear for each reef is in three parts. The first, of
No. 1 flax sash line, which is plaited line (these lines must mot be of laid
cord), is secured to the after end of the boom, and leads up through
the rings on the leech and the block at J, and along the batten to
N, where it turns into a bight to form a strop round the block N, and
is securely seized, and then the line turns back through the block K,

** Pearl ‘’Canoe Sails. 537
and forward along the batten, through the block M and the row of
rings on the luff, down to the boom, where it is made fast. The second
line is a short one ; its end, B, is fastened to the strop of block N,
and it leads through block R down the row of rings, and is made fast
to the boom. The third line, stouter than the others (No. 2 flax sash
line), is made fast to the fore end of the batten at M, and, being rove
through the blocks N and L, down through the row of rings at L L,
through one of the parts the threefold block on the port side of the
mast, and back to the hand, becomes the tackle, by pulling which the
reef is gathered together at the leech, luff, and the points K K and
L L. All three reefs are fitted in the same manner, the ends of the
lines in the second and third reefs being attached to the battens instead
of to the boom, as in the first reef. The arrangement of the ropes and
blocks will be more clearly understood by referring to diagram (Fig. 230).
The regular conventional reef points (a) are also tied to the battens
at intervals, as a reserve, in case of the reef tackle getting carried away.*
It cannot be too strongly insisted that these running gears must be
made of plaited line, because if there is any twist or lay in the cords
they will twist up where the three parts join at N.
The blocks required for each reef, of a sail about 60 to 80 square
feet, are four #in. at M J, and K K, and two 14 in. blocks at N and L.
All these cords and blocks can be obtained of W. Good and Sons,
Arthur-street East, London Bridge.
A parrel of strong cord (varnished to prevent its shrinking with wet
or stretching with heat) leads from P to M on the yard, around the mast,
and a similar parrel on each batten goes around the mast from M to K.
The weight of the sail is thus divided, and spread fairly over the length
of the mast when the sail is to leeward, and a great amount of strain
is thus removed from the masthead.
There must be small wooden stops or cleats (P, Fig. 231), fastened
with small screws and seizings of thread to the battens at K and L, to
prevent the grommets slipping along the battens out of place. The
parrels should be made with an eye-splice in each end, and one end
being passed around the batten at K, the other end is passed through
the eye and drawn taut so as to hold fast. (See Fig. 230, p. 536.) The
eye-splice in the other end is then looped over a hook screwed into the
fore end of the batten at M, whence it can be unhooked in a moment,
and if the line becomes stretched and slack it can be shortened by laying
or twisting the end round, or by tying a shortening knot in it. In the
* Care must be taken in cutting this gear, or there will be a difficulty in keeping the
numerous lines of the exact lengths required for its successful working.
538 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
end of each batten there is a screw eye to which the blocks are grommeted,
and the ends of the reef-lines are led through these eyes and then knotted,
and the lines can be lengthened or shortened in a moment by shifting the
knot if it is found that either has stretched so that the reef does not haul
down snug all along, this is most easily done at the leach of the sail,
and it is very rarely necessary to alter more than one line at a time.
The downhaul is made fast to the yard at P, and leads through a
block fastened by a clip hook to an eye-bolt on deck at R (Fig. 229).
The three reef tackles, and this downhaul, lead along the deck through
four eye-bolts (screwed into the deck) within easy reach of the hand, and
the ends are knotted, so that they cannot go astray, but are always
at hand when wanted.
The halyard is made fast to a hollow brass curtain ring running on
the mast, and then passed through a block stropped and seized to the
yard before passing through the masthead block. This arrangement
FIG. 231.
always keeps the yard well set up to the mast, and yet allows the yard
to lower down easily. (See Fig. 229.)
The double topping-lift leads through two blocks, one on each side
of the masthead, just above the halyard block, and the ends are
knotted together and one line led down the mast through the second
sheave of the pulley at the foot of the mast next the halyard and along
the deck to a cleat, and by letting go from this cleat the sail, after
being lowered, can be dropped on deck. The topping-lift should always be
set up taut before reefing. A line (S), which leads from the masthead
through a block or thimble on the boom, is fastened to a small cleat
on the after end of the boom, and this line prevents the fore end of
the boom from dropping when the halyard is let go while a reef is being
hauled down, and is essential to the proper working of this reefing gear.

‘‘ Pearl ‘’Canoe Sails. 539
The tack is made fast to an eye through a lug on the side of the
treble block of the reef-lines (A, Fig. 231), or a block is grommeted
to A, and the tack being made fast to the boom leads through it,
and another block grommeted to the boom, and thence to a cleat at after
end of the boom, or under one sheave of the pulley to a cleat on deck, thus
giving a purchase to the tack. The brass treble blocks, on the one
side for the reef tackles, and on the other for the main and spinnaker
Shee& ºp
sPRITsAIL Miz EN ||*
FIG. 233.
8 frº,
RACING MAINSAIL, #IN. SCALE.
FIG. 232.
halyards and topping-lift, are rivetted to a square ferrule around the mast
at the deck.
The racing sail is represented on a smaller scale, #in. to the foot
(Fig. 232). Its area is about 90 square feet, and it is fitted with the
same gear as the cruising sail.
The spritsail mizen (Fig. 233) is fitted with a brail, running from the
boom end through a row of rings up the leech, and through a block at
the sprit head (A), then down the sprit through a double block at the foot
of the mast at B, and then (leaving about a foot or so of slack in a bight)


540 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
it passes around the other sheave of the double block (B), to the masthead,
and along the top of the sail through a row of rings to the sprit end, where
it is made fast. A finger being put into the bight (D) of the brail, one
pull furls the whole sail (the sheet being let go); or, by pulling one line
only, the sail can be reefed into a jib-header. The sprit is run through
a tape pocket to insure a good sit of the sail when reefed to a jib-header.
If the sail is of large size the one brail line along the head will not
be sufficient to make a neat stow of the reef. Two small blocks
(or thimbles) must be fixed to the mast about a foot below the head
of the sail, and a line led through one of the blocks round the sprit,
through the sail (a hole being worked or eyeleted for the purpose one
foot below the sprit head), and through the other block on the mast.
The ends are then both made fast to the brail at a point so that the
bight gathers the sail tightly when the brail has hauled the sprit close
to the masthead block. The brails being fastened to the cleat on the
mast at W, the sheet can be untoggled and the sail stowed away, ready
to be re-set at a minute’s notice, there being no halyards, tack, &c., to
adjust. This kind of sail has been found to work well up to 40 square
feet, and, although rather unsightly, it makes a handy mainsail for a
Rob Roy, where the sail is set low. The canoeist can look under his
boom, by a pull on the brail, to see what is under his lee.
The Pearl was fitted with a “roller mizen.”
This sail has two booms; the upper one is round, on which
the sail is rolled; the lower one is oval, so as to give great
strength in the direction required, with a minimum of weight.
A ferrule. J (Fig. 234), with an arm brazed on, is fitted to each end
Fig. 384 of the oval boom, and in the top of each arm is a hole, in which the
spiles or axle pins of the upper
| .Sail boom revolve. Riveted on the
- -— # 3, ferrule at J' (Fig. 235) at the
ſ } º fore end of the boom, there is a
A. brass cheek block, through which
the cord A runs. The upper boom
; H =[a), º or roller is of equal diameter
- A throughout its length. Two discs
FIG. 235. of brass (A on the upper boom),
3in. diameter, are brazed to a ferrule 1%in. long, and make a reel, which
is driven on to one end of the roller, its other end being lightly ferruled;
two pins are screwed into these ends through the holes in J, and the
roller is thus hung so as to revolve freely.
In cutting the sail, the angle of the luff and foot must be rather

‘‘ Pearl ‘’Canoe Sails. 541
less than a right angle, otherwise the sail in rolling down will wind
over the reel and get jammed. The sail is bound round its edges with
strong thin tape, and two bags or pockets, closed at both ends, are
stitched across the sail, to hold bamboo” battens about #in. diameter.
These pockets are applied as in the cruising sail already described, so
*
--~~~~ ~~~~<==== - - *
FIG. 236.
that the whole thickness of the battens is interposed between the sail
and the mast. The battens are of “Tonquin Cane,” greenish-yellow
in colour, very light weight, and tapering very slightly. The ends of
these canes are ferruled lightly and plugged with wood, and neatly
rounded off to prevent them cutting holes through the ends of the
* Bamboos can be obtained of C. Farlow (fishing-rod maker), in the Strand, near Temple Bar;
or of Whitby, Bassnett-street, Liverpool; or at the Army and Navy Stores.


542 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
pockets, which are stitched up to keep the canes in place. The sail
being rolled down on the roller as far as it will go, and lashed round
by the tyers, P, on the yard, is snugly furled, and ready to be rigged.
The mast is first fitted with halyard blocks at its head and foot,
and a double topping lift, G (Fig. 236). The sail is then placed in the
bight of the topping-lift, and its fore end is supported by a line from
the mast head, made fast to the lower boom at K5 the same line, con-
tinued down to an eye on the side of the mast just above deck, makes
the tack. A parrel around the mast is fixed to the yard from L to M,
and a similar one to the boom from J to N; and a block, S, is lashed to
the boom at K. Some preparation must now be made for the halyard
and downhaul on deck. A screw eye-bolt must be fixed in the deck at
B? (Fig. 236), for a double block to hook on to ; or, better still, a brass
double cheek block, delineated in the diagram (Fig. 287), is slipped into
a couple of catches, C , and C*, which are firmly screwed to the deck at
B1 and Bº (Fig. 236). A screw eye-bolt E (Fig. 237) or catch is then
securely fixed in the side deck, about two or three feet forward of the
skipper's seat, to which a single block I (Fig. 237) is hooked. A
line (F) is made fast to the tail of block I (Fig. 237) rove through
the brass eye of a very powerful indiarubber doorspring D, or a block
grommeted to the same back through the block I, and then to a cleat
within easy reach of the skipper’s hand. A single block (H) is seized
on to the other end of the spring, and everything is ready for the
running gear. The line A, which is halyard and downhaul in one (a
piece of No. 1% extra super flax sash line), is made fast to the yard
near M (Fig. 236), and is led through the blocks at the head and heel
of the mast, around one sheave of B block, through the block H, and
then back around the other sheave of B, through the block S, along the
boom, and through the cheek block at Jº up to the reel A. The
line A having been cut to the right length, the end is passed through
a hole in the disc which forms the aft side of the reel, and tied in a
knot. The gear will act better if a square brass ferrule is put around

“Pearl ‘’ Canoe Sails. 543
the mizenmast at the deck with an arm projecting one inch at right
angles on the starboard side, and a block grommeted to this arm. The
line A, after passing through the pulley B, should pass through this
block before leading through S, so that the line A may lead perpen-
dicularly from the block S, on the boom, to the block on the projecting
arm, otherwise the sail will always have an inclination to carry on the
starboard hand—in light winds—because of strain on the line from S to B.
The line from the mast head to the boom, and from the boom to the
mast at the deck, to serve as forward topping lift or jackstay and
tack, to prevent the boom from dropping too low as the sail is being
reefed, or rising too high as it is being set must not be omitted.
For hoisting (having toggled on the sheet and cast off the tyers P),
a good pull on the line F will set the peak of the sail as shown by the
dotted diagonal lines in Fig. 236; the line F is then fastened to the cleat,
on deck. The line A now bears the same relation to the sail as the
cord to a window blind ; pulling one side of the bight on deck hoists
the sail, and pulling the other side of the bight lowers it. The door-
spring, which must be a very powerful one, is necessary to keep the
tension right, for the bight of A. A sometimes lengthens or shortens some-
what as the sail is hoisted or lowered. When the sail goes up, the
slack of the halyard A is rolled up on the reel, and is payed out again
as the sail comes down.
When it is necessary to take the sail off the boat entirely, it is
first rolled down as far as it will go, the peak remaining set (as shown
by the dotted outline in Fig. 236); the line F is then cast off from its
cleat, and the yard drops on to the boom in the bight of the topping
lift. The sail is then made up by being lashed round with the tyers P,
the tackle on deck is unhooked from the eye E, the block B is slid out
of its catches, the mast unshipped, sheet untoggled, and everything can
be stowed below, ready to be reset.
The whole of the canoe fittings here described, centre-boards, sails,
&c., can be obtained complete from R. J. Turk, Kingston-on-Thames,
who has delivered during the past six years many canoes of the “Pearl”
model completely rigged and fitted.
A spinnaker ought to be set without the canoeist leaving his seat,
and Mr. Tredwen's plan to achieve this is as follows: The material should
be fine in texture, so as to hold a minimum of water, dry rapidly, and
stow away in a small compass when not set. The Pearl’s cruising spin-
naker is as follows: foot, 6ft. ; hoist, 7ft. by 9ft. 3in. The edges are
bound round with light tape, and all the corners doubled to give extra
strength where the strain is greatest. When the sail is not set the
544 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
spinnaker halyard is tied to the thimble on the main boom, through
which the topping lifts lead, and the hauling part is led through an
eye-bolt on deck within easy reach of the hand. The tack leads
through a thimble on the fore end of the boom, and both ends are
made fast to an eye in the side deck within reach of the hand, or to the
same thimble on the boom where the halyard is made fast. The sail when
stowed away is rolled up, the three corners outside in readiness for the
halyard and tack to be hooked on. The spinnaker boom of the Pearl is
10ft. long, made with a fishing-rod joint in the centre for convenience
of stowage. The outer end has a hook (see Fig. 238), almost a com-
plete circle, which travels out along the sheet to the corner of the sail
as the sheet (or after guy) is hauled taut, or the hook may pass through
cringle on the sail. The inner end of the boom is fitted with a brass
SAF//V/VAAAA’ A3 (20/M^*
FIG. 238.
boathook head, which hooks on to a loop of cord spliced to an eye on
deck at fore end of the well. If the mainsail gybes over on to the
spinnaker, the inner end of the boom is unhooked from this loop, the
sheet is allowed to slip clear of the hook in the outer end, and is
passed around the mast by means of the boathook, and hauled in on
the other side. The sheet is then again slipped into the hook on the
boom end, which is run forward till it reaches the corner of the sail.
The boathook end is then looped down to the deck, and the sheet hauled
aft till the sail is set to the best advantage.
PEARL CANOE TENT.
When cruising alone—and some of the most notable canoe trips,
which have assisted so much to popularise the pastime, were solitary
ones—it is too great a load for one canoe to carry a large tent, ground

‘‘ Pearl ‘’Canoe Tents. 545
sheet, and rugs. The labour, too, of dragging up the canoe, unloading
and carrying up the stores, becomes heavy and irksome when performed
single-handed. A good arrangement of tent, which can be set up on
the canoe afloat or ashore, is, therefore, necessary on many trips; and a
description of one that has been in use on the Pearl during several
seasons may prove serviceable to canoeists.
There are several points to be studied in planning such a tent—
lightness of construction, head-room, snugness, and facility of erection
from within the canoe when afloat.
The lightest material for the cover is fine cotton, oiled. Macintosh
is heavier, if of good quality, besides being more expensive. It is a
great convenience to have daylight to read by in wet weather, and to
be able to see what is passing around without having to disturb the
fastenings of the tent. Four rounds of glass (about two inches diameter)
inserted in the cover confer these advantages. There should be two
holes drilled through each piece of glass close to the edge to insure their
being fixed securely.
Considerable head-room is required for cooking and dressing; but
Ton ADE L = } & o ſº TH Bottom,
c
FIG. 239.
to ride safely at anchor while sleeping, it is necessary to have an
arrangement for diminishing the size of the tent before turning in.
The framework on which the tent is supported is of bamboo, which
gives great strength with a minimum of weight ; it consists of a ridge-
pole; two uprights, one at each end of the well; two curved pieces of
bamboo, one at each end of the ridge-pole, to act as end frames; and
three slips of oak to spread the roof between the end frames. The
ridge-pole is jointed for convenience of stowage. The uprights con-
sist each of two pieces of cane telescoped like a Japanese fishing
rod (Fig. 239). A brass pin (C) on a lanyard, when passed through the
hole in the middle of the larger cane, keeps the inside cane raised.
The ends of the canes are ferruled, and the top of the smaller cane is
fitted with a crutch to carry the ridge-pole. The aft upright is stepped
in the mizen-mast case, and the fore upright passes through a grommet
on the coaming at the fore end of the well, and a spike (D) in its foot
fits into a hole in bottom boards.
Each end of the ridge-pole is fitted with a square ferrule to fit the
crutches of the uprights, and to these ferrules are fitted the curved
end frames (Fig. 240). Each end frame is surrounded at the middle by
N N
546 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
a brass forrule, to which is brazed a square socket to fit the ferrule
on the end of the ridge-pole. On the reverse side of the ferrule from
the socket is a screw hook (E), and a similar hook is screwed into
each end of the frame (F).
The three slips of oak (Fig. 241) are 1%in. wide by Éin. thick, their
ends bent by steam, and they are not shipped until after the roof has
been put on.
The tent cover or roof is shaped as in the sketch (Fig. 242), and is
strongly taped along the ridge, and across each end at the dotted lines.
2–s
FIG. 240. FIG. 241.
The uprights being erected at each end of the well, and the ridge-
pole, with its end frames fitted on, being laid in the crutches of the
uprights, the tent cover is brought out of the locker, the grommet at
the after end of the ridge-line (1) is fastened to the hook on the aft
side of the end-frame (E, Fig. 240), and the corresponding grommet is
looped on to the hook at the opposite end of the ridge-pole. The
— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — - - - - - - - - - - - -
FIG. 242.
grommets at 2 and 3 are then looped on to the hooks at the ends of
the frames (F, Fig. 240), and the grommets at 4 and 5 are fastoned to
catches (Fig. 243) on deck, constructed of a hook (passed through a brass
plate and brazed), which can be closed by a brass catch pinned to the
plate, and turning rather stiffly on its pin (Fig. 243). The other side of
the tent is similarly fastened, and the corners (L L) tucked in and tied
together. The pieces of oak are thon slipped between the ridge-pole
and the cover, and the roof is complete. A lacing to the lower edges


Canoe Yauls. 547
through eyelets or rings in the cover and eye-bolts on deck makes all
Snug. It will be unnecessary to explain the detail of reefing
the tent, beyond saying that the pins are drawn out of the
holes in the uprights, which then telescope down, and a second
set of grommets at proper intervals on the sides of the cover º
are hooked down to the catches on deck. FIG. 243.
The glass windows (W) are very advantageous, and enable one to
make sure, by observation, that the anchor is holding, or to see the
cause of any unusual commotion, without having to get up and raise the
side or end of the cover.
When camping in the canoe, the hatch covers, unshipped and laid
upside down across the coamings, make a very convenient table, and a
small “Cyclops lamp ’’ (from the Stella Lamp Company’s Depôt, Oxford-
street) at the fore end of the well will illuminate the whole tent.
Bedding : Ribbed air cushions are the best things to sleep on, three
of ordinary size, say 18in. by 24 in., rather than one large one; the prime
cost is less, they stow easier, one prick from a nail will not destroy the
whole bed, and all the air will not run into the part where there is least
weight. Two flannel pyjama suits worn over one another, with a thick
pair of loose wool stockings, with a rug, complete the outfit. A “sleeping
bag ’’ takes a week to dry, but the kit above described can be quickly
dried in detail. The bedding can be stowed in a very small space if
carefully rolled up, fastened round and across by leather straps, which
can be tightened up till the bundle is compressed into the smallest
possible compass. The clothes bag serves as pillow, and the whole kit
is kept dry during the cruise by being tied up in a double-mouth
waterproof bag, made large enough to fill the whole of the after-locker.
It not only serves to keep its contents dry, but, in case of a spill,
fills the locker so completely that very little water can get into that
compartment, even if the slide bulkhead is not perfectly tight ; and,
laid under the air cushions, it helps to keep down the damp when sleeping;
and in a very cold night the bag is a warm berth to sleep in.
CANOE Y AWLS.
MERSEY CANOR YAWLs.
A class of boat has been in favour on the Mersey for some years, which,
in some respects, is better adapted for the combined recreation of “paddling
and sailing ” in the open sea than are any of thc canoes hitherto described.
Plate CXV. represents one of the earliest of these canoes as built for
Mr. C. Arthur Tuman in 1877. Although these Mersey sailing boats are

N N 2
548 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
termed “canoes” and “canoe yawls,” they are as much “ sailing boats *
as the Surbiton gigs are. It is true that they have grown out of the
Rob Roy canoe; but a vessel 20ft. long, 5ft. 6in. broad, and 2ft. 6in. deep,
that carries “passengers,” 8cwt. or 9owt. of ballast, has a large sail area,
and is, moreover, rowed and not “paddled,” is better described by the
word “boat '' than ‘‘ canoe.”
The boats originally were only about 17ft. long, with a breadth of
4ft. 6in. and varying depth; but the type has been so much approved of
that a length of 20ft. has been reached, with 10cwt. of lead and a centre-
plate 4ft. by 2ft. They are decked all over, excepting the well, which
has a coaming all round, and is usually of the form shown in the drawing.
The well is carried so far forward to enable the crew to reach the mast,
or anything forward of it, without getting on the deck. The canoes
−.
FIG. 244.
are clench built, of white or yellow pine, usually gin. thickness when
Worked up. The stem and sternpost are alike, 1%in sided, with 24in.
outside rabbet, and about 3in. inside, enough to take the plank fastenings
and serve as apron.
The steering arrangement is very capitally contrived with yokes
coupled by rods or chains as a tiller, as shown. Strengthening pieces
(running fore and aft) are worked above and below the deck, through
which a bolt with collar passes, and is secured with nut and washer
underneath. On the upper part of the bolt, above the collar, the yoke
and tiller (all in one) are shipped on the bolt, and kept from unshipping
by a pin. In case the tiller and yoke be of wood, a brass socket is
fitted in the hole to prevent the collar of the boat wearing away the wood.
In the 17tt. boats about 1.cwt. of ballast is carried, in flat lead or iron

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Mersey Canoe Yawls. 549
bricks. These boats carry three passengers; two sitting aft on the stern
sheets, and one on the fore seat.
The rig (see Fig. 244) originally consisted of main and mizen ; and in
strong winds, with small mainsail and small storm mizen, they sail fast,
and are dry. As they are decked in, these little boats may be seen out
in all weathers, and are considered as dry and safe as the New Brighton
boats; but, of course, could not compete with them.
In form the boats are comparatively full forward, and have a long
clean after-body; compared with the usual run of sailing boats, they are
longer in proportion to their breadth, but if cut off at No. 7 section they
would not much differ from the ordinary sailing boat.
The fixed keel is usually considered sufficient, in the way of dead
wood, to check lee-way; but of course when a centre-board has been
fitted it has been found to greatly improve the weatherly qualities of
the canoe.
The main and mizen rig is found to answer well, and the boats stay
well under it in smooth water. In rough water, like all boats, they require
to be handled with care in tacking; and if a boat seems likely to miss
stays, the helmsman helps her round with a stroke of an oar. However,
generally they are backed round by hauling the foot of the mainsail to
windward if they hang in stays; but the oar, if used, has this advantage—
it keeps the boat going.
ft. in.
Mainsail, foot............................................................... 10 0
Mainsail, head ............................................................ 10 0
Mainsail, luff............................................................... 5 0
Mainsail, leech ............................................................ 14, 6
Mainsail, tack to peak earing.......................................... 14, 8
Mainsail, clew to weather earing .................................... 10 9
Small mainsail, foot ...................................................... ($ 6
Small mainsail, head...................................................... 7 6
Small mainsail, luff ...................................................... 2 6
Small mainsail, tack to peak earing ................................. 9 ()
Small mainsail, clew to weather earing.............................. 7 0
Mizen, foot.................................................................. 4, 6
Mizen, head ............................................................... 2 6
Mizen, luff.................................................................. 2 4
Mizen, leech ............................................................... 6 0
Mizen, tack to peak earing ............................................. 5 9
Mizen, clew to weather earing ....................................... 4, 9
It will be seen that the sails are not laced. The boom is fitted with
goose-neck or jaws to the mast, and the tack is bowsed down by a rope
which leads through a block on the aft side of mast on the deck.
On Plate CXVI. are the lines of one of the larger canoes, named Vital
Spark, which has proved in every way a most satisfactory craft.
550 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
She is 18ft. long by 5ft. beam, and her extreme draft is 2.Ét. 2in. ; she
is carvel built of #in. planking, which is well-seasoned, and carefully
Selected yellow pine ; her timbers are of oak, #in., and are spaced 6in.
apart. The top strake is of teak, as also the deck, which is in three pieces
of #in., and is supported by thick beams of white pine. The coaming
round the cockpit is of American elm, #in. ; the stem, sternpost, and all
knees and breasthook are of oak ; the bulkheads are placed 5ft. from either
end, and are made of teak, #in. ; they are watertight as possible ; lockers
run fore and aft perpendicular with the coaming, they are also of teak and
are very neatly fitted; when not in use air bags or zinc cases can be put in
them, making the craft as safe as a lifeboat; the floor boards are of
pine, #in., and are laid on beams of oak, lin., sided and moulded; the keel
FIG. 245.
is of American elm, 3%in. in the middle, tapering to 1;in. ; it is rockered
8in., and has 4% cwt. of lead on it; the remainder of the ballast, 4} cwt.,
is cast to fit under the platform.
The sail plan includes headsail, as shown by Fig. 245 has an area of
178 square feet, and is convenient for cruising, but for racing it would be
about 300 square feet.
The latest of the Mersey canoes is shown on Plate CXVII. She was
built in 1890 for Mr. W. B. Jameson, and proved a very successful craft.
She, like the other, is carvel built ; plank, #in. ; timbers, lin. x #in ;
spaced 7%in. Ballast, 6 cwt.
Area of mainsail, 251 sq. ft.; headsail, 49 sq. ft. Total sail area,
300 sq. ft.
The builder of the Mersey canoes is Mr. Samuel Bond, Mersey-street,
Birkenhead. Sailmaker, Mr. J. E. Jarvis, 8, Tabley-street, Liverpool.

PLATE CXVI.
M E R S EY CAN OE
“V TAL SPARK"
Built by
S. BONTD
Birkenhead.

Plate CXV11.
3.
L. W. L.
- I |
\ |
+ l |
6% 3 * \ /
MERS EY CANOE \ 22
Built for - * - r
W. B. JAMESON, ESQRF \
by -
S. BOND, O LD S L | P,
B1R KEN HEAD.
I 89 O.
w F-1
, , , * { * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 7, 14. 1" º 4.
* SCALE # 1 N, + i F." */-/. | i = −t——" 7–4–4–4–4–4–
5




Humber Canoe Yauls. 551
A good material for the sails would be “% Bleached Linen Drill,”
made by Messrs. Foster Connor and Son, Linen Hall, Belfast. This
material has been used for the lugs of centre-board gigs with excellent
results.
The Mersey tent is recommended for its lightness and portability. The
strength is adjusted to meet all strains, and in roughest weather, on
an exposed coast, they have been Snug and safe. The material is not
waterproofed, as waterproofing adds considerably to the weight. On the
other hand, if the tent is not waterproofed, it takes a considerable time to
dry after rain or heavy dew if no opportunity exists for drying it.
The gable form of the roof has a sufficient angle to shed the water;
there is never any drip; but then no seam in the roof is allowed, and
this is an important point. When planning a tent for extreme portability,
floor space is of more value than standing height.
These gable tents are about 7ft. square, and 4ft. 6in. high to the
ridge—ample height for sitting in ; these dimensions make a roomy tent
for two men and their luggage, and is not too small for three men.
The weight of tent, with poles, pegs, and ropes, is under 121b.;
this does not include waterproof floor sheet, which may be either of
macintosh or oiled grey sheeting ; the latter is less expensive, but is
more difficult to procure in a short time, because of the slow drying
of the oil.
Mr. Samuel Bond will give all particulars as to cost, &c., of the tent.
THE CANOE YAWL “ SEVERN.”
The canoe yawl Severn (Plate CXVIII.) was designed and built in
1891 by Mr. T. H. Holding. She has done some very extended cruising.
THE “ NAUTILUS ’’ CANOE YAWL.
Plate CXIX. represents a “Nautilus” canoe yawl, designed by Mr.
Baden-Powell, and built by Mr. Turk, 1893. On the same plate is given
the plan of the “Nautilus ” bulb keel.
HUMBER CANOE YAWLS.—THE “VIKING.”
The Humber yawl canoes bear a remarkable family likeness to the
large Mersey canoe with the addition of a centre-plate. The latest type,
however, as represented by the Viking (Plate CXX.) (designed by her
owner, Mr. John M. Hamilton, jun.), differs in her under-water form from
the general type met with on the Mersey. This will be the best understood
when we say that, although the Viking is of the same displacement as the
Mersey canoe Vital Spark, yet is her centre of buoyancy about 7in. farther
552 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
aft than the centre of buoyancy of the Vital Spark. Judging from her
owner’s description, this is by no means a fault, either for speed or Seaworthi-
ness, and the case of these two boats is another shock for the nerves of those
who have pinned their faith to the mystic influence due to small variations
in the situation in a fore and aft direction of the centre of buoyancy. Mr.
Hamilton first tried his boat between Hornsea and Hull, and he says:
“On arriving near the Humber, after a long beat against a strong breeze,
a heavy sea was found breaking on the Binks (a dangerous shoal to the
north of the Humber mouth), which necessitated a reach three or four
miles out to sea before the same could be rounded. In so doing some very
rough water had to be traversed, but, fortunately, none of the breaking
seas caught us, though very near at times. In beating up the ship’s course
into the Humber, by carefully luffing into the steepest seas coming our
way, she was brought in all right. The men on a tug boat towing a brig
afterwards informed me they fully expected to see us swamped, and were
prepared to cast off the brig and come to our rescue. We afterwards
cruised in company with other boats of the Humber Yawl Club on the
Zuyder Zee and North Holland canals.”
Viking. Vital Spark.
Length over all ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18ft. 18ſt.
Length on water line .....?......................................... 17 ft. 7 in. 17ft. 9in.
Beam, extreme ............ . . . . . . . '.…. 5ft. 5ft.
Draught of water, extreme”, ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2ft. 5in. 2ft. 2in.
Area of mid-section...........… 6 sq. ft. 5-6 sq. ft.
Displacement (1 ton 14cwt.) (1 ton 13cvt.)..................... 1°7 ton. 1:65 ton.
Centre of buoyancy after centre of length of L.W.L.......... 0.9ft. 0-25ft.
Weight of iron keel.............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4}cwt. 4}cwt.
Weight of inside ballast............................................. 7cwt. 43 cwt.
Weight of centre-plate ............................................. 13 cwt. -
Area of centre-plate exposed ....................................... 5 sq. ft. -
Area of mainsail ...................................................... 103 sq. ft. -
Area of mizen ......................................................... 33 sq. ft. -
Area of jib ... ......................................................... 24 sq. ft. -
Total area............................................................... 160 sq.ft. 178 sq. ft.
TABLE OF OFFSETS. VIRING.
NO8. OF SECTIONS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
Height L.W.L. to top of gunwale...... 2 0 || 1 9 || 1 6}| 1 4}| 1 3 || 1 2 || 1 2 | 1 3
Depths L.W.L. to underside keel ...... 1 6 || 1 10 || 2 0}| 2 13| 2 23| 2 3 || 2 4 || 2 5
Half breadths at gunwale... ..........., 1 0 || 1 8 || 2 | 1 || 2 3}| 2 4}| 2 3}| 2 1 || 1 6+
Half breadths at L.W.L................... 0 7# 1 4 || 1 10}| 2 2}| 2 4 || 2 3 || 2 0 || 1 44
Half breadths W.L. 2..................... 0 5 || 1 0 || 1 6%| 1 11}| 2 2 || 2 1; 1 9 || 1 0%
Half breadths W.L. 3...................., | 0 2 || 0 7 || 1 0 || 1 4}| 1 74] 1 7 || 1 34 0 7%
Half breadths W.L. 4 ..................... — | 0 2%| 0 5}| 0 8 || 0 10 || 0 10 || 0 8 || 0 33

The sections are 2ft. apart, and No. 1 is 2ft. from fore side of the stem at the gunwale.
The water lines are 6in. apart.
Plate CXVIII.
Hº II
|
|
ſ
CRUIS ING
"S EVERN "
DESIGNED & BUILT FOR
T.H. HOLDING ESQ.
1891
d
* * *m.
* ++*







PLATE CXIX. - jºr-S - --~,
| / N.
| LIFTABLE BULB KEEL. ſ \
| w •
| THE “Nautilus” keel was invented by Mr. a 4- tº ºr a smºs • ſ - - --~~\- - - – - – - – - – - - - - - \ ------------------> d;
W. Baden-Powell, who transferred all patent ſº ** &\ CIÉ. K. -N. ń.
| rights and liabilities to Mr. Bull, of 87, \ | (@) :Hº:
– — — — — — — — — . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * * - - - -t- - - - - - - - - I -y - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sumner-street, S.E., by whom the keel is i | Yº!
•- - - sº sºmes *- - - - - amm amºa- - - * = - - - - * * * * - “ms -º 22 made. The keel can be fitted to any kind of i !. ----------~~~~~
- - - - - - - - - canoe or boat. * * * | i / Top of Case.
|
* - - - The drawing displays the keel in the down
* = - - - * º by solid lines, and in the up position
y dash and dot lines; and the sectional
drawing shows the centre-board trunk or case
in dotted lines. - e º
A centre-plate, carrying at its bottom end - - - -\- - -> — - – - – - - - - # a-> — — . A- – - Lºw.L.
i |
1 /
/
-
* - -
* - * *
* * = = <= * * * *
* * * - - - - - - - - * *sm - - - - smº ms - -
a lead bulb keel, is pivoted between two /
parallel plates, which are connected together d *-
at top and bottom in such a manner as to §:#
allow the central plate to oscillate in one ; H.E. "
direction between them. The parallel plates tº ||w.
are pivoted in the usual centre-board case or
trunk, a little above the boat's keel. The
parallel plates, which are riveted together at
their upper or head part over a filling frame
piece, carry two cranked arms, which, when
the plate or keel is quite down, lodge upon
and also grip the upper edges of the centre-
T- Emersed 24% board trunk or case.
`s A pivoted pawl carried in the after part of
- - - - Keel I,ime.
THE NAUTILUSI
the case .be let fall upon the shoulder at
the upper after-edge of the centre-plate, and -
– Y. thereby locks the centre-plate against oscilla- LIFTABLE BULB FM
Ammer'sé4, 24. CAN OE-YAWL tion so long as it, or the keel, is not lifted. MEEL.
V On the head of the parallel plates being
* tº e moved forward by a suitable tackle or gear
for River, Lake and Sea Cruisin 8– the centre-plate immediately *#.
- oscillate until it is quite up, with the
//o / A/ A/V Designed by along under the boat’s keel, or until it is
ſº º W. BADEaw - Powelz, Esq.” specially locked at Home intermediate position
1892, of hoist by the insertion i. fid or . º:
A zºº º '7. Ž the case. In this intermediate state of hoist
Zength of LW4/7.6% º Area/70/ the bulb is still in a horizontal position, and is
Rating % . locked against oscillation, but is yet liftable
O by gear or ground. O *::::ffff:
/2 // 70 g & z 6 _3 4. 3 Ž !------ O O O * * \ Z...]. G
-E- _ I II I [ —L– In C/26 S O O. O ------------ ---- a ſe - - - - - were re. Tº e as









Humber Canoe Yawls. 553
The scantlings of the Viking are as follows:
Keel of American helm, sided, 6in., and moulded 4in.
Sternpost, 2%in. sided and 4%in. moulded ; stem, 2%in. sided and 5in.
moulded, bevelled to a gin. edge, with galvanised iron band over it.
Bent timbers of American elm, sided 14 in. and moulded lin.
Floors of oak, 2in. by 2in., and 34 in. deep in the throats. There are
three of these floor timbers. One at the fore end of the centre-board case
runs up to within 1 ft. 3in. of the gunwale ; the next is at the after end of
the case, and rises to the level of the floor of cockpit; the third is midway
Coaming
#. #. ºf: să:
—w- ##### Ty 3
* º -
SECTION, PLAN & ELEVATION
of Outriggers S 1 de | D c c k
2. aw
Scale #ov. to ſhuch 8&ass Roa: º Fº
e-HRE== F#F#HF
—N U ſº Way /e /T ×
|
\ S.
@
FIG. 246
between the aft end of centre-board case and the stern post, with 18in.
£UI"YOlS.
, The ribbands are of American elm, and 1+in. by lin., and are notched
to go over the bent timbers, as shown in the sketch, and the floor timbers
are in turn notched to take the ribbands.
The plank is of larch, #in. thick; deck plank, #in. thick, and hatch, śin.,
with battens underneath ; hatch coaming, #in. thick; waterways, gin. thick.
The centre-board case is of lin. pitch pine, and fastened with long
through bolts to keel, set up with screw nuts on top of the case, the middle
oak floor being cut through in the throat to admit the case and board.


554. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Also on this floor timber there is a cross beam to the case, which also
serves for the floor of the well. The centre plate is of #in. iron, galvanised.
The cruising rig is shown by the plan now published, but for racing
a large balance lug of 180 sq. ft. is used. In the sail plan the hatch is
shown raised, as used when more head room is required than it affords
when close down on the coamings.
The yawl was built by Mr. J. A. Akester, boat builder, Hornsea, and
a similar boat would cost from 55]. to 60l.
Mr. G. F. Holmes, of Hornsea, near Hull, designed and built the
Cassy for sailing on the Humber, &c., 1883 (see Plate CXXI.) She
proved to be a very capable little craft, both for rowing and sailing, and
beaching. The position of the well is farther aft than usual, but experience
proved that it is in the right place for rowing or sailing.
For sailing with the cruising sail Mr. Holmes seldom uses any ballast,
the centre-board (701b.) being sufficient ; but, with the racing sail, he
generally has a hundredweight of gravel or sand in bags.
The forward seat can be put either about 6in. above the bottom of
the boat for sailing, or about 2in. below gunwale for rowing. The
after seat is well down in the boat. -
The connection between rudder and deck-yoke is made by a piece
of brass rod, 4in. thick, bent into square hooks at the ends.
Mr. Holmes says his outriggers (see Fig. 246) are firm when in use,
and answer better than any other which he has used. By withdrawing
the brass rod they may easily be taken off altogether, leaving no hole
in the deck. The stay rod is pivotted through a brass plate close to the
coaming, and when not in use may be hooked into a screw eye on the
coaming. A good knee should be fitted under the side deck where the
strain of the stay rod comes. The outriggers are made of #in. wrought iron.
The leading measurements are as follows:–
Length extreme ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14ft. Area racing mainsail............ 120 sq. ft.
Beam extreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3ft. 4 in. Area cruising..................... 70 sq. ft.
Centre-board case, mahogany ... ... #in. Area mizen........................ about 15 sq. ft.
Sculls ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8ft. long.
TABLE OF OFFSETS OF CASSY.—PLATE CXXI.
0 | 1 || 2
3
4 i 5 6 7 8 9 1() 11 | 12 13 | 1.4
in. in. in. in, in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.
Half breadths gunwale — 6% 114 15 17%. 18%| 19%| 19á| 19%. 19 18}| 17 | 14} 9}| –
12in, level line . . . . . . . . . — 4 8#| 13}| 16} 18 19 || 19%. 19%. 18%. 18 16}| 13}| 8 || –
6in. . . . . . . . . . . . — #| 3% #| 12 15; 17%| 18 173| 17 15}| 13 9}| 4 || –
3in. . . . . . . . . . . . — , — - — 6 || 11 || 13%| 15 14%| 13%. 11}| 7# 3% } —
Height above ièveil on 9, 1. I ſº | 1 (ºl. 7| 1 tº 7.
line of gunwale... ) 25, 22}| 20%| 18%. 17%| 16#| 16}| 15%. 15%. 15
}
!
TJnderside rabbet . . . . . . — 5; 4 || 34 24 14 14| 1 || 1 || 1
16 | 16}| 17; 19%| 21%
1}| 1%. 2%| 3 || –
i
PLATE CXX.
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Humber Canoe Yawls. 555
In 1889 Mr. Holmes had built the Ethel (Plate CXXII.), and he speaks
most highly of her for speed, handiness, and seaworthiness. Mr. Holmes
says: “Her shortness allows her to be put in an ordinary railway guard’s
van. Her beam enables her to dispense with outriggers for rowing, and
affords room for two to cruise and even sleep on board. She is very
lightly built of willow, and can be hauled ashore by one man when the
ballast (1 cwt. of lead in four pigs, with handles) is removed. As regards
speed, a large number of trials have proved that she is not quite as fast
down wind, or reaching in light airs, as the Cassy, but she beats her to
windward so decidedly that she is almost invariably the winner over our
sailing course on Hornsea Mere. With my weight (about 11 stone) on
the floor just abaft of the centre-board—the best position for sailing—
she draws 6:#in. aft and 5%in. forward.
TABLE OF DIMENSIONS, &c.
|
Cassy. Ethel
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14ft. 13ft.
Beam......... 3ft. 4 in. 4ft. 6in.
Height bow ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2ft. 1%in. 2ft. 2in.
» midships ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1ft. 4 in. 1ft. 6in.
» stern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a s : * * * * * * * * 1ft. 9in. 1ft. 11 in.
From bow to mast .............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3ft. 3ft.
22 fore end centre-plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4ft. 3ft. 3im: ' '
25 aft end centre-plate ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7ft. 7ft. 6in."
35 aft end well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ft. 6in. 11ft. 2in.
Weight centre-plate ............................................. 701b. 22lb. . . ."
ballast..................... None. 114lb. '
Area of mainsail ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 sq. ft. 87 sq. ft.
32 mizen , , , , * * * * 19 sq. ft. 19% sq. ft.
Total sail area ......................................................... 104 sq. ft. 106.3 sq. ft.
“The rudder gudgeons are on the plan invented by W. P. Stephens,
of New York, and are A. l. The tiller, too, is most satisfactory, as it is
direct, strong, and simple. The double “crick’ round the mizen prevents
it from going adrift or being put over too far, but allows of its being
unshipped, when it lies on deck secure from being knocked overboard, so
long as the mizen is shipped. The centre plate is of in. brass, and
weighs only 221b. In cruising, a canvas well-cover, arched by three cross
beams is used, covering half the well, and keeping the stores dry. The
flared coaming of a pointed well lends itself very readily to the fitting of
this. The mizen sheets to a short bumpkin, fitted on starboard quarter.
The cost of the boat complete was about 25l.”
556 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
THE MANAGEMENT OF CANOES.
Sail can be carried in almost any breeze so long as the Water
keeps moderately smooth, but beware of sailing a light canoe in really
rough water. “Big seas” are not here referred to ; these will be referred
to hereafter. Rough water throws a light canoe about in sudden and
unavoidable jerks, and a puff into the sails at a wrong moment, or perhaps
a lump of water, may just give the canoe a finishing touch to a capsize;
at the best her pace will be slow, and her working uncertain under
sail, as soon as the water gets a rise of a couple of feet or more; then
out with the paddle and in with the mainsail ; the mizen, however, may
be of use if paddling to windward.
With regard to heavy seas, the canoeist should bear in mind that
there is a great difference between a “sea '.' and a “swell.” With a
fresh breeze “white horses” begin to show on a comparatively smooth
sea, but if there is at the same time a steep swell on, then the ruffled
swells appear somewhat in the form of “huge seas.” Canoes and boats
can easily, with fair management, live in such water, and have often
done so, hence the stories of sails being becalmed in the hollows between
the waves, &c. But a “sea '.' is a vastly different thing to look at and
to put a boat at ; a broken sea not only has way on, but generally has
weight on in its angry top, which, if not cleverly negotiated, would
crush a canoe up like a steam roller going over an egg shell. It is not
often that a canoe is worked in a “high '' sea; but what is not uncommon
is for a canoe to be caught out away from port and get into a nasty
sea, a savage sea, before she can get into shelter. For an old hand to
work safely through it is merely a question of whether he possesses
the requisite amount, in equal parts, of pluck and caution, and suffi-
cient physical strength to avoid a collapse from exhaustion. He knows
from practice how best to handle his craft as the various forms of
water approach him ; he knows, too, when to carry on and when to
ease her, and how to put her at a hollow breaker. But to the man who is
not an old hand at the work, such work is no mere inconvenience ; it
soon becomes a struggle for life, and a flurried twitching of the rudder
and a dip or two of the paddle the wrong way may end that struggle
in a few short moments.
There are one or two short maxims on which the handling of a
canoe in a sea are founded, and, being very simple, they can easily be
called to mind by beginners when trying their craft against a “steamer's
swell.” Unless in a well-ballasted sailing canoe, never keep sail on when
The Management of Canoes. 557
the seas begin to break and come aboard, because by the time they get
to breaking aboard you will probably be unable to get the sails in, and
a sea into the sail might be a finisher ; or, if you have to leave your
seat to get hold of the sail, a sea is pretty sure just to board the
canoe, and, once waterlogged, it is hard work for even a practised hand
to get rid of the water. Never allow the canoe for one moment, except
of course in the act of turning, to be broadside on to the sea; it
may be all very well in a little popple or tide overfall to treat the
crests with indifference, and let them “break across the deck; ” but
if you intend a safe return to land don’t try any such duck-pond
pranks with a heavy sea. To work safely through really heavy water
a zig-zag course must be steered ; the seas should, when possible, be
dodged; but where it becomes necessary to “take ’’ a sea, put her at
it nearly end on, with plenty of way on (the weight in the boat rather
forward than aft); then, as soon as she passes the head of the sea,
drop her down sideways on the back of it; if, on the contrary, you
attempted to let it break athwartship over the deck, you would probably
find yourself suddenly caught up and hurled broadside along before the
sea for a few moments, then a thundering roar, a cold weight of water
all over you, crackling of planks, a greenish glimmer, and a want of air
would proclaim to you that somehow your canoe, or the wreck of it, was
above you instead of under you.
When about to reef in rough water do not put the canoe end on
to the sea; on the contrary, keep some way on her ; lower away the
halyards, and haul the boom in, and with the reefing gear little or no
difficulty will be found ; reef the mainsail first, then shift the mizeu, and
so be prepared to shift mainsail if necessary.
When running before a sea keep the weight aft in the canoe by
removing the backboard beam and lying down, haul down the mizen,
and when a breaker is coming along stop the canoe's way by back strokes
with the paddle, else she may be overended or broached to. If the
canoe runs her bow under a sea, let go the halyards promptly, and ease
down the sail till the bow lifts again. In running for shore, before getting
into the breakers, turn her round head upon sea, and back in when in
the smooths, and paddle ahead to meet each heavy breaking sea.
The paddle should always be ready for use in a sea way, and the
most useful mode is to have the ordinary double-bladed paddle jointed
in the middle, and a piece of bamboo 3ft. long, brass tipped, fitted to
join into the ferrule, and so make a long-handled single paddle as a
help to steering and working in a sea way.
Never go to sea, even for an hour's sail, without a compass ; fogs
558 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
- - ... — -- ------------ - - - - --— - - -—-- ~ - --~~~~
turn up even in the summer. Before going on a long cruise test all
fittings and gear carefully, and certainly have an experimental capsize to
test, above mere calculation, that the air bag and compartment are sufficient
to support canoe and skipper when swamped ; after the canoe is righted
practise getting on board by striding the bow or stern, or over her side
amidships; finally, have a life-belt on whenever there is risk of an upset.
The following instructions for getting into a canoe after an upset
were written by Mr. Tredwen : “In a paddling canoe with bulkheads
nothing is easier than to get in over the side. The canoe being righted,
the hands should be placed one on each gunwale or coaming ; the elbow
of the arm whose hand is on the offside should be thrown up; and the
vault is accomplished very much like a tyro at gymnastics rushes through
his ‘slow rise ’ on the horizontal bar. If the canoe has a great deal of
water in her, and there is any popple on, the near-side hand should grasp
the paddle and hold it across the canoe (at right angles to the length
of the canoe), with blades flat on the surface of the water, the hand
being as close as possible to the near-side coaming. I have for several
years used a Rob Roy canoe, with side lockers to the well, and with
movable doors from the coamings to the bilge keels, so that the canoe
always empties herself in righting. When a sailing canoe capsizes, her
crew should immediately endeavour to clamber over, instead of diving
under her, and thus avoiding the risk of getting ‘netted ' by the loose
lines. He should then hang on the canoe like a reefer on the topsail
yard, cast off the halyard, and get in on the downhaul, so as to gather
the sail in toward the deck. The canoe, being then no longer pinned
down by the weight of water on the Outspread sail, begins to right; he
keeps on top of the revolving hull, and gets into the well when that
comes uppermost, and bales out. It is presupposed that the halyard and
downhaul are both led to eyebolts on deck, or that the fall of the halyard
is made to serve as downhaul and placed within reach of amidships,
so that the crew always knows where to get the ends, even when they
are under water, and the baler and sponge are secured by lanyards so
as not to get lost Overboard.”
CANOE CRUISING.
For clothes, the canoeist may be advised to take an every-day suit
for wearing ashore, as well as his usual knickerbockers, stockings, shoes,
jersey, and cap for wearing afloat. For provisions, should the cruise
be intended to extend over, a couple of weeks, in localities where shops
are never heard of, an extra supply of everything should be taken, but
Canoe Cruising. - 559
not so much as to have a superfluity of any one thing. Tea, coffee, or
cocoa, according to choice, can be taken ; preserved milk, bread, butter,
tins of meat, soup, and fruit ; matches should be kept in an empty
pickle bottle ; corkscrew, and many other little articles which suggest
themselves to the requirements of the would-be voyageur; but it is a
well-known fact that the oftener one goes cruising, the fewer unneces-
Saries are taken.
In almost every instance, each member while afloat is seated on a
cushion about 2in, thick, 20in. wide, and from 2ft. 6in. to 3ft. long.
These cushions are covered with American cloth (waterproof) and stuffed
with hair, and in the evening, when the tent is pitched, make admirable
couches for repose. t
Sleeping costume is perhaps the most variable of all costumes, and
the novice to a great extent has to please himself. Some put on a

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complete suit of clothes, roll a thick muffler round the throat, and put
on a double supply of stockings. Others, again, envelope themselves in
a Highland cloak, having on a spare boating suit; others, who carry
railway rugs, Scotch plaids, or the common household blanket, don a
nightshirt; while some sleep in sacks, with only their heads visible.
The following is a description of a sleeping costume or pyjama
introduced by Mr. T. H. Holding –
Fig. 247. This is the upper, or body part. The arrow line C is in reality
the “construction * line. Begin by drawing, at right angles, the top or
shoulder line, D. The 3in. back finds the side of neck; 18in. is the full
width of the right half. The 4% back from line D is for startin g shoulder
slope, which is continued to 5in. down from D angle. From the 5in. down
mark 9in, down for armhole, to which a flap, with a hole and button, must
be fixed. This is to allow the arm to come through. These can be kept
buttoned for warmth or left open for ventilation, as desired, and to suit the
56() - Yacht and Boat Sailing.
night. The line C is the front edge, the dotted line the large hem or
facing piece to turn back from the buttons to be set on down the right
edge, and for working the holes in on the left edge. The full length
of the body part is 25%in. ; the front of neck 3in. down from X. All the
stuff between parts marked “3in.” and “4%in.” on top line must be
pleated on to shoulder strap, whilst the same between B and A on bottom
line must be pleated on to the top of the trousers marked B.A. The back
part of body, in the same way, to be fulled on to the top of back part
of trousers—A to E.
The back of body or upper part.—This is cut precisely the same as
the front, save that the neck part comes square across to X, and the
centre seam behind to dotted lines, which allowance is lºin, beyond line C.
This 1%in, allowed on the back must be pleated on the shoulder strap
between F and G.
Fig. 248. Draw base line (arrow). Square up at F 1%in. ; go out
towards sharp end 4 in., and at this place mark up 2%in. From latter
to the pointed end intersect base line at 12in. from F.
18try.
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FIG. 249.
Fig. 249. The hood is made of stout Saxony flannel or of the water-
proof or tweed mackintosh, same as the rest of the dress. Soft material
is to be preferred, for these reasons : The head and neck should not be
irritated by it, and then on oppressive nights, when even the whole
dress would be worn unbuttoned, the hood can be left loose off the
head, and yet would not be felt as a lump or bundle at the back of the
neck. To get its shape, draw line C square at top, and then mark
out on this line 4%in. ; go down 4%in., then 12in, then 18in. From 12in.
mark out towards you 13in., and fill in curved lines to shape of diagram.
The dotted lines are to indicate where hem or tape are to be placed for the
cord or strings which tie it round the face and under the chin. The lower
curve must be sewn up to point “13in.”


Holding's Pygamas. 56]
Fig. 250. All parts of the pyjama are found from the centre line C.
The full length is 42%in. from the square line, starting from the ring O. To
form the front part mark out forwards 10in. At the bottom forward mark
9in. ; then draw a straight line from the points 10in. and 9in. ; mark down
from O 2%in. to find actual top, and 13in. down to find the fourth. On this,
the second oblique line, mark out 4in, from the line D, then put in curved
lines as shown. The back half of the trousers is formed in the same
manner. The bottom goes out 9in. and the top 10in. ; a straight line is
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FIG. 250.
drawn from the 9in. to the 10in. mark. Out from this straight line mark
6in. for lower point of seat, then fill in curves as shown.
The pocket hole should be 1%in. down from top and 6in. long. It
must have a flap, with holes and buttons, just as the coat. This is also to
serve a double purpose—that if one sleeps in trousers, the pockets can be
got at, and the flap may be left unbuttoned if desired, or needed for
ventilation. On to the front or fly of trousers a piece must be sewn on for
the buttons, and another piece on the left side for the button holes, each in
width to correspond with the pieces already mentioned as to be left on the
coat for a like purpose. Along the waistband a piece of broad tape must be
sewn on inside, and through it a waist string or cord rove, to hold the
trousers secure to the waist. A small slat or hole should be left 2%in.
back from front edge, through which the waist strings must pass out into
band, as shown.
O O


562 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Fig. 251. To cut and fix this draw perpendicular line C square
from same at bottom ; come forward 14in.
T 6 un, C
*—t-s-—-Y.*--------------. e º
2–s *4% -)- At heel mark up 6in. and go in from

“ straight line #in. for actual pattern. From
§ this #in. mark still forward the width of half
§§ the bottom of the trousers, 9in. Make the
\ov, height up 8in. from bottom line, and shape
Š as indicated. The front or raised part of the
§ sock should be fixed to the centre of the front
FIG. 251. side of the trousers at D, and sewn on all
round. Perhaps it would be better to leave a few inches across the
instep (see shaded line) open permanently for ventilation.
This dress is designed for a man 38in. chest, 84 in. waist, and 5ft. 6in.
high. Actually the body, both as to width and length, would suit a taller
and stouter man. In making alterations a simple plan would be, add on
to the length at bottom, raise the tapes, and throw all the needful extra
width in down the side, line E. If possible cut this from the double of
the stuff, so as to avoid a seam at side of leg. In speaking of the con-
struction of this garment the word “sewn” is used. A mackintosh
maker would use the solution by which usually waterproof garments are
put together. Mackintosh paste is liable to perish, yet as a rule lasts
out the garment whose seams it joins. In this case, however, we do not
want absolutely water tightness nor air tightness, but proof against cold-
ness. As this is so, seams sewn by hand or machine would be more
durable, and would give a modicum of ventilation at the same time. Mr.
Holding suggest to any boating man who contemplates getting this dress
made, that he purchase about five yards of unbleached calico at 2%d. or
so per yard, and, after working out the patterns from my figures, cut,
get tacked together, and try on the whole thing, to make sure it comes
up to his expectations as to style, fit, and so forth; whilst the practical
experiment I here recommend would give him a chance of adding any
improvement of his own. The cost of the dress may be as low as 25s.,
or a guinea and a half, but to secure good stuff and work I should
venture the opinion that it could not be got under two guineas.
A waterproof sleeping dress and ground sheet is made by Thomas
White and Co., of Aldershot, at prices varying from 17. 1s. to 31. 10s. The
dress, &c., is packed in a Snug valise, with many other useful articles.
SLEEPING HAMMOCKs.
The annexed sketches (Figs. 252, 253, 254) will show the method of
providing head and feet room in a hammock, invented by Mr. T. H. Holding,
which can be slung inside a 6ft. tent.
Holding’s Hammocks. 563
The stiffener (A) is made of elm because of its toughness and proof
against splitting. The bottom is run down to rest against the rest
proper, which is planed flat on the inner side on purpose to fit close to
the stiffener. This takes a portion of the strain off the top eyes.
The eyes (B) are an inch inside their ring, and have seven holes
top and bottom. An important point in fitting these on is that the
Screws should go clean through stiffener and spit elm, as well as the
metal itself.
The spreader, C, requires twelve holes, through which the cord—
a stout one, by the bye—is rove, to lace the canvas or hammock close
WWN
FIG. 252. FIG. 253. FIG. 254.
A. Stiffener, gin. elm.
B B. Brass slots, or eyes, for head of rests to fit into.
C. Spreaders, Éin. elm, 9in. across, and 5in. deep.
D. Cord running through eyelets in hammock sheet.
E. Hammock rests, from 28in. to 30in, long.
up. These cords should be either rove in a hem of the hammock or be
sewn strongly to the hem of the same.
The rests, or props, may be 28in. or 30in., or even 33in. long. Their
length depends on taste purely.
The hammock (Fig. 254) should be cut much the shape of this
sketch. It will be observed that the ends are oval, and the sides
hollowed. If, by way of experiment, you hang up a straight-ended and
straight-sided sheet, and then get into it, you will observe that all your
weight is thrown on the middle of the canvas, or lower eyelets, whilst

O O 2
564 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
the sides will be quite loose. To obviate this is to lengthen the centre
or shorten the sides. This should be done in three ways: (a) Hollow
the sides, and put cords in tight; (b) shorten the ends at edges, and
(c) lengthen the centre. The dotted lines in side eyelets are supposed
to represent two plies or thicknesses of canvas, one reaching farther into
the piece than the other. A hem must not be left, because, owing to
the shape of the ends when turned back, it would not fit, and would
not be so strong as pieces sewn on. The eyelets should be brass, #in.
or in., the same as sailmakers use. The material does not need to be
so heavy as some might suppose. All linen is strong, and a good stout,
unbleached linen sheeting has held me many a night, and, when testing
it, two children besides, without giving signs of collapsing.
The slinging process is as follows: In Fig. 252 is shown the foot
of rest. These rests are best turned in a lathe. The foot flanges out
broader to prevent sinking when the sleeper's weight is on it. Should
the rest girth, the consequences to the tent might be serious. Pre-
sumably you have fixed up your tent without a wrinkle. When it was
made you had two horizontal slits an inch and a half long cut through
the two edges where they overlap at each end of the tent, stoutly bound
with linen tape, and a piece of canvas was sewn on at that particular
place to give greater strength. These slits are just as far from the
bottom as the hammock rests are long—32in. Take the head rest, and
place it close beside the tent pole ; then press it well down so that B is
buried in the sod. Slip the ring or thimble (of brass), round which the
guy lines are permanently rove, over the top of the rest, and then do
the foot rest the same. You drove in the four pegs when you fixed up
the tent itself. Now go out and bind each cord or guy tight round its
respective peg; in fact, so tight that the rests cause the tent ends to
bulge outwards somewhat. Now you return inside and cook your tea-
supper, and have no absolute need to go out again. Bedtime comes.
You take the hammock in your hand, lift the brass thimble (i.e., double
end or angle of guy lines) off the top of rest, and slip the brass eyes
of stretchers over rest head, then place guy thimble over these. The
foot or outer end is done of course the same. Now test it by your full
weight ; it gives a little. Test it again; it is firm, and gives no more.
Go outside and brace up to tightest pitch.
For pillow, any spare dry garments rolled up will do quite well.
Your bed clothes, i.e., sleeping bag, is an important item.
If the rests sink much, the cord would press on the slits of the
tent ends, and, as something must give to your weight, an inconvenient
rent would result, either at ridge pole or down the ends.
The Clyde Tent. 565
A, Fig. 252, represents the foot of rest, and B the blunt inverted
cone shape of the ends which go into the ground.
Why the spreader and stiffener are in two pieces is to give greater
strength and lightness. A piece of tubing planed the full size would
not stand the strain. The screws must go clean through both planks.
It will be seen that six stout screws in each end, or twelve in all, are
ample to bear the weight of any ordinary man without risk.
THE CLYDE TENT.
Some canoeists who indulge in river cruising prefer to sleep on
board their craft, sometimes afloat, and sometimes on shore. Truly the
simplest style of camping out alone is sleeping in the canoe. Sleeping
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on board, afloat or on shore, is, however, a thankless job, and there is
not the comfort or satisfaction that arises from the use of a tent.
The canoe is, for sea cruising, too unstable for such use afloat, and is
seldom designed for such use ashore, although it may have the recommen-
dation that dryness of couch is thereby obtainable. For general comfort
and satisfaction, a tent on shore is truly the sine quá mom for sleeping in.
A tent must have many qualities; it must be light to carry, simple
in its erection, free from draughts, strong enough to stand up in a gale
of wind, and, above all, perfectly watertight. The members of the Clyde
Canoe Club claim that the Clyde tent combines these qualifications, and
no true canoeist who has once slept in a Clyde tent cares to try any
other design. Its most essential item is dryness internally, in the heaviest
rainfall. One great feature is the simplicity of its construction, in that


566 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
the floor, walls, and roof are in one length of cloth, sewn together at
the floor edge.
The tent shown in the drawing is made suitable for the accommodation
of two canoeists.
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Fig. 255 is a drawing of the floor or ground sheet, walls, and roof,
extended or unrolled before setting up.
Fig. 256 is a view in elevation of one side of tent.
Fig. 257 is a view in elevation of the back of tent.
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FIG. 260.
FIG. 262.
Fig. 258 is a view in elevation of tent door, shown closed.
Fig. 259 is a detail from Figs. 256 and 257.
Fig. 260 enlarged view of A, galvanised tent pin, in Fig. 256.
Fig. 261 an enlarged view of R, Fig. 256.
Fig. 262 is a detail of tent pole.












Clyde Tents. 567
These illustrations will now be considered in detail, so that the
construction may be better understood.
The corner letters in each view of tent are all intended to correspond
with each other.
In Fig. 255 B to F, or the rectangular piece B F M Z, is the floor
or ground sheet ; E F L M and L C B P, walls; L E D K, and D K C L
the roof, K to D being the ridge; W is a ventilator. The strip marked S
is for hemming or counter-hemming the back and front ends of tent to
floor, walls, and roof.
In Fig. 256 D K is the ridge; D E L K, one side of roof; E FN L,
wall; F N, edge of ground sheet ; O, ridge pole (horizontal); G, tent
pole (perpendicular) and back of tent, placed close to the tent ; H, tent pole
at door, sometimes 12in. or 18in. from front of tent, to allow free ingress or
egress to tent; V, ventilator; R. R. R., guy rings; S S S S and A, tent
pins.
Fig. 257, D, ridge; C D and D E, roof; C B and E F, walls; B F,
ground sheet ; I, guy ropes; P, tent pins; V, ventilator shown open—
when required to be shut, a cord leading to the inside closes it.
Fig. 258, D, ridge; C D and D E, roof; C B and E F, walls; B F,
floor; D G, door shown shut, with eyelets for lacing same ; when open,
a space equal to a triangle B D F is formed by tying the two corners
G to the angles C and E.
Fig. 259 shows the corner tent pin A in Fig. 257, or any other tent
pin full size.
Fig. 260 shows tent pin to scale of 3in. = 1ft.
Fig. 262, O, ridge pole ; G H, front and back tent poles; A and B.
iron or brass pins, B being thrust into the ground to steady the pole,
while A on each pole keeps the ridge pole O steady.
Fig. 261 is an enlarged view of R in Fig. 256, showing the ring R,
to which stout woven cord guy ropes, like I in Fig. 257 are fastened.
In the construction, having cut out in one length sufficient cloth to
make the floor, walls, and roof, and sewn the edges Z B and P B (Fig. 255)
together, the back end, Fig. 257, can now be sewn in, as also can the
door end, Fig. 258, care being taken that the corners B F E D and C
take their right places. The door is sewn along all its outside edges,
except from B to F, and, after being laced, is kept close down by means
of the lacing cord being made fast to the tent pin at G.
Figs. 256 and 257 show outside finished dimensions, and the dotted
lines correspond to the strip S in Fig. 255, which, being a double seam,
gives extra strength. Along all the edges, such as F M, E L, C L, B P
in Fig. 257, and B C D E F in Figs. 257 and 258, there is a stout cord
568 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
sewn, and on each edge F M, E L, C L, and B P, and B F front and back,
and at suitable intervals, there are brass rings sewn ; those along the
ground lines, to receive the tent pins to hold ground sheet down ;
and along E L and C L, are similar rings as R in Fig. 256 and R in
Fig. 261, to which guy ropes are attached, and at the ground end of
guy rope is a loop which is clipped round the tent pin when same is
being driven home.
Those who object to the use of iron tent pins possibly do so because
they have always used wooden ones. The Clyde tent pin is of #in.
galvanised iron, 10in. long, with a ring at top end (A in Figs. 259 and
260) large enough to admit the finger, thus enabling them to be easily
withdrawn from the ground and fastened together in a bundle.
The inserting of a wooden peg necessitates the use of a mallet or
any stone lying about handy; their wear and tear necessitates frequent
renewal, and their insertion is difficult in stony ground. The use of
iron obviates all difficulties of these kinds. The tent poles G and H
are each in one length, according to height of tent at ridge pole. They
are of 1%in. yellow pine. The ridge pole varies in length according to
length of tent. It is likewise of 1%in. pine, and is jointed like a fishing
rod at its centre, so as to be handily stowed below. This joint is made
of a strong brass tube 10in. long, one half of the ridge pole being
inserted for five inches, and fastened to the brass tube by a couple of
screws, while the other half of the pole fits exactly into the remaining
five inches.
To erect the tent, stretch the ground sheet flat on the ground and
fasten it close down by means of the pins, and let them be angled inwards,
as in Fig. 257. The roof and walls will now be lying in a heap. Next
pass the ridge pole through the hole specially prepared for it at D in
Figs. 257 and 258, then insert tent-pole pins through the holes at each
end of ridge pole, and keep back end pole close to the end of tent,
leaving front pole 12in. or 18in. clear from the door (see Fig. 256). Then
commence at either end, and stretch guy ropes, and press pins closely
down to the ground, the pins being angled inwards. If properly set
and strained, the roof and wall will sit as flat as a board. The material
used is either bleached or unbleached calico, and, to render it waterproof,
it should be coated over, when erected, with two coats of boiled oil and
terebin, one gill of the latter to two quarts of the former being a good
proportion of mixture. A waterproofed tent not only excludes all damp
when in use, but can be stowed away wet, and does not absorb moisture
and rot like an ordinary non-waterproof material. The tent as shown by
drawings was actually designed to accommodate two canoeists, and is of
Clyde Tents. 569
the smallest suitable size which it is advisable to make. Similar though
larger ones are in use, in which four can sleep comfortably, with baggage
inside.
The tent, with poles and pins, weighs about 18lb.; it can be erected
in three minutes, by two canoeists, and, for a cost complete of 21. 28.,
is within reach of all canoeists who care to order it from any sailmaker
or cheaper still if they make it themselves.
Some tents are made with roof sloping down to where the ground
sheeting should be, and have no walls, no floor beyond a separate water-
proof ground sheet. These tents are never dry, require fewer pegs, but
do not give so much room as those with side walls. Canoes are designed
to suit the waters they are intended to be used on, but the same can
never be said of tents, which are suitable anywhere.
One very good and general plan is, when several canoeists are camping
together, to carry a small tent, like the one described, specially for holding
baggage, and to be used as the kitchen of the camp.
Novices in camping have often great difficulty in selecting a suitable
and simple cuisine, and the reader is referred to page 80.
The following description of a canoe tent is supplied by “Jacaré’’
(see Fig. 263):
“The tent is simply a ridge tent of thin canvas or cotton without
waterproofing of any kind. The fine canvas of the old military tente d’abri
answers well, made up to fit the exact length between the masts, each
side 4ft. deep, and at each end having two triangular flaps, sewn on to
overlap each other when closed, and secured by S hooks to eyes on deck,
behind the masts, so as to lie at a steeper angle than the sides. Along
the ridge inside (which should be double canvas) a strong woven cord
is sewn, leaving about 2ft. length loose beyond each end, and in the canvas
at end strong eyes are formed, with “button-holes' stitching round, to
take the hooks of mast travellers. One of the loose ends of cord is
generally used to secure the paddle and the other end the yard and boom,
so as to form a strut or stay to masts on the lee side of canoe.
“On the gunwale of canoe there is screwed in on each side four
brass eyes, which correspond to an equal number of S hooks, fixed to a
cord sewn strongly on the inside of tent, 4in. from bottom, so that when
the S hooks are hooked on about 3in. of the bottom canvas lies over and
on the sides of the canoe, thus excluding wind.
“The tent is set up by hooking on the eyes in ends of ridge to
the mast travellers, when half hoisted, then hooking the bottom S hooks
at sides and ends of tent, when a pull on each of the halyards sets the tent up
taut, the halyard ends being secured to the cleats on side deck inside tent.
570 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
“The masts are of course previously stepped, forestay secured taut,
and mizen mast stayed with the painter on stern, so that the strain of
setting up the tent comes entirely on the stays.
“This tent is properly for camping ashore, but, if wind will allow,
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SECTION OF CANOE TENT.
a a Slope of sides of tent. b b End of tent overlapping.
FIG. 263.
may be set up afloat. Even with wind, if the canoe can be run into a
bed of reeds or rushes, there is no difficulty in doing so; while once up,
it forms a secure shelter against a night of even tropical rain. There is
plenty of room to move from end to end, to sit up for reading, cooking














Clyde Tents. 571
or meals, ample room in fore end of well for cooking stove, using spirit
or petroleum, the flat locker lids on deck forming table and sideboard,
all under cover; while, with lamp slung from the ridge cord at night,
sketches can be finished or writing done with more comfort and less risk
from damp than in an ordinary tent ashore.
“In camping out ashore in tents, the cold, which often wakes up
the sleepers in the very early morning, is bitterly complained of; but in
the canoe tent it is seldom felt, especially if the precaution has been taken
to put the well cover on when turning in.
“In the tent in question, to give more room for the head and
shoulders, when sitting up for meals, &c., a stretcher of light wood or
bamboo 18in. long may be inserted into eyelet holes about a foot below
the ridge of tent behind the head, increasing the width there very con-
siderably, and on this stretcher the lamp may be fixed to slide to one
side or the other as most convenient, though when slung from the ridge
cord it is safer.
“With this tent there is little fitting required, as the sides are
rectangular, yet fit to the curved sides of canoe, as the greater width
amidship is just compensated for by the natural curve of the rope ridge
downward in middle when its ends are set up taut.
“A peep-hole can be formed at each side of tent by cutting out a
square or circular hole, and covering it outside with a patch of stiffer
canvas, sewn on to fall over the hole. This is better than using glass,
which is sure to get broken.
“By unhooking one hook, the edge of tent on either side can be
raised to give a look-out, and by unhooking the aft hook also there is
room to turn out bodily ; while the loose triangle of canvas thus made
can be folded back over the ridge, or the whole of one side may be thus
thrown back, leaving the half-faced tent standing secure to windward.”
A PPENDIX.
DICTIONARY OF GENERAL INFORMATION.
A.
A.B.-Able seaman, who must be able to hand,
reef, and steer by compass, splice, knot, turn
in rigging, &c.—able-bodied seaman, as dis-
tinguished from a youth or ordinary seaman.
Aback.-A sail is said to be aback when the wind
strikes it from ahead and tends to force a
vessel astern ; generally applied to square-
rigged ships. In a fore-and-aft vessel the
Sails would be said to be aback if their clews
were hauled up to windward, or if the vessel
came up head to wind, and went off on the
opposite tack without the head sheets being
handed over; or if the wind headed the vessel
and struck her from the opposite side to that
which it had been blowing so as to cause the
Sails to lift. (See also “All Aback For’ard P’)
Abaft.—A relative term used to denote the situa-
tion of an object or point that is astern of
another, and begins from the stem head, or
from the fore part of any spar or other object;
generally the term means towards the stern,
or in the direction of the stern.
Abandon.—To leave a ship and take to the boats.
Abeam.—At right angles to a vessel's broadside
or keel ; opposite to the vessel’s centre of
length; abreast of.
Aboard.—Inside a ship or on the deck of a ship.
“Come aboard, sir,” is a sailor’s way of re-
porting himself on board after leave of
absence. To run or fall aboard a vessel is
for one vessel to come into collision with
another. A sail is said to fall aboard when,
from the lightness of the wind or other causes,
it ceases to blow out. To haul the boom
aboard is to haul the boom in by the main-
sheet from off the lee quarter.
About.—Having tacked. “She's about ;” she is
going to tack or has tacked. “Ready about ’’
is the signal given for the men to prepare to
tack the ship. “About ship’’ or “’Bout
ship !” is the order given to tack, that is to
put the vessel on the opposite tack to the one
she is on when the order is given to tack. To
go about is to tack.
Abreast.—Synonymous with “Abeam.”
side. To Breast.—To come abreast.
Side by
Accommodation.-The cabins of a vessel.
Accommodation, Ladder.—A side ladder, with
platform, for boarding vessels. In the case
of yachts, they are usually made to fold up
on the bulwarks when the yacht is under way.
Acker.—A tide coming on the top of another tide.
Ackers’ Scale.—A graduated time allowance on a
tonnage incidence computed by the late Mr.
G. Holland Ackers, now superseded by the
Y.R.A. scale.
A Cock Bill or Cock Bill.—An anchor hanging
from the cat head ready to let go. The
situation of yards when one arm is topped
up as a sign of mourning.
Across Tide.—Crossing the stream of the tide so
that it comes broadside on. If a vessel in
beating to windward crosses a tide fairly at
right angles on one tack, she will stem it on
the next, or have it stern on, according to
whether the tide be lee-going or weather-
going. (See “Weather-tide.”)
Admeasurement. — An old-fashioned expression
for the builder's tonnage of a ship calculated
by length and breadth, and abbreviated O.M.
(old measurement) and B.M. (Builder’s
Measurement), which see.
Admiral.—The highest rank in the Navy. For-
merly there were admirals of the red, white,
and blue, with the intermediate ranks of vice
and rear of the red, white, and blue. When
the white ensign was taken exclusively for the
Royal Navy in 1857, the red, white, and blue
divisions were done away with. Admirals
now fly a St. George’s Jack, which is a white
square flag with red St. George cross in it
at the main, fore or mizen, according to their
rank. A vice-admiral has a red ball in the
upper (hoist) canton of the flag; a rear-admiral
two balls.
Admiral of the Fleet.—An honorary distinction
bestowed on admirals for long service, &c.
If an admiral of the fleet has a command, he
hoists the “union ” at the main.
Admiralty Flag.—A red flag with yellow fouled
anchor (horizontal) in it, flown by the Sove-
reign and Lords of the Admiralty.
Admiralty Warrants.-Warrants granted to clubs
and the members thereof, granting permission
to fly the white ensign, or the blue ensign, or the
red ensign with device on it. The Admiralty
574 - Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Admiralty Warrants—continued.
warrant will only be granted to yachts which
are registered according to the provisions of
the Merchant Shipping Act. The warrant
itself, as delivered by the Admiralty to a
club, is as follows:
“Whereas we deem it expedient that the
members of the Royal Yacht Club,
being natural born or neutralised British
Subjects, should be permitted to wear on
board their respective vessels the blue ensign
of Her Majesty’s fleet, with the distinctive
marks of the club, viz., a crown in the centre
of the union, on the following conditions :
“We do therefore, by virtue of the power
and authority vested in us, under the provi-
sions of the 105th Section of the Merchant
Shipping Act, 1854, hereby warrant and
authorise the blue ensign of Her Majesty’s
fleet, with the distinctive marks of the Royal
e tº tº Yacht Club thereon, as afore-
said, to be worn on board the respective
vessels belonging to the Royal . . . . .
Yacht Club, and to members of such yacht
club, being matural born or naturalised British
subjects, accordingly, subject to the following
conditions :
“1. Every vessel belonging to the Royal
& e . . Yacht Club in order to
be eligible to wear the ensign author-
ised by this warrant, shall have been
registered as a British vessel in
accordance with the Merchant Shipping
Act, 1854.
“2. The ensign shall not, without our
authority in writing, be worn on board
any vessel belonging to the Royal
* - s Yacht Club, while such
vessel is lent, on hire or otherwise, to
any person not being a member of the
club, or who, being a member of the
club, is not a natural born or natura-
lised British subject.”
Thus a warrant is only granted to the
owner of a registered yacht; the owners of
yachts of 15 tons and under (which are not
required by law to be registered) cannot
legally hold a warrant to fly the white or blue
ensign, or red ensign with device, unless such
yachts are duly registered.
The hirer of a yacht cannot hold a warrant
to fly such ensigns; but in case the hirer and
the owner are members of the same club, and
the owner holds a warrant, then the hirer, after
obtaining special permission in writing from
the Admiralty to exercise the privileges
granted under the warrant, can fly the white
or blue ensign as the case may be. The
plain red ensign denoting the nationality of
the yacht can be, and Rhould be, flown in
case the yacht has no warrant. These
regulations, besides accompanying each club
warrant, have over and over again been sent
to the yacht clubs in circular form. Some
clubs—the Royal Yacht Squadron and Royal
Victoria, for instance—have in their rules a
notice that a yacht, if lent, or let on hire,
cannot fly the ensign and badge of the club
unless the person to whom the yacht is lent
or hired is at the time a member of the club.
This, however, is not in accordance with the
Admiralty regulation, which, under date
Nov. 2, 1880, was as follows: “Warrants to
fly the ensigns of Her Majesty's fleet are only
granted to owners of yachts belonging to a
club holding a warrant from the Admiralty,
and never to individuals hiring yachts.”
This in turn is modified by the regulation
already referred to as follows: “If a member
of a yacht club, having an Admiralty warrant
to fly a special ensign, lets his yacht to another
member of the same club, the member hiring
the yacht cannot fly the club onsign without
the special authority of the Admiralty in
writing.”
Under the “Queen's Regulations” (not
Merchant Shipping Acts) a yacht can use the
blue onsign if she is commanded by an officer
of the naval reserve, and if ten of the crew
are maval reserve men; but the Admiralty
must be applied to for a warrant before so
using the ensign.
In other cases the warrant to fly the blue
ensign can only be obtained by a member of a
yacht club which has an Admiralty warrant,
and the application must be made through
the club secretary.
When a yacht changes hands the warrant
must be returned through the club Secretary
to the Admiralty ; and if an owner lets a
yacht on hire he must return the warrant.
The Admiralty warrant is not granted to
foreigners who may be members of British
yacht clubs unless they have been naturalised,
and can thus legally hold a British Register.
A foreigner obtaining a British Register by
making a false representation is liable to have
the vessel made forfeit to the Crown (see
“Ensign º’ and “Yacht '’).
The privilege bestowed by the document
known as an Admiralty warrant is thus
clearly set forth, and is nothing more or
less than a permission to fly one of the
ensigns used by Her Majesty’s fleet. The red
ensign, it can be stated, may, under the
Merchant Shipping Act of 1854, be flown on
board any vessel without permission of the
Admiralty, unless a device be put on it ; in the
latter case a warrant must be obtained from
the Admiralty for permission to use the device.
Thus it will be seen that an Admiralty
warrant confers only a single privilege, but
the Government allows yacht owners who
hold an Admiralty warrant to avail themselves
of certain conditional exemptions from Excise
and other dues. These exemptions are not
important, and are briefly these : Members of
yacht clubs (possessing the warrant) may
remove their own furniture or property from
place to place in the United Kingdom in their
yachts (providing the furniture is for their
own use) without taking out a coasting
licence; members may deposit wines or spirits,
&c., a B Hea, stock in the Customs warehouses,
on arrival from foreign ports, free of duty
(but not of warehousing dues), and re-ship
Buch wines, spirits, &c., for another voyage ;
members may enter Government harbours
Dictionary of General Information. 575
*-s-s
payable thereon, and in that event the stores
may remain on board under seal for future
use, or until the duty chargeable upon them
be paid. Rent will be charged for the stores
deposited in the Queen's warehouse under
these regulations.”
Exciseable goods are only allowed to be
taken on board free of duty upon the yacht
clearing for some foreign port ; and, if a.
yacht owner purchases wines, spirits, or other
excisable goods at a foreign port, he may
deposit the same in a British Customs ware-
house free of duty, and take the same on
board again on his clearing for another
foreign voyage, and paying the warehousing
charge. Nothing is said about a yacht being
allowed in a general sort of way to buy
goods out of bond free of duty; but a
great deal of laxity no doubt prevails in the
matter, as it is a very easy thing for a yacht
to be cleared for a foreign port without the
owner having any intention of proceeding to
the place mentioned in the clearance. A
curious incident occurred in connection with
this matter in 1864. A yacht cleared for a
certain foreign port, and took on board wines
and spirits from a Customs warehouse free
of duty, the master giving the usual bond of
100l. that the same should not be landed or
used out of the yacht. The yacht did not go
foreign, and consequently did not call at the
place mentioned in the clearance, and upon
her return to the port of departure the
Customs officers paid her a visit. All the
wines and spirits had been consumed, but, as
the yacht had not been to the place men-
tioned in her original clearance, the officers
proceeded to estreat the bond; however, on
a declaration being made that none of the
stores had been taken out of the yacht, and,
in fact, were consumed on board, the bond
was not estreated, and only double duty
imposed on the total quantity of excisable
goods which had been taken on board the
yacht. The owner at the time declared that
this exaction by the Customs officers was
owing to his not having “tipped ” them when
they paid a visit to his yacht. Be that as it
may, there is little doubt that the officers
were not exceeding their duty, although they
must have been aware that many yachts when
they take wines and spirits on board in the
Summer months from bond clear for a foreign
port merely to comply with one part of the
regulation, whilst no intention exists of paying
anything more than a flying visit to the port.
However, since the abatement of the duties
on foreign wines and spirits, and tea, the
practice of buying stores out of bond has
practically ceased.
A yacht, on returning from a foreign port,
should bring up at a Boarding Station, even
though she has no wine, spirits, or other
excisable articles on board. If she has only
duty-paid stock on board the owner should
have the invoices of the same ready to show
the Boarding Officer.
Adrift.—Floating with the tide. Generally driv-
without paying dues, and may make fast and
lie to any Government mooring buoys, when
Such are not required by any of H.M.'s ships.
[Exemptions from harbour dues can only be
claimed in Government harbours, such as
Portland, Plymouth, Kingstown, or Holyhead
new harbour ; and it is doubtful if the Admi-
ralty can give exemption from all dues for
Such natural harbours as Portsmouth, Fal-
mouth, Milford, Cork, or Dartmouth if the
local harbour board think proper to impose
dues; indeed, at some of these places dues
are exacted. For instance, a yacht using the
Catwater at Plymouth has to pay some trifling
tonnage due, and we have even heard of
yachts being asked for the “Tinker ' ' dues
at Plymouth. However, these impositions
are exceptional, and beyond the home har-
bours yachts, by special request, are privileged
to enter all similar foreign harbours free of
dues; but this exemption, whether at home
or abroad, does not apply to private harbours
or docks, such as Ramsgate, Torquay, Dover,
Havre, Boulogne, Ostend, and such places.
For using such ports or docks the dues or
tolls must be paid, and they are fixed at a
much higher rate per ton than the harbour or
town duos levied at some ports.]
A yacht need not have her name painted on
her stern ; the master or mate need not have
Board of Trade certificates, even for foreign
cruising ; men or boys can be shipped or un-
Shipped, or agreements can be made with
seamen without reference to the Registrar-
General of Seamen; crew space is under no
limitations, and official logs need not be kept
(see the article “Seamen '' further on); but
any yacht taking on board a passenger at a
foreign port, or leaving one at a foreign port,
is liable to dues as a packet boat. It will
thus be seen that a yacht owner has the
privilege of considerable freedom in his
avocation of pleasure, but before he can
obtain the warrant which confers these privi-
leges his yacht must, as before stated, be
registered in accordance with the provisions
of the Merchant Shipping Act, and it is com-
pulsory that every yacht of and above fifteen
tons internal capacity shall be registered.
Yachts smaller than fifteen tons requiring to fly
the blue, or white, or club red ensign must also
be registered (see the article “Registry’’).
The following are the latest (1890) regula-
tions as to yachts which may have taken in
excisable goods at foreign ports : “The Com-
missioners of Customs inform you that new
regulations have been issued with respect
to surplus stores of yachts laid up, &c.,
and that in future, when yachts are laid
up, or when, for other reasons, they are not
about to cruise outside home waters, their
stores which are liable to duty should, as a
general rule, be deposited in the Queen’s
warehouse, unless satisfactory proof is pro-
duced that such stores have been shipped
from a duty paid stock.
“As an alternative course, however, bond
may be accepted, with one surety, from the
owner of the stores, in the penalty of the duty
ing about without control. Also a vessel is
576 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Adrift—continued.
said to be adrift when she breakB away from
her moorings, warps, &c. The term is also
applied to loose spars rolling about the deck;
sheets or ropes which are not belayed, &c.
Afloat. — The state of being waterborne after
being aground. To be on board ship.
Afore.—The contrary of abaft. Towards the
forward end of anything.
Aft.—An abbreviation of abaft, generally applied
to the stern. To go aft is to walk towards
the 8tern ; to launch aft is to move a Hpar or
anything else towards the stern. To haul aft
the sheets is to bring the clew of the Bail
more aboard by hauling on the sheets.
After.—The state of being aft, as after-Bail, after.
leech, after-side, &c.
After Body.—The part of a vessel abaft her mid-
ship section.
After End.-The stern end of a vessel or anything
else, or the end of anything nearest the 8tern
of a vessel.
After-Gward.—Men stationed aft to work sheets,
&c. In racing yachts, if there be any ama-
teurs on board, they are generally made use
of as an after-guard. In merchant ships the
ordinary Beamen or landsmen enjoy the dis-
tinction. (See “Waisters.”)
After-most.—A thing or point situated the most
aft of all.
Afternoon Watch.-The watch between noon and
four o’clock.
After Part.—The stern extremities of a vessel or
anything else.
After Peak.-The hold of a vessel near the run.
A small cuddy or locker made in the run of a
boat aft.
After Rake.—Contrary to fore rake. The rake or
overhang the stern post has abaft the heel of
the keel. To incline sternwards.
Aftward.—Towards the stern ; contrary to for-
ward.
Against the Swn.—An expression used to show
how a rope is coiled : from right to left is
against the Sun, from left to right is with the
sun. The wind is said to blow against the
sun when it comes from the westward, and to
back when it changes from west to east by
the South.
Agreement with Crew.—A form of agreement pro-
vided by the Board of Trade for yacht sailors
to “sign articles” on. The agreement forms
can be obtained of Messrs. Eyre and Spottis-
woode, Queen’s Printers, London, E.C. (See
“Seaman.”)
Agreement.—The document executed, when a
vessel is built, by the builder and the person
for whom the vessel is being built. The
following is a form of agreement which has
been used :
[The specification relates to a wood yacht
of about 25 tons.]
Žin Agreement between Messrs.
of , yacht builderH, hereinafter
called the builder, of the one part, and 2
of , Esquire, hereinafter called
the owner, of the other part.
The builders shall build and equip a
yacht according to the specification and
drawings marked A, B, C, and Higned by the
parties hereto. The yacht shall be built and
completed in all particulars according to the
requirements of the said specification, and
the whole of the workmanship and material
shall be such as shall be required by Lloyd's
Rules, and such as will entitle the yacht to
be classed at Lloyd's as a yacht. A 1 for a term
of years. The whole of the work shall
be executed under the special survey of Lloyd's
Surveyor, and to the satisfaction of Lloyd’s
committee; and also to the satisfaction of
, marine architect, hereafter called
the architect. The yacht shall be delivered to
the owner complete as aforesaid, safely moored
in . In consideration of these pre-
mises, the builder shall be entitled to be paid
by the owner as follows:– pounds
on the signing of this agreement; a further
Sum of pounds when the said yacht
shall be in frame, and the architect shall have
given a certificate in writing under his hand
that the yacht is in frame, and all the work up
to that stage has been done to the Batisfaction
of Lloyd’s surveyor and to the Batisfaction of
the architect ; a further sum of
pounds when the yacht shall be completely
timbered and planked, and the deck laid, the
coamings fixed, and the architect shall have
given a certificate in writing under his hand
that the yacht is completely timbered and
planked, and the deck laid, and the coamings
fixed, and that all the work up to that stage
has been done to the Batisfaction of Lloyd’s sur-
veyor and to the Batisfaction of the architect.
When the vessel shall have been duly
launched and classed at Lloyd's and
when the said architect shall have given a
certificate under his hand that the vessel has
been completed in all respects to his satisfac-
tion, according to the said plans and speci-
fication, and the vessel has been delivered
afloat, and complete in all respects for sea,
and moored in Bafety in , the
owner shall pay to the builder the further
sum of pounds.
The yacht from and after the payment of
the said sum of pounds, to be
paid on the signing of this agreement, shall
be, and continue to be, the property of the
owner ; and all the materials intended for, or
appropriated to the Baidyacht, shall be deemed
to be the property of the owner.
If at any time the builder shall become
bankrupt, or enter into any arrangement with
his creditors under the Bankruptcy Acts, or
shall fail or be unable to complete the said
vessel in accordance with this agreement, or
shall in the opinion of the architect be guilty
of any unreasonable delay in the execution of
the work agreed to be done, then it shall be
lawful for the owner to enter upon the
Dictionary of General Information. 377
4greement—continued. 35 peſtfical to it. —
builder’s yard and take possession of the
Haid yacht, and to cause the work included in
this agreement to be completed by any person
or persons whom he shall Bee fit. All damage
that shall happen to the Baid yacht agreed
to be built as aforesaid, or to the materials
intended to be used in her construction, by fire
or otherwise, previous to her being delivered
to the owner complete as aforesaid, shall be
forthwith made good by and at the expenHe
of the builder.
The architect and the owner shall at all
times be permitted to have access to the
said yacht during the progress of the workH.
The builder shall deliver the said yacht
complete for sea, according to the said plans
and specification, afloat at
and classed at Lloyd’s as aforesaid, on or
before the first day of , One
thousand eight hundred and ninety, and
in default he shall pay for each and every
day after the said first day of
during which the said yacht remains un-
delivered or unclassed as aforesaid, the Bum
Of pounds a day as and for liquidated
damages; and the said sum of pounds
a day may be deducted by the owner from
any money payable, or to become payable, by
him to the builder.
The builder shall not be entitled to make
any claim or demand upon the owner for work
done upon the said yacht, or in connection
with the building or equipment thereof, or for
any alterations or extras beyond the remune-
ration hereinbefore mentioned, except in
respect of work for which written certificates,
describing the work as extra work, shall be
given under the hand of the architect and
countersigned by the owner.
No work done on the said yacht without a
written order signed by the architect, and
countersigned by the owner, shall be deemed
to be extra work. The builder shall not be
entitled to an extension of the said time by
reason of any extra work or alteration being
ordered unless a written order for such extra
work be signed by the architect and counter-
signed by the owner, and unless the architect
shall think fit at the time such written order
is given by written certificate under his hand
to extend the time fixed for completion, and then
the time shall be extended only so far as the
architect by the said certificate shall determine.
Any dispute arising between the builder
and the owner respecting anything contained
in this agreement, or in the specification
and plans above referred to, or in any way
relating to the building, equipping, or delivery
of the yacht, shall be referred to the said
architect, whose decision shall be final, or, him
failing, to some other arbitrator to be agreed
upon between the parties, or to be nominated,
in case of difference, by the registrar of the
Admiralty Division. The costs of any such
reference to be in the discretion of the arbi-
trator. This agreement may be made a rule
of the High Court of Justice if the court shall
so think fit.
P
DESIGN AND DIMENSION3 : The yacht to
be built according to drawings and plans fur-
nished by , and to be of the following
dimensions:—The length on deck from the fore
Bide of the stem to the aft side of the 8tern
post to be 50ft. ; and the length between per-
pendicular8, measured along the rabbet of the
keel from the after Hide of the stern post, to a
perpendicular dropped from the fore side of the
stem at the deck to be 46ft. ; and the breadth,
from outside to outside of the planking in the
broadest part of the yacht, to be 11 ft.
KEEL : The keel to be of sound English or
American elm, 12in. sided, and not less than
10in. deep, to taper fore and aft to 8tem and
stern post. If the keel be in two pieces, the
scarph to be not less than 6ft. long, butted
and bolted with #in. metal bolts, six in number.
A solid [lead, iron] keel to be cast and fitted,
bolted with yellow metal, underneath the
main keel, as shown in plan ; the builder to
make the moulds for the keel and find the
metal and bolts.
STEM : To be a sound piece of English oak,
with a grown crook, 5in. Bided and 14in.
moulded, properly butted and scarphed into
keel, and bolted with #in. copper bolts.
STERN POST : The stern post to be of Eng.
lish oak, 7in., sided at top, and 9in. moulded.
KNIGHTHEADS AND APRON : The knight-
heads and apron to be of English oak.
DEADwooDs : The upper deadwoods of
English oak, and of sufficient depth to receive
the heels of the timbers, and to be bolted
with #in. yellow metal bolts.
FUTTOCKS AND TIMBERS : The futtocks
and timbers to be of English oak, with room
and space centre to centre of 18in., and to
be 4 in. sided and 4 in. moulded, the top
timbers to be 3%in. sided and 2%in. moulded.
The heels of first futtocks butted or joggled
into the keel, through-fastened, and to be
secured with wrought-iron knee floors, through-
bolted to keel and futtocks with #in. metal
bolts. The double timbers to be bolted
together with #in. square iron, galvanised, and
the heels and heads to fit closely and neatly,
and to be dowelled.
GARBOARDS: The garboard strakes to be of
sound American rock elm, not less than 9in.
wide and 2in. thick.
PLANKING : To be of teak from the cover-
ing-board to 2ft. below the load water-line,
and the remainder of the planks to be
of pitch pine, the whole to be wrought in
parallel strakes 2in. thick, and not more
than 5in. deep (the sheer strake to be 7in.
wide), and in long lengths to have a #in.
copper bolt clinched through every other frame,
and to have a cast metal 4%in. dump in the
remaining timbers. The butts of the planks to
be well fitted and caulked, and to have not less
than 5ft. shift unless a whole strake intervenes
between two butts, and each butt to have
#in. wrought copper bolt through the centre
of the plank, and the timber next thereto. All
fastenings to be counter sunk or punched
home #in. deep to receive putty stops.
578 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Agreement—continued.
SHELF: The shelf to be of English oak,
of 15in. Sectional area, as shown in the draw-
ing C, of the midship section, through-fastened
to top or second strake with #in. metal bolts
at everytimber, and to have a strong galvanised
iron breast-hook forward, and galvanised iron
knees aft. The clamp to be 2%in. thick.
BILGE STRAKES : A pair of bilge strakes of
English oak each 6in. by 2in., running fore
and aft to be worked on each side, and to be
through-fastened with 3in. copper bolts, and
to have a galvanised iron breast-hook for-
ward, and to be bolted into transom frame
with metal bolts aft.
DECK BEAMs : The deck beams to be of
English oak, 4in. sided and 4 in. moulded, and
to have about 4in. rise at centre; to have
galvanised iron knees where required, care-
fully fitted, dovetailed and bolted to the shelf
with #in. metal bolts; the bitt and mast
beams, and the other beams, to have a gal-
vanised iron hanging knee at each end, with
three #in. metal bolts through each arm, and
two other galvanised iron knees to be on each
side. English oak lodging knees to be fitted
between the beams in wake of the mast, and
where required.
CowLRING BOARD : The covering board to
be of teak, 7%in. wide and 2in, thick, properly
secured to top strake and beams and filling
pieces between the beams, and to project about
#in. Outside of the plank.
DECK PLANK : The deck plank to be of
picked, well-seasoned Quebec yellow pine,
free from knots, shakes, and other defects,
in long lengths, tapered as required; no slab
cuts to be used ; and no feather edges to be
left at endings of planks, forward or aft, the
ends to butt #in. into covering board; the
plank to be 2in. thick, and not more than 3in.
wide, and to be nailed diagonally, with yellow
metal nails at the sides.
STANCHIONS AND BULWARKS: The bulwark
stanchions to be of oak, 3in. moulded and 3%in.
sided at deck. The bulwark skirting to be of
teak.
RAIL: The top rail to be of American elm,
#in. by 2in., free of defects, and fitted fair.
RUDDER : The main piece of rudder to be of
one solid piece of English oak, and to have
a carefully fitted water-tight rudder trunk;
to have strong copper braces, fitted with a
rule joint, sunk into stern post ; also a strong
brass or gun metal bearing at heel, to
have an iron strap round the rudder head,
and the rudder head to fit, and work in a
metal collar, sunk into the deck with chock
of teak; to have a meat brass cap, with name
of yacht engraved thereon ; to have two neat
carved oak or mahogany tillers, with brass
fittings.
CAULRING : The outside planking to be
thoroughly and carefully caulked, and the
seams carefully payed and puttied, and the
deck to be very neatly and carefully caulked
with cotton and payed with marine glue,
the whole of the seams of hull and deck
planking to be made tight ; the outside
planking to be painted with three coats of
paint ; two coats of composition to be laid
on the bottom, and at the end of the Season,
or when required by the owner, the hull to
be sheathed with copper sheets carefully
laid on, 180Z. below the water-line and 200Z.
at and above the water-line.
BALLAST : The builder to supply and care-
fully stow a sufficient quantity of pig-iron
ballast (besides metal keel) to put the yacht
to the designed load-line ; none of the ballast
to rest on the plank, but iron bearers to be
supplied to take it between the frames; the
ballast to be painted with one coat of red lead
paint. The builder to supply lead ballast if
so required by the owner, allowing for the
difference between the prices of pig-iron
ballast and lead.
BITTs : The bowsprit bitts to be of Sound
English oak fitted and fastened in the usual
way, mast bitts of teak to be fitted on the
fore-side and aft-side of mast, with usual
cross pieces, with pins.
PUMP : A properly-constructed lead pump
to be fitted, 4in. in diameter, with lead tail
pipe, and rose at bottom, and the discharge
pipe to lead on deck or overboard, as may be
directed.
WATER-CLOSET : To have a patent water-
closet of the most approved construction, with
mahogany seat and fittings complete.
DECK FITTINGs : All the usual hawse pipes
and chain pipes to be properly and carefully
fitted; to have iron roller in sheave fitted for
hawse pipe to take chain cable ; channels and
chain plates, bolts, and dead eyes as required;
bowsprit gammon iron at stem to be covered
with leather, and all necessary belaying pin
racks, cleats, cavels, sheaves, fair leaders,
eye bolts, and other usual deck fittings to be
found and fitted as required.
BOBSTAY SHACKLE AND BAR : To have strong
bobstay gun metal shackle cast to fit the
stem, and to let in flush with the wood so far
as may be prudent, and riveted through, the
bobstay bar to be of copper.
DAVITS : To have boat's davits fitted to ship
on one side, also one small anchor davit to
ship on either bow.
RIDGE ROPE STANCHIONS : To have six
brass stanchions for ridge ropes on either side
of the same, to be hand-burnished in the best
manner and fitted into square sockets in rail
and lower part of bulwarks stanchions.
METAL WARPING CLEATS: To have two
well-burnished brass warping cleats on taffrail,
and two galvanised iron cleats on bow.
POOP : A laid deck poop, or if required, a
neat elm grating fore side of mizen, with teak
frame extending from taffrail to mizen mast.
HATCHES : The companion to be of teak
fitted with brass slides as required, and to
shut in with shifting panel or doors at after
Bide, and Secured with brass hasp and padlock.
The fore hatch to be of teak, to be very care-
fully fitted as required by owner. The sail
room hatch to be of teak of convenient
diameter, to be securely fitted with coamings
on deck, and fastened with brass lock on the
Dictionary of General Information. 579
*****----------------------~~~~~~~.. --> -- - - - -...------------
Agreement—continued.
aft Bide, and brass hasp and padlock on the
fore side.
SIKYLIGHTS : The main cabin and other sky-
lights to be of teak, fitted on teak coamings,
and made to ship and unship in the usual
way, and to have proper brass fastenings
inside, and to be thoroughly water-tight in
every way, and the glass panes to be protected
by neat brass guards or by galvanised iron
or teak bars, as required by the owners. A
curtain sliding on brass rods to be fitted to
the skylight in the main and after cabins.
Skylight coatings to be provided.
COMPANION STAIR's : The companion stairs
to be of teak and fitted as required.
CEILING : The yacht to be ceiled throughout,
down to the ballast line, with 1in. pine, care-
fully planned and fitted on the timbers ; below
ballast line to be coated with red lead or
warnish.
PLATFORM : The platform and platform
beams to be of fir, and securely fitted as
required; the floor to be secured to beams with
brass screws.
MAIN CABIN : The main cabin to be fitted
according to the plans supplied by owner, with
hard wood (mahogany and maple, or teak or
pitch pine, or wainscot oak, &c., as may be
directed) panelled bulkheads, doors, shelves,
cupboards, lockers, drawers, racks, sofas to
form also bed berths, with lee boards. One
cupboard or sideboard to be fitted at the
after end or both ends of each sofa, and shelf
with small open rail extending the whole
length of the cabin to be fitted above each
sofa. A small bookcase to be fitted against
one of the bulkheads. All locks, bolts,
hinges, hasps, or other fastenings, and all keys
in the main cabin, and in every other part of
the vessel to be made of brass.
STOVE : An approved stove to be fitted in
forward bulkhead of the main cabin, with
fender and irons complete ; brass screw
coamings for funnel, and length of copper
chimney to lead clear of rail.
FORECASTLE: The forecastle to be bulk-
headed, as required, and fitted with lockers,
shelves, cupboards, locks, door, rack, table,
seats with lockers underneath, and to have the
usual lockers, and the lockers for chain and
coke, closely ceiled to prevent dirt or dust from
the same getting into the hold; also similar
lockers to be fitted below the pantry, and
fore state room floor. To have a neat iron
ladder from floor to deck, fitted to ship and
unship ; a portable commode to be fitted, if
required, in the forecastle, and one in after
cabin.
SHEIT LEAD CovKRINGs : The floor under-
neath the cooking stove, and all the wood work
near the stove, to be neatly covered with sheet
lead, nailed with copper tacks.
WATER, TANKs : Properly constructed
galvanised iron water tanks of 30 cubic feet
capacity, with manhole, to be provided, and
fitted below the floor with pump and supply
pipe attached, with brass deck plate, and
screw cover for the same.
COOKING STOVE : A patent cooking appa-
ratus to be supplied complete, the owner to
Select or approve of the stove, length of
copper piping to funnel sufficient to lead clear
of rail.
HAMMOCKs: Four hammocks or cots, with
bedding complete, to be found.
MOP8, BROOM8, &c. : All the usual mops,
brooms, brushes, buckets, squeegee, and other
forecastle articles to be supplied.
DECK GEAB : All the usual deck appliances
to be supplied, including iron main boom
crutch, spar chocks, boat skids, boatswain's
stool, gangway ladder, gangway stanchions
and cotton ropes, meat safe, belaying pins,
two india rubber mats, ensign staff, four
canvas-covered cork fenders for deck and
gangway, two life buoys, two canvas buckets,
One patent log, four cork deck cushions, fog-
horn, speaking trumpet, boat hook, anchor
buoy, two snatch blocks, water funnel,
spreaders for rigging, &c.
PANTRY : The pantry to be fitted up as
required, with dresser, shelves, liquor holes,
racks, hooks, drawers, lockers, &c., and
mahogany door opening into main cabin.
FORE STATE ROOM : The fore state room
to be fitted with bed berth of mahogany, with
drawers undermeath, mahogany washstand,
and a folding mahogany slab to form a
writing table ; cupboard, underneath shelves,
racks, &c., mahogany door, &c. The space
on port side of companion way to be fitted
with seats or lockers, as required.
LADIES’ CABIN : The ladies’ after cabin
to be fitted with polished wood panels, same
as main cabin, with mahogany bed berths
and washstands, cupboards and drawers,
as required, and the sofas to be fitted with
lockers underneath, and the doors to be fitted
as required.
LAVATORY : The lavatory to be fitted with
patent washstand, with tap and water; a tank
for water supply, and a patent water closet
of the best construction, to be fitted with
mahogany seat, the lavatory to be bulk-
headed, as required.
SPARs : To be supplied with a complete set
of spars, as required for a yawl of 25 tons,
the whole to be carefully made, and all the
ironwork to be of the finest quality, and
galvanised, the dimensions of the spars to be
according to plans supplied by the owner, and
lettered D. .
MAINMAST : The mainmast to be a picked
spar, as free from knots as may be, of Oregon
or Baltic red pine, fitted complete in every
respect as required.
MAST STEP : The mast to be stepped into a
solid iron mast step to be furnished by the
builder.
WINCH : A gypsy winch to be fitted on the
mast.
Hoops : The usual mast hoops properly
riveted to be fitted to mast.
CROSSTREES : The crosstrees to be carefully
fitted as required.
BOWSPRIT : The bowsprit to have a galva-
nised iron rack plate on the upper side from the
P P 2
580 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Agreement—continued.
heel to the stem, and a stout galvanised iron
pinion where fitted to the bitts, with handle
for the same, and a lignum-vitae roller between
the bitts with a score round the centre to
allow for the passage of the rack plate ; also
a plain stout lignum-vitae roller between the
bitt.S on the under side of the heel of the
bowsprit. A small, square, iron fid as re-
quired, sheave at outer end, traveller leather
covered.
WHISKERS: Galvanised iron whiskers, fitted
with preventer rods and all the other usual
fittings for the bowsprit as required, to be
carefully fitted. .
MAIN-BOOM. : The main-boom to be fitted to
mast with iron band and universal joint, and
all other fittings, including reef cleats, to be
neatly fitted as required.
GAIFF : The gaff to be fitted with strong iron
jaws, and the other fittings as required.
TRYSAIL GAFF: The trysail gaff to be
similarly fitted so that the jaws may be used
with either gaff.
ToPMAST : The topmast to be fitted with
galvanised iron self-acting fid and a brass-
bound sheave in heel for mast rope ; all the
other fittings to be carefully made as required.
TOPSAIL YARD : The topsail yard to be
supplied of such dimensions as may be re-
quired.
SQUARESAIL YARD OR SPINNAKER BOOM :
A square-sail yard or spinnaker boom to be
fitted in the usual way as required.
MIZEN-MAST: The mizen-mast, boom, boom-
kin, yard, &c., to be fitted as required, and
the mast to be stepped securely.
RIGGING AND BLOCKs : The standing and
running rigging of wire, hemp, and manilla of
suitable sizes, to be most carefully fitted, and
the patent blocks for the same to be all of
the best make, the whole standing and running
rigging, blocks, tackle, &c., to be fitted com-
plete in every detail. The main and gaff
halyards to be of the best Russian hemp, the
jib halyards of chain.
SAILs : A complete suit of sails fit for a
yawl of 25 tons, to be found by the builder,
and made by , and to
consist of mainsail, two mizens, foresail, four
jibs, two topsails, squaresail or spinnaker,
trysail, and a complete set of sail covers,
properly painted, to be supplied, and bags
for the smaller sails.
ANCHORS: One anchor of 1% cwt.,
one other anchor of 13 cwt., and one kedge
anchor, to be supplied.
CHAIN CABLE : Ninety fathoms of 9-16 chain
cable, galvanised, to be supplied.
HAwsERs : Two hawsers of 60 fathoms each,
suitable for the yacht, to be supplied.
WINDLAss: An improved ratchet windlass
with double lever to be fitted, or a winch top
capstan.
BAINTING : The outside of the vessel to be
made as smooth as possible, and to have the
usual number of coats of the best oil paint.
A gilt strake.
WARNISH : Bulwarks and all woodwork fit-
tings on deck to have three coats of the best
varnish.
INSIDE PAINT : The underside of the deck,
and such other parts of the vessel as may
require it, to have three coats of paint-two
of the best zinc white.
UPHolsTERY : The upholstory work to be
complete, and to consist of Brussels carpet for
the main cabin, ladies' cabin, and state room,
hard-seasoned oilcloth for the lavatory.
SoFAs : The sofa mattresses, backs, and
pillows to be of hair, and covered with
woollen tapestry, Utrecht velvet, or leather,
as required.
CABIN TABLEs, CHAIRs, &c.; A mahogany
swing table to be fitted in main cabin, with
cloth cover complete, also three folding chairs,
an approved swing lamp, and the stove
before mentioned.
STATE ROOM BEDs : The berths in the state
room and ladies' cabin to be fitted with hair
mattresses, down feather bolsters and pillow8
of the best quality, and three blankets of the
finest quality to be supplied for each bed.
ToILET CHINA : The usual toilet china to be
supplied to each berth, but to be selected by
OWI) Or.
LAMPs : A suitable bronze swing lamp to be
supplied to each berth. -
STATE ROOM SoFAs : The sofas or Beats in
the after state room or ladies' cabin to be
fitted with hair mattresses covered in tapestry,
cretonne, rep, or Utrecht velvet, as the owner
may decide.
BoATs : A suitable gig, to be supplied with
oars, brass rowlocks and yoke, mahogany back
board, and elm grating, and boat hooks, com-
plete in every respect ; also a dinghey, with
brass rowlocks and oars.
BINNACLE : A binnacle of brass or teak,
with brass lamp and fittings, and approved
Compa SS.
SIDE LAMPs, &c. : Side lamps (diopteric)
to be supplied, together with screens and
galvanised iron stanchions, made to fit into
the rail or into stanchions fixed on the rail.
The lower part of the stanchions to be made
to fit into the covering board, or into fasten-
ings on the lower part of the bulwark stan-
chions. The side light screen to be made
with brass hinges, so as to fall flat when out
of use. An anchor lamp (diopteric) to be
supplied. A rack to be fitted in the forecastle
to receive the screens and lamps.
LEAD LINE : A hand lead and properly
marked line to be supplied.
BELL : A ship's bell of the size required by
the Board of Trade to be supplied, and to be
fitted on deck if required. -
FINALLY : The whole of the workmanship
and materials to be of the very best quality;
and notwithstanding any omission from this
Specification, the builder is at his own expense
to complete the vessel in every detail, in what
is understood as hull, masts, spars, ironwork,
and deck and cabin fittings as usual in first-
class yachts, with all joiner's, cabinet maker's,
painter's and plumber's, and upholsterer's
work appertaining thereto.
Dictionary of General Information.
581
Agrownd.—A vessel is said to be aground when
her keel or bottom rests on the ground.
Ahead.-Forward; in advance of.
Ahoy.—An interjection used to attract attention
in hailing a vessel, as “Cetonia Ahoy!”
4-Hull.—A ship under bare poles, with her helm
lashed a-lee. An abandoned ship.
Air-Tight Cases for Small Boats.— By air-tight
cases are meant cases that will keep out water.
The most general form of case is made of
zinc, copper, or Muntz metal. Macintosh
bags have been used; they are put inside
wood lockers, and then inflated, the object
of inflation being of course to fill the
lockers, and thus practically making the
lockers impervious to the influx of water.
As any kind of bag is liable to be punc-
tured or otherwise damaged, metal cases
are to be preferred—they should be fitted
inside wood lockers. To render a boat un-
submergeable she must be provided with
cases which will displace a quantity of water
equal to the weight of the material used
in the construction of the boat or which
may be on board and will not float. Usually
an ordinary fir planked boat will not sink if
filled with water, the gunwale just showing
above the surface ; if, however, she has
ballast on board or other weight, she would
sink. Also the spare buoyancy would not
generally be sufficient to support her crew.
A ton of salt water is equal to 35 cubic feet
of the same : now suppose a boat 16ft. long
and 6ft. broad weighed 15cwt. (#ton) with
all passengers, gear, air-tight cases, &c., on
board, then she would require air-tight cases
equal in bulk to 26% cubic feet, as there are
26% cubic feet of water to #ton weight. But
it may be taken that the wood material used
in the construction of the boat, the spars, and
wood cases, would be self-supporting. Say
that these weighed 5cwt., then 10cwt. (; ton)
would remain to be supported ; ; a ton is
equal to 17% cubic feet. A locker 6ft. long,
2ft. broad, and 1ſt. 6in. deep would contain
18 cubic feet, and so would support the boat
with her passengers on board, or prevent her
sinking if filled to the gunwale with water.
Of course it would be rather awkward to have
such a large locker as this in so small a
boat, and the air-tight spaces are usually
contrived by having a number of lockers,
some under the thwarts, in the bow end and
stern end of the boat, and sometimes above
the thwarts under the gunwales.
Some boats are made unsubmergeable by a
cork belting fixed outside below the gunwale.
One ton of cork is equal to 150 cubic feet of
the same, and will support 3% tons in water.
Thus, roughly, cork will support three times
its own weight in water. Supposing it is
sought to support a boat equal to 10cwt., as
stated above; then a belting of cork will have
to be used equal to 17% cubic feet, plus a
quantity equal to the weight of the bulk of
the cork. Say the boat is 16ft. long, and the
measurement round the gunwales will be 32ft.
A tube 32ft. long to contain 17; cubic feet
would require to be 10% inches in diameter.
[The contents of a tube are found by multi-
plying its length by the area of one end.
This area is found by taking the square of the
diameter and multiplying it by '78 (see “Areas
of Circles”).] The 174 cubic feet of cork
would weigh (17.5 × 15) 262,1b. equal to 4
cubic feet of salt water, and so an addition
would have to be made to the tubing to that
extent. Thus, in round numbers, 22 cubic
feet of cork would be required to support
10cwt. net. A tube 32ft. long and 11in. in
diameter would contain 22'0 cubic feet. The
tubes that contain the cork are usually made
of canvas and painted. The weight of the
H | || | |W//
|| || ||
isºs sº &
Tº º! . . º.º.
* > * * : º, “if º º
*º 3.sº ºrº -
-- tº ... ?" Rºº. . . . . .
ºšāºrº
- º
z--ºº.
º-º-º-º-º: -
FIG. 264.
canvas tube would have to be added to the
general weight to be supported. Solid cork
should be used, and not cork shavings, for
filling the tubes; cork shavings get more or
less saturated, and lose their buoyancy, and
generally have less buoyancy than solid cork, in
consequence of the multitude of spaces between
the shavings which would admit water.
The accompanying sketch (Fig. 264) shows
a small boat with a cork belting round under
her gunwales. (See “Cork Concrete.”
A-Lee.—To leeward. The helm is a-lee when it
is put down to leeward. Hard a-lee means
that the helm must be put as far to leeward
as it can be got. (See “Helm's a-lee.”)
All.—A prefix put to many words to show that
the whole is included, as “all aback,”
meaning all the sails are aback; “all-a-
taunto,” meaning that the ship is fully rigged
and fitted out, with everything in its place;
“all hands,” the whole ship's company; “all
standing,” with everything in its place—
nothing being shifted, &c.
All Aback For’ard.—A cry raised when a vessel is
sailed so near to wind that the head sails lift
or shake.













582
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Alley.—The channel made in the after part of
a steamship for the propeller shaft is termed
the shaft alley. (See “Lane.”)
Aloft.—Up the mast ; overhead. “Aloft there!
is a manner of hailing seamen who may be
aloft on the mast, tops, yards, &c.
Along the Wind.—Sailing along the wind means
to sail with the wind from a point to four
points free, or with the wind abeam.
Along the Lamºl.—To lay along the land is when
a vessel can hug or keep close to the land
without tacking.
Along Shore.—Close to the shore, by the shore,
or on the shore.
Alongside.—By the side of the ship. “The gig
is alongside, Sir,” is a common way of inform-
ing the owner, master, or other officers that the
boat is manned and by the gangway, in readi-
ness to take people off; also said when a boat
is brought to the gangway so that passengers
can embark.
Amatewr.—See “Corinthian.”
Amidships.-The middle part of a ship. The
middle part of anything. To put the helm
amidships is to bring it in a line with the
keel. Generally the word has reference to
the middle fore-and-aft line of the ship, and
to a middle athwartship part of a ship.
Anchor for Small Boats.-For small open boats
the anchor should weigh 11b, for every foot of
length up to 20ft. For other boats anchors
would be chosen according to the total weight
of the boat, including her ballast and equip-
ment, &c.; thus—#ton, 201b.; 1ton, 251b. ;
1%tons, 30lb. ; 2tons, 34lb. ; 2%tons, 381b;
3tons, 421b The size of link of chain would
be about #in. Anchors for small boats should
be long in the shank, and of the old-fashioned
pattern.
A sort of grapnel has been in use many
years by fishermen for small boats (Fig.
265). E is the shank, D the usual ring,
working in an eye (not shown in the engrav-
ing), B the bottom pair of claws, A, the
top pair of claws. The bottom pair of
claws are welded on to the handle, but the
top pair slide up and down, and it is usual
to make the part under the ring D Square so
that the grapnel can be converted into an
anchor by fixing the part A under the ring D
by aid of a small key. A small portion of
the bottom of the handle, shown by the
shaded lines, is wrought square, and through
the centre of the top pair of claws is a square
hole, as at F. The sketch represents the
FIG. 266.
gripper lying flat, and in its present position
it is, of course, useless as a holdfast ; it lies
Snug. Before heaving it overboard, take
hold of the top pair of claws and slide them
up the handle, till you get to the round part
when turn them round, and drop them down
upon the lower pair of claws on another
square. You have now a most effective
four-clawed gripper, which will hold like a
bulldog. These grippers are made at the
reasonable price of 6d. per lb., big or little,
galvanised. About 11b. per foot of length
would be the weight for an ordinary boat.
They are made by Messrs. Blake and Sons,
Gosport, or obtainable from most of the ship
chandlers or yacht fitters.
Anchor (Barlow).-Mr. G. T. Barlow, of Lytham,
says he wanted a stocking anchor which
could be instantly made serviceable, as
he generally found at some critical moment
the fastening arrangement was defective



Dictionary of General Information. 583
either through breakage or loss of locking,
parts, and then turned his attention to stock-
less anchors, but found he could not place
full reliance on these. He then made a stock-
ing anchor, which proved efficient. The stock
is fastening by half turning the anchor ring.
To stow the anchor, half turn the ring, and
lay the stock alongside the shank; then half
turn the ring and the stock is fast without
any lashing (Figs. 266 and 267).
Anchor (Buckmill's).-Col. Buckmill, R.E.,
invented the following anchor for small
yachts in 1890. A sample, with a span of
22in. from fluke to fluke, and weighing only
391b., has been tried on a 10-tonner, and has
given great satisfaction (Fig. 268).
The drawing almost explains itself: The
crown (C) of the anchor is made with a small
indentation midway between the two arms,
FIG, 267.
and coinciding with the window (W) made in
the top of shank. The parts (SSS) of shank
are humped to a double thickness, thus
providing three bearing surfaces for the
crown. An iron hook (H) passes through the
window (W), and secures the crown to the
shank, the hook itself being clamped to the
shank by the sliding ring (R). Thus there
are no screws, pins, &c., to get out of order,
and should the anchor drag, the tendency is
to tighten the ring (R) on its seating.
For harbour work, a single arm, with hole
for buoy line, can be supplied, but this is a
spare part, and is not essential.
Messrs. Fay and Co., of Southampton, make
anchors of this pattern to order, up to weights
of 10wt., which will hold a yacht of 20 or 25 tons,
and can be stowed in quite a small bundle.
The drawing represents a 40lb. anchor,
suitable for an 8 or a 10-tonner.
Anchor (D. Cole's, Sowbhampton).-This is
an anchor something like the “old bay.” It
has a very long shank and sharp clea flukes.
The crown is fitted to the shank and kept
in its place by a pin. The advantage of this
anchor is its great holding power, and the
quickness with which it gets a hold even in
hard ground. In letting go very little chain
is required to bring a vessel up, but if the
vessel has much way on a good scope should
be given, as the anchor is a dangerous one
to Bnub. The parts of the anchor are very
light, and it is claimed that the weight re-
quired is 25 per cent. less than the weight of
other anchors.
Anchor (Gales’ Improved Trotman). This
anchor was shown at the Inventions Exhibi-
Spare Arm for
Tidal or Harbºur Work.
FIG. 268.
tion, 1890, and the following is the inventor's
description of it : “This invention (see
Fig. 269) is an improvement upon the class of
anchors known as “Porter’s,’ ‘Trotman's,’
and others. In common with those referred
to, the shank is so formed and proportioned
as to receive at its crown the arms and
flukes. Either arm or fluke is so arranged
to work from a central point or pivot at the
extremity of the shank, that upon its being
“canted,’ instead of taking the pressure or
bearing from the pivot, the entire bearing is
given as parallel with and on to the shank,
thereby giving additional holding power and
strength, and materially helping to relieve
the ordinary undue strain upon the fluke and
bolt connection. The improved anchor will
be found very compact and snug when


584 Yacht and Boat Sailing. *
Šſº
aft * ...N
#Sº Tºº
-
TIG. 269.
ITIG.
s: 2 º' -- ~. gº - - -- r ~5- ** ... n.ſ.-
k ::::::=R--- ------- *-ºſ-rºº. ...--~~i-f
- º
FIG. 273.
~i=L-
ITIG, 272,












Dictionary of General Information. 585
berthed, and for yachts, torpedo, and other
craft of that class would be found very efficient
in Bhallow water, and specially adapted for
vessels of a larger class.” Address 56, High-
8treet, Poplar, E.
Anchor (Hall'8 Stockless).--This appears
to be an adaptation of Wasteneys Smith's
anchor. The flukes of the anchor are fixed
at an angle of 54° with the shank, and,
being part of the head, are at liberty to
move freely on the trunnion of the
Shank. The whole of the holding strains
are entirely contained in these two main
pieces, without the intervention of bolts,
cotters, pins, or keys. This anchor, being
stockless, can be readily drawn into the
hawse pipe and Snugly stowed alongside
the ship, where it is always ready for
use without any catting or lifting on
deck (see Fig. 270). The inventor is
Mr. J. F. Hall, general manager to
Me88rs. Wm. Jessop and Sons Limited,
of Sheffield.
Amchor (Liardet's).-The peculiarity
of this anchor (Fig. 271) is that the stock
is provided with flukes the same as the
arms. The arms and stock are so fitted
that they can move within a range of 45°.
When stowed, the arms and stock lie in
a line with the shank. There is a
shackle for the cable and another near
the crown for a buoy rope. The arms are
shown by a a and the flukes by b b (Fig. 271).
The arms and flukes of the stock are similarly
shown. The manner of securing the arms to
the shank is shown at e. We are informed
that the P. and O. Company and some other
companies are using the anchor. The manu-
facturers are Messrs. Parkes and Ross, of
Tipton (Staffordshire) and Liverpool.
Amchor (Moore's). —The portable anchor
(Fig. 272), invented by Mr. Louis Moore,
has no fastenings except the chain shackle.
It is easily taken to pieces, and stows snugly.
The shank passes through the crown of the
anchor like the handle of a pickaxe, and the
stock passes over the end of the shank; no
keys, bolts, &c., are required. The stock has
loose pawls, as shown by the views.
The anchor is manufactured by Messrs.
Mobbs, Vulcan Works, Northampton.
Anchor (Sinnette’s).-The old Admiralty
dimensions for an anchor of 112lb. weight
was 5ft. 8in. Shank, with 1ſt. 10in. arms, the
flukes or palms of which were 9in., and the
spread 3ft. 3in. No doubt such an anchor as
this would hold like grim death. It is the
weight of a 10-tonner's anchor, but such a
thing on the bow of a 10-tonner would be, to
say the least, rather in the way. Thomas and
Nicholson's anchors are the best current
examples of a good holder on the old-fashioned
principle, and a humdredweight anchor of
their patterm is, we believe, only 4ft. 6in. in
length of shank, with 3ft. spread of arms.
The length of shank must exist to get the
holding power, and the arms ought not to be
shorter than 4 of the shank, nor make a less
angle than 50° with the shank. Mr. Sinnette's
anchors are of excellent proportions, and the
arms are of the length and angle most suitable
for holding. The spread of the arms is much
the same as Thomas and Nicholson's ; but
being hinged, the spread, when the bills touch
the Shank for stowing, is only 1.ft. in a
hundredweight anchor. The usual objection
FIG. 274.
to hinged anchors is that the crowns are
weakened ; but the long record of service of
Trotman’s and Porter’s has shown that the
objection is not a serious one. With regard
to Sinnette’s, the crown joint is so exception-
ally strong that the objection may be said
not to exist at all.
FIG. 275.
A (Fig. 274) shows the anchor as prepared
for use ; by removing a centre tapered bolt the
arms can be closed, as shown in B ; the bolt
is then replaced to lock the arms in the
position shown, so there is no chance of
fingers being injured through the arms


586 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Anchor Shackle.—A Bhackle which connects the
chain with the anchor.
Anchor, Tripping an-If an anchor is let go on
very firm holding-ground, or on ground where
the anchor is likely to get foul, a tripping lino
is made fast to the crown of the anchor ; to
the other end of the line a buoy is made fast,
and when the anchor is “wanted '' it can
be broken out of the ground by hauling on
the tripping line if it cannot be got by hauling
on the cable.
Another plan is to “scow’’ the anchor by
bonding the end of the cable to the crown
instead of to the ring or Bhackle. The cable
is then “stopped ” to the ring by a yarn.
When the cable is hauled upon the stop
breaks, and, of course, the cable being fast
to the crown, the anchor is readily broken out
of the ground. A boat should not be left
moored with her anchor “scowed,” as, if any
unusual strain came upon the cable, the 8top
would break, and the boat would probably go
adrift. The trip line should be used in Buch
cases. (See “Scowing.”)
Anchor Watch.-A watch kept constantly on deck
when a ship is at anchor, to be ready to veer
out or take in chain, or to Blip, make sail,
give warning to the hands below, &c., if
the vessel be in danger of collision or other
mishaps. One hand may keep an anchor
watch, and call up the officers and crew if
neces8ary.
Anchor, Winch for Raising a Bool's.—Very neat
and Hmall capstains or windlasses are now made
for almost any sized boat that has a deck for-
ward, but these are not readily fitted to an
open boat, and fishermen have a very simple
contrivance to obtain the necessary power.
Get a short piece of hard wood about 4in. in
diameter, and of a length equal to the width
TIſ). 276.
opening and shutting. Thomas and Nichol-
Bon's anchor has also a tapered pin and
tapered hole to receive it ; this plan is found
to answer much better than the parallel pin,
which will always jam more or less, and
require Something to hammer it out with.
The stock is also umpinned, and stows along-
Side the shank as shown.
In another form of this anchor the arms
are not locked when in use, but only for
8towing. The arms have back flukes, and
the upper arm falls on to the shank when the
lower one is in the ground. It thus becomes
a non-fouling anchor with all the advantages
of a Trotman in that respect, but with more
compactness for stowing.
C (Fig. 275) shows yet another form of the
anchor, the shank being jointed as well as
the arms, the whole being made immensely
strong.
D shows this anchor Stowed. For facility
in shifting about through hatchways or
doors, nothing could beat this anchor in
compactness, and it ought to be a great
favourite among owners of small yachts.
The agents for the anchors are Messrs. Fay
and Co., High-street, Southampton.
Anchor (Smith's Stockless).---This curious
anchor is recommended by the patentees for
the following reasons : It takes immediate
hold; cannot foul; requires no stock; can be
20 per cent. lighter than other anchors ;
always cants properly ; great strength; easily
worked ; lies flat on deck; stows in Small
Space ; easily tripped. The anchor is shown
in the cut, Fig. 273 (Page 584).
The sizes recommended for yachts are, for
SAILING YACHT3. STEAM YACHT3.
250 tons 6} cwt. 250 tons, 4} cwt.
200 4) 5% * , 2()() j } 4 3)
150 is 4%. , 150 , , 3} ,,
125 , 3} , . 100 m, 2% ,
j ()() 3 * % } | 75 $ 3 2 * ,
75 * } 2% $ 3 !j() } % 1% • ?
}}() 7 j 2 * 5 25 3 y I | 1
4() } } 1} * } 12 * , } * 5
30 n 1% o
20 , 1 , ,
10 , , ; , ,
5 3 * % 31
The anchors are made by Mr. Wasteneys
Smith, 58, Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Anchon".--Thomas and Nicholson’8 Patent
(Camper and Nicholson, Gosport). —The paten-
tees claim it to be by far the strongest discon-
necting anchor ever yet introduced ; and
with the long but proportionate shank and
the convex and elongated palms to have the
very maximum of holding power, and may
consequently be used considerably lighter
than any other anchors.
The two taper bolts at the Crown enables
any person to disconnect or connect the
anchor with the greatest despatch and cer-
tainty ; as a taper bolt never requires any
driving or drifting, inevitable at times with
parallel bolts. The anchors are made in all
sizes from 61b. to 271b. (See Plate CXXIII.)
Anchon, Mushroom.—This is a kind of
anchor shaped like a mushroom.
of the boat at the gunwale, where it is to be
fitted to serve as the barrel of a winch
(termed a “wink” by the fishermen). In
either end drive an iron pin to form an axle,
and to keep the wood from opening fit an iron
band on either end (all the iron should be
galvanised). On each gunwale fit an iron
plate—a round hole in one plate and a hole
and Blot (opening aft) in the other. A hole
must be bored through the wood to receive a
short bar of tough wood or iron three or four
feet long, to Herve as a lever, or three or
four pegs can be inserted, as is shown in the
sketch (Fig. 276). The ond of the cable will be

PLATE ('XXIII. -
Gºzzº Rºsº
%








Dictionary of General Information.
587
*…*-*------~ :----, ------
fast to the wink, and as the latter is hove round
the cable will be wound up. If there be two
hands in the boat the cable need not be fast
to the wink, but one hand can heave whilst
the other holds on to the cable and coils away.
A ratchet and pawl are sometimes fitted
to the wink. Messrs. Pascal Atkey and
Son, Cowes, manufacture a suitable ratchet
windlaš8 and also a capstan for small
yachts.
Answer.—To repeat an order after an officer ;
thus, if the order be to the helmsman, “No
more away,” he will repeat, “No more away,
Sir ;” or to the jib-sheetman, “ Check the jib-
sheet,” he will answer, “ Check the jib-sheet,
Bir.” Thus the crew should always “answer”
every order to show that they comprehend.
Answer Her Helm.—A vessel is said to answer
her helm when she moves quickly in obedience
to a movement of the rudder. Long, deep
vessels, and full quartered vessels which have
not a long clean run to the rudder, are slow
to answer their helm. A vessel cannot
“answer her helm ’’ if she has not way on
through the water, hence “steerage way.”
A 1.—The highest class obtainable at Lloyd’s.
Formerly (from about 1760) all new ships were
classed “A” with a term of years according
to their port of building ; after this term
expired the ship was degraded to the E or I
class, and so frequently it happened that a
bad ship got a long term and a good one a
short term ; and perhaps the short-termed
ship when repaired for the class E was better
than the long-termed one was when first built.
Such an absurd way of classing formed no
useful guide for underwriters or insurance
brokers, and in 1824 the present well-known
committee of “Lloyd’s Register’’ was esta-
blished, by which ships are classed and given a
term, according as they are built, in compliance
with certain rules. A 1 is the highest class.
“A ’’ denotes that the hull is built of good
materials, in accordance with certain rules,
“1” is the symbol that the rigging and general
equipment of the ship are in every way perfect.
The number of years assigned to a ship as
her term depends upon the quality of the
materials used and the mode of construction,
and may vary from eight to eighteen years.
A well-built ship upon being restored may be
retained in the A class. “A in red ” are
ships that have passed their term, or ships
that were not classed when built. Class AE
applies to ships fit only for short voyages.
Class E and I are similar to Æ, but denote
that the ships are not fit to carry perishable
goods on any voyage. It is seldom that any
number is assigned but 1, and generally the
classes will be found distinguished by A 1
15 years, A 1 (in red) 7 years, AE 1 ; the
classes AE, E and I, are subject to annual
inspection (see Lloyd's Yacht Register).
In the case of iron or steel ships, A means
that the yacht is entitled to a character, but
subject to periodical survey. The numeral
100, 90, &c., before A means that the vessel
has been built up to Lloyd's rules and require-
ments, 100 A being the higher class. The
letters M. C. in red denote that the boiler and
machinery are certificated. See “Lloyd’s.”
A-Peek or Peak.-An anchor is said to be a-peak
when the cable has been so much hove in as to
form a line with the forestay; “hove short ’’
So that the vessel is over her anchor. Yards
are a-peak when topped by opposite lifts.
See A Cock Bill.
Apostles.—Seaman’s slang for knightheads, bol-
lards, &c., for belaying warps to. They
formerly had carved heads to represent the
upper part of the human body.
Apron.—A piece of timber fitted at the fore
end of the keel at its intersection with the
stem and up the stem.
Arch Board.—The formation of the counter across
its extreme aft end, being a continuation of
the covering board, and covers the heads of
the counter frames.
Ardent.—A vessel is said to be ardent when she
gripes or shows a tendency to come to against
a weather helm.
Areas of Circles.—The area of a circle is found
by multiplying the square of the diameter by
the fraction 0-7854. The areas of small circles
in decimals of a foot are given in the following
table : , ,
|
º: Area of circle Circumfe-
Diameter | **** iſ in decimals rence of the
g is decimals of a s e
in inches. linear foot of of a square circle IIl
12 inclues foot. inches.
|
13 O'1 0'0078 3'92
2% 0°2 ()*0314, 7°46
3; O'3 0'0706 11°38
4} 0°4 0-1256 14'92
G ! 0°5 0°1963 18'84,
73 0°6 0°2827 22°27
8; O'7 0.3848 26'31
9; | 0.8 0°5026 ſ 30°23
10; 0-9 0°6362 33-77
12 1*0 0.7840 37.69
The contents of a tube or cylinder can be
found by the above table.
Thus, say a tube 30ft. long be 3%in. (equal
to 0-3 of a foot) in diameter, then the area of
one end of the tube will be 0706 sq. ft.
The contents of the tube will be found by
multiplying its length by the fraction '0706
(30 × 0706 = 2*118 cubic feet). If the
tube were 6in. in diameter, then its contents
would be 30 × 0°1963 = 5'889 cubic feet.
Arms.—The extremities of anything, as yard arms.
Ashore.—A vessel is said to be ashore when she
is aground. To go ashore is to leave the
ship for the land.
A-stay.—Synonymous with a-peak.
Asterm.—Towards the stern. To move astern ;
to launch astern ; to drop astern. An object
or vessel which is abaft another vessel or
object. Sailors never use the word “behind.”
to represent the position of being astern.
588
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Astrolabe.—Am ancient instrument for measuring
the altitude of the sun, superseded by the
quadrant and sextant.
A-tawnto.—With all the masts on end, and rigging
completely fitted. (See “All-a-taunto.”)
Athwart.—Transversely, at right angles to fore
and aft ; across the keel. Athwart-ship is
thus across the ship from one side to the
other. Athwart hawse is when one vessel
gets across the stem of another.
A-trip.–When the anchor is broken out of the
ground or is a-weigh. A topmast is said to
be a-trip when it has been launched and un-
fidded.
Avast.—Stop, cease, hold, discontinue. As a vast
heaving (stop heaving), a vast hauling (stop
hauling), &c.
Awash.-Level with the surface of the water.
Away.—A general order to go, as “away aloft,”
for men to go into the rigging ; “away aft,”
for the men to move aft, &c. “Gigs away
there,” or “cutters away there,” or “dinghys
away there,” is the common way of giving
the order to get the boats ready and manned.
“Away with it,” to run away with the fall of
a tackle when hauling upon it. “Away she
goes,” said of a vessel when first she moves
in launching. “Away to leeward,’’ ‘‘away
to windward,” “away on the port bow,” &c.
A-Weather.—The situation of the helm when it
is hauled to windward. To haul a sail
a-weather is to haul the sheet in to windward
instead of to leeward, to form a back sail, to
box a vessel’s head off the wind or put stern
way on her. Generally to windward.
A-Weigh.—Said of the anchor when it is a-trip or
broken out of the ground. The anchor is
weighed when hove up to the hawse pipe.
Awioms for Yachtsmen (by an Americam).--—Don’t
stand up in a boat ; don’t sit on the rail of a
boat ; don’t let your garments trail overboard ;
don’t step into a boat except in her middle ;
don’t stand up in a boat before you are along-
side ; don’t pull under the bows of a ship—it
looks green, and the consequences might be
fatal; don’t forget to “in fenders” every time
you shove off; don’t forget that a loaded boat
keeps headway longer than a light one ; don’t
make fast with a hitch that will jam ; don’t
lower away with the plug out ; keep the plug
on hand by a small lanyard to it, so that
it cannot be “led astray ’’ and have to be
hunted up when needed. Do.—Do hoist your
flags chock up—nothing betokens the lands-
man more than Slovenly colours; do haul
taut all your gear ; do see that no “ Irish
pennants '' are flying adrift aloft ; do have a
long scope out in a gale; do see that your
crew keeps in its place and does not boss the
quarter deck ; do keep your men tidy and
looking sailor-like ; do keep to leeward of
competing yachts when you are not in the
match yourself.
Aye Aye, Sir.—The response made by Seamen
when an order or direction is given them, to
show that they understand and will obey.
E.
Back. —To back a sail, is to haul the sheet to
windward.
Back and fill.—To luff up in the wind, and then
fill off again. Often a vessel is worked up a
narrow channel with a weather tide by
backing and filling : that is, the helm is put
down slowly, and the vessel kept moving
until she is nearly head to wind ; the helm is
them put smartly up, and the vessel filled
again. Care must be always taken to fill
before the vessel loses way. Figuratively,
to back and fill is to blow hot and cold, or
assent and dissent, or to go backwards and
forwards with opinions.
Backing.—Timber fitted at the back of other
timbers.
Backstays.—The stays that support the topmast
with a beam or stern wind. The topmast
shrouds or rigging (See “Shifting Backstay,
and Preventer.”)
Backwater.—The water thrown back whem waves
strike a wall or other solid object. The water
that appears to follow under the stern of a
ship. To back water is to move the oars of a
boat, so that the boat moves astern instead
of ahead.
Baffling Wind. — A wind that is continually
shifting its direction, so that it is difficult to
keep the sails full or steady ; more frequently
used when the vessel is close or nearly close
hauled.
Bag.—Sails are said to bag when they do not sit
flatly.
Bagpipe.—To bring the sheet of an after-sail,
such as the mizen, forward to the weather
rigging, so that the sail forms a bag, or back
sail : when head to wind useful to put stern
way on a vessel.
Balance Lºwg.—A lug sail with a boom and yard.
About one-sixth of the Sail is on the fore side
of the mast, and thus “balances '' on the
mast, requiring no dipping when going about;
apparently adapted from the Chinese lug sail.
(See page 309.)
Balance Reef.—In gaff sails a band with reef
points or eyelet holes for lacing, sewn from
the throat to the clew. The reef is taken in
by lowering the jaws down to the boom and
lacing the sail along the reef band to the
boom. Sometimes the gaff end is lowered
down to the boom end ; in which case the reef
band is laced along the gaff.
Bale.—To throw water out of a vessel or boat by
buckets or balers.
Baler or Bailer.—A small basin-like vessel, used
for throwing water out of a boat.
Ballc.—A hewn tree; a piece of timber for masts,
&c.
Ballast.—Dead weight carried to assist the sta-
bility of a vessel. A ship is said to be in
ballast when she has no merchandise on
board, but only sand, gravel, mud, or rubbish
as ballast. A yacht in marine parlance is
always “in ballast.”
Dictionary of General Information.
589
Ballast, To Keep Clean, or Sweeten.—The ballast of
an old vessel should be removed every other
Season, scrubbed, and whitewashed with hot
lime, or coated with black varnish, paraffin, or
red lead. The hold of the yacht should at the
same time be thoroughly cleansed and black
varnished, distempered, or red leaded, or
coated with one of the patent paints. A
mixture of two-thirds Stockholm tar and one-
third coal tar boiled together will make a
good composition for the ballast and the
inside of a vessel below the floor. Some
vessels are now regularly hauled up every
year, and of course their ballast is taken out
and stored. The ballast of a new vessel
generally requires cleansing when she is laid
up, as the soakings from the oak frames
make a very unpleasant odour. (See “Dis-
temper,” “Laying up,” and “Limber
Boards'’).
Ballast Bearers.-(See “Bearers.”)
Ballast, Rum, into a Vessel.—Before the days
of heavy lead keels, several racing yachts
have had ballast run into them, but the
plan was not approved of owing to the
great labour of cutting the lead out again in
case alterations became necessary ; and more-
over with a little trouble ballast can be
moulded to fit into every cavity, however
small, between the floors and keel. Before
the lead is run into a vessel the timbers and
plank should be cemented or smeared with
wet clay; the vessel should be caulked before
the lead is run in. In iron vessels the ballast
is run in to the keel which is formed for the
purpose.
Ballast, To Shift from Inside to the Keel.—
The quantity of ballast that can be re-
moved from inside the hull whilst the same
stability is maintained by placing a certain
amount of metal on the keel, can be ascer-
tained as follows : before the vessel is hauled
up to have the metal keel fixed, perform
the following experiment : take a quantity
of ballast (say 10cwt. for a 20 tonner)
from the hull and place it on one side of
the deck; mark on the vessel’s side the line
to which she is heeled ; after the metal keel
has been fixed and the vessel launched, put
exactly the same weight of ballast (taken from
the hull) as before on the side of the deck in
exactly the same place ; then remove ballast
from the inside until the vessel heels to the
line she did before the metal keel was fixed.
This experiment should always be made before
sailing a vessel to a lighter load-line after
fixing a metal keel or adding to one. The ex-
periment should be performed in perfectly
smooth water. (The result can be arrived at
by calculation, as explained in “Yacht Archi-
tecture,” but the process requires too many
figures to introduce here.)
Ballast, Shifting.—To put ballast (usually duck
shot in bags) in the weather side of a vessel
during sailing. This practice for many years
has been strictly forbidden in yacht racing,
and if a man were known to practise it he
would be shunned as a thoroughly dishonest
person.
Balloon. Soils. – Balloon canvas is a term
applied to sails of large dimensions, made of
light canvas, and generally only used in
yacht matches. A balloon jib fills up the
whole space from the bowsprit end, mast-
head, and mast at deck; a balloon foresail
is hanked to the forestay, but the clew
extends some distance abaft the mast ; the
foot of a balloon topsail extends beyond the
gaff on a jack yard ; a balloon maintopmast
staysail has an up and down weather leech
extending below the lower corner of the sail,
which is hanked to the maintopmast stay
(see Fig. 3, page 29). A jib topsail was
Sometimes termed a balloon sail, but now
it is generally considered a “working sail.”
Balloon jibs have gone out of fashion, as
“bowsprit spinnakers ” are now universally
used, and are more easily handled. Schooners
Seldom now have a jack yard for fore topsail.
Balloon Topsail.—This is usually understood to
be a topsail with a foot or jack yard to
extend the foot beyond the gaff. Formerly,
the foot yard was short and the head yard
was of great length—as long as could be
stowed on the deck of a yacht—and the
sail, very heavy to hoist, was quite unfit for
close-hauled work. As the hoisting of these
heavy yards was an operation of so much
labour, they fell into disuse for some years
—between 1873 and 1883—but recently the
sail has been re-introduced with a com-
paratively short head yard and longer foot
yard. The sail has consequently nearly as
much area as the old-fashioned “balloon
topsail,” and the combined weight of head
yard and foot yard is about half that of
the old yard ; beyond this, as the sail is well
peaked, it sits and stands well on a wind in
moderate breezes.
Bamboo Spairs.-In small boats these are often
used on account of their lightness. They
vary much in strength, and should be from
10 to 20 per cent. greater diameter than solid
wood spars.
Bare Poles.—With no sail set. With all the
sails furled or stowed at sea for scudding
before a heavy gale, or sometimes for lying
to.
Bargee.—A seaman employed on board a barge.
Bar Harbowr.—A harbour that has a bank or
bar of sand or gravel at its mouth, so that it
can only be entered at certain hours of the
tide.
Bark.--A general term for a vessel.
Barque.—A ship without yards on her mizen
mast.
Barquentime.—A vessel square rigged on her fore-
mast, and fore-and-aft rigged on her two
other masts.
Barra Boats.--Wessels of the Western Isles of
Scotland, with almost perfect V section.
590
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Barrel.—The part of a capstan, windlass, or
winch round which the cable or rope is wound
whilst heaving. Sometimes termed the drum.
Base Line,—In maval architecture a level line
near the keel, from which all heights are
measured perpendicularly to it. Generally in
yacht designs the load water-line, as shown
in the Sheer Plan, is made the base line, and
all depths and heights are measured per-
pendicularly or at right angles to it.
Batten.—A long piece of wood used to lash to
yards or booms to strengthen them. Thin
pieces of hard wood fitted to spars to prevent
their being chafed or cut. Thin splines of
wood used by draughtsmen to make curved
lines. A general term for a thin strip of wood.
Batten Down.—Putting tarpaulins over hatches
or skylights, and securing them by iron bars
and battems.
Beach.—A Shore.
strand.
Beach Boats.-Flat floored boats that can be
readily beached. (See “ Brighton Beach
Doats,” page 332.)
Beacon.—A stake, boom, or post put on a sand-
bank or shoal as a warning for vessels.
To beach is to lay ashore, to
Beacon Bwoy.—A buoy with a kind of cross upon
top of it.
Beadom’s Safety Reel.—Used for belaying the
main sheet. This was a contrivance invented
in 1833 described in “Folkard’s Sailing Boat.”
This reel is said to have been contrived
without cogs or catches, and released the
main sheet upon the boat being heeled to a
certain angle (See “Cruickshank’s Patent
Cleats '' and main sheet slip.)
Beam.—A timber that crosses a vessel trans-
versely to support the deck. The breadth of a
vessel. “Before the beam ” is forward of the
middle part of a ship. The wind is said to be
before the beam when the ship makes a less
angle than 90° with the wind. A beam wind
is a wind that blows at right angles to a
vessel’s keel. “Abaft the beam ” is towards
the stern.
Beam and Length.—The proportion a vessel’s
beam bears to her length. A quarter of a
century ago, it was considered that this pro-
portion had a great deal to do with speed,
hence many builders set great store on the
particular amount of beam to length they gave
a vessel. In sailing yachts it is found that for
cruising a good proportion is from four to four
and three-quarter beams to length. The com-
paratively deep and long-bodied vessels make
the best sea boats. They are of a good weight,
length, and depth, the conditions which tend
to lessen the influence of the waves on their
motions, and they are easier with a beam sea.
Beam, Ends.--A vessel is said to be on her beam
ends when she is hove down on her side by
the wind or other force, so that the ends of
her deck beams are on the water, or her deck
beams perpendicular to the water. However,
in sea parlance, a ship is said to be on her
beam ends when knocked down to a squall
to say 45°, so that when a ship is described
as being on her “beam ends '' the meaning
need not be taken literally.
Beam Trawl.—A trawl whose mouth is extended
by a long spar or beam.
Bear, To.—The direction an object takes from a
ship expressed in compass points or by points
in the vessel; as in reference to another vessel
she bears S.E. or W.S.W., &c., or on the port
bow, or weather bow, port beam or weather
beam, port quarter or weather quarter, &c.;
or two points on the weather bow or port
bow, &c.
Bear a Hamd. There !—An admonition to hurry.
Bear Away, or Bear Up.–To put the helm to
windward and keep the vessel more off the
wind. Generally used in close-hauled Sailing
when a vessel begins to alter her course by
sailing off the wind. (See “Wear.”)
Bearers.--Irons fitted in between the frames for
ballast to rest on, so that it does not rest on
the plank; also the beams which carry the
cabin floor or platform of a yacht, termed
platform bearers.
Bearings.—The direction between one object and
another ; generally the direction of an object
on land to a ship. The widest part of a
vessel which may either be above or below
water. A vessel is said to be on her bearings
when she is heeled over, so that her greatest
breadth is in the water.
Bearings by Compass.-An object is said to bear
so many points on the port or starboard bow,
or port or starboard quarter, or port or star-
board beam as the case may be ; or an object
may be said to bear E.N.E. or E. or W., &c.,
from the point of observation. The usual
plan of taking a bearing is to stand directly
over the binnacle, and notice which point on
the compass card directly points to the
object. A more accurate way of taking
bearings may be followed thus : on each
quarter-rail abreast of the binnacle, have a
half compass plate of brass fixed, or mark
off compass points on the rail, and let two
opposite points (say north and South) be in
direct line or parallel with the keel. A pointer
or hand, eight or nine inches long, must be
fitted to the plate, to ship and unship on a
pivot; move the pointer until it points directly
to the object, then read off the number of
points it is from the direction of the ship’s
head. Next observe the direction of the ship's
head by the binnacle compass ; if the ship's
head points N., and the pointer showed the
object to be, say, four points away westerly
from the direction of the ship’s head, then
the object will bear N.W., and so on. If very
great accuracy be required, and if the ship
be yawing about, one hand should watch the
binnacle compass, whilst another makes the
observations with the pointer.
An object is said to bear ‘‘ on the bow ’’ if
its direction in relation to the ship does not
make a greater angle with the keel of the
Dictionary of General Information.
591
*-*.*.
vessel than 45°. If the direction of the
object makes a greater angle than that it
would be said to bear “ before the beam ; ”
next on the beam, then abaft the beam, on the
quarter, right astern.
Beat.—To beat to windward is to make way
against the wind by a zigzag course, and
frequent tacking. (See “Plying ” “Thrash-
ing ” and “Turning to Windward.”)
Beating to Windward.—(See “Beat.”)
Becalm.—To deprive a vessel of wind, as by one
vessel passing to windward of another.
Becalmed.—In a calm ; without wind.
Becket.—A piece of rope used to confine or
Secure spars, ropes, or tackles. Generally an
eye is at one end; sometimes an eye at either
end; or a knot at one end and an eye at the
other.
Beef-Manual strength; generally the weight of
the men hauling on a rope. “More beef
here '' is a request for help when hauling.
Probably the term originated with the casks
of beef used for food on shipboard.
Before the Beam.—Towards the bow or stem of
a vessel.
Before the Mast.—A term used to describe the
Station of seamen as distinguished from
officers. Thus a man before the mast means
a common sailor, and not an officer. The
term owes its origin to the fact that the
seamen were berthed in the forecastle, which
is usually “before the mast.”
Before the Wind.—Running with the wind
astern.
Behaviour.—The performance of a ship in a sea-
way or under canvas is generally termed by
sailors her “ behaviour.”
Belay That.—An order given whilst men are
hauling on a rope, &c., to cease hauling and
make fast to the last inch they have got in.
Also slang for cease talking or fooling.
Belay, To.—To make fast a rope or fall of a
tackle. In hauling upon a rope the signal to
cease is usually, “Belay !” or “Belay there !”
Belay that, or “Avast hauling ! Belay!”
To belay the mainsheet in small boats where
the sheet travels on a horse through a block.
The block will travel on the horse by a thimble
FIG. 277.
eye strop; the sheet will be spliced to the
clew cringle in the sail and rove through the
block. Bring the fall of the sheet down to
the pin under the stern seat, round which pin
take a single turn ; then take a bight and jam
it between the sheet and the seat, and a slight
pull will release the sheet. The sheet can be
_*-*-*-*.
belayed in the same fashion by a turn taken
under a thole pin in the gunwale ; or a bight
of the fall can be taken and made fast round
the sheet above the block by a slippery hitch.
A plan for belaying a single sheet is shown in
the accompanying sketch (Fig.277). A through
pin is fitted into the transom as shown. The
fall of the sheet is brought round the pin out-
side the transom, then round the pin inside
the transom, and a bight jammed in between
the transom and sheet.
Belaying Pins.—Pins in racks, in cavels, spider
hoops, &c., to make fast ropes to.
Belaying the Binnacle.—A slang term applied to
the acts of a greenhorn or sham sailor who
uses unseamanlike terms, or misapplies well
known terms, or makes unseamanlike or
impracticable suggestions.
Bell Bwoy.—A buoy with an iron cage upon top
of it, with a bell which is struck by a hammer
or hammers moved by the heave of the sea.
Bells.—The manner of keeping time on board
ship by striking a bell every half hour.
Thus one bell is a half hour, as half-past
twelve; two bells one o’clock ; three bells
half-past one, and so on until eight bells are
struck, which would be four o’clock. One
bell would then be begun again and proceed
up to eight o’clock. Thus eight bells are
struck every four hours, the duration of a
watch (see “Watch”). (See page 142.)
Below.—A general term for the under-deck space.
To go below is to descend from the deck to
the cabin, or to under the deck. A seaman
always goes “below,” and never “down-
stairs.” It is considered very green and
landsman-like to hear a person on board a
vessel speak of going “downstairs '' for
below, or upstairs for “on deck.”
Below ! or Below There l—A mode of hailing or
attracting the attention of the crew below by
those on deck.
B.M.–Abbreviation for builders’ measurement
or tonnage, the formula for which is
q.-: ***** The length is taken from
the after side of the sternpost in a line with
the rabbet of the keel to a perpendicular
dropped from the fore side of the stem on
deck. This is “ length between perpen-
diculars.” O.M. is sometimes used, that
being an abbreviation for “Old Measure-
ment,” which is the same as B.M.
Bend.—To fasten a rope to another ; to fasten a
rope to a spar; to bend a sail to a yard, &c.
A knot, a mode of fastening a rope to a
spar, &c.
Bends.--The wales of a ship. Stout planks on
the side of a ship.
Beneaped.—Aground for want of water, owing to
neap tides. The rise and fall of meap tides
during quarter moons are less than during the
full and change; consequently, if a vessel
got ashore during a high water spring tide
she might have to remain all through the meap
period.

592
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Bermudian Rig.—The mast of a Bermuda rigged
boat is very long, and is placed far into the
bow, which is usually very bluff. The mast
rakes aft, and the sail set upon it is of the well-
known sliding gunter shape. The objection to
the rig is the long heavy mast placed in the
eyes of the boat, and although the sail stands
well when hauled in on a wind, yet off the
wind it causes some trouble, as it is almost
impossible — except in very strong breezes
—to keep the sail from falling on board.
Berth.--The situation of a ship when at anchor.
A place to sleep in ; a cabin. Employment.
Berthon’s Logs, or Speed Indicators.-A log in-
vented by the Rev. E. Berthon. A tube
passes through the keel, and the water rises
in this tube in proportion to the speed of the
vessel through the water. A simple me-
chanical contrivance of weight, line, and pulley
serves to indicate the speed on a dial.
Bevel.—In shipbuilding, the departure from the
square a timber is made to take to suit the
inclination of a plank. An oblique edge of a
piece of timber or plank.
Bevelling Board. — A piece of wood used by
ship builders on which the angle of the
bevels for timbers are marked in lines.
Bibs.-Pieces of timbers fastened to the hounds
of ships’ masts to support the trestle trees.
Bight.—A loop or part of a rope doubled so as to
form a loop, thus ſl.—The deepest part of a
bay.
Bilge.—The round in a vessel’s timbers where
they begin to approach a vertical direction.
Bilged.—A vessel is said to be bilged when her
framing is broken in, or damaged along her
bilge by grounding, or falling down when
shored up by the side of a wharf.
Bilge Keels.-Pieces of timber (sometimes termed
rolling chocks) fitted longitudinally on a
vessel’s bottom, so that she may take the
ground readily and not damage her bottom.
Bilge keels, however, now fulfil different offices
and are fitted to large ships to assist in
checking their rolling. The Brighton beach
boats are fitted with bilge keels, and it has
been argued that they prevent a boat making
lee way; of course only the lee bilge keel can
so operate to any useful extent, and the
effectiveness of this one would be interfered
with by the disturbed state of the water near
it. Bilge keels, if very deep, would affect very
greatly a boat's handiness in tacking ; also
the lee one would assist in heeling the boat
to an extent dependent upon the force of
the lee way, and the area of the bilge keel;
on the other hand, bilge keels will tend to
check the sudden heeling of a boat, for the
same reason that they cause the process of
rolling to be more slowly performed, because
they have to move a body of water. In steel
and iron built steam yachts, bulb iron bilge
plates are often fitted and check the rolling.
Bilge Kelsons.—Stout pieces of timber fitted inside
a vessel in a fore-and-aft direction along the
bilge to strengthen her.
Bilge Strakes.—Thick plank worked longitudi-
nally in the ceiling of a vessel inside along the
bilge, or over the heads and heels of the
frames, to strengthen her—used instead of
bilge kelsons, and through fastened.
Bilge Water.—The water inside a vessel, which
in flat-floored crafts may rest in the bilge.
Bill.—A point of land ; also the extreme points
of the flukes of an anchor.
Bill Boards.--Pieces of wood fitted to the bow of
a vessel to protect the plank from the fluke
of the anchor.
Bill of Health.-A document wherein it is certified
that the condition of the crew is healthy or
otherwise. Hence a clean bill of health
means that all the crew are free from
disorders, and a foul bill of health the
contrary.
Bill of Lading.—A document setting forth the
cargo of a ship, certified by the master.
Bill of Sale.—A document by which a vessel is
transferred from one owner to another. A
“Bill of Sale’’ must be produced before a
register can be transferred. Forms of Bill of
Sale can be procured from Waterlow and Sons,
printers and stationers, City, London.
There are several points to which atten-
tion should be given before concluding a
purchase. Wages form a prior claim on every
vessel. It is therefore essentially necessary
that a purchaser should satisfy himself that
no claims of this description exist; or he
may find, after he has completed his pur-
chase, that he has some further large amount
to pay before he can call the ship his own.
In 1890 a case occurred in which the mort-
gagee of a large steam yacht, after taking
possession, had to defend an action in the
Admiralty Court, brought by the late master
for wages and necessary payments, and
eventually had to pay a large sum to settle
these claims. It should also be seen, before
a purchase is completed, that possession of
the yacht can be given, and that she is in the
hands of no shipbuilder who has a lien upon
her and a right to detain her for work done.
With regard to yachts, of course claims for
Salvage seldom arise ; but it is just as well
to remember that, if they do exist, they form
a claim against the vessel.
As to the sale of yachts, very little need be
said, but there are one or two simple rules
which it is absolutely necessary to follow. A
vendor should never, under any circumstances,
give up possession of his vessel until he has
the purchase-money in hand. A breach of
this rule has not infrequently produced rather
serious consequences. In 1890 an owner sold
his vessel to an apparently rich man, and
very weakly gave him possession. He had to
sue for the purchase-money, and to get the
sheriff to seize and sell the yacht again, at a
considerable reduction in price, before he was
paid. Fortunately for him, he did get his
money eventually, although the purchaser
became bankrupt within a few months after
the transaction.
Dictionary of General Information.
fj93
It is necessary to be very guarded in
dealing with foreigners. A case occurred,
Some few years since, in which an American
gentleman bought a schooner yacht, and was
given possession before payment of the pur-
chase-money. The purchaser thereupon pro-
ceeded to get under way for America, and
neglected to pay for the ship. The owners
pursued him in a tug and brought him back
to Cowes; thus securing the vessel, but not
the money.
Another rule which should be observed is
never to send a vessel out of the country to a
foreign purchaser until payment has been
made in England. An owner may find it a
very difficult matter to enforce payment in a
foreign court. The purchaser may raise
difficulties and objections to the yacht after
she has got abroad, and the owner may have
to bring his yacht home again, with the
expenses of his crew and his outfit to pay.
Another point with regard to which
Vendors require to be careful is the com-
mission payable on a sale. Few sales are
effected nowadays without the intervention
of an agent, and it is an ordinary practice to
put a yacht into the hands of several agents
for sale. A purchaser frequently writes
round to every well-known agent for a yacht
likely to suit him, and perhaps he gets par-
ticulars of the same vessel from three or four
different agents. It is often very difficult to
say which of them first introduces the vessel
to him, and who is entitled to receive the
commission on the sale. It is not an un-
common occurrence for two or three claims to
be made for commission on the same vessel;
and it is very needful for the owner, before
he completes his contract, to satisfy himself
On this point, and to make sure that he will
not be called upon to pay more than one com-
mission on the sale of his yacht.
Dilly Buoy.-A bluff bowed vessel, common in
the north, rigged with one mast, and
commonly with a square topsail.
Binnacle.—A case wherein the compass is con-
tained. (See “Compass '' and “Fluid Com-
pass.”
IBird’s Nest.—See “Crow’s Nest.”
Iłirlin.—A rowing and sailing boat of the Hebrides.
Bitter End.—The end of a cable left abaft the
bitts after the turns have been taken. Some-
times the anchor is shackled to the “bitter
end " when the used end has become much
worn. The extreme end of a rope.
IRitts.--Stout pieces of timber fitted in the deck
to receive the bowsprit ; also stout pieces of
timber fitted in the deck by the side of the
mast, to which the halyards are usually belayed.
Black Book.—A book kept at the Admiralty, or
said to be, wherein is recorded the offences of
seamen. Several yacht clubs have kept
“black books,” but they have been of little
use, as owners showed a disinclination to
insist that no man should be engaged in his
yacht who was on the “black book.”
Black Leading a Boat’s Bottom.—It was formerly
a common practice to black lead the bottom
of boats, especially for match Bailing, and the
custom is still much followed. There were
several methods of getting the lead on, and
the following is as good as any : First scrape
the bottom clean of old paint, tar, &c., and
stop open seams, nail holes, Shakes, &c.
Then put on a thin coat of coal tar, reduced
by turpentine or naphtha until quite liquid.
When dry and hard put on another coat, and
if the boat is a large one this second coat
should be put on by “instalments.” When
nearly dry, but yet sticky, put on the black
lead, which must be mixed with water (and
well stirred), and make a solution about as
thick as paint. To get the mixture on a
dabber must be used ; a sponge tied up in a
Soft piece of cotton cloth is the best thing
for the purpose. Care must be taken not to
attempt to put on the black lead in the sun,
or the tar will come through. On the other
hand, if the tar is hard the black lead will not
“take hold.” When the whole is thoroughly
dry and hard, polish up with the ordinary
brushes used by housemaids for grates.
Mayflower, Puritan, and Galatea had
blacklead mixed with copal warnish put on
them. The same was sand-papered and
brushed smooth with hard shoe brushes,
taking care to have a good smooth body of
paint underneath. Galatea was also coated
with blacklead on gold size, the blacklead
being put on dry and brushed afterwards.
This is the best method. Blacklead acts on
steel. After being in the water three or four
months rust will show in beads.
A blackleaded bottom will last clean for
match sailing about five weeks.
Black Paint.—A good mixture for the outside of
a boat is thus made: to 6lb. of best black
paint add half pint of good warnish and
#lb. of blue paint.
Or, Black 91b. ; raw linseed oil 1 quart ;
boiled linseed oil 1 quart ; dryers #1b.
For an iron yacht : 1cwt. of Astbury's
oxide of paint ; 6 gallons of boiled linseed
oil; 1 gallon of turpentine ; 3 gallons of
varnish ; 211b. dryers. (Messrs Astbury’s,
King-street, Manchester.)
Blacking Down.—Painting or tarring the rigging,
or sides of a ship.
Black Jack.-The black flag hoisted by pirates.
º FIG. 278.
Blackwall Hitch.-A hitch used to jam the bight
of a rope to a hook, &c. (Fig. 278.)
Q Q

594,
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Blade.—The flat part of an oar.
Bleaching.—An American plan for bleaching sails
is as follows :-Scrub with soap and fresh
water on both sides, rinse well, then sprinkle
with the following solution : slacked lime,
2 bushels; draw off lime water and mix with
120 gallons water and #lb. blue vitriol. This
also preserves the sails. (See: “Mildew.”)
Blind Harbowr.—A harbour whose entrance cam-
not readily be made out from a distance.
Blisters.-Unsightly blisters on paint are generally
caused by putting new paint upon the top of old,
or using very thick paint. The old paint
should be burnt or scraped off.
Block.-A pulley. A single block has one sheave;
double, two ; three-fold or treble, three ; and
so on. (See “Fiddle block ’’ and “Sister
Block.”)
Block and Block.-Chock-a-block. When the
blocks of a tackle are hauled close together.
A vessel is said to take her main sheet block
and block, when the boom is hauled so much
aboard that the two blocks come close or
nearly close together.
Blow, A.—A gale of wind.
Blue Jackets.--Sailors.
Blue Peter.—A blue flag with a white square in
the centre ; hoisted at the fore truck as a
signal that the vessel is about to go to Sea.
Sometimes for brevity called Peter.
Blue Water.—The open sea, or ocean.
Bluff.-A wall-like headland.
Bluff-bowed.—Very full bowed, thus ~).
Board.—In beating to windward a board is the
time a vessel is on one tack and the distance
she makes on that tack. Thus it may be a
long board or a short board. Working to
windward by a long board and a short board
is when a vessel can more nearly lie her
course on one tack than on another. Thus,
suppose the wind be S.W., and the vessels'
course from headland to headland S.S.W., and
the vessel can lie four points from the wind ;
then on the starboard tack the vessel will
head S., or two points off her course ; on the
port tack she will lie W., or six points off
her course. The long board will be the one
on the starboard tack. A vessel is said to
make a good board when the wind frees her
on one tack ; a bad board when it heads her.
A stern board is to get stern way on whilst
tacking.—To board a ship is to enter upon
her deck, generally supposed to mean without
invitation.
“By the board.” To fall close by the deck.
A mast is said to go by the board when it
breaks by the deck and falls overboard.
Board and Board.—Wessels are said to work
board and board when they keep in company
and tack simultaneously.
Boat Builders’ Union.—An association of boat
builders, founded 1821, and called the “Sons
of Sincerity Society of Ship-Boat Builders.”
Their place of meeting is the “City Arms,”
- - - - - - - - ---- - .-...— …— .... -...--> ------- * ~~~~ :- - - ---- ~~~~ :- - - - - - - - --~~~~~~ *-**** - ---, *s,
near Stepney Station, London. If any person.
desired to obtain a boat builder to assist in
building a boat it could be done through this.
union.
In the first place lay off the
sections, keel and sternpost, and stem as
described page 273. If the keel has a
straight edge, top and bottom, it will not.
require to be laid off. When the Sections
are laid off, proceed to make moulds to fit the
curves ; these moulds will be made of $ inch,
# inch, or 1 inch deal or elm, according to the
size of the boat ; any odd pieces of stuff
will do, and there can be as many joints in a
mould as may be found convenient : (See
Fig. 279.) The cross piece A should be stout.
enough to keep the mould rigid. The
diagonal braces D need not be used if the
mould can be made rigid without them ; in
such case the joints in the mould should be
secured by a doubling piece. The bar W.L.
Boat Building.
M O U L D

* Evº-ºx / ; I
V\º //
&\-----A—24--2– W. L >-----> J-T-L-7
dx} &
sº-2
2. B
FIG. 279.
represents the load-water-line. B is the part,
that fits on the keel and represents the
“joggle ’’ in the floor-timber. The cross
piece here should be securely attached and
fixed so that the joggle is of the proper depth.
A nail on each side of the mould, or a
couple of pieces of wood nailed to the keel,
will keep the mould in position on the keel.
The outer edges of the mould must be
planed up to fit the curve of the section as
drawn on the mould loft. When floors or
timbers have to be sawn out, and not steamed,
the mould is laid over the timber and its
shape marked on it by pencil or chalk.
The stem and sternpost are tenoned into
mortices in the keel ; but if the keel be not
thick enough to take a tenon, the keel and
8tem, and keel and sternpost are box-
8Carphed together by halves: that is, half the
thickness of each is cut away.
In all the drawings of small boats given in
the body of the book, the load-water-line is
made the base-line, and therefore everything
must be plumb to that.
Having got the stem, sternpost, and keel
shaped and put together, proceed to fix them
to the stocks. [A deal firmly fixed edgeways
at a convenient distance from the floor—high
enough to enable the builder to drive the
nails up through the bottom of the boat–will
make the stocks.] A straight edge or line
must be fitted from stem to stern-post to
represent the load-water-line as shown on the
Sheer Plan : (See page 280.)
Dictionary of General Information. 595
Also a stout bar of wood must be nailed to
8tem-head and sterm-post-head, above the one
marking the L.W.L., to firmly connect the
two ; this bar will be found useful for mailing
the mould stays to.
In fixing the keel stem and stern post frame
on the stocks it must be wedged up forward
until the line or straight edge representing
the load-water-line is perfectly level or hori-
Zontal. A spirit level or plumb level can be
used for this adjustment.
Fit the dead wood knee aft, and the stem
knee or apron forward. Bore the holes for
the through bolts with a long augur or gimlet.
The heads of the bolts will be inside, and
clenched outside over a ring : (See page 272.)
Next the transom must be cut out from a
mould and let into the sternpost and through
bolted, as shown page 272. The edges of the
transom will require to be bevelled to suit
the fore-and-aft curve of the boat.
When the keel, stem and sternpost are on
the stocks and in position (the stem and
sternpost must be plumbed to see that they
neither cant to port nor starboard), they must
be secured by stays ; the stays will be bars
of wood and reach from the stemhead and
head of sternpost to the floor or ceiling of
the building-shed, and they must be securely
mailed. The keel can be kept in its position
by similar stays ; or if the keel be quite
straight on its underside it can be kept in its
position by thumb cleats mailed to the deal
forming the stocks.
The lower edge and upper edge of the
rabbet in the keel, stem, and stern dead woods
must be next set off, and cut out with a
chisel. The aft dead wood will probably
require some adzing away back to the rabbet.
The moulds must be next put into their
proper places. Care must be taken that they
are “square '’ to the keel (i.e., cross it at
right-angles) that they are plumb (perpen-
dicular) to the load-water-line, and that the
bar W L (Fig. 279) is at the level of the line
stretched between stem and stern-post to re-
present the load-water-line. The moulds must
be kept in position by wood stays and rib-
bands formed by battens of fir. These ribbands
can be let in flush with the outside edges of
the moulds. They need not then be removed
until the whole of the planking is complete
and the timbers steamed in. This will be a
great advantage for carvel build.
If the boat is to have a counter, the
rudder trunk will be constructed as it is in
yachts. In order to allow plenty of room
in the trunk, pieces of wood an inch or
so thick are fitted to the sides of the stern-
post before the sides of the trunk are fixed
on. The trunk in a fore-and-aft direction
is also made about twice as deep as the
diameter of the rudder post. Plank will
vary according to the size of the boat and
curve of the bilge, and in the widest part
may be from 4 to 5 inches. Measure the half-
girth of the midship mould (Fig. 279) from B to
E by passing a tape or line round the outside
curved edge. Divide this length into a
Q Q
number of equal intervals to represent the
breadth of the strakes as a a, &c. (see Fig. 279).
Allowance must be made for about in. over-
lap of each plank which forms the lands.
Count the number of intervals or strakes of
plank, and set off the same number in equal
intervals on the rabbet of the stem (see a, q,
Fig. 280) and on the transom. These intervals
will be much closer together than on the
FIG. 280.
moulds, and will therefore show that the plank
must taper towards the ends. The same num-
ber of intervals can also be set off on the
intermediate moulds.
The garboard strake will be first fitted.
This will be a strake quite straight on its
upper edge before it is bent round the
moulds from stem to stern post. The under
edge will be cut to fit the rabbet in keel,
and stem, and dead wood aft. When this
plank has been fitted into the garboard and
nailed at intervals of two or three inches to
the keel, the next plank must be fitted. Take
the board (out of which the plank is to be
sawn) and hold it along as closely as possible
outside the upper edge of the garboard strake.
Mark a line along it to correspond with the
top edge of the garboard. Remove the board
and it will be found that the line is more or
less curved. Saw down this curved line.
Then fit the board to the garboard again,
making it overlap (by its curved edge) the
garboard by about ; of an inch. Now mark
by spots on the upper edge of the board the
next interval, representing the breadth of the
plank (see a a, Fig. 279) for each mould, in-
cluding stem and dead wood or transom aft.
Remove the board and run a line in through
B L. A N K.
FIG. 281.
the spots representing the intersections a a
on with the moulds ; this will show the shape,
or the curve of the upper edge, and the curve
of the lower edge of the next strake. The
plank may possibly be shaped like the sketch
(Fig. 280), but the greatest curvature will be
found as the bilge is reached. It is not abso-
lutely necessary that the plank should accord
with the spots & a at every mould, as the
intervals are more as a guide to get the curve
of the strake than to show the shape of the
curve arbitrarily.


596 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Boal Building—continued.
When the stralce has been cut out it will be
planed and then fitted to overlap the garboard;
whilst it is being nailed it will be held in
position by a number of clamps (at intervals
of two or three feet.)
The clamps are made of two pieces of hard
wood loosely connected by a scrow bolt (see
Fig. 282) and has a wedge. The bolt must
be allowed plenty of play, so that when the
PLAN K
FIG. 282.
clamp grips the strakes it can be wedged up
tightly as shewn.
The plank will be mailed together at
intervals of 3 inches. The nails will be of
copper, and will be rooved and clinched inside.
At the stem and transom, the upper part
of each strake is thinned away in order that
the hood ends may fit into the rabbet flush.
To get the strakes round the bilge in a fair
curve the upper outer edge of each strake is
bevelled off (see the “Clyde Boat’), and some-
times the inner lower edge of the overlapping
strake is also bevelled. The plank can be
steamed if necessary. *
Holes should be bored for the copper nails
by a sharp bradawl a little smaller than the
nails. The roove having been put over the
nail, the latter will be cut off by a pair of
nippers, leaving about , of an inch project-
ing above the roove. A “holder on ’’ will be
held to the head of the nail outside the boat,
and the nail will then be clinched down over
the roove inside the boat.
The boat being now planked up to the top
strake, the floors and timbers must be put in.
If the boat is a large one, such as the Brighton
Beach boats (not the New Brighton boats,
which are carvel built), the floors will be
sawn out of timber of a suitable size
and joggled (see Fig. 283) to fit in the
ITIG, 283.
lands of the plank; but joggles are objec-
tionable as they weaken the floors. The
floors should extend across the keel and into
the turn of the bilge ; they will be fastened
through the keel with a Muntz-metal, or
copper, or galvanised iron bolt, and, if thought
necessary, clenched with ring. A copper nail
will be driven through the plank (where two
strakes overlap), and be clenched on the top
of the floor; frequently rooves are not used
for these fastenings. A fastening is put
through every overlap.
The timbers should be sawn out of a
straight-grained piece of American elm, but
sometimes English oak or ash is used ; oak
is generally preferred for the floors, and
American elm for the timbers.
The timbers, having been Hawn out, must
be planed up, and will then require steaming
to got them into their places. The timbers
should extend from one gunwale across the
keel to the other gunwale, but frequently,
whoro stout floors are inserted, the timbers
are not worked across the keel, and do not
reach within 6in. of the keel ; in such cases
the timbers are in “halves.”
A steam chest or kiln will have to be con-
structed (see Fig. 285). In length it should
be a foot or so longer than the longest timber,
and be a foot deep and a foot broad. It
should be made of 1;in. deal. The end, a, is
a door. Inside on the bottom should be
mailed three or four cross pieces of wood,
2in, deep, for the timbers to rest upon, form-
ing a kind of rack.
Steam can be generated in a common three-
legged pot set up on bricks (see lº). The pot
should contain three or four gallons of water.
The cover will be made of wood, cemented
round with clay or mortar. n is a steam pipe
(made of inch deal, inside size 3%in. by 3%in.);
p is a plug for the water supply. The door, a,
should fit inside the steam chest, and fillets
ſº
|
& “.
…
2.
* ,
#Fº - - º 3:
- ====-º-º-º-º- 2%Hº ºf:
gº
STEAM KILN
FIG. 284.
of inch deal must be nailed inside for the
door to rest against. Before putting the door
in its place, clay or mortar should be smeared
round the fillets to keep the door from leak-
ing. The door need not be hinged, but can
be kept in its place by a cross-bar of wood
working through two staples driven into the
ends of the chest. We have seen an excellent
boiler extemporised by rivetting together the
rims of two iron “coppers,” thus (Fig. 285) :
A steampipe, p, is rivetted on the top of the
upper part.
The timbers will require steaming three or
four hours before they are sufficiently pliable.
They must be taken from the steam chest
and fitted into the boat one by one ; the first
fastening to put in will be the one through or
in the keel (a Muntz-metal dump is best
for this). Press with the foot or hands the
timber into the bilge, and put a fastening
through it hore (from the outside). 'I he
stations for the timbers should be previously
marked across each plank strake, and the
holes through the overlaps should be bored
before putting the timber in.



















Dictionary of General Information.
597
If the timber has to be joggled to receive
the inside edges of each strake (see Fig.
283), the fastenings must not be clinched, as
the timber will have to be removed for the
joggles to be cut. The timbers, however,
should not be removed until they are per-
fectly cool and rigid ; they should be allowed
to stay in the boat a day and night before
removing. (If strength rather than neatness be
required, the timbers should not be joggled.)
The gunwale must now be fitted (this is
more properly termed the “in-wale,” as it is
the piece of timber which is fitted inside the
top strake; it answers the purpose of the
“clamp ’’ used in larger boats). Having
decided upon the size of the wale—its depth
and thickness—it must be fitted. In the first
FIG. 285.
place, the timber heads are cut down inside
the top strake to the depth of the wale [one
plan is not to cut the timbers so low as this
by half an inch, and make joggles in the wale
to receive the head of each timber; when
this is done, however, the wale or clamp
should be somewhat stouter, as it will be
weakened by the joggles]. Usually the wale
is flush with the top strake; but a better
plan is to cut a rabbet in the wale (see
Fig. 153, page 362) to fit over the top strake.
A nail is put through the top strake and wale
(from the outside), and rooved ; or clinched
without a roove, inside. A nail is put
through about every 4, 5, or 6 inches. For-
ward, the wale top strake, stem, and apron are
kept together by a breast-hook or >-shaped
knee (see sketch A, Fig. 116, page 272).
Aft, the wale and top strake are secured to
the transom by a knee (see m, Half-breadth
Plan, page 272. The thwarts will rest on
the stringers (which are fastened through
timbers and plank), as shown by a q and b b,
Sheer Plan, Fig. 116. The thwarts are
secured by knees, as shown Fig. 153, page 362.
The knee is fastened through and out the
wale and top strake, and with a long fastening
through the overlap of strakes, and clenched
with ring on the knee; there will also be
fastenings through the thwart and knee.
In buying copper nails care must be taken
that “ land nails '' are obtained for the plank
fastenings, and “ timber nails’’ for the timber
fastenings. The rooves must match the nails.
A rooving iron (which is simply a kind of
punch with a hole in its end) will be required
to drive the rooves on whilst a hammer is
held to the head of the mail. The sizes of
the plank nails will depend upon the double
thickness of the plank; about one-sixth of
the double thickness should be added to the
length of the nails for rooving and clench-
1ng.
If the boat is to be decked, a clamp or kind
of shelf must be fitted to the timbers, and
thoroughly fastened at each timber. The
clamp will be fitted low enough for the beams
to come flush with the top strake. The
beams will be arched as required, and
fastened through the shelf. The top strake
should be of sufficient thickness to take the
fastenings of the covering board. The cover-
ing board should be of hard wood, such as
oak, and must be cut to fit the curve of the
deck, as shown in the Half-breadth Plan.
The deck plank will be nailed to the beams
by galvanised nails; not throwgh the plank
from the top downwards, but diagonally
through the side edges of the plank into
the beams.
The under edges of the plank will meet
closely on the beams; but the upper edges
will “gape,” according to the rounding up
of the beams as shown, in an exaggerated
way, by a a, Fig. 286 ; this is for the caulking.
FIG. 286.
An eighth of an inch will give a wide enough
seam. The oakum or cotton thread (a couple
of threads will be enough for inch plank)
must be driven in tightly by the caulking iron
or chisel, and then payed with marine glue or
stopped with putty (see articles on these sub-
jects). Generally the arch of the beams will
give the seam opening enough, as at a a ; but,
where it will not, the plank should be bevelled
to the extent of a shaving. The seam round
the covering board should be caulked and
payed with extra care.
A hanging knee should be fitted on each
side under the beam abreast of the mast or
rigging. If the boat is wholly decked,
three pairs of such hanging knees should be
fitted.
If the boat is half-deck, waterways should
be fitted. Short beams will be worked for
these, and their inner ends will be butted
into a fore-and-aft beam termed a carline,
which fore-and-aft piece will in turn be butted
into the full beams at either end. Two or
three pairs of hanging knees (made of oak)
will support the waterways.
Chain-plates for the rigging will be fitted
as shown by Fig. 152, page 360.


598
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Boat Chocks on Skids.--Pieces of wood with a
Score in them to take the keel of boats when
they are lifted in upon deck.
Boats’ Etiquette.—If the person in charge of a
yacht's boat desires to salute a passing boat
containing an admiral, captain, commodore,
or other person of consequence, he directs the
crew to lie on their oars as the boat passes,
and to raise their hats or caps. The owner
on leaving his yacht with a party is the last
in the boat and the first out ; and on leaving
the shore is last to get into the boat and the
first to board the yacht. This is the custom
in the Royal Navy (the senior officer taking
the place of the owner), in order that the
admiral, captain, or other person might not
be kept waiting alongside, which might be an
unpleasant situation in bad weather. Thus
the saying “the captain is the last in the first
out of a boat.” (See “Salutes” and “Ensign.”
Boat Hoole.—A wood pole with a metal hook and
prong at one end ; sometimes with two hooks.
A yacht's gig has two boat hooks—one for
the use of the bowman, another for the stroke;
by these means a boat is held alongside the
steps of a jetty or by the gangway of a
vessel, &c.
Boat ICeeper.—The man left in charge of a boat
when the other part of her crew go on shore.
Boat’s Crew.—Men told off to always main a
particular boat, such as the gig, cutter, or
dinghy of a yacht.
Boatswain.—An officer who takes charge of a
yacht’s gear, and it is his duty to superintend
all work done upon the spars, rigging, or
Sails. He also takes charge of all spare gear
and sails, and sees that everything on deck
and above deck is neat, clean, and ship-shape.
He must in every sense of the word be a
thorough seaman, and must know how all
work upon rigging and sails should be done.
As he has constantly to handle the sails and
rigging, he necessarily has a knowledge of
their condition, and it is his duty to report
all defects in the same.
Boatswain’s Call.—A whistle consisting of a
hollow ball and a tube leading to a hole
in it. By varying the sounds the men are
“ piped ” to their work just the same as
soldiers are ordered by the sound of a
bugle. The pipe is seldom met with in
English yachts, not even in those of large
size, and the boatswain has little to do with
giving orders.
Bobstay.—The bowsprit stay. (See page 63.)
Body.—Part of a vessel's hull, as fore-body,
middle-body, and after-body. A vessel is said
to be long-bodied when the tapering of the
fore-and-aft lines are very gradual; short-
bodied when the fore-and-aft lines taper very
suddenly ; a long-body thus means a great
parallel length of middle-body. (See “Straight
of Breadth.”)
Body Plan.-A plan which contains the cross
sections of a vessel. The midship Section or
largest section is generally shown on the
right-hand side of the middle line of the body
plan; sometimes on both sides.
Bollard.—A stout timber to fasten ropes and
warps to.
Bollard Timbers.--The bollard timbers of a vessel
are the same as the knightheads; originally
the knightheads were carved figures of
knights (fitted near the foremast to receive
the windlass), hence the name knightheads.
(See “Knightheads.”)
Bollock Blocks,—Two blocks in the middle of a
topsail yard of square rigged vessel, used in
hoisting.
Bolsters.—Pieces of hard wood bolted to the yoke
or lower cap on the mast for the rigging to
rest upon. They are sometimes covered with
leather or sheepskin with the hair on, or raw
hide, to prevent the rigging chafing. (See
page 30.)
Bolt.—A fastening of metal. An eye bolt is a
bolt with an eye in it used to hook blocks,
&c., to. A ring bolt is a bolt with an eye and
a ring in the eye. An ear bolt or lug bolt is
a bolt with a kind of slot in it to receive
the part of another bolt, a pin keeping
the two together and forming a kind of
joint (see Fig. 15, page 50). Bay bolts are
bolts with jagged edges to prevent their
drawing.
Bolt Rope.—The rope sewn round the edges of
sails. It is made of the very best Riga Rhine
hemp, dressed with Stockholm tar. A fore-
and-aft sail is roped on port side, a Square-
sail on aft side. There is the weather
(luff) rope, leech rope, foot rope, and head rope.
Booby Hatch.-A hatch on coamings used to
give greater height in the cabin of small
yachts, and which can be removed.
Boom.—A spar used to extend the foot of sails.
To top the boom is to make sail and away.
To boom off is to shove off a wharf, bank,
&c., by the aid of spars. Stakes of wood
used to denote a channel through shoal water
are termed booms.
Boom Irons.—Iron bands on booms, with eyes, to
which blocks or ropes may be hitched.
Boomkin.—A short boom of great strength,
usually written “bumpkin.”
Bonnet.—An addition to a sail by lacing a short
piece to its foot ; common in America, not
often seen in British yachts.
Bore.—A sudden tide wave, which rolls along
rapidly at certain times on some rivers, and
makes a great noise.
Boreas.-The north wind. An old sailor's saying
is, “as cold as Borea's with an iceberg in
each pocket.” Popularly the god that rules
the wind, as AEolus is supposed to do.
Bore Away.—Did bear away. Said of a vessel
that alters her course in a leewardly direction,
as “she bore away.”
Bore by the Head.— A vessel is said to bore by
the head when she, whilst passing through
the water, is depressed by the head.
Dictionary of General Information.
599
-
Boring.—Forcing a vessel through loose ice in
the Arctic Seas.
Boss.-A slang American term for sailing master,
or chief in command.
Both Sheets Aft.—When a square-rigged ship
has the wind dead aft, so that the sheets lead
aft alike, with the yards square.
Bottom.—Usually understood as the part of a
vessel below the bilge.
Bottom/ry.—The hull or bottom of a ship pledged
as security for a loan. If the ship be lost the
money is lost unless the lender has covered
himself by other means.
Iłownd.-Encased with metal bands. Also refer-
ring to the destination of a vessel. Wind-
bound means that a vessel is in a port or at
an anchorage because the wind is unfavour-
able for her to proceed. Formerly square-
rigged ships were everlastingly wind-bound,
'i.e., waiting in port because the wind was
adverse ; now they go out and look for a fair
wind, and generally can sail so well on a wind
that waiting for a fair wind would be con-
sidered an unpardonable piece of folly.
Bow.—The fore part of a vessel ; forward of the
greatest transverse section. In taking bear-
ings an object is said to be on the bow if its
direction does not make more than an angle
of 45° with the line of the keel.
Bower Anchor.—The anchor in constant use.
Bow Fast.—A warp for holding the vessel by the
bow.
Bowing the Sea.—Meeting the sea bow on or end
on, or nearly end on, as in close-hauled
sailing. When the sea runs true with the
wind.
Bowlime Hawl.—The foremost man in hauling on
a bowline sings out, “One two ! three | | |
haul | | | | '' the weight of all the men being
thrown on the rope when the “haul” is shouted
out. This chant is sometimes varied, thus :
Heave on the bowlin'
When the ship's a rollin'—
One tWO !! three | | | haul | | | |
The origin of this probably is from the fact
that when the ship takes her weather roll the
sails lift and so some of the bowlines become
slack and can be got in.
Bowline knot.—Formed thus: (Fig. 287.)
Bowlimes.—Ropes made fast to cringles
in the weather leech of squaresails,
to pull them taut and steady when
sailing on a wind. The bowlines
usually lead into a bridle. Sailing
on a bowline means sailing on a wind
when the bowlines would be hauled Fig. 287.
taut ; hence the phrase “ sailing on
a taut bowline.” Sailing on an easy bow-
line means sailing with the sails well full,
and the bowlines eased up a little, so that
the vessel is not quite “on a wind ’’ or close
hauled.
ABow-lines.—Continuation of buttock lines, show-
ing the outline of vertical fore-and-aft sec-
tions in the fore-body. (See “Buttock.
lines.”)
Bowse.—Hauling with a will upon a rope.
Bowsprit.—A spar projecting from the bow of a
vessel. A running bowsprit is one that can
easily be reefed in like a cutter's. Sometimes
when a bowsprit is reefed in by the fids it is
wrongly said to be housed ; a bowsprit is
housed when run close in to the cranse iron.
A standing bowsprit is one fitted in a bed and
generally prolonged by a jibboom.
Bowsprit Bitts.--—Timbers fitted into carlines on
the deck to take the bowsprit. (See page 37.)
Bowsprit Cramse.—The iron cap at the bowsprit
end, to which the gear is hooked ; in the case
of the vessel having a jibboom the cap is a
double one to take the jibboom.
Bowsprit Shrowds.—The horizontal stays of bow-
sprits. (See pp. 64 and 65 and Plate IV.)
Boðhawling.—In tacking a ship to make her turn
on her heel by hauling the head sheets a-
weather, and getting stern-way on. Practised
by Square-rigged ships, sometimes, in working
narrow channels.
Boa;ing off-Assisting to pay a vessel’s head off
the wind by hauling the head sheets a-weather.
Boa, Scarp.h.-A method of joining two pieces of
timber by letting each into the other one-half
its own thickness; sometimes termed a butt
scarp.h.
Boa, the Compass.--To call over all the points of
a compass in regular order. To understand
the compass points and subdivisions. (See
“Compass.”)
Braces. – Copper, gunmetal, or brass straps
fitted round the main piece of rudder or
rudder-post and fastened to the sternpost.
Strengthening pieces of iron or wood to
bind together weak places in a vessel.
Ropes used in working the yards of a ship.
Braced Sharp Up.–Said of a square-rigged ship
when the weather braces are slacked up and
the lee ones hauled in taut so as to trim the
sails as close to wind as possible.
Brace-wp and Hawl aft 1 — The order to trim
sails after a vessel has been hove to with sails
slack.
Brails.-Ropes fast to the leeches of fore-and-
aft sails and leading through blocks on the
mast hoops; used to haul or truss the sail
up to the mast instead of lowering it and
stowing it.
Breach.-A breaking in of the sea. A clean
breach is when a wave boards a vessel in solid
form, and sometimes makes a clean sweep of
the deck, taking crew, boats, and everything
else overboard. To make a clean breach over
a vessel is when the sea enters one side and
pours out the other.
Break Aboard.—When the crest of a wave falls
aboard on the deck of a vessel.
Breakers.--Casks for containing water. Also the
disturbed water over reefs, rocks, shoals, &c.
Breakers Ahead 1–The cry when breakers are
sighted close ahead.
Break Off.-In close-hauled sailing, when the
wind comes more from ahead so as to cause

600
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
the vessel’s head to break to leeward of
the course she had been sailing. Not to be
confused with “fall off,” which means that
the vessel's head goes off farther away from
the wind.
Break tacks.--When a vessel goes from one tack
to the other.
Breaming.—Cleaning off a ship’s bottom by burn-
ing the excrescences thereon. Sometimes
when a vessel is not coppered small worms
will eat into the plank. It is usual then to
scrape her bottom, coal tar her, and then
bream her off by fire in breaming irons.
Breast Fast.—A warp fastened to a vessel amid-
ships to hold her.
Breasthook.-A strong ×-shaped wood knee used
forward to bind the stem, shelf, and frame of
a vessel together. Breasthooks are also used
in other parts of a vessel. They are now
usually made of wrought iron.
Breeze.—Small coke fuel, to be bought cheap at
gasworks.
Breeze, A.—In sailor’s parlance, a strong blow of
wind ; but generally a wind of no particular
strength, as light breeze, gentle breeze,
moderate breeze, strong breeze, &c. (See
“Wind.”)
Breeze of Wind.—A strong wind.
Breeze-wp.— The wind is said to “breeze-up ’’
when it increases fast in strength from a light
wind.
Breezy Side.—The windward side of an object.
Bridles.—The parts of moorings to hold on by ;
many ropes gathered into one.
Brig.—A two-masted vessel, square-rigged on
both masts.
Brigantime.—A two-masted vessel, differing from
a brig by being only Square-rigged forward.
In the Cotton MSS. is preserved, under date
Sept. 18 (13 Henry VIII.), an account of Ships
of the King's Majesty between Gravesend and
Erith. “The Great Henry’ is among the
number, and “ Brygandyn, clerk of the ship,
doth say that before the said ship be laid in
the dock that her masts be taken down
and bestowed in the great storehouse at
Erith,” &c. It is supposed by Charnock
(Charnock, vol. ii. p. 106–117) that Brygan-
dyn invented the brigantime rig. In the Harl.
MSS. Edward VI. occurs the following : “The
two gallies and brigandyne must be yearly
repaired.”
Bring T'o, or Bring Her To.—To luff or to come
close to wind. To anchor. (See “Come To..”)
Bring to Wind.—To luff a vessel close to the
wind after she has been sailing off the wind.
Bring Up.–To come to anchor.
Bring Up all Standing.—To come to anchor, or
to a stop suddenly without notice, or without
any sail being lowered. To anchor without
lowering sail.
Bristol Fashion.—In the best manner possible,
Bristol shipbuilding and seamen formerly
having a great reputation for excellence.
Broach To.—To come to against the wind and helm.
Broad Pemnant.—The swallow-tail flag of a com-
modore. (See “Burgee.”)
Broadside Om.—When a vessel moves sideways,
or when she is approached by an object at .
right angles to her broadside.
Broken Water.—When waves lose, their form by
breaking over reefs, rocks, or shallows, or by
meeting waves from another direction, termed
8, Cl’OSS S630.
Broom at the Masthead.—A signal that a boat or
vessel is for sale. The origin of the custom
appears to be unknown ; but it is ingeniously
argued that brooms were hoisted as a signal
that a man wanted to make a clean sweep of
his vessel; or the custom may have arisen.
from the common practice of selling brooms
in the streets.
Browght To.—After a vessel has been sailing off a
wind when she is brought to wind, or close to
wind. Anchored.
Browght Up.–At anchor.
Brought Up with a Rownd. Turn.—Figuratively,
suddenly stopped ; as for instance, when a
rope is being payed out rapidly, if a turn or
bight catches round some object and checks.
the paying out of the rope.
Bucklers.-Blocks of wood used to stop the hawse.
pipes.
Bwilder's Certificate.—A document given by the
builder of a vessel to the owner when she is
handed over, setting forth the builder’s name,
the name of the ship, place of building, manner-
of building, rig, dimensions, tonnage, N.M.,.
and concluding with the following declaration :
—“This is to certify that [I or we have built.
at —, in the county of , in the
year , the vessel The measure-
ment, tonnage, and description of which are
given above.
As witness my hand, this
Signed,
This document must be produced when.
application is made for registration.
Bwilder’s Measurement.—See “B. M.’’ and “Ton-
nage.”
Bulkheads.-The athwartship partitions which
separate a vessel into compartments, cabins,
&c. Fore and aft partitions are also termed
bulkheads.
Bull's Eye.—A block without a sheave, and with
one hole in it. They are usually iron bound.
Bulwark.-The side of a vessel above the deck.
Bwmboat.—A boat used by shore people to carry
provisions on sale to ships.
Bumpkin.—See “Boomkin.”
day of
Bºnk.-A bed or place to sleep in in a cabia.
Bwnt.—The middle part of a sail. To gather up
the bunt is take hold of the middle part of a
sail and gather it up.
Bwnting.—Woollen stuff of which flags are made.
Bumter.—A kind of tackle.
Bunt Lines.—Ropes attached to sails to haul them,
up by.
Dictionary of General Information. 601
Bwoy.—A floating mark.
Buoyancy.—The quality of floating or being
supported or borne up by a fluid. A vessel
is buoyant in proportion as she is bulk for
bulk lighter than the fluid she is supported in
Burden or Burthen.—Supposed to mean the
quantity in tons of dead weight that a vessel
will carry. The quantity would be the dif-
ference between the weight or displacement
of the ship when light and the weight or
displacement of the ship when she was laden
as deeply as prudent.
Burgee.—A triangular flag flown at the truck as
a kind of pennant. A commodore's pennant
is a “swallow-tail '’ burgee. A vice-commo-
dore's burgee has one white ball in the
upper corner or canton of the hoist ; a rear-
commodore's, two balls placed horizontally.
Bwrgee, Etiquette of.--It is considered etiquette, if
a yacht is on a station where there is a club
established, and her owner is a member of
the club, that the flag of that particular club
should be hoisted as the yacht arrives on the
station, although the owner may be the commo-
dore, or vice, or rear-commodore of another
club. Frequently, however, in such a case
the burgee is merely run up on arrival and
then lowered and the commodore's pennant
re-hoisted. But if the yacht has two or more
masts, a flag-officer can fly his pennant at the
main, and another club burgee at the mizen
or fore. If several yachts are lying at an
anchorage where there is no club, the yachts
will fly the burgee of the senior flag-officer
present ; but if there be two flag-officers of
equal rank present, then the flag of the one
whose club is senior by virtue of the date of
its Admiralty warrant will be flown. In the
Royal Navy, if two or three ships are cruis-
ing in company, the title of commodore is
given by courtesy to the senior captain
present ; but the rank does not seem very
well defined, as, although an “appointed ”
commodore is said to rank next to a rear-
admiral, yet he cannot fly his broad pennant
in the presence of a “superior captain ''
without permission. In the case of the Yacht
Navy, the senior officer would mean the one
of highest rank ; and where, in the case of
clubs, the rank of the flag-officers is equal,
seniority depends upon the date of the
Admiralty warrant of the club which con-
ferred the rank, and not upon the length of
service of the officer; but a vice-commodore
of a senior club does not take precedence
of a commodore of a junior club. By the
same rule, when several yachts are present
belonging to clubs that have no Admiralty
warrants, the date of the establishment of
the several clubs would decide the seniority
of flag-officers of equal rank, but clubs with
Admiralty warrants always rank before those
without. (See “Saluting,” “Recognised
Clubs,” “Royal Clubs,” “Admiralty War-
rants,” and “Ensigns.”)
When the Royal Yacht Squadron was first
established, members flew private signal flags,
containing their crest or other device, and
the fashion has, during the last few years,
been much revived. Owners of yachts with
more than one mast fly such a flag at the
fore when the owner is on board, club burgee
always at the main. If a yacht has only one
mast the flag can be flown from the cross.
trees. During meals American yachtsmen
sometimes hoist a “ dinner napkin,” i.e., a
square white flag at the fore or from the cross
trees. The Cambria in the Atlantic race flew
her racing flag at the main, and the Royal
Harwich Yacht Club burgee at the fore. See
“Yacht Etiquette ’’ farther on.
When a yacht wins a club prize, it is
etiquette to hoist the winning flag under the
burgee of the club giving the prize if the
owner is a member ; he should also do the
same when going on to another port if a.
winning flag is hoisted. The rule cannot, how-
ever, be observed if there be several prizes.
and different clubs involved.
Burton.—A tackle composed of two single blocks ;
a double Spanish burton consists of two
single and one double block.
Bwtcher’s Cleaver Plate. —-This plate was devised
to get a greater area of board immersed with-
out increasing its extreme dimensions, and
A. F===
\
FIG. 288.
thereby increasing the surface for friction.
The plate had an iron bar, C, two or three feet
long riveted thereon ; and pivoted by the bar.
A is a portion of the keel.
B is the plate.
C is an iron bar riveted to the plate at D,
and pivoted in the keel at E, and lifted by a.
jointed bar bolted at I.
The effective lateral resistance for any
given plane would be considerably increased
if one edge of the plane made a large angle
with the direction of its motion ; and for this.
reason a square plate is not so effective as a
triangular one.
Butt.—The joining or meeting of two pieces of
wood end-ways. Butt and butt means that two
planks meet end to end, but do not overlap.
Bwtt End.—The biggest end of a spar.
Bwltock.--The after-part of a vessel from her
run upwards.
Buttock Limes.—Planes in a fore-and-aft direc-
tion, showing the outline of vertical fore-and-
aft sections in the after-body.
By and Large.—Backing and filling, which see.
(See also “Large.”)
By the Head.—When the vessel is trimmed or





602
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
depressed by the head so that her propor line
of flotation is departed from.
By the Lee.—To bring a vessel by the lee is when
nearly before the wind she falls off so much
as to bring the wind on the other quarter ; or
the wind may shift from one quarter of the
vessel to the other without the vessel altering
her course (“See Lee '’).
By the Sterm.—The contrary to being by the
head.
By the Wind.—Close hauled ; hauled by the wind.
By the Board.—Going or falling overboard.
C.
Cable.—A rope or chain by which a vessel is
held at anchor. The length for a cable,
according to the Admiralty, is 120 fathoms.
The length of a cable for a yacht varies from
60 fathoms for a 10-tonner to 140 for a
300-tonner. A yacht of 60 tons should, how-
ever, have at least 100 fathoms.
Cable's Length. — A measure of one-tenth of a
sea mile, 608 feet, or 101 fathoms, or 203
yards.
Caboose.—The cooking room or kitchen of a
merchantman. Also the “galley fire '’ or
cooking stove of a yacht or other vessel.
Cage Bwoy.—A buoy with an iron framework
upon the top. Formerly “cages '' were put
on poles in intricate channels, and for two
hours about the time of high water at night
fires were lighted in them.
Call.—See “Boatswain.”
Calliſpers. — An instrument consisting of a
“straight edge ’’ beam with two legs, used
for measuring the breadth of yachts, packages
of merchandise, &c. Metal bow-legged com-
passes called callipers are used for measuring
the diameter of spars.
Calm.—Stillness of the air. Stillness or smooth-
ness of the sea. An unrippled sea. Dead
calm, stark calm, flat calm, clock calm ; glass
calm, glass Smooth sea ; &c.
Cambered.—When the keel of a vessel has its
ends lower than its middle, thus ~ .
Opposed to rockered.
Camoe.—A kind of boat used in many parts of
the world and distinct from row boats, as
they are propelled by paddles which are
dipped in the water on alternate sides. There
are paddles of one blade and two blades.
Some canoes carry many occupants, some
only one ; in the latter case the canoe is
usually decked. They are variously built and
usually sharp ended.
Camoe Hatch.—The double lines c are carlines,
supposed to be seen through the hatch which
is screwed to the two dotted ones (Fig. 289);
the ends of the latter are made to slide in a
groove in the coalmings. The middle carline
is fastened to the deck and prevents the
latter sliding too far, and stops the water
getting into the well should any find its way
under the hatch carline. A channel should
be made round the rim of the well so that
the person sitting therein could fit an apron
Q- |
| &
| #
(? !
| | ſ
| ;
ITIG, 289.
y A
or waterproof into it after the fashion of the
Esquimaux.
A preferable plan is to have the hatch and
the frame on which it slides separate, so that
it will fit over the rabbets round the coam-
ings; then if the canoe upsets, the hatch will
float off and free the canoeist.
Mr. Rede Turner recommends the following
plan for fastening down a canoe hatch :
A is a metal plate, screwed to hatch or door,
and projecting somewhat beyond the edge of
J.'
Aſazz/2.
B
AZze of Zeck
hatch, and in the projecting edge of it has a
slot cut. (See Figs. 290, 291, 292, 293).
B is a screw at one end, and on this end
works a butterfly nut (C) (Figs. 290, 291, 292)
the other has two short arms at right angle to
the upper part (see Figs. 290, 291, 293) which
FIG. 290.
** -----,
FIG. 291.
short arms are hinged at D (Fig. 291), and
B moves freely when the butterfly nut C is
unscrewed.
To open a hatch which has been fitted
with this arrangement, the two butterfly
nuts C must be unscrewed, and B allowed
to fall down out of the way, and the hatch
can then be lifted off. To fasten the hatch
down B must be turned up, and the butter-
fly nut C screws down tight.
N.B. There should be two or more of this

Dictionary of General Information.
603
arrangement on hatch, according to the size,
viz., one on each side.
*
* ... " ,’ \
in º
* * * * * * * * º
,” g
4 ,”
,’ ... - * * *
," r
g g
Af g
& g
f t
f t
f d
* º
g M
|
º
!
ſ
t
º g ſº
: - ; º
TIG. 292.
Fig. 292 is the same plan, except that B is
fixed upright, and the plate A is centred on E,
A
FIG 293.
FIG. 294.
and works horizontally. (See dotted lines of
Fig. 292.)
Camt Frames. – The frame in the bow and
quarter of a vessel that are not square to the
keel.
Canvas.-The weight of canvas used by Messrs.
Lapthorn and Ratsey for yachts' sails is as
follows :
7 : | : ~l. 4.
Wºl weight Nº.
*9.9′ canvas of º * Size of yacht
canvas, “...”| 60 yards *... in tons.
inches. | * lbs. made up.
0 18 61 0.270+ 100 and upwards
T 18 57-5 (): 255 | 40 to 60
2 18 54 (): 240 20
3 18 5()-5 ()-->25 15
4 18 47 ()-21() 1()
5 |S 43-5 (). 19.5 7
6 | 8 4() 0-182 5
7 18 35-8 (). 165 3
1 12 4() (). 265 40 to 60
2 J 2 37.2 0-250 20
3 12 34°4 (): 235 15
4. 12 31-6 ().22() 1()
* This includes the seams and tablings, but not roping,
cringles, reef points, or lacings.
Canvas Back.—A term applied to boats covered
with canvas to keep out the seas; also applied
to yacht sailors who are fond of a salting.
Canvas-back Dwck. — A wild
America, and highly esteemed for the table.
duck common in
Canvas Boats.-These are boats made of canvas
and used by the Galway fishermen, par-
ticularly at Dingle. The ribs of the boats are
made of wood hoop, such as may be got off
casks ; outside the ribs battens are nailed in
a fore-and-aft direction ; a keel to which the
ribs are also nailed is rounded up at the ends
to form stem and stern post. The canvas is
about two feet wide, and runs fore-and-aft.
There is an inwale and gunwale as usual at
the top of the ribs, the canvas going between
the two. These boats are usually 20ft. by 4ft.
They are very light, one man carrying them
easily. They are manned by a crew of four,
each man using a pair of oars. A lug sail is
carried off the wind. These boats get through
a great deal of rough water by aid of the
eight oars they are propelled by.
The following directions for making canvas
boats have been carefully compiled :-
For the keel get a piece of larch 15ft.
long, 2%in. wide, and 2in. deep ; the stem and
stern posts, with rake according to fancy,
may be mortised into the keel; these pieces
mast be bevelled off from the width of the
keel, so as to have a cutwater of about half
an inch, which will be sharp enough. Next
get three good heavy blocks of wood, and lay
them four feet apart in the place where you
are going to build your boat ; then take the
keel with the stem and stern posts already in,
and fix it perfectly true on the said blocks,
using a spirit level for the purpose. The
easiest temporary way of fastening the keel
down is to nail short pieces of wood firmly
to the blocks, just wide enough apart for the
keel to jam between them, and drive a small
nail through these pieces into the keel on
each side ; this will keep all firm, and prevent
the keel from moving or twisting as you
proceed with other work; it is an important
point, and must not be omitted. This done,
the next thing is to get a good stout spar,
about 2in. or 3in. Square, and longer than the
boat ; tack this on the top of the stem and
stern posts; as it is necessary that this fore-
and-aft piece should be stayed stiffly in its
position, this can easily be done by tacking
some rough pieces to it here and there, and
nailing the other ends to the rafters of your
shed. The uses of this spar are many and
obvious. You will thus get your stem and
stern posts true, and it will be useful after-
wards to keep the moulds in their places,
and for shoring out the timbers and ribbands
or battens so as to keep them shapely to the
eye as the work proceeds. Your next business
is to make what shipwrights call “the
moulds,” which is to give the shape, beam,
and depth. To make the moulds, first strike
it out full size with a piece of chalk on the
floor of some room. For a boat 15ft. in
length, the width ought to be at least 4ft.,
the depth not less than 2ft. Do not let the
curve of the sides be too sharp, but give her
a good round side and a flattish bottom.
Having made your moulds to the exact shape
of the pattern chalked on the floor, nail a thin
strip of wood across the upper (gunwale)
ends, which will keep them stiff and true ;
next take the moulds and nail them on the

604 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Canvas Boats—continued.
keel in their proper places, fastening it above
to the fore-and-aft piece. The moulds being
now firmly fixed in their places, you may
proceed to what in other boats would be called
the planking. Saw out some thin strips of
larch, about 20ft. long, 1 in. wide, and a
quarter of an inch thick. Six of these on each
side would be sufficient. Having chamfered
off a little from one of the ends to make it
fit the stem of the boat, fasten it with two
Small copper nails ; carry the ribband in your
hand, and humour it gently round the moulds
tacking it slightly there, and bring it on to
the sternpost. You will probably find your
piece too long; mark the required length, cut,
and nail it in its place. In laying on these
ribbands you must begin at the bottom of the
boat, and work up. Having fixed your ribband
both sides, get two long pieces the same
width, only double the thickness, for gun-
wales, and fix them ; fit a breast hook stem
and stern, and rivet the gunwales securely to
them. Saw out a lot of thin stuff for ribs,
half an inch wide, and about the eighth of an
inch thick; they will bend easily, and will not
require steaming. Put these on about six
inches apart, and rivet them to the battens.
Next put in your thwarts, fixing them well
down in the bottom of the boat, which will
make her safer, the weight being near the
keel. Get some copper, galvanised iron, or
oak knees, with one leg long enough to reach
from the gunwale down to the seat ; rivet this
well to the battens and gunwale, and nail the
other part on the seat ; there should be four
to each thwart, as they help to strengthen the
boat immensely. You may now take your
boat off the stocks, and she will be ready for
the next operation. Get some good new sail
canvas, not too stout, and cover one side at a
time ; tack the edge of the canvas all along
the bottom of the keel and pull it to the shape
of the boat, tacking it neatly to the sides of
the stem and stern posts. Where you find it
does not sit well, you may sometimes avoid
cutting by folding the spare stuff, and, with a
Sailor’s needle and palm, sew it to the main
body of the canvas. Do this on a warm day,
as the canvas will then be quite Hupple, and
more easy to handle. Nail a strip of wood
half an inch thick on the bottom of the keel
to keep all Snug, and as an extra security
drive a row of tacks through the canvas on
each side of the keel. You must be careful
to nail over the canvas some narrow strips of
wood, as “bilge pieces,” where you see she
would take the ground when lying on her
side, otherwise the pulling and dragging over
the sand in launching, &c., would quickly
wear the canvas through. With care, and
with an extra coat of paint now and then,
a boat of this sort will last nine or ten
years.
The following suggestions will be found
effective to prevent the puckering of the
canvas skin of the proposed boat. A frame-
work of 4ft. beam will require about three
breadths of canvas on each side, and waste
should be avoided by preparing paper patterns
by which to cut out the canvas. To do this
cut some old newspapers to the width of the
canvas, and paste sufficient pieces together
end to end to give the required length of the
boat. Turn the frame of the boat upside
down, and stay it in a horizontal position and
upright. Lay the edge of the paper on the
flat keel along the middle, place weights upon
it and measure off the distances from the
middle line across the paper on the ribs, so
as to keep the breadths horizontal from the
middle to the stern and bow of the boat.
Towards the bow and stern the breadths will
be of course materially reduced. Remove the
paper on to the floor, and draw a line from
point to point marked on the paper at the
crossings of the timbers. From this pattern
you can easily cut out the two canvas strakes,
one for each side of the boat against the keel,
which are called the garboards. Replace the
patterm ; but, before doing so, mark the lower
edge for the second breadth of paper, and,
setting off the distances along the ribs to the
width of the first pattern, you will be able to
mark it out and cut it as the previous one.
A double seam will be better than a single, as
it will give great additional strength to the
canvas, and the width of an inch and an
eighth should be allowed for it. The lower
edge of the third breadth can now be marked
and cut out by the upper edge of the second,
and if found to reach the gunwale, the top
edge may be left uncut until the canvas is
drawn over the framework. In applying the
canvas to the keel, put plenty of thick paint.
on the inside to half the breadth of the keel,
and nail the selvedge with copper tacks along
the middle line; then screw on with brass
screws, at 6-inch intervals, a piece of elm
plank #ths of an inch thick, and exactly the
same width and length as the keel. Between
the 6-inch intervals drive copper tacks. A
Small strip of copper at the fore foot and heel
will prevent this shoeing, as it is called, from,
catching in anything. To make a good finish
at stem and stern, cut out the thickness of
the stem and sternpost to the eighth of an
inch from top to bottom, as in an ordinary
boat, which will form a groove or rabbet, and
when you come to this part fold the end of
the canvas back. This will give additional
strength for the nails, and at the same time
make a very Snug finish.
A diagonal - framed canvas boat built in
1844 was in use for thirty years. The
canvas was stout, and it was very thickly
painted when dry, and not wetted, as is fre-
quently the case, to prevent the absorption of
paint. The boat was built on three moulds,
the transom or stern board (for she is not
canoe-formed at the stern) being one mould,
the midship mould the second, and a third
equi-distant between it and the bow. An
inner keel or kelson having been connected
with the stem and sternposts by mortices,
this kelson was let into the moulds its own
thickness, lin., and secured. The moulds were
steadied in their positions by the gunwales, of
Dictionary of General Information. 605
#in. by 2in, yellow pine, nailed to the stern
and transom board. The frame of yellow pine,
jºin, by #in., was then nailed on diagonally,
leaving openings of 24 in. wide where cross-
ing each other. The canvas, put on length-
Ways, was cut so as to run along the
framework parallel with the kelson on each
side ; and the seams were sewn double, as
sails are ordinarily made by sailmakers.
There is one bottom and two side breadths,
and, therefore, no join along the kelson. The
canvas turns in over the gunwale, and is
Secured by a strip of the same wood. The
framework is nailed with copper tacks. The
canvas, being so well supported, is perfectly
rigid, and the boat appears likely to last a
number of years. See “Collapsible Boats.”
Canvas Coracle.—Such a boat (Fig. 295) was built
by Capt. J. Richards, R.N., in 1878, for the
river Avon, 12ft. long, 3ft. wide, and 15in. in
depth. She has a frame of American elm,
fastened with rove and clench copper nails and
wire; her floor is nearly flat, formed of #in.
white pine wood, lined inside with sheets of
Cork to fill up the spaces between the timbers,
by Capt. Richards for the Stowage of bedding,
clothes, and provisions of the crew.
The gunwale and the coaming are strongly
braced together, and the ends of the gunwale
are additionally secured to the stem and
Sternpost by strong iron plates, with eye-
bolt - above, in which are rove stout ropes, to
moor the boat with when afloat, or suspend
her to trees like a hammock whenever her
crew may desire to sleep in that position.
The coracle is fitted with a couple of small
light wheels and iron axle (weighing only
about 121b., and novable at pleasure in
about a couple of minutes), which when
attached to her keel afford her the locomotive
advantages of a porter's truck.
The twelve-foot coracle weighs about 90lb.,
and draws three inches water when light ;
but, with her crew of two men and her gear
on board, at her late trial she drew five inches
forward and seven aft. An inch of this,
however, is due to her false keel, which, with
bilge pieces, give ample lateral resistance
when under sail in a seaway.
The entire structure was well saturated
with boiled linseed oil, and then
painted.
The inner boat can be disengaged at
the gunwale, and removed altogether
in about four minutes.
One of the principal advantages
claimed for this “double-shell boat'’
consists in the fact that the outer
boat may be stove in without ren-
dering her unserviceable or wetting
her crew ; and so long as the outer
boat is intact, a sea may be acci-
dentally shipped in the inner boat
without dangerously affecting the
ºf ſ f f f_{f___ ºf f Y_*
SCALE OF FEET AND i NCHES
FIG. 295.
and form a level and solid platform within.
Above the floor and outside the timbers
(which are 6in. apart, and twenty-three in
number), instead of the planking of an
ordinary boat, there are stout fore-and-aft
stringers of American elm three inches apart,
outside all of which is stretched the thick
No. 1 canvas skin of the outer boat. The
principal materials required are keel of lin.
square ash ; gunwale, 1in. Square ash ;
cross-pieces of gunwales, lin. Square ash ;
keel chafing pieces, jin. by §in. ash ; fore-
and-aft stringers, #in. by #in. ; bilge stringers,
#in. by Šin. ; twenty-three timbers, #in.
isquare.
Within this structure and securely attached
to it, although quite distinct from it, there is
an inner canvas boat, 8ft. long and 2ft. wide
(having a separate gunwale), in which the
crew sit on the floor
The deck space between the gunwale and
coaming is entirely covered in by canvas,
supported on a strong framework of wood
and cane; and, being under ordinary circum-
stances quite secure from wet, was intended
&o A stability of the vessel ; and should
both the outer and inner boats be
swamped with water, the cork floor
and cushions will, neverless, still
afford her the properties of a life buoy suffi-
cient for her crew. (See “Coracle Life boat.” )
The builders of these boats are Messrs.
Hill, Canon’s Marsh, Bristol. Price 6l. 10s.
Carriage by rail 1d. per mile.
Cap.–A figure of 8 iron band fitted to the mast-
head, bowsprit end, for jib-boom, &c. Some-
times the yoke is termed the lower cap.
Capfwl of Wind.—A puff of wind soon passing
away.
Capstam.—A mechanical contrivance for raising
the anchor, said to have been introduced in
Queen Elizabeth's reign. Sir Walter Raleigh
says: “The shape of our ships have been
greatly bettered of late. We have contrived
the striking of the topmast, added the chain
pump, devised studding sails, top gallant
Sails, sprit sails, and top-sails. We have also
lengthened our cables, and contrived weighing
of the anchor by the capstan.” Capstans
very compact in form are now made for
yachts instead of the cumbrous windlass.
The capstains most generally in use on board
yachts are those manufactured by Cantelo,

606
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Southampton ; W. White and Sons, Wectis
Works, Cowes; Atkey, Cowes; Harfield and
Co., Mansion House Buildings, E.C.; Blake
and Sons, Gosport; and Simpson and Strick-
land, Dartmouth. The Cantelo, White, and
Atkey capstan have winch heads, so that
they can be used without capstain bars.
A form of capstan made of aluminium was
invented by Lieut. Oliver, R.N., and used by
him in his 1-rater Querida during 1893. Its
form is shown by the accompanying engraying
(Fig. 276).
It was specially made for hoisting lugsails
in small raters with single wire halyards, thus
doing away with whips and purchases. One
similar in size, but of gunmetal and weigh-
ing over 30lb., was first used. The method
adopted is as follows: The capstain is secured
in any convenient position in bottom of
yacht, the wire halyards is lead through
deck, and a leading block secured to mast
step. To hoist sail, the halyard is manned
and sail hoisted; it is then taken round the
capstan (about four turns), and the end
belayed round both arms of lever; the capstan
is now hove upon, and the sail sweated up,
after which it will be found unnecessary
to be constantly pulling on halyards, as in
Z////
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FIG, 296.
the case where purchases are in use, and
which are always giving up. The capstan
barrel, spindle, and bed of aluminium, the
lever being made of aluminium bronze, the
whole weighing only 10lb., and has been
tested to 600lb., with the weight and power
acting in the same direction.
The dimensions are : Height, extreme,
6%in. ; diameter of bed, 7%in. ; barrel, 5in. ;
length of lever from centre of capstan to
extreme end, 1ſt. 7in. Price, 4.l.. 108. Sole
makers, Bickle and Co., Engineers, Great
Western Docks, Plymouth.
Capstam Bar.—Bars of wood by which the cap-
stan is turned, and so made to wind up the
anchor or raise any weight.
Capstam, for a Trawl.—A capstan for a trawl for
a yacht of twenty or more tons is made at
the Mount's Bay Foundry, Cornwall.
Card.—The dial of a compass upon which the
points are marked.
Cardinal Points.—The compass points, E., W.,
N., and S.
Careen.—To heel, to list, to lean over.
Carlines.—Pieces of timber fitted between the
deck beams in a fore-and-aft direction.
Carry Away.—The breakage of a spar, rope, &c.
Carry Camvas.-A vessel is said to carry her
canvas well if she does not heel much in
strong breezes.
Carvel Built.—Built with the plank flush edge to
edge, and the seams caulked and payed.
Cast.—Said of a ship when she fills on one tack
or the other after being head to wind. Used
generally in getting under way, as cast to
port, &c. The word is variously used, as to
cast anchor, to cast off a rope.
Catamaram.—A small raft common in the East
Indies. A double boat in use
in America. (See p. 452.)
Cat Block.-The block used in
catting the anchor.
Cat Boat.—A boat with one sail,
like a Una boat.
Catch, a Thºrm.—To take a turn
quickly with a rope round a
belaying pin, or bitt, or cavel.
Cathead.—Timber or iron projection from the
bow of a vessel by which the anchor is hoisted
up to the rail, after it has been weighed to
the hawse pipe.
Catspaws.--In calms, when the water is rippled
here and there with passing airs of wind, it
is said to be scratched by catspaws. A
“catspaw'” is also a bight double in a rope.
Cawlking.—Driving oakum into the seams of a
vessel. (See “Marine Glue.”)
Cawlking Iron.—A kind of blunt chisel used for
driving oakum into the seams.
Cawstic Soda.-A mixture of three-parts of soda,
to two of unslacked lime. The soda is
boiled in the water, and then the lime
added. The mixture should be applied hot,
and be of the consistency of thick whitewash.
In applying it great care should be exercised
so as not to allow it to touch the hands. A
brush of vegetable fibre should be used, as the
composition will destroy hair. Caustic soda is
used for cleaning off old paint or varnish ; the
mixture should be put on nine or ten hours
before it is scraped off if a very clean job is
desired. If it is a deck that has to be cleaned
it is desirable to damp it with fresh water
before an application of the mixture ; hence
it is a good plan to apply it on a dewy
morning. Mahogany should be scraped, and
not cleaned with caustic soda. A mixture of
two parts Soda and one part soap, simmered
together and applied hot, is sometimes used.
Carson’s “Detergent ’’ (La Belle Sauvage-
yard, London), is an excellent substitute for
caustic Soda, but care should be taken in













Dictionary of General Information.
607
using it for decks, as it injuriously affects
marine glue. (See also “Sooji Mooji.”)
Cavel (sometimes spelt “kavel” or “kevel).”
—Stout pieces of timber fixed horizontally to
the stanchions on bitts for belaying ropes to.
THROUGH KEEL
|
*HDMa Nur
frot T0 G0
FIG. 297,
Ceiling.—The inside planking of a vessel.
Centre-board (a Temporary).-Make a board
of the shape of either of those in the sketch
(Fig. 297) about one-third of the length of
the boat. Three bolts will be on the upper
edge of the board ; the centre bolt will have
a thread longer than the other two, and pro-
trude through the keel. When the board is
fitted under the keel, it will be held tight to
the keel by a thumb nut on the centre bolt.
To unship the board when afloat unscrew the
thumb nut, push the board down, and it will
float up alongside. A cork will be put into
the bolt hole. Of course the board cannot
be shifted when the boat is afloat. It would
be unsafe to sail about in shallow water with
such a contrivance; nor should the boat
under any circumstances be allowed to take
the ground with the board fixed.
Another form of temporary board (Fig. 298)
has been fitted to an ordinary boat, 18ft. long.
FIG. 298.
It consists of a board, to which are affixed iron
clamps on either side, which admit of the main
keel being inserted between them ; through
these are passed bolts with nuts, which firmly
hold the two keels together.
The dimensions of a board for an 18ft.
boat are 6ft. long, 1.ft. 10in, deep, and 1%in.
thick. The board is to be about 1.ft. 6in.
shorter on its under side than on its top
side, the fore end sloping aft, and the aft
end sloping forward; but the slope at the
fore end is nearly double that at the aft end.
Place the centre of the board a trifle in
advance of the centre of the main keel; it
can be fixed in five minutes when the boat is
in the davits; only one word of caution is
necessary, that is, not to tow her with the
keel on behind the yacht when sailing, or
in all probability she will take a sheer out
and capsize.
This plan was introduced by Mr. G. H.
Harrison, of the Siesta schooner; but it is not
quite so good as the American plan below,
because it cannot be unfitted or released
whilst the boat is afloat ; and, moreover,
a triangular shape is to be preferred.
Centre-board (deflecting). — All boards
of a fixed pattern are more or less in the
way, and “the American Goodrich de-
flecting centre-board” (Fig. 299) was in-
vented to do away with all inboard casing
s:#:
FIG. 299.
and make a board of less draught accomplish
as much as a deep one could.
The “board ” consists of a thin sheet of
stiff metal, swung to the keel by a long hinge,
and can be rotated at will by applying force
to a lever at the after end. The metal
blade is 30in. long and 9in. deep for canoes,
and 36in. long with 10in. depth adapted







608
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
for row-boats and general use. The end of
the shaft ships into a small lug socket on
the keel. It is hold in place by turning
up a screw in the back of the after box,
driving the forward end home into the lug.
To remove or unship, it is only necessary to
back out the screw, draw back the board
until the shaft drops out of the forward
lug, then pull forward until clear of the box
also. To control the angular position of the
blade, a lever is introduced inside the canoe.
The top of the after box has an opening
with a forked slide slipping over the slot.
This slide is pushed clear, the lever then
slipped into the middle hole of three in
the shaft end. If the board is to be kept
plumb, draw to the forked slide, so that the
prong's grasp and hold the lever up and down.
Leakage is prevented by having the shaft
closely fit in the box. When so nipped, the
blade is vertical, the same as is the case with
Centre-board (a.sg
* I
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edge of the little sliding cap. When the board
is to be got rid of temporarily for paddling
or to clear a shoal, it is turned clear up under
the bottom, as shown by the dotted line in
one of the cuts, by taking hold with the lover
in one of the outer holes of the three in the
shaft. (See also “Butcher's Cleaver '' and
“Lee Board” Clip.)
Centre-plate (Dagger).--This portable plate (see
Fig. 300) is in much use in America for very
small shallow boats and canoes.

Zagger
Centre-board
A.A.Stops to prevent the plate dropping too far
Centre-plate (Shot Ballasted).-No practice in the
history of yacht racing has been more the
subject of controversy or more condemned
than the “shot bag ’’ or shifting ballast ; but
“shot ” it seems can be now utilised, under
Y.R.A. rules, as shifting ballast if used in a
particular form of keel or centre-plate. Such
a keel is here with illustrated. Mr. F. W.
Brewster, of West Cliff Gardens, Bourne-
mouth is the inventor. To the
centre-plate is attached an elbowed
cylinder, which is half filled with
No. 4 shot. When the plate is
lowered the shot desc-nds into what
is then the lower part of the cylinder,
as shown, and returns to the long
arm when the plate is housed. The
arrangements are clearly shown in
the engraving, and it is claimed by
the inventor that the plate and
FIG. 300.
an ordinary centre-board, and in this condition
the canoe is prepared to sail in light airs, or
before the wind, as it is impossible to trice up
the blade. Being small, very thin, and with
sides as smooth as you wish to finish them, no
appreciable resistance will be experienced.
When heeling to a press of sail, or in beat-
ing up against the wind, the angle of the
blade may be changed quickly to suit the
demands of each tack. This is effected by
shoving back the forked slide, and then push-
ing the lever up to windward, retaining it there
by a small hook and eye supplied for the pur-
pose. When going about, throw off the hook
while in wind, push lever over to opposite
side, and hook again. Until well settled
down to the work, it is best to keep the lever
approximately as desired by bearing against
it with the knee or the foot. Should half the
angle be sufficient, the lever may be allowed
to come back till it takes against the outer
cylinder afford great efficiency as a
ballast contrivance with small resis-
tance. The aperture in the keel,
through which the end of the cylinder
passes, is closed with weighted lids
when the plate is lowered.
Centre-plates (the strains and stresses
of).-Fig. 301 shows a boat heeled
by a force represented by the arrow
A, and this force also drives the
vessel to leeward in the direction of
the arrow. The motion in this di-
rection is resisted, more or less, by
the pressure of water on the hull
and on the board B. This pressure
is represented by the arrows CC. If,
now, for the board we substitute a heavy metal
plate, it is obvious that the weight of this D
plate will act in the direction of the arrow
E (Fig. 301).
The stress of the plate D acts in an exactly
opposite direction to the board B. But,
supposing the weight D exactly balanced the
pressure CC on B, the board would have no
straining effect whatever, but would rest free
in its case as represented by F (Fig. 301).
This condition of equilibrium is only likely
to endure momentarily, but the illustrations
show how a heavy board may tend to reduce
the strains on the keel and case. Of course
the worst strains occur when a vessel is
rolling in a seaway, whether she be before
the wind or on a wind; and often it has been
found dangerous to keep a board lowered
when the vessel is hove-to, owing to the
pressure set up by CC, which is much greater
when a vessel is hove-to than it is when she
Dictionary of General Information. 609
is making high speed through the water; and
also owing to the rolling which is always
more or less apparent in disturbed water.
In connection with this matter, in “Yacht
Architecture,” page 367, we find the follow-
Ing:
“At the time the inquiry was held into the
loss of the Captain someone raised the ques-
FIG. 301.
FIG. 302.
tion as to whether keels and bilge keels
would add to stiffness under canvas; it was
properly pointed out at this inquiry that, so
far as keels or bilge keels of wood are con-
cerned, they tend to decrease statical stability,
but on account of the resistance they offer to
motion: in the water they would check the
sudden inclination of the vessel due to a
sudden application of wind force by in-
R. R.
FIG. 303.
creasing the “amount of work to be done *
in heeling ; in other words, they would
increase the dynamical stability. However,
as further pointed out at the inquiry, the lee
bilge keel will have a tendency, when the
vessel is sailing with a steady wind pressure,
to cause an increase of heel beyond that due
to the actual pressure on the sails. A vessel,
FIG. 304.
when sailing with the wind abeam or forward
of the beam, makes more or less leeway, or
moves in a sideways direction; thus, an
ardent pressure would be brought upon the
upper side of the lee bilge keel, and this
pressure would assist in a small degree in
heeling the vessel.”
It is quite a common belief that a centre-
board, irrespective of its weight, somehow




610
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
increases stiffness; but such is not the case. It
is also Hometimes thought that a metal centre-
plate will enable a broad, shallow boat to
carry as much canvas as can be got on her.
This is a very great mistake, and we know
from two or three examples that the effect of
a centre-plate weighing nearly half a ton on a
25ft. boat, with a 11 ft. beam, and about
1ft. 9in. draught amidships, is extremely
small on the stability; and a “sandbagger,”
if fitted with a metal centre-plate, could not
in consequence dispense with her sand bags
Stowed well in the weather bilge, any more than
the cat boat tribe could dispense with their
heavy crew up to windward.
Chaim Locker.—The compartment in the hold of
a vessel wherein the mooring chain is stowed.
Chain Pipe.—Iron pipe on the deck through which
the cables pass into the lockers.
Chaim Plates.—Iron braces on the side of a ship
to which long linked chains are attached with
the dead eyes for the lanyards of the rigging
above.
Challenge Owps.-Cups which when won subject
the yacht to be challenged to race for it
again. Unless there is any stipulation to
the contrary, a yacht can be altered during
the period she holds the cup and still be
eligible to defend it.
Chammel Deep.–Said of a yacht when she is heeled
over until her lee channels are under water.
Channel Plates.—Braces secured to the sides of
vessels and extended by pieces of timber
termed channels. The lower dead eyes are
bolted to the channel plates.
Chammels.--Strong pieces of timber fixed on the
side of a ship inside the chain plates to give
greater spread to the rigging.
During the existence of the old tonnage
rule up to 1887 the channels of yachts were
much increased in width in order to give
the necessary spread to the rigging in con-
sequence of the narrowness of the hull com-
pared with the height of the mast. But even
with this extra spread it was found difficult
to keep the mast in its place ; and in fact it
could not have been done, but for the steel
wire rope shrouds. These were set up bar
taut and the drift of lanyard between the
dead eyes was very short compared with what
it once was.
Check, To.—To check a sheet is to ease it a little.
To check a vessel's way as by a warp, or by
backing a sail. To check a tide is to keep a
vessel from her course, in order to allow for
the influence or drift of a tide. A vessel is
said to check the tide when it throws her to
windward. To check a vessel with the helm
is to prevent her altering her course. (See
“To Meet.”)
Cheek Blocks.--A sheave fitted on a spar inside
a sort of cleat, as the cheek block for top-
sail sheet on the end of a gaff.
Cheeks of the Mast.—The hounds.
Oheering.—The loud, deep, and somorous “hip,
hip, hurrahs 1” which the crew of a van-
quished yacht greet the victrix with. A
custom much honoured. The crew of tho.
vanquished yacht line the bulwarks and give
three consecutive “hip, hip, hurrahs 1 '' the
winning crew then does the same ; the van-
quished crew then give a single “hip, hip.
hurrah ’’ to “ come up with,” or finish off,
(See “Man Ship,”)
Chill.—In very light winds, if a cloud passes over-
head and a puff comes out of it, it is called a
chill—probably on account of its coldness.
Chime or Chime.—The part of a waterway on
the deck of a ship which joins the spirketting.
The bilge joint of a barge is also termed a
chime or chine.
Chinese Lug.—A lug sail with battons.
Chips.—A nickname for a ship's carpenter.
Chock.-A block or wedge of wood.
Chock a Block.-Said of two blocks when, in
hoisting or hauling, the two blocks of a tackle
are brought close together. Generally when
two things are brought so close together that
they cannot be got closer.
Chock Fwll.—Full to the brim. Frequently used
in close-hauled sailing to let the helmsman
know that the sails are full enough, and
he need use no more weather helm. (See
“Ramping Full.”)
Chock Home.—Close up.
Choppy Sea.—A short, steep sea, which makes a
vessel continuously pitch and 'scend.
Chºwcle.—To throw.
Chºwckle-headed.—Full or bluff
thickheaded.
Chuck to Windward.—A weather-going tide is
said to chuck a vessel to windward, and
the contrary a lee-going tide.
Circumference of a Circle.—The diameter multi-
plied by 3:14,159 ; in algebra denoted by the
Greek letter ºr or perimeter.
Clamp. —A thick strake of wood worked inside a
vessel under the shelf.
Clamps.-A kind of wedge vice, used in boat-
building to hold the plank together. (See
“Boat Building.”) Various contrivances of
wood or metal used in fitting up a vessel or
in fixing parts in her construction.
Claſp on Canvas.--To put on more canvas. “Clap
on here’’ is a request frequently made to idlers
to assist in hauling on a rope.
Claw.—To hang well to windward, as to “claw
off a lee shore.”
Claw to Windward.—To beat to windward under
difficulties. To claw off a lee shore is to beat
off and avoid getting stranded.
Clean I"wll.—Barely close-hauled ; when all the
Sails are full.
Clear for Going About.—A question often asked
when work is being done on deck, and the
vessel has to be put about : “Are ye all clear
there for going about P’’
Cleats.-Pieces of wood with one or more arms
fastened to spars, &c., for belaying to, or to
in the bow;
Dictionary of General Information.
611
*-*---------.
-- *-*------- --- -------
prevent ropes slipping, &c. (See “Thumb
Cleats” and “Cruickshanks’ Patent Safety
Cleats.”)
Clench Work (spelt also “clencher,” “clincher,”
and sometimes “clinker.”)—In boat building
when the edges of the plank overlap, forming
lands.
Clew.—The lower corners of a square Bail; in
fore-and-aft sails only the lower after corner
is called the clew.
Clew Lines.—Clew garnets. Ropes used for
hauling up the clews of Sails. (See page 26.)
Clew Up.–To haul up a sail by the clew lines for
furling, &c. Also used as a slang term for
shut up or cease. |
Climch.—To fasten a rope by a half hitch, and
seize the end back to the other part; a method
adopted with very large ropes or hawsers after
they have to be bent to rings, &c., in a hurry.
To clinch is also to beat the end of a bolt or
rivet until it forms a head; or to turn the end
of a nail in so that it will not draw.
Climcher Work.-See “Clench.”
Olimker.—The hard cinder which forms on fur-
nace bars. Sometimes wrongly used for
clincher work in boat building. (See “Clench
Work.”)
Olinometer.—An instrument for measuring the
angle of inclination or the extent of heel a
ship has under canvas or whilst rolling.
Clip for Chain of Centre-Board.—Captain E. du
Boulay, of the Bembridge Sailing Club, recom-
mends a clip made of galvanised iron as
shown in Fig. 305, and fastened just behind
the sheave over which the chain works. One
FIG. 305.
of the crew who has hold of the chain can,
lowering his hand, drop the chain into the
clip and jam it, but by keeping the chain
level he can raise or lower his board freely.
Clip Hook.-A double hook (hinged to the eye)
whose parts overlap when attached to a ring,
Frº. 506.
&c. A hook not much in favour, as it so
frequently breaks or gets half detached.
Clipper.—A fine ship; first applied to the sharp-
bowed ships that sailed out of Baltimore, U.S.
i
!
ſ
Clipper Stem or Bow.—An overhanging stem or
prow.
Clock Calm.—So calm and still that the ticking
of a clock could be heard.
Close Aboard.—Near to, as the land is said to be
close aboard when a vessel has approached it
very closely.
Close-hauled.—With all the sheets trimmed flat
aft, and every rope that helps extend the
Sails hauled taut. Hauled as close to the
wind as the sails will admit without shaking
their luffs. When a square-rigged ship is
close-hauled she is about from five to six
points off the wind. A fore-and-aft schooner,
with everything nicely trimmed for racing,
will lie within four and a half points of the
wind ; a cutter within four and a quarter
points. This, of course, supposes the water
to be smooth and the wind of what is known
as “whole sail strength.” In rough water
a vessel cannot be sailed so close ; in the
Atlantic race between the Cambria, and Daunt-
less, the former, although she had head winds
for a large part of the time, for two reasons
was never hauled up closer than six points :
generally there was too much sea to admit of
it without being half hove to, and in such long
passages it was thought better to sail her along
hard on the chance of the wind freeing ; or
if it headed her she could have been put on
the other tack. (See “Wind.”)
Close Reefed.—When the last reef is taken in,
generally the fourth reef; but some modern
schooners with laced mainsails have only
three reef bands, and it is thought that when
the fourth reef is wanted that it is time to
set the trysail.
Close to Wind.—Close hauled. As close to the
wind as the sails will bear without lifting.
Clothes.—The outfit given to a yacht's crew by
the owner, consisting of trousers, frocks,
caps, shoes, and neckerchief. When the
yacht is paid off the men take the clothes
with them, but if a man is discharged for mis-
conduct, he is made to leave his clothes behind.
|Under any circumstances the men have no
legal right to the clothes if the owner chose to
retain them, as it is only a kind of livery.
Clothes Limes.—A sail is said to be across a
clothes lines when it is girted by a rope.
Lines used on board men-of-war for drying
the sailors' clothes on washing days.
Cloth in the Wind, A.—When the foremost cloth
or luff of a sail is shaking through the vessel
being brought too near the wind. A man is said
to be three cloths in the wind when intoxicated.
Clove Hitch.--—See “Scowing an Anchor.”
Clwb Hawling.—See page 103.
Coal, Consumption of.-With engines of the old
type a steamer consumed from 4lb. to 6lb. of
coal per indicated horse-power per hour. With
modern two-cylinder compound engines the
consumption is about 21b. per horse-power
per hour ; and with three-cylinder engines
and 180lb. boiler pressure about 1%lb.
Coal, stowage of.--It is usual to allow 40 cubic
R. R. 2


Yacht and Boat Sailing.
feet per ton for the stowage of coal in
bunkers.
Coal Tar.—(See “Warnish.”)
Coamings.—A raised frame fitted to and above
the deck for the hatches, skylights, &c., to
rest upon. Sometimes wrongly spelt comb-
ings.
Coats.--Painted canvas used to cover sails when
they are stowed.
Coated.—Sails stowed and covered up by the coats.
Coble.—A boat common on the Yorkshire coast.
FIG. 307.
Said to run over a sea very dry. The pecu-
liar deep rudder makes them steer well in a
sea. (See page 422.)
Cock Bill.—See “A Cock Bill.”
Cockpit.—In a man-of-war, part of the ship below
water where the middies were berthed, and
where the wounded were attended in time of
action. A kind of well in the deck aft, com-
mon in American yachts and in some small
ones in this country.
Coil.—Ropes packed up in rings one over the
other. To coil away.
Collapsible Boats.--The best known canvas
collapsible boats were invented by the Rev. E.
Berthon in 1851. They are made upon longi-
tudinal frames with a double skin of stout
canvas. When collapsed the gunwales fold
outwards, back flat on the keel. (See Fig.
308.) A 7ft. dinghy which might suit a 5-ton
yacht, will have 3ft. beam, and when folded
FIG, 308.
only require space of 7ft. × 2ft. × 6in.
The weight of such a boat is about 40lb.
A small boat 10ft. long weighs, with all the
gear, about 80lb. A yacht's gig 26ft. long,
5cwt. The price of a boat 10ft. long is
14 guineas. The preceding sketch shows the
boats open and collapsed. (See Water-
proofing.) The boats are used for small
yachts which cruise from port to port, as
they are easily stowed and row fairly well.
Another well-known canvas collapsible boat
is known as the “James,” and made by Lane
and Neeve, London Docks. See “Canvas
Boats.”
Collar.—An eye or bight of a shroud, stay or
rope to go over the masthead as the collar of
the forestay. Also a rim on a bolt.
Collier.—A vessel employed to carry coal.
Collision.—When one vessel comes into contact
with another.
Colours.-Flags denoting nationality, ownership,
or other identity.
Comb.-The crest part of a wave.
Comber.—A big surf-like wave.
Combings.-See “Coamings.”
Come mo Nearer.—An order to the helmsman not
to bring the vessel nearer the wind.
Come on Board, Sir.—A seaman’s laconic speech
when he reports his arrival on board to an
officer in charge after leave.
Come To.—To fly up in the wind; to come nearer
or closer to the wind; to luff. Generally used
when a vessel comes nearer the wind after
having falling off the wind.
Come Up.–Generally to slacken up. Whilst
hauling on the fall of a tackle and the order
comes, “Avast hauling there,” the hand that
has to belay sings out, “Come up behind ;”
all hands instantly release the fall, so that
the one who has to belay may catch the turn
round the belaying pin or cavel without
“losing any.” (See “Hold on the Fore Side”
and “Belay.”) In slang an admonition to
cease fooling.
Uome Up, To.—A vessel is said to come up when
the wind frees her so that she can head nearer
her course, or look, or point her course. In
beating, a helmsman in reporting the progress
made by the vessel may say, “She has come
up two points this tack, sir,” according to the
extent of the wind freeing ; if the wind came
more ahead, he might say she has broken off
or fallen off two points, &c.
Come up With.--To overtake ; also to finish off,
as to “come up with a round turn,” meaning
as the crew left off hauling one had to take a
sudden turn of the rope round the cavel, &c.,
to belay.
Commodore.—An officer appointed to take the
command of a squadron of ships. His rank,
whilst he holds the appointment, comes next
to the captain of the fleet in the Navy list ;
neither does the Commodore hold precedence
of a captain who is his senior, and would
cease to hold the advantages of his office
should a senior arrive within the limits of his
station.
A rank conferred by clubs upon members ;
and there are Commodores, Vice-Commodores,
and Rear-Commodores. Their duties are to
see that the laws of the club, especially those
that apply to matters afloat, are properly


Dictionary of General Information. 613
carried out. Commodores fly the broad pen-
nant or swallow-tail burgee. (See “Burgee.”)
Companion.—The structure with sliding roof
which forms the entrance from the deck to
the cabins below.
Compass Bowl.—The bowl within the binnacle
containing the compass.
Compass Card.—A circle divided into 32 parts,
called points; and each part is again divided
into 4 parts, and the whole is divided into
360 degrees.
Courses. Degrees. | Points. Back Bearings.
O / //
N. 0 0 0 |0 point | S.
N. : E. 2 48.45 | }. ,, . S. 3 W.
N. 313. 5 37 30 | } ,, . S. & W.
N. # E. 8 26 15 # S. # W.
N. by E. 11 15 0 |1 point | S. by W.
N. by E. 3 E. 14 3 45 | } ,, S. by W. 3 W.
N. by E. # E. 16 52 30 | # ,, S. by W. 3 W.
N. by E. # E. 1941 15 # ,, S. by W. # W.
N.N.E. 22 30 0 |2 points|S.S.W.
N.E. by N. # N.” 25 18 45 3 ,, S.W. by S. # S.
N.E. by N. # N. 28 7.30 | } , S.W. by S. # S.
N.E. by N. 3 N. 30 56 15 # , S.W. by S. # S.
N.E. by N. 33 45 0 |3 points| S.W. by S.
N.E. # N. 36 33 45 | } ,, S. W. # S.
N.E. 3 N 39 22 30 | } ,, S.W. B. S.
N.E. 3 N 42 11 15 # ,, S.W. 3 S.
N.E. 45 0 0 |4 points| S.W.
N.E. 3 E. 47 48 45 | } , , S.W. 3 W.
N.E. 3 E. 50 37 30 || 3: ,, S.W. 3 W.
N.E. # E. 53 26 15 # ,, S.W. # W.
N.E. by E. 56 15 0 |5 points| S.W. by W.
N.E. by E. 3 E. 59 3 45 3 ,, S.W. by W. 3 W.
N.E. by E. & E. 61 52 30 3, ,, S.W. by W. 3 W.
N.E. by E. # E. 64 41 15 ; , , S.W. by W. # W.
E.N.E. 67 30 0 (6 points| W.S.W.
B. by N. # N. 70 18 45 # ,, W. by S. # S.
E. by N. & N. 73 7 30 # ,, W. by S. # S.
E. by N. 3 N. 75 56 15 | } ,, W. by S. 3 S.
E. by N. 78 45 0 |7 points| W. by S.
E. # N. 81 33 45 # ,, W. # S.
E. # N 84 22 30 | } ,, . W. 3 S.
E. : N 87 11 15 # ,, W. 3 S.
E. 90 0 0 |8 points| W.
E. : S., 92 48.45 | } ,, . W. 3 N.
and so on.
* It is customary in the Royal Navy to call this
.N.E. # E.; N.N.E. § E.; N.N.E. # E., then N.E.
by N. Either way is correct. Sometimes also E.
by N. # N. is called E.N.E. 3 E. : or N.E. by E. § E.
is called for shortness E.N.E. 3 N. The table, how-
ever, gives the more correct way. In calling off the
points avoid such “lubberisms” as N.E. by E. & N. for
N.E. # E., or S. by W. & S. for S. # W., &c.
It is commonly believed that the mariner's
compass was introduced into Europe in the
fifteenth century, but it seems to have been
well known in a primitive form in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries. In one of the
popular songs written in the time of King
John, it is related that the sailors who went
on long voyages to Friesland and the East, knew
their way by observing the polar star, but,
when the sky was covered with clouds, and
they could no longer see the stars of heaven,
they had a contrivance which consisted of a
needle of iron put through a piece of cork so
that one end remained out. This they rubbed
with the loadstone, and then placed it in a
vessel of water, and the needle pointed without
error to the polar star. This formed a primi-
tive but fairly perfect mariner's compass. If
an ordinary needle be rubbed on a magnet
and gently dropped into a glass of water
it will float and point to the north. (See
“Fluid Compass.”)
Compass Point.—The 32nd part of 360 degrees,
or practically 11% degrees.
Complement.—The full number; the whole ship’s
Cre'W.
Composition for a Boat’s Bottom.—(See page 23.
Day's composition is said to prevent the
growth of weeds, barnacles, &c. The boat
should have a coat of common varnish first,
and the composition should be applied before
the varnish is quite dry. Only a part of
the boat should be varnished at a time, or the
varnish will dry before the composition can
be put on. One gallon carefully put on will
cover about 400 square feet or the immersed
surface of a 10-tonner. The composition should
be kept well stirred whilst being used, as the
ingredients are heavy, and soon settle to the
bottom. Day's address is Limehouse, London.
Peacock’s composition has been used on iron
ships with good effect. The composition can
be obtained of Messrs. Peacock and Buchanan,
Southampton. This composition should be
applied in the same manner as Jesty’s. Two,
three, or four coats of black varnish, or coal
tar, should be first put on. The plates of an
iron yacht should be thoroughly cleaned of
rust, &c., before applying the varnish. (See
“Coal Tar or Black Warnish.”)
The Protector Fluid Company, 8, Leaden-
hall-street, E.C., have a poisonous compo-
sition, said to very effectually prevent the
growth of barnacles.
Jesty’s composition is in great request for
coating the bottoms of iron and wooden ships.
Before applying it give the vessels one or two
coats of coal tar thinned with turpentine ; when
this has dried on apply a couple of coats of
the composition ; a priming of black warnish
made by Mr. Jesty is sometimes used
instead of coal tar. The composition should
not be put on over paint. It must be kept
well stirred in the pot whilst it is being
applied, as some of its ingredients are very
heavy. The Jesty manufactory is at Gosport,
Hants.
Blake and Son, of Gosport, manufacture
a composition which is in much request.
Compressor.--A contrivance to prevent the chain
cable being veered too quickly, or to stop its
veering altogether.
Conduct Money.—Money kept back from a sea-
man's wages, but given up in whole at the end
of an engagement if the seaman’s conduct has
been good ; generally the amount kept back
is 2s. per week, and a fine to that amount is
levied for an offence.
Conning.—Directing a steersman in the use or
management of the helm. Telling him how
to steer.
Contrary Wind.—A wind that blows adversely
down a vessel's course.
614
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Copper Bottomed.—The bottom of a ship sheathed
with copper. According to Charnock (Vol.
III., page 201), copper sheathing was first
introduced in the Navy as a remedy
against the attacks of worms in 1758. (See
“Sheathing.”)
Copper Fastened.—Fastened with copper bolts
and nails.
Coracle.—A small boat used by the ancient
Britons. (See “Canvas Boats.”)
Cordage.—A general term used to denote the rope
used in the rigging of a ship.
Corinthiam.—A term in yacht parlance synony-
mous with amateur. The term Corinthian half
a century ago was commonly applied to the
aristocratic patrons of sports, some of which,
such as pugilism, are not now the fashion.
The name was adopted in consequence of the
similarity between the fashionable young men
of Corinth who emulated the feats of athletes,
&c., and their modern prototypes.
The qualifications of a “Corinthian * sailor
are variously defined. The Royal Alfred
Yacht Club formerly enjoined that in all
matches the amateur element shall consist of
“ members of the club, their sons, or members
of a royal, foreign, or recognised yacht club,
or naval officers.”
This club in 1895 adopted the following
qualification :
“A person shall not be considered an
amateur who is, or has been, employed for
pay in any capacity on board a yacht or other
vessel, commissioned officers of the Royal
Navy, Royal Marines, and Royal §.
Reserve excepted; also officers of the Mer-
cantile Marine if they have never served for
pay on board a yacht and are members of a
recognised yacht club, but not anyone who
is by trade or employment for wages a
mechanic, artisan, labourer, or servant.”
Anyone who is not, at the time being, work-
ing at a trade, or who is not an artisan,
mechanic, labourer or menial, is generally
regarded as a qualified amateur. A ship's
carpenter is reckoned as a paid hand. Some-
times a steward and cook are not ; but they
are not allowed to work in such cases if
retained on board.
Some clubs in Corinthian matches do not
allow any paid hand to be on board; others
only allow yachts of 15 tons and under one
paid hand, who is not permitted to touch the
tiller. A later and more suitable plan is to
have paid hands in the proportion set forth in
the table, page 241. In all Corinthian matches
an amateur must steer.
Corinthiam Rule of Measurement. — A tonnage
measurement adopted by the Corinthian
Yacht Club. It is simply the shipbuilder's
rule for roughly estimating the register ton-
L x B. × D
nage of a vessel, thus 200 where L
length, B breadth, and D depth, amidships
from deck to underside of keel. This rule
was also adopted by the New Thames Yacht
Club in 1875, but after a trial of two years
it was abandoned, as the general opinion
appeared to be that the rule would have an
injurious influence on the form of yachts.
Cork Concrete.—A mixture of cork and marine
glue used to fill the ends of boats, &c., to
make them unsinkable. Some such com-
position is made by the “Unsinkable Boat
Company,” Wharf Road, North Greenwich.
See “Airtight Cases.”
Corky.—Light, buoyant, easily set in motion by
the waves; floating with a high side out of
the water, &c.
Cornette.—A swallow-tailed flag.
Cot.—(See “Wexford Flat-bottomed Boats.”)
Cot.—The framework hinged to the lining of a
yacht in the forecastle to form the bed when
hammocks are not slung.
Cowmter.—The projecting part of a vessel abaft
the sternpost.
Cowrse.—Direction; the direction in which a
vessel moves; the direction from one point to
another point which a vessel has to reach.
The distance yachts have to sail in a match at
a regatta.
Cowrses.—The lower squaresails of a ship.
Covering Board.—The outside deck plank fitted
over the timber heads. See “Plank sheer.”
Coaswaim.—The man who steers and has charge
of a boat and her crew. Pronounced “cox’n.”
Crabbing.—When a vessel tumbles down under a
heavy press of canvas, or when she sags to
leeward badly.
Cracking on.—Carrying a large quantity of Sail.
Cracks in a Mast or other Spars, To Stop.—When
the spar is quite dry run in marine glue;
when the glue is hard, scrape out some of it,
and stop with putty, coloured to imitate the
colour of the wood.
Craft.—A vessel; also used in the plural, thus
a number of craft, or a lot of craft, means
a number of vessels.
Cramlc.—Not stiff under canvas; a boat that can
be heeled or listed very easily ; generally a
dangerous boat.
Cramse.—An iron hoop band, with eyes fitted to
bowsprit ends or the ends of other spars. (See
pages 64, 65 and 360.)
Creek.-An inlet of the sea.
Crests.-The top edges of waves.
Crew.—A ship’s complement, and including every
man employed on board in any capacity what-
soever, distinct from passengers.
Crimps.-Agents for engaging seaman: a vocation
not in good repute.
Cringle.—A metal thimble worked into the
corners and leeches of sails.
Cripple, A.—A vessel that does not carry her
canvas stiffly.
Cross Chocks.-Pieces of wood used for filling in
between lower futtocks where their heels
do not meet on the top of the keel.
Cross-jack.-Cross-jack-yard is the lowest yard
on the mizen mast. Pronounced “cro'jack.”
Cross Sea.—Waves that come from divers direc-
tions, usually caused by sudden shifts of wind
when it is blowing heavily.
Dictionary of General Information.
615
Cross-trees.—The spreaders for topmast shrouds.
Crow-foot.—A number of lines attached to one line,
and spreading out something like a bird’s claw.
Crown of an Anchor.—The part of an anchor
where the arms are joined to the shank.
Crow's Nest.—A place of shelter at the top-gallant
mast-head for a look out man, used by whalers
in Northern latitudes.
Crwickshamk's Patent Cleats.-This is a contrivance
for jamming the mainsheet without any turns
or bights, so that when a certain pressure is
put on the sail the sheet unreeves. The cleat
was invented with a view of preventing boats
being capsized when struck by sudden squalls.
The objection to such cleats is that they may
possibly foul, and moreover the pressure which
if applied steadily would just cause the
sheet to unreeve, might if applied suddenly
capsize the boat long before the sheet
would run through the jammers. With a
“breeze of wind” there is generally some
Sea, and , then it is not so frequently a
Sudden accession of wind or squall that
causes the boat to capsize as her position
among the waves. If she gets so placed
as to lurch or roll to leeward from the
-effect of a wave crest passing underneath
her, she may upset without any increase in
the pressure of wind; that is to say, if her
safe angle of heel under canvas is 20 degrees,
and she be permanently heeled by the wind
pressure to that angle, then, if the action of
the waves caused her to heel further—say 10
degrees—she would capsize unless skilfully
handled by the steersman. As there need be
no increase of wind pressure to bring about
such a catastrophe, the “safety cleat '’ would
be of no avail under such circumstances. In
‘smooth water it would never be prudent or
safe to wait for a squall to strike a boat, as, if
the squall were heavy enough to cause the
boat to heel to the capsizing point, the safety
cleat could not relieve the sheet fast enough
to prevent such heeling. The squall must be
“ met,” the boat thrown head to wind, and
the sheet released, before the squall strikes.
Sometimes in small boats, with the wind
abeam or abaft the beam, it may be more
prudent to run them off the wind ; but
scarcely in any case, either in a sea or in
smooth water, could the safety cleat save
a boat from being capsized if the helmsman
or crew carelessly handled her when she is
in danger of such a catastrophe. Mr. Cruick-
shank’s cleat is provided with a releasing
line, which is to be held in the hand, and if
the break does not allow the sheet to be
released fast enough, the line is to be pulled.
Manifestly it would be safer and give less
trouble to hold the sheet itself in the hand.
(See “Beadon’s Safety Reel.”)
Crwtch.--An iron support for a boom when the
sail is stowed something in this form Y ; the
upright part fits into a socket on the taffrail.
Crutches are sometimes made of two cross
pieces of wood, thus X; in schooners the
crutch for the fore boom is generally so
formed; also a similar crutch is used to put
the tiller in when the vessel is moored to keep
it from flying about, and when by lashing
the tiller lines across the vessel to either rail
the passage fore and aft would be incon-
veniently obstructed. An X crutch is used
to support the middle of the boom when the
sail is stowed and not slung by the peak
halyards. A crutch is also the metal fork
used instead of tholes in a row boat.
Cubic Measure of Water.—One gallon contains
277.274 cubic inches, or 0:16 of a cubic foot.
One cubic foot contains 1728 cubic inches, or
6'233 gallons. One ton of salt water contains
35 cubic feet. One tom of fresh water contains
359 cubic feet. Alton weight is equal to 2240lb.
See “Decimal Equivalents.” (See “Water.”)
Cuddy.—A small cabin, a deck house, the space
under the half deck of a boat.
Cwnt-line.—The space between four casks when
they are stowed bilge to bilge.
Cwrrent.—The moving of the water in certain
directions. To ascertain the rate or direction
of a current when not at anchor or when
becalmed, in a fog, or out of sight of fixed
objects, see “Drifting.”
Cutter.—A boat heavier than a gig, and used in
bad weather when the lighter boat might get
swamped.
Cutter.—A vessel with one mast rigged with
mainsail, foresail, jib, and topsail, as shown in
the accompanying sketch, and known as the
“national rig.” The bowsprit usually goes out
On one side of the stem through an iron ring
termed a spanshackle or gammon iron, but
sometimes it goes out over the stem head,
especially if there is a knee head. The bow-
sprit is fitted to run in and out between bitts,
and hence is termed a “running bowsprit ’’
in contradistinction to a standing or fixed
bowsprit such as schooners have with jib
boom. A cutter's sails are termed “fore-and-
aft” sails, because they are always tacked and
FIG. 309.
sheeted in a fore-and-aft direction by the
same corners in contradistinction to sails
which are tacked and sheeted from alternate
as squaresails are. (Fig. 309.)
Formerly cutters carried a large square
sail and square topsail or raffee ; but these
are now almost obsolete excepting in reve-
nue cruisers, having been superseded by the

616
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Spinnaker and jib topsail. The latter is
hanked to the topmast stay. A sloop as
now understood differs from a cutter in only
having one head-sail, properly termed a
foresail.
D.
Dagger Centre-plate.—(See “Centre-plate.”)
Dagger knee.—A piece of timber crossing the
frames diagonally.
Dandy.—A cutter rigged vessel with lug mizen
aft set on a jigger-mast.
Darming the Water.—When a vessel keeps sailing
backwards and forwards, as before a bar har-
bour or pier, waiting for water or orders, &c.
Davit Gwys.-The stays or ropes used to keep
the davits steady.
Davits.-Strong iron stanchions with arms used
for hoisting boats, &c.
Dead Calm.—Without a breath of wind.
Deaden-her-way.—To stop a vessel’s way by
backing and filling, or by hauling a sail
aback, or by yawing her about with the
helm, &c.
Dead Eye.—A circular block, with three holes in
it (crow-foot fashion) without sheaves, used
to reeve the lanyards through for setting up
the rigging.
Dead Flat.—The midship section. The term is
applied to the middle flat of a ship, where she
gets no broader and no marrower; that is,
where the cross sections for some distance
amidships are of the same size and form :
thus the side will present a “dead flat '' for
some distance. (See “Straight of breadth.”)
Dead Lights.——Strong shutters made to fit the
outside of cabin windows—closed in bad
weather. In yachts small circular lights are
generally fitted, and with iron shutters inside.
Dead on end.—Said of the wind, when it blows
straight down the course a vessel wishes
to make. (See “Nose-ender,” “ Muzzler.”)
Dead Reckoning.—The calculation of a ship’s
position by the log, the courses she has made,
lee way, set of currents, &c., without an
observation.
Dead Rise.—The approach the floor timbers of a
vessel makes to a vertical. In the case of
ships, the frames in the after body are called
the dead-risings, because they only rise from
the keel at a sharp angle, all the middle
frames starting out nearly horizontally from
the keel. A yacht is said to have consider-
able dead rise on a very rising floor, when
she is more or less of the V form, but really
vessels of the T form have the greatest dead
rise, as the heels of the floors forming the
framing to take the garboards do rise nearly
vertically.
Dead water.—The water in a vessel’s wake, close
to her sternpost, that follows the ship.
Dead weight.—Concentrated weight in a vessel's
bottom, such as a heavy cargo of ore or
ballast.
Dead wood.—The solid wood worked on top of the
keel forward and aft (See page 26).
Decimal Equivalents—
OF A FOOT. OIſ A TON.
In. — } # # Owt.| Tom. | Cwt. Ton
() ()()() ()21 -042 ()(;2 1 •(); 11 •55
1 || 083 || 104 || '125 | 1.46 2 •1() 12 "60
2 | "I 67 | 187 | 208 229 3 • 15 13 •65
3 25() || 271 292 312 4 • 20 14 •70.
4 || 3:33 354 || 375 '3%)(; f; •25 15 •75.
5 417 || 4:37 . .458 || 479 6 •3() 16 •80.
(; '500 "j91 || || || 4 || “f,62 7 "35 | 17 •85,
7 || “ſ,83 || 604 || 625 || “64(; 8 •4() 18 •90.
8 | 667 '687 '708 || 729 9 •45 19 •95,
9 || 750 | 771 '792 '812 10 “j() 20 | 1.00
'833 | "854 '875 | 896
II | .916 .937 '958 '979
12 | 1,000 || 1:021 | 1,042 | 1,062
Deck.-The platforms supported on the beams of
ships. The old three deckers had upper deck,
main deck, middle deck, lower deck, and
orlop deck, no guns being carried on the
latter. Below the orlop deck were the hold
platforms, or decks. Yachts usually are said
to have only one deck, i.e. the upper deck
open to the sky; some large yachts, however,
have a lower deck, laid and caulked. Smaller
yachts have platform beams upon which the
platform rests. The platform is the cabin
floor.
Deck Cawlking and Stopping.—(See “Marine
Glue.”)
Deck, to Whitem.—Make a mixture of 11b. oxalic:
acid to 1 gallon of water. Damp the deck
with this and wash off.
Deep sea lead (pronounced “dipsey lead”).-A lead.
of 281b. weight attached to a line of 200
fathoms. Now, automatically recording
machines are generally used for deep sea.
soundings. (See “Lead.”)
Delivery.—The quarter wash of a vessel. A yacht.
is said to have a good delivery if on pass-
ing through the water no waves are raised at .
and about the quarters; she is then said to:
leave the water clean, to have a clean wake,
clean delivery, or to run the water very clean
aft; to have a sweet run, &c.
Demºwrrage.—Compensation paid to the owner of
a ship when she has been detained longer than
reasonable by a freighter or other person at a .
port.
Depth, moulded.—The terms used in ship and
yacht building and relating to the depth of
vessels are numerous and occasionally con-
fusing. For instance, there is draught of
water aft and draught of water forward,
extreme draught and mean draught. In a .
merchant ship, draught aft and extreme.
draught would most likely be the same, but
in many yachts, the extreme draught is,
amidships, or nearly so, and the draught at
the Sternpost is frequently less than the
extreme draught. The draught forward in
most Bailing yachts would be a purely fanciful
quantity, on account of there being no straight.
length of keel forward of amidships to
measure the draught from. Beyond this,
formerly depth or depth of immersion was
used to denote draught ; and then there was
moulded depth, that is the depth from the
Dictionary of General Information. 617
load line to the rabbet of the keel; after this
came depth of hold, which in a man of war
meant depth from the lower deck, or orlop
deck, to the ceiling above the kelsons, and in
a merchant or carrying ship, or yacht, the
depth from the upper deck.
The term “moulded depth '' is now never
applied to the depth of immersion, and when
the term is used it is always understood to
mean the depth as defined by Lloyd's, as
follows: “The moulded depth of an iron or
steel vessel is the perpendicular depth taken
from the top of the upper deck beam at the
side at the middle of the length of the vessel
to the top of the keel, and the bottom of the
frame at the middle line, except in spar and
awning deck vessels, in which the depth is
measured from the top of the main deck
beam. In wooden and composite vessels the
moulded depth is taken to be the perpen-
dicular depth from the top of the upper deck
beam at the side of the vessel amidships to
the lower edge of the rabbet of the keel.
The form of the lower part of the midship
section of many wooden and composite
vessels being of a hollow character, the
moulded depth in such cases should be
measured from the point where the line of
the flat of the bottom, if continued, would
cut the keel.” It will be seen that, even
with this excellent definition of moulded
depth, it may mean a great many things in
the case of yachts with very hollow floors
and great dead rise, or in the case of yachts
with box keels the same as Wanduara, Galatea,
and Wendur have. However, there is one
definite point to start from in all cases, and
that is the “top of the upper deck beam at
the side.”
Depth of a Yacht, to measure.—Very frequently
it is necessary to know accurately the ex-
FIG. 310.
ternal depth of a yacht from rail to keel,
or her draught from load line to keel.
The following simple plan is a ready means
of obtaining such depth and draught : To.
obtain the depth take a straight-edged bar of
wood (see e e, Fig. 310) which will be placed
across the rail, at right angles to the keel. A
amall chain, f f, will be passed under the
hottom of the yacht, and one end will be
made fast on the bar at g, so that the chain
just touches the bilge ; the chain will be
drawn tight, and the other end made fast to
bar at h. The distance g h must be accurately
measured on the bar, as also, when removed,
must the length of the chain which passed
from g under the yacht to h. (To obtain the
points for the measurement of the chain, it
would be found convenient to fasten a small
piece of cord or yarn at the points g and h,
immediately under the bar, before the chain
is cast off.)
Having obtained these measurements, it.
will be an easy matter to find the depth i j.
The distance g h can be laid off to scale,
divided in the centre by a perpendicular, j :
half the length of the chain will then be laid
off from g and h to intersect the perpen-
dicular, as at j; the distance from i to j on
the bar, measured by the scale, will be the
depth required.
The draught of water of the yacht will of
course be found by subtracting her height,
out of water, from load line to rail, at the
points where the depth was taken.
If no scale be at hand, the depth can readily
be found by calculation. Take half the length
g h, which call k l (Fig. 310), and half the
length of the chain, which call k m ; sub-
tract l from k m. ; multiply the remainder by
the sum of k m and k l added together ; the
square root of the product will be the re-
quired depth. Expressed in algebraic lan-
guage :
v'(£ m + £7) × (ºn-El)
Say k m is 10ft., added to k l 7ft., make
17ft. ; next 7 subtracted from 10 leave 3,
and 3 multiplied by 17 make 51. The square
root of 51 is 7:1, which would be the
required depth.
The mean draught would be found by tak-
ing the actual draught at several (say 4) equi-
distant intervals, commencing at the heel
of the sternpost and ending at the stem ; add
these draughts together, and divide the sum
by the number of measurements taken, in-
cluding those at stem and sternpost. If the
fore foot is very much rounded away, the
measurement at the stem will be 0, but in
counting the number of measurements, that.
for the stem must be included.
The Barrow Corinthian Yacht Club formerly
included mean depth in their tonnage rule, and
adopted, on the suggestion of Mr. R. S. White,
the following plan for obtaining depth at any
point without calculation. (See Fig. 311.)
A is the keel batten, graduated from centre,
in feet and tenths, with slots marked C, at each
end, to slide the side or depth battens to the
exact beam of yacht.
BB. Side or depth battens, graduated at
upper part in feet and tenths from top of

618
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
keel batten, and secured to keel batten with
thumb-screws marked D.
The manner of working is as follows :
Having obtained exact beam of yacht, set the
depth battens BB at this distance apart on
keel batten A, by means of thumb-screws D
tightly screwed up. Dip the keel batten
under keel until opposite marks on gunwale,
where depth is required to be taken ; then
bring it close up to keel, and take readings
off depth battens BB, until they correspond
Dinghy-mam.—The man who has charge of the
dinghy of a yacht, whose duty it is to go on
shore on errands, &c.
Dip.–The inclination the compass needle makes
towards the earth in high latitudes.
Dip the Ensign, To.—To lower the ensign as a
salute, or token of respect. (See “Dipping
the Ensign.”)
Dipping Lug Sail.—A sail hoisted by a halyard
and mast hoop traveller. The sail is set to
i
i
-
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Złż/22. 2//ze.
- - - - -
LF
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—-
i
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N
FIG. 311.
on each side—this being depth of yacht, keel
to gunwale, in vertical line, as shown in
sketch.
If the measurements have to be taken in a
tideway, the batten A must be kept close up
to keel to prevent its driving aft.
Depth of Hold.—In a single-deck vessel, the
height between the kelson and deck.
Lerelict.—A vessel abandoned at sea. It is said
that an owner’s rights are not also abandoned
if any live animal be left and found on
board.
IDerricle.—A kind of crane.
Deviation.—A movement of the compass needle
due to local attraction, principally met with
in iron or composite ships, and distinct from
variation. -
Dhow. — A large Arab vessel, usually lateen.
rigged.
Liagonal Braces.—Strengthening straps of iron
that cross the frames of a vessel diagonally.
I)iagonal Limes.—Lines which cross the sections of
a vessel shown in the body plan, in a diagonal
direction with the middle vertical line.
Diameter of Circle.—Circumference multiplied
by 0.31831.
Diminishing Strakes.—The Strakes immediately
above and below wales being the thickness of
the wale on one edge, and diminishing to the
thickness of the plank on the other.
I)inghy.—A small boat of Bombay, with a
settee sail. Also a small skiff, or punt,
carried by yachts. (See “Portable Dinghy.”)
TITTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTHTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTI
prºpºlºgº
§
FIG, 312.
leeward of the mast, and the tack is usually
fast to the stem or on the weather bow. In
tacking or gybing the sail has to be lowered
and the yard shifted to the other side of the
mast. A plan has been proposed to perform
this dipping by the aid of a topping and
tripping line instead of by lowering the
sail (see the sketch, Fig. 312); but the
balance lug, which requires no dipping what-
soever in tacking, is to be preferred to the
best dipping arrangement. (See “Penzance
Luggers’’ and “Split Lug.”)
Dipping the Ensign and Burgee.—The ensign is
lowered or dipped as a means of Saluting a com-
modore, &c., or member of a club. The junior
member should be the first to dip. Sometimes,
if no ensign is flying, the burgee is dipped; but
this strictly is contrary to the etiquette of the
Service. It is usual to “dip ’’ on passing a
man-of-war or royal yacht. A royal yacht never
answers the Salute by dipping her ensign.
Strictly it is etiquette for the blue ensign to
dip to the white; and red to the blue and white.
A club burgee being a personal flag is
usually lowered half mast high in the case of
death as well as the ensign. (See “Ensign,”
“Etiquette,” “Saluting,” &c.)
Discharge Ticket.—A formal document given to
Seamen when they are discharged.
Dismantled.
Unrigged : without sails or spars.
Dismasted.—When a vessel loses her mast by
violence, or accident.
Displacement.—The quantity of water a vessel
displaces, which, in weight, is always equal




Dictionary of General Information.
619
to her
board.
Displacement per inch of immersion.—It is often
necessary to know how much weight would
have to be put into a yacht to sink her an
inch or more deeper in the water or lighten
her to a similar extent. Roughly, this car,
be ascertained by the following rule : —
Multiply the length on the load line by the
breadth on the load line and divide the
product by 600. (Pºp .) The quotient
will be the weight in tons or fractions of
a ton. This rule would not hold good
if the yacht were lightened more than
three or four inches or deepened to that
extent. The rule is based on the assump-
tion that the area of the load line is 7 of
the circumscribing parallelogram. That is
to Bay, the length and breadth multiplied
together and again multiplied by 7 will
(approximately) give the area of load line.
Divide this product by 12, and the area is
reduced to cubic feet, and divide again by
35 and the answer will be given in tons or
fractions of a ton. By this rough rule the
displacement per inch at any part of the
hull of the vessel (if the measurements are
taken at the part) can be found approximately
(L: . . ")=( L. B.)
12 × 35 (300
Distemper.—Red or white lead powder mixed in
strong glue size and applied hot. Sometimes
the part to be covered is first coated with
lime whitewash. A yellow distemper for
funnels is thus made : 61b. glue made into
size, and whilst hot added to 3 cwt. yellow
ochre, 3 cwt. whiting, reduced to proper
consistency by warm water.
own weight, with everything on
Divisions.—The portions of a fleet ; as the star-
board, port, and centre divisions, the admiral
in command always occupying the centre
division. Prior to 1856, there were red,
white and blue divisions, but now, as only
the white or St. George’s ensign is recognised,
the divisions by colour have been done away
with. (See “Admiral.”)
Dock.—A basin into which a ship is floated and
the gates closed upon her ; the water is then
pumped out and the ship left dry, supported
on a framework and by shores. These are
called dry docks.--A general name for a place
to receive ships for repair or cleaning. A
ship is said to dock herself when placed in a
soft tidal bed of mud she buries herself in it
more or less.
Dockyards.-Places where ships are built; usu-
ally, however, confined to government yards.
Dog Shores.—Pieces of timber used in launching
ships.
Dog Wame.—A light vane made of bunting or
feathers, to show the direction of the wind,
and sometimes put on the weather rail.
Dog Watches.—The divided watch between four
and eight in the evening ; thus the first dog
watch is from four to six, and the second from
six to eight. (See “Watches.”)
Doldrums.-The state of being becalmed.
of the ocean where calms are prevalent.
Parts
Dolphins.—Stout timbers or stone pillars placed
on wharfs to make fast warps to.
:
Dolphin Striker.—The perpendicular spar under
gthe bowsprit end by which more spread is
| given to the stay of the jib-boom.
Dory.—A flat-bottomed deep boat much used by
American fishing schooners. (See Fig. 313.)

620
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The dory is an awkward-looking flat
bottomed boat, and some of the schooner8
carry as many as a dozen of them. They
are of the proportions of an English dinghy,
and of different sizes, so that several Stow
one within the other. They are of light
construction, and are easily lifted by a rope
becket at bow and stern. The sternmost
becket is shown in the engraving, also the
score for sculling the boat.
Dowble-banked.—When men sit on the same
thwart to row oars from different sides
of a boat. Double-banked frigates were two
deckers, with the upper deck ports disguised.
Dowble Block.-A block with two sheaves.
Double Dutch.-A confused way of speaking.
(See “Preventive Man.”)
Dowble Gimbals.-See “Gimbals.”
Dowbling Plamk.—To put one thickness of plank
over the other.
Dowse or Dowse.—To lower away suddenly, to
take in a sail suddenly. “Dowse the glim ;”
to put out a light.
Dove-tail Plates.—Plates in form like a dove's tail.
Dowell.—A hard wood or metal pin used for con-
necting timber or the edges of plank.
Downhaul.—A rope used for hauling sails down.
Down Helm.—An order to put the helm to lee-
ward and cause the vessel to luff.
Down, Oars.--The order given for the crew of a
boat to let fall their oars after having them
on end in the boat.
Down, Wind.—Sailing in the direction of or with
the wind; before the wind ; with the wind
astern.
Down, Wind, Down, Sea.—The sea will subside
when the wind does.
Drag.—The increased draught of water aft com-
pared with the draught forward.
Drag, To.—To scrape the bottom ; to search the
bottom with grapnels.
Draught of Water.—The depth of a vessel to the
extreme underside of the keel measured from
the load water line.
Draw.—A sail is said to draw when it is filled by
the wind. To let draw is to ease up the
weather sheet of a sail after it has been hauled
to windward, and trim the lee sheet aft.
Draw Her to.—In sailing large to bring a vessel
closer to wind.
Dress.--To dress ship is to hoist flags from deck
to truck; or from bowsprit end to truck and
taffrail.
To dress copper is to lay or smooth down
wrinkles by going over it with a flat piece of
hard wood and a hammer.
Drift.—To float about with the tide or current.
Drift.—The distance between two blocks of a
tackle ; or the two parts of one thing.
Drifting.—In a calm, in the case of being out of
sight of land, or in a dense fog, and out of
soundings, if it is desired to know the direc-
tion of the current or tide, drop a bucket or
pig of ballast or anchor overboard, with as
much line out as possible. Then throw some
light substance on the water, like a piece of
paper, &c., and watch the direction it drifts.
Drive.—To move to leeward by the force of the
wind, or drive without control.
Dry-rot.—The decay timber is subject to, often
through imperfect ventilation.
Duck-Light canvas of which boat sails and
balloon sails are made. To duck is to dive
under water.
Ducks.-A sailor's white suit of duck.
Duff.-A sailor's facetious way of pronouncing
dough, hence plum duff for plum pudding.
Duff is sometimes applied to “Soft tack ’’ or
fresh bread as distinct from biscuits.
Dumb Cleat.—A thumb cleat.
Dump.–A nail used in fastening plank to the
timbers, as distinguished from a through-
bolt.
Dungaree or Dongaree.—A blue linen or cotton
cloth in use in India, now much used for the
rough or working suits given to yacht Sailors.
Dwnnage.—Loose material such as cork, bamboo,
shavings, ferns, coir, &c., used to jam in
between a heavy cargo such as casks, iron,
&c.
Dynamometer.—An instrument to measure forces.
IE.
Earimgs.—Ropes used to fasten the corners of
the heads of sails to the yards, by the cringles.
The upper corners of sails are frequently
termed earings. (See “Reef Earings.”)
Ears of a Bolt.—The lugs or upper projections
of a bolt with a score in it, into which another
part is fitted and held by a through pin So
as to form a joint like that of a gooseneck.
Ease Away.—The order to slacken a rope, &c.;
to ease off a sheet, to ease up a sheet, are
synonymous terms, and mean to slacken.
(See “Check.”)
Ease the Helm.—The order given when sailing
against a head sea to ease the weather helm,
and by luffing meet the sea bow on, and at
the same time deaden the ship’s way so that
the sea and ship meet less violently. Gene-
rally to put the helm amidship, or more amid-
ship after it has been put to port or star-
board.
Eating a Vessel owt of the Wind.—When two
vessels are sailing in company, and if one
soaks or settles out to windward of the other
she is said to eat her out of the wind. In
reality, to make less leeway.
Eating to Windward.—A vessel is said to eat to
windward when she apparently soaks out to
windward of her wake.
Ebb.-The receding of the tide.
Eddy.-Water or currents of air apparently
moving in circles.
Edge Away.—To gradually keep a vessel more off
a wind after sailing close hauled.
Dictionary of General Information. 621.
Edge Down on 0, Vessel.—To bear away towards a
vessel to leeward, so as to approach her in an
oblique direction.
Dnd for End.—To shift a spar, rope, &c., by
reversing the direction of the ends.
End On..—Said of vessel when she has an object
bearing in a line with the keel, directly ahead
of the bow. On approaching a mark or buoy
it is said to be end on if it is directly ahead
of the vessel, the bowsprit will then point to
the object, hence it is sometimes said that an
object is “right on for the bowsprit end.”
Ensign.—A flag flown as a distinguishing mark
of nationality. The red ensign, with “Union
Jack” in the upper corner of the hoist, is the
English national flag ; but the ensign of the
Royal Navy is white with red St. George's
cross in it besides the Jack in the corner :
this is called “St. George’s ensign.” Prior
to 1856 the red (highest in rank) white and
blue ensigns were used in the Royal Navy,
and there were Admirals of the Red, Admirals
of the White, and Admirals of the Blue ; and
there were Vice and Rear Admirals of the
red, white, and blue. A fleet was divided
into red, white, and blue divisions, according
to the rank of the Admirals who commanded.
In 1855 the red ensign was allotted to the
British Mercantile Marine, the blue ensign to
the Royal Naval Reserve, and the white ensign
to the Royal Navy. However, the white and
blue ensign had always been reserved for the
©xclusive use of H.M.'s navy, and other
vessels could not use either without an Admi-
ralty warrant.
In the Royal Navy it was etiquette, when
an Admiral was on board his ship, to fly the
white ensign from the main truck, Vice-
Admiral from the fore truck, and Rear-Admiral
mizen truck. Admirals now fly St. George's
Jack (which see) from the main, fore, or mizen,
according to rank. A Union Jack is carried
at the stem head or bowsprit end (all ships
of the Royal Navy now so carry a Jack).
When a council of war is being held on board
a flag-ship, the white ensign is displayed in
the main, fore, or mizen shrouds, according to
the rank of the Admiral. If there is to be an
execution after a Court Martial, the white
ensign is hoisted on the main, fore, or mizen
yard arm. Ships of the Royal Navy at the
approach of Royalty, or whilst saluting,
“dress '' ship, by hoisting St. George's ensign
at the fore, main, and mizen trucks.
By the Merchant Shipping (Colours) Act,
1889, it is enjoined that “a ship belonging to
any subject of Her Majesty shall, on a signal
being made to her by one of Her Majesty’s
ships, and on entering or leaving any foreign
port, and, if of 50 tons gross tonnage or
upwards, shall also, on entering or leaving
any British port, hoist the proper national
colours, or, in default, incur a penalty not
exceeding 100l.” The term “proper national
colours” for all ships is defined as the red
ensign, “except in the case of Her Majesty's
ships or boats, or in the case of any other
ship or boat for the time being allowed to
wear any other national colours in pursuance
of a warrant from Her Majesty or from the
Admiralty.” Thus, if a yacht is allowed to
fly the blue or white ensign as a proper
national colour, her owner may incur a penalty
every time he enters or leaves a British port
without flying such blue or white ensign.
If an ensign other than the red be flown
by any vessel without a warrant from the
Admiralty, a penalty of 500l. may be inflicted,
and any Custom House or Consular officer or
other officer in H.M.S. on full pay may board
the vessel and seize the flag. Although the
red ensign has been assigned to the mercantile
marine, no device can be put in it other than the
Jack without the permission of the Admiralty.
The jurisdiction ºf the Admiralty only
eastends to flags flown afloat, and amy ensign
or flag cam be hoisted on flagstaffs on shore.
When a warrant is granted to a club to fly
the white, blue, or the red ensign with a de-
vice, this warrant does not of itself entitle a
member of the club to fly either ensign on board
his yacht ; before he can legally do so he must
also obtain a warrant from the Admiralty
through the club secretary. A warrant must
be obtained for each club he belongs to,
if he desires to fly the flags of the clubs.
When the yacht is disposed of, the warrants
must be returned through the club secretary
to the Admiralty, and if the owner obtains
a new yacht he must get fresh warrants.
Prior to 1858 the Royal Western Yacht
Club of Ireland flew the white ensign with a
wreath of shamrock in it. In 1847, the
privilege of flying the white ensign was ac-
corded to the Royal St. George's Yacht Club,
Kingstown, but was afterwards rescinded
upon a representation by the Royal Yacht
Squadron that that club by its warrant of
1829–(prior to 1829, the R.Y.S. flew the red
ensign)—had the exclusive privilege of flying
the white ensign. In 1853 an application
was made in Parliament, to know if the R.Y.S.
had that exclusive privilege. The first Lord
of the Admiralty said it had not, inasmuch as
the privilege had also been extended to the
Royal Western of Ireland in 1832, and was
still enjoyed by that club. (But it does not
appear that the Royal Western ever applied
for a separate warrant for a yacht to fly
the white ensign.) In 1858 the Royal St.
George's Yacht Club (also the Holyhead)
again applied for permission to fly the white
ensign; the permission was not granted, and
the Admiralty informed the Royal Western
that they were no longer to use it ; on making
search at the Admiralty, it was found that in
1842 a decision was come to that no warrant
should be issued to fly the white ensign to
any club besides the Royal Yacht Squadron;
and the clubs affected by the decision were
informed of it accordingly, but the Royal
Western of Ireland was not interfered with,
because up to that time no application for
separate warrants from the club for yachts to
fly the ensign had been received ; and further
in 1853, the Royal Western obtained per-
mission to continue to use the ensign.
622
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
The decision made in 1842 was at the
instance of Lord Yarborough (commodore of
the R.Y.S.). He then set no special value on
the white ensign except that he wished it to
be confined to the yachts of the R.Y.S. to
distinguish them from the yachts of other
clubs. Accordingly copies of the Admiralty
minute were sent to the clubs using the white
ensign (Royal Thames, Royal Southern, Royal
Westorm of England, Royal Eastern, Holy-
head, Wharncliffe, and Gibraltar), but, oddly
enough, the Royal Western of Ireland, by
Some oversight, was omitted, and that club
continued to use the ensign until the mistake
was recognised by the Admiralty in 1857-8.
At that date the white ensign was adopted as
the sole flag of the Royal Navy, and naturally
the Admiralty were obliged to be more par-
ticular in granting warrants for flying it
than they were in 1842; however, the Royal
Yacht Squadron, which had always been
under the special patronage of the Royal
family, was considered worthy of the privilege.
The privilege to fly it is cherished and coveted,
and other distinguished yachting nations like
Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain, Denmark,
Portugal, Sweden, Norway, and France have
each given one yacht club the privilege of
flying the naval flag of the country. A
notable exception is Germany, although the
Emperor is Commodore of the German
Imperial Yacht Club. In America, as in
France, the naval colours are the same as
those of the mercantile marine, and a special
ensign has been accorded to yacht clubs—
all using the same and enjoying the Hame
privileges. In Russia this has also been
done, the yacht club ensigm being something
like our white, but with blue instead of red
cross. Our Admiralty refuse to allow any
imitation ensigns, and this is quite right.
Some years ago the Royal Cork Yacht Club
applied for permission to use a green ensign,
on the plea that the red, white, and blue were
already appropriated by other clubs. The
Admiralty replied they might (at that time)
choose which of the three national ensigns
they pleased, but the creation of a new colour
could not be sanctioned. (See “Admiralty
Warrants,” “Royal and Recognised Clubs,”
“Burgee,” “Dipping the Ensign,” &c.)
Ensigm for Hired Tramsports.-The blue ensign
with Admiralty anchor (yellow) in the fly.
I'm Sigm, Hoisting of.-Ensigns and burgees are
hoisted every morning at eight o’clock (9 a.m.
from September 30 to March 31), and hauled
down at Sunset. It is a slovenly habit to hoist
and haul down colours at irregular hours. At
sea, it is only usual to hoist colours when
passing another vessel.
Ensign of the Colomies.—The blue ensign with
arms or badge of colony in it.
Ensigm of the Customs.-The blue ensign.
Lºnsigm of Naval Reserve.—The blue ensign.
I'm tramce.—The fore part of a vessel, the bow.
A good entrance into the water means a long
well-formed bow.
Entrance Money.—The money demanded by clubs
from yacht owners, who enter their vessels
for match sailing at regattas.
Entry.—The record that a yacht is engaged for a
particular match.
Equipment.—The complete outfit of a vessel in-
cluding everything used in her handling,
working, and accommodation. The inventory
comprises the equipment.
Esmecca.--A kind of yacht of the twelfth cen-
tury. According to Diez, “Dictionary of
the Romance Languages,” the word is old
French, esneque or esneche, “a sharp prowed
ship.”
Etiquette.—See “Saluting,” “Ensign,” “Boats,”
“Purgee,” “Commodore,” “Admiralty
Warrants,” &c.
Even Keel,—Said of a vessel when she is not
heeled either to port or starboard, also when
her keel is horizontal, that is when she is so
trimmed that her draught forward is the same
w8 aft.
Every Stitch of Camvas Set.—When all available
canvas that will draw is set.
Eotreme Breadth.—The greatest breadth of a
vessel from the outside of the plank on one
side to the outside of the plank on the other
side, wales and doubling planks being in-
cluded and measured in the breadth.
Eye Bolt.—See “Bolts.”
Eyelet Holes.—Small holes worked in sails for
lacings, &c., to be rove through.
Eyes of Her.—The extreme fore end of the ship
near the hawse pipes, which are the “eyes of
her.’’
Eyes of the Rigging.—The loops spliced into the
ends of shrouds to go over the mast, and dead
eyes.
Eye Splice.—The end of a rope turned in so as to
form an eye.
F.
Fag End. When there is “nothing left of the
rope but the end.” The frayed-out end of a
rope.
Fairing a Drawing.—A process by which the
intersections of curved lines with other lines
in the body plan, half-breadth plan, and sheer
plan are made to correspond. A fair curve is
a curved line which has no abrupt or unfair
inflexions in it.
Fair Lead.—When the fall of a rope leads fairly,
without obstruction, from the sheave hole.
Also a “lead '’ made for a rope through a
sheave hole or through any other hole.
I'air Leaders.—Holes in plank, &c., for ropes to
lead through, so that they lead fairly and are
not nipped or formed into a bight.
Fairway.—The ship's course in a channel. The
navigable channel of a harbour as distinct
from an anchorage in a harbour. A harbour
master's duty is to see that the fairway
is kept clear, and that no vessels improperly
anchor in it. A fair way is generally buoyed.
Dictionary of General Information.
623
Fair Wind.—A wind by which a vessel can
proceed on her course without tacking ; it
may range from close-hauled point to dead aft.
Fake, A.—One of the rings formed in coiling a
rope. The folds of a cable when ranged on
deck in long close loops. To fake is to arrange
in folds.
Fall.—The loose end of the rope of a tackle, the
hauling part of a tackle ; also applied gene-
rally to the tackle of the bobstay and the
topmast backstays.
Fall Aboard.—One ship sailing or driving into
another. A sail is said to fall aboard when
the wind is so light that it will not stay
blown out.
Fall Astern,--To drop astern. When two ves-
sels are sailing together, if one fails to
keep company with the other by not sailing
so fast.
Fall Off.--To drop away from the wind; when
a vessel is hove to she is said to fall off if
her head falls to leeward, in opposition to
coming to ; also when a vessel yaws to
windward of her course and then falls off to
her course or to leeward of it. Not used in
the sense of breaking off, which means when
the wind comes more ahead and causes an
alteration in the direction of a vessel’s head
to leeward of a course she had previously
been sailing.
Fall To.—To join in hauling, to commence work.
Falling Tide.—The ebbing tide.
False Keel.—A piece of timber fitted under the
main keel to deepen it or protect it when
taking the ground.
False Tack.—A trick sometimes practised in yacht
racing when two vessels are working close
hauled together, and one has been “weather
bowing ” the other every time they went
about. To be rid of this attention the crew
of the vessel under the lee quarter of the
other makes a sudden move as if about to
tack; the helm is put down and the vessel
shot up in the wind; the other vessel does the
Same and probably goes on the opposite tack;
if she does so the former vessel fills off on
her original tack, and the two part company.
To shoot up in the wind and fill off on the
same tack again.
Fashion. Timbers.—The timbers which form the
shape or fashion of the stern.
Fast.—Made fast by belaying. (See “ Breast
Fast,” “Bow Fast,” “Quarter Fast.”)
Fastenings.—The bolts, nails, &c., by which the
framing and planking of a vessel are held
together.
Fathom.—A sea, measure of six feet. To fathom
a thing is to arrive at the bottom of it, to
understand it.
Fay, To.—To join pieces of timber together very
closely. Plank is said to faly the timbers
when it fits closely to it.
Feather Edge.—When a plank or timber tapers
to a very thin edge, “tapering to nothing.”
Feathering.—Turning an oar over on its blade as
it comes out of the water.
Feeling her Way.—Proceeding by sounding with
the hand lead.
Feel the Helm.—In close hauled sailing when a
vessel begins to gripe or carry weather helm.
Also, generally, when a vessel begins to gather
head way, so that she can be steered, or “feel
her helm.”
Feint.—To pretend to tack. (See “False Tack.”)
Fender.—A sort of buffer made of rope, wood,
matting, cork, or other material to hang over
the side of a vessel when she is about to come
into contact with another vessel or object.
Fend. Off.--To ward off the effects of a collision
by placing a fender between the vessel and
the object which is going to be struck.
Fetch, Away.—To slip or move without inten-
tion. To fetch sternway or headway is when
a vessel begins to move ahead or astern.
Fetch.-In close hauled sailing when a vessel
arrives at or to windward of any point or
object, as “she will fetch that buoy in two
more boards,” or “she will fetch the mark
this tack,” &c.
Fid.—A square iron pin used to keep top-
masts and bowsprits in their places. (See
pp. 32 and 60.)
Fidded.—When the fid has secured the topmast
or bowsprit in its proper place.
Fiddle Block—A long fiddle-shaped block with
one sheave above another. (See “Sister
Block ’’ and “Long Tackle Block.”)
Fiddle Head.—The curved part of the knee at
the upper fore part of the stem in schooners,
turned upwards aft like the curly part of a
fiddle head. A scroll head turns downwards.
Fill, To.—When a vessel has been sailed so close
to wind that the sails have shaken, and the
helm being put up the sails are “filled ” with
wind. In getting underway after being hove
to a vessel is said to fill, or to have been
“filled upon.”
Fillings or Filling Timbers.--Pieces of wood or
timbers used to fill various spaces that may
occur in ship building.
2
Fine.—To sail a vessel “fine '' is to keep her so
close to the wind that her sails are on the
point of shaking ; considered sometimes good
sailing if done with great watchfulness. Too
fine means too near the wind.
Fire Escape.—A term applied to chaplains by
sailors. (See “Sky Pilot.”)
Fish, To.—To strengthen or repair a damaged
spar by lashing a batten or another spar to it.
See “ Knots.”
Fisherman's Walk.--When there is very little
deck room, “Three steps and overboard.”
Fishermam’s Bend.
Fishing Tackle.—The lines, hooks, sinkers, &c.,
used by fishermen. Messrs. Hearder and
Son, of 195, Union-street, Plymouth, publish
624. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
a. book giving a full description of all the
lines, nets, &c., necessary for a yacht, with
instructions for using the same. The book
can be had on application to Messrs. Hearder.
Fitting Owl.–Getting a ship's rigging, sails, &c.
into place after she has been dismantled.
Fitted Owl.—When a vessel is “all-a-taunto,”
which see. A vessel ready to proceed to sea.
JFlag Officer.—An Admiral, Vice-Admiral, or
Rear-Admiral; also the Commodore, Vice-
Commodore, or Rear-Commodore of a club.
Flags.--Pieces of bunting of various forms,
colours, and devices, such as ensigns, jacks,
burgees, &c.
Flags, the size of.-The size of the racing flags
usually carried is as under :
Tons. ft. in. ft. in. Tons. ft. in. ft. in.
5 ...... 1 6 by 1 0 60 ...... 3 O by 2 3
10 ...... 1 9 by 1 2 100 ....., 3 6 by 2 9
20 ...... 2 3 by 1 9 150 ...... 4 0 by 3 3
40 ...... 2 9 by 2 0 200 ...... 4 6 by 3 9
and above 200 tons the same.
The burgee of a yacht 45ft. long over all
would be 2ft. 6in. in the fly, and in. for every
foot of length of the yacht up to 130ft. over
all. The ensign would be 6ft. for a 45ft.
yacht, and 1in. for every additional foot of
length of the yacht up to 130ft. over all.
Flare.—To project outwards, contrary to tumbling
home.
Flat Aback.-In Square rigged ships when all the
yards are trimmed across the ship, with the
wind ahead so as to produce Sternway.
Flat Aft.—When sheets are trimmed in as close
as the vessel will
bear for close
hauled sailing.
Jºlat Floored.—When p
the bottom tim-
bers or floors of
a vessel project
from the keel in a
more or less hori-
zontal direction.
Flattem, im, Sheets.—
To haul in the
sheets.
Fleet, To.—To over-
haul a tackle
or separate the
blocks after they
have been hauled
close together.
J'loating Anchor. — A
Although floating
anchors are con-
tinually referred to in old writings as a
means whereby many ships have been enabled
to ride out very heavy gales in comparative
ease, we seldom hear of their being used now.
No doubt many a ship has been lost through
getting broadside on to the Sea, whereas they
might have kept bowing the sea by such a
simple contrivance as a floating anchor.
However, masters, it would Beem, prefer to
heave-to, as they like to keep their vessels
under command. In a very heavy Sea and
gale a floating anchor may be of very great
service, and no doubt if a vessel can be kept
bow to the sea, she will feel the violence of
it in a much less degree than she would if
hove-to when she might be continually flying-
to against the sea after falling off.
O FIG, 314.
/ //
/ /
/ //Ž
Aſ Ž
/ 47 -— . . . .
Ż / Jºss-
FIG. 315.
Many plans for floating anchors have been
used, the simplest being thus made ; three
Spars, in length about two-thirds the beam
of the vessel, were lashed together by their
ends in the form of a triangle; over this
triangle a jib made of stout canvas was
lashed. Then to each corner of the triangle a
rope was made fast; the ends of these ropes


Dictionary of General Information. 625
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----- - - - - ---...--> --— ... --------—-4,---------. 3.--------------- - - - ---—---------- - --------------------~~~~~~-º-º-º
Were then bent to a hawser, and thus formed a
kind of bridle. A weight was attached to
One corner of the triangle to keep it in a
Vertical position ; veer out the hawser and
ride to 30, 50, or 70 fathoms, according to the
S08,.
But the old plan, given in “Falconer's Marine
Dictionary” (date 1789), is the most approved
(Bee the diagram, Figs. 314, 315); k, m, n,
o, are the ends of two iron bars formed into a
Cross, and connected by a stout bolt, nut, and
pin at their intersections s. At each end of the
bars is a hole through which a strong rope is
rove, hauled taut, and well secured. Thus a
Square is formed, and over the square a piece
of stout canvas is laced to the roping. Four
Stout ropes are made fast to the iron bars,
and make a sort of bridle or crow foot, the
other ends being bent to a ring w. The ends
Bhould be well seized or “clinched.” The
hawser is bent to this ring to ride by. To
prevent the anchor sinking, a buoy, B, is
made fast attached to one corner with 6 or
7 fathoms of drift ; this buoy will also pre-
vent the anchor “diving ” (as it would, like
a kite flies into the air) when a strain is
brought upon it. The buoy rope p should
lead on board ; h is the hawser to which the
vessel is riding, A is the anchor, and B the
buoy.
To get the anchor on board haul in on the
line p ; this will bring the anchor edgeways,
and it can then be readily hauled in.
(See also “Oil at Sea.”)
Floating Dock.-Upon lakes, where there are no
tides, and no convenience for hauling a yacht
up, a floating dock may be of service to get
at a yacht's bottom. The dock would be
rectangular in form, of which |Inight be
a transverse section, and its size would
depend upon the weight of the yacht that had
to be docked. The weight of the yacht can
roughly be arrived at thus : length on load
line, multiplied by beam on load line, multi-
plied by draught of water to rabbet of keel ;
the product in turn being multiplied by the
fraction 0°3. The decimal “3 is used, as that
fairly allows for the quantity cut away from
the cube in modelling. Say the yacht is 40ft.
long, 8ft. broad, and 6ft. deep to the rabbet
in the keel, then 40 × 8 × 6, equal to 1920
cubic feet. 1920 multiplied by 0-3 is equal
to 576 cubic feet. There are 35 cubic feet of
salt water to one ton, and 576 divided by 35
is equal to 16-4 tons. (There are 36 cubic
feet of fresh water to one ton.) A dock 50ft.
long, 16ft. broad, and immersed 2ſt., would
(omitting of course the reduction by the factor
‘3, as the dock would be a cube) be equal
to 45 tons ; the weight of the dock made of
4-inch deal, would be, if the sides were 10ft.
deep, about 20 tons; this would leave a
margin of 25 tons for floating at 2ft. draught.
A false bottom and sides 2ſt. deep would have
to be made in the dock; also a door at one
end hinged from its lower edge, level with the
top of the false bottom, and rabbeted at the
sides. To get the yacht in the dock lower
S
the door and fill the false bottom and sides
with water until the dock sank low enough
to be hauled under the keel of the yacht ;
then close the valve which lets the water in,
shut the door and pump the water out of
the false bottom and Hides (a hose for the
pump should be used in case the dock sank).
The yacht should be shored up from the sides
of the dock before she took any list. With
caution such a contrivance could be used for
floating a deep draught yacht over shallows
from one lake to another, or through canals ;
in such cases, if the draught of water for
going over the shallows were not limited to
2ft., it would be well to keep the false bottom
full or partially full of water.
Flood Tide.—The rising tide, contrary to ebb.
Floors.-The bottom timbers of a vessel.
Flotsam.—The cargo of a wreck that may be
floating about or liberated from the wreck.
Flowing sheet.—In sailing free, when the sheets
are eased up or slackened off.
Flowing tide.—The rising tide, the flood tide.
Fluid compass.—A compass card in a basin of
fluid, usually spirit, used in rough weather
because the card should not jump about. In
a small yacht a good and steady compass is
an essential part of the outfit, and if there be
any sea on the usual compass card and bowl
are perfectly useless to steer by. The fluid
Compass then becomes necessary, and fre-
quently a “life boat' compass, which costs
about 5l., is used. A more yacht-like looking
liquid compass, however, is one sold by most
FIG. 316.
yacht fitters, like G.Wilson, Glasshouse-street,
London; Fay and Co. of Southampton, price
6l. 6s., shown by Fig. 316. The extreme
height is only 1ſt. 2in., and the card remains
steady under the most trying circumstances
of pitching and rolling. Spirit is usually
used in the compass bowl in the proportion of
one-fourth to three-fourths water; or glycerine
in the same proportion ; or distilled water
can be used alone. A grain of thymol is said
to prevent the spirit, &c., turning brown.
(See “Binnacle and Compass.”)
Flwkes.—(Pronounced “flues” by seamen). The
barb-shaped extremities of the arms of an
anchor. -
S

Yacht and Boat Sailing.
I'lwsh, deck.--When the deck has no raised or
Sunken part.
Fly.—The part of a flag which blow8 out ; the
opposite side to the hoist ; the halyards are
bent to the hoist.
Flying jib.-A jib set in vessels on the flying jib-
boom. There is then the jib, the outer jib
and flying jib, or inner jib, jib and flying jib ;
probably called flying jib because unlike the
others it is not set on a stay. A yacht's jib
topsail is sometimes termed a “flying jib,”
but, being set on a stay, this is incorrect.
Flying light.—Said of a vessel when she has been
lightened in ballast so as to float with her
proper load-line out of water.
Flying start.—In match sailing a start made
underway. (See page 245.)
Flying to.—When a vessel in sailing free, luffs
Suddenly, or comes to suddenly; also after
tacking, if a vessel’s head is kept much off
the wind, and the helm be put amidships, the
vessel will fly to, i.e. fly to the wind quickly.
A vessel that carries a hard weather helm
will fly to directly the tiller is released.
Fly wip in the Wind.—When a vessel is allowed
to come head to wind suddenly.
Foot.—The lower edge of a sail. (See “Forefoot.”)
Fore.—Front ; contrary of aft; the forward part.
JFore-amd-aft.—Running from forward aft, in a
line with the keel.
Fore-and-aft rig.—Like a cutter or schooner ;
without yards, with all the sails tacked and
sheeted in a line with the keel.
Fore-body.—The fore part of a ship which is for-
ward of the greatest transverse section.
Forecastle.—The space under deck before the
mast allotted to the seamen.
Fore Decle.—The deck before the mast.
Fore Foot.—The foremost part of the keel at its
intersection with the stem under water.
Fore Gwy.—The stay of a squaresail boom or
spinnaker boom which leads forward.
Foremast.—The mast which occupies the most
forward position in a vessel.
Fore Peak.-The forecastle, a space decked over
forward in a small boat to stow gear in.
Fore-rake.—The rake the stem has forward beyond
a perpendicular dropped to the fore end of the
keel.
Fore-reach.--When one vessel reaches past or,
sails past another; generally applied in close-
hauled sailing. Thus it is frequently said that
one vessel “fore-reaches but does not hold so
good a wind as the other;” meaning that she
passes through the water faster but does not
or cannot keep so close to the wind. A vessel
is said to fore-reach or head-reach fast that
is noted for great speed when sailing by the
wind. (See “Head Reach.”)
Foreso/il.—In square rigged ships the large lower-
sail set on the foremast ; in cutters the tri-
angular sail or jib foresail set on the fore-
stay ; in fore-and-aft schooners the gaff sail
set abaft the foremast.
Fore-staysail.—The jib foresail set on the fore-
stay of schooners; properly “stay-foresail.”
Foresheet.—The sheet of the foresail.
Joresheet horse.—An iron bar for the foresheet
to work upon.
Fore-topman. — In a schooner yacht a man
stationed aloft to work the fore-topsail tack
and sheet in going about.
IFore-topmast.—The topmast over the foremast.
Forenſard.—The yard on the foremast for Betting
the foresail in square-rigged ships.
IForge ahead.—When a vessel that is hove to
gathers way; generally when a vessel moves
past another.
Fowl.—Entangled, not clear.
yacht.
Fowl anchor.—When an anchor gets a turn of
the cable round its arms or stock; when
imbedded among rocks, &c., so that it cannot
be readily recovered. Also a pictorial anchor
with a cable round the shank, &c.
Fowl berth.--When two vessels which are anchored
or moored have not room to swing without
fouling each other. If a vessel is properly
moored and another fouls her berth she is
held liable for any damage which may ensue.
Fowl bottom.—A rocky bottom ; also the bottom
of a ship when it is covered with weeds, &c.
Fowl hanuse.—When moored if the cables get
crossed by the vessel swinging with the tide.
(See “Hawse.”)
Frames.—The timbers or ribs of a vessel.
Frapping.—A rope put round the parts of a
tackle or other ropes which are some distance
apart, to draw them together and increase
their tension or prevent them overhauling.
Frequently a frapping is put on the parts of
the head sheets, especially on the jib topsail
sheet, to draw them down to the rail, and thus
bring a strain on the leech and foot.
To touch another
I'rapping a ship.–Passing a chain cable or hawser
round the hull of a ship to keep her from
falling to pieces when she is straining in a
heavy Sea. Common with timber ships.
Free.—Not close hauled. When a vessel is sailing
with a point or two to come and go upon.
The wind is said to free a vessel when it
enables her to check sheets so as to be no
longer close hauled. Also when it enables a
veHBel that is close hauled to lie nearer her
course, as “the wind frees her.”
Freeboard.—The side of a vessel which is above
water.
French Nawtical Terms—
Keel......... .................... Quille
Stem...... . ..................... Etrave
Sternpost .................. . Etambot.
Rudder ........................ Gouvernail.
Bulworks ..................... Pavoiš.
SPARS. ISSPA R.S.
Mainmust .................. ... Grand māt.
Topmºst ........................ Måt de ſlöche.
Bowsprit....................... Peaupré.
Mizon must..................... Mſit de tapecul.
Muin boom..................... BÖme ou guy.
Dictionary of General Information.
627
Guff peak .....................
Main yard ....... tº $ $ tº gº tº a ſº * * * * g
J3umpkin * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
TopSail yard .......... © & 9 g º º ſº tº
Spinnaker boom ............
STANDING! T.I(!(PINQ.
Torestºy........................
Topmost Btty ...............
Shrouds ........................
Topmast 8hrouds...........
Bunner tackle ...............
Bobstay .................... tº e º is
Dackstay ......... * * * * * * * * * s : *
RUNNING RIG (AING}.
Boom topping lifts .........
Sheets ...........................
Main or throat halyards...
Peak halyards ...............
Spinnaker boom brace ...
Spinnaker boom guy ..... º
Spinnaker boom topping
I 8 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e º ºs e º 'º e e s e e
Davits ....................... * * * *
SAIL8.
Maingail ....... tº me tº º ſº tº gº tº e º ji º e º sº º
Gaff topsail ..................
Jib topsail or flying jib ...
Jib................ * tº $ tº s e º e º e º dº e e s tº e
Foresail ........ tº tº e º 'º tº $ tº * * * * * * g e
Mizen .......... ſº tº g º º e g is ºp tº gº & & tº e º e
MAINSAIL,
Mainmast ........... & 4 tº g º e º e º 'º
Guff ............................. tº
Boom ............. tº e s tº $ tº e º e s sº * * *
Tuff or weather leach......
ead ...........................
Teach or after ièach"......
Toot or roach of sail ......
Tack
Clew or clue ..................
Throat................ * * * * * * * * * * *
Peak enring ..................
First, second, third, and
close reef cringles ......
Beef knittle8 or points ...
GAFF TOPSAIL.
Leach * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Halyards................... tº is e º º
Gaff topsail boom........... &
Clew..............................
Tack ............. tº tº a g º is e º 'º e e g g &
Truss ............... § tº º & # 9 tº * * * * *
Weather leach º:
Yard
Foot ........ tº º e º is e º sº e º a g º e º e º ºs e g º º
SQUARE TOPSAIL,
Yard and head..............
Leach ............ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Luff ........ tº g tº E tº g tº £ tº * * tº º sº tº e º is tº tº g tº
Foot...... $ 8 tº e º 'º e g is ſº tº e º ſº sº a e º e º e º is g
Tack ........ § º g º $ tº $ tº tº e º $ tº $ tº a tº tº
Clew ...........................
Head ..........................
Tack pendant ...............
. Sheet pendant ...... * * * * * * * * *
Clew-line........................
Traveller......... * e º 'º £ tº sº tº tº sº ºn tº a º º
Bowline bridle ...............
Bowline * * * * * * g e º e º a º e º is a s e º ºs º is
TIULL.
Keel ..............................
Keelson ........................
Stem.............................
Forefoot ................... tº e º 'º º
Sternpost .....................
Arch board.....................
Long Stern timbers ......... {
Rudder...........................
, Afterpiece
* * * * * * * * * * *
n Spindle ...............
Corne ou pic,
Vergue de tapecul,
T}out dehors de tapecul.
Vergue de ſlēche.
Tungon de spinnaker ou
de vent—arrière.
MANCEU WJRES DORMANTES,
Grand 6tai.
Tºtai de mât de flèche.
Haubans.
Galhaubans.
J348taque.
Sous-barbe,
Pataras ou galhaubans
volants.
MANOEUVRES (OURANTES.
Balancines.
Ecoute8.
Drisse do mflt.
Drisse do pic.
Pras du tangon.
Retenue du tangon.
Balancine du tangon.
Pistolets.
VOILES.
Grand voile.
I'lèche,
Clin-FOc.
FOC.
Trinquette.
Tapecul.
GRAND VOILE.
Corne.
Bôme ou guy.
Guindant,
Tëtière,
Chute arrière.
Bordant.
Point d'amure.
Point d'écoute.
Empointure du màt.
Empointure du pic.
Cosses d'empointures des
1°r, 20, 30, 40 ris.
Hanets ougarcettes deris.
FLECEIE POINTU.
Chute.
DrisBe.
Balestron.
Point d'6coute.
Point d'amure.
Collier de racage.
Guindant.
Vergue.
Etai de flèche.
Bordant.
FLECHE CARR.E.
Vergue de flèche et ra-
lingue de têtière.
Chute arrière.
Chute avant.
Bordant.
Point d'armure.
Point d'écoute.
Point de drisse.
Pantoire d'amure.
Pantoire d'écoute.
Cargue.
Rocambeau.
Patte de bouline.
Bouline.
COQUE D'UN BATEAU.
Quille.
Carlingue.
Tº trave.
Brion.
Etambot.
JBarre d'hourdi.
Allonges de volute.
$y de tableau.
Gouvernail.
Safran du gouvernail.
Mèche du gouvernail.
, Helm .................. Barre du gouvernail.
Helm-port .................... &
Bemm ............. & 9 s tº # tº g g º 'º $ s is º
,, Floor timbers ......
, Timbers ...............
* Futtock ............. * *
Stunchions ................. 4 tº º º
Głunwale ........................
Scuppers
Blanking ........ p: e s sº e º is s tº tº e s s
Wales or bends ............
Chunnel ........................
Chain plates ..................
Garbourd strake ....... * * * * *
Rubbet .....................
Inboard plank ...............
Clump ........................ ..
Bulwarks ................ 4 & e º ſº
Flooring ........................
Bending stroke .............. e
Skylight ....................... *
Foresail ........................
Flying jib or topsail jib ...
Spinnaker . ...................
Halyards............ © e is s e s p * tº e º º
Head ..........................
Olew or clue ..................
Tack
Sheet pennant and blocks
Jib purchase ..................
Flying jib tack ...............
Sheets ............... • a s tº tº $ tº º & # * &
Main stay and hanks ......
Topmast stay..................
Foresail bowline ............
Inhaul of the traveller ...
Toresail downhaul .........
Bobstay and tackle ..... tº s e e
Bowsprit shrouds............
Foresail tack tackle
* * * * * *
MAINMAST.
Iron cap ..................... $ tº º
Top rope sheave ............
Eye-bolt ................ • * * * * * * *
Jib halyard clamp .........
Gallows bitt ....... * * * * * * * * * * is
Yoke
Crosstrees .....................
tº gº tº º ºs º e s s tº sº e º e º s tº s tº & sº sº gº & © º º
Cheeks * *
Topping lift clamp .........
Spider hoop ..................
Mast coat.............. tº e º ºs º a tº it e is
Masthead
• * * * * * * : * g e is e º gº is a tº e s e
Boom ............. * * * * * * * * * * is • * tº
Boom iron ................. * * * *
Main tack .....................
Main tack cleat...............
Reef tackle cleat ............
Main sheet strop ........ tº t e tº
Topping lift strop............
Reef earing bee blocks ...
Clew traveller on the boom
Main sheet clamp............
TOPMAST.
Heel
Fid ..... & º 'º e º º ſº tº is tº * * g tº tº gº tº gº e º e º º
Top rope sheave ....... § tº g tº º
Traveller .....................
Halyard sheaves ............
Trou de jaumière.
J3arrots ou baux.
T20I) t.
Pittes.
Guindeau,
Etam brai.
Emplanture.
Varangue des membres.
Grenou des membres.
Allonge des membres.
Jambette.
Tisse.
Courbe.
Plat-bord.
Dalots.
T}ordages.
Préceinte ou carreau.
Porte-hauban.
Cadene de hauban.
Głabord.
Tablure.
Vaigrage.
Bauquiere.
Pavois.
Plancher.
Eſiloire.
Claire-voie.
FOCS.
Foc.
Trinquette.
Foc volant
l'air.
Spinnaker.
Drisses.
Points de drisse,
Points d'écoute.
Points d'amure.
Pantoire et poulies
d'écoute.
Etarque de foc.
Amure de foc volant.
Ecoutes.
Grand 6tai, servant de
draille, et bagues.
Etai du mät de flèche
Bouline de trinquette.
Håle-a-bord.
Håle—bas de trinquette.
Sous-barbe et son palan.
Haubans de beaupré.
Palan d'amure de trin-
quette.
ou foc en
BAS-MAT.
Blin.
Clan de guinderesse.
Pitons de poulies (pic).
Latte de drisse de foc.
Potence.
Chou]ue.
Bare de hune.
Elongis.
Jottereaux.
Galoche de balancine.
Cercle du màt.
Braie.
BOME OU (, UI.
Bôme.
Ferrure.
Amure de grand'—voile.
Taquet d'amure de grand
voile,
Taquets d'Itagues de ris.
Estrope de grande écoute
ou d'écoute de guy.
Estrope de balancines.
Violons de l'is.
Bocambeau d'écoute.
Clan d'écoute de grand'-
voile.
MAT DE FLECHE.
Caisse.
Clef.
Clan de guinderesse.
Rocambeau.
Clans de drisses.
s s 2
628
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Fresh, Breeze.
French Nawtical Terms—continued.
Top rigging .................. Capelages.
ole ….................... TuS6e.
Truck ........................... Pomme,
IROWSPIRIT. IBOUT DELIOR'S Oly BEAUIPRI).
Bowsprit heel ............... Talon.
Fidd. .............. ............ Clof.
Traveller ..................... Tocambeau
Ironwork ..................... Frette.
Jib tack ........................ Clan d'amure de foc.
(#AFIT OR PEAK. CORNIE OU PIC.
Throat........................... Mºlchoire.
Truss .............. ............ Collier de racage.
Sheet sheave.................. Clan d'écoute de flèche.
Peak halyard strop ......... Estropes de drisse depic,
MISCELLANEOUS.
Fore part of ship ............ Avant d'un vaisseau.
Aft part of ship............... Arrière d'un vaisseau.
Go ahead........................ Aller en avant; or, de
l'avant.
Forward ........................ de l'avant.
Aft..... de l'arrière.
fore and aft'.................
De l'avant à l'arrière
Athwart ........................ Parle travers.
Starboard ..................... Tribord.
Port .............................. Babord.
Below ........................... Iºn bas.
Aloft.............................. En haut.
Avast ........................... Tenez bon.
Crew.............................. Dauipage.
I}oatswain ..................... Maitre d'equipage.
Sailmaker ..................... Voilier.
Carpenter ..................... Charpentier.
Steward or purser ......... Commis aux vivres.
Cook.............................. Cuisinier.
Seaman ........................ Matelot.
Boy .............................. Mousse.
Belay! ........................... Amarrez
Let go!........................... Larguez!
Hoist away ! .................. Hissez! or arborez.
Lower away! .................. Amenez!
Houl! ........................... Halez
Handsomely ...... ........... Doucement
Hold on ........................ Tenez.
Heave away .................. Virez.
Slack ........................... Lächez.
Bear a hand .................. Vite un homme.
To run foul..................... S'aborder.
Toul rope ..................... Cººge engagé, embrou-
illó.
J'oul ground .................. e
Toul bottom .................. Mauvais fond
Toul Water..................... Eau salie.
Foul wind ..................... h Went contraire.
Let go ........................... º
Dase off ........................ Filez.
Weather gage ............... Dessus le Vent.
Windward ........... ......... Au vent.
Ileeward ............ . ......... Sous le vent.
Catch hold ..................... Attrappez.
Look out........................ ſtre en Vigie.
All right ....................... Tout droit.
Ready about .................. JPare a virer.
Iſard up the helm ' .........
T) Own with the helm
Tºase the helm
Steady the helm ' ............
Let go the anchor............
Pay out the cable............
Tight the helm ..............
* - - - - -
- - - - - - e. e. e - - - - - -
Ta barre au vent.
Parre des Hous.
Mollis la, barre.
Comme cela gouverne la
Mouillez l'ancre.
Filez de la chaine.
Dressez la barre.
(See “Wind.”)
Freshen.—To alter the strain upon a rope.
Freshen Hawse.—To veer out or heave cable, so
that a different part will take the chafe of the
hawse pipe.
Freshen the Nip.—To shift a rope, &c., so that
its nip, or short turn, or bight, may come in
another part. In Slang, to quench a desire
for drink.
Full.—When all the sails are filled with the wind
and quite steady.
Full Aft.—When a vessel is said not to taper
sufficiently aft.
Full and Bye.—Sailing by the wind or close.
hauled, yet at the same time keeping all the
sails full so that they do not shake through
being too close to wind. Generally a vessel does.
better to windward when kept a “good full and
bye.” than when nipped or starved of wind.
Full and Change.—(See “High Water.”)
Full bowed.—The same as bluff bowed.
Funeral Salute.— (See “Salutes.”)
F'wrl.—To roll a sail up on a yard, &c.
I'wttocks.-The timbers which abut above the
floors called first, second, and third futtocks.
This should properly be written foothooks.
G.
Gaff.—The yard to which the head of a fore-and-
aft sail is bent. (See “Jaws.”)
Gaff Topsail.—The topsail set over a gaff sail,
such as the topsail set over a cutter’s main-
sail. Sometimes the sail has a head yard, and
sometimes not. But it was originally set with
a gaff and jaw on the head, hence the term.
gaff topsail.
Galley.—A long narrow rowing boat propelled by
six or eight oars. A boat a little longer and
heavier than a yacht's gig. -
Galley or Galley Fire.—The caboose, or kitchen
of a vessel.
Gallows.-Frames of oak erected above the deck
in ships to carry spare spars on or the spanker
boom instead of a crutch.
Gammonim.g.—The lashings which secure the
bowsprit to the stem piece, and are passed
backward and forwards in the form of an X,
over the bowsprit. Now, generally chain is used.
In yachts, an iron band or hoop, called the
gammon iron or span-shackle, is fitted to
the stem, through which the bowsprit passes.
Gammon Iron.—An iron hoop fitted to the side
of the stem, or on top of the stem, as a span-
shackle, to receive and hold the bowsprit.
Gangway.—The opening in the bulwarks, or side,
through which persons enter or leave a vessel.
Generally a passage, or thoroughfare of any
kind. “Don’t block up the gangway,” is a
common admonition to thoughtless people
who stand about in passages or thoroughfares,
to the impediment of passers.
Gangway Ladder.—The steps hung from the
gang Way outside the vessel. Sometimes there
is also a board, or kind of platform, called the
“Gangway Board.” (See “Accommodation
Ladder.”)
Gant-line.—A whip purchase; a single block with
a rope rove through it. A Gant-line is used
to hoist the rigging to the masthead on
beginning to fit out.
Garboard.—The strake of plank next above the
keel into which it is rabbeted and bolted.
Garland.-A strop put round spars when they
are hoisted on board.
Dictionary of General Information.
629
'Garnet.—A kind of tackle used for hoisting
things out of the hold of vessels; also used
for clueing up squaresails.
Gaskets.-Pieces of rope, sometimes plaited, by
which sails when furled are kept to the yards.
The pieces of rope by which sails are secured
when furled, such as the tyers of the mainsail,
by which that sail when rolled up on the boom,
is secured. (See “Tyers.”)
'Gather Way.—When a vessel begins to move
through the water, under the influence of
the wind on her sails, or under the influence
of steam. (See “Steerage Way.”)
Gawlor.—An open boat which can either be rowed
or sailed, common to Portsmouth watermen.
They are very skilfully handled by the water-
men, and go backwards and forwards to
Spithead and elsewhere in all kinds of weather,
and seldom meet with mishaps. They are
sharp sterned, like the bow, and are rigged
With sprit, main, and mizen, and jib-foresail.
They have no boom to the mainsail.
'Get a Pwll.—To haul on a sheet or tack or fall
of a tackle.
Getting Sowndings Aboard.—Running aground.
“Gig.—A long boat of four or six oars kept for the
owner of a yacht. In gig races a boat should
not be considered a gig if she has less than 1ſt.
of breadth for every 7ft. of length, and #in.
depth amidships for every foot of length. At
the regatta held at Itchen-ferry by yacht-
masters a ‘‘gig must not exceed 28ft. in
length, and be in the proportions of 28ft.
long, 4ft. broad, and 1.ft. 8in. deep.” A boat
could be shorter if these proportions were
maintained.
rGilling.—To gill a vessel along is to sail her very
near the wind, so that very little of the weight
of the wind is felt on the sails which are kept
lifting, and only bare steerage way kept on
the vessel. A vessel is generally “gilled ”
(pronounced “jilled”) through heavy squalls
or very broken water.
(Gimbals.-The cross axles by which compasses,
lamps, &c., are swung on board
ship. Generally called “double
gimbals.” In Fig. 317 a. a. are
the axles of the outer ring R,
and aſ a of the inner ring M.
“Girt.—To moor a vessel so that she
cannot swing by tide or wind.
To draw a sail into puckers; to
divide the belly of a sail into
bags as by a rope.
Girt-line.—(See “Gant-line.”)
Give Her.—A general prefix to an order, as “Give
her sheet ;” “Give her the jib-headed topsail;”
“Give her chain,” &c.
FIG. 317.
Give her the weight of it.—An admonition to a
helmsman to sail a vessel a good heavy full
when close-hauled.
WGive Way.—The order to a boat's crew to
commence rowing or to pull with more force
or more quickly.
Giving the JCeel.—Heeling over suddenly and
bringing the keel near the surface; vessels
that are not very stiff under canvas are said
to “give the keel.”
Glass.-The term by which a sailor knows the
barometer. Also a telescope, and the sand
glass used to denote half-hours on board
ship, or the half-minute or quarter-minute
glass used when heaving the log.
Glass Calm.—When it is so calm that the sea looks
like a sheet of glass. (See “Clock Calm.”
Glue for Paper.—For joining paper, cardboard,
or model work, or similar articles, a good glue
can be made thus: dissolve 20z. of the best
transparent glue in #pt. of strong cider vine-
gar. Let it simmer slowly by placing the
dish containing it in a dish of boiling water.
When it has become liquid, add 10Z. of
highest proof alcohol, and keep it tightly
corked. If cold, heat in hot water when
needed for use.
Go About.—To tack.
Go Ahead ſ—The order to the engineer of a steam
vessel. Also “Go astern ;” “Easy ahead;”
“Easy astern ;” “Stop her ſ”
Go Down.—To sink. To go down below.
Going Large.—The same as sailing with the wind
free. (See “Large.”)
Going Throwgh Her Lee.—When one vessel over-
takes and passes another vessel to leeward;
considered to be a very smart thing for a
vessel to do if they are close together and of
equal size.
Good Condwet Money.—A douceur of one shilling
or more a week given to men at the end
of a season for good behaviour, and with-
held for the week in which any offence or
offences were committed. (See “Conduct
Money.”)
Good Full.—Same as “Clean Full,” or little fuller
than “Full and By.”
Gooseneck.-An iron jointed bolt used to fix the
end of booms to the mast, &c. (See p. 32.)
Goose Wing, To. — A schooner “goose wings ’’
when dead before the wind by booming out
the gaff foresail on the opposite side to the
mainsail. An uncertain operation, and a
practice not now in much use, as the intro-
duction of spinnakers has made it unneces-
sary. (See “Wing and Wing.”)
Goose Wings.-The lower part or clews of sails
when the upper part is furled or brailed up ;
used for scudding in heavy weather.
Gradwated Sail.—A sail whose cloths taper
towards the head from the foot upwards; so
that a whole cloth forms the luff as well as the
leech. Manufactured by Gordon, of South-
ampton, and Summers and Hewitt, of Cowes.
Grammy Knot.—An insecure knot which a seaman
never ties, but which a landsman is sometimes
seem to do when trying his hand at reef knots.
(See “Knots.”)

63()
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Grapnel.—A grapling iron with four claws used
to moor Small boats by or to drag the bed of
the sea.
Gratings.-Open woodwork put in the bottom of
boats, in gangways, &c.
Graving.—Cleaning a vessel’s bottom.
Graving Dock.-A dock which can be emptied of
water by opening the gates as the tide falls,
and its return prevented as the tide rises by
closing the gates. Used for clearing the
bottoms of vessels, repairing the same, &c.
Gravity.—Weight. The centre of gravity is the
common centre of a weight or weights.
Great Gwns.—A heavy wind is said to “blow
great guns.”
Green Hand.—A landsman shipped on board a
vessel, and who has yet to learn his duties.
Green Horm.—A conceited simpleton, incapable of
learning the duties of a Seaman.
Green Sea.—The unbroken mass of water that
will sometimes break on board a vessel as
distinct from the mere buckets full of water
or spray that may fly over her. Such bodies
of water always have a green appearance,
while smaller quantities look grey, hence we
suppose the term.
Gridiron.—A large cross framing over which a
vessel is placed at high water in order that
her bottom may be examined as the tide falls.
Grim.—A vessel is said to grin when she dives
head and shoulders into a sea and comes up
streaming with water.
Gripe.—The forepart of the dead wood of a
vessel ; the fore foot.
Gripe, To.—A vessel is said to gripe when she
has a tendency to fly up in the wind, and
requires weather helm to check or “pay off ‘’
the tendency. (See “Weather
helm.”) \
Grom/met or Grummel.-A ring
formed of a single strand of
rope laid over three times.
Used for strops, &c. (Fig. 318.)
Grounding.—The act of getting
aground or taking the ground
as the tide falls.
Grownd. Sea, Grownd Swell.—The swell that may
be seen along shore sometimes, whilst in the
offing the Sea is calm.
Grownd Tackle.—The moorings, anchors, chains,
&c., used in securing a vessel.
Grownd. Ways.—The blocks on which a vessel is
supported whilst she is being built.
Gudgeons.—Metal eye bolts fitted to the stern
post to receive the pintles of the rudder.
(See “ Braces.”)
Gunter Rig. — A rig for boats much recom-
mended some years ago. (See page 316.)
A sliding gunter rig with battens has been
in use since 1876, as shown in Figs, 319 and
320. A is the mast; B, topmast or yard ; C
and D, irons with a sheave at C ; E, connect-
ing rod ; F, halyard fast to B, and rove
through a sheave in the masthead ; G, a
socket and pivot for the heel of the yard to.
allow the peak of the sail to be lowered.
Lºſ
TIG, 320.
Gwnwale.-In small boats the timber which fits
over the timber heads, and is fastened to the
top strake. (See “Inwale.”)


Dictionary of General Information.
631
Gwnwale Under.—Heeling until the lee gunwale
is in the water.
Gwy.—A rope used to steady or support a
Spar.
Gybing (also spelt jibing and jib-bing). —To keep
a vessel so much off the wind that at last it
blows on the opposite quarter and causes the
sails to shift over.
on which it has been blowing.
Gyvers.--Tackles.
EI.
Hail.—To speak to a ship at Sea by signals or
To attract the attention of a ship
otherwise.
by singing out “Ship ahoy!” or “Neptune
ahoy.” To “hail from '’ a locality is to
belong to a particular place by birthright.
Half-breadth. Plan. — A drawing showing the
horizontal sections or water-lines of a vessel
by halves.
| |N
ºf
ſ
~~~~ W
#=
FIG. 321.
Half-breadths.-The width of horizontal sections
at particular points; also half-breadths on
diagonal lines.
Half-mast High.—Hoisting a burgee or ensign
only halfway up as a mark of respect to a
person who has recently died.
Halyards or Hawlyards, or Halliards.-Ropes
for hauling up sails, yards, &c., by.
Hammock.-A canvas bed swung to the deck
beams.
Hamd.—To hand a sail is to stow, furl, or take
in ; hence a sail is said to be “handed ” when
either of these operations has been performed.
Hamd.—A man. A member of a ship’s crew.
Hand Lead.—(See “Lead.”)
Hamd Masts.-Certain spars of Riga fir the girth
of which is expressed in hands of 4in. Thus
a mast which was 6% hands, or 6% “4in.,”
in circumference would be 26in. in girth, or
about 8%in. in diameter. (The circumference
is the diameter multiplied by 3-1416.)
Handle Her.—Tho act of controlling the move-
The opposite of tacking,
which is to come to the wind until it blows
on the opposite bow of the vessel to the one
: &
&\ºy
ments of a vessel. An admonition to the crew
to be smart in working the sheets in tacking
or gybing. Also a steamboat master is said to
“handle ’’ his vessel in bringing her along-
side a wharf, pier, &c.
Hand over Fist.—(See “Hand over Hand.”)
Hamd over Hond.—Hauling on a rope by one
hand at a time and passing one hand rapidly
over the other to haul. A very rapid way of
hauling, hence anything done rapidly is said
to be done “hand over hand.”
Hand Sail.—(See “Sailing on Skates.”)
Handsomely.—Steadily;
with care. Not too
fast nor yet too slow, but with great care ;
cleverly. As “Lower away handsomely.” In
easing up a sheet, if the man is likely to let it
fly, the master or mate will sing out, “Hand-
somely there ! ” meaning that the man is to
ease up the sheet carefully, not letting too
much run out, nor yet letting it come up with
a jerk, nor yet allowing it to run away with
him.
º
D
|*.
| TIFT ||
TEFE.
| # ||
wº
§ , i.
FIG. 322.
Handspike.—A bar of wood, used as a lever.
Hand Tawt.—As tight or taut as a rope can b
got by the hand without Swigging upon it.
Hamdy.—A vessel is said to be handy when she
answers her helm quickly, and will turn in a
small circle, or go from one tack to the other
quickly.
Handy Billy.—A watch tackle kept on deck for
general use to get a pull on whatever is
required, such as sheets, tacks, or halyards.
Hang.—To lean towards. To hang to windward
is to make but little leeway. “Hang on
here ! ” an order for men to assist in hauling.
BIamging Compass.-A compass suspended under
the beams with the face of the card down-
wards ; termed also a “Tell-tale Compass.”
Hanging Knee.—Knees that help keep the beams
and frame together ; one arm is bolted to the
under side of a beam, the other to the frame.
Hank for Hank.-Slang for “tack for tack.”
Hanks.-Rings or hooks made of rope, wood, or
iron for fastening the luff of sails to stays.












632
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Iron rings are usually used for the stay fore-
Sail; iron spring hooks for the balloon fore-
Sail and jib topsail.
Various ingenious contrivances have been
invented for securing sails to stays, &c., and
Ramsay’s patent keys are much used. Mr.
T)elap has adapted these for yacht purposes,
and the first shown (Fig. 321) is for the
fore staysail, the circular part travelling
on the stay. Fig. 322 is for mast hoop
attachments. The luff of the sail would be
passed into the jaws, and then the key
pushed through an eyelet hole and turned.
Fig. 323 is a sheet shackle to supersede the
usual toggle. The form of the head of the key
precludes the possibility of its fouling any
gear.
Mr. J. W. Collins, writing on the rig of
fishing boats, says that a method adopted by
the American fishermen for bending and
unbending their riding sails would, doubtless,
be well suited for the fore-and-aft-rigged
English drift net boats. The “riding sail”
referred to is a small three-cornered sail,
which is bent to the mainmast when a
schooner is riding at anchor, to keep her
steady and head to the wind. The sail is set
temporarily, and it is therefore desirable that
|
FIG. 323.
the arrangements may be such that it can
|be bent or unbent with as little delay as pos-
Bible. For this purpose ordinary mast hoops
are used ; but about one-quarter of their
length (where they are joined together) is
sawed out, leaving square ends, to each of
which is fastened an iron hook.
Fig. 324 shows how the hoops are fitted,
and Fig. 325 shows how the thimble toggles
are attached to the luff of the sail at regular
intervals. The thimbles are slipped over the
hooks on the ends of the hoops. The sail
can be bent almost as fast as it can be
hoisted.
Harbowy Master.—An officer whose duty it is to
see that vessels are properly berthed and
moored in harbours. His authority cannot be
disputed with impunity, as, in nine cases out
of ton, if a dispute with a harbour master
gets into court the decision will be for the
harbour master.
Harbour Watch,--The watch kept on board a
vessel at night when she is riding to an
anchor in harbour; the anchor watch.
Hard.—A landing place usually made of gravel,
piles, &c., across mud, as the “Common
%
º
FIG. 325.
Hard,” Portsea, where the small boats land
and take in passengers.
Hard Down.—The order to put the helm hard-a-
lee. Also the tiller may be put hard-a-port ;
hard-a-Starboard ; hard-a-weather; hard up.
Hard Up.–The tiller as far to windward as it
can be got for bearing away.
EIard Im.—Sheets are said to be hard in when a
vessel is close-hauled.
Harpings.-Pieces of timber or battens that are
fitted around the frames of a vessel in an
unbroken line to keep the frames in their
places before the plank is put on.
Harpoom.—A weapon like a spear with a flat,
barbed, sharp head; the other end has a




Dictionary of General Information. 633
socket into which the wooden part is fitted,
the whole making a long spear. The line
is attached to the iron and the wooden
part of the shank. The coil of rope is 130
fathoms.
Harpooner.—The bowman of a whale boat, who
throw8 the harpoon.
Harpoom -log. — This is generally known as
“Walker’s ” log, and is different from
Massey's, inasmuch as the blades which give
the rotation are attached to the part which
holds the wheel work. In Massey’s log the
rotation is attached to the part containing
the works by a piece of cord a yard or so
long ; the cord of course revolves with the
Spinning of the fly, and imparts motion to
the wheel work.
Harpoon Sowmding Machime.—A contrivance on
the principle of the patent log such as
Walker's, used for taking deep soundings.
As the machine sinks the fly or fan blades
rotate, and register by the aid of wheel work
the distance sunk.
Hatches or Hatch ways.—Openings in the deck.
In a yacht there is usually the fore hatch used
by the crew, and the sail room hatch aft.
Generally the coverings for hatchways are
termed hatches, but strictly this is inaccurate,
and the correct term would be hatch covers.
FIatchway Coa/mings.—The raised frame above
the deck upon which the hatches or hatch
covers rest.
Bawl.—To pull on a rope.
Hawl the Boom. Aboard l—An order to get the
main boom hauled in on the quarter for close-
hauled sailing.
IIawl. Aft the Sheets.-The order to haul in the
sheets for close-hauled sailing.
Hawl. Her Wind.—To become close-hauled after
sailing free. Generally to sail closer to the
wind when sailing free. Haul to the wind.
Haul on the wind.
IHawling wip a Yacht.—Mr. J. C. Wilcocks gives
the following directions for hauling up a small
yacht : The yacht should first be lightened
of all movable weights, such as ballast and
spars and general outfit. This having been
done, four 2%in. or 3in. deal planks must be
provided, with four rollers 5ft. or 6ft. long
and 3%in. diameter. The yacht should then
be cradled with a very stout rope or reliable
piece of chain, which should be lowered so
far as the rabbet of the garboard strake, and
be supported at that level by small lines
under the quarters and at the bow above the
forefoot, where the ends should be firmly
secured with a lashing. A crab winch with
a large double and single block is commonly
used for heaving up, which must be firmly
fixed by driving posts into the ground. As it
is an inland lake, the first part of the business
is the most difficult, for as the water will not
leave the boat to allow adjustment of the
preliminaries, the boat must be made to leave
the water; and to do this, the deals, which
will do the duty of ways, must be got under
her by loading the ends at the under sides.
Two of the rollers should be made of sinking
wood, and the yacht having been laid on her
side, she should be hauled in until aground,
and being still water-borne, the first roller
can then be introduced under her, and shortly
a second and third, when she can be hauled
out of the water as the rollers travel on the
deals. Four men should turn the winch
handles, and not less than two must attend
the rollers to watch and keep them square on
the ways, which is done by striking the ends
of them with a maul or small sledge hammer
when they commence getting out of square.
If the yacht is to be continually kept on this
inland lake, it might be worth while to have
an iron carriage made for her, consisting of an
oblong frame of the length of a third of her
load water-line, with 6in. iron wheels, with
edges or rims. Edge rails for this can be
nailed to the four deal ways, and a stout oak
or elm plank could be bolted to the frame-
work of the carriage. This plank should be,
say, a foot wide and 2%in. thick, and about
6in. longer each side than the extreme breadth
of the vessel, which should be provided with
legs cut with tenons or having bolts to go
through holes or sockets in this plank. The
legs should be secured to the vessel’s sides
with through bolts, with either lever or
butterfly nuts on the inside, screwing on
against a metal plate. When this little
temporary railway is once obtained, hauling
the yacht up will be a very simple matter,
and she may remain on one deal’s length of
it as long as required. There should be a
hole in the forefoot, and also at the same
level close to the sternpost, by which the
yacht can be lashed square on the carriage,
as soon as she is far enough out of the water;
and when in the desired position she can be
shored up by four shores, one under each
quarter, and others under each bow, and a
portion of ballast might be put on board,
unless she has already sufficient lead or iron
on her keel to steady her against violent
gusts of wind, which have very great power
On the side of any craft in an exposed posi-
tion, and against which provision must be
made. If such a carriage as above described
is made, the rails will, of course, be carefully
adjusted to the correct width, so that the
wheels will travel easily on them, and about
a foot from each end of the deal ways an iron
plate should be screwed with socket holes to
receive a clamp or sleeper bar, the ends
turned down to form temons to go into these
socket plates, which will keep the rails and
deals square with each other. By shifting the
after pair of rails as required, it is evident
that the yacht may be removed any reason-
able distance on flat or nearly flat ground,
with facility. Quite large fishing boats, and
recently a barge, have been built, loaded on a
low wheeled trolley, drawn over two hundred
yards each, and launched sideways over the
quay into the Great Western Floating Dock
at Plymouth.
634.
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Hawl Round a Mark, Point, &c.—When a vessel
in Sailing free has to come closer to the wind
as her course alters round a point, buoy, &c.
By hauling in the sheets the vessel will
Sometimes luff sufficiently without any help
from the helm.
Hawl. Up.–To hoist a sail. A vessel is said to
“haul up '’ when she comes, or is brought
nearer the wind or nearer her course if she
has been sailing to leeward of it. Haul up a
point, haul up to windward of that buoy, &c.
Hawse Pipe.—The pipes in the hawseholes in
the bow through which the cables pass.
Richard Falconer, in his Dictionary pub-
lished at the end of the last century says,
there are some terms in the sea language
which have also immediate relation to the
hawses, as :
“A bold hawse,” signifies the holes are high
above the water. [This would be equivalent
to saying that the ship was high at the bows.]
‘‘Veer out more cable ’’ is the order when
a part of the cable which lies in the hawse is
fretted or chafed, and by veering out more
cable another part rests in the hawse.
“Fresh the hawse” is an order to lay new
pieces upon the cable in the hawses to pre-
serve it from fretting. [The above two
terms are applied to hemp cables.]
“Burning in the hawses” is when the cables
endure a violent stress.
“Clearing the hawses '' is the act of dis-
entangling two cables that come through
different hawses.
“To ride hawse full '' is when in stress
of weather a ship falls with her head deep in
the sea, so that the water runs in at the
haw8es.
“Athwart hawse” is when anything crosses
the hawse of a ship close ahead, or actually
under and touching the bows; as “she fell
athwart our hawse, and her side was stove in.”
“Cross hawse,” when the cables out of
different holes Cross on the stem as an X.
I)istinct from “clear hawse,” which is when
each cable leads direct to the anchor from its
hawse hole.
“Foul hawse,” when the cables are crossed
in any way by the ship swinging round.
Haw8e Bags.-Canvas bags filled with oakum,
used in a heavy sea to stop the hawse holes,
and prevent the admission of water. Wooden
hawse plugs are generally used in a yacht.
Hawse Timbers.--The large timbers in the bow
of ships in which the hawseholes are cut.
Hawser.—A large rope laid up with the Sun or
right-handed.
Head.—The fore part of a vessel. The upper
part of a sail. “By the head” means pressed
or trimmed down by the head, in contradistinc-
tion of “by the stern.” To head is to pass
ahead of another vessel.
Head Earings.--The earings of the upper part
of a squaresail, &c.
Heading.—The direction of a vessel's head when
sailing. Generally used when sailing close
hauled, as “she headed S.E. on port tack, and
N.E. on starboard tack.” In such cases it is
never said she “steered S.E.,” &c., as prac-
tically the vessel is not steered, but her course
alters with the wind. A vessel “steers”
such and such a course when she is sailing
large,
Headlamd.-A high cliff or point.
Headmost.—The first in order.
Head Reach.-In Sailing by the wind when a
vessel passes another either to windward or to
leeward. A vessel is said to “head-reach ‘’
when she is hove to, but forges ahead a knot
or two an hour. (See “Fore-reach.”)
Head Rope.—The rope to which the head of a
sail is sewn.
Head Sails.--A general name for all Sails set
forward of the foremost mast.
Head Sea.—The sea met when sailing close-
hauled. In the case of a steamship she may
meet the sea stem on.
Head Sheets.-The sheets of the head sails.
Head to Wind.—When a vessel is so situated
that the wind blows no more on one bow than
the other; when her head is directly pointed
to the wind.
Head Way.—When a vessel moves ahead through
the water.
Head Wind.—A wind that blows directly down
the course a vessel is desired to sail. A foul
wind. To be headed by the wind is when
the wind shifts so that a vessel cannot lie her
course, or puts her head off to leeward of the
course she had been heading.
Heart.—A sort of dead-eye made of lignum vitae
with one large hole in it to pass a lanyard
through turn after turn instead of through
three holes, as in an ordinary dead-eye.
They are something like a heart in shape, and
the lower one is iron bound ; the stay goes
round the upper one either by a spliced eye
or an eye seizing.
Heart Thimble.—A thimble shaped like a heart
put in the eye splices of ropes. These are
usually made solid for racing yachts.
Heave.—To bring a strain or drag upon a capstan
bar, purchase, &c. To throw, as “heave over-
board.”
Heave About.—To go into stays to tack.
Heave Ahead.—To draw a vessel ahead by heaving
On her cable, warp, &c.
Heave and Pawl.—In heaving on the windlass or
capstan to give a sort of jerking heave, so
that the pawl may be put in, and so provent
“coming up,” or the cable flying out again.
Also, in heaving on the mast winches “heave
and pawl’’ is generally used in the Sense of
“belay;” that is stop heaving at the next.
fall of the pawl.
Heave-amd-Weigh.--The last heave of the capstan
that breaks the anchor out.
Heave Down.—To careen a vessel by putting
tackles on her mastheads from a hulk or
wharf, and heeling her so as to get at her side
which was under water for repairs, &c. A
Dictionary of General Information.
vessel is said to be hove down by a squall
when she does not right immediately.
Heave in Stays.-The same as heave about.
Heave Short.—To heave on the cable until the
vessel is over the anchor, or the cable taut in
a line with the forestay, so that with another
heave, or by the action of the sails, the anchor
will be broken out of the ground.
Heave and Rally.—An order to encourage the
men to heave with energy when there is a
difficulty in breaking the anchor out of the
ground.
Heave and Stand to your Bars 1—An order given
after heaving until the vessel is over the
anchor to give another heave as the bow de-
Scends with the sea, and then stand fast,
as in all probability the next time she scends,
or lifts, her head with the sea, she will break
the anchor out of the ground.
Heave and Sight.—A call given after the anchor is
off the ground, and when it is known to be
near the surface on account of the muddy con-
dition of the water it is making in conse-
quence of the mud on the flukes. Literally
it means one more heave and you will see the
anchor above water.
Heave To.—To so trim a vessel’s sails aback
that she does not move ahead. The same as
“lie to ” or “lay to ’’ as sailors call it. If
the gale be a fair one the ship usually scuds
before it ; if a foul one she heaves to.
Heave the Lead.—The order to cast the lead for
Sounding.
Heave the Log.—The order to throw the log ship
overboard to test the rate of sailing.
Heel.—The lower after end of anything, as heel
of the keel, heel of the mast (the fore part of
the lower end of a mast is called the toe), heel
of a yard, heel of the bowsprit. The amount
of list a vessel has.
Heeler.—A heavy puff that makes a boat heel.
Heel Rope.—The rope by which a running bow-
sprit is launched out.
Heel, To.—To incline, to careen, to list over, to
depart from the upright.
Height.—A distance measured in a vertical direc-
tion, as height of freeboard, &c.
Helm.—The apparatus for steering a vessel,
usually applied only to the tiller. The word
is derived from Saxon helma, or healma, a
rudder; German helm, a handle and a rudder.
Helm's A-lee.—The usual call made in tacking
or in going about, as a signal for the crew to
work the sheets, &c. The helm is a-lee when
the tiller is “put down '' or to leeward. (See
“Lee Helm ’’ and “Weather Helm.”)
Helm Port.—The rudder trunk in the counter.
Helm, to Port the.--To put the helm or tiller to
the port side, and thereby bring the vessel’s
head round to starboard. If a wheel is used
besides a tiller the action of turning the wheel
to port brings the vessel's head round to port,
as the tiller is moved by the chains to star-
board. Thus with a wheel, when the order is
given to port the wheel is turned to starboard.
The rule observed in French war ships and
merchant ships, since 1876, is this : The
order to “port ’’ means to turn the vessel's
head to port ; and the order to “starboard ”
to turn the vessel's head to 8tarboard.
Helm, to Put Down the.—To put the tiller to:
leeward, and thereby bring the vessel to the
wind, or luff; the contrary action to putting
up the helm.
Helm, to Put Up the.—To bring the tiller to
windward, so that the rudder is turned to lee-
ward, and consequently the head of the vessel
goes off to leeward or “off the wind.”
Helm, to Starboard the.—To put the tiller the
way opposite to port. *
Helm, to Steady the.—To bring the helm or
tiller amidships after it has been moved to
port or starboard, as the case may be.
Helmsman.-The man who steers a vessel. If a
man can sail a vessel well on a wind he is
& 4 2 3
generally termed a good “ helmsman,” and
not steersman.
Hermaphrodite Brig. — A two-masted vessel,
square-rigged forward, and fore-and-aft canvas
only on mainmast.
High and Dry.—The situation of a vessel that
is ashore when the ebb tide leaves her dry.
High Water : Full and Chamge.— On all coast.
charts the time of high water at the full moon.
and new moon is set down, the time of high
water at the full moon and new moon always.
occurring at the same hour throughout the
year; therefore, if the time of high water at
full and change (new moon) is known, and
the age of the moon, the time of high water
for any particular day can be roughly calcu-
lated, about twenty-five minutes being allowed
for each tide.
Hipping.—To make a vessel broader on the beam
about the water-line. It is an American.
term, and became generally known in England
in connection with the celebrated American
yacht Sappho. After her defeat by the
English yacht Cambria, in the match round
the Isle of Wight in 1868, she was taken to
New York and hipped ; that is, her planking
was stripped off amidships, and each frame.
backed with timber, so that the vessel might.
be made to have more beam about the water-
line. The backing is “faired ” to the frames
and then planked over. Sometimes, if it is
not sought to give the vessel more than five
or six inches more beam, the hipping is
accomplished by a doubling of plank ; in such
cases a rabbet is cut for the edges of the new
plank in the old plank; the seam is then.
caulked and payed. If the new planks were
worked to a feather edge water would get
underneath, and it might soon bring about
decay.
Hire of a Yacht.—The hire of yachts varies from
30s. per ton per month to 40s. per ton.
Usually the owner pays all wages, including
those of the steward and cook, unless the
hirer specially desires to engage his own cook
636
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
and steward ; also often provides for the
mess of the master and mate. The crew
always provision themselves ; the owner
clothes the crew. The hirer pays insurance.
The exact details of hiring are usually a
matter of special arrangement. Sometimes
at the end of a season, if a yacht is already
fitted out, she may be hired for a less price
per month. When a yacht is wanted on hire,
the best plan is to advertise for a form of
agreement, which can, of course, be varied.
(See the section which follows.)
Hiring a Yacht (Agreement for).-Memorandum
of Agreement made and ontered into between
, owner of the yacht , of or
about tons y.m., and hereinafter termed
the owner, on the one part, and
hereinafter termed the hirer, on the other
part, whereby the said owner agrees to let
and the said hirer agrees to hire the said
yacht for the period of calendar
months from the day of to the
day of for the sum of
as rent to be paid in the manner follow-
ing, that is to say, the sum of OIl
the signing of this agreement, receipt of
which Hum is hereby acknowledged, and the
balance at the expiration of the said term of
hire, less any sum or sums advanced to the
captain on account of current wages for him-
self and crew, which said advances the
owner hereby authorises to be made and the
hirer agrees to make if required, but not to
exceed the total sum of during the
aforesaid period.
The owner agrees to provide an efficient
crew to manage and navigate the said yacht,
consisting of master, mate, , and
to clothe them and pay them their wages, but
the hirer agrees to find his own steward and
to pay him his wages. The owner agrees to
leave such glass, crockery, and such linen as
the yacht is provided with for the hirer's use,
but the hirer agrees to find his own plate and
cutlery.
The hirer agrees to pay for any damages
or losses in or about the said yacht which
shall not be recoverable under the clauses of
the owner's policy of insurance, which shall
include the twenty pounds damage clause and
the usual collision clause.
The hirer agrees to take over the said
yacht at the port of on the said
day of , she being in all
respects ready for sea, and to redeliver her at
the expiration of the said term of
at the port of Southampton in the like good
order as that in which he received her,
reasonable wear and tear only excepted, pro-
vided always that in the event of the said
yacht meeting with any accident to her hull
or machinery whereby the hirer is deprived of
her use for a period of not less than forty-
eight hours, or if the hirer is deprived of the
use of the yacht through any strike, mutiny,
or disaffection on the part of the crew, such
accident, strike, mutiny, or disaffection not
being brought about by any act or order of
the hirer, the owner agrees to allow an ex-
tension of the said term for the like number
of days the hirer has been deprived of the
use of the said yacht from the causes named,
but in the event of the hiror not requiring the
use of the yacht for such extended period
after the said day of , then a
pro rata return of rent shall be allowed to
him by the owner for such number of days as
the hirer may have been deprived of the use
of the yacht from the causes named.
It is further agreed that the hirer shall
have the option of extending the said term of
hire and to pay for the same at the rate of
, providing he gives the owner
weeks’ notice of his intention of So extending
the time ; and, in all cases of such extension,
the conditions named herein shall remain in
force, and the owner shall not be bound to
extend the time beyond the fortnight named
unless he mutually agrees with the hirer so to
do.
The hirer agrees to pay all harbour and
dock dues, and for bills of health and all
custom-house charges and pilotage, and to
find and pay for all consumable stores, such
as water, coal, oil, cotton waste, and the like,
and generally to defray all current expenses
in working the yacht during the period of
hiring.
Signed,
Witness,
Hitch.-A mode of fastening a rope. There are
many kinds of “hitches,” such as Blackwall
hitch, timber hitch, clove hitch, rolling hitch,
&c. A hitch is also a short tack or board
made in close-hauled sailing.
Hogged.—The situation of a vessel when she
rises higher in the middle part than at the
ends ; the opposite of Sagged.
Hogging Piece.—A piece of timber worked upon
top of the keel to prevent its hogging or
rising in the middle.
IHoist.—The length of the luff of a fore-and-aft
Sail, or the space it requires for hoisting.
The hoist of a flag is the edge to which the
roping is stitched.
Hoist, To.—To raise anything by halyards or
tackles, &c.
Hoisting the Pennant.—A commodore is said
to hoist his pennant when he goes on
board the first time, as his pennant is then
hoisted.
Hold.—The interior of a ship ; generally under-
stood to mean the space in which cargo, &c.,
is stowed away.
Hold-a-good-wind.—To sail close to the wind.
Hold her Head Up.–A vessel is said to “hold
her head up ’’ well that does not show a ten-
dency to fall off.
Holding Om.—To continue sailing without alter-
ing a course or shifting sail.
Holding Om to the Land.—To keep the land aboard
in sailing ; not departing from the land.
Dictionary of General Information.
637
****----------------------------...------- - - - -- --- -
Holding Water.—Resting with the blades of the
oars in water to check a boat's way or stop her.
Hold On.—The order given after hauling on a
rope not to slack any up, as “Hold on all
that.”
Hold On the Fore Side.—If, when hauling on
the fall of a tackle, some of the hands have
hold of it on the tackle side of the belaying
pin, the hand that has to belay sings out,
“Hold on the fore side ’’ to those in front
of him, and “Come up behind ’’ to those
behind. The hands on the fore side thus hold
the fall and keep it from running through
the blocks whilst it is being belayed. (See
“Come Up.”)
Hollow Lines.—The horizontal lines of a vessel
that have inflections.
Hollow Sea.—When the waves have a short,
steep, and deep trough.
Home.—Any operation that is completely per-
formed, as “sheeted home '’ when the clew
of a sail is hauled out to the last inch, &c.
An anchor is said to come home when it breaks
out of the ground.
Hood.—A covering for skylights, sails, &c.
Hood Ends.-The ends of the plank which are
fitted into the rabbet of the stem or stern
post ; termed also the hooded ends, meaning
probably that they are “housed ” or covered
in by the rabbet.
Hooker.—A small coasting craft.
Hoop.–(See “Mast Hoop” and “Spider Hoop.”)
Horizontal Lines.—The curved lines on the Half-
breadth Plan which show the water sections,
the plane of each section being parallel to
the horizon.
Horizontal Keel.—A plate of iron fitted to the
underside of a boat's keel, a fore-and-aft view
showing thus L. The plate should be made
of iron plate of from #in. to #in. in thickness.
For a boat 12ft. long the plate should be 8in.
wide at the middle (so as to project about 3in.
on either side of the keel), and 8ft. long,
tapering each end to the width of the wood
keel, to the underside of which it is screwed.
The wood keel should extend at least 3in.
below the garboards to render the plate
effective. It is necessary that the plate
should be kept horizontal, or in other words,
in the same plane as the horizon; inasmuch
as if the keel dips forward or aft the tendency
of the plate will be to draw the boat either by
the head or stern. A horizontal keel will
increase a boat's weatherliness, but not to the
extent of a centre board. The deeper the
wood keel of the boat is the more effective the
horizontal plate will be, as it will clear the
eddy water along the garboards, and prevent
the possibility of the bilge of the boat as she
heels over being lower than the keel. How-
ever, if a very deep keel is necessary to
make the horizontal plate effective, it may be
as well to have another inch or so, and dis-
pense with the plate altogether. The plan
does not appear to have met with much favour.
Horns.—The projections which form the jaws of
gaffs or booms. The outer ends of the cross-
trees are sometimes termed horns.
Horse.—A bar of iron or wood, or a rope for
Home part of a vessel’s rigging to travel upon.
Hownds.-The projections on a mast which sup-
port the lower cap and rigging. (See pages.
27 and 30.)
House.—To lower a topmast down within the cap.
A snug house is when very little of the top-
mast shows above the upper cap. Sometimes.
in a racing yacht a topmast is fitted with one
reef to shorten it about 3 feet, the same as a
bowsprit. This plan has been adopted to be
able to set a very large balloon topsail, but.
has very little to recommend it.
Howsing of a Mast.—The part under the deck.
Hove Down.—Said of a vessel that is very much
careened or heeled by the wind or other
C3,1189.
Hove her Keel Out.—Said of a vessel that heels.
over, so as to show her keel. (Generally used
only as a figure of speech )
Hove in Sight.—To come into view ; said of a
sail that appears above the horizon or round
a headland; also of the anchor when it comes.
above water.
Hove in Stays. – Said of a vessel when she
tacks, often meaning that a vessel tacks
suddenly.
Hove Short.—When the cable is hove in so that.
there is but little more length out than the
depth of water.
Hove-to.—The condition of a vessel with her head
sails aback, so as to deprive her of way.
Wessels hove-to on port tack should fill or
get way on, if approached by a vessel on the
starboard tack ; but if the vessel on port tack
can, by hailing or otherwise, make the other
vessel understand the situation, the latter
should give way; this is the custom of the
sea, but there is no statutory regulations con-
cerning the point.
Hoy. — A small vessel.
“Ahoy.”
Hwg the Land.—To sail along as close to a weather
shore as possible.
Hwg the Wind.—To keep very close, or too close
to the wind.
Hulk.-A vessel whose seagoing days are over,
but is still useful as a store ship, &c.
Hull.—The ship, as distinct from her masts and
rigging.
Hwll, To.—To strike the hull with shot, &c.
Hull Down.—On the sea, when only a vessel’s
spars appear above the horizon.
Hull-to, or A-hwll.—With all sails furled and the
helm lashed to leeward, leaving the waves to
do their worst.
An abbreviation of
I.
Ice Yachts.-A description of the ice yachts is
given in the body of the book.
638 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Immersed. —Under water. The opposite of
emersed, which means taken out of water.
The “wedge of immorsion” is tho part of a
vessel put into the water when she heels over.
The wedge of emersion is the part taken out
of the water. Sometimes termed the “in”
and “out ’’ wedges.
Im.—The prefix to a curt order to take in a sail,
as “In spinnaker,” “In squaresail,” or “In
boats,” &c.
In and Owt Bolts.-Bolts that pass through the
skin and frame of a vessel through and
through.
I'm Board.—Inside a vessel’s bulwarks, being the
opposite to outboard.
In Bow.—In rowing, the order to the bow man to
throw up his oar and be ready with the boat
hook, to help bring the boat alongside.
Inclination.-Heeling from an upright position.
Synonymous with careening and listing.
Immer Jib.-The jib next the forestay sail in
Schooners where two jibs are carried.
Immer Post.—A piece of timber sometimes worked
inside the sternpost.
In Hawl.—A rope used to haul sails on board, as
the inhaul of a jib or spinnaker.
In Irons.—A vessel is said to be in irons when she
is brought head to wind, and, having lost her
way, will not fall off on one tack or the other.
Insurance.—Yachts are generally insured against
fire, but probably not more than half are
insured against the risks of the sea when in
commission. The rates vary from 5s. to
108. 6d. per cent. per month on the amount
insured, according to the nature of the voyage,
the condition of the yacht, and the time of
year. Also if the owner desires a 320 damage
clause in the policy a higher rate must be
paid, so also if the yacht is insured against
the risks of yacht racing.
Compared with ordinary shipping insur-
ances, the risks on yachts are very light.
They are, almost without exception, well
found, sufficiently manned, and perfectly sea-
worthy; and, as a rule, they avoid bad weather
as much as possible. Except in rare cases,
a yachting skipper is not compelled to drive
on in the face of heavy weather. He is not
generally tied to time in making a passage,
and his owner does not look askance at him if
he lies in harbour a few days waiting until an
improvement takes place in the weather.
As a general rule, serious casualtios to
yachts are not frequent, and total losses are,
fortunately, rare. Of course, with the largely
increased number of yachts afloat, they do now
and then happen, and the wreck of the Nyanza,
of the Clarissa, and the Caterina, and the Had
accident by which Lord Cantelupe lost his life,
are instances in point. But still it must be
admitted that these cases are exceptional, and,
compared with ordinary shipping misfortunes,
very uncommon.
It is a very common idea that it would be
possible to insure yachts at a lower rate than
they are at present insured, with profit to the
underwriters, and tho Hystem of mutual
insurance has more than once been hinted at.
Howover, in these days of compotition, it may
be safely assumed that the presont ratoš are
not too remunerativo. There can be no doubt
whatevor that of late years owners have
become more awako to the effect of their
policies, and are more prone than formerly to
make a claim when any mishap occurs.
Serious oasualties are, fortunately, raro ; but
it will be readily understood that when a
yacht does meet with even a slight accident
the cost of repairs can hardly be compared
with that arising from a similar mishap to a
merchant vessel. A yacht owner is not con-
tent with more patchwork repairs, he wants,
and he is entitled to have, his vessel made as
good as she was before the damage was sus-
tained. If he has a small piece knocked out
of his rail he probably wants it replaced, and
if a plank or two be badly chafed he wants
thom taken out and new ones put in, instead
of being simply planed down, or having the
damage passed over altogether, as it would
likely be in a trading vessel. Then it must
bo borne in mind that all yachting work is of
a far more expensive and highly finished kind
than ordinary ships' work. These facts must
be remembered by the owner in estimating
what is a fair premium on his policy.
Possibly underwriters do not, in considering
the premiums, sufficiently distinguish between
really first class yachts and those which are
becoming the worse for wear. To a vessel in
first rate condition a staranding, unless in a
Very exposed position, often means no damage
at all, whilst to an old vessel it very probably
means recaulking and new copper. Once
insured, an owner may feel satisfied that any
claim which he may send in will be fairly and
even liberally dealt with. The form of policy
which is adopted is certainly a rather
antiquated kind of document, and to the
uninitiated appears hardly suited to meet the
requirements of yacht owners. It seems,
however, to be well understood between
underwriters and owners what the intention
is, and the latter will find but little difficulty
in obtaining payment for any fair claim which
they may present.
The requirements of a yacht owner with
regard to a policy are well understood, and
any Lloyd's agent or respectable broker will
Bee that it is put into proper form. It is
usual and right to have a twenty-pound
clause inserted, as the three per cent, clause
is hardly suitable to meet the class of acci-
dents to which yachts are liable. It is, of
Course, not essential that every policy should
contain a collision or running-down clause,
otherwise an owner may be called upon to pay
Home heavy sum for damage caused to another
vessel, and by this clause the underwriters
undertake to pay three-fourths of any sum
which the assured may become liable to in
the case of a collision.
Time policies are usually adopted by yacht
OWners, and are no doubt most convenient for
Dictionary of General Information. 639
them. It is, however, very necessary, in the
case of an extended voyage, for the owner to
leave instructions with his agent or broker to
renew the policy in case the voyage is not
completed at the time anticipated. An
owner must bear in mind that, if he wishes to
recover the full amount of his loss, he must
insure his vessel up to her full value ; and if,
as he sometimes does, he declares her value,
he must insure on that amount. In case an
accident occurs, there are various steps
necessary for him to take. The master must
make a deposition before the Receiver of
Wreck, and note a protest before a notary.
If the damage is considerable, it is advisable
for him, and for some of the crew, to extend
the protest before a notary ; or, if the acci-
dent happens abroad, before a British Consul.
Such protests must give a full account of the
manner in which the damage sustained
occurred, and must clearly show that it arose
from the perils insured against. It is also
advisable to give notice to the nearest Lloyd’s
agent, and to call in Lloyd's surveyor to
examine and report on the damage sustained,
as his report will always be respected by
underwriters, and as considerably less diffi-
culty will arise in obtaining payment of a
claim based on the report of a Lloyd's sur-
veyor than on the report of any casual sur-
veyor who may be consulted. An owner
must always bear in mind, when any accident
occurs, even although he be fully insured,
that it is his duty to do everything which lies
in his power to save loss to his underwriters,
and in case of a collision, if he be not in
fault, he must do all he can to enable his
underwriters to obtain payment from the
colliding vessel. A question often arises
where a vessel is very seriously damaged,
either stranded or sunk by a collision, whether
or not she is to be considered as a total loss.
It must be borne in mind by owners that if
the vessel is not actually gone, underwriters
always have the right to repair her at their
own expense and hand her back to the owner
if they think fit to do so.
Losses are of two kinds, either a total loss
or a constructive total loss. In the latter
case, if the owner has reasonable grounds for
supposing that the repairs of the vessel will
amount to more than her full value, he must
send a notice of abandonment to the under-
writers, which they must accept or decline
within a reasonable time. If they accept it,
they must of course pay on a total loss—they
having the benefit of any salvage which may
be made. If they decline to accept it, they
must be prepared to bear the expense of
restoring the vessel to her former condition.
An owner must always remember that, though
insured, it is his duty to act in every case as
though he were uninsured, and when he
presents his claim, he must be in a position
to prove that he has used every reason
able exertion to prevent loss to his under-
writers.
The following risks are not covered under
an ordinary marine insurance policy, i.e., sums
which an owner may become liable for in
respect of :
1. One-fourth of the damage inflicted on
another vessel by collision.
2. Injury to docks, wharves, piers, jetties,
banks, buoys, etc., or the removal of any
wreck or obstruction.
3. Loss of life or personal injury on board
or near his vessel and life Salvage (if not
recoverable under the ordinary policy).
4. Law costs in defending any action in
respect of a claim under paragraphs 2
and 3, provided such defence be made
with underwriters’ consent.
. Costs or expenses properly incurred by
an owner in connection with Board of
Trade enquiries and coroner's inquests.
These liabilities can be insured against, but
it is a condition of the insurance that the
vessel shall also be insured under an ordinary
policy containing the usual collision clause,
and that the value insured shall be not less
than the value insured under such ordinary
policy.
The following rates were current in 1894,
viz.: One month or under, 1s. 6d. per cent. ;
two months, 2s. 6d. per cent. ; three months,
3s. 4d. per cent. ; any period over three
months, 1s. per cent. per month.
Some very grave questions may arise if an
owner acts as his own sailing master, and
manages or controls his yacht when underway.
In about 1625, limitation of the liability of
shipowners came in as to British ships on the
ground of public policy and as necessary for
the encouragement of shipping, but not in any
marked or effectual way until about 1734,
and in the reign of George III. an Act was
passed, “ that it was expedient to encourage
the owning of British ships,” and for such end
limited the owners' liability in collision to the
value of ship and freight. In 17 and 18
Victoria, 104, the same limit was carried on
as to damages recoverable in respect of loss
of life or injury, and placed the value at £15
per ton of the wrong-doing ship. Difficulties
were found in working these enactments, and
in the result the Act (25 and 26 Victoria, c.
63, s. 54) was passed, and is continued by the
Act of last year, placing the limit at £15
where there was loss of life, and at £8 per ton
otherwise. There is, of course, no longer in
these days the same ground for passing Acts
of Parliament as in 1625, but the present state
of shipping, the risks of the seas, and questions
of freight earning and of insurance have not
caused the Legislature to, as yet, find fault
with the statutory limitation of liability.
The Act which gives the limitation of
liability does so upon a term which is
extremely hard upon yacht owners and upon
the large class of coaster owners who command
their own vessels, and it is a subject which
demands serious consideration and amendment
by the Legislature. The objectionable term
is in section 54 : “The owners of any ship,
whether British or foreign, shall mot in cases
where all or any of the following events occur
without their actual fault or privity, that is
5
64()
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Insurance—continued.
to Bay .” &c. So that the benefit of
limitation given by the Act to the owner who
remains ashore, or who is too ignorant of sea-
manship to be found in “fault or privy to ” the
collision, is denied to the expert owner who
takes charge of his own craft, even though he
be a Board of Trade certificated master marinor
or a naval officer ; and yet, so far as Acts of
Parliament at present go, an owner may place
his gardener on board his yacht as captain,
and if such gardener has told his master that
he knows how to command the craft, it would
be difficult to satisfy a court that the owner
was actually in fault by such appointment for
a Subsequent collision at sea.
The present certificate as master issued by
the Board of Trade confers no benefit or
exemption upon a yacht owner, and un-
doubtedly if an owner holds such certificate of
competency he, being on deck before and at
the collision, could not obtain the limitation of
liability in any event.
Initial Stability.—The resistance a vessel at the
first moment offers to being heeled from the
upright position, as distinct from the resist-
ance she may offer to being further heeled
when inclined to considerable angles. Thus
beamy boats are said to have great initial
stability, because they resist powerfully, being
heeled to small angles; narrow vessels, on
the other hand, are readily heeled at first,
but may offer greater resistance, as they
are farther heeled, whereas a beamy boat’s
resistance may rapidly decrease as she gets
over to large angles of say 30°.
Inlet.—A creek. A pipe to admit water to the
hold.
Inshore.—Close to the shore.
In the Wind.—When Sailing close hauled, if a.
vessel comes to nearly head to wind she is
said to be ‘‘ all in the wind.”
In wale.—The clamp or strake of timber inside the
top strake of a Small boat, generally termed
the gunwale.
Irish Pennants.—Loose ends of ropes, &c., hang-
ing about a vessel’s rigging or sails.
Iron Moulds.—Diluted oxalic acid will remove
iron moulds from sails; but the instant the
iron mould is removed the part should be
well rinsed or soaked in fresh water, or it will
be rendered rotten.
J.
Jack.-The Union Jack, The typical British flag
that has “braved a thousand years, the battle
and the breeze.” It originally only had the
red St. George’s cross on a white field. Upon
the accession of the Scotch King James to
the English throne, St. Andrew’s cross on a
blue ground was added, and the flag was
thereupon termed the “ Union Jack ’’ and
National Flag, “For the Protestant religion
and liberty.” The red cross of St. Patrick
was added (over the white St. Andrew's cross)
upon the union with Iroland 1801. (See
“ Union Jack ’’ and “St. George's Jack.”)
Jack in the Basket.—A boom or pole with a cage
on the top used to mark a shoal or bank.
Jack Hydraulic.—A mechanical contrivance used
for the same purpose as a screw jack.
Jack Screw or Screw Jack.—A powerful screw
used for moving heavy weights.
Jack Stay.—A rod of iron, or rope, usually wire
rope, for sails or yards to travel on. Also the
wire rope stay on the boom of laced Sails,
round which the lacing is passed.
Jack Yard. — The small yard on the foot of
balloon topsails to extend them beyond the
gaff. Termed also jenny yards and foot yards.
Jack Yard Topsail.—(See “Balloon Topsail.”)
Jam.—In belaying or making fast a rope to close
up or jam the turns together. To clinch the
hitch of a rope by passing the end through a
bight. (See “Wind Jamming.”)
Jaws of a, Gaff.-The horns at the end of the
gaff which half encircle the mast. A rope
called a “jaw rope,” or jaw parrel, is fitted to
the ends of the horns, and, passing round the
mast, keeps the gaff in its place. Wood
beads are rove on the rope to make it slide
easily on the mast.
Jenny Yard.—(See “Jack Yard.”)
Jetson.—Goods thrown overboard in heavyweather
to lighten the ship. (See “Flotsam.”)
Jib.-The outer triangular sail set on the bow-
sprit. A cutter usually carries six jibs—
balloon jib, No. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 jib, the latter
being the storm or spitfire jib.
Jibb or Jibe.—(See “Gybe.”)
Jib-boom. — The spar beyond the bowsprit in
schooners upon which the outer jib is set.
Jib Foresail. — In schooners the stay-foresail.
(See “Fore-staysail.”)
Jib Stanſ.—In schooners the stay to which jibs
are hanked.
Jºb Topsail.—A triangular sail made of duck
set upon the topmast stay.
Jib Traveller.—The iron hoop, with hook and
shackle, on the bowsprit to which the jib
tack cringle is hooked.
Jigger Mast.—The mizen mast of yawl or dandy.
Joggle.—In the shipwright's craft, carpentry, and
masonry, a notch or notches forming a box
Scarph to enable two pieces of wood, &c., to
fit together. The heels of timbers are some-
times joggled to the keel in this manner.
(Fig. 326.) This is also a “box scarph.”
Joggles.—Notches cut in a boat's timbers for the
plank to fit into.
Join Ship.–To come on board a vessel, or to
enter as a Seaman on board.
Jolly Boat.—A yacht’s boat larger than a dinghy,
and not so large as a cutter. Used by
a merchant ship much the same as a dinghy
by yacht.
Dictionary of General Information.
641
Jolly Roger.—A pirate's flag.
a black field.
Jumpers.-A short frock made of duck worn by .
The main stays of schooners when
Sailors.
they lead forward to the fore deck.
Junk.-A Chinese ship. Also old rope. Also old
Salt beef as tough and hard as old rope or oak.
FI(;. 326.
Jwry.—A makeshift or temporary contrivance, as
jurymast, jury rudder, jury bowsprit, &c.,
which may be fitted when either has been
lost or carried away.
EC.
Ramsin.—A south-westerly wind which is said
to blow on the Nile for fifty days during
March and April. The simoom.
Redge. — The smallest anchor a yacht carries,
used for anchoring temporarily by a hawser
or warp. To kedge is to anchor by the kedge,
or to carry the kedge anchor out in a boat
and warp ahead by it.
Keg.—A small cask, or breaker.
ICeel. — The fore-and-aft timber in a vessel to
which the frames and garboard strake are
fastened.
Keel.—An awkward-looking north-country boat
with one lugsail forward.
Keel Hawl.—A mode of punishment formerly in
use in the Royal Navy. A rope, passed
underneath the bottom of the ship, was made
fast to each yard-arm. A man with a weight
fast to his feet was made fast to one part of
the rope and hauled from one yard-arm to
the other, passing underneath the bottom of
ship. Keel hauling now, in punning lan-
guage, means “undergoing a great hardship”
of some kind.
Keelsom, or Kelson.—An inside keel fitted over the
throats of the floors.
Keep her Pwll.—When close hauled, an admoni-
tion not to keep too close to the wind.
Reep her Off-An order to sail more off the wind ;
to put the helm up. To keep off is to keep
away from the wind.
Keep your Luff.—An admonition to keep close
to the wind. In match sailing, an order
given when a vessel is being overtaken by
one coming up from astern not to give way
A white skull on
and allow the vessel to pass to windward.
It is an old maxim in close-hauled sailing,
“keep your luff and never look astern,”
meaning that if you Hail as close to the wind
as possible the overtaking vessel must take
her passage to leeward or risk a collision by
trying to force a passage to windward.
Kentledge.—Bough pig iron used as ballast.
I(etch.-A two-masted vessel, something like a
yawl, but with the mizen stepped ahead of
the Stern post, and not abaft it as a yawl has
it. Ketches were formerly common in the
Royal Navy for yachts and bomb boats. A
rig now seldom used except by coasters; it
has all the disadvantages of the schooner or
yawl rig, and none of the advantages. The
Y.R.A. rules enjoin that the distance between
the masts shall be half the length of water
line, and the smaller sail of the two gaff
sails must be aft.
Kevel or Covel.—Large pieces of timber used for
belaying ropes to, such as the horizontal piece
which is bolted to the stanchions aft to belay
the main sheet to.
Key Model.—A model made by horizontal layers
or vertical blocks, showing either the water
lines or vertical sections of a vessel.
Kit.—A sailor's belongings in the way of clothes,
&c., which he carries in his bag or keeps in
his locker.
Kittiwake.—A kind of seagull.
Knees.—Pieces of timber or iron shaped thus L,
used to strengthen particular parts of a ship.
A hanging knee is the one fitted under the
beams ; a lodging knee is a knee fitted
horizontally to the beams and shelf, or to
the mast partners or deck beams. Floor
knees are V-shaped, like breast-hooks.
Knight Heads.-Strong pieces of timber fitted
inside and close to the stem to bear the strain
of the bowsprit. Called also “bollard tim-
bers.” The name is said to be derived from
the windlass bitts, the heads of which for-
merly were carved to represent the heads of
knights.
Knot.—A geographical mile, or sixtieth part of
a degree, termed also a sea mile or nautical
mile. The Admiralty knot or mile is 6080ft.,
a statute mile is 5280ft. A sea mile = 1° 1515
statute mile ; a statute mile = 86842 sea mile.
RNOTS PER HOUR CONVERTED INTO FEET PER SEC0N D.
% = # • #
32 Feet per | #2 Feet per 32 Feet per
2 3. Second. . 2 3. second. $24 : second.
24 ; := c.
1 I-688 11 18-57 21 35.45
2 3-376 12 20-26 22 37 14
3 5'' ()64 13 21.4). 2:3 38'82
4 (3-752 14 23.63 24 4ſ). 51
5 8’44 | 15 25°32 25 42'2ſ)
(; 1(). 13 16 27-01 2(; 43-89
7 11 "S2 17 20-70 27 45°58
S 13.50 | 18 30-38 28 47 '26
!) 15-19 19 32.07 29 4S-95
10 16-88 2ſ) 33°76 Ş() 50” (34
Emots, Hitches, Bends, and Splices. – A Short
Splice : Unlay the strands to an equal distance
T T

642 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
from each end of tho rope. Intertwine the
ends as shown in Fig. 327, and draw all close
up together. Take one end of the rope in the
left hand close up to the unlaid strands, and
with it the unlaid strands of the other end of
the rope; grasp these firmly, or, if more
convenient, stop them with a piece of yarn.
Take one of the strands (which are free),
pass it over the strand (belonging to the
other end of the rope) next to it, under the
next strand and out, and haul taut. Pass
each of the three strands in the same way,
and then the three other strands, and the
splice will be made as shown in Fig. 328. The
operation can be repeated, or the ends can be
seized with spun yarn round the rope. If
the ends are stuck again, it is usual to
taper each strand so as to make a neater job
of it.
An Eye Splice : Unlay the strands of the
rope and bring a part of the rope between
the strands so as to form an eye (see Fig. 329.)
Put one end through the unlaid strand of the
rope next to it ; the succeeding end passes in
an opposite direction over the strand and
through under the next strand. The remain-
ing end goes under the strand on the other
side. Taper the ends and work them through
the strands again, and serve.
FI (; 329. I'IQ 330.
Single Wall Knot (Fig. 330): Unlay the end
of a rope, hold it in the left hand, take a strand
A, and form into a bight, holding it tight
in the left hand to the standing part of the
rope. Pass B round A, C round B, and up
through the bight of A ; haul taut. To
crown, lay one end over the top of the knot,
lay the second over that, the third over the
second, and then under the bight of the
first.
Sheet Bend, or Common Bend (see Fig. 331):
Useful for bending two ropes together, or
bending a rope to a cringle (see also pp. 89,
90). -
Bend for Hawser (Fig. 332).
I'I(). 332.
Midshipman’s Hitch (Fig. 333).-Is made
by taking half a hitch with the end of a rope
A round the standing part B, C ; then taking
another turn through the same bight ; when
jammed together, another turn may be taken
FJ (j. 333.
round C or stopped to it. Used for putting
a tail block on to the fall of a backle, shroud,
&c. (see also Fig. 50, &c., p. 123), for a
“Rolling Hitch,” used for the same purpose.
Magnus Hitch (see Fig. 334).-Useful for
bending ropes to spars, &c.
I'ſ (; 335.
Bowline Knot (Fig. 335): Take a convenient
part of the end of a rope and form the bight A,
then the large bight B; pass the end through






Dictionary of General Information.
643
the bight A, then round the standing part E,
and down through the bight A, and haul taut.
Running Bowlino Knot (Fig. 336): After the
bight A is made, take the bight B round Jº
(which is the standing part), then up through
F'ſ (; , 336.
A, round the standing part, and down through
A as before (see also “Clove Hitch,’’ ‘‘Fisher-
man’s Bend,” “Timber Hitch,” and ‘‘Black-
wall Hitch '’).
L.
Labour.—A ship is said to labour when she
pitches and rolls heavily, causing her frame
to work.
Lace.—To pass a rope in and out.
Laid.—The make of a rope, as cable laid, hawser
laid, single laid, laid with the sun, &c.
Lamd.—To go from a vessel to the shore ; also
to place anything. The outer edge of the
plank of a clinchor-built boat. The term
“land '' is used to mean the coast. l
Land Boats—Carriages propelled by sails on land.
The following account of land boats appeared
in the Scientific American : “‘The force of
wind in the motion of sails may be applied
also to the driving of the chariot, by which a
man may sail on the land, as well as by a ship
on the water,’ remarks Bishop Wilkins, in the
second book of his ‘Mathematical Magick,”
printed in London in 1648. Such chariots, he
goes on to explain, have been used from time
immemorial on the plains of China and also
in Spain, but their most remarkable success
has, says the learned author, been achieved
in Holland, where ‘it did far exceed the
speed of any ship, though we should suppose
it to be carried in the open sea, with never so
prosperous wind ; and that in some few hours
space it would convey six or ten persons
twenty or thirty German miles, and all this
with very little labour of him that sitteth at
the stern, who may easily guide the course of
it as he pleaseth.’
“The astonishment of the good bishop and
his contemporaries at the speed attained may
well be realised when it appears that Dutch
sailing carriages, constructed as shown in
Fig. 337, accomplished a distance of forty-
two miles in two hours. This was an
unheard of speed in those days for any means
of locomotion. “Men ran before it seeming
to go backwards, things which Heem at a
great distance being presently overtaken and
left behind.” Until railroads were invented,
without doubt the wind carriage outstripped
* -- . . . ) ) f / \
*— — —-
FIG. 337.-SAULING CHARIOT.
all other means of travelling ; and it is
perhaps a little anomalous that more efforts
were not made towards its improvement.
Bishop Wilkins himself made an effort in
33S.—BISHOP W II, KINS' CLI ARIOT.
FIG.
that direction by rigging a windmill in the
vehicle, whereby “the sails are so contrived,
that the wind from any course will have a
force upon them to turn them about,’ and he





T T 2
644.
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Land Boats—continued.
proposed to gear this contrivance with his
wheels, and ‘consequently carry on the
chariot itself to any place (though fully
against the wind) whither it shall be directed.’
This same thing was reinvented a couple of
years ago in this country, as we noted at the
time, and perhaps it might be uncharitably
inferred that if, after the labour of two and a
quarter centuries, our inventors could do no
better than reproduce the venerable bishop’s
notion, the Ultima Thule of originality in
wind carriages must be close at hand. Yet in
reality the ice boat is probably the offspring
to average a speed of thirty miles per hour,
and, with a strong breeze, to travel at the
rate of forty miles in the same period. This
last speed was reached with the wind right
abeam. A distance of eighty-four miles has
been passed over in four hours, the car sailing
part of this time close hauled and over a
disadvantageously curved track.
“The vehicle has four wheels, each 30in. in
diameter, is 6ft. in length, and weighs 600lb.
The sail has two booms, respectively 14ft.
and 15ft. in length, and an area of about 81
square feet. The mast is 11 ft. high, tapering
from 4im. Square at the heel to 2in. at the
FIG. 389–BACIFIC RAILWAY SAILING CAR.
of the wind-impelled land vehicle ; and the
little carriages to be drawn along by huge
kites, such as many an ingenious school boy
has constructed, are allied to it. (Fig. 338.)
“It is curious to note, however, that while
to the railroad is owing the abandonment of
the wind carriage, to the same agency it now
seems likely that its rejuvenation will be due.
Wind vehicles are already in use on the
long stretches of tracks which extend over
the Western prairies, and the speed attained
is said to rival that of the fast express train.
The engraving (Fig. 339) of a sailing car
was devised by Mr. C. J. Bascom, of the
Kansas Pacific Railroad. The vehicle is said
truck. It will be obvious that many of the
laws applying to the ice boat apply equally
Well to the sailing car. A little consideration
Will show that when the latter is Sailing at
forty miles per hour it is travelling faster
than the wind that impels it, and this is
constantly the case in ice boat sailing. On
the other hand, ice boats always sail best
close hauled, in fact the sheet is almost
Constantly kept flat aft; the sailing car, as
stated above, goes fastest with the wind
directly on the beam or side. Of course the
difference is due to the greater resistance
offered by the larger and more elevated
surfaces of the car body and its occupants,

Dictionary of General Information.
(54.5
and to the friction of the axle journals, which
probably, under ordinary condition, is sufficient
to prevent the Bailing car ever attaining the
ice boat's speed.
“Mr. Bascom states that his car has
been in active operation on the Kansas
Pacific Railway for the past three years,
being employed to convey repairing parties
to pumps, telegraph lines, &c., along the
route. It is of course exceedingly cheap to
Construct and maintain, and saves the labour
involved in running a hand car.”
Tand Boats are to be met with on the flat
sands of the Lancashire coasts, and were thus
described by Mr. B. W. Hancock, of Leeds, in
the Mechanics’ Magazine : “A A, Fig. 340, is
the deck, B B B B B are seats with cushions,
C C are boards for the feet, D D is an iron
rail round the seats, E is the steering wheel,
F a seat for the man who attends to the
sheet, &c., G the hole where the mast is
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FIG. 341.
stepped, H H are steps with handrail, I I I I
are the wheels, J is the nut which secures the
pivot of front wheels. The dotted lines K on
deck show the course of the steering gear and
axle of front wheels, L L L is a rail about 1ſt.
high, just to keep anything from shaking off,
M M M M are belaying pins, also M M at
back of carriage ; N in the centre of middle
seat is made of wrought iron, to give the mast
a good hold, O at front of carriage a hook to
secure jib sail, P P is an iron bar for the ring
of jib sail to slide on.
“Im Fig. 341, A A is the edge of deck, B B
sides of seats, D D the iron rail round the
seats, E steering wheel, F the seat for man.
In its position as a step, it works on hinges ;
the man cam thus get up and pull the step up
after him, forming a seat. H is the side step
with hand-rail, I I are the wheels, L L is the
rail round deck, Q is a belaying pin, also M
at back of carriage. O at front is the hook
for jib sail, P is the end of iron bar for ring
|
|
i
;
on jib sail to slip. R. R. are the ropes for
steering, S S are supports for the axle of
steering wheel, on which there is a great
strain, 'I' T is perforated zinc, U is iron ring
to support boom.
“The deck, &c., should be made of light
but strong wood, well put together, as it has
to stand a deal of shaking and jerking. The
wheels are also made of wood, they should be
about 3ft. diameter, 1ſt. wide. Narrow wheels
would sink in the sand and impede the pro-
gress of the carriage. The axles are wood
cased with iron on the bearing parts; it is
also advisable to put iron round the wheels.
The steering gear will be best understood by
referring to Fig. 340, where the dotted limes
show the course of the rope or chain from one
end of the axle to the steering wheel, where it
is wrapped two or three times round the axle
shown at S, and then back to the other end of
front axle, in this way you have complete con-
trol over the carriage. The mast shown at X
should be carried through the deck and
secured underneath, otherwise the deck will
probably be torn up in a strong wind. The
height of sails should be about twice the
length of carriage, but space will not permit
of their being shown here. The ordinary lug
and jib sail, as shown, are by far the most
manageable. As the wind changes they can be
turned from side to side without difficulty.”
Railway sail cars were in use some years
ago on Herne Bay Pier and Southend Pier.
Land Fall.—The point or part of a coast a vessel
first sights after being at sea. To make a
good land-fall is to sight the land at the
point calculated, “under the bowsprit end,”
as it is termed.
Land Lubber.--A person living on land and un-
acquainted with the duties of a seaman ; also
an awkward loutish cockney sort of person
who on board ship cannot get into the ways
of a seaman.
Lamdsman. --Men who have just joined a ship to
train as sea mem.
Lame.—A lane of wind is a current of air that
travels in a narrow space and does not spread.
On board ship the order to “Make a lane
there,” when a lot of men are standing
together, is an order for them to stand on
one side so that others can pass. Lanes
for steamships are the tracks they take in
crossing an ocean.
Lanyards or Lºtnia rºls. – Ropes rove through
dead eyes, &c., by which shrouds and stays
are set up.
Larboard.—The left side. In consequence of
frequent blunders occurring through “ lar-
board ” being misunderstood for “starboard”
or vice versii, “port,’’ as a distinctive sound,
was introduced instead of larboard.
Larbolins.—The men composing the port watch.
(See “Starbolins.”)
Large.—With the wind abeam or abaft the beam.
“She is sailing along large ’’ means that the
ship has the wind abeam or between the beam
and the quarter.

646
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Lash.--To lace, to bind together with a rope.
Lashing.—A lacing or rope to bind two spars to-
gether, &c.
Lateen Sail.—A large triangular sail, with the
luff bent to a yard. It really has no head.
Lateral Resistance. The resistance a vessel
offers to being pressed broadside on through
the water. This resistance is assumed to be
governed by the area of the plane bounded
by the water-line, stem, keel, and rudder.
Launch.-The largest boat carried by a ship.
To launch is to move an object, as “launch
a spar forward,” to launch a ship.
Lawnching a Boat Across a Flat Shore.—In
making a truck to launch or beach a boat on
a sandy or loose gravelly shore, the truck
should run on rollers in preference to wheels,
as the latter will sink into the sand or gravel,
and render the transit very laboursome.
Laveer.—An obsolete sea term used to denote
beating to windward.
L0/y.—Used by sailors instead of the neuter verb
“to lie :” as “lay to ” for lie to, “lay her
course” for lie her course, “lay up ’’ for lie
up, &c., or “she lays S.W.” for lies S.W. This
use of the active verb is sometimes justified
by an appeal to the well-known naval song—
'Twas in Trafalgar's Bay
We saw the Frenchmen lay.
But, whether right or wrong, a sailor will never
be brought to say, “there she lies '' for
“ there she lays, or “she’s going to lie up ’’
for “she's going to lay up.” Lay of a rope,
&c.
Lay along the Land.—When a vessel can just
keep along a weather shore close-hauled.
L0/y her Course.—A vessel is said to lay her
course when sailing close-hauled, if her head
points nothing to leeward of it.
Lay in Oars.--An order given to a boat's crew to
toss their oars aboard; generally curtly spoken
“Oars.” To “lay on your oars’’ is an order
for the men to cease rowing, but not to toss
their oars up ; to rest on their oars.
Lay of 0, Rope.—The way the strands of a rope
are laid up.
Lay Off-To transfer the design of a vessel to
the mould loft full size. This is never written
or spoken “lie off.”
Lay Out.—To move, as to lay out on a yard-
arm to make a good forward and backward
reach in rowing.
Laying Up.
has been brought to a termination. It is
always much the best plan to have a mud
dock dug for the yacht to lie in, as then the
bottom will not foul, and if the vessel be
coppered, she will haul out quite clean ; on
the other hand, if she lies afloat, weeds and
barnacles will accumulate on the bottom. It
is much the practice now to haul vessels up
high and dry during the winter months; this
is an excellent plan, and greatly assists in
preserving the hull. The ballast is removed,
Dismantling a yacht after a cruise i
and the inside of the hull below the platform
coated with red lead, black varnish, or a
mixture of two-thirds Stockholm tar to one-
third of coal tar; black varnish or red lead
is, however, to be preferred. The mast
should be taken out before the vessel is
hauled up, and with the other spars housed.
In case the mast be not removed, all the
rigging should be lifted over the mast, and
the yoke taken off as well, so that no ac-
cumulation of damp may rot the masthead.
The copper should be scrubbed and coated
with a mineral oil such as paraffin. (See
“Ilimber Boards.”)
Lazy Gwy.—The guy used to prevent the main
boom falling aboard when a vessel is rolling.
Lazy Tack.—A running bight put on the tack
cringle of a sail, and round a stay to keep the
sail from blowing away whilst it is hoisted.
Lead.—A long weight or “sinker,” of 71b.,
14lb., or 28lb. The line is “marked ” thus :
Fathoms. º -
2 a piece of leather in two strips.
3 3 y leather three Strips.
5 2 * white calico.
7 5 y red bunting.
1() * } leather with a hole in it.
3 3 × |blue serge.
15 2 y white calico.
17 y y red bunting.
20 3 * two knots.
There are usually 5 fathoms beyond this un-
marked. In heaving the lead, if the vessel
has headway, the lead must be cast ahead, so
that when it touches the bottom the vessel is
directly over it. If the first white mark is
just awash when the lead is on the bottom,
the leadsman sings out, “By the mark five.”
If it is less than five, say 4%, he sings out
“Quarter less five,” And not 4%. If # or 3
more than five, he sings out “and a quarter
five,” &c. There are no marks for 1, 4, 6,
8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 19 fathoms, and
these numbers are called “deeps ;” in sound-
ing, the leadsman has to estimate the depth,
as, for instance, between 5 and 7 marks, and
will sing out, “By the deep 6.” The deep-
sea lead, pronounced “ dipsey lead,” weighs
from 28lb. to 35lb., and has a much longer
line. Up to 20 fathoms it is marked the
same as the hand lead—at 30 fathoms 3
knots, at 40 fathoms 4 knots, and so on ;
the intermediate “fives” being marked by a
piece of leather or a small strand with a knot
in it ; 100 fathoms is marked by a piece of
bunting, and then commence the knots again
–1 knot 10 fathoms, and so on. In sounding
with the deep-sea lead the vessel is usually
hove to.
Lead Ballast.—Bricks of lead cast from moulds
to fit inside the frames of a vessel without
resting on the plank. Sometimes lead has
been run into a vessel hot. When this has
been done, the frame and plank have been
first smeared with wet clay in order that the
wood might not be injured. The vessel should
be well caulked before the lead is run in. If
molten lead is run into an iron or steel plated
vessel, fires should be lighted underneath the
Dictionary of General Information.
647
keel to heat the plates, or otherwise the plates
may be injured. The objection to running
lead into a vessel is the extreme difficulty of
getting it out again.
In casting a lead or iron keel, in. per foot
is allowed each way for shrinking.
Lee.—The opposite side to that from which the
Lee Board.
wind blows.
A very old-fashioned contrivance to
check leeway. The board is usually tra-
peziform, and hung from the gunwale on
either side.
When Bailing to windward it is
dropped on the lee side to prevent lee way,
hence the term “lee board.” The board in
------ –
ºr. BGLT
FIG, 342.
length should be about one-fifth the length
of the boat, and at its broadest part two-
thirds its own length in breadth, and its
narrowest one-third its own length.
board is fixed to an open boat, the gunwale
should be strengthened at the point of
attachment by a piece of timber worked in-
side at the back of the boat’s timbers. For
a boat 17ft. long this strengthening piece
If the
should be at least 5ft. in length by 6in. in
depth, and be of 1%in. thickness.
will be pivoted at its narrow end by an inch
bolt ; the neck of the bolt which passes
through the board should be square, and a
square iron plate should be fitted each side
of the board, through which plates the bolt
T H U M B
SCREW ſ
FIG. 343.
will pass. The round part of the bolt will
pass through the gunwale and strengthening
piece; the bolt will be tightened up by a
thumb nut, and, to prevent the latter work-
ing into the strengthening piece, it will be
best to have an iron plate inside over the
hole in the gunwale. The board should be
made of inch stuff, with two through bolts
of #in. galvanised iron rod.
A good lee board (see Figs. 342 and 343)
The board
can be made of a board about 16in. by 2ft.,
suspended over the side of the boat (the top
of the board being level with the keel) by two
irons, which reach up the side over the gun-
wale, and are turned up along the midship
thwart, to which they are fastened by means
of two thumb screws; at the lower end two
screw bolts connect the irons with the board;
if necessary, one might be fitted on each side
of the boat.
The advantages over the ordinary lee-
board are that it is not unsightly, is always
held parallel to the keel without straining the
side, and two turns of the thumb screws will
disconnect it in a moment from the boat.
If these irons be fixed to different thwarts, a
long board might be fitted in the same way;
but a deep board is to be preferred.
Lee, By the.—In running nearly before the wind,
when a vessel runs off her helm So much as
to bring the wind on the quarter over which
the boom is ; a very dangerous proceeding, as
if there be no boom guy a sudden gybe, or a
gybe “all standing,” may be the result.
For safety, the helm should be put down the
instant a vessel begins to run off. In match
sailing, in running for a mark, yachts are
often brought by the lee through a shift
of wind, and frequently fibey are kept so, if a
spinnaker or squaresail be set, and if near the
mark, to save a gybe, every precaution being
of course taken to prevent the main boom
coming over, by hauling on the guy or pressing
against the boom ; this risk, however, should
only be run in very light winds.

Lee-going Tide.—The tide that is running to lee-
ward in the direction of the wind. The
opposite to weather-going tide, which see.
Lee Helm.—The helm put to leeward to luff, or
to keep a vessel to or by the wind. Also
synonymous with slack helm. If the centre of
effort of the sails is much forward of the centre
of lateral resistance, the vessel will have a ten-
dency to fall off, and will require the helm to
be put to leeward to keep her close to wind.
The tendency can be checked by reducing the
head sail, or by hardening in the sheets of the
after sail and easing the sheets of the head
sail. A vessel that requires lee helm will be
an awkward one, and in a heavy sea, a dan-
gerous one to work to windward. The con-
trary to “weather helm,” which see.
Lee Scuppers.-Inside the lee bulwarks by the
scupper holes. To be always in the lee
scuppers is to be always in disgrace.
Lend a Hamd Here.—An order to a person to
assist.
Let go and Hawl.—In tacking a square rigged
vessel the order given to let go the lee braces
and haul in on the others.
Let Her Feel the Weight of It.—An order to keep
a vessel more off the wind, and not allow her
sails to shake. (See “Give Her the Weight.”)
Lewis.-See “ Mooring Rings.”
Life Belts.-Appliances for support in the water.
The cork life belts of the National Lifeboat
Institution (6s. each), John-street, Adelphi,
are the most highly recommended.
Life Buoy.-Usually a painted canvas ring stuffed
with solid cork. When in the water, by placing
the hands on the buoy it turns up over the
head. The arms are then put through it,
and it forms a fine support under the armpits,
648
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
and, of course, encircling the body. This is
a great improvement on the old-fashioned
ball buoy, with rope bights on it. A life
buoy should have an outside diameter of
30 in., and contain from 12lb. to 15 lb. of solid
cork, and float for twenty-four hours whilst
suspending 321b. of iron. Cork shavings,
granulated cork, &c., should not be used.
Light eye.—A bright white look in the sky above
the horizon, sometimes betokening that a
breeze may be expected from that quarter.
Jights.--The lights which all vessels must exhibit
between sundown and sunrise. (See “Side
Light.”)
Limber Boards.--—Plank covering the floors of a
vessel near the keelson. In yachts built with
iron knee floors it is a common practice to fill
up all cavities along the keel or hogging piece,
fore dead-wood and apron, and dead-wood aft,
with cement, after coating the wood with
Stockholm tar.
Limber Clearer.—-A small chain which is kept
rove through the limber holes in the floors at
the side of the keelson, to allow the bilge
water to flow freely to the pumps; occasionally
the chain is worked backwards and forwards
to clear the holes. This contrivance is seldom
met with in yachts.
Line.—A general name for a rope, or cordage.
Limer.—An old line-of-battle ship. An old name
for ships of the first and second rate, as three
deckers and two deckers.
Lines.—A general term applied to the drawing or
design of a vessel as depicted by fore-and-aft
lines. A vessel is said to have “fine lines ‘’
when she is very sharp fore-and-aft.
List.—A vessel is said to list when from some
cause—shifting of ballast or cargo or weights
—she heels over.
Listing.—A narrow strip of plank, usually 4in.
in width, cut out of the plank in ship through-
out her whole length, in order that the con-
dition of her frames or timbers may be
examined.
Lizard.—A piece of rope with a thimble eye
spliced in one end, used in setting squaresails;
sometimes the lizard is of two or more parts
with a thimble in each, the whole being
spliced into one tail.
Lloyd’s Register.—The committee appointed in
1824 by “Lloyd’s Society of Underwriters for
the insurance of ships,” to classify and regu-
late the building of, and keep a registry of all
ships. (See “Underwriter.”)
Lloyd's Yacht Register.—A register of yachts
founded by Lloyd's, 1878, in which the build,
age, condition, &c., of each yacht is set forth.
There is published separately a book which
contains rules and tables of scantling for the
building of yachts. The offices are White Lion
Court, Cornhill. (See “Yacht Register.”)
Load-water-line.—The line of flotation when a
vessel is properly laden or ballasted.
Iload-water section.—The horizontal plane at the
line of flotation.
Lol, Sided.—Larger or heavier on one side than
on the other.
Locker.—A small cabin, or cupboard, or cavity
to stow articles in.
Log Board or Log Slate.—The Hlate on which the
hourly occurrences in navigating a ship-her
speed, canvas, courses, the strength of wind,
direction of wind, and get:eral condition of
weather—are set down.
Log Line and Ship.–Am ancient contrivance for
testing the speed of a ship. The line is
attached to a board (termed the ship), and is
marked for knots every 50ft. (the proper
distance would be 50-64ft., but an allowance
is made for the following wako). According
as the number of knots which run out in
30sec. by the sand glass, so is the speed of the
vessel. There is a drift of some feet between
the log ship and the first knot, the glass being
turned as the first knot takes the water. The
number of knots run out in the 30sec. marks
the speed of the vessel. Massey's or Walker's
log are now constantly towed, but the log line
and ship are regularly used on board large
steamers. (See “Harpoon Log.’’)
Log Official,—See “Official Log.”
Long Boat.-A ship's launch; usually carvel built.
Long Leg and a Short One.—In beating to wind-
COL}}-R5 E
FIG. 344.
ward, when a vessel can Bail nearer her
intended course on one tack than another.
Thus, say her course is E. and the wind
S. E. by E. she would lie E. by N. one tack,
which would be the long leg, and S. by E.
on the other, which would be the short leg.
(Fig. 344.)
Long Shore.-A contraction of along shore.
Long Tackle Blocks,—A double block with one
sheave above the other, as a fiddle block,
which see. Used for the runner tackle, &c.
Look.-The direction a vessel points when sailing
by the wind. As, she “ looks high,” “looks
up well,” “looks a high course,” &c.
Look-out, The.—The men stationed on the bow,
&c., to watch the approach of other ships or
to seek the land, &c.
Loose.—Adrift ; to unloose to unfurl ; to loose
tyers of a sail, &c.
Lose her Way.—Said of a vessel when she loses
motion or gradually comes to a stop.
Lose His Nwmber at Mess.-(See Number.)
Lower.—To cause a thing to descend—as to
“lower the topsail,” &c. An order given to
ease up halyards, as “lower,” “lower away !”
Lower Masts.-The masts that are next the deck.
Lubber's Hole.—The opening in a masthead cap,
by which seamen get into the top instead of
by the futtock shrouds.

Dictionary of General Information.
649
Lubber's Point.--The black line or stroke in the
front part of a compass basin, by which the
direction of a vessel’s head is told. The
lubber's point is always in a direct line with
the vessel's keel, or stem and sternpost.
Lucky Puff.-A puff that “frees” a vessel in
close hauled sailing.
Luff.--To come nearer the wind. To “spring
your luff” is to luff all the ship is capable of,
without making her sails shake.
Luff and Touch. Her.—To bring the vessel so near
the wind that the head sails begin to shake a
little.
Luff of a Sail. — The weather cloth in a sail.
(See “Weather Cloth.”)
Luff Tackle.--A tackle composed of a single and
double block, the standing part of the rope
being fast to the single block.
Luff upon Luff.-One luff tackle hitched to the
fall of another so as to make a double pur-
chase.
Lugger.—A vessel rigged with lug sails like the
fishing boats of this country and France.
Lwg-Sail.—A sail set on a yard.
Lug.”)
Lwrch.-When a vessel is left unsupported at
the bow, stern, or amidships, so that she
makes a sudden dive forward, or by the stern,
or a heavy weather or lee roll.
(See “Dipping
Lwtings.--Stoppings of white lead, putty, tar,
varnish, &c., for seams and joins in planks,
&c.; sometimes used with a strip of canvas
as a kind of caulking.
Lying To.—The condition of a
ship when hove to. (See
“Trying.”)
MI.
Mackerel Sky.—A sky streaked
with fine clouds, something
in the manner of the stripes 2
on the back of a mackerel. 22 A
Mackerel, T'ailed.—A boat with
a very sharp or fine after
body. “Cod’s head and
mackerel's tail '' or “full
forward and fine aft,” once
supposed to represent the
solid of least resistance ;
now the order is reversed.
Made. — Built, as built mast,
&c., meaning that the mast is not made of
one piece of timber, but by several pieces
bound together.
Main. —The open ocean. The principal, as main
mast, main boom, main stay, main sail, &c.
Maim Breadth.--The extreme breadth of a vessel.
Main Cowrse.—The main sail of a square rigged
ship.
Main Keel.—The keel proper, and not the keelson
or false keel.
Maimsheet.--The rope or tackle which holds the aft
clew of the mainsail, or main boom. A good
arrangement of mainsheet for a small boat with
boom to the sail is to make fast one end of the
sheet to one end of the after thwart, or near
thereto (so that the sheet is clear of the helms-
man) take the other end through a thimble eye
in a strop round the boom and down through
another thimble eye strop at the other end of
the thwart ; the hauling part can be made fast
by a turn and bight above the latter thimble.
This arrangement would do for a 10ft. or 12ft.
boat, but in one of larger size a block should
be stropped to the boom and thwart instead
of the thimbles. (See “Belay.”)
Mainsheet Horse.—A mainsheet horse is fre-
quently used in small boats, and in America
in large yachts as well. Less mainsheet is
required on a wind when the lower block
travels on a horse, and therefore the boom
cannot lift so much and assist in throwing
the sail in a bag. In a seaway, however,
there is some advantage in having more drift
between the blocks than would be very likely
given if a horse were used. For small boats
to obviate the shifting of the mainsheet
from side to side in tacking the horse
is of advantage. The foresheet can travel
on a horse if the boat be decked or half
decked.
Mainsheet Slip.–The navy mainsheet slip is
usually fitted to the gunwale, with a lanyard
on the ring which holds the tongue to slip
the sheet if necessary. This slip can also be
fitted to a mainsheet horse, but practically
2%|
º:22
Tºº-
---,
*====E==
T=s_*=
FIG. :345.
the hitch at a answers all the purpose, as the
lanyard has to be manipulated by the hand
just the same as any ordinary tongue and
ring attachment has. (Fig. 345.)
Maintopman. — The mainmast headman of a
schooner to pass the lacing of a topsail, keep
the topsail yard clear, &c.
Make Fast.—To securely belay a rope or join two
ropes.


650
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Make Ready There.—An order sometimes given
to prepare to tack or lower a sail, as “Make
ready for going about there,” the “there '’
referring to the crew.
Make Sail.—To set sails. To add to sails already
set. To shake out reofs.
Malce Stern Way,+-To drive astern as a vessel
sometimes will in tacking by getting in irons or
through the head sails being thrown aback.
Malce the Lamd.—After losing sight of the land
to approach and sight it.
Making Water.—Leaking. A vessel is said to
make no water if she is so tight that mone
ever gets through her seams, &c., into the hold.
Man. —To apply manual power to anything, as
“Man the capstan,” “Man the boat,” &c.
Mam. Overboard.—A shout of alarm made on
board ship when a man gets overboard by
accident. In such cases it is not usual to
wait for orders, but everyone joins in if he
sees he can be of service in throwing a life.
buoy, helping to launch a boat, jumping over-
board, &c.
Mamsard.—An architectural term used in America
for a booby hatch or raised deck. A mansard
roof to a house is a light structure above the
masonry. It took its name from Mansard,
a French architect of the 17th century.
Mam, Ship.–An old-fashioned custom in the Navy
of mustering the crew along the bulwarks to
cheer upon parting company or meeting
another ship. Losing yachts generally mam
the bulwarks and cheer a victorious yacht,
a custom probably derived from the practice
in “fighting days '’ of one war ship cheering
another that was an enemy. (See “Cheering.”)
Marine Glºwe.—This composition is said to be com-
posed of 1 part india-rubber, 12 mineral
naphtha or coal tar heated gently, and 20 parts
of shellac, mixed with it. The composition is
now usually employed to stop the seams of decks
after they are caulked. The old fashioned plan
was to use white lead putty for the stopping
and indeed it is at this present time occasion-
ally used ; the objection to it is that it dries as
hard as a cement and cracks, the result being
that water gets into the caulking, rots it, and
then leaky decks are the consequence.
Moreover, hard putty is very difficult to get
out of the seams without damaging the edges
of the plank, and then in re-stopping ragged
ugly seams are the result. Marine glue, on
the other hand, can easily be renewed, and
the edges of the plank remain uninjured.
In using marine glue the following practice
should be observed : In driving the oakum or
cotton thread (the latter is sometimes preferred
as it can be laid in finer strands, a matter of
consideration if the plank is closely laid) into
the seams, the caulking iron should be
dipped in naphtha, and not in oil, as, if the
sides of the plank are touched with the latter
the glue will not adhere ; maphtha on the other
hand dissolves the glue and assists in closely
cementing the seams. The plank should be
quite dry when the glue is applied, or it will
not adhero to the sides of the seams. The
glue should be dissolved in a pot, and applied
by lip ladles used for paying, two being kept
going; or the glue can be melted in the
lip ladles. Great caro must be taken that the
glue is melted slowly, as if it be melted over too
fierce a fire it will be spoilt. A little of the liquid
glue can be usefully mixed with the other as it.
assists in keeping it dissolved. The glue that
runs over the sides of the seams should be
cloaned off with a broad sharp chisel and
remolted. It is not advisable to scrape the
surplus glue off the seams, as it cannot be so
removed without leaving a ragged unsightly
surface. The manufacturer of this marine
glue is Mr. Jeffry, Limehouse. t
A cheaper marine glue, not easily spoilt
in melting, is made by the Waterproof Glue.
Company, Landport, Hants.
Marimer.—A sailor. Two hundred years ago it
was spelt “marymer,” and appears to have
only been applied to men who were perfect as
seamen. Thus, from a muster roll made in
the seventeenth century, we find so many men
set down as “mary ners ” and so many as
“seafaring mem.”
Marks.-The pieces of leather, &c., on a lead-line
(see “Lead.”) In sounding it is usual to
say, “By the mark,” &c., if the depth of
water accords to a mark; if there be no
“mark,” as between three and five fathoms,
the leadsman says, “By the deep four,” &c.
(See “Lead.”)
Marle.—To hitch spun yarn round a rope to
secure its parts, or round a hank of yarn to
secure it. (See “Selvagee.”)
Marline Spike. — An iron implement taper-
ing to a sharp point, used to open the
strands of rope for splicing, to turn eye-
bolts, &c.
Martingale.—A stay spread by a “dolphin
striker’’ to help secure the jibboom, the same
as a bobstay does the bowsprit.
Mast Carlimes or Carlings.--Pieces of timber
fitted fore and aft between the beams to
support the mast.
Master.—The chief officer of a ship.
man.”
(See “Sea-
Master Mariner.—A master of a vessel who has
a master’s certificate of competency. An old-
fashioned term. A “master mariner '' is
popularly known as a “captain '' among
yacht sailors; but a master is only a self-
dubbed captain. Master is the correct term,
and the only recognised one in law. Yacht
masters are not required to hold the Board of
Trade certificate of competency.
Master Male.—A mate certificated as master.
This was originally writton “master's mate,”
and meant a person appointed to assist the
master of a man of war in carrying out his
duties.
Masthead. — The part of a mast above the
hounds. To masthead is to hoist anything
up to the truck, &c.
Dictionary of General Information.
--"
Masthead Light.—The white light which steam
exhibit at the
way. (See “ Side
Vessels are required to
masthead when under
Lights.”)
Masthead Man,—In yacht parlance, the man who
goes aloft to lace a topsail, &c.
Masthead Pendants.--The pendants and runners
which help support the mast.
Mast Hoops.-The hoops to which the luff of
fore and aft sails are seized to keep the sail
to the mast.
Mast Rope-The heel rope by which a topmast
is sent up and lowered; not, however, termed
heel rope.
Match,--In competition as yachts in a race.
Formerly all contests between yachts were
termed matches. Of late years the term race
has been more generally applied to such
encounters.
Mate.—An officer next in command to a master.
Mantl.—A heavy hammer used by shipwrights.
Meaking Iron.—An implement used to extract
old caulking from seams.
Measurement.—Generally written admeasure-
ment. The computation of a vessel’s tonnage
by certain rules. (See “Tonnage.”)
Meet Her.—When a vessel begins to fly to or run
off the wind, to stop her doing so by the helm.
Generally to check a vessel’s tendency to
yaw by aid of the helm.
Meet, To.—To meet a vessel with the helm is after
the helm has been put one way to alter her
course to put it the other way to stop the
course being altered any further. This is also
called “checking with the helm.”
Mess.-The number of officers or men who eat
together. Disorder; entanglement.
Middle Body.—The middle third of a vessel's
length.
Middle Watch.-The watch between midnight
and 4 a.m.
Mildew.—Sails if rolled up when they are damp
frequently mildew, and it is almost impossible
to get the stains out entirely. New sails
suffer most in this respect, as the ‘‘ dressing ”
not being entirely washed or worked out of
them will ferment and cause the mildew.
The stains can be partly removed by scrubbing
the sail with fresh water and soap ; then rub
the sail with soap and sprinkle or rub whiting
over it ; leave the sail to dry and bleach in the
Sun, and repeat the process more than once if
necessary. Both sides of the sail should be
scrubbed. Chloride of lime and other caustics
and acids would remove mildew, but would
almost certainly make the canvas rotten.
If chloride of lime be used only the clear
liquor should be allowed to touch the sail,
and the latter should be well rinsed in fresh
water afterwards (see “ Bleaching ”). If
sails are stowed whilst damp or wet, they
should be hoisted again as soon as possible
for drying or airing.
Mile.—See “Knot.”
Missing Stays.--To fail in an attempt to tack.
or go from one tack to the other.
Mizen Bumpkim.—A short spar that extends from
the taffrail aft for the lower block of the
mizen sheet to be hooked to. East country
yachts have this bumpkin generally crooked
downwards, the reason given being that the
downward crook shows up the sheer of the
yacht. A more practical reason, however,
can be given, and that is, if a bobstay
is used, a more effective purchase is ob-
tained for it.
Mizemmast.—In a ship the after mast. So also
in a yawl or ketch.
Mizen Staysail. —A sail set “flying ” from a
yawl’s mizenmast head to an eye bolt on
deck forward of the mizenmast. Generally
set with a quarterly wind.
Moment.—A weight or force multiplied by the
length of the lever upon which it acts. Sail
moment generally means the area of sails
and the pressure of wind upon them multi-
plied by the distance the centre of effort is
above the centre of lateral resistance, which
represents the length of lever.
Momentwm.—A force represented by a weight
and the velocity with which it is moved.
Moom.—Sailors say there will be a moon at such
and such a date, meaning that there will be a
new moon or full moon, from which the time.
of high water is calculated.
Moor.—To anchor by two cables.
Mooring Rings.—The rings by which the chain
is attached to large stones used for moorings.
Sometimes the bolts that hold these rings
pass clean through the stone, and are secured
underneath, but a more secure plan than this
is that known as a ‘‘Lewis.” In the engrav-
ing a is the ring or shackle, b a bolt with a
2’
Ž-->
%.
º
FIG. 346.
screw nut and linch pin ; c. c movable parts of
the bolt ; d. the key or wedge. When the key
is in its place the cavities, if any, can be
filled with lead or sulphur.
Morning Watch.—The watch from 4 a.m. to
8 a.m.
Mosquito Fleet.—A term applied to small racing
yachts at some ports. In 1894 the American
Corinthian Mosquito Fleet claimed to have








652
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
originated the term, and was corrected as
follows: “The application of that insectism to
yachts or boats was first made by an associa-
tion in Barnegat Bay, U.S.A. It has not yet
been adopted in England, and is one of those
Crazy Americanisms which are permitted
because we love novelty above good taste.”
Dr. Grant, of New York, then correctly
pointed out that the term has been used in
England for many years, and traces the
origin of the word to musca fly and quito
diminutive or little, hence mosquito or little
fly. As a matter of fact, a “mosquito fleet ’’
has been in existence for many years on the
Devonshire coast, the great port for them
being Dartmouth. In the regatta programme
of the Royal Western Yacht Club for 1866,
the third event is
“Prize of 6l. for the Mosquito Fleet of
Pleasure Boats.” There were nine entries,
scheduled as follow8 :
and Mr. R. Martin's Swallow was the winner,
with Mr. Lander's Pantam second, Mr. Hud-
Bon's Butterfly third, and Mr. C. Hamilton's
Boomerang fourth. It is not certain when
the term Mosquito Fleet first came into use in
this country ; but in 1859 “Wanderdecken,”
in an article pudlished in Hunt's Yachting
Magazine said, “The Mosquito Fleet may be
justly esteemed the nursery for our yachts-
men ; the little yacht leads on to the handy
25, the flying 50, and the stately schooner of
200 tons.”
its curved surfaces as distinct from its siding,
which is the thickness between its flat
surfaces.
Moulded Breadth.--The greatest breadth of a
vessel without the plank.
Moulded Depth.-(See “Depth.”)
Moulds. --Curves used by draughtsmen. The
skeleton frames made by shipwrights to cut
the frames by.
Mourning Ribband.—A blue ribbon or stripe run
round a yacht's side, instead of a gold or
white one, to denote mourning. Mourning is
also denoted by flying an ensign or burgee
half-mast.
Mow8ings.--Yarns wound round hooks to pre-
vent them becoming detached.
'Mudian Rig.—A contraction of “Bermudian
rig.”
Muslim.—A slang term , given to the sails :
generally applied to balloon sails.
Muzzler. — A strong wind that blows directly
down: a vessel's intended course. Synonymous
with “nose-ender.”
TN.
Nail-sick (ſlench-built Boat.—This is when the
nail fastenings have become loose in a boat
so that she leaks. Mr. J. C.
recommends that the boat should have the
whole of her ballast taken out ; let her then
Wilcocks
be thoroughly cleaned out and laid on her
sides, with sufficient weight to keep her Ho
until the water begins to come over the gun-
walo. A man should be inside with Home
chalk or white paint, and mark every leak
which becomes visible, first on one Hide, then
on the other ; or the boat can be hauled up
and filled with water and marked outside. If
the boat be decked, any recesses behind bulk-
heads or in the counter must be carefully
examined, and marked in the same manner.
After all the leaks have been discovered, let
her be dried, and every mail examined ; the
lands or joinings of the planks should also be
tried with the blade of a very thin knife.
Any rivets which have worked very loose
must be cut out, and replaced with nails and
rooves of a larger size, and through the chief
parts of the bottom it will probably be neces-
sary to put an additional nail between cyery
two originally driven. Many of the old nails
which are only a little slack should again be
hardened by a few taps on the inside, a boy
holding on against the head of the nail on
the outside. After this work has been thus
gone through, melt a pound of pitch in a
gallon of boiling Stockholm tar, and give her
a good coat inside up to the level of the
inside of the lockers—that is to Bay, as high
as it can be done not to interfere with the
paint. The garboard strake fastenings, and
also those of the hood ends, must also be
examined, and will be certain to require
careful caulking. In tarring the boat inside,
the ledges or lands should be quite filled up
with the boiling stuff.
Narrowing.—The wind is said to “narrow ’’
when it blows at a smaller angle from ahead,
or “ -horten,” which term refer to.
Neoped.—The situation of a vessel that gets
ashore during high water at spring tides,
and as the tides get shorter every day
towards the neap tides she cannot be floated
off till the next spring tides. Generally
termed be-meaped.
Neap T'ides. –The tides which occur between
new and full moon ; spring tides being at or
near the new and full moon.
Near.—Very close to the wind, so that the sails
shake or lift.
Near the Wind.—Close to wind ; generally used
in a sense to convey the meaning that the
vessel is too near the wind, as “She’s near
forward,” meaning that the head sails are
shaking or lifting. (See “Nip.”)
Nettle8.—Small lines or ropes used to support
hammocks when they are slung under the
beams. Also reef points are Hometimes
termed nettles.
New8.—The intimation conveyed sternly to the
watch below to turn up when they do not
obey the first summons, as “Do you hear the
22 >
news there, sleepers :
Niggling.—Sailing close to the wind or too
close.
Nip.—A short bight in a rope, such as the part
that goes round a sheave, &c. To nip a
Dictionary of General Information.
vessel is to sail her very close, or too close,
to the wind.
Nippering.--Joining a rope by cross turns.
The
Nocle.—The weather corner of a gaff sail.
throat.
No Nearer.--An order given to a steersman not
to luff any more, or not to bring the vessel
any closer to wind. When sailing free a course
i8 frequently given to the steersman thus,
W.S.W. and no nearer; or S.E. and no nearer,
which may be varied “Nothing to windward
of W.S.W.,” &c.
No86b09.—A name given to a jib, generally mean-
ing a jib that is too big for the after sail ; or
a jib that bellies out into a bag.
No80-ender.—Dead on end. A wind which blows
directly down a vessel’s intended course, in-
volving a dead beat. (See “ Muzzler.”)
Noose.—A slip knot or running bight in a rope.
Number.—The number of a ship in the registry
kept by the Registrar-General of Shipping ;
hence when a ship “makes her number '' she
hoists the signal flag denoting her number so
that her name may be read. Also the number
of a seaman on a ship’s book. “To lose the
number of the mess '' is to fail to appear
at mess through drowning or sudden death.
O.
Oars 1—An order given to cease rowing and toss
up the oars. (See “Lay in Oars.”)
Off-The opposite to near (which see), as “Off
the wind.” “Nothing off" is an order given
to a helmsman to steer nothing to leeward of
a particular course, or to sail nothing off the
wind, but to keep the vessel full and bye.
(See “No Nearer.”)
Off and Om,_-Beating along a shore by a board
off and then a board on.
Official Log.—The record of a voyage containing
all matters relating to the crew, &c., which
the law requires to be kept.
Offing.—Away from the land, seaward. To make
an offing is to sail away clear of the land.
“Off She Goes ſ”—The shout raised when a
vessel begins to move at launching.
Oilskins.—The waterproof clothing worn by
sailors, &c. The following is said to be a
good dressing for them : Dissolve in one and
a quarter pint rain water 6oz. common yellow
soap over a slow fire; when dissolved, boil and
stir in five pints of boiled linseed oil, in which
8oz. of patent driers have previously been
mixed. Let the mixture simmer for a quarter
of an hour, and then apply it hot, rubbing
well in with a hard brush. Two coats at
first and one every season. If the oilskins
become sticky the paint must be got off by a
mixture of soap and soda and soaking and
hard scrubbing. Liquid ammonia, one part
to twenty of water and soap, all applied
hot, form, it is said, a good mixture for re-
moving the paint. The oilskins must be well
dried before coating them again. (See also
“Waterproofing.”)
Oil on Troubled Waters.--There is no doubt that
the use of oil for smoothing down broken
water or preventing wave crest8 breaking
was known to the ancients. Aristotle Hup-
posed that the thin film of oil prevented
wave formation, by reducing the friction of
the wind on the water surface. There is no
doubt that this friction is the primary cause
of wave formation, and if the whole water
surface were covered with oil, possibly the
wave formation would be reduced ; but this
in no way accounts for the fact that the
spreading of oil on a small portion of a
disturbed water surface will suddenly arrest
the breaking of waves. (See the article
“Waves.”) The fact is, what the oil does is
to prevent the waves rising into cusps and
then falling to pieces. Also, when these cusps
are formed, waves rise to great—or, as it may
be termed, unnatural heights. If the height
of the waves much exceeds a certain proportion
to the length, the wave crest becomes deformed,
and finally breaks. It is the broken water—
the broken water has actual motion—and not
the undulations, which does the harm, and
the oil, we suppose owing to its greater
viscousness, prevents waves rising into the
deformed conditions which bring about their
disruption. It should be clearly understood
that broken water—whether it is a wave
tumbling to pieces in mid-ocean, or on the
shore in the form of surf–has actual motion
relative to the earth, and represents a great
force. In the case of unbroken waves, the
undulations only move ; that is to say, the
wave motion travels, but not the water. An
unbroken wave will pass under a boat and
leave her in exactly the same position relative
to the earth ; but if she be struck by a
broken wave, she may be hurled a consider-
able distance, or, if she resists the force, she
may be greatly damaged.
On account of the importance to navigators
of a knowledge of the use of oil to prevent
heavy seas from breaking on board, the
Hamburg Nautical School offered a prize last
year for the best essay on the subject, and
it was won by Capt. R. Karlowa, of the
Hamburg - American Steamship Company,
whose paper is here condensed.
In the diagrams, the arrows denote the
direction of the wind and sea ; the flowing
lines indicate the spreading oil.
Scudding before a gale (Fig. 347), distribute
oil from the bow by means of oil-bags or
through waste-pipes; it will thus spread aft
and give protection both from quartering and
following seas. If only distributed asterſ,
(Fig. 348) there will be no protection from the
Quartering sea.
Running before a gale, yawing badly and
threatening to broach-to (Figs. 349 and 350),
oil should be distributed from the bow and
from both sides, abaft the beam. In Fig. 349,
for instance, where it is only distributed at the
bow, the weather quarter is left unprotected
654
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Oil on Troubled Waters—continued.
when the ship yaws. In Fig. 350, however,
use oil through forward closet-pipes. Oil-
bags would be tossed back on deck.
Drifting in the trough of a heavy sea
(Figs. 354 and 355), use oil from waste-
pipes forward and bags on weather side, as
in Fig. 355. These answer the purpose very
much better than one bag at weather bow
and one at lee quarter, although this has
been tried with some success (Fig. 354).
Lying-to, to tack or wear (Fig. 356), use oil
from weather bow.
FI.J. 394, I'IG. 355.
Cracking on, with high wind abeam and
heavy sea (Fig. 357), use oil from Waste-pipes,
weather bow.
Towing another vessel in a heavy sea, oil
is of the greatest service, and may prevent
the hawser from breaking. Distribute oil
from the towing vessel, forward and on both
sides. If only used aft, the tow alone gets
the benefit (Fig. 358.)
At anchor in an open roadstead, use oil in
bags from jib-boom, or haul them out ahead
A
FIſ). 35(3.
with oil-bags abaft the beam as well as
forward, the quarter is protected.
FIG. 347. ITI(; . .348. FIG. 34).
Lying-to (Fig. 351), a vessel can be brought
closer to the wind by using one or two oil-
bags forward, to windward. With a high
FIG. 350. I'ſ G. 351.
beam sea, use oil-bags along the weather side
at intervals of 40 or 50 feet.
In a heavy cross-sea (Fig. 352) as in the
centre of a hurricane, or after the centre has
FIG, 352,
FIG. 353.
passed, oil-bags should be hung out at regular
intervals along both sides.
Steaming into a heavy head-sea (Fig. 353),
FIG. 357.
of the vessel by means of an endless rope rove
through a tail-block secured to the anchor-
chain (Fig. 359).
A vessel hove-to for a pilot (Fig. 360),
should distribute oil from the weather side
and lee quarter. The pilot-boat runs up to
windward and lowers a boat, which pulls
down to leeward and around the vessel's stern.
The pilot-boat rulis down to leeward, gets
out oil-bags to windward and on her lee
quarter, and the boat pulls back around her
stern, protected by the oil. The vessels







Dictionary of General Information. 655
drift to leeward and leave an oil-slick to
windward, between the two.
There are many other cases where oil may
be used to advantage—such as lowering and
hoisting boats, riding to a sea-anchor, crossing
rollers or surf on a bar, and from life-boats
and stranded vessels. Thick and heavy oils
are the best. Mineral oils are not so effective
as animal or vegetable oils. Raw petroleum
FIG. 359.
has given favourable results, but not so good
when it is refined. Certain oils, like cocoa-
mut oil and some kinds of fish oil, congeal in
cold weather, and are therefore useless, but
may be mixed with mineral oils to advantage.
The simplest and best method of distributing
oil is by means of canvas bags about one foot
long, filled with oakum and oil, pierced with
holes by means of a coarse sail-needle, and
held by a lanyard. The waste-pipes
forward are also very useful for this
purpose.
J*Position .
- N.
- *
:23->2<S: , SºFS
sº
*: . . . P u o T G o A T §
* * * * * * . . . . . . . . . . ~f * ºf t
2*Pos :::
ITIG. 360.
should be noted that oil has little or no
effect on the broken water due to surf
breaking on a shore ; and the experiments
made on the broken water, on bars of harbour
entrances, show that the condition of the
water cannot be much modified by oil ; the
wave breaking is, in such cases, mostly
governed by the depth of the water. The
deeper the water, the greater the effect of the
-**-4
oil, in modifying the wave breaking. ...a...:
If a bar harbour has to be entered on a
flood tide a boat could discharge oil so that it
would run in aliead of her. On an ebb tide,
the oil could be distributed by some apparatus
in connection with the shore.
“A wave-smoother,” made by The Storm
Anchor Co., Campbell-road, Bow, is shown by
Fig. 361 as intended for life-boats. . It is a
sail made of stout canvas, with a buoyant
wooden yard on top, and
a tube made of strong gal-
vanized steel at bottom,
large enough to contain
from one to two gallons
of oil. This tube acts at
once as a sinker and yard ;
it is a self - distributor
when in the sea, and a safe
and strong receptacle for
oil. The central figure
shows it hanging in
| *) beckets, under the boat's
thwart, whence it may be
thrown overboard, and
will then commence acting
instantly, as storm-anchor
and wave-smoother. Its four guys should
be made fast to about 60 feet of the boat's
painter, and veered ahead. It will not fail
to keep the boat's head to the sea ; and the
oil, rising to the surface, will most effec-
tually calm down the breaking and high-
topping waves before they burst on the boat.
By this system the boat will require little, if
any, personal management, as the anchor and
•H2
- Sºº-ſº =#= ---
ğ=}== ... -->
ZºZº. º º
FIG. 361
the oil acting together will render the terrible
disaster of capsizing very remote.
If used for scudding, it should be tightly
furled and towed astern by the four guys;
but when the seas rise high, boats should be
hove to.
If kept suspended under athwart it can never
be trodden on and burst, as it would be in
any other place by a body of people hurriedly
springing into a boat. When overboard it




(556
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Oil on Troubled Waters - continued
will discharge oil at a uniform rate, and make
one gallon go as far as five applied in any
other way.
Vegetable oil mixed with one half fish oil
and one-tenth weight of tow or oakum, is
recommended.
Another wave smoother is made by the
“Mermaid” Wave Subduer Company, 19,
Castle-street, Liverpool.
Attempts made to still the waves for ships
to have a comparatively smooth passage with
a head sea, have not been very successful. In
1888, trials were made on board the North
German Lloyd liners with rockets containing
oil fired ahead of the ships in the teeth of a
gale. It was said that five rockets—we
presume in instantaneous succession—were
fired 900ft. ahead of the ship dead to wind-
ward in a gale, and that from 1500 sq. ft. to
2000 sq. ft. were covered with the oil liberated
from the rockets. If the oil from these five
rockets covered an area of, say 2000 sq. ft.,
the area would be more or less circular in
form, with a diameter, say, of 50ft. Thus we
assume that the oil spread out 25ft. in all
directions whilst the ship was travelling
900ft. ; we further assume that the speed
of the ship would be, in a gale about 15 knots
an hour, or 1516ft. per minute ; thus the oil,
whilst the ship traversed 900ft., would only
have thirty-six seconds to spread in ; or, in
other words, a rocket would have to be fired
every seven seconds to make an oily path
for a ship travelling at the rate of 15 knots
an hour. It should be noted that the oily
path would be no broader than the ship, and
that keeping in it would be like walking
a chalk line under the influence of very
exuberant spirits. We do not think such a
streak as this would be of much value to a
ship, even if she could keep actually in it,
or just to leeward of it.
To make a continuous oily path for a ship
travelling at the rate of 15 knots an hour, five
rockets would have to be fired overy seven
seconds. Thus, forty-three rockets would
have to be fired per minute, 2580 per hour,
and 61,920 per twenty-four hours. If the
ship travelled at the rate given, she would
be about eight days on a voyage ; and if
rockets were required the whole time, 493,360.
or practically half a million, would have to
be fired. These could not possibly be manu-
factured and fired a distance of 900ft. under
a cost of 6fl. each, or a total cost of 12,384l.
—a sum probably more than double the
average amount of passage money por Voyage.
We do not, therefore, think that the luxury
of having an oily track across the Atlantic is
yet within range of things practicable.
O.M.—(See “B.M.”)
On.-In the direction of, as ‘‘ on the bow,
the beam,” “on the quarter,’’ “
buoy,” &c.
On a Bowline.—Close-hauled. Generally applied
to the square rig when a ship has her
2 2 & 4 OIl
bowlines hauled taut to keep the leeches of
on for that
-------- - - - - -------------------, *.
the sails from shaking when she is close-
hauled.
On ſºnd. --A mast is said to be on end when in
its place ; literally, standing on its end.
Generally applied to topmasts.
On a Winſl.—Close-hauled ; not off the wind.
On an Easy Bowline.--Not quite close-hauled ;
a good full.
Ome, Two, Three, Haul 1–A cry raised by the
foremost hand in hauling on a tackle. All
hands throw their whole weight and strength
on the rope or fall at the word “Haul ''
Open.—Upon sailing round a point or headland
when an object comes into view.
Opposite T'acks.—When of two vessels one is on
the port tack and the other on starboard tack.
Cross tacks.
Ordinary Seaman. — On board a man-of-war
a young sailor not yet efficient in his
duties so as to entitle him to the rank
of A.B.
Owler and Iºwner Turns.—In bending a sail to a
yard, the outer turns haul the sail out taut
along the yard, the inner turns secure the
sail.
Owthawl.—A rope or tackle by which a sail is
hauled out on a spar, as distinct from an
inhaul by which it is hauled inboard.
Outrigger. — A contrivance of some sort for
extending a sail or stay outboard. A name
for a kind of row-boat which has the rowlocks
extended beyond the boat's side.
Over-canvassed.—Too much canvas.
Overfalls. – The rough water caused by the
tide pouring over a rough or precipitous
bottom.
Overhang.—The “knee of the head '’ or the
curved piece of wood fitted to the stem to
form a graceful or ornamental curve. Also
the inclination the stem has outwards from
the end of the water-line forward ; also the
overhanging part of the counter aft. Any-
thing that projects beyond the base.
Overhaul.—To overtake another vessel; to loosen
the parts of a tackle ; to ease up, to slacken,
or free the fall of a tackle ; to slacken or
“lighten up '' a rope.
Overlap.--When any part, spars and sails in-
cluded, of one vessel covers or overlaps amy
part of another vessel. Generally when any-
thing partly covers another thing.
Over-masted.—Masts that are too large or long
for a vessel.
Over-rigged.---Generally more rigging, spars, and
canvas than a vessel will properly bear.
Over-sel.--To cause a capsize.
Overshoot a Mark.--To go up to a mark with
too much way on Ho that the vessel shoots
past it.
Over-reach.--To stand Ho long on a reach that
upon tacking the vessel can fetch much
farther to windward of a mark than was
necessary or desirable.
Dictionary of General Information.
657
*---------...--
Over-stand.—In beating to windward to stand
on a board so long that the yacht is able to
clear a mark farther to windward than
desired; overstood. (See “Over-reach.”)
Overtake.—To approach a vessel that is sailing
ahead. The “rule of the road'' is that an
overtaking vessel must keep clear of the
Vessel she overtakes ; the vessel so overtaken
must, however, keep her course steadily. In
competitive yacht sailing this rule is some-
what different, as it allows the vessel that is
overtaken to alter her course to windward to
prevent the other passing her to windward ;
She must not, however, alter her course to
leeward to prevent the overtaking vessel
passing.
P.
Paint.—(See “Black Paint.”)
Painter.—A rope spliced to a ring bolt in the bow
of a boat to make fast by. “To let go the
painter’’ is figuratively to depart.
Palm.—The guard and thimble used by sail
makers. Also the fluke of an anchor.
Paltry.—A wind is said to be paltry that is light
and intermittent, or varying a great deal in
direction; baffling.
P0/rbwckle.—To roll a spar, cask, &c., by placing
it in the bight of a rope, one end of which is
fast, the other hauled upon.
Parcel.—To cover a rope with strips of canvas
painted or otherwise. The canvas is wound
round the rope and stitched or “ served ’’
with spun yarn.
Parrel or Parral.-Ropes or irons used to secure
yards at the slings to the mast ; rope parrels
are commonly rove through balls of wood, so
that they hoist easily on the mast. Parrels
are used on the jaws of a gaff. An eye is
usually spliced in either end of a parrel.
Part.—To break, to burst asunder, as the ‘‘fore
stay parted about half way up to the collar.”
Partners.—A strong frame of timber fixed be-
tween the deck beams to receive and support
the mast.
Pass.--To reeve, as pass , a lacing or earing.
Also to hand a thing one from another.
Passage.—A voyage. To carry a person from one
place to another is to give a passage.
Passengers.—A vessel of any description cannot,
according to statute, have on board more
than twelve passengers without taking out
a licence. However, the opinion of the judges
was expressed on the point in the Court of
Queen's Bench in April, 1889. It appears
that the owners of the steam tug Era were
summoned before the Ipswich magistrates for
carrying a party of friends, twenty-one in
number, on a pleasure excursion on the river
Orwell, she not having a passenger certificate
in accordance with the 318th section of the
Merchant Shipping Act, 1854. It was con-
tended that the steamer was not plying within
the meaning of the statute, and the magistrates
declined to convict. The Board of Trade
then took the case to the Court of Queen's
Bench. The court without hesitation decided
that the magistrates were right not to con-
vict, and the Lord Chief Justice, in the
course of his judgment, said: “If the owner
of a yacht took a party up and down a river
for amusement, surely it is too clear for
argument that such a case would not be
within the Act. The case was not really
within the meaning of the Act, and it would
be straining the meaning of the Act to Say
that the steamer was in any reasonable sense
plying.” Mr. Justice Hawkins concurred,
and stated it was not shown that the Era,
was plying at the time she took the party for
an excursion on the Orwell. In spite of this
judgment the Board of Trade in 1892 sanc-
tioned a vexatious prosecution of the owner
of the yacht Myrtle. But if the statute does
not apply to an ordinary steamship like the
Era when she is not plying, it cannot apply
to a yacht. The owner of the yacht was con-
victed, and was too late with his appeal.
Paul or Pawl.—An iron bar used to prevent the
back recoil of the barrel of a windlass, &c.
Pawl Bitt.—A long timber from the deck to the
keelson forming one of the bowsprit bitts.
Pay.—To run hot pitch and tar, or marine glue,
&c., into seams after they are caulked.
Paying off Pennant.—A long streamer flown
when a ship is being paid out of commission.
Pay Off-When a vessel's head goes off to lee-
ward by virtue of the head sails being put
aback or the helm being put up.
Pay Out.—To veer or slack out chain or rope.
Peak.-The upper after corner of gaff sails, gaff
topsails, lugsails, &c. A sail is said to have
a great deal of peak when the gaff or yard
makes a small angle with a vertical. A low
peak means a flat-headed sail.
Peak Downhawl.—A rope rove through a single
block at the gaff end to haul upon when
lowering the mainsail.
Peak Halyards.--The halyards by which the
peak of a sail is hoisted.
Peak Purchase.—A tackle attached to one end of
the peak halyards.
Pendant. A stout rope to which tackles are
attached.
Pennant or Pendant.—A long white streamer with
a St. George's cross at the hoist, used only by
ships of the Royal Navy. It is said to owe
its origin to the following incident : a Dutch
Admiral hoisted a broom at his masthead as a
symbol that he would sweep the English from
the sea ; the English Admiral retorted by
hoisting a long streamer to denote that he
would whip the Dutch off the sea ; the
English Admiral more nearly succeeded in
his object than the Dutchman did. A Com-
modore has a broad pennant or swallow tail
flag. (See “Burgee,” “Hoisting Pennant,”
and “Irish Pennants,” “Paying off Pen-
nant.”)
Peter.—(See “Blue Peter.”)
Peter Boat.—A small fishing boat, sharp at both
U U
658
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
ends, common at the mouth of the Thames
and Medway.
Petticoat Thousers.--—An ancient garment worn
by sailors, now only used by fishermen ; a
kind of kilt.
Pig.—A heavy mass of iron or lead.
Pile Driving.—Pitching heavily and frequently
in a short steep sea.
Pilot.—A person who takes charge of a ship in
narrow or dangerous channels, and, who from
his local knowledge of the same cam, or ought
to avoid the dangers of stranding.
Pintles.—The metal hooks by which rudders are
attached to the gudgeons.
Pipe.—To summon men to duty by a whistle
from the boatswain's call.
Pipe wp.—The wind is said to pipe up when it
increases in strength suddenly.
Pitching.—The plunging motion of a vessel when
she dives by the head ; the opposite motion
to 'scending, which is rising by the head and
sinking by the stern.
Plamking.—The outside skin of a vessel; plank laid
on the frames or beams of a vessel whether
inside or outside.
Plank. Sheer.—The outside plank at the deck
edge which covers in the timber heads, and
shows the sheer of the vessel. The same as
covering board.
Platform.—The floor of a cabin. (See “Deck.”)
Ply to Windward. — Plying to windward is
synonymous with beating to windward.
Point the yards.--To brace them up sharp when
at anchor, so that they shall not feel the full
force of the wind.
Point, to.—A vessel is said to point well when she
lies very close to the wind. A term more
used in America than in this country. Out
point, to point higher, &c.
Points.-(See “Reef Points.”)
Pole.—The part of a topmast about the shoulders.
Pole Mast—A long mast without a topmast, but
with a long “pole '’ or piece above the hounds.
Poop.--The raised part of a vessel at her extreme
after end. To be pooped is when running
before the wind a sea breaks in over the stern.
Poor Johm.—Dried hake, a coarse fish caught on
the west coast.
Port.—The left hand side, the opposite to star-
board. Formerly also termed larboard; but
Falconer says, in his dictionary (1789), that
larboard should never be used in conning
the helm, owing to the possibility of its being
mistaken for starboard. To port the helm
is to put the tiller to port so that the vessel’s
head goes to starboard. The term “port ’’ is
of uncertain origin, but it occurs in Arthur
Pitt's Voyage, 1580. It was authoritatively
adopted in the Royal Navy at the beginning
of the present century.
Portable Dinghies.—Numerous plans have been
suggested for the construction of portable
dinghies for small yachts, the best known
perhaps being one adopted by Biffen, the well-
known boat builder, in 1858. The boat was
divided longitudinally into halves, each half
being a complete boat, the longitudinal bulk
heads coming as high as the thwarts; three iron
clamps were fitted to one half of the keel, into
which the other half of the keel was fitted. The
top part of the bulkheads were kept together
by thumb-screws inserted above the water
line. The boat was 9ft. long, and 4ft. broad;
in shape she did not differ from an ordinary
dinghy when put together. She was used in
a 6 tonner, and when not in use one half was
stowed on either side of the cabin below. It
was said that this boat could be put together
in half a minute. In 1862 Biffen built a
similar boat which was not so well recom-
mended, on account of the multiplicity of
fastenings. The obvious objection to such
contrivancos is of course the trouble of putting
the parts together when the boat has to be used.
(See “Berthon's Collapsible Boats '' and
“Stowing a Punt.”)
Ports and Portholes.—Square holes in the side of
a ship for the guns, &c.
Port Sills.-The bottom framing of a port hole to
which the lower half-port or shutter is hinged,
also the frame to which the upper half-port is
attached.
Pram, or Praam.—A lighter with a shovel bow,
used in Holland and the Baltic.
Preserving a Boat.—All small boats, if possible,
should be hauled out of water or beached
when not in use. Warnish preserves the wood
from water absorption better than paint.
Whenever the warnish becomes worn, the boat
should be re-coated.
Press of Sail.--All the sail a vessel dare carry.
Preventers.—Additional ropes, stays, tackles, &c.,
used to prevent spars being carried away if
their proper stays give out, as preventer
backstays for the topmast (see page 56),
preventer bobstay, &c. A preventer is also
any rope or lashing used to prevent some-
thing giving way.
Preventive Mam.—An old fashioned name for a
coastguard man, whose duty it is to prevent
or detect the landing of smuggled goods. A
“Double Dutch '' story, current at Ryde,
Isle of Wight, to illustrate the confused way
of speaking of a native collierman, Tony Ford,
was as follows: “I jumped out of window and
put my hand out of bed to see if it was light,
when I went down to the ketch to have some
'breakfast for broth, and when I got on board
I found she was gone. I said, ‘I say, Mr.
Spyman, lend me your Preventive Glass to
look at that ship just gone out of sight round
the point,’ and he told me he had knocked
about for six weeks in the month of March in
a ship after she sunk in the Bay of Biscuits.”
Privateer's Flag.—The Union Jack with a red
border.
Protest.—A declaration that a yacht has not
conformed to sailing rules.
Puddening.—A sort of fender made of old rope,
for a boat's stom, &c.
Dictionary of General Information.
659
Puff—A gust of wind. A free puff is when it
enables a vessel to luff; a foul puff when it
breaks her off.
Puncheons.—A part of the frame work of a deck-
house. It is a kind of pilaster morticed into
the coaming, and is the principal support of
the deck-house roof. The panelled part of
the framework is rabetted into the puncheons.
Pwnt.— A small boat or dinghy.
a Punt.”)
Pwnt Building.—The following are directions
for building a fishing punt as shown by Fig.
362 :—Take for the sides two 1 in. planks
(See “Stowing
º-º-º-
**: |
plank, set up on end, and fastened to the
inside of the boat. A common carpenter can
make such a boat in about two days, and, if
planed and painted, it looks well. The ends
ought to incline outwards about 3in. to the
foot. No. 1 shows the skiff completed, but
with a stern piece adapted for steering with
an oar; No. 5 is a diagram of the stern piece ;
No. 4 the bow piece ; No. 2 the middle piece,
and No. 3 the rowlock. By putting in two
pieces in the middle the required distance
apart, and perforating the cross planking
between them, a well would be readily formed.
Mr. A. V. FitzHerbert thus describes his
plan of building a punt (Fig. 363) : For the
stern.—Take a piece of red pine 3in. by 4in.,
and 2.ft. long. Groove it out to receive the
side boards, which should be white pine 1in.
Each side of boat made of 1ſt. wide plank
next bottom, and a 6in. plank above it,
making total depth when planed down about
17in., or a trifle less. The centreboard of
2in. plank, 1 ft. wide, should be cut 44 in. wide
on top, and 40%in. along the bottom. The
stern, also of 2im. plank, must be 30in. at top,
and 24in. at bottom, by 17in. high, or half
an inch higher. Fix the centreboard firmly
upright on a bench, then nail the lower side
planks on to it, at 6ft. 6in. from the stern.
Next put in the stem, first of all fitting it to
take the curve of the planks, and give it a
slight slope aft. The planks had better be
fastened with screws to it. Next fit in the
stem, with a fair slope forward. The sides
can be brought close together to meet the
stem by tying a rope round them. Care
must be taken to keep stem in line with
centre of stern and centreboard. Having
fastened in stem, centre, and stern boards,
Secăzorz of Boaz
mºth ozzórzggers.
4. FIG. 362. 5.
16in. wide and 14ft. long ; for the ends
use 2in. plank. Cut the stern-piece 30in.
long at bottom, and 40in. at
top ; cut the bow piece 12in,
long at bottom, and 20in.
&ecćzoſt of Stem,
with Zach Zºoarzz's /ē/zz.
at top ; then cut a centre-
piece 12in. wide, 40in. long
at bottom, and 50in. long
at top ; put these pieces in
position, and securely nail
the sides to them ; this call
be readily done by bringing
the planks into place by
means of a rope, twisted
by a short lever. After the
sides are thus secured true
up the bottom edges, and
plank crosswise with three-
quarter inch plank one-
eighth of an inch apart ;
caulk these seams with
oakum or cotton, and pitch
the whole bottom, and 2in.
or 3in. up the sides. A keel
lin., 2in., or 3in. deep can
them be nailed on, depending
on the depth of the water
where the boat is to be used.
For seats mail a plank across each end, and one
for the rower over the middle piece ; two row-
locks, about 6in. above the sides of the boat,
complete the job. These can be made of
FIG. 363.
turm the boat upside down, and place the
sides, sterm, and centreboards level, to receive
the bottom, which must be now laid on
across the boat, of inch boards nailed on like






U U 2
66()
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Punt Bwildling—continued.
the top of a box, fitting well together at
their inside edges, but slightly open at the
outside to admit of caulking. After putting
on the bottom, turn the boat right-side up,
fit in ribs, of strips of boards, 1jn. by 2in,
and 17in. long. Nail them upright to the
sides, with one end resting on the bottom of
the boat, about 2ft. apart ; then put on the
top board, and the hull is made. Along
the bottom put two parallel keels about
3in. deep by 1in. to 13 in., and 15in. apart.
Their use is, first, to keep the bottom boards
together ; and secondly, to act as runners
when dragging the boat from one place to
another.
Put one wide seat in the stern, a seat to
lift in and out 6ft. from the bow, and a
moveable seat for rowing or sliding, com-
mencing at 5ft. 4 in. from Stern, and moveable
for one yard forward; this can be done by
fastening a piece of 3in. pine to each side
level with top of lower plank, and 1 in. above
this, and parallel with it, another lighter
piece to keep the seat down.
There are two sets of outriggers, the after
set for rowing when alone, the forward set
for use when there are two in the boat. The
after outrigger is made of 3in. by 4%in. red
pine, grooved to a depth of 2in, to let in the
side of the boat to which it is screwed ; it is
20in. Iong, and has three holes for the row-
locks, the centre one 4ft. 10in. from the stern
of boat.
The forward outrigger is 7in. by 3in., red
pine, also grooved, but has an iron bracket
underneath to support it, and two holes for
the rowlock, one further from the centre of
boat than the other ; the centre of outrigger
is 7ft. 7in. from the stern.
Pwrehouse.—A tackle ; any contrivance for in-
creasing mechanical power.
Put About.—To tack.
Put In...—To call at a port or harbour.
Put Off.--To leave, as to leave a ship’s side or
the shore. -
Pykør.—An ancient English boat used for fishing.
Q.
Quarter Deck—The deck abaft the main mast
where the crew are never seen unless duty
calls them there.
Qwarter Fast.—A warp or rope made fast to the
quarter ; a quarter spring.
Quarter Master.—An officer who sees that the
orders of the mate or master are properly
executed, &c.
Quarter Tºmbers.--Large pieces of timber secured
to the transom frame, to help form the
counter.
Quarter Watch.-When the two watches are sub-
divided into four watches, so that only one
quarter of the crew is on deck at one time;
sometimes observed in light weather,
Quarter Wind—The wind that blows on the
quarter, or four or more points abaft the
beam, but not dead aft. (See “Compass.”)
Quarters.--That part of a yacht or ship nearest
the stern.
F.
Robbet or Rebate.—An angular channel or groove
cut in the keel, stem, or sternpost, &c., to
receive the edges or ends of the plank.
Race.—A competition between yachts. A strong
current or tide running over a pit-like bottom
producing overfalls. (See “Overfalls.”)
Racing Flags.-The size of racing flags will be
found under the head of “Flags.”
Racking.—A rope or seizing used to lash the
parts of a tackle together, by taking Beveral
turns, so as to keep them from running
through the blocks, whilst the fall is cast off
for some purpose, or whilst one hand belays
the fall made fast to some fixture by one end
and then passed round and round a rope to
hold the latter by.
Raffee.—The square topsail set flying on the fore-
topmast of schooners, and formerly often set
on cutters and ketches above the squaresail.
Sometimes this topsail is triangular in shape,
like a scraper.
Rail.—The timber fitted on to the heads of the
bulwark stanchions. Called also “top rail.”
Raising Iron.—A sort of chisel for removing the
paying and caulking from Seams.
Raising Tacks and Sheets.--To lift the clews of
lower square sails before tacking or wearing.
Rake.—To lean forward or aft from the vertical,
as raking masts, raking sternposts, raking
stem, &c.
Rakish.-A vessel that has a look of Speed
about her, probably originating from the fast
schooners of former days that had raking
masts.
Ramp.–In close-hauled sailing, to sail a vessel
along a heavy full without easing up the sheets.
Ramping Full. — Every sail bellying, full of
wind—barely close-hauled.
Range.—Scope. To range is to arrange: to range
the cable, to place a lot on deck in fakes ready
for veering out.—To give a range of cable is
to veer out enough in letting go the anchor to
bring the vessel up without causing much
strain to come on the bitts.--To sail near to,
as to range up to windward, to range up along-
side, to range along the coast, &c.
Rap Full.—The same as ramping full.
Rate of a Chronometer.—The daily loss or gain of
a chronometer in relation to mean time.
Ratlines or Ratling.—The small lines which cross
the shrouds horizontally, and form the rungs
of a ladder. Not generally used in yachts of
40 tons and under.
Rattle Down.—To fix ratlines to the shrouds.
Dictionary of General Information.
661
Reaching. — Sailing by or along the wind. A
“reach '' is the distance Bailed between tacks,
and means the same as board. To “reach '’
another vessel is to pass her. In reaching a
Schooner of 150 tons, Bay, will pass a cutter
of 100 tons; that is, will “fore-reach ** her,
but the cutter holding a better wind will
generally keep the weather gauge. A “reach '' .
is a distance a yacht can sail from point to
|
point without tacking, and may be sailed with
sheets eased up.
Broad reach is with the
boom well off the quarter. A reach is also the
distance from bend to bend in a river or channel.
Sailors mostly pronounce the word “retch-
ing.” (See “Head Reach,” and
Reach.”) -
“Fore
sprit. The topmasts of some yachts are
made with one reef in them. In such cases a
thimble eye is seized to the backstays for the
blocks of the falls to be hooked to when the
reef is taken in. The depth of such a reef is
usually about one-sixth the length of topmast
from first fid to sheave hole. When the top-
mast is lowered to second fid it is called
reefing, not housing, housing only applying to
lowering below the fids.
Reef J3000,—A strip of canvas sewn across the
sail in which the eyelet holes are worked to
receive the reef points. Not always met with
in yacht sails.
Reef Crüngles.—The large cringles in the leeches
Reddy About !—The order given to prepare for
tacking.
Reddy, All.
Everybody make ready.
Bear Commodore.—The third flag officer of a yacht Reef Pendant (called also ‘‘ reef earing ”).—É
club, who has no duties in the presence of
the Commodore or Vice-Commodore. He has
two white balls in the upper corner of his
pennant.
See “After Guard.”
Recognised Yacht Club.-A term very frequently
used in yacht rules; formerly it was a general
condition that “a member of a Royal yacht
club shall be on board ” each yacht competing
in a match, who is responsible for the due
observance of the sailing rules. Often the
rule required that a member of the particular
club under whose auspices the match was
being sailed should be on board. All clubs,
however, have not the right to be styled
“royal,” and the word “recognised '' yacht
club became introduced as an equivalent for
“royal.” Since the establishment of the
Yacht Racing Association the term “recog-
nised '' is alone contained in the rule. No one
Seems to have known exactly what “recog-
nised '' meant ; strictly it should mean a club
with an Admiralty warrant, but any “yacht
club '' is considered “recognised '' which is
organised by yacht owners for the promotion
of properly conducted yacht matches, and
which do not enrol mechanics or labourers
as members. The Admiralty will not now
grant warrants to yacht clubs which cannot
show a gross yacht tonnage of 2000 tons;
but this is an imperfect test, as one yacht
might be of that tonnage. (See “Admiralty
Warrant,” “Royal Yacht Club,” “Burgee,”
and “Ensign.”)
In 1895 the Y.R.A. having been appealed
to for information as to what is a recognised
yacht club, passed the following rule: “A
yacht club shall not be considered a recog-
mised yacht club within the meaning of the
rule unless it shall have been proposed and
accepted as such by the Council of the Yacht
Racing Association, who shall have the power
of cancelling such recognition should they
deem it expedient so to do.”
Reef.--To shorten sail by reefing. Also to
shorten a spar, as to take a reef in the bow-
Rear Guard.
of sails through which the reef pendants are
rove and tacks or sheets hooked.
- Reef Eoring.—See “Reef Pendant.”
Reef Knot.—See Fig. 40, page 85.
short and strong rope (with a Matthew Walker
knot in one end). One end of the pendant is
passed up through a hole in the cleat on one
side of the boom and stopped by the knot in
the end. The other end is then passed
through the reef cringle in the sail and down
through the sheave hole on the other side of
the boom. (See pages 27 and 85.) Reef
pendants are rove on opposite sides.
Reef Points.—Short pieces of rope attached to
sails to secure the folds rolled up when reefing.
Reef Tackle.—The tackle hooked to the reef
pendants.
Register.—A certificate of a vessel’s register
granted by the Registrar-General of Shipping.
It is not a document of title.
Registry.—A register of all British ships kept by
the Registrar-General of Shipping. When a
ship is registered, the following documents
must be produced : (1) Certificate of Custom
House measuring officer. (2) Certificate of
Board of Trade Surveyor ; in the case of
yachts this certificate is not required. (3)
Builder’s certificate, or if the builder’s certifi-
cate cannot be obtained, a document setting
forth all that is known of the vessel. (4) Decla-
ration of ownership. All vessels, yachts, or
otherwise of 15 tons N.M. and over must be
registered. Yachts, however, of less than 15
tons can be registered, and it is advisable to
have them so registered for the sake of hold-
ing the certificate of register, obtaining the
Admiralty warrant, and being able to prove
nationality when visiting foreign parts. The
name of a vessel once registered cannot be
altered except with the sanction of the Board
of Trade. A certificate of registry is a mere
copy of the register kept at the Custom
House, and of itself is not a document
of title. A quantity of useful information
on the registry of ships will be found in a
little book by Mr. Miles Stapylton, published
by Oliver, St. Dunstan’s Hill, E.C., and called
the “Imperial Guide to Registry of British
Shipping.” (See also “Yachts” at the end
of the Appendix.)
662
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Render.--To slacken or ease up. A rope is
said to render when it slackens up or slips
from a belaying pin or cavel.
Reeve.--To put a rope through a hole of any
kind.
Resistance. — According to Beaufoy, a plane
moved normally at a rate of 10ft. per second
meets with a resistance of 112.5lb. per square
foot. The resistance varies as the square of
the velocity. Generally understood to mean
the resistance a vessel meets with from the
triction of the water on her copper and the
waves she makes.
Water.”)
Ribbands.-Long pieces of plank or timber,
usually three-sided,
harpings, secured to the frames of a vessel
in a fore-and-aft direction, when she is build-
ing, and representing the dividing lines or
geodetic lines.
Ribs. – The frames or timbers of a ship or
boat.
Ride.—To rest at anchor, or to be held by an
anchor.
Ridge Ropes.—The ropes rove through the eyes
of metal stanchions fitted in the top rail.
Riding Down.—When men go aloft and hang on
the halyards and assist by their weight in
hoisting sails.
Riding Light.—The white globular lantern hung
On the forestay of vessels when riding at
anchor.
Rig.—The arrangement of a vessel’s spars,
rigging, and sails, as schooner rig, cutter rig,
lugger rig, &c. To rig is to fit the spars with
rigging, &c. To rig out is to fit out.
Right Away.—In the direction of. An Ameri-
can term for quickly out of land, or move
ahead.
Right Hand Rope.—Rope laid up or twisted with
the sun.
Right, to.—To bring a vessel back to the upright
position after she has been heeled.
Ring Bolt.—A bolt with an eye and a ring through
the eye.
Ring Tail.-The studding sail of a gaff sail.
Rings.-Rooves for bolt or mail clinching.
Rising Floor.—Distinct from flat floored, or flat
bottomed ; Sharp bottomed. (See “Dead
Rise.”)
Risings.-Stringers fitted inside small boats to
strengthen them and support the thwarts.
Roach.--The curved part of the foot of a sail;
formerly the allowance made for the beauty
and bellying of a sail.”
Roadstead.—An open anchorage.
Roaring Calm.—An equatorial calm.
Roarimg Forties.—This term is sometimes applied
(but erroneously) to the calms which prevail
in the region lat. 40° N. long. 40° W. The
term, however, originated with the tearing
winds which blow in the South Atlantic
between lat. 30° and 50° S.
(See “Salt and Fresh
and sometimes called
Rockered ICeel.—A keel whose ends curve upwards
thus S-Z. (See “Cambered.”)
Rogue's Yarm.—The coloured worsted yarns laid
in the strands of Government rope for identi-
fication. Each dockyard has a different
colour.
Rolling.—The transverse motions of a ship when
amongst waves.
Rolling Hitch.-A way of fastening a rope to a
spar, &c. (See “Strop.”)
Room and Space.—The distance from the centre
of one frame to the centre of another.
Roove.—(See “Ruff.”)
Rope.—Ropes are of three kinds; three-strand,
four-strand, and cable-laid. A number of
yarns twisted together forms a strand.
Three-strand rope (see Fig. 364) is laid right-
handed, or with the sun (sometimes termed
hawser-laid). Four-strand rope (see Fig. 365)
is also laid with the sun (sometimes termed
strand-laid). Four-strand rope is usually
F'ſ G, 3(36.
FIG. 364, FI (). 365,
used for sheets and ghrouds, pennants, and
generally for standing rigging. All rope
comes under the general term of cordage.
Cable-laid rope (see Fig. 366) consists of three
“three-strand ’’ right-hand laid ropes laid
up together into one ; these ropes are laid
left-handed against the sun. Right-hand laid
rope must be coiled with the sun ; cable-laid
rope is coiled against the sun.
Rough-tree Rail.—The top rail fitted to the
stanchions.
Round Im.—To haul in on a rope.
Round To.—To bring by the wind. To come up
head to wind. A vessel is said to “go round ’’
when she goes about.
Rownd. Turn.—To pass a rope twice round
a pin or cleat so as to make a complete
circle.
Rove.—The condition of a rope that has been
passed through a sheave hole or through any
aperture.
Rowlocks.-The fittings on the gunwale to receive
the tholes or crutches for the oars.
Royal. — The sail next above the topgallant
sail.
Royal Stamdard.—The flag of the Sovereign and
Royal family. It is always flown at the main.
When the Sovereign is on board, the standard
is flown at the main, and the Admiralty flag

Dictionary of General Information. 663
----—-- - - - - -
(a red ground with fouled anchor) at the fore,
and Union Jack at the mizen.
Royal Yacht Club.-A club that has obtained
permission from the Home Office to use
the prefix “royal.” An Admiralty warrant
obtained from the Admiralty does not confer
the title ; but a royal yacht club that has not
also the Admiralty warrant can only fly the
red ensign, and this can have no device. A
club with an Admiralty warrant takes
precedence of a club which has only a Royal
warrant. (See “Recognised Club.”)
Rudder Board, A.—Capt. Lowther, R.N., intro-
duced the plan shown by Fig. 367 for increasing
the area of rudders of shallow boats. Mr. W.
Baden Powell uses a form of this rudder for the
Nautilus canoes. This idea is not a new one.
In 1780 Capt. Schank proposed a similar con-
trivance, and the plan is illustrated in Chan-
FIG. 367.
nock’s “History of Marine Architecture,”
vol. iii., p. 409.
Rudder Trwmk.—The trunk fitted in the counter
to receive the rudder post into which the tiller
is fitted.
Ruff or Roove.—A small ring or square plate
placed over copper nails before clinching in
boat building.
Rwles of the Road.—Certain rules framed under
the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act.
On Sept. 1, 1880, the following Steering and
Sailing Rules (by Order in Council, held at
Osborne, Aug. 14, 1879), came into force :
Art. 14. When two sailing ships are ap-
proaching one another so as to involve risk of
collision, one of them shall keep out of the
way of the other as follows, viz.:-
(a.) A ship which is running free shall keep
out of the way of a ship which is
close-hauled.
(b.) A ship which is close-hauled on the
port tack shall keep out of the way
of a ship which is close-hauled on the
starboard tack.
(c.) When both are running free with the
wind on different sides, the ship which
has the wind on the port side shall
keep out of the way of the other.
(d.) When both are running free with the
wind on the same side, the ship which
is to windward shall keep out of the
way of the ship which is to leeward.
(e.) A ship which has the wind aft shall
keep out of the way of the other ship.
Art. 15. If two ships under steam are
meeting end on, or nearly end on, so as to
involve risk of collision, each shall alter her
course to starboard, so that each may pass on
the port side of the other.
This Article only applies to cases where
ships are meeting end on, or nearly end
on, in such a manner as to involve risk
of collision, and does not apply to two
ships which must, if both keep on their
respective courses, pass clear of each
other.
The only cases to which it does apply
are, when each of the two ships is end
on, or nearly end on, to the other ; in
other words, the cases in which, by day,
each ship sees the masts of the other in
a line, or nearly in a line, with her own ;
and by night, to cases in which each
ship is in such a position as to see
both the side lights of the other.
It does not apply by day to cases in
which a ship sees another ahead crossing
her own course ; or by might, to cases
where the red light of one ship is opposed
to the red light of the other, or where
the green light of one ship is opposed
to the green light of the other, or where
a red light without a green light, or a
green light without a red light, is seen
ahead, or where both green and red lights
are seen anywhere but ahead.
Art. 16. If two ships under steam are
crossing so as to involve risk of collision,
the ship which has the other on her own star-
board side shall keep out of the way of the
other.
Art. 17. If two ships, one of which is a
sailing ship and the other a steamship, are
proceeding in such directions as to involve
risk of collision, the steamship shall keep out
of the way of the sailing ship.
Art. 18. Every steamship, when approach-
ing another ship so as to involve risk of
collision, shall slacken her speed or stop and
reverse if necessary.
Art. 19. In taking any course authorised
or required by these regulations, a steamship
underway may indicate that course to any
other ship which she has in sight by the fol-
lowing signals on her steam whistle, viz.:-
One short blast to mean “I am directing
my course to starboard.”
Two short blasts to mean “I am directing
my course to port.”

664
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Three short blasts to mean “I am going
full speed astern.”
The use of these signals is optional; but if
they are used, the course of the ship must
be in accordance with the signal made.
Art. 20. Notwithstanding anything con-
tained in a preceding Article, every ship,
Whether a Bailing Bhip or a steamship, over-
taking any other shall keep out of the way of
the overtaken ship.
Art. 21. In narrow channels every steamship
shall, when it is safe and practicable, keep to
that side of the fairway or mid-channel which
lies on the starboard side of such ship.
Art. 22. Where by the above rules one or
two ships is to keep out of the way, the other
shall keep her course.
Art. 23. In obeying and construing these
rules due regard shall be had to all dangers
of navigation ; and to any special circum-
stances which may render a departure from
the above rules necessary in order to avoid
immediate danger.
A SHIP, UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCEs, NOT TO
NEGLECT PROPER PRECAUTIONS.
Art. 24. Nothing in these rules shall exone-
rate a ship, or the owner or master, or crew
thereof, from the consequences of any neglect
i
to carry lights or signals, or of any neglect
to keep a proper look-out, or of the neglect c, , , , , , , £ 4 ſt---- " -.1. 2 2 3
of any precaution which may be required by Safety Cleats.-See “Cruickshank’s Cleats.
the ordinary practice of seamen, or by the
special circumstances of the case.
RESERVATION OF RULES FOR HARBOURS AND
INLAND NAVIGATION.
Art. 25. Nothing in these rules shall inter-
fere with the operation of a special rule,
duly made by local authority, relative to the
navigation of any harbour,
river, or inland navigation.
Rwn.—The under part of a vessel
aft defined by the buttock º
lines and water lines.
*- --_
Rwnmers.—A rope passed through a single block
on a pendant with a purchase at one end.
Also seamen who sail by the run.
Rwnming Bowsprit.—A bowsprit that is fitted to
run in and out and “reef’’ like a cutter’s.
Since 1856 most schooners have their bow-
sprits fitted in this way.
Rwmming by the Lee.—To run with the boom on
one quarter when the wind is blowing on the
other quarter. A dangerous proceeding.
(See “By the Lee.”)
Rumming Off her Helm.—Said of a vessel if,
when sailing, her stern flies up to windward
(her head apparently going off to leeward)
and giving her lee helm does not readily bring
her to. -
Rwnning Rigging.—The parts of the rigging
made to overhaul or run through blocks, as
distinct from that set up by lanyards,
shackles, &c.
S.
Saddle.—A projection on a spar to support
another spar, as the saddle on the mast for
the jaws of the boom to rest upon.
Sagging.—Bending or curved downwards ; the
opposite of hogging. Sagging to leeward is
to make a great deal of leeway.
Sail.—Often applied to a ship, or an assemblage
of ships, as “We saw ten sail off Ushant.”
(See “Sails.”)
Sail Coats.-Covers for sails, usually made of
N
N \
"------- }
.*
*———º Af *~-t-...-- !---. º
Rwn.—To sail before the wind.
To come down by the run is
to lower or overhaul without
warning, or suddenly. To run
away with a rope is to take
hold of a fall and haul on it
by running along the deck.
Among sailors an agreement
to work a single passage for
so much money, independent
of the time occupied.
Rwn Down.—To foul a vessel or
other object wrongfully or by accident.
Rwn Fowl Of..—To get into collision with a vessel
or other object.
Rwn. Out.--To veer out a warp or cable.
Rwn. Over.--The same as run down. Generally
denoting carelessness in bringing about a
collision.
º s - T-7–– . -
4. gº as
P.
ſº tº - A. 4. g - w
. . . . * * *
-l —t-a-
w- Tºº--------- —-
T-I-T-, --, ..
C. T-r---, -, , ,
FIG, 368.
painted canvas. A yacht master named
Carey introduced the following plan, but it
has not been adopted: The sail covers fit tight,
round the blocks, and by the parts overlapping
one another at a a (Fig. 368) it is quite im-
possible that any wet should ever touch the
Sail ; b shows the opening for the throat
halyard block overlapped and laced. (See
“Waterproofing.”)

Dictionary of General Information. 665
Sail Her Along.—In close-hauled sailing, an
order given to the helmsman when he is keep-
ing the vessel too close to wind, meaning
that he is to keep her a little off; sail her
fuller or harder or “give her the whole
Weight of it,” meaning the wind, and keep
her passing through the water as fast as
possible.
Sail Her.—When lying to if way has to be got
on again, the order is to “Sail her;” or,
“Let the head sheets draw and sail her ”
Also “Sail her ” is a general admonition
to a helmsman to be very careful in his
Steering.
Sailing Directions —Books of pilotage which
accompany charts.
Sailing on Skates.— In 1879 a gentleman, under
the signature of “ Glacianant,” published in
The Field a description of a sail he had con-
trived for Bailing on skates on ice. The sail
is made of a piece of unbleached calico, with
slightly rounded ends (Fig. 369); each end is
attached (either by a lacing or by a wide
hem, such as is common in window blinds)
to a light stick or yard, of sufficient length
to stretch the sail. The sail is spread by a
central mainyard, long enough to project
9in. beyond the sail at each end ; this must
be strong, stiff, and light, and must be fitted
at each extremity with two stout eyes. A
piece of stout line as a “lanyard ” is made
fast to the centre of each of the small yards,
and rove through the eyes at the ends of the
mainyard, then round the small yard, and
through the eye again, finishing up with a
“figure of eight seizing ” round the main and
small yards at the points where they cross
one another. One lanyard is first rove and
made fast, the other is then used as a pur-
chase to strain the sail taut. The use of
the rounded ends to the sail is now seen, as
the small yards buckle when the strain of the
purchase comes on them. To prevent the
leaches of the sail from flapping, and to
relieve the small yards, a light stay is led
from each end of them to the extremity of the
mainyard, and made fast to the second pair
of eyes already mentioned. The size of sail
for a gale is 6ft. by 3ft., 9ft. by 6ft. for light
wind ; 7ft. Gin. by 5ft. is a good size for one
skater to handle in ordinary wind. Two
people can n.amage a sail together with great
comfort. The 9ſt. by 6ft. sail is none too
large, and tall men could manage a larger one.
Two rows of reef points would be a great
addition, and might very easily be arranged.
The sail must stand perfectly flat, and the
yards and gear must be stout enough to
bear the strain of setting everything up taut.
In sailing alone, the skater should keep the
greater part of his sail behind him ; other-
wise he will infallibly be taken aback if the
wind is before the beam. Running before the
wind needs no comment, but to work to wind-
ward satisfactorily and tack smoothly requires
Some practice.
When two go together, the front skater
steers, and the other trims the canvas.
Tacking may be accomplished in two
different way 8:—When close hauled, say, on
the starboard tack, the sail being on the
leeside of the man, the right or weather foot
will be in front, the other in a line behind it,
the left hand will be forward, and the right
(which answers to main sheet) holding the
yard behind his back. When it becomes
necessary to go about, by a slight inclination
of his skates the skater luffs sharply, the sail
Shakes, the feet are changed, the hands
remaining in the same position as before ; the
sail rapidly fills on the other side, and the
skater shoots away smoothly on the port
tack with his sail to windward of him. In
moderate weather, the more smartly this is
done the better. When blowing hard, it is
necessary to take a wide sweep and shoot
farther to windward in stays, running a little
off the wind for a moment after filling away
on the fresh tack. When tacking in this
manner the yard will be alternately to wind-
ward and to leeward of the sail. In the
former of these positions, the strain on it
becomes very great ; and for this, as well as
other reasons, it may be desirable to tack in
the other way, as follows:
When close hauled with the sail to wind-
ward of the man, and desiring to go about
without bringing the wind on the other side
of the sail, the skater, instead of luffing, turns
his skates to leeward, keeping the sail spread
behind his back, and running for a moment
right before the wind. While in this position he
rapidly shifts his hands along the yard until
he reaches the point at which the balance of
his head and after canvas becomes correct
(this is a most important consideration).
What was the after hand on the other tack
becomes the fore hand now, and what was
the leach now becomes the luff of the sail.
With a slight turning of his skates to wind-
ward, and trimming his canvas accordingly,
the skater hauls his wind in a moment, and
shoots away on the fresh tack. This plan
is recommended for sailing single-handed,
and the former for two people.
Changing feet is perfectly easy; one
foot can be slid in front of the other at any
time.

666 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
---------- - - - - - ------------
Sailing on Skates—continued. other yard, the gaff, runs up and down the
made fast to gaff when under full sail.
at O. (Fig. 370.)
Any skates that are sure not to come
off (as Acme often do) will answer equally
well.
When close hauled, the skater keeps by
far the greater portion of the sail behind
him ; when reaching, he pushes it more
forward. This answers to setting a big jib ;
and when running, he stands right in the
middle.
GOING Holm X.
FIG. 370.
mast, having an iron hoop driven into it,
the yard being bound with fine wire to pre-
vent it splitting. In the sail is a double set
of reefs at the distance of 1ſt., and 2ft. from
the boom. The yard is run up by means of
a double block at the head of the mast,
through one sheave of which runs the rope
for pulling up, and through the other the
stays. The advantage of having the sail this
way is that in a stiff breeze one can
go under 6%ft. of canvas, while in
a light wind one can have 83ft.
Also lastly, and by no means the
least advantage, when going home
the whole sail can be reefed up
to the boom, and put the mast
over the shoulder like a shrimp
net. To one end of the gaff the
stay is fixed for good, so that in
altering the reef, taking in or
letting out, one has only one fixing
of the stay, and when packing up
the stay drawn through the block
serves as a cord to tie up the whole
sail to the boom.”
The following description of a
A Boom fixed. B Gaſſ. BB.1, Stay fixed. x End of stay which is hand sail for sailing on ice appeared
Z Rope to pull up sail, made fast in the New York Spirit of the Times,
Feb. 21, 1880 :
“The first thing to be dome after
obtaining the sail, spars, &c., is to
procure a strap about 1%in. wide,
with a loop to act as a step for the
mast ; secure it round the ankle
of the left foot, then step the mast,
after which pass the left arm around
the mast at A (Fig. 371) and hold
it firmly to the body, then hold the
yard with the right hand at B.
This is done for the purpose of
handling the sail, instead of sheet
ropes at C, which could not be
used. The boom and yard do not
need to be connected at D, but
merely held together by means of
the stops on the sail. The boom
and yard may be secured to the
mast with small pieces of cord, or
any other way the operator may
think fit, for conveniently stowing
his miniature sail while in transit.
The spars should be of pine, thus
making them much lighter to carry.
The following appeared in the Field,
Dec. 4, 1880, as an improvement on the
foregoing : (Fig. 371.)
“The mast is made 10ft. long, of deal,
as thick as ‘the long cue' (billiards) a little
above the handle, tapering towards each end.
At 1ſt. distance from one end is fixed a yard,
called the “boom,’ with a figure of 8 seizing,
of stout whipcord and stays. To this is
lashed a sail 8%ft. long, and 5ft. broad; my
The sail may be made of strong
factory or twill cotton, and can be
bent on the spars in the ordinary
manner, with stops. It is not
necessary to change the sail from
one side of the body to the other when sailing
on the port or starboard tacks, as the operator
Cam more easily handle the yard with the
right hand.
“It is usual when sailing to put one foot
in front of the other, but the rule is not abso-
lutely necessary. The strap around the ankle
should be placed about one foot above the ice,
or wherever the operator finds it more con-
venient for his height.”


Dictionary of General Information.
667
*-*---- - - ----
Sails.-Sails in this country are usually made
St.
St.
St.
of flax in the form of canvas, but several
racing yachts since 1886 have had cotton
Sails. In America, nothing but cotton canvas
was formerly used ; but since 1881 several
suits of flax canvas have been sent to America
by Messrs. Lapthorn and Ratsey. In 1851 the
yacht America came here, and the superiority
of the cut, make, and sit of her cotton
canvas revolutionised sail making in England.
In 1881 the cutter Madge visited America,
and her flax sails were considered so superior to
those of American yachts, that her success
was partly ascribed to her English suit of
Lapthorn sails. Cotton stretches slightly less
than flax; but the objection to it is that in
case of rain it takes up so much water and
is not so durable as flax, and old cotton sails
are fit for little else than the rag merchant.
Information on the cutting out and making
of yacht and boat sails will be found in
Kipping's treatise on “Sail Making,” 2s. 6d.,
Weale's Series.
Andrew’s Flag.—A blue flag with white
diagonal cross, thus × .
George's Jack.-A white square flag with red
St. George's cross (right angled, thus +),
used by admirals in the Royal Navy. A vice-
admiral’s flag has one red ball, and rear-
admiral's two (horizontally). An admiral
flies his flag from the main, vice from the fore,
rear from mizen. St. George's Jack was the
English flag before the union with Scotland
and Ireland. (See “Admiral” and “Jack.”)
Patrick's Cross.-A red diagonal cross, ×.
Salt and Fresh Water.—A cubic foot of salt water
weighs 641b. ; a tom contains 35 cubic feet.
A cubic foot of fresh water weighs 62.5lb.; a
ton contains 36 cubic feet : hence salt water
bulk for bulk will sustain a greater weight.
When a vessel goes from salt water to fresh
She is sometimes lightened in ballast, in
order that she may present the same surface
for friction. There will be a loss of stability,
and on the whole the practice is of doubtful
utility. Regarding the case inversely, if a
vessel be loaded down in salt water to the same
depth that she has been floating at in fresh
water, and driven at the same speed, the
resistance will increase in ratio to the superior
density of salt water. No exact experiments
have been made to ascertain whether a vessel,
by floating somewhat lighter in salt than in
fresh water, meets with a decrease of re-
sistance. The comparison would be always
attended with difficulty, as, if there were a
difference in the resistance, it would be a very
complicated matter unravelling it, as it would
be necessary to know how much of the re-
sistance depended on skin friction, and how
much on wave making. We are inclined to
think that the resistance (taking weight for
weight) is a trifle less in salt water than in
fresh. By removing weight, so as to float at
the same load line as in salt water, the resis-
tance in fresh water would be less, but the
question of diminished stability, which re-
moving weight involves, is such a serious
matter that removing weight for river sailing
cannot be advised. (See “Yacht Architecture,”
page 384.)
Salute.—A salvo of cannon fired as a mark of
respect and honour to a royal personage,
commodore, vice or rear commodore, flag, &c.
A Royal Salute is twenty-one guns; admiral
of the fleet, seventeen ; admiral, fifteen ; vice-
admiral, thirteen ; rear-admiral, eleven ; com-
modore (no senior captain being present.
See “Burgee.’’), nine ; captains or other
officers are not saluted. A captain or other
officers’ salute is returned with seven guns.
Among yacht clubs it is usual to salute a
flag officer on his first hoisting his flag
(swallow-tail burgee) on a club station at the
beginning of a season, on his shifting his flag
or on his promotion, and when he hauls it
down at the end of a season, by eleven guns
for a commodore, nine for a vice-commodore,
and seven for a rear-commodore respectively.
The club ensign is hoisted on the club flag-
staff during the salute. It is unusual to salute
a vice or rear commodore in the presence
of a commodore, and if the commodore
and vice or rear arrive together, neither of
the latter is saluted. The Royal Cork Yacht
Club has, however, a rule that a vice or
rear can be saluted after a commodore has
returned his salute. A commodore replies to
a club salute, or to a salute by a squadron,
with one salute of the number of guns he is
entitled to. He returns a vice or rear com-
modore's salute with the guns each is entitled
to, unless he receives a salute from both, then
he returns with the number of guns he him-
self is entitled to. Strictly, however, the
rear should not salute the commodore in the
presence of the vice unless he obtains per-
mission from the vice to do so. The regulation
of the Royal Navy is that no salute is to be
fired without permission of the senior officer
present, except salutes to the senior officer
himself; and further, if a salute has to be
fired, only the senior officer of two or more
yachts in company is to fire the salute. It is
etiquette for a flag-officer of a club to return
a salute, but a royal personage does not do
so. The practice used to be for a yacht to
“ salute the flag ’’ on arriving at a station ;
this practice is still in vogue in America, a
junior always saluting first. If a winning
yacht is saluted, it should be with five guns.
A duke is saluted with fifteen guns, and any
other nobleman thirteen.
The rule in the “Queen’s Regulations” for
a funeral salute is to fire the number of
guns the officer would have been entitled
to if alive.
Merchant ships are supposed to salute
H.M.S. by striking topsails or any upper sail,
such as a royal or top-gallant sail; but the
practice is now little observed except by old-
fashioned seamen, the dipping of an ensign
being all that is done. In the old Queen's
regulations for salutes we find the following
obsolete instructions :
“If any of Her Majesty’s subjects shall so
far forget their duty as to attempt to pass
668
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
any of Her Majesty’s ships without striking
their topsails, the names of the ship and the
master, the port to which they belong, the
place from which they came, and that to
which they are bound, together with affidavits
of the fact, are to be sent to the secretary of
the Admiralty, in order to their being pro-
ceeded against in the Admiralty Court.”
If a merchant ship salutes a naval officer
with the guns he is entitled to, the naval officer
responds with five guns; or seven if there
are several merchant ships. A merchant ship
now usually salutes a man-of-war by dipping
the ensign ; the ensign is dipped (almost
hauled down) and kept down until the man-
of-war responds. This is repeated three
times ; but some merchant ships only
trouble to dip once, and them of course
the man-of-war only responds once. (See
“Dipping the Ensign ; ’’ see also the
“Queen's Regulations for the Royal Navy,”
to be obtained of Messrs. Harrison and Sons,
St. Martin's-lane.)
Save All.—A water sail; a sail set underneath
booms in light weather.
Scandalize a Maimsail (See p. 106).—The peak
is dropped down between the topping lifts
until square to the mast and the main tack
triced up. Sometimes the throat is lowered
also.
Scamt.—When the wind is very bare ; when the
wind comes so that a vessel will barely lie
her course.
Scantlings.--The dimensions of all kinds of
timber used in the construction of a vessel.
Scarp.h. or Scarf, or Scarve.—A method of joining
pieces of wood by tapering their ends. A box
scarph is when the ends are not tapered, but
a half thickness cut out of each part so that
when put together the parts form only one
thickness.
Schooner.—A fore-and-aft rigged vessel. A top-
sail schooner has yards on her foremast, and
sometimes on her mainmast, but no courses.
It is claimed that the Schooner originated
in America in 1713 in this way :-One
Andrew Robinson (probably a Scotchman),
built a vessel at Gloucester, Massachusetts,
and as she was launched into the water a
by stander said “How she scoons.” The
sharp-eared Mr. Robinson, with ready wit
responded “A scooner let her be!” Webster
in his dictionary, says that this story
is well authenticated, because Mr. Moses
Prince, eight years later, referred to Mr.
Robinson as the “first contriver of scooners,”
and Moses Prince them went on to say
“how mankind is obliged to this gentle-
man for this knowledge; ” but it can be
doubted if mankind had felt any con-
siderable benefit from Schooners, recol-
lecting the Baltimore clippers. Webster
says the man exclaimed, “How she scoons''
because the Scotch word “scon ’’ is to skim
as a flat stone will when thrown upon the water.
Webster says this word “scon” might have been
an Icelandic word “skunda,” to make haste.
[The German “schäumen,” to skim, and
|French, “6cumer,” to skim, are also relevant.
The term “eskomer,” often applied to fast
sailers, was probably an old buccaneer term
for their vessels; hence the French Ecumeur,
a corsair or sea rover. The word “eskomer "
may have been derived from the Latin
“scomber,” a mackerel.] The probability
is that schooner was derived from the Dutch
“schoon,” or rather the feminime “Schoone,”
the final “e ’’ being pronounced with a
sound of “a” and as a syllable, meaning
elegant, fair, beautiful, a belle, &c.;
“schoor,” a forestay ; “schoornen,” rowers),
&c. Webster, without giving any authority,
says that the Danish “skooner,” German
“schoner,” and the Spanish “escuna,” were
all derived from the English, that is from
the Englishman or Scotchman who built the
“scooner’’ in Massachusetts. The Swedish
for schooner is “skomare;” but whether that
was also derived from the term invented by
Mr. Robinson is not recorded by Webster,
and altogether the assertion about the
derivation is open to very grave doubt.
There is no question that this is a very cut-
and-dried story about the bystander and Mr.
Robinson, and most people will incline to the
belief, in spite of the evidence of Mr. Moses
Prince, that the word schooner is of Dutch
origin. In the seventeenth century, according
to Charnock, they had a number of two-
masted vessels called “schoots; ’’ and in old
English chronicles of the fifteenth and six-
teenth century we find ships called “Schippes,”
and shipmasters “schippers,” now skippers;
and most likely there were schooters from
schoots, and schooners from schoon. The
mere fact of Mr. Robinson exclaiming “a
schooner let her be,” does not prove that the
term did not exist before his exclamation was
made, but rather shows that the term was a
familiar one, and, as previously said, most
people will believe that it is of Dutch origin.
Mr. Robinson’s claim to be the inventor
of the rig can also be very well disputed, as
there is no doubt that the rig was an adapta-
tion of the brigantine which had its origin
as follows. In the Cotton MSS. is a note of
the ships Henry VIII. possessed, and, in
reference to the “Great Henry Grace à Dieu,”
as she is therein called, which was built at
Erith, is the following : “being in good
reparation, caulking except, so that she may
be laid in dock at all times when the same
shall be ready, and Brigandym, the clerk of
the ship, doth say, that before the said ship
shall be laid in the dock, it is necessary that
her mast be taken down and bestowed in the
great store house at Erith.” Now this
Brigandyn was the inventor of the brigantyne
rig , and in the Harl. MSS. in a passage
relating to the state of Edward VI.'s navy is
the following: “Item, the two gallies and
the brigandyn must be yearly repaired.” This
brigamdyn was as a matter of certainty named
after “Brigandyn, the clerk of the ship ; ”
and in Charles II. reign there were five of
them in the Royal Navy, named Discovery,
Dictionary of General Information.
669
Dispatch, Diligence, Shark, and Spy, of about
80 tons. The rig, as depicted in old prints,
represents them with a fore-and-aft main,
and fore sail and square topsails, much the
Same as the topsail schooners of a later date.
In the Navy List of 1800 we find no
brigantines, but the names of about seventy
brigs and the names of about fifty schooners.
The oldest of these schooners appear to have
been built at New York in 1764, and between
that year and 1777 (the year of hostilities
with the American Colonies), the British
Government bought eighteen schooners, and
most likely all in America, where also many
of the brigs came from, though most were
built in England. There is not the smallest
doubt that the English settlers in America,
had done much to improve both the rig and
build of the brigantines, and in reference to
this matter Charnock (1800 edition) says:
“On account of the constructors’ attention
being directed almost solely to one point, and
owing to a certain portion of skill which they
possessed, and had derived from a long
experience in the art of building, with regard
to swiftness only, the heavy sailing vessels
employed in the purposes of British commerce
fell before them an easy prey. . . . The
American marine, however, soared not, but
with very few exceptions, in its private
capacity beyond the classes of brigs and
schooners, those of the former denomination
proving particularly destructive. Their
dimensions were enlarged far beyond those
limits which it had been customary to give
vessels in that class, and their force on many
occasions exceeded the greater part of the
British sloops of war, nearly equalling some
of the minor frigates. In defiance of the
common prejudice then entertained against
long and narrow vessels, the American
builders ventured their opposition ; and the
success which attended the principles they
introduced, materially differing from the prac-
tice of any country at that time, proved their
superior skill in the construction of corsairs.”
In the early days of English yachting,
many gentlemen attempted to emulate the
famous American brigs and schooners, the
latter almost invariably being rigged with
square topsails, until about 1840. The one
point of sailing, however, which Americans
had studied, “ sailing close by the wind,”
seems to have been much neglected, and when
the America, schooner, built in 1850, arrived
in England in 1851, we had not a schooner
which was fit to compete with her. The
America was designed by Mr. G. Steers (the
son of a Devonshire shipwright, who learned
his trade at Dartmouth, Plymouth, and
Guernsey) on principles expounded by the
late Mr. Scott Russell from about the year
1834, and exemplified in a few English yachts,
notably in the Mosquito, built in 1847. The
fault of Mr. Scott Russell’s designs, as
exemplified in the Titania, was the short
hollow entrance he attempted to demonstrate
his theory by, although he kept the midship
section well aft. This was not apparent in
the America. But the genius of George
Steers, the Devonshire naval architect,
appears to have died with him in 1856, as
certainly there are no American yachts built
since which can claim any improvement on
that famous vessel, whether they be centre-
boarders or otherwise.
Sciatic Stay.—According to old authorities this
is synonymous with Triatic stay, which see.
Scope.—Length or drift of rope or cable.
Score.—A groove to receive a rope or strop,
&c.
Scowing am Anchor.—When small boats have to
anchor on ground known or suspected to befoul,
it will always be prudent to scow the anchor
(Fig. 372). Unbend the cable from the ring, and
make the end fast round the crown, shank, and
flukes with a clove hitch, and bring the end 0.
back to s, and stop it round the cable with
spun yarn or hitches; take the cable back to
the shackle and stop it as at b ; when the
cable is hauled upon by the part o the stop at
b will break, and the fluke of the anchor can
be readily lifted out of its bed. Sometimes,
FIG. 372.
instead of scowing the anchor a trip line is
bent to the crown and buoyed. (See
& 4 Anchor.”)
Screens.—The wood shelves and screens painted
red for port side, and green for starboard, in
which a vessel’s side lights are carried. (See
“Side lights.”)
Scroll Head.—The outward curved part of the
knee at the upper fore part of the stem,
called volute.
Scwd.—To run before a gale of wind with very
little canvas set, or “under bare poles.”
Scull.—An oar. To scull is to propel a boat by
working an oar over the centre of the transom
on the principle of the screw.
Scwppers.-Apertures cut in the bulwarks or
waterways to clear the deck of water.
Sea, A.—A wave. A heavy sea is when the waves
are large and steep. When a quantity of
water falls aboard a vessel it is said that “she
shipped a sea.”
Sea Boat.—A vessel fit to go to sea. A good
sea boat is a relative term, and means a vessel
that does not pitch badly or labour in a sea,
or does not ship much water, and is, above all
things, handy in a sea.
Sea, Depth of.-The soundings taken during the
voyage of the “Challenger” added greatly to
our knowledge of the sea depth. The follow-

670 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
ing conclusions are stated in Moseley’s Notes
by a Naturalist on the “Challenger " :
We are apt to form an erroneous impres-
sion as to the actual shapes and distributions
of the elevations and depressions on the
earth's surface, because only the very tops of
the elevation stand above water. The out-
lines of the various continents and islands
with which we are familiar on maps are
merely lines marking the height to which the
water reaches up. A very small proportion
of the elevated masses projects above water,
hence from an ordinary map we gain no truer
impression of the form of the sculpturing of
the surface of the earth itself than we should
of a range of mountains if we viewed it when
all but its summits were hidden by a flood.
So small a proportion does the mass of dry
land elevated above the sea level bear to the
hollows on the earth’s surface beneath this
level, that the cavities now occupied by the
sea, would contain three times the volume of
the earth existing above the sea surface.
If the surface of the land and the sea, bottom
were brought to a complete level, the waters
of the sea covering its even face would still
have a depth of 1700 fathoms, being reduced
in depth by the process only about 800
fathoms.
Although the depth of the ocean is so small
in proportion to the vastness of its expanse,
the depth is, nevertheless, so great as to be
difficult of adequate realisation. The greatest
depth as yet ascertained by sounding occurs
in the North-west Pacific Ocean ; it amounts
to about five miles and a quarter.
The average depth of the ocean between
60° N. and 60° S. is about three miles, or
2500 fathoms. The great depth of five miles
occurs only exceptionally over very small areas.
No sunlight penetrates the deep sea ; pro-
bably all is dark below 200 fathoms, at least
excepting in so far as light is given out by
phosphorescent animals.
At depths of 2000 fathoms and upward the
temperature of the water is never many de-
grees above the freezing point. The conditions
under which life exists in the deep sea are
very remarkable. The pressure exerted by
the water at great depths is enormous,
amounting roughly to a ton weight on the
square inch for every 1500 fathoms of depth.
Sir C. Wyville Thompson (“Voyage of the
Challenger,” vol. ii., p. 352, London, 1877)
gives, among the conclusions arrived at, after
the first general Survey of the deep sea collec-
tions of the expedition, that animal life is
present on the bottom of the ocean at all
depths, but is not nearly so abundant at
extreme as at more moderate depths. Moseley
mentions the dredging of a fish from 2500
fathoms, which had a deep-sea shrimp in its
stomach.
Sea.m.—The line formed by the meeting of two
planks; overlapping parts of canvas in a
sail.
Seamam.—A man trained in the art of Sailing,
rigging, and general management of a ship.
To make a good seaman a man must have
practised the multitudinous details of his art
with great diligence, and is then described as
an “able seaman’’ or A.B. To say a man is a
“seaman º' means that he is thoroughly con-
versant with every duty of a sailor's life, and
can not only “ hand, reef, and steer,” but can
do every kind of work upon rigging, and
even use the needle and palm.
The statutes relating to Beamen are very
numerous, and many of them affect, or can
be made to affect, yacht sailors ; however,
many of the provisions of the Merchant Ship-
ping Acts are rendered inoperative so far as
yacht sailors go, because the signing of articles
is not imperative.
SATLING MASTERS.
The master, mate, or engineer of a yacht
need not possess a Board of Trade certificate,
as sect. 136 of the Act of 1854 and sect. 5 of
the Act of 1862, which, in effect, provides
that no home-trade passenger ship or foreign-
going ship, shall proceed to sea without having
certificated master and mates, does not in
any way apply to pleasure yachts. The
Board of Trade have, however, instituted
voluntary examinations for persons who com-
mand their own pleasure yachts, not, be it
observed, for those who are not yacht owners
but who may be desirous of taking charge
of a yacht. A yacht owner, passing a
Batisfactory examination in navigation and
seamanship, will be presented by the Board
of Trade with a certificate entitling him to
command his own yacht, which is a useless
privilege, as he can take command of his
yacht with or without the examination or
certificate. The practical value set upon
these very useless certificates by the Board of
Trade may be gathered from one of the con-
ditions: “The certificate will not entitle the
holder to command any vessel except the
pleasure yacht of which he may be, at the
time, owner.’’
In connection with this matter, it may
interest supporters of women’s rights to
know that a large yacht sailed in 1891 and
1894 for the Mediterranean whose master, as
appears by the articles, is a lady. Of course,
in vessels of any size, the owner, when
master, has a sailing master under him ; and
for all legal purposes the master, and not the
sailing master, is the recognised authority.
In 1891 a case arose at Cowes in which the
question was raised whether or not seamen
were bound to obey orders given by the
owner as master in opposition to the advice
and wishes of the skipper of the yacht, who
was entered on the articles as sailing master.
In this case it could not be contended that
the owner was competent to handle the vessel,
and the question was put by the magistrates
before whom the case was heard, whether or
not the seamen would be bound to obey if the
owner had given an order which was utterly
absurd, and would place the vessel and them-
Selves in jeopardy ? In this case the men
were convicted, but it is a point which may
Dictionary of General Information. 671
probably be raised again, and it appears
there might be circumstances in which serious
Complications might arise. It is not legally
necessary for yachting seamen to sign articles.
In many cases it is done, but in still more it
is not, and in consequence endless disputes
arise as to what the terms of the hiring are.
One of the most fruitful sources of discord is
the ownership of the clothes supplied by the
owner, and under what circumstances he has
the right to detain them ; and, in default of a
provision in the articles, no one at the present
moment appears to know whether they are
the property of the owner or the men. Cases
have frequently arisen with regard to the
right to detain clothes where the men have
misbehaved themselves. A claim came before
a county court (a not very satisfactory
tribunal in these matters) a few years back,
in which the judge decided that the men were
justified in disobeying orders because two or
three men had deserted, and it would have
been imprudent, with about twelve hands on
board, to sail a schooner of 160 tons from
Portsmouth Harbour to Cowes
Then the existing law as to punishment for
desertion is most inapplicable to yachting
seamen. If a man deserts, the master has
power to have him brought on board again,
and he can forfeit any wages due to him, and
his clothes and effects. This may work very
well in the case of merchant seamen, but as
regards yachtsmen the enactment is a farce.
A merchant seaman usually has a considerable
arrear of wages due to him after he has been
any time upon his voyage, and the forfeiture
may be a severe punishment ; but the yachts-
man is paid weekly, and the clothes are
supplied by the owner, so the punishment
does not amount to much. Moreover, what
owner wishes to retain a man at all who is
brought on board in the custody of the police P
If he deserts, the owner will be a wise man,
as matters are at present, to let him go and
make some other owner uncomfortable, rather
than have the trouble, risk, and annoyance of
retaining him against his will.
If no articles are signed, the rights, reme-
dies, and duties of the owner of a yacht, his
sailing master, and crew, are governed by
ordinary master and servant law. When a
man has once engaged to serve on board a
yacht, as sailing master or in any other
capacity, he will render himself liable to an
action for breach of contract if, without a
sufficient reason, he should refuse to enter
upon his duty. Thus, a person agreed with a
firm of shipowners to go in their ship as
surgeon, but subsequently refused to go, the
shipowners succeeded in an action against
him, recovering as damages the difference
between the sum they would have paid the
defendant and the sum they had to pay
another surgeon : (“Richards v. Hayward,” 2
Manning & Granger, 574.) So, too, should
the owner of a yacht refuse to receive a man
into his service after having promised to do so,
the owner will be liable to an action at the suit
of the man : (“Clarke v. Allatt,” 4 C.B. 335.)
So long as anyone employed on board a
yacht retains his situation, he is bound to
obey the lawful commands of his employer,
and to act in accordance with the terms of the
contract of hiring ; but circumstances may
ofton arise which may render a discharge
necessary, although nothing may have been
done which would warrant a summary dis-
missal. Under such circumstances the ques-
tion arises, what notice must be given The
answer must depend upon the position held by
the persons to be dismissed, for the same rule
would not necessarily hold good in the cases
of the sailing master and a seaman. The
law nowhere says what notice is to be given
or required to put an end to a contract of
hiring and service, for it assumes, as in all
other contracts, that both parties will fulfil the
terms of the contract into which they have
entered, and that the service will endure
for the time agreed upon ; or, if no time has
been specified, then the hiring is general and
in contemplation of law one for a year, which
can only be terminated by reasonable notice
expiring at the end of some completed year’s
service : (“Forgan v. Burke,” 4 Ir. C. & R.
495.) It is the duty of a jury to decide what
is reasonable notice in each particular case.
As a matter of fact, however, the custom of
different callings so far controls the strict
law, that there are now but few trades or pro-
fessions in which a contract cannot be termi-
nated by giving that notice which from con-
tinual adoption has grown to be the “custom
of the trade.” It is well that it should be so,
for, as Chief Justice Erle has said (“Nicoll v.
Graves,” 33 L. J., C. P. 259), “Where the
duties of the servant are such that he is re-
quired to be frequently near his employer, if any
ill-feeling should arise between them, the pre-
sence of that servant would be a constant
source of irritation to the employer; and, on the
other hand, it may happen that a well-inten-
tioned servant may have a dissatisfied employer
constantly finding fault with him, and the
sooner he is free from such service the
greater will be his happiness.” With regard
to domestic or menial servants, it is a well-
established custom that their contract of ser-
vice may be determined at any time by giving
a month's warning or paying a month’s
wages; and there have been several cases in
which the courts have taken judicial notice of
customs held to be proved in different call-
ings, and subject to which the parties are
taken to have contracted. So far as is
known, it has never yet been decided in a
superior court what is the customary notice
in the yachting world in the case of a master
of a yacht; but, as he is generally a yearly
servant, it is probable that the courts would
hold a three months’ notice sufficient in
any case. But something might turn upon
the time of year at which the notice expired ;
for if the three months ended in the middle of
the yachting season, it might be difficult for
a master to obtain another berth before the
commencement of the next season. But this
remark only holds good in the absence of any
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Dictionary of General Information. 673
liable to pay for the garments actually
Supplied, and not for those given in ex-
change, and is entitled to set off against a
Subsequent account for clothes, the price of
those supplied and paid for, but subsequently
taken back by the tradesman : (“Hunter v.
Berkeley,” 7 C. & P. 413.) Seo cases tried in
County Courts—Dublin, August, 1874; Tor-
quay, Nov. 17, 1877; Newport, Isle of Wight,
Aug. 6, 1878; Southampton, Dec. 10, 1878.
The strictly legal side of the question only
has been dealt with ; the questions of ex-
pediency and bounty are left to individual
taste.
Agreement.—A form of agreement suitable
for an owner and master to enter into is
herewith appended.
3tlemoranbum of 3 greement entered into
this day of , one thousand
eight hundred , between y
Of , and hereinafter termed the
owner, on the one part, and 3.
mariner of , and hereinafter termed
the master, on the other part.
The owner agrees to engage the master
to serve in that capacity on board the yacht
, and to pay him as wages the sum
Of per , the said wages to be
paid [here insert “weekly,” “monthly,”
“quarterly,” as the case may bo); and the
owner agrees to supply the master each year
the yacht is in commission during this agree-
ment with suits of clothes com-
plete, as usually found for the master of a
yacht; and the owner agrees that the said
clothes shall be the property of the master,
unless the master is discharged for miscon-
duct, or discharges himself during any period
that the owner’s yacht is in commission ; [and
the owner agrees to find the sailing master in
food and a reasonable quantity of beer or
other drink, or the equivalent in money of
such food and drink, for the period the
owner’s yacht is in commission during this
agreement;] and the said sailing master, on
his part, agrees to enter and abide in the
service of the owner for the wages and other
considerations aforesaid, and to the best of
his ability to maintain discipline, strict
sobriety, cleanliness, and general good con-
duct in the crew on board the owner’s
yacht, and to keep the owner’s yacht in a
Smart, tidy, clean, and yacht-like condition,
and to incur no expense for the maintenance
of the hull or equipment of the owner’s yacht
further than lawfully authorised by the
owner, and to willingly, carefully, and skil-
fully take the owner's yacht to such places as
the owner may desire her to be taken, either
on the coasts of the British Isles or the coasts
of , between and ;
and when the yacht is put out of commission
during this agreement the master, assisted by
the crew, agrees to dismantle her and care-
fully store all her equipment as directed and
to frequently visit the owner’s yacht for the
purpose of ventilating, pumping, and gener-
ally preserving and taking care of her and
her equipment in the period she is out of
commission during this agreement ; and it
is further jointly agreed between tho owner
and master that the wages shall commence to
be earned and continue to be paid as afore-
Said, on and after the day
of , one thousand eight hundred
and ; and it is further jointly
agreed between the owner and master that
this agreement shall terminate upon either
the owner or master giving notice
thereof, but the owner may summarily cancel
the agreement and dismiss the master should
the master wilfully disregard any of the
owner's reasonable commands, or be guilty
of any misconduct, such as drunkenness,
quarrelsomeness, violence of conduct, smug-
gling, continued absence, or neglect of duty,
breaches of this agreement, gross carelessness,
extravagance, or incompetence.
(Signed) Owner.
Sailing Master.
Witness, º
COOKS AND STEWARDs.
A curious point might arise with regard to
cooks and stewards. On shore, both these
functionaries would most certainly fall within
the category of domestic servants, and would,
therefore, be entitled to a month’s warning,
or payment of a month’s wages; but where
the duration of the contract can only be in-
ferred from the fact that the wages are paid
weekly, it would be taken to be a weekly
hiring, in which case a week's notice would
Suffice; or, again, owing to the fact that
they cannot obtain situations as readily as
shore servants, it is just possible that they
might be held entitled to the same notice
as the master, if they were hired on the
Same terms by the year and paid at the same
intervals.
What has been said only applies when there
has been no special stipulation at the com-
mencement of the service, or no proof of
custom. If an agreement has been made, the
parties are bound by it ; as there are no
reported cases deciding what the custom
is, the question is still in abeyance. Every
yacht owner knows what he believes to
be the custom, but until his idea has been
supported in a court of law it is only a
surmise.
CREWS UNDER THE MERCHANT SHIPPING
ACTs.
Mercantile marine offices (formerly known
as shipping offices), under the care of superin-
tendents and deputy-superintendents, have
been established for the purpose of affording
facilities for engaging seamen by keeping
registries of their names and characters, and
for securing the presence on board at the
proper time of the seamen engaged (sect. 124
of Act 1854). These offices are estab-
lished at every seaport in the United Kingdom
in which there is a local marine board, and
the Board of Trade secures premises and
X X
674, Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Seaman—continued.
arranges for the carrying on of the general
business. In the absence of other premises,
the business of the offices may be transacted
at Custom Houses (sect. 128), and mercantile
marine offices may be established in London
at Bailors’ homes (sect. 129). As these
Sections are not among the excepted ones,
they apply to pleasure yachts; but obviously
they are more adapted to the requirements of
merchant shipping than to yachting.
By sect. 272 of the Act of 1854 the
Registrar-General of shipping and seamen is
to keep a register of all persons who serve in
ships “subject to the provisions of this Act.”
That section applies to yachts, and therefore
every yacht owner should comply with the
terms of sect. 273, and make out and sign a
list in a form sanctioned by the Board of
Trade, stating, amongst other information,
(1) the number and date of the yacht's
register, and her registered tonnage ; (2) the
length and general nature of the voyage ; (3)
the names, ages, and places of birth of the
crew, including the master, and their occupa-
pation on board; (4) the names of any
members of the crew who have died or other-
wise ceased to belong to the ship, with the
times, places, causes, and circumstances
thereof; (5) the names of any members of
the crew who have been maimed or hurt, with
the times, places, causes, and circumstances
thereof, and some other matters shown in the
form, but with which yachtsmen will not
often be concerned.
By the Merchant Shipping Act, 1867
(30 & 31 Vict. c. 124), sect. 4, the owner
of every ship—in which, it must be remem-
bered, pleasure yachts are included—naviga-
ting between the United Kingdom and any
place out of the same shall, unless exempted
by the Board of Trade, provide, and keep on
the ship, a supply of medicines and medical
stores, in accordance with the scale appro-
priate to the ship. Lime or lemon juice,
obtained from a bonded warehouse, and
containing 15 per cent. proof spirit, is also to
be kept on board. The lime or lemon juice
is to be served out to the crew, as soon as they
have been at sea ten days (except during the
time the ship is in harbour and the crew
supplied with fresh provisions), at the rate of
an ounce per man per day. By the 4th sub-
section lime juice need not be carried on
ships bound to European ports, or to ports
in the Mediterranean Sea, or to ports on the
Eastern coast of America, north of the 35th
degree of north latitude, and to islands or
places in the Atlantic north of the same limit.
With regard to the expenses attendant on
illness and death, sect. 228 of the Act of
1854, which is one of the sections of the
third part of the Act to which pleasure
yachts are made subject by the Act of 1862,
provides (1) that the expense of providing
the necessary surgical and medical advice,
with attendance and medicine, for any
member of the crew, including the master,
receiving any hurt or injury in the Service of
the ship, and the expense of his burial, shall
be borne by the owner of the ship, without
any deduction from the man’s wages. (2)
If a man is, on account of any illness,
temporarily removed from the ship to prevent
infection, or otherwise for the convenience of
the ship, and subsequently returns to the
ship, the expenses shall be defrayed by the
owner of the vessel. (3) The owner of the
vessel is to pay for all medicines and advice.
(4) In all other cases any reasonable expense
incurred by the owner for any seaman in
respect of illness shall, if duly proved, be
deducted from the seaman’s wages. By
sect. 8 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1867,
where a seaman is by reason of illness
incapable of performing his duty, and it is
proved that his illness, and consequent
incapacity to work, arises through his own
fault, then he is not entitled to his wages for
the time during which he is incapacitated.
Having noticed how far what may be
called the general provisions of the Merchant
Shipping Acts affect yachtsmen, we must
now direct attention to such of the provisions
of those Acts as bear more particularly on the
relationship between the yacht owner and his
crew, and the maintenance of discipline on
board; and for that reason are of importance
in every case where a yacht is fitted out, for
however short a time.
II. Maintervance of discipline where no
written articles or agreement is signed.—The
common and statute law, having regard to the
innumerable difficulties that might arise on
board a ship unless the government were, so
to say, despotic, has clothed the master of a
ship with a very wide authority; and even if
his conduct should, in exceptional cases, have
been harsher than circumstances absolutely
required, courts of law having jurisdiction in
the matter will require very strong proof that
the master has abused his authority, before
they will allow that his conduct is any justifi-
cation for a Beaman’s misconduct. As we
have already stated, sect. 13 of the Merchant
Shipping Act of 1862 extends the operation
of the third part of the Act of 1854 to yachts,
So far as the provisions are applicable, and
with the exception of certain sections.
Amongst the enactments so rendered ap-
plicable to yachts are those contained in the
third part of the Merchant Shipping Act,
1854, for the maintenance of discipline,
although no agreement has been signed. In
speaking of a master's authority over the
crew, the author of Boyd’s “Merchant Ship-
ping Laws” says: “The rule of law is that
a captain's authority over the crew . . . . is,
in the strict sense of the word, undefined; Or,
as it has been termed, despotic. He may,
in short, inflict any punishment which is
reasonable ; that is, any punishment which is
necessary to insure obedience to his command
in all lawful matters relating to the navi-
gation of the ship, and the preservation of
good order . . . . The question must be one
of fact, viz., whether the captain has used
his power immoderately. The law is very
Dictionary of General Information. 675
favourable for captains, their power is most
extensive, and they are only liable to punish-
ment if they exercise it wrongly.”
The following are some of the more im-
portant provisions of the Act of 1854 for
maintaining discipline : Any master, seaman,
or apprentice—which, by virtue of the inter-
pretation clause of the Act of 1854, and sect.
13 of the Act of 1862, includes every person
(except masters, pilots, or duly indentured
apprentices employed in any capacity on
board any sea-going pleasure yacht)—who
“by wilful breach of duty, or by neglect of
duty, or by reason of drunkenness,” does any
act tending to the immediate loss, destruc-
tion, or serious damage of such ship, or tend-
ing immediately to endanger the life or limb
of any person on board, or, by neglect of
duty or drunkenness, refuses or omits to do
any lawful act proper or requisite to be done
by him for preserving the ship from imme-
diate loss, destruction, or damage, shall be
guilty of a misdemeanor, and is in conse-
quence liable to be proceeded against in a
criminal court (sect. 239 of the Act of 1854).
In the words of Lord Stowell, drunkenness is
“an offence peculiarly noxious on board ship,
where the sober and vigilant attention of
every man, and particularly of officers, is re-
quired. At the same time the Court cannot
entirely forget that, in a mode of life particu-
larly exposed to severe peril and exertion,
and therefore admitting, in seasons of repose,
something of indulgence and refreshment ;
that indulgence and refreshment is naturally
enough sought by such persons in grosser
pleasures of that kind, and therefore that the
proof of a single act of intermperance, com-
mitted in port, is no conclusive proof of dis-
ability for general maritime employment : ’’
(The Exeter, 2 Robinson’s Rep., p. 264.) So,
too, in another case (wherein it was proved
that a steward had been drunk once or twice
during a nine months' voyage), the same
judge said that the court would not “coun-
tenance any criminal excess of that kind ; yet
it cannot so far blind itself to the ordinary
habits of men, living for such a length of
time in a frequent condition of extreme peril
and fatigue, as to feel much surprise that a
seaman . . . should have been betrayed into
two acts of indulgence of that nature ; nor
can it consider them as sinking him below the
common average of a seaman’s morality : ”
(The Lady Campbell, 2 Hagg. 5.) These two
extracts, if not over-complimentary to sea-
men, show at any rate that they will not be
judged too hardly. Thus it has been held
that occasional drunkenness, in cases where
no damage has ensued to the shipowner, is no
cause of forfeiture of wages. But in the case
of the Macleod (L. R. 5 Probate Division, p.
254), Sir Robert Phillimore, after quoting
with approval the above extracts, held that
the master of a ship, who had been habitually
drunk during his employment, could not main-
tain an action for wages.
When a yacht owner takes or sends his
yacht into foreign waters, one of the incon-
veniences he is open to is the desertion of one
or more members of his crew; and this and
other offences are dealt with in sect. 243 of
the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, which, not
being one of the excepted sections, applies
to seagoing pleasure yachts, whether articles
are signed or not. The Act of 1854
authorised imprisonment for desertion and
kindred offences, but by the Merchant
Seaman Act of 1880 (43 & 44 Vict. c. 16)
imprisonment has been abolished for deser-
tion, for neglect or refusal to join ship after,
and absence without, leave; and the worst
that can now befall a yacht sailor deserting,
in addition to the liability to forfeit his
clothes, effects, and wages, is that, subject to
any proceedings which may be taken against
him to recover damages at common law, or
under the Employers and Workmen Act, 1875
—which indeed would probably have no
effective result—he may be conveyed on board
again ; while, if a yacht sailor gives forty-
eight hours’ notice of his intention to leave
his ship, or to absent himself from duty, any
court before whom he may be taken will not
be justified in treating him as a deserter or
absent without leave. In order to be guilty
of desertion, a man must quit his ship with
the intention of not returning. As, for
instance, when a man leaves a yacht, and
ships on board some other vessel other than a
Queen’s ship, or where, having obtained per-
mission to go ashore, he refuses to return.
Where a man goes on shore, gets drunk, and
is left behind through being drunk, or through
being locked up, he will not be held to have
been guilty of desertion. If a bond fide
deserter can be caught, and is brought before
“any court,” the court may, if the master
requires, cause him to be conveyed on board,
and any costs and expenses incurred by the
owner or master of the yacht by reason of the
desertion are to be paid by the offender, and,
if necessary, deducted from any wages due or
to become due to him.
For neglecting or refusing without reason-
able cause to join his ship, or to proceed to
sea in his ship, or for absence without leave
at any time within twenty-four hours of the
ship sailing from any port, either at the com-
mencement or during the progress of any
voyage, or for absence without leave at any
time not amounting to desertion, and not
treated as such by the master, a seaman
(which term, as we have seen above, includes
every person other than a master, pilot, or
indentured apprentice employed in any ca-
pacity on board any sea-going yacht) is, if he
has been lawfully engaged, liable to forfeit out
of his wages a sum not exceeding the amount of
two days’ pay, and, in addition, for every twenty
hours of absence either a sum not exceeding
six days’ pay, or any expenses which have been
properly incurred in hiring a substitute.
A seaman who leaves any sea-going
yacht on which he is employed, for the
purpose of entering on board a Queen’s ship,
does not commit any offence.
For wilful disobedience to any lawful
X x 2
676 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Seamam—continued.
command, a seaman shall be liable to im-
prisonment for any term not exceeding four
weeks, with or without hard labour, and also,
at the discretion of the court, to forfeit out of
his wages a sum not exceeding two days’ pay.
For continued wilful disobedience to lawful
commands, or continued wilful neglect of duty,
he shall be liable to imprisonment for any
period not exceeding twelve weeks, with or
without hard labour; and also, at the
discretion of the court to forfeit for overy
twenty-four hours’ continuance of such dis-
obedience or neglect, either a sum not exceed-
ing six days’ pay, or any expenses properly
incurred in hiring a substitute.
The powers of a master of a ship are so
great, that any roughness in giving an order,
or the giving of an unnecessary order, will
not justify a seaman, whether he is one of the
crew of a yacht or of a trading vessel, in refusing
to execute it. So too, in alloting work
amongst the crew, although matters requiring
the neatest work are in ordinary course given
to the most experienced hands, yet no seaman
may refuse to do even boys’ work, if it should
seem fit to the master so to order.
It is a general rule that any member of the
crew of a ship is obliged to obey the order of
the master or his superior officer, asking no
questions, and making no objection, whether
the duty to which he is ordered be that
which properly belongs to an able seaman or
not : (see Dana’s Manual, 14th ed., pp.
153–158.) But, of course, a master ought
not to order a man to exercise skill in some
line in which he professed no skill at the
time of shipping. For example, if a car-
penter does not ship as Seaman as well as
carpenter, no nautical skill can be required of
him ; although he would have, when all hands
are called, or if ordered by the master, to do
any ordinary work, such as tailing on to a
halyard (Dana’s Manual, p. 149), or any one
shipping as a Seaman he need not be expected
to understand the repairing of fishing nets.
“Disobedience to lawful command,” said
Lord Stowell (The Exeter, 2 Robinson, p.
264), “is an offence of the grossest kind ; the
court would be particularly attentive to pre-
serve that subordination and discipline on
board of ship, which is so indispensably
necessary for the preservation of the whole
service, and of every person concerned in it.
It would not, therefore, be a peremptory or
harsh tone, or an overcharged manner in the
exercise of authority, that will ever be held
by this court to justify resistance. . . . . .
The nature of the service requires that those
persons who engage in it should accommodate
themselves to the circumstances attending it ;
and those circumstances are not unfrequently
urgent, and create strong sensations, which
naturally find their way in strong expressions
and violent demeanour. The persons subject
to this species of authority are not to be
captious, or to take exception to the want of
a formal and ceremonious observance of
behaviour.”
It is further provided by the 243rd section
of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, that for
assaulting any master or mate, a “ seaman ‘’
shall be liable to imprisonment for any period
not exceeding twelve weeks, with or without
hard labour. The same section provides that
for combining with any other or others of the
crew to disobey lawful commands, or to neglect
duty, or to impede the navigation of the ship,
or progress of the voyage, a “seaman’” shall
be liable to imprisonment for any period not
exceeding twelve weeks, with or without hard
labour.
For wilfully damaging the ship, or em-
bezzling or wilfully damaging any of her stores
or cargo, he shall be liable to forfeit out of his
wages a sum equal in amount to the loss sus-
tained, and also, at the direction of the Gourt,
to imprisonment for any period not exceeding
twelve weeks, with or without hard labour.
For any act of smuggling, of which he is
convicted, and whereby loss or damage is
occasioned to the master or owner, the sea-
man shall be liable to pay to such master or
owner such a sum as is sufficient to reim-
burse them for such loss or damage ; and the
whole, or a proportionate part of the man’s
wages, may be retained in satisfaction or on
account of such liability, without prejudice to
any further remedy. It will thus be seen
that, irrespective of any contract or agree-
ment with the seaman, the statute law of this
country has entrusted the owner and master
of a sea-going yacht with important powers
for the preservation of discipline amongst the
crew on board.
Inasmuch as the “master ’’ is the person
by whom the provisions of the above sections
are usually put in force ; and as, moreover,
the common law has vested, as we have
already noticed, in him such extensive
powers over all on board his ship, it is im-
portant that yacht owners should not, as a
general rule, enter into any arrangement
whereby the legal status of the master is con-
ferred on any person other than themselves.
The word “master’’ is defined in the Mer-
chant Shipping Act, 1854, as including every
person (except a pilot) having command or
charge of any ship ; whilst, in yachting par-
lance, the master is understood to be the
person engaged to navigate and manage the
yacht under the orders and as required by
the yacht owner.
It may be a question of doubt in some
cases whether, notwithstanding that a sailing
master may be employed, the owner of any
unregistered yacht may not, when he is on
board his yacht, be her “master’’ within the
above definition in the Merchant Shipping
Act, 1854, more especially if, as is generally
the case, he takes any part in the working of
the yacht ; but with respect to British regis-
tered yachts no such question of doubt can
arise, for the 44th section of the Merchant
Shipping Act, 1854, requires that there shall
be inserted in the ship’s certificate of
registry, amongst other details, the name of
her “master,” under the provisions of the
Dictionary of General Information. 677
46th section of the same Act referred to on a
previous occasion. Whenever the master of
a British registered vessel is changed, the
name of the new master must be indorsed on
the ship’s certificate of registry ; and all
officers of customs within the Queen’s domi-
nions may refuse to recognise any person as
“master ’’ whose name is not so inserted in or
indorsed on the certificate of registry. Having
regard to the provisions of these two last-
mentioned sections, the owner of a British
registered yacht should have his own name
inserted in or indorsed on the yacht’s certifi-
cate of registry as “master,” not that of his
captain or Sailing master.
To say nothing of the legal proof thus
afforded for all official purposes as to the
person entitled to the status of “master’’ on
board, or the express provisions of the
46th section of the Act of 1854 with refe-
rence to matters arising with the Customs,
or questions affecting the revenue or quaran-
time, in all cases where the owner's name
appears on the certificate of registry as
master, the crew are, of course, precluded
from denying his authority as “master,”
whilst at the same time they cannot refuse to
obey the orders of the sailing master, who
has the same power under the control of the
master as the officers of a trading vessel.
Whenever any of the offences enumerated
above are committed, an entry should be
made in the form of log book approved by
the Board of Trade, which on board foreign
cruising yachts should always be carefully
kept, and the entry should be signed by the
master and also by the sailing master, the
mate, or one of the crew ; and the offender,
if still in the yacht, should, before the yacht
arrives at the next port, either have a copy
of the entry or have it read over to him ;
and, in any subsequent legal proceeding the
entries shall, if practicable, be produced or
proved, and, in default of such production
or proof, the court may, at its discretion,
refuse to receive evidence of the offence.
(Sect. 244 of the Act, 1854.)
The crew being servants paid weekly, can
be discharged as any ordinary servant upon
giving a week's notice, and can claim their
discharge upon giving similar notice. When
a member of a crew is discharged for no
definite offence, he can claim his passage
money to the port of shipment, but not if he
discharges himself.
By the Merchant Seamen Act, 1880, addi-
tional facility is given for the settlement of
disputes as to wages, &c., by extending the
operation of the Employers and Workmen
Act, 1875, so as to include seamen. Under
the last-named Act, in any proceeding before
a County Court in relation to any dispute
between an employer and a seaman, arising
out of or incidental to their relation as such,
the County Court may (1) adjust and set off
one against the other all claims found by the
court to be subsisting between the parties;
(2) may rescind any contract between the
employer and seaman; (3) take Security from
a defendant for the due performance of a
contract, instead of awarding damages for a
breach thereof.
SIGNING ARTICLES.
We now come to the third part of our
Subject, namely, the position of master and
crew and the maintenance of discipline when
articles under the Merchant Shipping Acts
are signed; or, in other words, when master
and crew sign an agreement drawn up in a
form sanctioned by the Board of Trade.
Sect. 149 of the Merchant Shipping Act
of 1854, taken by itself, provides in effect
that the master of every ship (except coasting
vessels of less than 80 tons) shall enter into
an agreement with every one of the crew in
the form sanctioned by the Board of Trade,
and the agreement must be signed by the
master and all hands—whence the phrase
Signing articles. This section is one of the
excepted sections of the third part of the
Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, which does not
apply to pleasure yachts, and therefore a
yacht owner is not bound to enter into such
an agreement with his crew. But if he likes
to insist on a Board of Trade agreement, he
can do so, although of course he must be
prepared to find some yacht sailors refusing
to ship with him on those terms. So long as
a yacht only cruises in the home waters,
Board of Trade agreements are not of much
use, and it is only when she becomes a
“foreign-going ship” that they are of such
importance. By the interpretation clause of
the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, a foreign-
going ship is interpreted as including anyone
that proceeds between some place or places in
the United Kingdom, and some place or places
situate beyond the coasts of the United
Ringdom, the Channel Islands, and the con-
tinent of Europe, between the river Elbe and
Brest, inclusive. When, therefore, a yacht’s
voyage exceeds the above limits, the agree-
ment should, with any necessary alterations,
follow the form sanctioned by the Board of
Trade for foreign-going ships. If a Board of
Trade agreement is agreed to and adopted
without alteration, it must contain the fol-
lowing particulars as to terms:
1. The nature, and as far as practicable,
the duration of the intended voyage. Or, by
a later statute (36 & 37 Vict. c. 85, s. 7), it
may state the maximum period of the voyage
or engagement and the places (if any) to which
the voyage or engagement is not to extend. The
statement under this head must be sufficiently
plain to enable a man to understand the
nature of the work for which he contemplates
an engagement.
2. The number and description of the crew,
specifying how many are engaged as sailors.
3. The time at which each seaman is to be
on board or to begin work.
4. The capacity in which each seaman is to
SOTW. C.
5. The amount of wages which each seaman
is to receive.
678 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
-- - -----------
Seaman—continued.
6. A scale of the provisions which are to
be furnished to each seaman.
7. Any regulations as to conduct on board,
and as to fines, short allowance of provisions,
or other lawful punishments for misconduct,
which have been sanctioned by the Board of
Trade as regulations proper to be adopted,
and which the parties agree to adopt ; and
the agreement shall be so framed as to admit
of stipulations on the part of the employer
and the employed which are not contrary
to law.
These agreement forms can be obtained at
the Mercantile Marine offices, and from the
Board of Trade; they are printed, and spaces
are left for filling in the signatures of the
different stipulations.
Of course yacht owners may make any
special written agreements which their crews
will sign ; but the Board of Trade form,
having official sanction given to it, should be
adhered to as much as possible. In the
interpretation clause of the Merchant Shipping
Act, 1854, the word “seaman,” is to include
“every person (except masters, pilots, and
apprentices duly indentured and registered)
employed or engaged in any capacity on board
any ship.” In steam yachts, therefore, the
engineers and firemen would be seamen ; as
also would be on every yacht the cook and
Steward. It may be observed that a yacht
owner, though he should adopt the forms of
agreement signed by the Board of Trade, or a
modification of them, is not compelled to
require that all the persons engaged on board
his yacht should sign them. He may, for
instance, engage his cook and steward on the
same terms as would be the case if their
service would be performed on shore. Still, it will
be found advisable that the authority of the
master should be secured over all on board
alike, by the medium of a written agreement.
The agreement is to be signed by all
parties to it, the master signing first ; and
the document dates from the time of his
signature.
In order to avoid any technical difficulties
that may arise, the yacht owner should sign
as master, and the regular sailing master as
mate. The master to whom the men sign
has sole control of everybody on board, and
even in the movements of the vessel, and
there is a story that a master of a yacht up
the Mediterranean once threatened to put an
owner in irons. Such gross misbehaviour,
however, could not go long unrewarded.
In order to enable the crew to refer to the
agreement, the master should at the commence-
ment of the voyage have a legible copy
(omitting the signatures) placed in some part
of the vessel to which the men have access.
In the agreement to be signed, the crew
contract as follows :
“The several persons whose names are
hereto subscribed, and whose descriptions
are contained below, and of whom [here
insert number] are engaged as sailors, hereby
agree to serve on board the said yacht in the
several capacities expressed against their
names until the said yacht shall be paid off
[here insert the voyage or cruise to be made],
and to conduct themselves in an orderly,
faithful, honest, and sober manner, and to be
at all times diligent in their respective duties,
and to be obedient to the lawful commands of
the said master or of any person who shall
lawfully succeed him, and of their superior
officers in everything relating to the said yacht
whether on board, in boats, or on shore.
In consideration of which services to be duly
performed, the said master hereby agrees
to pay the said crew as wages the sums set
against their names respectively expressed.
And it is hereby agreed that any embezzle-
ment or wilful or negligent destruction of
any part of the yacht's stores shall be made
good to the owner out of the wages of the
person guilty of the same. And if any per-
son enters himself as qualified for a duty
which he proves incompetent to perform, his
wages shall be reduced in proportion to his
incompetency. And it is also agreed that the
regulations authorised by the Board of Trade,
which in the paper hereto annexed are num-
bered [here insert the numbers of the regula-
tions], are adopted by the parties hereto, and
shall be considered as embodied in this agree-
ment. And it is also agreed that if any
member of the crew considers himself to be
aggrieved by any breach of the agreement or
otherwise, he shall represent the same to the
master or officer in charge of the ship in a
quiet and orderly manner, who shall thereupon
take such steps as the case may require. And
it is also agreed that any man guilty of mis-
conduct shall be liable to be discharged by
the master at any port in Great Britain or
Ireland. That the voyage shall be considered
as terminated when the yacht is paid off.
Every A.B. who conducts himself to the
satisfaction of the master shall receive
shillings per week conduct money when dis-
charged. [Here insert any other stipula-
tions which may be agreed upon, and which
are not contrary to law.] In witness whereof
the said parties have subscribed their names,
&c. Signed master, and the
day of 18 .”
This passage gives a very fair idea of a
seaman’s duty, and the only difficulty is in
deciding when a man ceases to be honest,
orderly, faithful, or sober. The due per-
formance of duty entitles the man to proper
accommodation, food, treatment, &c.
The following regulations for the preserva-
tion of discipline are distinct from and in
addition to the statutable offences previously
set out :
1. Not being on board at the time fixed by
the agreement—two days’ pay.
2. Not returning on board at the expiration
of leave—one day’s pay.
3. Insolence or contemptuous language or
behaviour towards the master or any mate
. ...—one day’s pay.
4. Striking or assaulting any person on board
or belonging to the ship—two days’ pay.
Dictionary of General Information.
679
5. Quarrelling or provoking to quarrel—
one day’s pay.
6. Swearing or using improper language—
one day's pay.
7. Bringing or having on board spirituous
liquors—three days’ pay.
8. Carrying a sheath knife—one day’s pay.
9. Drunkenness, first offence—two and a
half days’ provisions; second offence—two
days’ pay.
10. Neglect on part of officer of watch to
place the look-out properly—two days’ pay.
11. Sleeping or gross negligence while on
the look out—two days’ pay.
12. Not extinguishing lights at the times
ordered—one day’s pay.
13. Smoking below—one day’s pay.
14. Neglecting to bring up, open out, and
air bedding, when ordered—half day’s pay.
15. (For the cook.) Not having any meal of
the crew ready at appointed time— one day’s
pay.
16. Not attending Divine service on
Sunday, unless prevented by sickness or duty
—one day’s pay.
17. Interrupting Divine service by inde-
corous conduct—one day’s pay.
18. Not being cleaned, shaved, and washed
on Sundays—one day's pay.
19. Washing clothes on Sundays — one
day’s pay.
20. Secreting contraband goods on board
with intent to smuggle—one month’s pay.
21. Destroying or defacing the copy of the
agreement which is made accessible to the
crew—one day’s pay.
22. Officers guilty of above offences shall
be liable to fine of twice the number of days’
pay which would be exacted from a seaman
for like offence.
It does not, however, follow that the above
table is to be adopted in toto. There is a blank
space leftin the agreement form, wherein is to be
inserted the numbers of the above regulations
which are mutually agreed upon. For example,
smoking below is 13th on the list, and if the
yacht owner wished to make smoking below a
breach of discipline he would put 13 in the
blank space in the agreement form, and so on.
For the purpose of legally enforcing any of
the foregoing fines, the same course must be
adopted as in the enforcement of the
statutable penalties; that is to say, as soon
as the offence is committed a memorandum
of it should be inserted in the official log-
book which should always be kept when the
yacht is on a foreign cruise. The entry in the
log-book must be signed by the master, mate,
or one of the crew, and a copy of the entry
must be read over to the offender before the
ship reaches port, or departs from port, and
if the offender is discharged before a mercan-
tile marine superintendent the entry should be
shown, and the fine, if any, should be de-
ducted from the wages and paid over to the
superintendent.
The following are the Queen's Regulations
for the Royal Navy as to smoking :
“The hours when smoking is to be per-
mitted, providing it does not interfere with
the carrying on of duty, are as follows:
I. During the meal hours of the ship’s
company, and after quarters to 8 p.m.
at sea and 9 p.m. in harbour.
II. On Sundays, and also on Thursdays,
when it does not interfere with the
duties of the ship, in the afternoons
until the pipe “clear up decks.”
III. The captain may also permit (if he sees
fit) smoking during the night watches
for a short period, not exceeding one
hour in each watch.
IV. Smoking in the boats is prohibited when
on duty, unless the boats are detached
for any length of time on service, in
which case smoking may be allowed
within the hours prescribed on board
ship.”
WAGES.
A seaman’s right to wages and provisions
begins either at the time at which he com-
mences work, or at the time specified in
the agreement for his arrival on board, which-
ever first happens, so that if a seaman goes
on board and works sooner than he need have
done, his right to wages does not necessarily
date from the time he went on board,
When a seaman is desirous of having not
more than half his wages paid to his wife
and family or placed in a savings bank, the
stipulation may be inserted in the agreement
signed by the master and crew ; but it will in
that case be necessary for the yacht owner to
make provision for the amounts allowed being
regularly paid on shore. In the case of
merchant shipping, this is done by the owners
or owners’ agents. As advance notes are
now illegal, the payments to the seaman’s
relations, under an allotment note, will not begin
until the expiration of one month, or, if the
money is to be placed in a savings bank, at
the expiration of three months from the date
of the agreement, because the payments are
only to be made out of wages already earned.
Speaking generally, so long as a seaman
only does his duty, although he may throw
into the performance of it an extraordinary
amount of zeal, he cannot maintain any claim
for extra remuneration ; and any promise by
the master to pay something additional under
ordinary circumstances is void ; just as in
hiring cabs licensed by the commissioners of
police in London, a cabman can only claim
his legal fare, although the hirer may have
promised a larger sum for the journey. But
if the circumstances are such that the men
would be justified in refusing to proceed to
sea—as for instance, if the vessel were unsea-
worthy, or dangerously short-handed—then,
in the words of Lord Campbell, the sailors
would be in the condition of freemen, and free
to make a new contract and in that case they
would be entitled to claim whatever extra
sum the master might agree to give.
As regards the payment of wages, the sea-
man is entitled, at the time of leaving the ship,
to 21., or quarter of the sum due to him,
680
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Seaman—continued.
which ever is the least, and the balance must
be paid by the master within two clear days
(exclusive of Sunday and Bank Holidays)
after the Seaman leave the ship ; but this pro-
vision is Scarcely in practice applicable to
seamen on board yachts.
As we have already stated, the Employers
and Workmen Act, 1875, now applies to sea-
men, and gives County Courts an extended
jurisdiction in proceedings between a yacht
owner and a member of the crew. The Act
provides also that a dispute may be heard and
determined before justices, but they may
exercise jurisdiction where the amount claimed
exceeds 10b. ; nor can they make an order for
the payment of any sum exceeding 10l., ex-
clusive of costs; nor can they require security
for more than 10l. from a defendant or his
sureties. Should a yacht sailor find it neces-
sary to sue for his wages, he will do either
before justices in a County Court having
Admiralty jurisdiction, or under the Em-
ployers and Workmen Act.
Sea, Mile.—See ‘‘R not.”
Sea Pie.—A dish made up of all sorts in layers.
Sea Way.—Generally used in the sense of waves
in an open Sea, meaning a disturbed sea.
Seaworthy.—In every respect fit to go to sea. In
chartering a ship it is insisted that she must
be “tight, staunch and strong, and well
equipped, manned with an adequate crew,
provisions,” &c.
Second Topsail.--A gaff topsail between the
largest (the latter not being a ballooner) and
the jib-headed topsail.
Seizing.—A way of securing a bight of a rope
by a lashing so as to form an eye, or of
securing any parts of ropes together.
Selvagee Strop.–A strop made of spun yarn laid
up in coils and marled. (See “Strop.”)
Serve.—To cover a rope with spun yarn called
‘‘ Service.’’
Serving Mallet.—The mallet which riggers use to
wind service round ropes and bind it up
tightly together.
Set.—To hoist or make sail. This word is some-
times improperly confused with “sit ’’ in
reference to the way a sail stands.
Set Flying.—Not set on a stay or bent by a
lacing ; a jib in a cutter is set flying.
Set of the Tide.—Direction of the current.
Setting Up.–Purchasing up rigging taut.
Sewed or Swed.—The condition of a vessel that
grounds and on the return of the tide is not
floated. If the tide does not lift her by
2ft. She is said to be “ Sewed ‘’ 2ft. If the
tide on falling does not leave her quite dry,
she is said to “sew’’ 1ft., 2ft., 3ft., or more,
as the case may be.
Shackle.—A U-shaped crook with an eye in each
end, through which a screw bolt is passed.
Variously used, and are often preferred to hooks.
(Fig. 373.) There is a shackle at every fifteen
fathoms of cable, So that by unshackling it
the cable can be divided into many parts.
Useful if the cable has to be slipped.
FIG. 373.
Shadow Sail.-This was a contrivance patented
by Messrs. Harvey and Pryer, of Wivenhoe,
% / º \\ N & º
* §:
--- - -- * w
2% sº
- *** *
FIG. 374.
in 1874, as an improvement on the Spinnaker.
It consisted of a gaff, goose-necked to the fore
šsº
FIG. 375.
side of the masthead, and a boom to the fore
side of the mast at deck. When the spars









Dictionary of General Information.
681
were in their places (the gaff being set up by
halyards similar to the peak halyards of the
mainsail), the sail was hoisted by its peak
earing and throat, and hauled out by its clew
to the boom end. Above the gaff a jib-headed
topsail was hoisted. There were an after-brace
for the gaff, an aft and a fore guy and topping
lift for the boom. The sails were nearly of
the dimensions of the main sails. (See Fig.
374.) Practically it was found that there was
too much gear for the sail to be got out in a
hurry, and in a strong wind the spars and gear
would not have borne the strain of such large
Sails; and so the spinnaker remains in use.
We believe Messrs. Harvey and Pryer’s patent
has only been fitted to the Seabelle, and she
only tried it once in a match.
The plan appears to have been invented by
Mr. N. M. Cummins, as that gentleman had a
“shadow” fitted to his yacht Electra in 1869.
Fig. 375 is a sketch of the Electra under
the shadow or “cloud,” as Mr. Cummins
termed it. (See “Spinnaker.”)
Shake, To.—To sail a vessel so close to wind that
the weather cloths of the sails shake ; the head
sails generally are the first to shake, and if the
helmsman does not notice it someone who does
sings out, “ All shaking forward ;’’ or ‘‘Near
forward.”
Shake Owt a Reef.--To untie the reef points and
unroll a reef.
Shallow Bodied.—With a very limited depth of
hold.
Shape a Course.—To steer a particular course.
Sharp Bottomed or Sharp Floored.—A vessel
with V-shaped sections.
Sharp Bowed.—With a very fine entrance or a
bow whose two sides form a very acute angle.
Superior Hurface it presents can be considered
as a compensation. Many yacht builders
obtain the copper sheathing of Messrs. Neville,
T)ruce, and Co., 13, Sherborne-lane, E.C., and
Messrs. Vivian and Son, Bond-court House,
Walbrook.
Sheave.—The wheel within a block or in the
sheave hole of a spar over which ropes pass.
Sheepshamle.—A plan of shortening a rope by
taking up a part and folding it into two loops
Sharp Sterned.—A stern shaped something like
the fore end or bow, thus ~.
Sheathing.—The copper sheets put on the bottom
of a vessel. 160Z. and 200Z. copper is gene-
rally used for yachts. Sometimes 200Z. copper
at the load line, and 16oz. below. The sizes
and weight of sheathing are usually as fol-
lows:–48im. by 201m., and more commonly
for yachts 48in. by 14im. The weight per
sheet of the 48in. by 20in. is 7.5lb., there
being 18oz. to the square foot. The weight
per sheet of the 48in. by 14in. is as under :
16oz. 4' 67 lb. 28oz. 11.671b.
20 , , 5-83 ,, 32 , 12'33 ,,
160 nails to a sheet, or lowt. nails to every
100 sheets. The allowance made for old copper
is generally one-eighth less the price paid for
new. That is, if the price of new copper be
80l. per ton, the price of old will be 70l. per
tom. This price is subject to another deduc-
tion of 5lb. per cwt. for dross, &c. Copper
is usually put on so that the edges overlap,
but in the case of a few yachts the edges of
the copper have been butted : that is, the edges
were laid edge to edge and the nails were
counter sunk and scoured down. Of course
this plan entails enormous trouble, but the
FIG. 376.
or bights, and then putting a half hitch of
each standing part over a bight (Fig. 376).
Sheer.—The fore-and-aft curve of a vessel’s deck
or bulwarks.
To sheer is to put the rudder over when a
vessel is at anchor, so as to cause her to move
laterally and ride clear of her anchor. A
vessel is said to break her sheer when she
departs from the sheer that has been given her.
Sheer Hulk.—An old vessel fitted with sheers,
whereby masts are lifted into other vessels.
Sometimes used in the sense that nothing but
the hulk remains.
Sheer Mast.—Two masts fitted in the form of a
triangle, termed sheers.
Sheer Plam, or Sheer Drawght.—A drawing
showing a longitudinal vertical section or
profile of a vessel. 4.
Sheers.--Two spars erected in the form of a
triangle (apex uppermost), to raise or lift
heavy spars by.
Shelf.-A strong piece of timber running the
whole length of the vessel inside the timber
heads, binding the timbers together; the
deck beams rest on and are fastened to the
shelf.
Sheet.—A rope or chain by which the lower after
corners of sails are secured.
Sheet Bends.—Fig. 377 is a single sheet bend,
and Fig. 378 a double sheet bend.
FIG. 377.
FIG. 37S.
Sheet Home.—To strain or haul on a sheet until
the foot of a sail is as straight or taut as it
can be got. When the clew of a gaff topsail is
hauled close out to the check block on the gaff.
In practice, a gaff topsail sheet, however, is
seldom sheeted home, as when once home no
further strain could be brought on it ; a
few inches drift is therefore usually allowed.


682
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
In Square-rigged vessels a sail is said to be
sheeted home when the after clews are hauled
close out to the sheet blocks or sheave holes in
the yard. This no doubt is the origin of the
term.
Shifting Backstays. – The topmast backstays
which are only temporarily set up and shifted
every time a vessel is put about or gybed.
(See “Preventer.”)
Shifting Ballast.—Ballast carried for shifting to
windward to add to stiffness. A practice
Severely condemned in yacht racing.
Shifting her Berth.--When a vessel removes from
an anchorage, &c.
Shift of Plamk.—The distance one plank overlaps
another.
Shift Ports, To.—To proceed from one port to
another.
Shift Tacks, To.—To go from one tack to the
other.
Shift the Helm.—To move the tiller from one
side to the other ; thus, if it is put to port, an
order to shift the helm means put it to star-
board.
Shift of Wind.—A change of wind.
Shin Up.–To climb up the shrouds by the hands
and shins, when they are not rattled down.
Ship, To.—To put anything in position. To engage
as one of the crew of a vessel. To ship a
Sea, to ship a crutch, to ship a seaman, &c.
Ship Shape.—Done in a proper and unimpeach-
able manner.
Ship Shape and Brislol Fashion.—An expression
probably originating in days gone by when
Bristol shipbuilders and seamen were in great
repute.
Ships’ Papers.--These include builders’ certifi-
cate, register (in case of not being an original
owner, bill of sale as well), bill of lading, bill
of health, &c. Also in the case of a yacht
her Admiralty warrant.
Shiver.—To luff up and cause the sails to shiver
or lift.
Shiver the Mizen.—To luff up until the mizen
lifts or shivers.
Shoe or Shod.—Iron plates rivetted to the ends
of wire rigging to receive shackle bolts.
Shore.—A beach. A support of wood or iron, a
prop.
Short Tacks or Short Boards.—Beating or working
to windward by frequent tacking.
Shortem.—The wind is said to shorten when it
comes more ahead. To shorten sail, to take in
sail.
Shoot.—To move through the water after the
means of propulsion is withdrawn.
Shy.—The wind is said to shy when it comes
from ahead or breaks a vessel off.
Side I(elsons.—Stout pieces of timber fitted fore
and aft on either side of the keel.
Side Lights.--The red (port) and green (star-
board) lights carried by vessels when under
way. Small yachts during bad weather are
not required to have their side lights fixed,
but must always have them ready on deck on
their proper sides ready to show. Open boats
must carry lights, and if the usual side lights
are not used they must have lanterns fitted
with green and red slides, to show when
required. Steam yachts and Steam launches,
in addition to tho wswal side lights, must carry
a white light at the masthead. Steam vessels
when towing must carry two white lights
(vertically) at the masthead. All vessels when
at anchor are required to exhibit after Sundown
a white light at a height not exceeding 20ft.
above the hull. This light must be visible
one mile, and show all round the horizon. It
is usual to put this light on the forestay.
Pilot vessels carry a white masthead light, and
exhibit a “flare up ’’ every fifteen minutes.
Fishing vessels and open boats, when riding to
mets, carry a white light and show a flare up
occasionally. If drift netting, a fishing boat
must carry two red lights vertically. A
ship which is being overtaken by another
ship must show a white light or flare
up over her stern. Previous to 1847 there
had been no regulation as to the carrying
of lights; the custom being for ships to
exhibit a light over their sides when ap-
proaching each other at night ; but in 1847
the Admiralty were empowered to make
regulations respecting lights, and steamers
were ordered to exhibit a white light at the
masthead, a green light to starboard, and a
red light to port, and vessels at anchor a bright
light. And Sailing ships were ordered to
show, when required, a green light on the
starboard side and a red to port. As between
Steamships and Bailing vessels, the latter were
required to present a light to the former where
there was any danger of collision. The Ad-
miralty Court acted upon the Admiralty Rules.
The Order in Council issued in pursuance of
the Act, and dated June 29, 1848, and the Act
1852, re-affirmed the former regulations as to
Steamers, and recommended all sailing vessels
to be provided with red and green shaded
lanterns, and lights to be shown on the port or
Starboard bow, according to the side a vessel
might be approaching. Section 295 of the
Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, confirmed the
powerH of the Admiralty to the same extent
as before. The Merchant Shipping Act, 1862,
did not alter the law with respect to Hteamers,
but made it compulsory on sailing ships to
keep their side lights fixed instead of dis-
playing red or green lights by hand lamps.
(See “Lights.”)
Siding or Sided.—The size of a timber, &c.,
between its two-plane and parallel sides.
(See “Moulding.”)
Sight the Anchor.—To heave up the anchor.
Signal of Distress.-An ensign hoisted jack down-
wards.
Sister Block.-A double block with two sheaves
of the same size one above the other, and
seized to the topmast shrouds of square
rigged ships to receive the lifts and reef
tackle pendants.
Dictionary of General Information.
683
Sit.—Sails are said to “sit ’’ well when they do
not girt, pucker, belly, or shake. This word
is sometimes wrongly written “set.”
Skeet.—An instrument (usually a horn on a stick)
for wetting sails. In old yacht club rules
Skeeting to windward only was allowed, as it
was thought the skeet might be used as a
means of propulsion. “Fire engines '' were
occasionally used for skeeting, but the prac-
tice has gone out of fashion.
Skids.-Pieces of timber put under a boat for
resting her on deck, or when launching off.
Skiff.—A small boat used by coast watermen for
the conveyance of passengers.
Skim.—The outside or inside planking of a vessel.
Skimming.—In stowing a mainsail lifting the out-
side part up time after time, the bunt forming
a kind of bag.
Skin Resistance.—The resistance a vessel meets
with owing to the friction of the water on her
plank or sheathing. (See “Resistance.”)
Skipper.—A slang term for the master of a yacht
or other vessel. Ancient, “Schipper.”
Skysail.—A square sail set above the royals.
Sky Scraper.—A triangular sail set above the
skysail. Sometimes the sail next above the
skysail is a square sail and termed a moon-
sail ; the sail above that a stargazer.
Sky Pilot.—A term applied by sailors to chaplains. ,
(See “Fire Escape.”)
Slab Line.—A rope used to brail up the foot of
COll]"SeS.
Slab Reef.-A kind of half-reef in a mainsail
below the first reef, it takes up the foot or
slab of the sail.
Slack.-Not taut. To slack up a rope or fall of
a tackle is to ease it.
Slack Helm.—When a vessel carries very little, if
any, weather helm.
Slack Tide.—The tide between the two streams
when it runs neither one way nor the other.
There are high-water slack, and low-water slack.
Slack im Stays.-Slow in coming head to wind,
and still slower in paying off.
Slamt of Wind.—A favouring wind. A wind that
frees a vessel when close-hauled.
Sleep, or All Asleep—When the sails are full and
do not flap or shiver.
Sliding Gwinter.—A gentleman under the signa-
ture of “Far West '’ says he has used a form
of sliding gunter as shown by Fig. 379. It is
fitted as shown, the sail goes up and down as
a cutter's sail, but with one halyard. On
letting go the halyard, the sail falls into the
boat in a moment ; it is made up on the
boom, and covered in the usual way. If the
traveller is made as shown it never jams,
running up and down easily. The traveller
does not come into play under full sail, but
when reefed down the yard is sent up to its
proper place, and the downhaul, which is
spliced to the traveller, hauled taut ; this
holds the yard to the mast, setting the sail
well. The masthead, or pole, should be as
long as the distance between the tack and the
upper reef cringle ; the sail may be further
reefed by lashing the halyard a foot or more
above where it is fast to the yard.
FIG. 379.
Sliding Keel.—An old term for a keel which was
lifted at the ends in contradistinction a
pivoted board. See page 245.
Slings.-Ropes or strops used to support or sling
yards, &c.
Slip.–To let go, as to slip the cable.
Sloop.–A fore-and-aft rigged vessel something
like a cutter, but usually has a standing bow-
sprit. Small sloops have only one head sail
set on a stay. (See page 247.)
Slot.—An aperture generally for a pin or bolt to
travel in.
Smack.-A small trading vessel usually cutter
rigged. A fishing cutter.
Small Helm.—Said of a vessel when she carries
weather helm.
Snatch Block.-A block with an opening in the
FIG. 380.
shell so that a rope can be put over the sheave
without reeving it. (See Fig. 380.)
Sneak Boat.-A shallow and beamy boat in use
on the Ohio and Mississippi.


684.
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Snotter.—A double-eyed strop used to support
the heel of a sprit on the mast.
Snow.—A two-masted vessel with a stay, termed
a horse, from the mainmast head to the poop
on which a trysail was set. Sometimes a
spar was fitted instead of the stay.
Snºwb.—To bring a vessel up suddenly when she
has way on and only a short range of cable
to veer out. Sometimes necessary if the vessel
must be stopped at all costs, but a practice
likely to break the fluke of an anchor if it is
a good and quick holder.
Smwg.—Comfortably canvassed to suit the weather.
Anything made meat, or stowed compactly.
So l—An order to cease, often given instead of
“belay ” when men are hauling on a rope.
Soldiers’ Wind.—A wind so that a vessel cam
lie her course all through to her destination
without tacking or any display of Seamanship.
Sooji Mooji.-A caustic composition sold by yacht
fitters for cleaning off old paint, varnish, &c.
It can be obtained of any ship chandler, or of
G. Wilson, Sherwood-street, Piccadilly.
Sowmd.—Not decayed or rotten; free of shakes,
splits, crushings, &c.
Sowmding.—See “Lead.”
Sowndings.--To be near enough to land for the
deep sea lead to find a bottom.
Spales.—Cross shores used to keep the frame of a
vessel in position whilst building.
Spam.—A rope made fast by either end to a spar
or stay, usually for the purpose of hooking a
tackle to. Very long spans are now com-
monly fitted to gaffs to hook the peak hal-
yards to. (See page 64.)
Spanish Burton.—A purchase composed of three
single blocks. A double Spanish Burton
consists of one double and two single blocks.
Spanish Reef.-A knot tied in the head of a jib-
headed sail to shorten the hoist or reduce the
area of the sail.
Spamker.—The fore-and-aft sail set with boom
and gaff on the mizen of a square-rigged
ship ; termed also the driver.
Spam Shackle.—A bolt with a triangular shackle.
The gammon iron that encircles the bowsprit
at the stem. When it is directly over the
stem the forestay is shackled to it.
Spars.—The masts, booms, gaffs, yards, bowsprit,
&c., of a vessel.
Spars, Menswration of.-Cubical contents of a
spar can thus be found. Find the area of
each end (see “Area of Circles);” add the areas
of the circles together and halve the sum.
Multiply the half by the length of the spar.
If the spar tapers towards each end, the area
of each end and the middle area should be
taken, added together and divided by 3.
And the plan is as follows: take the girth
(see circumference “Areas of Circles”) of
the spar at each end and halve it. Find the
square of the half, and multiply it by the
length of the spar. If the spar tapers at
both ends, find the girths at three places, halve
and divide by 3; find the square of the
quotient, and multiply it by the length of the
spar. The weight of spars can be found by
multiplying their solid contents by the weight
in pounds of a cubic foot of the wood the spar
is made of. Thus a cubic foot of red pine
will weigh from 32 to 40lb., and a cubic foot
of oak from 53 to 60lb. (See “Weight and
Bulk of Substances.”)
Spectacle Strop.–A short strop with an eye at
each end. (See Plate W.)
Speed Indicators.—Tholog-line, log-ship (see “Log
Line '’), and sand-glass have done service in
testing speed for more than two hundred years;
but they make at the best a clumsy contrivance,
and it is not surprising that many attempts have
been made to supersede it. Of these perhaps
Massey’s and Walker's logs are the best
known, and, with certain limitations, the most
reliable; but one objection to those has been
that they do not show at a glance the rate of
sailing, and, if anything fouls the log, the
record of the distance sailed through the
water is imperfoct. Another disadvantage—
although, it must be confessed, it is a small
one—is that, before the distance run can be
ascertained, the log has to be hauled in.
In 1871 we recollect witnessing some ex-
periments in America, with a fantail log
attached to a small wire, which necessarily
turned with the log. The wire was attached
to some clock-like machinery on the poop, and
a dial recorded the number of miles sailed.
This instrument was said to have kept a true
record of distances in a voyage to the West
Indies and back ; but, as it does not appear
to have come into general use, it may be
presumed that it was subject to mishaps.
Reynolds’s “pendant log '' is similar to the
American contrivance, inasmuch as it registers
on board the miles run.
The speed indicators which most resemble
the line and log-ship in its results are those
which only show the rate of sailing per hour,
and do not record the distance traversed. Of
these perhaps Berthon’s log, or adaptation of
it, is the most in favour, and if properly
adjusted, marks very accurately the speed per
hour at any moment. Berthon’s log consists
of a tube, which passes through the keel, or
any immersed part of the hull, and, as the
water will rise in this tube in accordance with
the speed through the water, it was not a
difficult matter to adjust a speed indicator in
connection with the tube.
Another kind of log, on the dynamic prin-
ciple, is one invented by the late Mr. Joseph
Maudslay. This was a very simple contri-
vance, and consisted of an ordinary Salter's
spring balance, a line, and small weight.
The line was 25 fathoms long, and 1 inch
in circumference. The lead weight was
6 inches long, 1% inches in diameter, and
weighed about 23 lb. The ends of the lead
were rounded off. A hole was made through
the lead from end to end, through which the
line was passed and secured by a knot With
12 fathoms of this line and lead immersed
the resistance at two knots per hour was
found to be 11b., and for other speeds the
resistance increased nearly as the Square of
Dictionary of General Information. 685
the speed ; thus at two knots the resistance
is 11b. ; at ten knots, or five times greater
Speed, the resistance is 25lb., as 5 × 5–25.
We Some years ago tested this log with
Berthon's, and on different occasions on the
measured mile, and found the speed pretty
accurately indicated so long as the water was
Smooth ; but when it came to rough water,
the lead jumped about so that it was impos-
sible to arrive at the exact speed.
If lead weight is dispensed with the line will
not jump out of the water so badly, and a
steadier pull can be obtained. In 1877 wo
tried an experiment by towing a rope astern
of a steam launch, and found the resistance to
Vary nearly as the square of the speed as set
forth in the middle column. The rope forming
the “log '' was 13 fathoms long, the whole of
which was permanently immersed. The rope
Was four stranded, “water-laid,” and one inch
and a quarter (1% inch) in circumference. A
Smaller line was spliced to the other as a tow
line, as much of this being payed out as was
sufficient to keep the larger rope immersed, or
to prevent any part of the thirteen fathoms
being towed out of water. At the splice, and
on the larger piece of rope, was a piece of
lead pipe about a foot long (with an inside
diameter equal to the diameter of the rope).
This served the double purpose of showing at
a glance if the whole of the larger rope was
not immersed, and helped to maintain the
immersion. The after end of the larger rope
should be whipped.
The log patented by Mr. Clark Russell is
similar to this arrangement; but the spring
balance had a compensating wheel gearing
to prevent the index hand jumping. In 1888
a yacht captain brought out a similar con-
trivance, and it can be obtained of Messrs.
Fay and Son, Southampton.
On the face of the spring balance the numbers
of the knots should be engraved opposite the
resistance in pounds as set forth in the table.
In all cases speed indicators or logs only show
the speed through the water; and to calculate
the distance made to the good over the ground
the tide must be eliminated.
Resistance .*
Knots. of Pro- oft; 'S
sed Log º: y
poº Ib Log in Ib.
2 1} 1
3 2} 2}
4. 4} 4.
5 7% 6}
6 11 9
7 15 12}
8 19; 16-2Oz
9 24% 20%
10 30% 25
11 37 30}
12 44 36
13. 51% 4.2%
| 14 60 49
| 15 | 69 56}
Speed of Yachts.-No doubt very exaggerated
opinions prevail as to the speed an English
yacht is capable of. Very frequently there is
a mistake made about the distance sailed in a
certain time ; no allowance has been made for
tide, or the speed has been inaccurately judged.
So far as our experience goes, the following
table gives the extreme speed sailing yachts of
certain length and tonnage have attained :
| t
- Equivalent Knots per - • *- :
Tength. TO |nage (). M. h 'º' Time per mile.
ft. Min. Sec.
9 0. 3.75 1(; ()
16 1% 5' ()() 12 ()
25 4; (; 25 9 36
36 (; 7:50 S ()
41 r 1() | 8. 7 30
49 - 20 S-75 (; 51
(;4 , 4() 1(). ! (; ()
8] . 1()() 11.25 5 2ſ)
100 | 19() 12:50 4 48
121 | 320 13-75 4 21
14-1 400 15:00 4. ()
These observed speeds correspond with the
theory that speed varies as the square roots
of the length on load water-line in vessels of
similar form and proportions. Of course, the
speeds could be exceeded if the boats could
carry sufficient sail.
There are some apparently well-authenti-
cated reports that yachts of 121ft. on the

LAT. N. LONG. W. MILES. COURSE.
D. M. S. D. M. S.
July 28 40 29 32 | 73 21 00 27 E. : S.
29 40 32 3S | 67 27 0 279 E. # S.
30 || 41 23 38 61 32 0 273 E. } S.
31 || 43 32 00 56 55 0 229 E.
Aug. 1 || 44 41 39 54 26 15 112 E. by S. § S.
2 || 45 20 23 || 51 25 15 134 E. by S.
3 || 46 25 17 || 47 10 15 192 E. by S.
4 || 47 30 49 || 41 52 45 23S E. by S.
5 || 49 3 18 || 35 21 15 315* E. by S.
G | 50 53 56 29 33 15 244 E.S.E.
7 || 50 56 40 24 14 30 192 S.E. by E.
S 51 ()7 30 || 17 06 00 271 S.E. by E. § E.
9 || 50 42 25 10 12 15 255 S, E. by E. § E.
96 E. by N. ; N.
Total miles ......... 2857
WIND. REMARKS.
S.W. Fine breeze.
S Fresh breeze, making 9 to 14 knots thick
fog; ran 47 miles in 3 hours.
S. by W. Making 16 knots, wind died out to calm, foggy.
W.S.W Light breeze and fog; got a glimpse of sun
• *-* - w w e for latitude.
W.N.W. Ilight breeze; dense fog S p.m., nearly calm.
Nearly calm, only going 1 knot sometimes;
W. by S. dense fog. 8-y
W.S.W. {Pº fog; moderate breeze; fog lifted
p.m.
S. Fine breeze, clear weather.
S.S.W. I'resh breeze; very smooth, sea like a lake.
S.W. Fog and rain; moderate breeze.
W.S.W. Tresh breeze, with swell.
N.W. by N. Fine breeze. l
(Overcast; fresh breeze, increasing to fresh
N.W. by N. \ gale; sighted land 4.15 p.m. ty
N. by E.
* The run of 315 miles on Aug. 5 was an average of 13:1 knots an hour.
(3S6 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
On July 8 the latitude was 46° 38' S.,
longitude 119° 44' E. The foregoing par-
ticulars were published by her commander,
Mr. Samuel Reid, in the I’ield of April 16,
1887. The James Bainos, in the Southern
Oceam, June 17, 1856, did 418 miles in the
24 hours, latitude 43° 31' S., longitude
106° 15' E. On the 18th she logged for a
time 21 knots per hour. The Lightning is
said to have averaged 18 knots for 24 hours
—that is, 432 miles in the 24 hours, and the
James Baines, on a voyago to Australia, in
1855, is credited with 430 knots in the 24
hours. In all cases nautical miles or knots
are meant, and not statute miles.
The Melbourne in a passage to Australia.
in 1876 averaged 300 miles for 17 consecutive
days. Her greatest runs were 374, 365, and
352 miles per 24 hours. (See “Time Allow-
ance by Length.”)
Spell.—The torm of work allotted to any of the
men in a watch. Thus there is the spell at
the helm termed “trick ;” spell at the mast-
head to look out, spell at the pump, &c.
When a man's time comes to be relieved
and the one who has to take his place lags,
the former sings out “Spell O !” (See
“Trick.”)
Spencer.—A fore-and-aft sail set with gaffs in
square-rigged ships, as trysails on the fore
and main mast.
Spider Hoop or Spider Band.—An iron band
round the mast with iron belaying pins
in it.
Spiling.—Marking on a bar of wood the distances
that a curved line (say that of a frame) is
from a straight line.
Spilling Lines. – Ropes attached to sails for
spilling them of wind in reefing or furling.
Spindle Jib.-A jib topsail.
Spinmaker.—A jib-headed sail reaching from the
topmast head to the deck, first introduced in
yacht racing in a Royal London match, June 5,
1865, by Mr. William Gordon in the Niobe,
and hence for some timo termed a “Ni-obe.”
The term “spinnaker’’ appears to have been
applied to it as a kind of nickname, without
“rhyme or reason.” In 1866 Mr. Herbert
Maudslay had a similar sail made for his
yacht Sphinx, and it was first used in a match
of the Royal Victoria Yacht Club at Ryde.
The men called the yacht “Spinks,” and
hence the Itchen Ferry men nicknamed the
sail a “Spinker,” as the year before they
called it a Ni-obe. From spinker came
Spinniker, or, as now written, “spinnaker.”
The word, as heard spoken by the crew
of the Sphinx, was introduced into our
nautical vocabulary by the author of this
work in describing a yacht match he sailed
at Ryde on board the Sphinx, Aug. 15, 1866,
and reported in the Field of Aug. 18. The word
load-line havo reached a spood of 16 knots
per hour. The American yacht, Sappho is,
said to have made such a speed ; and as
doubts have at various times been thrown
upon the statement, an extract from her log
book in crossing the Atlantic in 1869 is given on
page 685. The Sappho loft Sandy Hook Light-
ship 7 a.m. July 28, and arrived Queenstown
Harbour 9 p.m. Aug. 9, Queenstown time,
making the run in 12 days 9 hours 36 min.
(two hours less to the Old Head of ICinsale).
It will be seen that the strong wind was on
the quarter the whole way, and as the sea was
exceptionally smooth, more favourable con-
ditions for attaining high speed could not
have been had. As a rule, with a strong
wind, there is a great deal of sea, and this,
of course, is an unfavourable condition for the
attainment of high speeds.
In the Atlantic race of 1886, between the
American yachts Dauntless and Coronet, the
Dauntless logged 328 miles in 24 hours, whilst
the biggest run of the Coronet was 291 miles.
It is equally well authenticated that the
American yacht Meteor (which was lost in the
Mediterranean), in a passage from Cowes to
Lisbon in 1869, logged 319 miles in 24 hours,
with a strong quarterly double-reef wind.
During some portion of the 24 hours the
Meteor logged 16 knots. The Cambria, in the
Atlantic yacht race 1870 only attained a
maximum specd of 113 knots, but there was
a heavy quarter Hea, whenever she had a
strong fair wind. The greatest sustained
speed that we have ever been witnesses to in
a match was in a race between the Livonia
(106ft. on the water-line) and Columbia (98ft.)
in America. The Livonia, did the distance
between the S.W. Spit buoy and Sandy Hook
Lightship, 8% nautical miles, in 40 minutes, or at
the rate of 13 knots an hour; and no doubt that
Home part of the time she was going 133 knots.
The tide was not strong, and abeam. In a match
of the Royal Victoria Yacht Club, Ryde, on
Aug. 12, 1885, the Irex (cutter, 83°5ft. on the
water-line) in a strong reaching wind went
round a course of 50 miles in four hours eight
minutes. The tide was equally with and against
her, so the average speed through the water
was 121 knots. We do not think this speed has
been much exceeded by English yachts of the
lengths given, but the late Mr.Thellusson stated
that the Guinevere (121ft. L.W.L.) logged 14
knots. It is recorded that the American clipper
ship Sovereign of the Seas in 1852 averaged
300 miles a day for eleven consecutive days,
and 333 miles for four consecutive days. Her
greatest distance any day, noon to noon, was
362 miles; but in 1853, on a voyage from Oaton
to New York she ran 396 miles on March 16,
and on the 18th 411. The ship Red Jacket, New
York to England, January, 1853, logged 417
knots, and in the Southern Ocean, July, 1853,
she made the following remarkable record:
jº, Kºº. jº"; Knºts. Dato. Knots next appeared in print in Hunt’s “Yachting
Ul sº ; º ºg ; July # • 2 º' - - - ; Magazine’’ for September, 1866, in reference
} ) - - J U W. * * * * * * * * * * **** "A s a 1 & a v c e º º º -
, 2 ...... 288. ... j..... }57 5 * to the same match, apparently taken from the
6 ...... 400 º, 10...... 334 Total... 318.5 Field. He first spelt the word “spinniker,”
Dictionary of General Information.
687
and the “spinnaker’’ form was not intro-
duced until 1869. Prior to the introduction
of the spinnaker a square sail and square top-
sail or raffee were used. The accompanying cut
(Fig. 381) was made in 1854, and represents
the Phantom (cutter, 27 tons) in a match on
the Thames. Sometimes a large jib was hoisted
by a block lashed half way up the topmast,
and boomed out by the tack (if allowed by
the rules) when before the wind. These large
head sails were, however, generally prohibited,
and the following is a copy of the rule of the
Royal Thames Yacht Club prior to 1865:
“That all yachts cutter rigged, and not
|ſ|| || || //
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ſiſ/ſ/ º////ſº
ºff//// %
/////º/,
ſ/// ſº %
///// º
A # , ; ; ; %|
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FIG. 381.
carrying more than four fore and aft sails,
be eligible to sail; but no jib to exceed 2ft.
in the head mor to be hoisted above the main-
mast head, neither shall it be boomed out.”
It was the rescinding of this rule in 1865
that brought into existence the “Ni-obe '’
or “spinniker.” Mr. MacMullen, in his
“Down Channel ” (published in 1869), says
that he had a similar sail in 1852; but
booming out a big jib was always a common
practice both on board yachts and fishing
smacks.
º º-º-º-º-
Eºº-ºº-ºº:
-*
Spindle Model.-A name given to a cylindrical
model tapering at the ends.
Spindrift.—See “Spoon Drift.”
Spiricetting.—Timber worked inside a vessel under
the shelf in a fore-and-aft direction.
Spitfire.—The smallest storm jib.
Splice.—To join the ends of rope together by
interweaving the untwisted strands. An eye
splice is formed by interweaving the untwisted
end of a rope in the lay of the strands.
Split Lug.—A lugsail in two parts (Fig. 382);
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
/ || – T
FIG. 382.
the fore part is sheeted like a foresail, and in
going about the tack is never cast off, nor is
the tack of the after part of the
sail. The up and down lines
on the sail show where it is
divided and where the mast
comes. To heave to, the clew
(after cringle) of the fore part
of the lug would be hauled up
to the mast or to windward of
it, easing the mainsheet as
required. The split lug is not
in much favour. The standing
lug (or even balance lug) and
foresail rig has all the advan-
tages of the split lug without so
much yard forward of the mast
and without the disadvantage of
not being able to lower the fore
part or foresail. The most that
can be said in favour of the split
lug is that it points out the
advantages of a main and fore-
sail in preference to one sail.
Spoken.—Said when one ship has
spoken to another by signal.
Spokes.—The bars of the wheel of
a ship radiating from the boss.
“To give her a spoke ’’ is to move the wheel
to the extent of the distance between spoke
and spoke.
Sponson.—The platform ahead and abaft paddle
wheels, usually outside the bulwarks, but
sometimes inclosed.
Spoon Drift.—Spray blown from the crests of
Wą, WQS.
Spring.—A warp or hawser or rope.
Spring a Mast.—To crack or splinter a mast.
Spring her Luff.--To ease the weather tiller lines
so that a vessel will luff to a free puff.
sº
~. º-º-º













688
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Sprit Sail.—A four-sided sail stretched by a
pole termed a sprit (Fig. 383). This is a
time-honoured contrivance for setting a sail
Start, T'o.—To move, as to slacken a sheet or tack.
To start a butt is to cause a plank to shift at
its butt or end.
Started meither Tacle nor Sheeb.—Said when a
vessel sails a long course without a shift of
wind, so that there is no occasion for her to
alter tho trim of her sails.
Starved of Wimd.—When a vessel is sailed so
near the wind that she does not have enough
of it, or feel the weight of it.
Stay, To.—To tack.
Stay Rope.—The luff or weather bolt rope of a
jib or other sail.
Stays.-Ropes for supporting masts
and other spars.
A vessel is said to be in stays
when she is going through the
N operation of tacking. To stay is
to tack. Strictly, when a ship is
head to wind. Probably derived
from the fact that a square
| rigged ship “stays * a long
TIG. 383.
that has no boom, but a gaff is preferred if
the Sail has a boom.
Sprung.—Damaged by cracking or splintering.
(See “Spring a Mast.”)
Spwn Yarm.—Small rope or cord used for serving,
&c.
Sqwore.—Said of sails when they are trimmed at
Tight angles to the keel. A ship is said to
have square yards when there is little difference
between the lengths of upper and lower, or
when her yards are very long.
Square the Yards.--To brace them across at right
angles to the keel. Square the boom is to
haul it out at right angles to the keel.
Squeeze.—A vessel is said to be Squeezed when
she is sailed very close to the wind in order
that she may weather some point or object.
Stains on Deck.-Iron moulds, &c., can be
removed from a deck by a solution of one part
muriatic acid, three parts water.
Stand.—A term variously employed; as to stand
on the shore, to stand E.S.E., and so on, to
stand on without tacking. A sail is said to
stand when its does not lift or shake.
Standard.—(See “Royal Standard.”)
Stand By. — The order to make ready ; as
“Stand by to lower the topsail.”
Stamding Part.—The part permanently made fast
to something, and not hauled upon.
Standing Rigging. — The rigging that is kept
permanently in its place.
Stand Up.–A vessel is said to stand up well that
carries her canvas without heeling much.
Starboard.—The right hand side. The opposite
to port.
Starbolins.—The men and “Watches” who com-
pose the starboard watch. (See “Larbolins.”)
time before her head pays off,
and she is then “ in stays.”
(See “Missing Stays.”)
Steady 1–An order to put the helm amidships,
or not to move it about.
Steerage.—In a yacht the space between the after
athwartship bulkhead of the main cabin and
the athwartship bulkhead of the after cabin.
(The latter is generally known as the ladies’
cabin.) Usually the term steerage is limited
to the fore and aft passage and berths therein.
Steerage Way.—When a vessel moves through the
water so that she can be steered. In simply
drifting or moving with the tide a vessel has
no steerage way on, and cannot be steered;
therefore steerage way means that a vessel
relatively to the water moves ahead and passes
the water.
&teersman.—A helmsman.
Sleeve.—The upward inclination or rake which a
bowsprit has, or which the plank sheer has
forward. The running bowsprit has usually
a steeve corresponding with the sheer forward;
a standing bowsprit has generally consider-
ably more.
Stem.—The timber at the fore end of a vessel into
which the ends of the plank are butted. To
stem is to make headway, as against a current.
Stemson.—A piece of timber worked inside the
stem.
Step.–A piece of timber or metal to receive a
vessel’s mast, &c. To step is to put a thing
into its step.
Stern-board. — The name given to the three-
cornered board aft in an open boat. (See
“Stern Sheets.”)
Stern Board.—A movement of a vessel sternwards.
Stern Way.—Moving astern : to make a stern-
board.
Stern Post.—The strong timber to which the
rudder is hung.
Stern Sheets.-The seat in the aft end of a boat.

Dictionary of General Information. 689
Sometimes the three-cornered bottom board is
termed the stern sheet. This board in a
yacht'H gig is usually a wood grating. In
small fishing boats the stern sheet is the
platform on which the fisherman coils away
his netH, lines, &c.
Stiff.-Not easily heeled ; having great stability.
Stock of an Anchor.—The crossbar near the
shackle.
Stocks,—The framework upon which a vessel
º
Tupper had a schooner-rigged yacht of 9
tons built by Mr. Ogier, of St. Sampson’s
Harbour. The arrangement for stowing
the punt was as described, but with the
exception that the movable bulkhead at
cabin entrance consisted of boards 9in. wide,
connected with brass hinges in pairs. When
removed from the grooves at top and bottom,
they closed like a book, and were more handy
for 8towage than a panelled bulkhead. The
lower groove was at platform level within
||
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FIG. 3S4.
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rests whilst she is being
built.
Stopper.--A rope or lashing used
to prevent a rope or chain
Surging or slipping, as cable
Stopper, rigging stoppers, &c.
The latter is usually a short
piece of rope put on as a kind
of racking to prevent the
rigging or its tackles rendor-
ing. A stopper is sometimes
put on with a hitch, as shown
by Fig. 387. (See “Racking.”)
Stooping.—To dive into a wavo
hollow. Generally an easy sort
of pitching, caused by the un-
dulation of waves or “swell.”
Slops.-Yarms or short pieces of -
rope by which sails are secured /
when rolled up or stowed.
Also the short lines by which
Sails are tied to yards when
they are not laced.
Storm Anchor.--See “Floating
Anchor” and “Oil on Troubled
Wators.”
Storm Sails.-The storm trysail
and storm jib set in bad
weather.
Stove im.—Broken in.
Stow.—To roll up. To pack away.
Slowing at l’unt ---Mr. A. D. Ash-
ford thus doscribes his plan
for stowing a punt on board
a small craft instead of towing
her or carrying her on deck :
‘‘I had a craft built, 20ft.
keel, 24ft. over all, 6ft. 6in.
beam, good rise of floor, and
only small cockpit. The punt
was stowed in the cabin, and
there was good room to go
round her and get anything required. When
sailing, you do not want cabin in a small
craft, and with ease I could got punt out
or in single-handed ; she was 8ft. long,
and I have landed five men in her at
one time. Fig. 384 is fore end of cockpit,
closed up ; Fig. 385 shows punt on floor of
cabin. The slides, No. 1 of companion, fit
into grooves in sides of Nos. 2. and 3; Nos.
2 and 3 also fit into grooves, and come
out.”
Mr. J. C. Wilcocks says: “Lieut.-Col.
Y.
Y.
ITIG. 385.
an inch. All small yachts should be thus
fitted.” (See also “Collapsible Boats.”)
Straight of Breadth. — The distance where the
breadth of a ship is equal amidships; now
generally termed parallel length of middle
body, because the two sides of a ship may
be for some distance parallel to each other.
A straight of breadth is seldom found in a
yacht excepting in some long steam yachts;
these frequently are of the same breadth for
some distance amidships. (See “Body’’ and
“Dead Flat.”)


















690
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Strake or Slreal,-A breadth of plank.
Stramd.—Yarns twisted together and they then
make the parts or strands of a rope.
Stuff.-Slang for sails, as, “Give her the stuff,”
meaning more sail. Also small rope, and
picked hemp or cotton waste.
Surge.—Whon a rope renders round a belaying
pin, &c.
Swamsea Pilot Boats. – A very snugly rigged
kind of schooner met with in the Bristol
Channel. The rig comprises mainmast, fore-
mast, and running bowsprit ; the mainmast is
stepped oxactly in the middle of the boat, and
has a great rake aft, so that the head of the
mast plumbs over the after part of the cockpit,
two sheaves are cut in it, through which the
halyards are rove. The foremast is upright,
with sheavos like the mainmast, and a block
on the fore part under the sheave holes for
the jib halyards. These masts require no
rigging or stays, and are pole masts without
any topmasts. The gaffs are short, being for
a boat of 25 to 30 tons only about 6ft. long,
and only require one halyard. One end of the
halyard is spliced to a single block; the other
end being passed over the first sheave in the
mast, then through a single block, which is
hooked on to the gaff, and finally through the
upper sheave in the mast. This end is belayed.
A purchase is formed by a rope passed through
Stramded.—Said of a rope when one or
more of its strands have burst. Cast
ashore.
Stramds.—Yarns when unlaid and used as
“stops” are sometimes called strands.
Strap.–See “Strop.”
Stream.—The direction of the flood tide
and ebb tide. The tides in the Channel
are usually referred to as the eastern
stream for tho flood and western
stream for the ebb.
Stretch. — A course sailed.
elasticity of canvas or rope.
Strike.--To lower, as to strike the top-
mast, &c. Also to strike the bottom.
Striking Topsails.-See “Saluting.”
Stringers.-Strengthening strakes of plank
or iron inside a vessel's frame.
Strop or Strap.–A sort of hoop made of
rope yarn, wire, or iron, used to put
round spars, rigging, &c., to hook
tackles to. \
Fig. 386 shows a Selvagee strop.
(See also “Selvagee.”)
A Selvagee strop is put on to a rope
to hook a block or tackle to, as shown
in Fig. 387, the whole of the strop
being used up in the cross turns.
Also the
FI (!. 386
Another way of putting a strop on a block
is shown in Fig. 388. The bights are passed
through and through, round the rope until
used up ; the tackle is then hooked to the
/777/777 *
º #r.
f
º #.
a zºº's *
J'ſ (). W88.
bights as in Fig. 387. A strop is usually put
on a wire rope in this way, as it is less likely
to slip.
Studding Sails.-Sails set outside the courses,
topsail, &c., in square-rigged ships ; called by
sailors “stu’n’s’ls.”
FIG. 387.
FIG. 389.
the block on the halyard and through a block
on deck. The fore halyards are rigged the
same way, and the jib halyards are of the
ordinary kind. The sails consist of mainsail,
foresail, and jib ; the two former being laced
round the mast. These sails can be taken in
in about one minute and a half, and set in
about two and a half. The outhaul of the jib
is passed under a sheave on the stem, and acts
as a bobstay ; there are no shrouds to bow-
sprit. The advantages of this rig are said to
be that one man can handle a boat of 25 tons
himself, and the boats are equally as handy
with the foresail as without it, likewise the
mainsail. They will stay or do anything
either way, and with only the foresail and jib
a boat can be sailed on a wind. (Fig. 389.)
Swell.—Long waves with unbroken orests, usually
met with after heavy winds have subsided.
Sweep.–A long bend. To sweep is to impel by
sweeps or large oars; formerly, vessels as
large as 300 tons used sweeps, and by hard
work could make three knots an hour. Sweeps
are not permitted in yacht racing.
Sweeps.—Large oars.



Dictionary of General Information.
691
Swig, To.—The fall of a tackle is put under a cleat
or pin, and is held firmly by one or more of the
crew ; another man (or men) then takes hold
of the part of the fall between the cleat and
the block and throws his whole weight on it ;
as he comes up the other hand takes in the
Black. By swigging on a tackle a couple of
hands can often get in all that is required,
whero by steady hauling they might not have
moved the blocks an inch.--To drink.
Swimming.—If a person who cannot swim falls
overboard, he should turn his face towards
the sky, and press his chest forward ; he
cannot them sink. He should keep the legs
down as much as possible. He should keep
composed, and strike out slowly with the
hands. A person could Hoon learn to swim
by walking into the water breast high, and
then striking out, holding the face well up
towards the sky. It should be always borne
in mind that the human body is somewhat
lighter bulk for bulk than water ; conse-
quently a piece will appear above water until
some of the fluid is swallowed. The proper
thing to do is, therefore, to see that the piece
of the body which floats out of the water is the
face part, so that breathing can take place.
Swivel Hook.-A hook that revolves by a pivot
inserted in a socket and clinched.
T.
Tabernacle.—A strong trunk used in barges to
step the mast in on deck so that the mast can
be lowered for going under bridges. It is in
fact a lengthening of the mast, the trunk
being the housed part with a hinge or joint
on deck. In small boats that have no deck
the mast is generally stepped at the bottom
of the tabernacle, and not on the top.
Tabling.—The strengthening pieces of canvas
Sewn to the edges of sails where the roping
goes On.
Tacle.—The lower fore-corner of a sail. To tack
is to go about or shift from one tack to
anothor. The side on which the wind blows
on the sails, as starboard tack or port tack.
This term probably originated with the square
rig, as “port tacks '' aboard means that the
lower port corners of the sail are now hauled
in-board, whereas when the wind was on the
other side these corners had been hauled out-
board by the sheets.
Tackle.—An arrangement of ropes and pulleys
for increasing power ; a purchase. (Pro-
nounced “tay-kel ” by sailors.)
Tackle-fall.—The hauling part of the rope of a
tackle.
Taclº Tackles.—The tackles employed to set down
the tacks of sails.
Taffrail.-The continuation of the top rail round
the aft side of the counter.
Tail Block. —A block with a tail or piece of
rope stropped to it for making fast the block
instead of a hook.
A tail block is put on to a rope by a rolling
hitch, as shown in Fig. 390. The hitches are
jammed up close together. The end of the
tail can be seized back to the rope if required.
Often whom in a hurry only one hitch is taken
FIG, 390.
(Fig. 391), the tail being gripped round the
rope with the hand. A tail tackle is put on
to a rope in the same manner as a tail block.
Tail om.—An order to take hold of a rope and
help haul.
Tail Tackle.—A watch tackle; that is, a double
and single block. The single block has a
hook ; the double block a rope tail, which can
be hitched to ropes or parts of rigging, &c.
Take In or Take Off-To hand or furl a sail.
Take, T'o.—A jib is said to take when a vessel has
been head to wind and the jib fills on one side
or the other.
Take Up.–To shrink ; to tighten up.
Tamming a Sail.—No tanning will entirely prevent
mildew, if the canvas is left unopened and
unaired an unlimited time. For a 20ft. boat
boil in a furnace of 15 gallons 281b. of
catechu, until thoroughly dissolved ; put in
such sails as convenient, and let them soak
a night ; then spread and mop them over both
sides with the mixture. If required very
dark indeed, double the amount of catechu.
Sails too large for a furnace or vat are
mopped only on a floor of asphalte, or cement,
with the mixture. Sails are sometimes
“ tanned ’’ in a tan yard.
Tºwnt.—Tall, high, towering. (See “A-taunto.”)
Tawt.—Tight : stretched as tightly as possible.
Taut Bowline.—A ship is said to be on a taut bow-
line when the bowlines on the leeches of the sail
are hauled as taut as possible for sailing near

Y Y 2
692
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
the wind. With everything stretched as flat
as possible for close-hauled sailing.
Temd.—To attond to a sheet and watch it to see
if it requires hauling in or slacking out ;
generally to attend to any work on board ship.
Temon.—A sort of tongue cut at the end of a
piece of timber to fit into a mortise.
Thick Stuff.-Timber or plank over 4 in. thick.
Thimble.—A ring, pear-shaped or circular, with a
groove outside for ropes to fit in. When the
thimble is pear-shaped it is usually termed a
‘‘ heart thimblo or thimble heart.” These
thimbles are used for the eye splices in ropes,
whilst circular thimbles are mostly used for
the cringles of sails, &c. For steel wire or
iron rope the thimble is usually solid.
Thimble Eyes.—Eyes spliced in rigging round a
thimble. A thimble seized in a strop.
Tholes.—-Pins fitted into the holes in rowlocks
for oars to work in.
Thread.—A vessel is said to thread her way
when she weaves in and out among other
vessels, or through a narrow channel.
Three Sheets im, the Wind.—Half drunk. “Three
cloths shaking,” said sometimes of a main-
sail when a vessel is sailed too near the wind.
Throat.—The deepest part of the hollow of the
jaws of a gaff, or the hollow of a V shaped
knee, or the hollow of a floor. The throat
halyards are those which are attached to the
throat of a gaff. The upper weather corner
of a gaff-sail is often called the throat, because
it is attached to the throat of the gaff.
Through, Bolt, or Through Fastening.—A bolt
that passes through timber and plank.
Thwºmb Cleat.—Pieces of wood put on spars, &c.,
to prevent ropes or strops from slipping.
Thwarts.—The transverse seats in a boat.
“Athwartships.”)
Tidal Harbour.—A harbour that can only be
entered on certain stages of the tide.
Tides.—Usually the rise and fall or flow and ebb
of the sea around the coast. The highest tides
occur at the new moon and full moon. Tides
estuaries, harbours, and bays vary a great deal.
(See
Tight.—Impervious to water; well caulked ; not
leaky. Never applied to the tension of ropes,
&c., which are always “taut.” (See “Taut.”)
Tiller.—The piece of timber inserted in the rudder
head for steering ; usually termed the helm.
Tiller Limes.—The lines attached to the tiller to
move it by. (See “Tiller Ropes,” which are a
different thing.) Generally in yachts of 40 tons
and over, a tackle is used. In large yachts
a second tackle is sometimes used, if the
yacht carries much weather helm or is hard
to steer : these second tackles are usually
termed relieving tackles.
Tiller Ropes.—The ropes attached to the short
tiller when a wheel is used for steering. The
ropes pass round the drum on the same axis
as the wheel. In large vessels the tiller ropes
are frequently made of raw hide.
Timber-heads.—The heads or upper ends of the
frames.
Timber Hitch.—A quick way of bending a rope
to a spar. A loop or bight is formed by
twisting the end of a rope round its standing
part, thus (Fig. 392):
I'IG. 392.
The end of the rope is shown on the right,
and the standing part passing through the
bight on the left.
Timbers.-The frames or ribs of a vessel.
Time Allowance. — The allowance made by one
yacht to another in competitive sailing, pro-
portional to the size of the yachts and the
distance sailed.
In small boat sailing, an allowance of
1sec, per inch for every excess inch of
length for every mile sailed, is a good
allowance. Where length and breadth are
multiplied together, 1sec. per square foot for
every mile makes a good allowance. Where
length and breadth are added together, the
allowance might be 14 second per inch per
mile. These allowances are only adapted
for boats that do not differ much in length.
Where the difference in length much exceeds
a foot, the boats should be classed as a
21ft. class, 25ft. class, &c., unless the Y.R.A.
graduated table of allowance for length be
used (see page 695).
In calculating these time allowances for
differences of rating it was assumed that the
capability for speed varies as the square root
of the length ; it was further assumed that
the sail area, varies as
v/ Length” x Beam.
From which it follows that the rating by
rule 3 varies as
v/ length”
and that the capability for speed varies as
the fifth root of the rating or */rating.
Taking the greatest observed speed of a
boat 30ft. on the load water line as being 7
knots an hour (and the speed varying as the
Square root of the length), it follows that a
boat 12*7ft. long can sail a knot in 794
Seconds. (12:7ft. was chosen because it is the
mean length for values of beam of , , , and
# the length when the rating is 1.)
It being thought advisable that the time
allowances should be, as noarly as possible,
identical (for existing yachts) as those given
under the old rating and scale, a proportion
of the full speed time has been used in
calculating the present scale as will effect
that object. This requires that about 45 of
the full speed time should be used in
calculating the allowances from the following
formula :
T = Time in seconds it takes a yacht
rated at 1 to sail 1 knot = 794 x 4534 = 360
Seconds.

Dictionary of General Information. 693
t = Time in seconds it takes some other | Time Allowance—continued.
yacht to sail 1 knot. Allowance in Allowance in
t = T' — a T Rating. º per Rating. *. per
*/Fing Kn Ot. (I) () [..
5 gº 47 1:);}":};} 132 224-42
Say a yacht is rated at 9: the K/ of 9 is 48 194-03 133 224'63
- - 49 194.72 134 224'83
1 552; then t, the allowance She makes 8, jſ) 195'40 135 225'03
yacht whose rating is 1, will be thus found : 51 10(;"()(; 13(; 225-23
!;2 196'71 1:37 22:3-43
tº ºf 8 360 53 197'34. 138 225.62
t = 360 — 1.552 T 128-05 seconds. 54 197'); 1:34 225'81
552 55 198'53 140 226-()()
& e 5 ſ ! "I); 4) A y (' ,
Thus 128-05 seconds is the time per knot º º # ;
a yacht rated at 9 allows a yacht rated at 1, 58 200-18 143 22(;"55
as set forth in the column of allowances; and º § # §
f tº º ; 2012: 45 226'99
all the other allowances have been similarly 61 2()} .74. 146 227-12
found. (32 202° 24 147 227 .31
As the scales of time allowances have been 63 2()2.74 148 227.50
º o s º & * * * * ſ & 2 º' • f*
calculated for 1 nautical mile or knot, the º 4% 24 lº #ſº
º - 65 20:8-73 15() 227 88
allowance for any other distance will be found (36 204-21 15| 228 ();
by multiplying the time for 1 knot by the 67 204:59 152 228-24
length of the course. For instance, say a ; }: ;
º - J. : r ** g º' * },
yacht rated at 59 has to receive time from one 7() 200-{}{} 155 228-86
rated at 82, on a 45 miles course : the time 71 206.5; 156 229.0%
opposite these two ratings will be taken 12 207 ()() 157 22.2%
( . 2()7 'ſ 4 15S 22:)-37
from the scale, and the smaller subtracted 74. 207 “S7 15!) 229'53
from the larger ; the remainder will be then 75 208:20 I (;() 229.69
multiplied : 76 2ſ).S. (;2 161 229.85
tiplied by the length of the course, thus 77 204)•()3 1 (32 2:30:00
211 - 01. 78 2()!).3:} I63 2}(): 15
200-71 7.) 20%). 8:; 1ſ;4 2:}().30
- 8() 21 (): 24. 1.65 2:}{). 44
81 21 () (;3 1(;6 230.58
10-3 82 211'()1 167 2:30-72
45° 8:3 21 || 37 168 23()'SG
S4 2 11-72 16:) 231 ()()
85 212°()6 17 () 2:31:14
51-5 86 212.3%) 171 23 1:28
412' S7 212-71 [72 2:31:42
88 2] :} ()2 17.3 2:}l '56
e 89 21:3-32 174 23|-7()
60)463:5(7 min. 43’5sec. !)( 21:} (;2 175 23| S-1
420 91 21:3-4)2 176 2:31.98
92 2I-4-22 177 232. 12
93 2] 4: 52 17 S 2:32:26
43’5 94 21 4-S2 179 2:32:40
When a fraction of a second equals or ; #: | §
- te ; F Up | *) *- t .52 °
exceeds ‘5 it is treated as 1 second, but frac- 97 21:57.2 182 232-84
tions less than 5 are disregarded. In the !}S 2 I (; ()2 18; 2:32.98
case illustrated above the allowance, there- 1. § #. ;
- > * { } .2 S.) 2.5-5 Zº
fore, becomes 7 min. 44 sec. 101 2|{;'91 I S6 2:3:3.4()
º 102 217-14) 187 2:; 3-56
SCALE OF ALLOWANCES FOR DIFFERENCES OF RATING. 103 217.47 I SS 23:3-7()
104 217-74 |S$) 2:;:5-8:3
Allowance in Allowance in 105 21 S-()() 19ſ) 23:3-96
Rating. seconds per Iłating. seconds per 1()6 218, 28 191 2:34'09
knot. - knot. 107 21 S-5(; 14)2 234-22
I ()8 218.84 19:3 2:34-35
I ()-()() 24 I (39:41 109 214). 12 1:).I. 234.48
2 46.7%) 25 170.97 11() 21:)-4() 195 2:34 (31
3 71 () (; 26 I 72°45 1 11 2] :)-(;7 196 234.74
4 87.2%) 27 17:3'S5 I 12 21:)-93 197 2:34-87
5 94)•()() 28 175-18 113 22(). 1S 1:)S 2:35-()()
6 1 ()S-34 2:) 17 (; .45 114 22()--|:; 199 2:35:12
7 1 l (; ()S 3() 177-67 115 22()-(57 200 2:35:24
8 122-54 3 178-85 1 16 22() ()() 201 2:35:36
9 128 ().5 :32 I 80'0() 117 221. 14 202 2:35-48
1() 1:32.4)() 3: ISI 11 11S 221.37 203 2:35:60
| 1 1:37:2:} 34 1S2’ 18 119 221-(;() 204 2:35.72
12 14 || '12 35 1S3-21 120 221 '82 205 235.84
13 144 (32 3(; 184:21. 121 222-04 2()6 2:35: !)6
1.4 | 47-78 : 185-17 122 222-26 207 236.08
15 150-65 38 186'1() 123 222'48 208 236-20
16 15:3:28 3:) 187:00 124 222-70 209 23(3-32
17 155.72 40 187-87 125 222-02 21 () 2:36 43
18 1 5S" ()2 41 188-71 126 22:3-14 211 2:36-54.
19 160-19 42 189-53 127 223:36 212 236.65
20 162.24 43 190-33 128 223-58 213 236.76
21 164-18 44 191-11 129 22:3-79 214 236-87
22 166-02 45 191.87 130 224.00 215 236.98
28 167.76 46 192: 61 131 224-21 216 237-09


694,
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Time Allowance—continued.
Allowance in
Allowanco in
Tèating. seconds per Iłating. Beconds per
knot. knot.
217 237-20 3()2 245°24
218 237-31 303 245°31
219 237-42 3()4 245'38
220 237.53 3().5 245.45
221 237-64 30ſ; 245'52
222 237.75 307 245'5%)
223 237.86 308 245'66
224 2:37.97 }}()!) 245.73
225 238.08 31() 245'80
226 2:38:19 31] 245'87
227 238'30 312 245'94
228 238-41 313 24(3.00
229 238°52 314 246-07
230 2:38-63 315 246'14
231 238.74 316 24(3:20
232 238-85 317 246-27
233 238-96 3.18 246'33
234 239 ()(3 319 246'4()
235 239.17 32 246'4(;
236 239.28 321 246-52
237 239'39 322 246'58
238 239-50 323 246-64
239 239-6() 324 246-7()
240 239–70 325 246'76
241 239-80 326 246'83
242 239-90 327 246.8%)
243 24():00 328 246'4).5
244 240.10 329 247 ()()
245 240-20 330 247.06
246 240-30 3.31 247-12
247 240°4() 332 247.18
248 24().50 333 247-24
249 240-60 334 247.30
250 24()-7() 335 247-36
251 24()'80 336 247°43
252 240'ſ)() 337 247-49
253 241.00 338 247°55
254 241 - J () 339 247 (31
255 241-2() 340 247.67
256 2.41:30 341 247.74
257 24] '40 342 247-80
258 24] '50 343 247 '86
259 24J 60 344 247'92
260 241.7() 345 247'98
261 24} -8() 346 248-04
262 241.90 347 248-1 ()
263 242.00 348 248'16
264 242'09 34) 248-22
265 242-18 350 248-28
266 242-27 351 248'34
267 242-36 352 248-40
268 242.45 353 248-46
269 242'54 354 248'54
270 242 (33 355 248 (;()
271 242-72 356 248 (;6
272 242.8 [ 357 248.72
273 24.2%)() 358 248.78
274 243*()() 359 248.84
275 243-09 360 248-9()
276 243' 18 361 248-9ſ;
277 243.27 362 249"()2
278 243'36 363 249'08
279 243°45 364 249'14
28() 243'54 365 249-2()
281 243.6% 366 24).26
282 243.72 367 24).32
283 243.81 3(38 249.38
284 243.9() 369 249'44
285 244.00 370 24)"; ()
286 244 ()8 371 249-56
287 244 16 372 249-62
288 244'24 373 249.68
289 244.92 374 24974
200 244'4() 375 249'80
29] 244-47 376 249'86
292 244-54 377 249.92
293 244'(31 378 249.98
294 244.68 379 250'04
295 244.75 380 250'ſ ()
29(3 244-82 381 25()'] 6
297 244.89 382 250-22
298 244-96 383 250°28
299 245’ſ)3 384 250-34
3()() 245'1() 385 250-40
301 245' 17 38(; 25()'4ſ;
Time Allowance—continued.


Allowance in
Allowance in
Rating. Beconds per Iłating seconds per
lºnot. knot.
387 25()'52 472 255.00
388 25()';8 473 255'ſ)5
389 25()'(;4 474 255.1()
390 250-70 475 255 - 15
391 25()-7(; 476 255.20
392 25()'84 477 255.25
393 25()'9() 478 255-30
394 25().96 479 255-35
395 25 j.02 480 255 °4()
39(; 251.08 481 255.45
397 25] 14 482 255.50
398 251-20 483 255.5%)
399 25] 26 484 255-60
400 251-32 485 255 ($5
401 251.38 486 255-70
4()2 251-44 487 255.75
403 251 5() 488 255.8()
404 251 56 489 255'85
4().5 251 (;2 4)() 255.9()
40(; 251 (58 401 255.95
407 251 -74. 4.92 256 ()0
408 25I '8() 4}}} 256'05
409 251 85 494 256-10
410 251.90 495 256'15
411 25I-95 496 256-20
412 252 ()() 497 256.25
413 252.(); 498 256'30
414 252-1() 49%) 256-35
415 252.15 50ſ) 256'40
416 252-2() 501 25(; .45
417 252-25 502 256'50
418 252.30 503 256'54
419 252.35 5()4. 256'58
420 252'4() !;(); 256 (32
421 252-45 50(; 256-6ſ;
422 252'5() 507 256-7()
423 252-55 5ſ)8 256-74
424 252 (;() 509 256-78
425 252.65 51() 256-82
426 252.70 Å11 256'86
427 252.75 512 256'90
428 252.80 513 256.94.
429 252.85 514 256'98
430 252.90 515 257-02
431 252.95 51 (; 257.06
432 25% ()() 517 257-1()
433 253 ().5 518 257.14
434 253-10 519 257-18
435 25% .15 520 257-22
43(; 25;} -20 52]. 257.26
437 253.25 522 257-30
438 253'3() 523 257-34
439 253-35 j94. 257-38
440 253'4() 525 257-42
44], 25% .45 52(; 257.46
442 253'50 527 257-50
443 253'55 528 257-54
444 253 (;() 529 257-58
445 25% (35 590 257-62
44(; 253.7() 531 257-66
447 253.75 532 257,70
448 25;}-8() 53}} 257-74
44) 25;}•85 {j}4 257.78
450 25.3%)() 5:35 257.82
451 25% “)5 536 257-86
452 254 ()() !}}} 257.00
453 254 •()5 538 257.94
454 254.1() 5%) 257-98
455 2:54:15 54ſ) 258 ()2
456 254.2ſ) 54]. 258 ()(;
457 2:54:25 542 258:1 ()
458 254-3ſ) 54}} 258 'J4
45%) 254'35 544 258. J 8
460 254.4() 545 258-22
461 254 °4; 546 258-25
462 254-5() ſj47 258-28
463 254-55 548 258.31
464 254 (;() 54) 258.34
465 254.65 55() 258-37
466 254-7() 551 258.4()
467 254-75 552 258.43
468 254 •8() Fjä3 258.46
469 254-85 554 258.4%)
470 254.90 Ijj; 258.52
471 254.95 556 258-55
Dictionary of General Information.
695
i
.*- :-----
T'ſ ME SCALE IFOR JRATIN (48 BEſ, OW 1-0.


t t & .' o ".
3 #2 43 - | * : – r: 3 +
* - C) 3.H. 2 . : P- Q 3 - 2
3 *- : ] . 3 – 5 | . 2 - 5 || .. 2 - 5
º, T. -t: b) 3 - 14 || 8p || 3: "... +4 tº 3’. 24
# 3 + | # % 3 + | f | # 3 + || 3: 7 : #:
º- 'º, s sº ºf ºy - G) 'C 2: ºp
= 3 5, : 5 º ż, , ; = g : || 3 F : 5.
F = 3 㺠3 25 ºz.2 .5 c.2
:* - C 2- : ET, ºf C : +
H = - H 3 * H. : --- H = -
| }
210-52 || 36 81-61 • (;1 || 37-48 8(; 10.94
199:52 || 3 74).21 • (;2 3(; 22 87 10-09
190-12 || 38 76.91 • {}}} | }.} {)7 88 9.25
181-()() , 39 74-65 || (;4 || 33.7% 89 8-42
17}} ()() 4() 72.38 ' ' ' (;5 32.50 {}() 7-61
j (;ſ; ()7 11 || 70'2:; (;(; , ;1 - 27 91 6.79
159:50 42 | 68:14 • (;7 || 3() ()7 92 5-98
15%-37 || 43 | 66:10 • (;8 28-9ſ) 93 5-19
147-47 '44 (;4-10 • 69 27.7ſ; 94 || 4:42
141.93 45 (32.29 || 70 26:6; !}.5 3.66
1:36.68 46 (;().50 •71 || 25-52 96 2.91
132 ()() || 47 || 58-72 '72 24:42 •97 2.17
127.44 -48 || 56.95 '73 || 23 ''}. •98 1-44
123-()() || 49 jj ‘2() '74 22:27 •99 0.72
118.8() '50 5:3-50 •75 | 2 | 20 || 1 ()() 0.00
115.00 || 51 || 51.90 •76 2() - 17 || 1 , || 6-71
111-30 || 52 50:30 '77 | 1.4). | 7 || 1.2 12.85
107.67 || 53 || 48.75 ‘78 || 18-20 || 1-3 18-40
104-20 # 54 || 47-22 •79 || 17-24 || 1.4 23:47
101-02 || '55 45-70 8() 16-30 || 1 -5 28-13
98.02 || '56 || 44-25 81 15' 37 || 1 (; 32.44
95-02 || 57 || 42-83 '82 || 14-45 || || 7 36'44
92-14 || '58 || 41°41 •83 3:55 || 1:8 40:18
89.44 '59 || 4() ()4 •84 12 (;7 |1% 43.59
86-74 -60 38.75 '85 | 11-80 || 2:() 46.79
84 - 11
t
Time Allowance—continued.
Allowance in Allowance in
Rating. seconds per Tèating. Beconds per
knot. knot,
557 258-58 579 25%) .24
558 258 61 580 259-27
55%) 258.64 581 25%) ...}()
56() 258.67 582 259.3%
561 258-7() 583 25%) 36
{j62 258-73 584 259.3%)
fj63 258-7(; 585 25%) .42
564 258-79 586 259 .45
565 258-82 587 259.48
566 258.85 588 259-51
567 258-88 589 25%) '54
568 258-91 54)() 259-57
569 258-94 591 259-6()
570 258-97 592 259-63
571 259.00 593 259 '66
572 259-()3 594 259 (39
573 259.06 595 259.72
574 25%) -09 596 259.75
575 250 - 12 597 259-78
576 259.15 598 259-81
577 259 -18 59%) 259.84
578 259-21 600 259.87
The allowances go on increasing by '03 up
to 700 when the allowance is 262.92 seconds.
NOTE.-By the rule passed in 1882 time in
the classes of 10 rating and under has in all
cases to be calculated by the rating and
tenths of the rating.
TIME SCALE IFOR TENTHIS OF RATINGS.
Rating Time in | Rating Time in
by seconds per i by | seconds per
tenth 8. lºnot. tenths. knot.
1:1 6-71 5-6 1(). '85
1.2 12.85 5-7 105-73
1°3 18-4() # 5-8 1()6'69
1'4 23:47 | 5% joiº
I 5 28-13 | 6-ſ) 108-34
1.6 32°44 6-1 109'14
1.7 36'44 6-2 1()!)-03
1-8 40-18 | 6′3 11 ().71
1:9 43-59 ' ' (; '4 111.49
2.0 46.7%) | 6′5 112:26
2. I 49-78 | 6-6 11:3-03
2-2 52.62 | 67 113.80
2-3 55-31 | 6-8 114.5%)
2-4 57.87 | 6.9 115°36
2-5 60-3 ſ 7.() 116-0S
2.6 (32-(;4 7 - 1 11(;-78
2.7 (54.87 7.2 117 °45
2.8 67.01 | 7.3 118-11
2.9 (39.07 | 7-4 118.76
3.0 71-()6 | 7.5 11:)'4()
3-1 72-98 | 7-6 12() ()3
3-2 74-83 | 7.7 120.66
3-3 7(5-61 . 7.8 121.3()
3-4 78-30 | 7.9 121-93
3°5 79-94 . 8-0 122'54
3-6 81-53 | 8-1 123-14
3.7 S3-()6 | 8.2 J 2:3-7()
3-8 S4-53 8-3 124-27
3-9 85-94 S'4 12. S.4
4-0 87.29 - 8'5 125-40
4-1 88-61 S-6 125'06
4-2 89-89 S-7 126'5()
4’3 4)I 11 8-S 127.05
4'4 92.2%) sº 127.57
4-5 93-44 9-0 128.05
4'6 94-57 9:1 12S-54
4-7 95-69 {}-2 124).02
4'8 96.80 {). 129-52
4-9 97.01 9'4 1:30.00
5-0 99-00 9.5 130-50
5*1 1()() ().5 9. (; 1:31:00
5-2 1()1-()7 0-7 131'48
6-3 102.06 9.8 131.96
5*4 l();}-()2 9.9 1:32:43
5.5 I ()3-95 100 132.90
To use the scale below 1 the smaller time
will be subtracted from the greater. If,
however, one boat is, say, of 1:4 rating, and
the other of, say, '65 rating, then the time
opposite the two ratings will be added
together ; the times are 23°47 seconds and
32°50 seconds respectively, which, if added
together, make 55-97 seconds, and that would
be the time a 1-4 rater would allow a '65 rater
per knot. Similarly the time between a 1:1
rater and a 10 rater would be found, and
SO OIl.
TIME ALLOWANCE BY LENGTH.
Rating yachts by length, in competitive
sailing, has been practised since the early
days of yacht racing, so far at least as small
yachts are concerned ; but the practice has
not become general, for the principal reason
that one yacht, say of 40ft. length, owing to
greater beam, might be capable of carrying a
larger quantity of sail than another yacht of
40ft. length, and so have greater speed. If
sails were not the means of propulsion this
would be of little consequence, as, length for
length, vessels of varied proportions of beam
might, if well modelled, be of equal speed ;
and the speed of vessels of different lengths
will be found to vary nearly as the square
roots of their lengths, unless there be some
extraordinary variance in their general form.
It is not, therefore, surprising to find that
the roots of the linear dimensions of yachts
have been many times suggested as a proper
basis for a time allowance.
So far as our experience goes, the speed of
yachts of different sizes accords with those
696
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
e--
set out in the table below ; and these speeds
also agree with the assumption that the
speed varies as the square root of the
length. When the configurations of the
yachts are the same, the quality of immersed
surface varies considerably.
º | i e e
Length. º FC ºper Time per mile.
ft. | Min, sec.
9 0}. 3.75 16 0
| 6 i; 5:00 12 0
25 4% | 6'25 9 36
36 6 | 7:50 | 3 || 0
41 10 8. 7 30
49 20 8.75 | 6 51
64 40 10. 6 ()
81 100 11:25 | 5 20
100 190 12:50 | 4 48
121 320 13.75 4, 21
144 400 15'00 4, 0
Thus, in the table it has been assumed that
a yacht 64ft. long can sail one mile in six
minutes ; and that the time of other yachts
per mile will vary as the square root of their
respective lengths. Therefore, on this assump-
tion, a yacht 9ſt. long will sail a mile in six-
teen minutes (or 960 seconds), and the time
between a yacht 9ſt. long and any other larger
yacht will therefore be found by the equation
{){}{) 9
960 ( " " (" !
| w/ L /
The letter L in the equation is any other
yacht.
This allowance assumes that the full speed
of the yachts would be maintained ; but in
yacht racing we know that full speed is
seldom kept up ; and practice teaches us
that an allowance based on the assumption
that full speed would be maintained from
start to finish, would be nearly always double
what the larger yacht is capable of giving
the smaller. Consequently, in the table
which follows, only half the full-speed allow-
ance has been given.
JLENGTH CLASSE8.
Tlength Classes—continued.
Time scale for boats sailing in Length Classes cal-
culated in seconds and decimals for One nautical mile
or knot.
Length Time allowance Tength Time allowance
L.W.L. in seconds per L.W.L. in 80conds per
in feet. l; not. in feet. knot.
9. () ().() 14).5 150-52
9°5 J2 ()2 2() () J54-53
10-0 24-()() 20:5 158.4()
J ().5 34.8ſ) 2] () 162:12
II () 4-j-80 21.5 165-72
11.5 5.ſ' 15 22'ſ) J (;4):19
12.0 ($2.89 22.5 172°55
12.5 71-12 23-() 175-79
13-() 78.8() 23'5 178-93
13.5 8(3.13 24'ſ) 181-97
14-() 93-05 24'5 J84.93
14-5 99.59 25-() 187-78
15:0 I ()5-81 25'5 190°56
15'5 1J I-73 26-0 193-2ſ;
16-() 117-37 26'5 195'80
16-5 122°73 27.() 198.35
17:0 127-88 27.5 200-90
17.5 J32-79 28'ſ) 203-29
18.0 137.4%) 28'5 2()5'64
18'5 142'02 29.0 y07.92
19-0 146'35 29'5 210° 16
Length | Time allowance || Tength Time allowance
...W.T. in seconds per L.W.L. in seconds per
in feet. knot. in feet, knot.
30'ſ) 212°32 3(; () 2:34-7;
30.5 2] 4:45 36'5 23(; 35
31.() 2] (; 56 37. () 237.92
31.5 218'53 }}7.5 239.48
32'ſ) 22()'4) 38'ſ) 24()'94.
32.5 222'42 38°5 242.48
$3'ſ) 224'29 39"ſ) 243'94.
33.5 22(3.13 39'5 245-37
34'0 227.92 4() () 246-77
34-5 229.68 40’ſ, 248-20
35' () 231'4() 41 () 249'ſ ()
35-5 233.0%) (;(): () 287:30
RATING BY SAIL AREA AND LENGTH.
In 1880 Mr. Dixon Kemp devised a rule
based on sail area and length of water-line as
follows:
L x S
6000
= Rating.
In 1882 the rule was adopted by the Sea-
wanhaka Yacht Club in America, and was so
much approved of that the New York Yacht
Club in 1883 took the matter up, mainly be-
cause they desired to try the effect of a rule
on American yacht building, which would
have a tendency to produce a longer and
deeper type of model.
This rule was adopted for a period of seven
years by the Y.R.A., from the year 1887
inclusive.
In formulating the rule, Mr. Kemp had
pointed out that the sail area in yachts of
similar types is equal to their length squared;.
and, inverting this, the New York Yacht Club
treated the length as equal to the square root.
of the sail area, and took the sum of the
length and square root added together as
the basis for a time allowance; but in order,
it can be presumed, to discourage excessive
length in relation to breadth, the actual formula.
w/S + L2
, , , )
adopted was - and the Seawan-
a/S + L
haka Yacht Club, .. 2 The latter in
effect is practically the same as the English
formula, but the formula of the New York
Yacht Club has a varying effect.
By comparison the Y.R.A. rule is very
much easier on length than either the Sea-
wanhaka Yacht Club rule or the New York
Yacht Club rule. Take a given length and
rating, and then add to the length the extent.
the sail area would have to be reduced to
maintain the given rating as follows:

Y.I.A. Tº ULE.
Ilength on Area of Hail orio. —E * *
I,..W. possible. IRating == (5000
30ft. 2000 sq. ft. 10 rating.
35ft. 1714 sq. ft. 10 rating.
40ft. 1500 sq. ft. 10 rating.
Dictionary of General Information. (397
Time Allowance—continued.
|
SIGAWAN HA KA R.U.I., E.
- A .. * ... -- * + Vs.
ºn Aron | ºn I, +, ×s Sailing length
• J.J. possir), e. 2 () I' rating.
30ft. 2000 sq. ft. 37-36ſt.
35 ft. 1578 sq. ft. 37 °3(;ſt.
4()ſt. 1206 sq. ft. 37 ''}(;ft.
NI, W YORIK YACHT CLUB R U LE.
Length on | Area of sail T. 2 + w/s
}}
tº a Sailing length
J. W.I. possible. (JI’ rating.
30ft. 2000 sq. ft. 35ft.
}}}}}'t. 1225 sq. ft. 35ſ’t.
40ft. 625 sq. ft. 35ft.
Thus for 33 per cent. difference of length
the Seawanhaka rule reduces the sail 15 per
cent. more than the Y. R.A. rule ; and the
New York rule for 33 per cent. reduction in
length reduces sail 44 per cent, more than
the Y.R.A. rule. It can, therefore, be seen
that the Y.R.A. rule gives a long vessel an
exceedingly good chance, compared with
either the Seawanhaka or New York rule ;
and that, in fact, it is much the best rule of
the three for discouraging attempts to build
boats of an extremely beamy type.
These statements as to the operation of
the rules do not, however, apply to all ratings
and lengths; thus, if applied to a vessel say
of 80ft. water line and 9000 sq. ft. of canvas,
if 33 per cent. be added to her length, her
sail will be reduced 34 per cent..., keeping, of
course, the rating constant. This will best
be Been by tabulation, as in the former case.
Y. R. A. R.U.L.E.
T, ength on | Area, of sail tº... L X S
L. W. J. possible. Tating T 6000
8()ft. 9000 sq. ft. 120 rating.
106'4ft. 6767 sq. ft. 120 rating.
N JEW Y() RIK YA (IIT CI,UB IRUI, E.
Length on Area of sºil Ju 2 + w/s
† —-- 1 = Sailing length
T. W. L. possible. % or rating.
80ft. 9000 sq. ft, 85ft.
106'4ft. 1781 Bq. ft. 85ft.
Thus, when the length is 80ft. and the
rating 120, the Y.R.A. rule for 33 per cont.
increase in length reduces sail 34 per cent.,
and the New York Yacht Club rule reduces
sail 80 per cent. ; so in this particular case
it is 46 per cent. harder on length than the
Y.R.A. rule.
The foregoing examples are very broad
illustrations, and it would be unusual that for
any given rating there should be a difference
of 33 per cent. in length ; and if we take a
smaller difference in length the percentages
are very much reduced. Thus, when the
rating is 60, and the length on the water line
60ft., an increase of 7 per cent. (making 64ft.)
in the water line, reduces sail 6*2 per cent.
under the Y.R.A. rule, and 19.6 per cent.
under the New York Yacht Club rule, or
13.4 per cent. more than the Y.R.A.
In general terms it is perfectly correct to
make a statement that the Y.R.A. rule is
very much harder on sail than the New York
rule. º
A length rating rule exactly equivalent to
the Y.R.A. rule would be

3/L. x s.
For particulars of the “Ilinear Rating,
which is to come into use in 1896, see p. 722.
Timing.—In timing vessels passing marks to
finish a race or otherwise, the fairest plan is
to take the time as each vessel's bowsprit ond
reaches the mark. In timing yachts that have
to gybe or tack round marks, time must be
taken when in the opinion of the timekeeper
the yacht is fairly at or round the mark;
this especially in the case of gybing.
Toggle.—A short rope with an eye at one end and a
small piece of wood at the other, to insert in
the eye and form a kind of strop or becket.
Tom. — A weight of 2240lb. avoirdupois. In
hydraulics 35 cubic feet of sea water, re-
present a ton or 36 cubic feet of fresh water.
Tommage.—The nominal size or capacity of a
Hhip, variously estimated. -
Since the early days when “tons burden”
meant the actual tons weight of coal a vessel
such as the north country keels would carry,
the word “tonnage ’’ has conveyed no fixed
idea of bulk or weight. The nominal tonnage
has been variously computed and the earliest
record (See Archaeologia, Vol. XI.) is that the
“ tons burden '’ of the ships of the Royal
Navy in the 17th century was calculated by
L x B. × D
96 g
breadth, and D depth of hold. It was
probably found that a ship was capable of
filling up with coal to just half her cubical
capacity, taking 48 cubic feet to the ton,
hence came the division 96. Say a vessel was
80 ו * * * = 240 tons, which would be
about the amount of coal or other dead
weight she would carry. -
Owing probably to the inconvenience of
arriving at the depth of laden vessels enter-
ing ports, the rule was altered to * . . }IB
and finally, in 1719, an Act was passed en-
joining that the rule just stated should be
law, but to allow for rake of Htem # of the
breadth was ordered to be subtracted from
the length.
In this rule it will be seen there were two
assumptions. First, that the vessel was a
rectangular figure, and, second, that her depth
was equal to her breadth. The result was
that ships were built under it as much like
boxes as possible, and deep in proportion to
breadth, because depth was untaxed and beam
heavily taxed. However, in spite of learned
arguments and much abuse (the rule of
3 y
I, length on keel, B extreme
698
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
measurement was commonly referred to as
the “iniquitous tonnage laws’’), the rule re-
mained in force as the law of the land until
the passing of the Merchant Shipping Act in
1854. Under that Act the tonnage became
one of cubic capacity (100 cubic feet to the
ton), and for roughly estimating the tons of a
laden ship the following rule was allowed to
be used under the Act :
Girth + Breadth 2 x Length x 17
2 I ()() ()()
In the case of iron ships 18 was substituted
for 17 in the fractional factor. This rule has
now fallen into disuse, as, practically, all
nations adopted the British rule, and the
certificate of registry of course contains the
tonnage. This rule has been several times put
forward as one adapted for yacht measure-
ment for racing purposes.
The builders’ rough rule for estimating
registered tonnage was for ships
L x B. × D x * 7
100
for yachts
L_x B. × D x 5
T100-
The latter rule was used by the New Thames
and Corinthian Yacht Club (see “Corinthian”)
in the following form :
L x B. × D L × B X D x 5
200 100
The official tonnage rule of 1719 was as
follows :
(L — ; 5) × B x & B
94
It is still in use among builders for esti-
mating the size of ships or yachts, and is
termed Builders’ Measurement (B.M.), or
Old Measurement (O.M.).
According to builders' measurement, length
is taken along the keel from the sternpost to a
perpendicular or plumb line dropped from the
stem-head on deck.
When this rule was used for yacht rating
it was found that by raking the sternpost
the length of keel was shortened, and in
order to prevent evasions in this way, the
Royal Mersey and London Yacht Clubs in
1854 passed a rule that the length should be
taken on deck instead of along the keel. The
tonnage of the vessels with very raking stern-
posts was, of course, much increased, and in
order to let them off a little more easily,
the whole beam was ordered to be subtracted
from the length instead of ºths of the beam.
The rule then read
(L – B) x (B x & B)
94.
(Multiplying by beam, then by half beam,
is the same as multiplying by the half square
of the beam.)
This is the rule known as the “Thames
Rule,” adopted by the Y.R.A. in 1875.
In 1879 the Y.R.A. altered the rule to
length on load line.
In 1881 the Y.R.A. adopted a new rule,
which came into operation in the following
I, + B)” × B ;
year (1882). (Lt. Pºº B ; that
1730
is, add the breadth to the length, and mul.
tiply the sum thus obtained by itself, and
then by the breadth. The product is divided
by 1730.
This rule was abandoned after the season
of 1886 for the length and sail area rule.
Top.–In square-rigged ships, the stage at the
lower mast heads to give additional spread to
the topmast rigging, and to form a kind of
gallery for riflemen in war ships. There
are fore top, main top, and mizen top. To
top is to raise one end of a boom or yard
by the topping lifts. (See Plate I.) The
“top” of a vessel is the part above water.
Topgallant Bulwarks. – Bulwarks fitted above
the rail to afford additional shelter on deck.
Topgollamt Mast.—The mast next above the top-
mast in square-rigged ships.
Top Hamper.—Any real or supposed unneces-
sary weight carried on deck or masts.
Topmast Hoops.-Hoops were formerly used for
jib-headed topsails, the same as they used
to be for the original “ gaff topsails.” The
hoops when not in use rest on the masthead.
In hoisting the topsail the lacing is passed
through an eyelet hole in the luff of the sail
and through a hoop, and so on. When the
sail is hoisted chock-a-block the lacing is
hauled taut ; in lowering the lacing is
slackened. Hoops facilitate the hoisting and
lowering of the sail, and admit of its being
lowered and hoisted without a man going aloft.
Topping Lifts.—Ropes or tackles used to raise
or support booms or yards.
Top Rail.—The rail fitted on the stanchions as
a finish to the bulwarks.
Topsails.-Racing yachts usually are supplied
with various topsails, viz., balloon topsail,
No. 1 topsail, No. 2 topsail, jib-headed topsail,
and jib topsail. Formerly a square topsail
was carried as well, but spinnakers have super-
seded squaresails. A cruising yacht usually
carries one square-headed topsail and one jib-
headed topsail. American yachts usually carry
one balloon topsail (called a club topsail—see
Fig. 90, page 246) and one jib-headed topsail,
called a working topsail, and a jib topsail.
Schooners, both British and American, carry
as well a main topmast staysail.
Topsail Schooner. — See
Schooner.”
Topside.—That part of a vessel above the wales;
now in yachts sometimes understood as the
part between the water-line and deck, or the
freeboard.
Top Timbers.—The upper parts of the framing
of a vessel.
Top Yowr Boomv and Sail Large.—To leave in a
hurry.
Toss the Oars.--To throw them out of the row-
locks and rest them perpendicularly, blades
uppermost.
The rule is
‘‘ Square Topsail
699
Tobs wº, the Boom.—To raise the boom by the
lifts.
Touching the Wind.—Luffing into the wind till
the sails shake. (Seo “Iluff and Touch
Her.”)
Tott Rope or Tow Line.—The rope or hawser
used in towing.
Track.--The course or wake of a ship.
Trade Wind.—Winds that blow in one direction
a considerable time, admitting of traders
making expeditious voyages.
Trail J300rds.--Carved boards fitted on the bow
and stem of Schooners.
Tramsom.—The frame at the sternpost of a
vessel. In boats the transverse board at the
Stern, which gives shape to the quarters and
forms the stern end of the boat.
Transverse.—Athwartships.
the line of the keel.
Trapezium.—A four-sided figure with two sides
parallel, as a ship's square sail.
At right-angles to
Trapezoid.—A four-sided figure whose sides do
not form parallel lines, such as a cutter's
mainsail.
Traveller. — An iron ring, thimble, or strop
which travels on a spar, bar, or rope.
Traveller, Jointed.—The fishermen on the S.W.
coast use a jointed mast s.
traveller. The iron ſ)
hoop is in two half 2-
moons, each end has
an eye turned in (see
Fig. 393) ; the two
halves are connected
by these eyes. The
object in having a
jointed traveller is to
facilitate lowering.
(See “Penzance Luggers.”)
Tremails.—Bolts or plugs of wood used to fasten
plank to the timbers of vessels. Originally
spelt treemail. Pronounced “trennel.”
FIG. 393.
Trestle Trees.—In ships long pieces of timber
fitted at the masthead in a fore-and-aft
direction to support the cross trees.
Triatic Stay.—A stay from foremast head to
mainmast head in schooner, and termed
sciatic stay in old works.
Tricle.—The time a man is stationed at the helm.
(See “Spell.”)
Trim.—The position of a ship in the water in a
fore-and-aft direction. To trim a vessel is to
set her in a particular position, by the head or
stern. The term is sometimes erroneously
used to represent the shifting of ballast
transversely. To trim the sails is to sheet
and tack them so that they are disposed in
the best manner possible, in relation to the
force of the wind.
Trip.–A passage. Sometimes used to denote a
board made in beating to windward. To trip
a spar is to cant it. To trip an anchor is to
break it out of the ground; an anchor is a-trip
when one of its flukes is on, but not in, the
ground. (See “Anchor’’ and “Scowing ”)
Trip or Tripping Line. —A rope used to cant a
spar, as trip halyards for a topsail, or the line
bent to the crown of an anchor to trip it or
break it out of the ground.
Trough.--The hollow between wave-crest and
wave-crest.
Trucks.—The wooden caps fittod on the upper
mastheads to reeve the signal halyards
through.
True Wind.—A wind that does not vary ; the
prevailing wind in contradistinction to oddies
or baffling puffs.
Trying.—To “try’’ is when a vessel is hove to,
to so trim her sails that she may gather head-
way and make something to the good.
Trysail.—A small sort of gaff sail set in heavy
weather. The sail set on the fore and main
mast of square-rigged ships similar to the
spanker on the mizen. The origin of the
term trysail was probably that in heavy
weather it was the Sail set to enable to “try,”
or to make some headway.
Twelc.—The form of the hollow in the quarter near
the transom or stern-post.
T'ug.—A towing boat. To tug is to tow.
Twmble Inu or Tumble Home.--When the sides of
a ship near the deck incline in wards; the
opposite to flaring.
Tumbler.—A piece of wood pivoted in the jaw;
of a gaff which is always in the plane of the
mast.
Tumbler-fid.—A self-acting fid for a topmast.
(See pages 56 to 60.)
Twrk's-head.—A knot made to finish off the end
of a rope.
T'wrm.—A circle made by a rope round a pin, &c.
“Turn O !” is an order to belay. To catch a
turm is to put the fall of a tackle or part of
any rope round a belaying pin, stanchion, &c.
Turm in.--To secure the end of a rope by seizing.
Turning to Windward.--Working or beating for
a point or object by short boards. Generally
beating to windward. To turn is to tack.
T'wrm of the Title.—Whon the tide changes from
flood to ebb, or the contrary.
Twice Laid Rope.—Rope re-made from old rope.
A term of reproach for articles of inferior
quality.
Twiddler.—Small broom used in scrubbing the
decks of yachts, to clean out corners, &c.
Twiddling Slick.-The tiller, hence “twiddling
lines '' are the tiller lines.
Two-blocks.--Said when a tackle has been used
so that its two blocks come close together.
(See “Chock-a-block.”)
Tye.-A runner to which a tackle is hooked, used
for hoisting lug-sails and squaresails.
Tyers.-Ropes or gaskets used to secure the
mainsail of a fore-and-aft vessel when furled
or stowed to the boom. The tyer that takes
up the middle of the sail is termed the bunt
tyer. (See “Gasket and Buntline.”)

700
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Tſ.
Uma Boat. —This is a centre-board boat with one
sail introduced from America, where they are
known as “cat boats.” The mast is stepped
close to the stem (sometimes with a rake aft), and
the sail is laced to a boom and gaff. The
name Una was given them because the first
boat introduced at Cowes, from America, was
IFIG. 394.
so named. These boats vary from twice to
three times their beam in length, and are
very shallow. If handled with care, they are
safe enough, very fast, and in smooth water
very weatherly and handy. In squalls they
should always be luffed up in good time, or
they might be blown over. (See Fig. 394.)
The term “Una rig ’’ is now commonly
used in England to denote a one sail boat.
Undoubtedly the word “Una ’’ refers to one
sail, and not to the type of boat ; hence we
hear of all sorts of boats being “Una rigged,”
and in America, the corresponding rig (termed
“cat rig ’’) is applied to both deep-bodied and
shallow craft. Whether or not any single
sail could be properly classed under the term
Una can only be decided arbitrarily. The one
sail boat brought over here in 1853 and named
“Una ’” had a gaff sail, and no other sail.
The Royal Windermere Yacht Club Una class
boats use gaff sails, and no spinnaker or head
sail is allowed.
Unbend.—To cast loose a sail from its gaff, yard,
&c. The opposite of bend.
Under Bowing the Sea.—When a vessel is close-
hauled sailing in a cross sea, and gets the
worst of it on the lee bow.
Under Canvas.-Proceeding by means of Sail.
With Sail set.
Under Decle.—Below.
Under Hatches.—Below deck.
Under Rwn.—To follow up a rope, chain hawser,
or cable, by hauling it in from a boat which
moves in the direction that the cable, &c., is
laid out.
Under Sail.—See “Under Canvas.”
Under the Lee.—Sheltered from the wind by the
sails of another vessel. Under the lee of the
land, sheltered from the full force of the
wind by the land.
Under-woºy. — Moving through the water under
the influence of the wind, steam, or oars.
Sometimes wrongly written under-weigh. It.
is said a vessel may be under-weigh when she
is getting her anchor; but even then it would
be the anchor, and not the vessel, that would
be under-weigh.
In Admiral Smyth’s “Sailor’s Word Book,”
(edition revised by Admiral Sir E. Belcher,
1867), is the following :-‘‘UNDERWAY. — A
ship beginning to move under canvas after
her anchor is started ; some have written this
wnderweigh, but improperly. A ship is under-
weigh when she has weighed her anchor; she
may be with or without canvas, or hove to.
As soon as she gathers way she is wrvderway.
This is a moot point with old seamen.”
The obvious objections to using wºvderweigh
in this limited sense is that a man might find
himself saying. “We got wºnderweigh at noon,
but were not wn derway until two hours
later.” The fact is, underweigh is never
written by seamen except through careless-
ness; but the odd thing is that greenhorns
take to the word more kindly than they do to
wnderway, probably because they have enough
knowledge to know that to get underway the
anchor must be weighed. The best naval
writers never describe the operation of
heaving up the anchor as getting wn der-
weigh, ; but always write “she weighed,” or
“she weighed anchor,” or “we weighed,”
&c. To “get underway ” is by them used
in the sense of making preparation to get
way on ; and when the anchor is a weigh
the ship may have way on or not. Dana,
(who may be taken as an unimpeachable
authority) does not admit the word wnder-
weigh at all in his Seaman’s Manual (revised
edition by the Registrar-General of British
Shipping); but in the instructions for making
sail, &c., wºuderway is always used thus :
“Getting underway from a single anchor,”
“getting underway, riding head to wind,”
&c. So also underway is the term used in.
the Merchant Shipping Act.
In William Falconer's Marine Dictionary
(the edition published 1779) whderweigh is.
not to be found, but we come upon the:
following sections :
“UNDERWAY. —If it be in a tide way and
with a leading wind, so that the ship can
stem the tide, let it be a rule when the
tide serves to get underway and sail against
the flood, which gives time to clear a ship.
of her moorings, and affords a more powerful
effect to the helm to clear of other ships, &c.
“WAY. —The course or progress a ship.
makes in the water under sail. Thus, when
she begins her motion she is said to be under-
Way, &c.’’
“RIDING AT ANCHOR.—When a fleet of
many ships is moored in a port or road care
must be taken to preserve a considerabie
distance between the vessels, not only for
the purpose of keeping them clear of each
other, but to prevent them from running
foul when getting underway.”

Dictionary of General Information. 701
“WEIGH.—To heave up the anchor of a
ship in order to prepare her for sailing.”
William Falconer, besides being a distin-
guished author, was a thorough Beaman, and
after long service in H.M.'s Navy, was lost
in the wreck of the Aurora, 1769, aged 39.
Hutchinson (master mariner), in his “Prac-
tical Seamanship,” published in 1795, uses
the term “underway,” and underweigh, is not
to be found in his book. R. H. Gower, in
his “Seamanship,” published 1808, also uses
underway. Admiral Sir George Nares, in his
“Seamanship ’’ (6th edition, published 1882),
always uses underway, and so does Admiral
De Horsey in his writings.
''Jºuderwriter.—A person who attaches his name
to a policy of insurance by the side of the
amount he will share of the risk. The under
part of some policies may have two or three
hundred names attached, as the principle of
underwriting is to have very little at stake on
any one ship. To become an underwriter at
Lloyd’s a deposit of 5000l. cash is required,
for which interest is paid. The entrance fee is
100l., and the subscription is 12l. 128. per year,
together with 5l. 5s. for a seat in the rooms.
10nion.—The national flag denoting the union of
England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Jack is
a small flag—a diminutive of the Union—only
flown from the jack staff on bowsprit or
forepart of a ship. In the merchant service
it must have a white border. When flown
from the mast with a white border it is the
signal for a pilot, and is called the Pilot Jack.
To no other union flag is the term Jack applied.
The “Union ” is flown on forts, Government
works, &c. The flag of England is the St.
George's cross (+) red on a white ground.
The national flag of Scotland is St. Andrew’s,
a white cross (X) or saltire on a blue ground,
and on the union with England these two
were combined. The Scottish flag remained
unchanged ; the English cross was merely
placed over it, the white ground of the
IEnglish flag giving place to the blue ground
of that of Scotland. This was the first Union
flag. On the union with Ireland the Irish
saltire (St. Patrick’s cross (X), red on white)
was added, being placed side by side with
that of Scotland; but for a requirement of
heraldry, to be presently noticed, the flag
would consist of a blue ground with one band
of white representing the Scottish cross, and
one of red of the same breadth beside it,
representing the first cross, with a red cross
over both—nothing more. But it is a law of
heraldry that colour cannot be placed next
colour, nor metal next metal, and so, to meet
this, the red Irish cross has a narrow hem or
border of silver (white) to separate it from
the blue ground of the flag, and for the same
purpose the red cross of St. George has, or
rather should have, a similar narrow border
of white of the same breadth as the border of
St. Patrick’s cross. In arranging the two
saltires they are “counterchanged,” that is,
Scotland has precedence in the first and third
quarters by its white cross being placed above
the Irish one, while in the second and fourth
quarters the precedence is ceded to Ireland
by the red cross being placed over the white.
The words of the heraldic blazon contained in
the Order of the King in Council of Nov. 5,
1800, and announced to the nation by the
Proclamation of Jan. 1, 1801, prescribes the
form in which the national flag is to be con-
structed in these words: “The Union flag
shall be azure, the crosses saltires of Saint
Andrew and Saint Patrick, quarterly per
Baltire, counterchanged, argent and gules ;
the latter fimbriated of the second, surmounted
by the cross of St. George of the third,
fimbriated as the saltire.” To these distinct
words of the verbal blazon in the Proclama-
tion all questions as to the form and propor-
tions of the flag must be referred. The Order
in Council refers to a “ draft'’ or drawing of
the flag, and of this drawing, the one which
accompanies the Admiralty Memorandum pro-
fesses to be a copy, both the drawing and the
Admiralty measurement are obviously discon-
form to the blazon prescribed in the Procla-
mation. That blazon expressly directs that
the cross of St. George “shall be fimbriated
as the saltire,’’ that is, it must have a border
the same as that of the Irish saltire ; but, so
far is this from being the case, that, while in
the drawing the hem or border of the cross of
Ireland is less than one-sixtieth the width of
the flag (which is quite as broad as it should
be), the measurement given in the Admiralty
Memorandum for the breadth of the border
of the St. George's cross is one-fifteenth, and
it is nearly the same in the drawing said to
be a copy of that in the Council Records.
This palpable error has been followed in
almost all our flags. It will be seen in the
diagram made from the Admiralty regulations
given further on, but a border so broad is not
a fimbriation at all. It really represents two
crosses—a, white one with a red one over.
Mr. Laughton, the accomplished lecturer on
naval history at the Royal Naval College,
thus speaks of it : “A fimbriation,” he says,
“ is a marrow border to separate colour from
colour. It should be as narrow as possible to
mark the contrast ; but the white border of
our St. George's cross is not, strictly speaking,
a fimbriation at all. It is a white cross of
one-third the width of the flag surmounted of
a red cross.” There is another stupid error
equally calling for correction, and for which
the Admiralty Memorandum is responsible.
When two saltires are directed to be repre-
sented on the same shield or flag, they must
be of the same breadth. The crosses of
Scotland and Ireland therefore, which on our
flag are side by side, ought to be of precisely
the same breadth. In the official drawing of
1800 they look nearly the same, and they
were perhaps intended to be so ; but the
Admiralty Memorandum, disregarding the
drawing and the verbal blazon alike, directs
that the Scottish saltire shall be one-tenth
the breadth of the flag, and that the Irish
saltire shall be only one-fifteenth. If the
diagram of the Admiralty were altered, so as
to make the Irish saltire as broad as that of
7()2
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Scotland ; if the border of the Irish cross
were made marrower; and if the border of the
St. George's cross were reduced so as to make
it of the same breadth as that of the Irish
cross, it would more correctly show what the
flag ought to be according to the heraldic
blazon. Flags in the Royal Navy are mea-
sured by the number of breadths they contain
in their widths, a breadth being equal to 9in.
An eight breadth Jack will therefore be 6ft.
wide and 12ft. long, being in length double
its width. (See Fig. 395.)
ADMIRALTY SCALE IFOR MAKING “ UNION
JACKs.”
St. George's Cross.--Red cross to be one-
fifth the width of flag, borders to be one-
fifteenth the width of flag, or one-third the
width of red cross.
St. Andrew’s Cross to be one-fifteenth the
width of the flag, or one-fifth the width of
St. George's Cross, or equal to the border of
St. George's Cross.
8 BR E A D H.
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Blue, light shade (horizontal lines); red, dark shade (vertical lines).
J'I(#. 395.
St. Patrick’s Cross.-Narrow white to be
one-thirtieth the width of the flag, or one-
sixth the width of St. George's Cross, or one-
half of St. Andrew’s Cross. Broad white to
be one-tenth of the width of the flag, or one-
half of the red of St. George's Cross, or equal
to red of St. Andrew’s Cross and narrow
white together.
a |St. George's Cross. St. A lºw 8 St. lººk §
rº,
cº; --------
g *rº ... , ..?..i. *t ºr . . ." Narrow | T3road
ſº Ted. White. JRød. W]hite. White.
in. in. in. in. in.
I8 32! 10; 10; 5% 1 (j}
16 28; 94 9% # j4,
14 25; 8% 8% 4} 12,
12 21; 7} 7% }}} 11;
10 18 (; (; 3 8
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4 7} 24 2% 1 # 3}.
% 5% 1; 1; T. 2#.
2 }}} 1+ 1# % I#
1; 3# J. I # 1.
1% 2; # # % 13.
Union. Down.—An ensign with the jack down-
wards, hoisted as a signal of distress.
Unmoored.—With anchors a-weigh. A vessel is also
said to be “unmoored ” when she is riding to
a single anchor, as to be moored two anchors
must be down.
Unreeve.—To haul out a rope from a hole, &c.
Unrig.—To dismantle a ship or any part of her,
as to unrig a topmast or bowsprit.
Unship.–To remove a thing from its lodgment.
The opposite of “to ship.”
Up and down.—Vertically. The wind is some-
times said to be up and down the mast, when
there is none at all, like Paddy’s hurricane.
Upper Mast. — Upper Slick. — A topmast,
topgallant mast, &c.
80.
Upper Strake.—The top strake running round a
vessel at the deck edge under the covering
board, usually stouter than the general
planking, and almost always of hard wood
to better hold fastenings.
Usages of the Sea.—Customs of the
sea in relation to commercial
pursuits, which are held in law
to be binding.
Use of Oil at Sea.—(See “Oil.”)
V.
* Vam.—The advanced part of a fleet.
§ Vane.—(See “Dog Vane.”)
Wang.—A rope used to keep in the
gaff of a schooner's foresail. A
block is lashed to the mainmast
head, through which the vang.
is rove and made fast to the fore.
gaff end ; the fall of the rope
leads to the deck. In square-
rigged ships wangs are generally
used on the spanker gaff. Sprit
sail barges also use vangs.
Wariation of the Compass.-The departure the
compass needle shows from true North at
certain parts of the globe. The difference
between magnetic and true North usually
expressed in degrees on charts. The varia-
tion widely differs, thus : in the English
Channel it is about 23°, at New York only 5°.
The deviation of the compass is due to local
attraction. A chart called a ‘‘Variation
Chart,” shows by curved lines the changing
variations of the compass needle for different.
parts of the globe. Variation must not be
confused with the deviation due to local
attraction in iron and composite ships.
Warmint. — Having good reliable qualities in a
breeze to windward.
Varnish.-Black Japan : 10Z. lamp black, 20z.
bitumen, 3 oz. acetate lead, $oz. Turkey
umber, 3 oz. Venice turpentino, 1202. boiled.
oil. Tissolve the oil in turpentine ; powder
the other ingredients, and stir in gradually.
Simmer on slow fire ten minutes.
Copal Warnish: Copal 30oz., drying Jinseed
oil 180Z., spirits of turpentine 50oz. Briskly





Dictionary of General Information.
703
fuse the copal ; heat the oil to close on boil-
ing point, and pour it hot on the copal ; mix
thoroughly ; allow the mixture to cool a little
and add the turpentine, mix thoroughly.
When cool strain for use.
A Quick-drying Warnish: 7lb. copal (fused),
hotlinseed $gall., hot turpentine 1%gall. Care-
fully stir and boil together.
Oak Warnish : 71b. pale resin dissolved in
2gall. oil of turpentine.
Warnish for Metals : Powder 11b. of copal
and dissolve in 21b. of strongest alcohol. A
very quick-drying varnish.
Warnish for Iron : Mastic (clear grains)
10lb., camphor 5lb., sandarach 15lb., elemi
5lb. Dissolve in sufficient alcohol.
Black Warnish or Polish for Iron : Resin
4oz., lamp black 20z., beeswax 3oz., shellac
20%., linseed oil 10t. Boil together one hour,
and then stir in #pt. turpentine.
Tar Warnish for Iron : Coal tar 1pt., lamp
black 10Z., heel ball #oz., spirits turpentine
#pt, beeswax 1 oz. Dissolve the heel ball and
beeswax in the turpentine, add the lamp
black and tar, warm and mix it thoroughly.
This mixture should be applied hot.
Tar Warnish for Wood or Iron : 1 gall.
coal tar, 20z. oil of vitriol ; mix thoroughly,
and add 3 pt. of turpentine; mix, and apply
immediately. This dries quickly, and only
quantities sufficient for use should be made.
Warmishing a bright Boat.—Oil the planks, &c.,
and when the oil is dried in put on two coats
of copal varnish. If size is used instead of oil,
the varnish will peel off. To clean off
varnish : take a mixture of soda (21b.), soap
(1lb.), boiled together, it will remove varnish
from spars, &c. It should be applied hot.
(See also “Caustic Soda.”)
Veer.—To pay out chain. Veer is also used in the
sense of wearing or gybing. The wind is said
to veer when it changes in direction with the
sun ; to back when it changes against the
sun, the wind is said to veer when it draws
more aft. To haul when it comes more
ahead.
Veer and Huwl.—To slacken up a rope, and then
haul on it suddenly, in order that those who
are hauling on it may acquire a momentum.
Pulling by jerks.
Veer away the Cable.—The order to pay out or
slack away cable.
Veering a Buoy in a Vessel's Wake.—Throwing
overboard a buoy in the wake of a ship when
a man has fallen overboard, in the hope that
he may get to it, and pick it up.
Vertical.—At right angles to the horizon, or
perpendicular to the horizon.
Vessel.—A namo for all kinds of craft, from a
canoe to a three-decker.
Victual. — To supply with provisions for a
voyage, &c.
Voyage.—The passage of a vessel by sea. A
short voyage is called a trip or a cast.
W.
Waist.—The middle part of a vessel’s decks.
Waisterg.-Green hands, or old decrepid seamen,
who are stationed about in the waist of a.
vessel to haul upon ropes, &c.
Wake.—The peculiar eddying water that appears
after a ship has passed. Wessels are said to.
leave a clean wake that do not cause waves.
to form astorm.
Wales.—Thick strakes of plank.
Walk Away with It.—(See “Run Away.”)
Wall Knot.—A knot formed at the end of a.
rope by umlaying and inter-weaving the
Strands.
Wall Sided.—Up and down sides of a vessel
that neither tumble home nor flare out.
|Wallow.—To lie in the trough of a sea and roll
heavily ; to roll under the sea.
Warrants.-See “Admiralty Warrants.
Wash Stroke.—A strake, fixed or movable, of
plank fitted to the gunwale of an open boat
to increase her height out of water.
2 3
Watch and Watch.-The arrangement whereby
one half of the crew is on deck for four hours,
then the other half for four hours.
Watch...—An anchor buoy or mooring buoy is said
to watch when it keeps above water.
Watches.—The divisions of time for work on
board a vessel. The crew of a ship is divided
for this work into two watches, port and
starboard, each watch being alternately on
deck, excepting in emergencies, when both
watches may be called on deck. Watches are
thus divided : From 8 p.m. to midnight is the
“First Watch.” From midnight to 4 a.m. is
the “IMiddle Watch.” From 4 a.m. to 8 a.m.
is the “Morning Watch.” From 8 a.m. to.
noon is the “Fore-noon Watch.” From noon
to 4 p.m. the “Afternoon Watch.” From
4 p.m. to 8 p.m. the two “Dog Watches.”
Watching for a Smooth.—In a sea way looking.
out for a time when the waves are smaller to
tack in, &c.
Watch Tackle.—A tackle consisting of single and
double block; the single block has a hook,
the double a tail.
Water.—One cubic foot fresh water '0279 ton
or 62.391b.; one gallon '00447 ton. A ton
fresh water equal to 223-76 gallons. One
cubic foot salt water '0286 ton or 64'05lb. ;
one gallon 0046 ton ; ton 217-95 gallons.
One gallon fresh water weighs 10°011b. ; one
pint 200Z. A ton of fresh water is usually
taken as 36 cubic feet ; a ton of salt water
as 35 cubic feet. (See “Cubic Measure of
Water.”)
Water Ballast.—Water carried in tanks or
breakers as ballast. The tanks or breakers.
..should be either full or empty.
Water Borne.—Not resting on the ground, but
being in the condition of floating.
Watering.—Taking water into the tanks by the
hose or by means of breakers. Steam yachts.
704 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
often “water ’’ by filling their dinghy or their
cutter, and then pump it into the tanks with
the donkey pumps, if the water has to be
fetched from shore.
Water Line.—A horizontal plane passing through
a vessel longitudinally. Length on load water-
line means the length in a straight line from
the fore side of the stem to the aft side of the
Stern-post at the water level.
! Water Logged.—The condition of a vessel, that
although her hold is full of water, she does
not sink, owing to the buoyant nature of her
cargo, or from other causes.
, Waterproofing.—Boil 1202. of beeswax in 1gall.
of linseed oil for two hours ; paint the cloth
with this mixture twice or thrice. Colour as
required.
Waterproofing Sail Cloth.-The recipe used by
Mr. Berthon to render the canvas of his col-
lapsing boats waterproof, and similar to that
used in H.M. dockyards for hammock cloths,
is as follows: To 60Z. of hard yellow soap add
# pints of water, and when boiling, add 5lb.
(more or less according to the required con-
sistency) of ground spruce ochre, lb. patent
driers, and 5lb. of boiled linseed oil. For water-
proofing sheets, the ochre should be omitted,
as it adds to the weight, lessens the flexibility,
and is unnecessary. Existing coverings are
made waterproof by preparations of india-
rubber, oil, paint, &c. Fabrics coated with
india rubber are not proof against the effects
of climate or rough usage, are not easily re.
paired, and, compared with those coated with
the Chinese and other preparations, are very
heavy, and, if the same dimensions, expensive.
The recipe for ‘‘ waterproofing ” calico used
by the Chinese, is said to be efficient, alike in
the hottest and coldest climates, is believed to
be composed of boiled oil one quart, soft soap
1oz., and beeswax 10Z. ; the whole boiled
until reduced to three-quarters of its previous
quantity; but experiments are required to
test the above proportions.
To waterproof cotton drilling boil a mixture
of 60%. hard yellow Boap, 13 pint water, $1b.
patent driers, 5lb. boiled linseed oil.
Mr. Arthur Hill Coates, a well-known
amateur yachtsman, of Bangor, co. T)own,
gives the following instructions for water-
proofing sail covers: To make a sail cover so
that it is not stiff, but as soft as kid, use
strong good calico; when the cover is made,
wash out with boiling water all the finish or
dressing, dry thoroughly, Baturate with petro-
leum oil, ring out, and allow to dry in air.
When quite dry, paint with whitelead,
coloured to taste, mixed with raw linseed oil
and turpentine, three thin coats. I have a
cover five years old as good as the first day,
and as soft as could be desired, and that
never sticks. Waterproof coats and leggings
for boating made the same way are a luxury.
| Waves.—The formation of waves is a subject
which has received much attention of late, but
no completely satisfactory theory as to their
genesis has yet been evolved. The general
theory is, that the smooth sea is acted upon by
the impact and friction of the moving air or
wind, and that the waves increase in size and
speed, until the wind force is incapable of
further developing them. Deep sea waves
vary much in length, even under Similar
influences of wind pressure, and its continua-
tion. Captain Motter of the French Navy,
measured a wavo in the North Atlantic,
2720ft., or half a mile from crost to crest,
and Sir James Ross, one 1920ft. long. Such
waves however, are seldom met with, and
I)r. Scoresby observed that Atlantic storm
waves had lengths of from 500ft. to 600ft.
Measuring the heights of waves is a more
difficult matter than measuring their lengths,
and there has been much exaggeration under
this head. The late Sir E. Belcher, at the
Institute of Naval Architects in 1862,
mentioned a wave he had observed rise to
100ft. Professor Rankine, in his work on
Naval Architecture, speaks of waves on
rocky coasts rising to 150ft., and waves have
been known to fly over the JEddystone
Lighthouse. However, the greatest heights
of deep sea waves as measured by Dr.
Scoresby, and other accurate observers, have
been 48ft., but it is rare to meet with waves
exceeding 30ft. in height. Ordinary storm
waves such as met with in the Atlantic of
about 200ft. in length, have a height of about
one-twentieth of their length, but the ratio
becomes lower as the length of the waves
increase, and waves of 1000ft. in length have
been observed with but a height of 10ft. On
the other hand, waves of 600ft. in length have
been observed of unusual steepness, and with
heights one-eighth of their lengths. A long
series of observations made by M. Bertin on
the heights and lengths of waves, would seem
to prove that the average height of deep sea.
waves is as 1 to 25 of their length. This of
course is applied to single waves only. In what
is termed a “confused sea,” where a long wave
may overtake and pass through a short one,
the general height becomes increased, almost
to the extent of the combined heights of both
waves, and the wave form under such
circumstances, is more or less “confused.”
In the English Channel, superposed waves are
common, and the waves generally being short
and steep, heights are met with of about
one eighth the length of the waves. (A wave
length is the length from crest to crest, and
wave height, the height from hollow to
crest.)
The Speed of waves is generally propor-
tional to their length. Thus a wave 20ft.
long will travel 6 miles an hour, and one
50ft. long, 9 miles; 120ft., 15 miles; 200ft.,
19 miles ; 400ft., 27 miles ; 600ft., 32 miles ;
1000ft., 42 miles. It must be understood
that it is only the wave motion, and not the
water that travels, and no substance resting
on the water is carried forward by the advance
of waves further than the force of gravity
may give a substance an alternate forward
and backward motion, as it became differently
situated on the sides of waves. Thus a ship
Dictionary of General Information.
will simply rise and fall with the waves and
not be carried forward by them, and an
unbroken wave would do a ship no harm in
the Bense of an impact due to the wave
striking her. The danger from waves arises
When they break over a ship, or when a ship
by intercepting a wave causes it to break.
(The best article in a popular form on Waves,
and oscillations of ships among them, is in
Mr. W. H. White’s “Manual of Naval Archi-
tecture.”)
Waves, to Still.—(See “Oil on Troubled Water.”)
Way. — Motion through the water, as under-
Way, head way, stern way, steerage way, lee
way, &c. (See “Under way.”)
Ways.—Balks of timber arranged in a kind of
Shute to haul vessels upon or to launch them
Off.
Wear.—To bring the wind on the other side of
a vessel by putting the helm up so that the
vessel’s head goes round away from the wind
instead of towards the wind as in tacking.
(See “Gybe.”)
Weather.—The windward or “breezy’’ side of
an object. The side on which the “weather”
is felt ; not to leeward. To weather is to
pass on the windward side of an object.
In cross tacking the vessel “weathers ”
another that crosses ahead of her. To
weather on another vessel is to gain on her
in a windward direction by holding a better
wind than she does—to eat her out of the
wind.
Weather Board.—On the weather side of a vessel.
Sometimes in working to windward by a long
board and a short one the short one is called
‘‘weather board.”
Weather Boards.-Pieces of boards fitted over
open ports to turn water or rain off.
Weather Cloth.-The cloth in a sail next the luff.
The “weather ’’ of a sail is the luff.
Weather Cloths.--Pieces of canvas fitted on ridge
ropes and stanchions of yachts above the
bulwarks ; also the tarpaulins used to
cover the hammocks when stowed in the
nettings.
Weather Gauge.—The condition of a vessel that
is to windward of another one. In slang, to
possess an advantage.
Weather Helm.—The helm or tiller hauled to
windward when a vessel owing to too much
after sail has an inclination to fly up in
the wind. If the centre of effort of the sails
is much abaft the centre of lateral resis-
tance, a vessel will require weather helm to
keep her out of the wind. The tendency to
fly up in the wind can be remedied by reducing
the after sail, or setting more head sail, or by
easing the main sheet. However, all vessels
should carry a little weather helm. (The
Z Z.
2
contrary to “Lee Helm,” which see.) It has
been frequently argued that the effect of the
water pressure on the rudder when the helm
is to windward (that is the rudder to lee-
ward), is to press the vessel bodily to wind-
ward, and no doubt there is some truth in
this, although the influence of the rudder
in this respect could be only small.
Weathering.—A relative term used in sailing to
define the action of one vessel that is eating
to windward of another, thus, if a vessel is
said to be weathering on another she is
eating her out of the wind, or closing up to
her from the leeward, or departing from her
in a windward direction. Weathering an
object is passing on its windward side.
Weatherliness.-(See “Weatherly.”)
Weatherly.—The quality of hanging to wind-
ward well or holding a good wind. This
term is often improperly used to denote good
behaviour in a Sea way or in bad weather.
Weather Lurch.-A weather roll or a roll to
windward. In running with the main boom
well off, it should be always secured with a
guy, or it may fall to the opposite side
during a weather roll, and cause some
damage.
Weather Tide, or Weather-going Tide.—The tide
that makes to windward or against the wind.
(See “Lee-going tide.”)
Wedges of Immersion and Emersion.—(See “Im-
mersed.”)
Wedging Up.–Lifting a vessel by driving wedges
under her keel to take her weight off the
building blocks before launching.
|Weepings.--The exudations of damp or water
through the seams or cracks of planks, &c.
Weigh.--To raise a thing, as weighing the anchor.
(See “Under way.”)
Weight of Metal Plates in Pownds per Square
Foot.
o,
% Iron. Steel. Brass. § Lead. Zinc.
3 O
8–
in. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb.
Y’ſ 2-5 2.6 2.7 2.9 3-7 2-3
5 5-2 5-5 5.8 7'4 4-7
*: 7.5 7:S S-2 8.7 | 11 "I 7:0
} 1() 1 (). 1 11 () II (; 14-8 9-4,
jºr 12:5 13 13.7 14-5 1S-5 11.7
# 15 I 5'6 16-4 17.2 22-2 14-0
* 17.5 18.2 | 19.2 20-0 || 25.9 | 16.4
2 20 20:8 21.0 22:4) 29-5 18.7
Y” 22.5 2:3-4 24' (; ; 25-S 33-2 21:1
25 2(; 27-4 2S-6 36.9 23-1
}} 37.5 28-6 30: 1 31'4 40-6 25-7
3() 31-2 32-4) 34'3 44-3 2S-1
+: 32°5 33'S 35' 6 37.2 4S-() 30°4.
35 36-4 3S-3 4(). () 51.7 32.8
## 37-5 39 41-2 42-4) 55-4 35-1
l 40 41-6 43.9 45' S 59-1 37-5
• r---, -----------------

706 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Weight of Chaims.
Jhains. Chain Cublog.
Diamotor Weight per Diamoter Weight per
in inches. | Fathom in 1b. || in inches. | Fathom in lb.
j 5} } 13}
7. 8 § 22
# 14 # 30
§ 22 # 42
# 32 I 55
# 43 1% (38
1 56 13. 84
J # 71. 1; I ()2
1} 87 1} 120
1; 106 1} 148
2 180
Weight and Bulk of Substances.
‘s 3 off 3.
+-> 3 = & ci
Names of Substances. #2 # 28
3, 2 fi 3.5
£ & E C
Cast iron .................................... 450'5 {-97
Wrought iron.............................. 486 (; 4'6()
Steel ............................... .......... 489'8 4'57
Copper ....................................... #55 4'03
Dead ......................................... 707.7 3-I (;
Brass.............................. ........... #37.7 4°16
Tin.......................................... .. 45(; 4-91
Gold (22 cara,t) .........................., | 1090 2.06
Gold (pure) ................................. 121() 1 '85
Silver.......................................... 551. 4-07
Cou! .......................................... 53 42
Pine, white ................................ 29'56 75-6
* * Yellow.............................w. | 33°81 (36°2
, Duntzic ....................... ..…. ', 40 55
, red .................................... 98 6()
English elm ... .........................wl 3% 64
American , , .............................. I 45 5()
Teuk .......................................... 5() 44
Muhogany.................................... ($6.4 33.8
Oak, live (American)..................... 7() 32-0
,, white * * - - - - - e s is a s - ºr - - - - - - - - - 45°2 49-5
* , º, (English)........................ 53 42
Cork .......................................... 15 15ſ)
Marble, common .......................... 141 () 15.9
Millstone ............ ...................... 13() 17.2
Clay .......................................... 101.3 22-1
Sºund .............................. ........... 94.5 23.7
Grunite ........... ........................... 165 13.5
Darth, loose................................. 78.6 28'5
Water, Halt (Hea).......................... (;4-3 94'8
1, fresh .............................. 62-5 35'9
Ice ............................................. I h9:08 98’ht;
JU)
Well.—A sunken part of the deck aft, termed
cockpit sometimes. In small vessels there is
usually a well aft in which the steersman sits :
the cabin of a small boat is usually entered
from the well. The cabin of most American
yachts, large or small, is usually entered from
the cockpit aft.
Well That 1 Well. There !—An order to cease
hauling and belay.
Weaford Flat Bottom Boats.-These boats are
built for the herring fishery, and are gener-
ally termed “cots.” The fishing season lasts
from about the middle of October to Christ.
mas, and very often the boats are not put
into the water for the rest of the year.
They are suitable to any coast without
quays or shelter, and where there is often a
heavy surf, making it necessary to haul boats
above high-water mark every time they are
used. Thus described in the Field :
The beam of the boat, that is of the larger
sort, is about one fourth of its length, say
6ft. beam to 24ft. in length, built of the
undermentioned woods, viz.: the bottom and
the beams of either white or yellow pine, the
strakes of yellow pine, and the stem and
stern posts, and the timbers of elm grown in
the country.
FIG. 396,
The accompanying sketch (Fig. 396) shows
a boat turned over on its side exhibiting the
bottom.
The bottom boards are of wood, not less
than an inch and a half thick ; they are laid
down on heavy pieces of squared wood, and
the elm timbers, which are sawn out of wood
having the necessary bend, so as to reach
from a few inches beyond the centre of the
bottom to the top of the gunwale, are about
two inches square—they cross one another,
the bottom boards are then pegged to these
timbers by driving pegs three-quarters of an
inch thick and some eight in length through
the timbers and boards ; the ends are left to
be cut off after the boat has been finished
and turned over. These pegs are secured by
cutting out a wedge from the lower end with
a chisel, and then driving the wedge into the
place from which it has been cut, thus filling
the peg-hole more tightly. No nails are used
for the bottom except to attach the short
piece of keel at the stern, say four feet; and
the heads of these nails are sunk in the keel.
These wooden pegs never move, and wear
even with the bottom ; breadth at bottom,
44ft. The stem and stern are alike, no
transom being required. The end of a
short keel extends some two inches beyond
the bottom of the sternpost to protect the
rudder. The stem and stern posts are then
morticed for the ends of the bottom boards,
and, as it is well to have them strong, there
is a good lot of dead wood.
The first strake is three-quarters of an inch
thick, and often an inch ; but before fastening
this on the beam of wood under the centre of
the boat is either removed or sunk in the
ground, Say, three inches, and heavy weights
of stones usually are placed on the bottom,
near the centre, to bend the bottom boards,
as it is considered that they do not row or
sail so well on quite an even bottom.
The rest of the strakes are half an inch
thick, and fastened on both to the timbers
and themselves with iron nails, galvanised if
procurable. Twelve-pennies are used to fix
to the bottom boards and timbers, and six-
penny Inails to the strakes. Of course these
boats are all clincher built, and are rather
heavy, weighing three and a half or four
hundredweight. They require four men
generally to run them down and haul them

PLATE CXXIV.
N
H. Section of Boom.
Topping Lift Swivel.
K. Section of Ring G.
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D. Traveller Hook.
E. Traveller Band.
F, Mast Clamp.
G. Mainsheet Ring.
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D.
7-Ton Cutter “Lady Nancy.”
F.
ROLLER REEF|NG GEAR.
A. Ratchet.
B. Pawl
C. Boom Jaw.
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Dictionary of General Information.
707
up upon rollers. These are some 6in. in
diameter if the sand is heavy. They place
long boards or the sprits under the rollers.
The sails are usually two or three sprit Bails
(see Fig. 397), and sometimes a foresail. No
FIG. 397.
keel boats are ever used, owing to the
great advantage of a flat bottom when they
ground.
Accidents seldom take place with these
boats, but, like all shallow boats, they re-
quire very skilful handling.
The centre-board now remains to be de-
scribed. It runs in a frame or sheath formed
for it in the centre of the boat. These,
when let down, draw about 3ft. below
the bottom of the boat, and are about
2ft. broad. The board is about 1in. thick;
no iron is used for them. When they near
the shore they are hauled up. They are not
required when the sails are not used. The
depth of these boats is about 2ft. to the top
of the gunwale, and they generally pull four
oars. They are too broad for one man to
scull. Of course they will not carry so much
sail as a keeled boat, nor will they sail so
near the wind.
The ballast used consists of large stones.
The fishermen hereabouts are a bold and
hardy race, and they need be, for herring
fishing on a December night is desperately
cold work ; but it is their harvest of the sea,
and when four men can take from twelve to
twenty mace of herrings in the night (the
mace is 500, and worth from 15s. to 20s.), it
pays them well. It is a pretty sight to see
forty or fifty boats out of a night; but it is
very cold work, and none but those brought
up to it could stand it.
Wheel.—Used to give motion to the rudder by
chains which pass over a barrel and lead
through blocks to the tiller. When the tiller
points forward the chain is put over the
barrel first ; when the tiller points aft the
chain is put wnder the barrel first.
Where Away P-When an object is sighted, a
question as to its bearing.
Wherry.—A small boat for rowing and sailing,
usual rig a spritsail, main, and mizen, and
foresail. (French “Houari.”)
Whip.–A purchase consisting of one single
block. A pennant vane.
Whip, To.—To bind the ends of rope with twine
to prevent their fraying.
Whiskers.-See page 36.
Whistling for Wind.—In calms or light winds
sailors sometimes amuse themselves by whist-
ling in the hope that it will bring a breeze.
They also scratch the boom for a breeze, or
to make the vessel go faster. During heavy
weather the superstition is all the other way,
and no whistling or boom scratching is per-
mitted.
Whole Sail Strength.-A wind of such strength
that a yacht can just carry all her canvas,
including her “best '' (not ballooner) gaff
topsail, to windward.
Wicked-looking.—Said of a craft which has a
Smart, raking appearance.
Winch. — A drum with crank handles, pawl,
&c., fitted to the mast to get in the topsail
sheet, &c.
Winch Roller Reefing Gear.—Rolling the foot of
a sail round the boom is an old invention,
the same as reefing square sails round the
yards is, and pretty good proof of the value
of the boom roller in short handed vessels is
the fact that it is generally used by the pilots
about the Isle of Wight, &c. They revolve
the boom by the means of an endless chain
on sheaves, and it answers very well ; but
various other plans are in use, and that
invented by Mr. F. D. Marshall (Plate
CXXIV.) is highly recommended by yachts-
men who have seen it in use.
Mr. F. D. Marshall says: “After having
tried the roller reefing arrangement, as
depicted on the accompanying scale drawing
(quarter full size), for three years it can be
confidently recommended to fellow yachts-
men as suitable for yachts ranging from 3 to
10 - rating. The facility with which any
number of reefs may be taken in or shaken
out is astonishing, and there is the further
recommendation that the sail is not pulled
out of shape by the reef earrings, but rolled
smoothly and compactly round the boom. It
has been urged that the mainsheet ring will
chafe the sail when reefed, as the friction
will be great, but on carefully examining the
Lady Nancy's mainsail after three years of
wear no sign of chafing is to be noticed.
The mainsheet ring at the extremities must,
of course, be well padded with soft canvas,
and, if this is carefully done, the chafing is
reduced to a minimum.
“It is not within the writer’s knowledge
who first invented this arrangement, but the
Lady Nancy's, in the first instance, was
made by Herr Heidtmann, of Hamburgh,
but was improved and perfected by the
writer. Previously he had seen a similar
arrang, ment on some Hamburgh boats, and
it was the facility with which these boats
reefed that induced the writer to give the
system a trial.
“The drawing is sufficiently clear, and
little explanation is necessary. The appara-
tus, however, must be very conscientiously
and strongly made of the toughest (preferably
Swedish) iron.

Z Z 2
708
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Winch Roller Reefing Gear—continued.
“The mainboom must be quite parallel
from end to end.
“The eyebolt, for fastening the tack of the
sail to the boom, must be almost flush with
the boom, otherwise the eye will cause an
indentation in the sail when rolled. A split
and hinged eyebolt is the best to adopt.
“The mainboom has a groove along its
upper side, to take the foot rope of mainsail.
This is necessary, to cause the foot to roll
evenly around the boom.
“The sail must be laced to the boom.
“The topping lift is attached to a loose
Swivel plate, to prevent the lift rolling round
the boom as the latter is revolved.
“The mainsheet ring is made of a grooved
piece of iron (the grooving is for strength),
to which is rivetted the outside bar of round
iron. The ring must be of such strength
that it cammot sprimg open in heavy weather
and allow the mainboom to get adrift.
“The extremities of the ring are padded
with soft canvas. Do not pad with leather,
as this will stain the mainsail.
“Modus Operamdi.-It is always advisable
to hoist the mainsail before reefing, if at
moorings, as the sail rolls around the
boom tighter and Snugger, although the
reefing may be accomplished with the sail on
deck, if care be taken to stretch the sail
along the boom as latter is revolved. Having
sail properly hoisted and peak well set up
proceed to reef as follows: Slack throat
halliard until hook (D) is free from travel-
ler band (E). Untoggle as many mast
hoops according to the quantity of Sail to be
rolled up. Have a piece of gas or steam
tube handy to ship on handle of ratchet,
this lengthening of handle gives more
leverage and power. Work the ratchet, and
roll the sail around boom, so that boom
travels up the mast as high as you can reach,
and work the ratchet (assuming the sail is to
be so much shortened). While the sail is being
rolled up, slack mainsheet as necessary,
remembering to keep sheet as taut as possible.
Overhaul topping lift as mainboom goes sky-
wards. Lower away on throat and peak
halliards until boom is down in place. If
sail is to be further shortened, proceed as
before. When sufficient has been rolled up
lower away until hook (D) can grip the
band (E). Set up on throat and peek, over
haul topping lift, and all is finished.
“NOTE.-Instead of reefing the sail up
the mast as described the sail may be rolled
down by simply slacking the main and peak
halliards as the sailis taken up by the revolving
boom. The topping lift will take the weight
of the boom. Experience, however, has
shown that a snugger job is made by rolling
the sail up the mast and lowering boom
afterwards.”
Wind Bowmd.—(See “Bound.”)
Windfall.—An unexpected advantage or acquisi-
tion of treasure.
Wind jamming.—A new-fashioned slamg term
for sailing by the wind. Wind jammers, a.
German brass band.
Windlass.-A horizontal barrel revolved by cranks
or handspikes, for getting the anchor. In yachts
a small neat capstan is now generally used.
Wind marks. – The marks or assumed marks
on sheets to which they are hauled in for
sailing by the wind.
Winds.-The following arrangement and descrip-
tion of winds has been generally adopted :
3: 3
53 tº s". § 6, .
§§§ § 7 : ... Description Sail
# f § 3; 33 of wind. Carried.
- 3.3 § 3; 3e
§ 3 z.
1. •0067
2. •027 } 1. Light air ............ All balloon cam-
3. •060 WQ.S.
& 4 • I () º ſº
! # } 2. Light wind ......... 3 p
6. “240 & ior * r
7. '327 } 3. Light breeze ...... .3 y
; .# } 4. Moderate breeze. Whole sail, in-
* cluding first
1.() •667 topsail.
11 •807
12 ‘960 - 5. Fresh breeze ...... Jib headed top-
13 1-13 sail.
14 1°31
15 1°50 Y .............................. Lower sail.
16 171
% - ; 6. Strong breeze ... One reef.
19 ... 2°41
20 2.67 J .............................. Two reefs.
22. ... 3°23 } 7. Moderate gale ... Three reefs, or
24. ... 3'84, close reefs.
26. ... 4°51
28. ... 5°23 } 8. Fresh gale ......... Trysail.
30 , 6°00
32 . 6'83
34 , 7.71 } 9. Strong gale......... Reefed trysail.
36 . 8*64.
£) †
ſº º º } 10. Heavy gale ......... Storm trysail.
50 16.7
" ' ' ' 3. 11. Storm ............... Whatever Small
60. ... 24'0 } sail º }.
£) s got to hol
§: & & #. together.
go. . 54.6 12. Hurricane ......... No canvas made
106. ... 66.7 strong enough
to stand such
a force.
Windsail.-A canvas shaft or tube for conveying
air to or from below deck.
Wing and Wing.—A schooner before the wind
with the main sail off the lee quarter, and
the foresail boomed out to windward. Some-
times termed goose winged. (See “Goose
Wing.”)
Wings of a Ship.–That part of a ship below
water near the load line.
Wºmlc.—A west country term for a kind of winch
used in the bow of a boat by fishermen to raise
the anchor. (See “Anchor.”)
Winning Flag or Crowing Flag.—The racing flag
which is hoisted after a race to denote that a
yacht has won a prize. It is hoisted imme-
diately below and on the same halyards as
the burgee. When a regatta is concluded a
yacht hoists under her burgee as many racing
flags w8 she has won prizes at the regatta.
Dictionary of General Information.
709
On arriving at a port, fresh from a regatta
where she has been successful, she, in a like
manner, hoists as many racing flags as she
has won prizes; and if she calls at her own
port she hoists as many flags as she has won
prizes up to date. When she has sailed her
last match she hoists as many racing flags as
she has won prizes during the season. These
are also hoisted when she returns to her own
port. If a yacht has won more prizes than
she has racing flags, it is usual to make up the
deficiency with code signal flags or burgees.
Wire Rope, Weight of.-The weight, elasticity,
and strength of iron and steel wire rope and
hemp rope vary very considerably, according
to the quality of the iron, steel, or hemp
used in its manufacture. The following table
of the weight of different sizes of rope, iron,
hemp, &c., was compiled by the well-known
civil engineer Mr. G. L. Molesworth :
--- - -, -, --→-
Hemp Iron Wire. Steel Wire. º
3 || 3 - || 3 | H = | 3 | H = | 3 5
# ºf 5 || 3 || @ 3 || 3 | Sº 3 || 3 #
g § 3 ? 3, 2 : 3 3 | H 3 Ž 3
Sº : : & * = | 3: p: : sº #3
5 || 3: | f | 3: | 5 || 3: | #92 | #
5 3 : 5 | E - || 5 || 5 || | #3 +4.3
!- : 3. !-- 2: 35 |- 3 as C 3
O P- O 2– Q-2 PH E: ſº
2# 2 | 1 1 - - 6 2
... I; 1} | 1 l 9 3
33 || 4 || 1: 2 - - - 12 4
. . . . . . ] } 2} | 1. 1} 15 5
4% 5 l; } - - 1S ($
2 3} | 1 2 21 7
5% 7 2. 4 1 : 2} 24 S
•- ... 24 4} - - - 27 9
6 9 2; 5 13 3 30 10
... 23 5; - - - 33 11
64 10 || 2: (; ; 2 3} | 36 12
* * * 2} 6; ! 4 39 13
7 12 # º # 4} # }:
a g • * * f * † - - - - - *) *)
73 || 14 3. S 2; 5 4S 16
... . ... 3} 8; ... 31 17
8 16 33 9 2; 5% 54 18
... . . . . 3; 10 || 23 (; 6() 20
83 18 3; 11 || 2: 6} | 66 22
- ... 3} | 12 ... 72 24
93 22 || 3 || 13 || 3} S 78 26
I () 25 4. 14 * - 84 2S
... . ... 4} | 15 || 3; $) 90 30
11 30 4; 16 ... 96 32
. . . . . . . . 4; 18 3} | 1 108 36
12 || 36 || 4 || 20 # 12 120 40
Manilla rope, if not dried up and chafed,
is slightly stronger size for size than hemp.
Wiring.—A stringer or ledge running fore and aft
in a boat to support the thwarts. (See “Clyde
Sailing Boats.”) Called also “Risings.”
Wisby Laws.—A code of maritime laws which,
with the rules of Oleron, for many cen-
turies formed the basis of all regulations
relating to seamen and ships. Wisby is
a seaport of Gothland in the Baltic, and
a port famous so long back as the 13th
century.
Woof.-The threads or texture of any kind of
cloth or canvas, &c.
Work.—A vessel is said to work when the different
parts of her frame, planking, &c., are not
securely bound together so that the various
parts relative to each other alter their
positions.
Working to Windward.—Proceeding by short
tacks. Beating to windward. To work up
to a vessel is to get nearer to her or catch her
whilst beating to windward.
Wrinkle.—Something worth knowing ; a piece of
valuable experience.
Wrinkles in copper are generally a sign of
severe strains in vessels, or that the vessel
“works,” or that her frame and plank shifts
when she is underway in a sea. Sometimes
wrinkles will show when a vessel is hauled
up to dry and disappear when she is put in
the water as the plank swells.
Y.
Yacht.—Generally any kind of vessel which is
permanently fitted out and used by her
owner for pleasure. The word is of Dutch
origin. In the time of Elizabeth a “ yacht '’
was kept for the use of the Sovereign, and
since that date every succeeding monarch
has had more than one yacht.
Schooners (see “Schooner'’) are supposed
to have been evolved out of the old pinks,
which were referred to by Spenser in his
“Faerie Queen.” They were certainly com-
mon among the many different vessels in
the British navy during the reign of the
Stuarts, and were chiefly remarkable for
their sharp sterns. (In the ‘‘Navy List '' for
1644 are the names of the “Paramour” pink
and “Talbot ” pink.) They were of Dutch
origin ; but they were certainly used by the
Spaniards in the Mediterranean, and differed
from the Xebecs by having flat instead of
sharp floors. However, according to the
researches of Admiral Smythe, a yacht
existed in England in the time of the
Plantagenets under the name of “esnecca.”
This name, esnecca, appears to have been
dropped by the English in the reign of
Charles II., when that Monarch was pre-
sented by the Dutch with a “ yacht '’ named
Mary, in the year 1660, Charles II. became
very fond of yachting ; and besides many
yachts which were designed for him by Sir
Phineas Pett, he is credited with having
designed one for himself, named Jamaie,
which was built at Lambeth.
The Jamaie was matched against a small
Dutch yacht named Bezan in 1662 from
Greenwich to Gravesend and back, and the
King was gratified to find his vessel leading
by three miles at the finish, although the
little Dutch craft led by half a mile beating
down, “the wind being contrary, but saved
his stakes in returning, his majesty some-
times steering himself,’’ according to Mr.
Pepys. This is probably the first account
of a yacht match, and the first record of an
amateur helmsman. These yachts were, no
doubt, sloop rigged, but yachts did not owe
their origin to Charles II. ; for, as before
said, the Plantagenets had their royal yachts,
and one later on, often referred to, the “Rat


710
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Yacht—continued.
of White,” was built by Queen Elizabeth at
Cowes. It is scarcely possible, therefore,
that the Dutch can claim a greater antiquity
for yachts than the English ; and, indeed, so
far as “yachting,” as now understood, goes,
there appears to be no doubt that it origi-
nated with Charles II., whose frequent yacht
matches with his brother, the Duke of York,
and his constant changing of his vessels, are
duly recorded by Pepys.
The following is a list of the yachts built
by Charles II. :
reached 500, and the pastime of cruising and
racing had taken a firm hold of all branches
of the community. From this time forward
the growth in the number of yachts became
very rapid, as will be gleaned from the table
which follow8. The rigs are separated, and
it will be seen that yawls have only become an
important class since 1864. This has not
been at the expense of cutters, as the numbers
in that rig have increased in a steady ratio.
The schooners have been the sufferers ; and,
as the labour of racing a schooner is Ho very
much greater and so much more expensive

Name. Whero built,
Charlotte ................... Woolwich (Pett) ..................
Clouveland.................. | Portsmouth (Deane) ............
Fubb8 ...... - Greenwich (Pett)..................
Henrietta .................. Woolwich (Shish) ...............
Jamaie........................ Lambeth (Charles II.)............
Isabella ..................... (+reenwich (Pett)..................
Isle of Wight... . ......... Portsmouth (Fuzer) ..............
Katherine .................. Chatham (Pett)............
Kitchen ..................... IRotherhithe (Castle) ............
Mury........................... Chatham (Pett).....................
Merlin ........................ Iłotherhithe (Shish)...............
Monmouth .................. Iłotherhithe (Castle) ............
9WY........................... Portsmouth (Deane) ............
Queenborough ............ Chatham (Pett)....................
T}raught *
Date. Length. J3readth. W º Tons.
1677 61:0 21'() 7:10 143
1671 #53'4 19'4 7' 6 1()7
1682 (33.0 21. () 7.1() 148
1679 (35°() 21.8 8, 9 162
1662 31'() 12" (; }}" (; 25
1683 60-0 18:11 7. 9 114
1673 31-() 12.6 ($" () 25
1674 96.0 21'4 7. 9 J35
1674 5(3-0 21'4 7. 9 135
1677 (;(5.6 21'(; 7. 6 166
16(36 53*() 19:6 7 * 4 109
1666 Ö2-0 14)•(; 7. 3 103
1673 48.0 17.6 7, 1 74
1671 31-6 13'4 5' 9 29
American yachting dates no farther back
than the commencement of the present
century. Mr. J. C. Stevens, when he resigned
the commodoreship of the New York Yacht
Club in 1855, wrote a letter to the members,
in which he left one to infer that American
yachting originated with him ; and he went
on to say, “I have been a yacht owner for
more than half a century, commencing in 1802
as builder, cabin boy, cook, and all the hands
of the celebrated yacht Diver, 9.ft. long, 3ft.
wide, and 3ft. deep, ending as commodore of
a Squadron whose flagship, the Maria, carries
her pennant one hundred and fifty feet above
the surface of the sea ; ” and her bottom, he
might have added, four feet under the surface
of the sea, as truly she was “four feet in the
water and one hundred and fifty in the air.’’
The first American yacht club was the “New
York Yacht Club,” organised in 1844.
Various yachts were built at Cowes during
the eighteenth century, but to Cork ap-
parently belongs the honour of originating
yachting as a national pastime. In 1720
the “Cork Harbour Water Club '' was esta-
blished; but the yachts were small; and not
until about 1783 did any private person build
a yacht of any considerable size. This yacht was
built at Itchen for the Duke of Richmond, and
between that date and 1812 various yachts
were built at Cowes, Fishbourne, and South-
ampton.
In 1810 a club was started at Cowes (the
club seal of the Royal Yacht Squadron
bears date 1812), and thenceforward yachting
made very rapid strides. In 1812 there were
probably fifty yachts afloat, and these be-
longed exclusively to noblemen or to country
gentlemen. In 1850 the number of yachts
1850. 1864. 1878.
Under 5 tons 4 ...... 52 ...... 160
5 tons, and not exceeding 9 tons 50 ...... 137 ...... 300
10 } } } } 19 , , 127 ... .. 207 ...... 403.
20 11 } } 29 , 85 ...... 113 ...... 180.
30 } } } % 39 ., 59 ...... 69 ...... 96
40 11 y 50 , , 41 ...... 44 ...... 89
50 y y } } 60 , 27 ...... 47 ...... 50
60 17 * * 80 , 40 ...... 59 ...... 88
80 } } 55 100 , 15 ...... 36 ...... (;0.
100 } } } } 150 m 33 ...... 53 ...... 87
I 50 } } 11 200 , , 9 ...... 30 ...... 48
Above ..................... 200 n 10 ...... 15 ...... 40.
Steam Yachts ........................ 3 ...... 98 ...... 282
Total .............................. 503 895 1883
T.I.G.S.
185() 1864. 1878.
Cutters ................................. 372 ...... 574 ...... 754
Schooners.............................. 76 ...... 207 ...... 328.
Yawls * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 45 ...... 54 ...... 328
Other Rigs ........................... 7 ...... 27 ...... 25.
Steamers .............................. } ...... 33 ...... 282.
TONNAGTE.
1850. 1864. 1878.
Gross Tonnage...............22, 141 39,485 89,420
than racing a cutter or yawl, there is small
hope of the schooners coming into favour
again.
NUMBER OF YACHTS.
Between 1878 and 1882 the number of
steam yachts largely increased, as the fol-
lowing table will show :
I SS2.
NO Tonnage.
Under 100 tons ........... 275 ............ 7,300
Under 200 tons............ 40 ... ...... 5,200
Under 300 tons............ 22 ............ 5,200
Under 400 tons............ 23 ............ 7,300
|Under 500 tons............ 12 ............ 5,000
Exceeding 500 tons...... 12 ............ 7,000
Total .................. 384 ............ 37,000
Dictionary of General Information.
711
In 1891 and 1895 the yacht fleet, according
to “Lloyd’s Yacht Register,” was made up as
follows :
STEAM YACHTS BUILT IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
1891, Number. Tonnage.
Steam yachts built in the United
Kingdom ............................... * * 95%) 103,081
Sailing yachts (litto ..................... 2624 67,515
Totul .................................... 3583 170,596
Steam yachts built in other coun-
tries ...................................... - 215 19,034
Sailing yachts ditto ..................... 1217 16,554
Total 14:32 35,588
1895
Steam yachth built in the United
Kingdom ................ • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 11().5 128,886
Sailing yachts ditto ................. 4 e º z 3105 60,840
Total 4210 197,726
Steam yachts built in other coun-
tries ................................ tº s ºr w w w wº 316 28,586
Sailing yachts ditto ..................... 1421 20,342
Total .................................... 1737 48,928
YACHTS OWNED IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
i
1801. Number. Tonnage.
|
Steam yachts owned in the United
Kingdom ................................. 78S 78,090
Sailing yachts (litto ..................... 2428 59,795
|
Total .................................... 321ſ; 137,885
|
Steam yachts owned in other coun-
tries ....................................... 386 4,025
Sailing yachts (litto ..................... 1413 24,274
Total .................................... 1799) 68,299
1S$)5,
Steam yachts owned in the United
Kingdom .......... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . . . 876 93,684
Sailing yachts ditto ..................... 2S65 59,899
Total .................................... 3741 153,583
Steam yachts owned in other coun-
tries ....................................... 545 64,788
Sailing yachts dii to ..................... 192() 29,283
Total .................................... 2465 94,071
It must be noticed that in the Acts of Parlia-
ment relating to maritime affairs, yachts are
not generally referred to as a special class.
The enactments refer to “every ship,” “every
British ship,” “every seaman,” as the case
may be, and only occasionally to “pleasure
yachts,” and where these expressions are used
yachts and yacht Bailors are included, unless
they are excepted in express terms. More-
over, it will be found in some cases that the
Legislature has, by an express proviso,
rendered pleasure yachts Hubject to the
liabilities, and entitled to the privileges of
trading vessels.
In 1854, the Merchant Shipping Act of
that year (17 & 18 Vict. c. 104) repealed
and consolidated into one Act, with amend-
ments, very many previous enactments
relating to the subject of British shipping.
This Act came into force in 1855, and has in
succeeding years been amended by later Acts
which have repealed or modified certain
sections of the principal Act ; and these
new provisions, which, in the case of nearly
every Act, are to be read with the Act
of 1854, will be noticed in their proper
place.
The Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, consists
of 548 sections, and is divided in eleven parts.
The first treats of the Board of Trade and its
general functions ; the second of British ships,
their ownership, measurement, and registry ;
the third of masters and seamen ; the fifth
part to pilotage ; the ninth to the liability of
shipowners; the tenth to the procedure under
the Act, and the remaining parts to matters
beyond the scope of these remarks,
1. With respect to the first and second
parts of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, the
provisions in them, speaking generally, apply
to pleasure yachts, except where such vessels
are expressly excepted by the terms of each
particular section. By sect. 19 of the Act of
1854 every British owner of a yacht, whether
used for pleasure (as yachts belonging to
yacht clubs) or otherwise (as the yachts
belonging to the Trinity House and the light-
house boards), must register his yacht, unless
she was registered before the provisions of
the Act of 1854 came into operation ; or
unless she be of less burden than 15 tons
register, and be used solely for navigation on
the rivers or coasts of the United Kingdom.
If a yacht belonging to a British owner is
under 15 tons register, and is substantially
used for cruising or racing in foreign waters,
she comes within the enactment, and must be
registered ; but if she never ventures beyond
coasting voyages, registration under the Act
is, in her case, optional. It seems that, on
the question whether a coasting pleasure
yacht under 15 tons could be refused registra-
tion, there was no uniformity of practice at
the Custom House at the outports ; and
accordingly, by a general order issued by the
Board of Customs in 1880 to the registrars of
British ships, it was directed in effect that
any yacht was to be admitted to registration
on the application of the owner, without
requiring any statement that the vessel was to
be employed for cruising in foreign waters.
The yacht, if the owner resides in the United
Kingdom, should be registered at the Custom



712
Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Yacht—continued.
House in London, or at one of the outports,
and the owner’s name should be indorsed as
master on the certificate of registry, for the
reasons given later on. If a yacht required
to be registered under the Act is not regis-
tered, she will not be recognised as a British
ship, and will not be entitled to any benefits,
privileges, advantages, or protection usually
enjoyed by British ships, nor to use the Bri-
tish flag ; but, so far as regards the payment
of dues, the liability to pains and penalties,
and the punishment of offences committed on
board the ship, or by any persons belonging
to her, she will be dealt with as though she
were a recognised British ship. In other
words, an unregistered yacht of more than 15
tons has none of the advantages, and all the
liabilities, of a registered ship (sect. 106).
Further, by sect. 84 of the Act of 1854, when-
ever any registered ship is so altered as not
to correspond with the particulars relating to
her tonnage or description contained in the
register book, then, if the alteration is made
at a port where there is a registrar, the regis-
trar of that port, but, if made elsewhere, the
registrar of the first port having a registrar at
which the ship arrives after her alteration,
shall, on application made to him, and on the
receipt of a certificate from the proper sur-
veyor specifying the nature of the alteration,
either retain the old certificate of registry, and
grant a new one containing a description of
the ship as altered, or indorse on the existing
certificate a memorandum of the alteration,
and put his name to the indorsement.
By the Merchant Shipping Act, 1873
(36 & 37 Vict. c. 85, s. 3), the Board of
Trade may exempt any class of ships from
being marked in the manner provided by the
Act on the stem, stern, and main beam ; and
accordingly the Board of Trade have issued
the following instructions : “Pleasure yachts,
barges other than sailing barges, pilot vessels,
and vessels employed solely in river naviga-
tion, are to be exempted from the require-
ments of having the name marked on each of
the bows, and of having a scale of feet marked
on the stem and sternpost ; but in these
vessels the other requirements of the law are
to be observed, viz.: those that require the
name and port of registry to be marked on
the stern and the official number and the
number denoting the tonnage to be marked
on the main beam, except in the case of
yachts used for pleasure only, which, on
special application in each case from the
owner to the board, may be exempted from
the observance of the regulations which
require the name and port of registry to be
marked on the stern, upon proof to the board’s
satisfaction that the owner is entitled to the
privilege asked for. Yachts of the following
clubs and pilot vessels have been exempted
from the provisions of having the name and
port of registry marked on the stern, namely.”
Then follows a list of Royal Yacht Clubs.
A provision is contained in the second part
of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, which is
most material with reference to the flags
which British yachts may lawfully carry on
the high seas. The 105th Bection of the Act
provides in effect that anyone within the
jurisdiction of the Admiralty, i.e., on the high
seas, flying any colours representing those
worn by the Queen's shipH, or any distinctive
national colours (except the red ensign, or the
union jack with a white border,) without a
warrant from Her Majesty or the Admiralty,
shall be liable to a penalty not exeeeding the
amount of 500l. It should here be mentioned
that the Admiralty Court has from ancient
times exercised a jurisdiction in rem in cases
where illegal colours have been carried. This
jurisdiction the Admiralty Division of the
High Court of Justice still preserves, in-
dependently of the provision of sect. 105 just
referred to. As it is not the practice to issue
Admiralty warrants to unregistered yachts,
the white or blue ensign cannot be used on
an unregistered yacht, nor can any yacht fly
colours other than those allowed by the club
or clubs to which the owner belongs. (See
“Ensign.”
The above provisions with respect to the
registration of British yachts and the colours
to be carried by them, are contained in the
first and second parts of the Act of 1854;
but part 3 of that Act is the most important
to the yachtsman, as it deals, inter alia, with
the maintenance of discipline amongst the
crew, and with other regulations material to
their engagement, conduct during the voyage,
and discharge. By the Merchant Shipping
Act, 1862 (25 & 26 Vict. c. 63, s. 13)
it is enacted that “sea-going ships, being
pleasure yachts,” shall be subject to the
whole of the third part of the Act of 1854,
except twenty-nine sections, relating for the
most part to things in which yachtsmen are not
concerned, except sect. 149, which is specially
ncticed when considering the effect of signing
articles under the head of Seaman. (See
“Passengers.”)
Yacht Clwb.-A club formed with the ostensible
object of associating yacht owners, and pro-
moting a fondness for the sea. (See “Recog-
nised Yacht Club.”)
Yachting Eliquette.—British yacht owners follow
the regulations of the Royal Navy as far as
possible in saluting, &c. (See “Saluting ; ”
See also the “Queen's Regulations for the
Royal Navy,” which can be obtained from
Messrs. Harrison and Sons, price 2s. 6d.)
The New York Yacht Club in 1882 drew up
the following code (revised 1890) for the
guidance of young yachtsmen :
SECTION I.-COLOURS, &c.
1. Rank-In making “colours,” salutes, &c., the
yacht always represents the rank of the owner,
whether he is aboard or not.
2. Jn Commission.—Yachts in commission should
hoist their colours at 8 o'clock a.m. and haul them
down at sunset, taking time from the senior officer
present.
3. Jn Company with a U.S. vessel, &c.—When in com-
pany with a United States naval vessel, or at anchor
off a United States naval station, the senior officer
should give the time for “colours" with such vessel
Or station.
Dictionary of General Information. 713
4. Jºntering Port before or after Colours.-Peforo
“colours” in the morning and after “colours" at
Run Bet, the ensign and distinguishing flags should be
shown when entering port, and should be hauled
down immediately on coming to anchor.
5. Might Pennants.—At all other times yachts should
fly a might pennant at the main, from “colours” at
Sunset until “colours” the next morning.
6. Guns.—No guns should be fired for colours
except by the yacht giving the time; nor from
“colours” at sunset until “colours” the next morning,
nor on Sunday.
7. Eacceptions.—Absent ſlugs and meal pennant.8 are
not Considered colours.
8. Half Masting Colours.-On Decoration Day and
Occasions of national mourning, the ensign only
should he half-masted. On the death of the owner of
the yacht, both the club flag and his private signal
should be half-masted, but not the ensign. When
mourning is ordered for the death of a member of the
club, the club flag only should be half-masted. This
rule should apply to yachts both at anchor and
underway.
9. Colours, how JIalf-masted.—Flags should always
be mastheaded before half-masting them and should
be mastheaded hefore hauling them down. Saluting
with the ensign at half-must should be done by mast-
heading it first.
SECTION II.-OFFICERS IN COMMAND OF ANCHORAGE.
1. Duties.—The senior officer present should be in
command of the anchorage, should give the time for
“colours,” and make and return salutes, visits, &c.
2. Station Vessel.—His yacht should remain the
station vessel until a senior to him in rank arrives
and assumes the command of the anchorage.
SECTION III.—PENNANTS, PRIVATE SIGNALS, &0.
1. Flag Officers.-Flag officers should always fly
their pennants while in commission.
2. Absence Flag.—Yachts, when the owner is not on
board, should fly at the main starboard spreader
during daylight, a blue flag, rectangular in shape.
This flag should never be flown when underway.
3. Single-masted Vessels. – Single-masted vessels
should fly the private signal of the owner when
entering a home port of this club, or when approaching
other yachts at sea ; at other times the club flag
except when with the squadron, when No. 5, Sect. VI.,
should apply.
4. Owner's Meal Pemnant.—A white flag, rectangular
in shape, should be flown at the main starboard
spreader on schooners, and at the starboard spreader
on single-masted vessels, during the meal hours of the
OWner.
5. Crew's Meal Pemnant.—A red pennant should be
flown at the foreport spreader on schooners, at the
port spreader on single-masted vessels during the
meal hours of the crew.
SECTION IV.-LIGHTS.
1. Commodore.—Erom colours at sunset until sun-
rise, the Commodore should show when on board two
blue lights perpendicularly at the stern; when absent,
one blue light should be shown.
2. Vice-Commodore.—The Vice-Commodore should
show lights, as provided for the Commodore, substi-
tuting red lights in place of blue.
3. Rear-Commodore.—The Rear-Commodore should
show lights, as provided for Commodore, substituting
white lights in place of blue.
4. Captains.—Captains, when on board, should show
a white light under the main boom ; when absent, this
light should be extinguished.
SECTION V.—SALUTES.
All salutes should be returned in kind.
1. Eacceptions. – The following rules should not
apply to yachts leaving for or returning from a day's
sail.
2. To Vessels of the U.S. Navy.—Yachts should
always salute vessels of the United States Navy by
dipping the ensign once.
3. Jºntering Port.—The Commodore, on entering
port to join the squadron, should be saluted on coming
to anchor by the yachts present. On all other
occasions the Commodore should be saluted, on
coming to anchor, by the officer in command.
Junior flag officers should be saluted, on coming to
anchor, by the officers in command, unless the latter
; a senior in rank, in which case they should salute
JITT.
Captains should, on all occasions, salute the officer
in command.
4. Jeaving Port.—The senior officer, when leaving
the anchorage, excepting temporarily, should indicate
the transfer of command to the next in rank, by firing
a gun on getting under way. All other yachts should
salute the officer in command.
5. Visits.--All visits should be made according to
rank.
6. Passing.—Yachts passing one another should
always excluauge 8alutes by dipping the ensign once,
juniors saluting first.
Steam whistles should never be used to make
Salutes.
7. From Yachts Entering Port.—The salute from
yachts entering port should be made by dipping the
ensign once or by firing a gun, on letting go anchor.
8. To Yachts Jºntering Port ſºn titled to a Salute. —The
salute to yachts entering port, entitled to a salute,
should be made by dipping the ensign once, or by
firing a gun, when they let go anchor.
9. Official Salutes to ſoreign Clubs.--An official salute
to a foreign club should be made by firing a gun with
the flag of the foreign club at the fore on schooners
and steamers, and at the main on single-masted
vessels, or, in the absence of such flag, by half-masting
the club flag and flring a gun. When the salute has
been returned, or a reasonable time for its return
allowed, the flag should be hauled down and the club
flag hoisted again.
10. After Sunset, d.c.—The salute from or to yachts
arriving after sunset, or on Sunday, should be made
immediately after “colours ” on the following
morning.
11. Personal Salutes to Flag Officers.—When a flag
officer makes an official visit, a gun should be fired
with his pennant at the fore on schooners and
Steamers, and at the main on single-masted vessels,
while he remains on board.
12. Personal Salutes to Strangers.--When a distin-
guished guest of another club or nationality is aboard
a schooner-rigged yacht the distinctive flag of such
foreign club or nation should be ſlown at the fore and
the flag of the New York Yacht Club at the main,
while he is on board.
13. Judge's /3oat.—A yacht acting as judge's boat
should not be saluted during a race. -
14. Quarter deck.—The quarter-deck should always
be saluted by liſting the cap on coming on board or
from below.
SECTION VI.--WITH THE SQUADRON.
1. Joining or Parting Company. -- Yachts should
report to the commanding officer on joining the
squadron and should obtain his permission before
leaving it.
2. Guns and Sigma/s.—When under way, with the
squadron, flring guns and signalling should be
avoided except when joining or parting company, or
when repeating signals.
3. Squadrons passing at Sea.—When squadrons of
different clubs meet at sea, salutes should be ex-
changed only by the commanding officers.
4. Salutes from Single Yachts.-Salutes from single
yachts at sea should only be answered by the flag-
ship.
5. Single-Masted Wessels. – Single-masted vessels
should fly the private signal of the owner when under
way with the squadron ; when at anchor, the club
flag.
SECTION VII.—FOlz EIGN YACHTS.
When a foreign yacht arrives, the senior officer
present should send on board, without regard to rank,
a tender of the civilities of the Club.
SECTION VIII.-VISITING A FOREIGN PORT.
1. Salutes and Pisits on Entering Port.—Yachts
should salute on entering port in the home waters of
a foreign club, where any of its ſleet are lying. After
714. Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Yachting Eliquette—continued.
the tender of civilities has been made, owners of the
entering yachts should visit the offloor in command of
the anchorage. All other visits should be made
according to rank, yisits to their equals in rank being
made by the owners of the entering yachts.
2. Both Squadrons in Port.—If the squadron of this
Club be at anchor also, the salute should be made to
its commanding officer, unless it be a senior ſlag
officer of this Club entering ; when he should be
saluted by the officer in command, and should in his
turn salute the foreign squadron.
3. Colours.—The time for “colours ” in the home
waters of a foreign club should be given with its
Senior ſlag officer present.
4. Meaning of Term “ Foreign."—The term “foreign"
should be understood as applying to all clubs outside
of the waters of New York and Newport harbours,
and Long Island Sound.
SECTION IX.—BOAT SERVICE.
1. Precedence.—The order of entering and leaving
boats is—juniors enter first and leave last.
2. Boat I'lags.-Flag officers and the fleet captain
should fly their pennants and captains their private
signals, when in their boats ; members, the club flag.
After sunset a white light should be shown at the
bow.
3. Salutes.—Passing one another, juniors should
salute seniors by raising the cap.
4. Iſailing.—Every boat approaching a yacht at
night should be hailed.
5. Answers to Boat JIails.--—The answer of the Com-
modore, when intending to board, should be “Com-
modore ; ” for junior ſlag officers and the fleet cap-
tains, “I’lag; ” for captains and members, “Aye,
aye; ” for captains returning on board, the name of
their yacht ; for visitors, “Visitors ; ” for sailing-
masters, &c., “No, no,” using the port 8ide; for
passing boats, “Passing.”
Yacht Racing Association.—An association of
yachtsmen originated in 1875 by Prince
Batthyany-Strattman (at that time known as
Count Edmund Batthyany), Capt. J. W.
Hughes, one time owner of the Vanguard
cutter, R.Y.S., and Mr. Dixon Kemp. The
object was to provide one code of sailing
rules for use in all matches, and to decide
such disputes as might be referred to the
Council of the Association. The Association
and Council are constituted similarly to the
Jockey Club. The following are the Y.R.A.
sailing rules, as sanctioned for 1895 :—
GENERAL RUILES.
1. Objects.-The objects of the Yacht
Racing Association shall be the promotion of
the interests of yacht racing.
2. Constitution. — The Association shall
consist of former and present owners of
racing yachts, and such other persons
interested in yacht racing as the Council
may elect ; and of representative members
appointed by Royal or recognised yacht clubs,
in accordance with the provisions of Rule 3.
3. Clwb Representatives.—Every Royal or
recognised yacht club of the United Kingdom
shall have the power to appoint representa-
tive members of the Association in the follow-
ing proportion to the number of members on
the club’s books, viz.:-not exceeding 300
members one representative, above 300
members two representatives; each repre-
sentative shall be a member of the club
making the appointment, and shall not be
selected from the elected members of the
Association. Every club exercising the right
of appointment shall pay a subscription of
two guineas for each representative member
it is entitled to appoint. The representative
members shall have the full privileges of
elected members. Each club desiring to
exercise the right of appointment, shall,
during the month of January in each year,
communicate to the Secretary of the Yacht
Racing Association the name or names of its
representative or representatives.
4. Lady Members.-A lady, bond fide
owner or part owner of a yacht, shall be
eligible as a candidate for membership, but
shall not be entitled to attend any of the
Association's meetings or take any part in
its management. The subscription for a
lady member shall be one guinea per annum.
5. Honorary Members.—The council is .
empowered to elect honorary members, but
such members shall not be entitled to attend
any meetings or take part in the management.
of the Association.
6. Council and Management.—The affairs
of the Association shall be managed by a
president, two vice-presidents, an honorary
treasurer, and a council of twenty-four
members. The president and vice-presidents
and the honorary treasurer to be ev-officio
members of the Council. One-sixth of the
Council shall retire annually, but shall be
eligible for re-election. Vacancies occurring
between the annual meetings shall be filled
by the Council.
7. Election of Cowmcil.—The election of
members to fill the annual vacancies in the
Council shall be conducted by balloting
papers to be sent to each member at least.
fourteen days before the annual general
meeting, when the members of the Council
thus elected shall be declared. Candidates.
to fill the annual vacancies shall be proposed
and seconded on or before the 14th of January
in each year by members of the Association,
and their names, together with their pro-
poser and seconder, shall be stated in the
balloting papers. Any member of the Council.
who has failed to attend a meeting of the
Council for a period of one year, reckoned
from January 1st to December 31st, shall.
cease to be a member of the Council, and
shall not be eligible to serve on it during the
next year unless the Council recommend his
re-election, and in that case his name shall.
be inserted in the list of candidates, and he
shall be balloted for in the usual manner.
8. General Meetings.-There shall be a
general meeting of the Association in London
in February in each year on such day as the
Council may appoint ; fourteen days' notice
of the meeting to be given to each member.
9. Special General Meetings.--The Council
may call general meetings of the Association
whenever they consider such a course neces-
sary. They shall also call a general meeting
upon the requisition in writing of ten members.
of the Association to consider such matters.
as shall be stated in the requisition.
10. Subscription.—The subscription to the
Association shall be two guineas for al-
Dictionary of General Information. 715
member and one guinea for a lady member,
annually, due on the 1st of January in each
year. The subscription of a member elected
after September 30th in any year shall cover
that for the following year. A member of
the Yacht Racing Association who has not
paid his subscription for the current year,
shall not be entitled to vote or take part in
the proceedings at General Meetings. A
member whose subscription is two years in
arrear, shall be named with the amount in
arrear in the annual statement of accounts.
The Council shall have power, after due
notice has been given, to remove from the
list of members the name of any member
whose subscription is more than one year in
£1,1'T03, I’.
11. Absent Members.-- Any member intend-
ing to be absent from the United Kingdom
during the whole period for which the annual
subscription is due (1st January to 31st
December), may, on his giving prior notice
in writing to the secretary, be exempted from
payment of his annual subscription, and in
lieu thereof shall pay 10s. 6d. per annum
until his return.
12. Fees to be Paid before Yachts are
Measured.—The owner of a yacht shall pay
all fees and expenses for measuring such
yacht to the secretary or measurer previous
to the yacht being measured. A yacht shall
not be measured until all arrears of subscrip-
tion and fees, due from the owner to the
Yacht Racing Association, has been paid.
13. Cowmcil Meetings.--The Council shall
meet at such times and places as they may
consider expedient and appoint.
14. Duties of Cowmcil.—It shall be the
duty of the Council to elect members of the
Association, to appoint officers, to frame rules,
and to détermine and settle all questions and
disputes relating to yacht racing which may
be referred to them for decision, which
decision shall be final. And further, the
Council shall take such other steps as they
may consider necessary or expedient to carry
into effect the objects of the Association.
15. New Rºwles, Amendments, and Alteration
to Rules to be considered by Cowmcil and
General Meeting.—The Council shall consider
all amendments and additions to the rules, and
provided they are approved by a majority of
two-thirds of the members of the Council
present at the meeting at which the same
are considered, they shall be submitted for
adoption to a general meeting, and shall be
carried by a majority of two-thirds at such
general meeting. Nevertheless, at the request
of any ten members of the Association the
votes of all its members shall be taken by
voting papers upon such proposed amend-
ments or additions, which shall be carried by
a majority of two-thirds of those voting. If
the Council report unfavourably of any pro-
posed amendments or additions, such amend-
ments or additions shall, if so desired by the
member proposing the same, be submitted to
a general meeting, but they shall not be
adopted unless carried by three-fourths of
the members present at such general meeting,
or of three-fourths of those voting if any ten
members request that the sense of all the
members of the Association be taken by voting
papers. Notice of any alteration in the rules,
intended to be proposed by a member of the
Association, shall be given to the secretary
at least one month before the general meeting
at which the same is to be brought forward ;
and notices of any proposed alteration in the
rules intending to be proposed at the annual
general meeting must be sent to the Secretary
on or before January 14 in each year.
SAILING RULES, 1895.
1. Management of Races.—All races, and
all yachts sailing therein, shall be under the
direction of the flag officers or Sailing Com-
mittee of the club under whose auspices the
races are being sailed. All matters shall be
subject to their approval and control ; and all
doubts, questions, and disputes which may
arise shall be subject to their decision. Their
decisions shall be based upon these rules so
far as they will apply, but as no rules can be
devised capable of meeting every incident
and accident of sailing, the Sailing Com-
mittee should keep in view the ordinary
customs of the sea, and discourage all
attempts to win a race by other means than
fair sailing and superior speed and skill. The
decisions of the Sailing Committee shall be
final, unless they think fit, on the application
of the parties interested, or otherwise, to
refer the questions at issue for the decision of
the Council of the Yacht Racing Association,
whose decision shall be final. No member
of the Sailing Committee or Council shall
take part in the discussion or decision
upon any disputed question in which
he is directly interested. The Sailing Com-
mittee, or any officer appointed to take
charge for the day, shall award the prizes,
subject to Rule 29. If any yacht be dis-
qualified, the next in order shall be awarded
the prize.
2. Postponement of Races.—The Sailing
Committee, or officer in charge for the day,
shall have power to postpone any race, should
unfavourable weather render such a course
desirable. Letter N of the commercial code
hoisted over the flag denoting the race
shall be the signal that a race has been
postponed.
3. Measurement for rating. — The rating
of every yacht entered to sail in a race shall
be ascertained by multiplying the sail area.
in square feet (as found in the manner here-
after enjoined) by the rating length in feet,
and dividing the product by 6000; the
quotient shall be the rating. In ratings
above 10, a fraction of, or exceeding '01 shall
count as 1-0, but in ratings from 1 to 10,
a fraction smaller than 0-1 shall count as 0-1 ;
and in ratings below 1-0 fractions from 0-01
to 0-99 inclusive, shall be reckoned at their
proper value (see Rule 4 and page 59). The
length shall be taken between the outer
716 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Yacht Racing Association—continued.
edges of the official marks of the Y.R.A.,
as placed by the owner at the bow and
stern of the yacht, this length to be termed
the “rating length,” and to represent
the extreme length for immersion, pro-
vided always that if any part of the stem or
Stern post or other part of the vessel below
the marks for rating length project beyond
the length taken as mentioned, such pro-
jection or projections shall, for the purposes
of the rule, be added to the rating length
taken as stated ; and pieces of any form cut
Out of the stem, stern post, or fair-line of the
ridge of the counter, with the intention of
shortening the rating length, shall not be
allowed for in measurement of length, if at or
immediately below the marks for the rating
length, nor above if within 6 inches of the
water level.
Owners to mark the rating length, with crew
On board. — Owners shall mark the rating
length of their yachts on both sides at the
bow and stern in such manner as the Council
may direct, with the official marks supplied
by the Y.R.A. which marks shall at all times
represent the extreme length for immersion
when the yacht is lying in smooth water in
her usual racing trim, including racing crew
on board at and about the mid overall length.
MAINSAIL.
Sail Area.—
A.—Measured from the top of the boom
(under the pin for outhaul shackle on
traveller, or clew slide, when hauled
chock out) to the gaff under the pin
of the sheave of the topsail sheet,
provided the peak cringle of the main-
sail does not extend beyond the pin :
in the case of the yacht having no
top-sail, or of the peak cringle extend-
ing beyond the pin of the topsail
sheet sheave, then the measurement
to be taken to the peak lacing hole.
IB.-Perpendicular to A, measured to under-
side of gaff close in to the mast.
C.—Measured from top of boom over the
pin of the sheave for outhaul or end
of clew slide to underside of gaff close
in to the mast.
I).-Perpendicular to C, measured in to the
mast, in a line with the top of the
boom, or to tack cringle of mainsail, if
below top of boom.
YARD TOPSAIL.
E.—Measured from upper side of gaff close
in to the mast to pin of sheave for top-
sail sheet, or to lacing hole in jack-
yard.
B'.-Perpendicular to E, measured to lacing-
hole in yard.
G.—From lacing-hole to lacing-hole in
yard.
II.-Perpendicular to G, measured to pin of
sheave for topsail-sheet in gaff, or to
lacing-hole in jackyard.
JIB HIJADER.
IC.–Measured from top of gaff close in to
mast to pin of halyard-sheave in top-
mast.
L.—Perpendicular to K, measured to pin
of topsail-sheet sheave in gaff, or to
lacing-hole in jackyard.
HEAD SAILS.
I.—Schooner without a fore-topmast.—The
perpendicular I to be measured from
the deck at the foreside of the mast to
where the line of the luff of the fore-
most head sail when extended cuts
such perpendicular ; in case a schooner
has no fore-topmast, but a main top-
mast and main spinnaker, the per-
pendicular for the fore-triangle shall
be measured from the deck to where
the line of luff of such spinnaker when
extended cuts the main topmast.
J.—To be measured from the foreside of the
mast to where the line of the luff of the
foremost head sail when extended cuts
the bowsprit, other spar hull, &c., as
the case may be.
Spinmaker boom and head sail.—In all
cases if the distance from the centre fore and
aft line of the mast to the outer end of spin-
naker boom (when shipped in its place and
square to the keel) exceeds the distance from
the fore side of the mast to the bowsprit end
(where cut by the line of the luff of the fore-
most head sail), the excess shall be added to
the base of the triangle formed by the head
sails; and the area of the head sail to be
computed accordingly.
Yacht without head sails.—In the case of
a yacht having no head sail, but carrying a
spinnaker, the area for head sail shall be
computed from the length of spinnaker boom
and the height from deck to where the line of
the luff of the spinnaker when extended cuts
the mast.
Head sticks and foot yards.—The length of
head stick or head yard to spinnaker shall not
exceed one-twentieth the length of spinnaker
boom. Foot yards not allowed on spinnakers.
Square sails. – In the case of a yacht
carrying a squaresail, or Square topsail, or
raffee (together or separately) the actual
area of the same shall be computed ; and if
such area exceed the area of the fore triangle,
the excess shall be used in the total area for
determining the rating.
FORESAIL OF SCHOONERs.
A.—Measured from fore side of mainmast
(in a line with main boom gooseneck)
to gaff, under the pin of topsail sheet
sheave.
B.—Perpendicular to A, measured to under-
side of gaff close in to the mast.
C.–Measured from fore side of mainmast
(in a line with main boom gooseneck)
to gaff close in to the mast.
D.—Perpendicular to C, measured in to
the mast in a line with the top of the
fore boom or tack cringle.
Dictionary of General Information. 717
AREA OF MAINSAIL.
To find the area of the mainsail—Multiply
A by B and C by D, and add the two
products together and divide by 2.
AREA OF YARD TOPSAIL.
To find the area of yard topsail—Multiply
E by F and G by H, and add the two
products together and divide by 2.
AREA OF JIB HEADER.
To find the area of jib-header—Multiply
IC by L and divide the product by 2.
AREAS OF LUG SAILS AND HEAD SAILS.
Lug Sails.-In the case of a lug sail,
standing lug sail, or balance lug sail being
carried, the actual area of the same shall be:
computed; and if head sail be also carried,
the measurements for computing the area of
the same shall be taken from foreside of
mast, &c., in accordance with the method
provided in the rule for head sails.
AREA BOUND BY CURVED EDGES OF SAILs.
The area bound by the round in the foot,
head, luff or leach of a sail, if at any time
extended by battens or otherwise beyond the
IFIG. 398.
AREA OF HEAD SAILs.
To find the area of head sails, jib topsail, or
spinnaker—Multiply I by J and divide by 2.
AREA OF POLE MAST HEAD SAILs.
To find the area of head sail for pole mast—
Multiply I by J and divide by 2.
AREA OF SCHOONER's AND YAwL’s SAILs.
The area of a schooner's sail or a yawl’s
sail would similarly be found ; in the case of
a yawl having a lug mizen the lacing-holes in
the yard would be taken as the upper
boundaries.
line between the points for measurement,
shall be computed as follows: Multiply the
base E by two-thirds of the perpendicular P.
(See page 722 for the rule to come into.
operation 1896.)
Dispwtes as to measurement for sail area.—
In cases of disputed measurement, or if the
necessary measurements cannot be obtained
from the sailmaker, the sails can be measured
in the manner following :—Take the length of
boom from mast to pin of sheave for outhaul,
and length of gaff from mast to pin of topsail
sheet sheave or lacing hole, as the case may






718 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Yacht Racing Association—continued.
require; then hoist the sail with the tack fast
and set the peak and luff up taut, and let go the
topping lifts so that the weight of the boom
comes on the leach of the sail. With a line
and tape measure the leach and luff and the
diagonal C. For the head sail measure the
height, I, and the distance, J, as provided for
in the section dealing with head sail. For top-
sail the sail would be hoisted and marked in
a line with the gaff; then lowered and
the other dimensions taken. From the mea-
surements so taken a sail plan would be made
and the areas calculated as described.
I)ecimals.-In all calculations whether re-
lating to length, sail area, or rating any
fraction beyond the second place of decimals
shall be disregarded.
Yachts of Peculian Construction or Rig.—
As soon as a yacht has been measured by the
official measurer, a certificate of rating of the
Yacht Racing Association shall be granted
to her owner, unless from any peculiarity in
the construction of the yacht, or other cause,
the measurer shall be of opinion that the rule
will not rate the yacht fairly, in which case
he shall report the circumstances to the
Council, who, after due inquiry, shall award
such certificate of rating as they may con-
sider equitable.
Certificate invalidated by imcrease to rating
length, spars or sails, and certificate to be
cancelled.—The certificate of rating of the
Yacht Racing Association shall only be valid
as the yacht's rating for racing so long as
no increase is made in her rating length,
or in her spars, or sail area. If any altera-
tions be made by any means whatever, so
that one or both of the marks at the bow and
stern, as placed by the owner, come inside
the length immersed when the yacht is lying
in smooth water in her usual racing trim,
with racing crew on board at and about the
mid overall length, or if any increase be
made in the length of spars, or in the sail
area of a yacht, or if any mark denoting her
rating length is moved from its position, her
certificate of rating ceases to be valid, and
must be immediately returned to the secretary
of the Yacht Racing Association, with notice
in writing of the alterations, in order that
the yacht, or her spars, or sails may, if
necessary, be re-measured, and a new cer-
tificate issued. Yachts which have been
raced previously to 1893, shall be allowed to
compete in the classes for which they were
designed by allowing time for any excess of
rating arising from re-measurement with
racing crew on board, provided no alteration
has been made in the hull, by which the
length of load water line has been increased
since 1892, or any increase made in the sail
area, since 1892.
All yachts to have certificates of rating, whless
ea'empted in writing.—A certificate of rating
of the Yacht Racing Association shall be held
by every yacht starting in a match, unless
the Sailing Committee give special permission
in writing, before the start, that the yacht
may compete without it ; but in the event of
any dispute as to the rating of a yacht so
exempted or otherwise, she or her sails shall
be measured by the Official Measurer before
she can be entitled to a prize.
4. Time allowance.—Intime for rating races,
time shall be allowed on arrival for differences
in rating, according to the annexed scales, in
proportion to the length of course. In all
cases where time has to be allowed for
difference of rating in yachts of 10 rating and
under, it shall be computed by the rating and
fractions of the rating in accordance with the
time scales.
Shortening Cowrse.—Should it be necessary
during a race to shorten the course, the
signal flag denoting the race hoisted under
the white peter, or in case of fog or dark-
ness two guns fired, shall show that the
race is to finish with the round about to be
completed, or at such mark as the sailing
committee or officer of the day may appoint,
and the time allowance shall be reduced in
proportion.
5. Entries.—Entries shall be made with
the Secretary at least forty-eight hours
previous to moon of the day appointed for
starting each race. In case of a Sunday
intervening, twenty-four hours shall be added.
Entries may be made by telegram, and it
shall be deemed sufficient that the same shall
have been dispatched before noon of the day on
which the entries close, subject to the provision
as to Sundays. A sailing committee, may, if
they consider it expedient, refuse any entry.
Form of Entry.—Form of entry to be
signed by the owner, or his representative,
previous to the race :-
Please to enter the Yacht for the
race at on the . Her
distinguishing flag is ; her rig is ;
and her rating, in accordance with Rule 3,
is . And I declare that no increase has
been made in her rating length or in her
length of spars, or in her sail area, since
she was measured by the Official Measurer
and her certificate issued, and I undertake
that while sailing under this entry she shall
not have on board any bags of shot ; that all
her ballast shall be properly stowed under
the platform or in lockers, and shall not be
shifted or trimmed in any way whatever ; and
that I will obey and be bound by the Sailing
Rules of the Yacht Racing Association.
Signed this day of
Races re-sailed.—Should any yacht duly
entered for a race not start, or having
started should she give up, or be disabled
during the race, such yacht shall, in the
event of the race being resailed, be entitled
to start ; but no new entries shall be received
under any circumstances whatever for a post-
poned race.
6. Ownership.–Each yacht entered for a
race must be the bond, fide property of the
person or persons in whose name or names
Dictionary of General Information.
719
she is entered, who must be a member or
members of a recognised yacht club.
Definition of recognised Yacht Club.-A
yacht club shall not be considered a recog-
nised yacht club within the meaning of this
rule unless it shall have been proposed and
accepted as such by the Council of the Yacht
Racing Association, who shall have the
power of cancelling such recognition should
they deem it expedient so to do.
Hired Yachts. –A yacht whilst let on hire
shall not be allowed to compete under these
rules.
7. Only one Yacht of same Owner to com-
pete.—No owner shall be allowed to enter more
than one yacht in a race, except in cases in
which a prize is given for each rig, when one
yacht of each rig may be entered ; nor shall he
be entitled to enter the same yacht under
different rigs for any race.
A Yacht is mot to compete in two or more
Races at one time.—If a yacht is entered
for two or more races which are to be
sailed at the same time, the owner before
starting the yacht shall (in writing or by
showing in the rigging the signal flag denoting
the race) declare to the sailing committee
in which of the races the yacht will compete ;
but this section of the rule shall not apply to
postponed or re-sailed races.
An owner not to steer any other Yacht than
his own.—An owner shall not steer any other
yacht than his own in a race wherein his own
yacht or yachts compete.
8. Sailing over.—When a prize has been
offered for competition any yacht duly entered
shall be entitled to sail over the course (sub-
ject, however, to Rule 2), and be entitled to a
prize of not less than half the value of the
first prize.
9. Sliding Keels, or Centre-boards.-In the
case of a yacht fitted with a centre-board or
plate, or other form of shifting keel, manual
power only shall be employed in working it.
10. Member on Board.—Every yacht sailing
in a race shall have on board a member of
a recognised yacht club, who, before the prize
is awarded, shall sign a declaration that the
yacht has strictly conformed to all the sailing
regulations, as follows:–
Declaration that rules have been observed.—
I hereby declare that the yacht
whilst sailing in the race this day,
has strictly observed the sailing rules and
regulations.
(Signed)
Date
11. Distinguishing Flags. – Each yacht
must carry, at her main topmast head, a
rectangular distinguishing flag of a suitable
size, which must not be hauled down unless
she gives up the race. If the topmast be
lowered on deck or carried away, the flag
must be rehoisted in a conspicuous place as
soon as possible.
12. Instructions.—Every yacht entered for
a race shall, at the time of entry, or as soon
after as possible, be supplied with written or
printed instructions as to the conditions of
the race, the course to be sailed, marks, &c.
Nothing shall be considered as a mark in the
course unless specially named as such in
these instructions.
Distinguishing numbers. — Each yacht
shall be given a number with the sailing
directions, and should any yacht cross the
line before the signal for the start has been
made, her distinguishing numeral shall be
exhibited as soon as conveniently may be as a
recall, and kept displayed until the said yacht
shall have either returned and recrossed the
line to the satisfaction of the sailing com-
mittee, or have given up the race. [The
numbers to be in white on a black ground
and the figures not less than 2ft. 6in. in
height.]
13. No restriction as to sails.--—There shall
be no restrictions as to sails, or the manner
of setting and working them ; but manual
power only may be used for hoisting and
working them.
14. Crew and Friends.—In yachts above
10-rating there shall be no limit as to the
number of paid hands, and no restrictions as
to the number of friends.
In yachts of 10-rating and under the total
number of persons on board during a match,
shall not exceed the number set forth in the
following table :--
Limit of Crews in yachts of 10-rating and
wnder.—Not exceeding 0-5 rating, two per-
sons. Exceeding 0-5 and not exceeding
1-rating, three persons. Exceeding 1 and
not exceeding 2-5 rating, five persons.
Exceeding 2-5 and not exceeding 5-rating,
seven persons. Exceeding 5 and not exceed-
ing 10-rating, nine persons.
Measuring with smaller crew on board.—
If an owner of a yacht elects to have such
yacht measured for rating length with a
smaller number of persons on board than set
forth in the foregoing table, such number
shall be stated on the certificate of rating,
and shall not be exceeded in any race sailed
under the certificate.
Paid hand must not leave a yacht.—No
paid hand shall join or leave a yacht after
the signal to start, except in case of accident
or injury to any person on board. There
shall be no restriction as to friends working.
15. Fittings and Ballast. — All yachts
exceeding a rating of 10 shall be fitted below
deck with the ordinary fittings of a yacht,
including two transverse bulkheads of wood.
The following shall apply to all yachts : Their
platforms shall be kept down, and bulk-
heads standing. No water shall be started
from or taken into the tanks after the signal
to start has been made. No more than the
usual anchors and chains shall be carried
during a race, which must not be used as
shifting ballast, or for altering the trim of the
yacht. No bags of shot shall be on board,
and all ballast shall be properly stowed under
the platform or in lockers, and no ballast
or other dead weight (a centre plate or board
720 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Yacht Racing Association—continued,
excepted), shall be shifted or trimmed in any
way whatevor during a race.
Removal of Ballast.—No ballast, or other
dead weight, shall be shifted, shipped, or
unshipped, so as to increase the length of
immersion beyond the marks at the bow and
stern, placed by the owners to define the
rating length, after a yacht has been entered
for a race. No ballast shall be shipped,
unshipped, or shifted after 9 p.m. of the day
previous to the race. A race re-sailed shall
be regarded as a new race so far as the
9 p.m. condition is concerned.
16. Boats and Life Bwoys.-Every yacht
exceeding a rating of 30, and under a rating of
90, shall carry a boat on deck not less than
ten feet in length and three feet six inches
beam, and every yacht rating at 90 and over,
one of not less than twelve feet in length, and
three feet six inches beam, with oars lashed in
them, ready for immediate use. Each yacht
shall carry at least one life buoy on deck
ready for use.
17. Starting.——The yachts shall start from
moorings, anchors, or under-way, as directed
by the Sailing Committee. Fifteen minutes
before the time of starting one of the following
flags of the Commercial Code shall be hoisted
as a preparative flag for the yachts of each
Successive race ; in case of a start from
anchors or moorings to take up their stations
for the start with headsails down, or all sails
down, as the Sailing Committee may direct ;
or in case the start be a flying one, to approach
the starting line, viz —
B of Commercial Code for the
Yachts of the .................. ..... 1st Race.
9 ... … 2nd ,,
P..................…................. 3rd ,
F ............…........................ 4th , ,
and so on
Signals to Start.—Five minutes before the
start the preparative flag shall be lowered, a
blue peter hoisted and a gun fired ; after which,
the yachts in the race shall be amenable to the
rules. At the expiration of five minutes ea actly
the blue peter shall be hauled down and a second
gun fired as a signal to start. If the start
is to be made from anchors or moorings, lots
shall be drawn for stations, and springs shall
be allowed on the same bridle or anchor chain
or warp as the bowfasts, but are not to be
carried to a buoy, pier, other vessel, or fixed
object. If any yacht lets go or parts her
bridle before the signal to star!, or if she
drags any moorings or anchor to which she is
made fast for the purpose of starting, she
shall be liable to be disqualified, unless such
parting or dragging be explained to the
satisfaction of the Committee, or unless she
has returned, after the signal to start,
within the line of starting buoys, 80 as not
to obtain any advantage by the accident. In
a flying start if any yacht or any part of her
hull, spars, or other equipment, be on, or
across the line before the signal to start is
made, she must return and recross the line ;
a yacht so returning or one working into
position from the wrong side of the line
after the signal to start has been made, must
keep clear of all competing yachts. Should
the gun miss fire, the lowering of the blue
peter shall be the signal to start.
I'inishing a Race.—A yacht shall have
completed a race as soon as any part of the
hull or spars be on or across the winning line.
18. Yachts Meeling.—When two yachts are
approaching one another, so as to involve risk
of collision, one of them shall keep out of the
way of the other as follows, viz.:
A yacht which is running free shall keep
out of the way of a yacht which is
close-hauled.
A yacht which is close-hauled on the port
tack shall keep out of the way of a
yacht which is close-hauled on the star-
board tack.
When both are running free with the wind
on different sides, the yacht which has
the wind on the port side shall keep out
of the way of the other.
When both are running free with the wind
on the same side, the yacht which is to
windward shall keep out of the way of
the yacht which is to leeward.
A yacht which has the wind aft shall keep
out of the way of the other yacht.
19. Rounding Marks, &c.—When rounding
any buoy or vessel used to mark out the
course, if two yachts are not clear of
each other at the time the leading yacht
is close to, and actually rounding the mark,
the outside yacht must give the other room
to pass clear of it, whether it be the lee
or weather yacht which is in danger of fouling
the mark. No yacht shall be considered clear
of another yacht, unless so much ahead as to
give a free choice to the other on which side
she will pass. An overtaking yacht shall not,
however, be justified in attempting to
establish an overlap, and thus force a passage
between the leading yacht and the mark after
the latter yacht has altered her helm for the
purpose of rounding. -
20. Obstruction to Sea, Room.—-When passing
a pier, shoal, rock, vessel, or other obstruc-
tion to sea room, should yachts not be clear of
each other, the outside yacht or yachts must
give room to the yacht in danger of fouling
such obstruction, whether she be the weather
or the leeward yacht ; provided always that
an overlap has been established before an
obstruction is actually reached.
21. Luffing and Bearing Away.—A yacht
overtaking any other shall keep out of the
way of the overtaken yacht ; and a yacht
may luff as she pleases to prevent another
yacht passing to windward, but must never
bear away out of her course to hinder the
other passing to leeward—the lee side to be
considered that on which the leading yacht
of the two carries her main boom. The
overtaking vessel, if to leeward, must not
luff until she has drawn clear ahead of
the yacht she has overtaken.
Dictionary of General Information. 721
22. Close-hauled Approaching Shore.—If
two yachts are standing towards a shore or
shoal, or towards any buoy, boat, or vessel,
and the yacht to leeward is likely to run
aground, or foul of such buoy, boat, or vessel
(a mark vessel excepted), and is not able to
tack without coming into collision with the
yacht to windward, the latter shall at once
tack on being hailed to do so by the owner of
the leeward yacht, or the person acting as
the owner's representative, who shall be bound
to see that the leeward yacht tacks at the
Same time.
23. Running Agrownd, &c. — Any yacht
running on shore, or foul of a buoy, vessel, or
other obstruction, may use her own anchors,
boats, warps, &c., to get off, but may not
receive any assistance except from the crew
of the vessel fouled. Any anchor, boat,
or warp used must be taken on board again
before she continues the race.
24. Fowling Yachts, Marks, &c. — Each
yacht must go fairly round the course ; and
must not touch any buoy, boat, or vessel used
to mark it out, but shall not be disqualified
if wrongfully compelled to do so by another
yacht. Any yacht causing a mark vessel to
in any way shift her position to avoid being
fouled by such yacht, shall be disqualified.
If a yacht, in consequence of her neglect of
any of these rules, shall foul another yacht,
or compel other yachts to foul, she shall
forfeit all claim to the prize, and shall pay all
damages.
25. Meams of Propulsion. — No towing,
sweeping, poling, or pushing, or any mode of
propulsion except sails, shall be allowed,
except for the purpose set forth in Rule 23.
26. Amchoring. — A yacht may anchor
during a race, but must weigh her anchor
again, and not slip. No yacht shall during a
race make fast to any buoy, stage, pier, or
other object, or send an anchor out in a
boat, except for the purpose of Rule 23.
27. Sowmding.—No other means of sound-
ing than the lead and line allowed.
28. Side Lights.--All yachts sailing in
a race at night shall observe the Board
of Trade rule as to the carrying of side
lights.
29. Mam. Overboard.—In case of a man
falling overboard from a competing yacht, all
other yachts in a position to do so shall use
their utmost endeavours to render assistance;
and if it should appear that any yacht was
thereby prevented winning the race, the com-
mittee shall have power to order it to be
resailed between any yacht or yachts so pre-
vented and the actual winner.
30. Protests.-Should the owner of any
yacht, or the person acting as the owner’s
representative, consider there is fair ground of
complaint against another for foul sailing,
or any violation of these rules, such owner
or the owner’s representative must, if it
arise during the race, signify the same on
first passing the committee vessel, by showing
an ensign conspicuously in the main rigging.
The protest shall be made in writing, and
A A A
under such regulations (if any) as the sailing
committee may have determined, within
two hours of the arrival of the protesting
yacht, unless such arrival shall be after nine
o'clock p.m. and before eight o’clock a.m., in
which case the time shall be extended to ten
o'clock a.m., and the protest shall be heard
by the sailing committee and decided, after
such inquiries as they may consider necessary.
A protest made in writing shall not be with-
drawn. A sailing committee shall also,
without a protest, disqualify any yacht,
should it come to their knowledge that she
has committed a breach of the rules.
31. Removal of Flag Boat.—Should any
flag vessel, or other mark, be removed from
its proper position, either by accident or
design, the race shall be re-sailed, or not, at
the discretion of the sailing committee.
32. Disqualification.—-Any yacht disobey-
ing or infringing any of these rules, which
shall apply to all yachts whether sailing
in the same or different races, shall be
disqualified from receiving any prize she
would otherwise have won, and her owner
shall be liable for all damages arising there-
from, which are by law recoverable.
Disqualification of owner, his representative
or amatewr helmsman.—Should a flagrant
breach or infringement of any of these rules
be proved against the owner of a yacht,
or against the owner's representative, or
amateur helmsman, such owner, his repre-
sentative, or amateur helmsman may be dis-
qualified by the council, for any time the council
may think fit, from Sailing the yacht in any
race held under the rules of the Yacht Racing
Association ; and should a flagrant breach of
these rules be proved against any sailing
master he may be disqualified by the council,
for such time as the council may think fit,
from sailing in any race held under the rules
of the Yacht Racing Association.
33. Cruising Trim. — When yachts are
ordered to sail in cruising trim, the following
rules are to be strictly observed :-
1. No doors, tables, cabin skylights, or
other cabin or deck fittings (davits
excepted) shall be removed from their
places before or during the race.
2. No sails or other gear shall be put into
the main cabin in yachts exceeding a
rating of 60.
3. Anchors and chains suitable to the size
of the yacht shall be carried, one at the
cathead (or in yachts rated at 60 and
under, at the usual place on the bow),
which anchor shall not be unshackled
from the chain before or during the
T£l00.
4. Every yacht exceeding a rating of 30 and
under a rating of 90, shall carry a boat
on deck not less than ten feet in length
and three feet six inches beam—a yacht
rated at 90 and over, her usual cutter and
dinghy.
5. No extra hands, except a pilot, beyond
the regular crew of the yacht shall be
allowed.
722 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Yacht Racing Association—continued.
In the Appendix the Yacht Racing Associa-
tion further recommend for the consideration
of Sailing Committees :—
1. Mia!ed rig races.—That as mixed races
are no satisfactory test of the relative speed
of yachts, the different rigs should, whenever
practicable, be kept separate ; but when
mixed races are unavoidable, the following
rule shall be observed :-
Allowance to Schooners amd Yawls. –
The rating of schooners and yawls to be
reckoned for time allowance as follows, viz.,
schooners at three-fifths, and yawls at four-
fifths of their actual rating ; provided that
in case of a yawl, her mainsail does not
exceed 37 of her total sail area, and that her
mizen is not less than '06 of her total sail
area. In the case of a pole-masted yawl, her
mainsail shall not exceed 46 of her total sail
area, and her mizen shall not be less than
‘075 of her total sail area. In schooners the
foreside of the mainmast shall at the deck be
not farther forward than the middle of the
rating length.
Retches and Luggers.-Ketches and luggers
shall be reckoned for time allowance at three-
fifths their rating ; provided that in a ketch
the distance between the masts does not
exceed half the rating length of the yacht,
and that the smaller sail is carried aft. In
the case of a lugger, to be entitled to the
rig allowance, the yacht must have two or
more masts, and the after, or the middle mast,
at the deck must not be forward of the middle
of the rating length, and in the case of a two-
masted lugger if the area of the after lug
be less than half the area of the main lug,
she will be rated as a yawl.
Fractions to be used in reducing the rating.
—In calculating the deduction for difference
of rig, the rating by certificate to the exact
fraction must be used. The time allowances
to be calculated from each yacht's reduced
rating ; but schooners and yawls shall not
be allowed to qualify to enter by their reduced
rating in a class race.
2. Time to be calculated reduced rating all
through.-In races for mixed rigs, the time
allowances between yachts of the same rig
must be calculated on each yacht's reduced
rating.
3. Flying Starts.--That flying starts should
be adopted when practicable, but no time
should be allowed for delay in starting.
4. No Limit to Race.—That any limit to
the time for concluding a race should be
avoided as far as possible.
5. Classification by Raling. — That the
classification of yachts should, when prac.
ticable, be as follows:–
For yachts whose rating, by
Rule 3, does not exceed . . . . . . 2.5
Above 2-5 and not exceeding... 5
, 5 5 y j 5 10
35 10 3 3 y 5 20
,, 20 55 ,, 40
,, 40 3 y 53 60
,, 60
6. Length of Cowrses showld be ea'act.—
That as distance is an important element.
in the calculation of time allowance, the
marks and flag boats should be placed so as
to mark as accurately as possible the length
of the course, for which time is allowed.
7. Rownding Marks in heavy weather.—
That in heavy weather it should be arranged,
if practicable, for yachts to stay instead of
gybe round marks.
8. Room, at Stanting.—That Sailing Com-
mittees should be particularly careful to provide
ample room between the points marking the
starting line.
Y.R.A. LINEAR RATING RULE, 1896.
The following new rule for rating yachts
was adopted in 1895 to come into operation
in 1896:— -
L + B + 7.5G + 5 MSA
2
In this formula—
L = Length on L.W.L. as now measured.
B = Greatest beam wherever found.
G = Under-water girth of the vessel from
L.W.L. to L.W.L., taken at 6 of the load
water, line from its fore-end and measured
along the actual outline of the vertical cross
section at that station. If the draught
forward of that station exceeds the draught
at that station, twice such excess to be added
to G. In the case of centre-boards, the
extreme depth of the board (when dropped to
its full extent below the keel) multiplied by
1.5 to be added to G. In taking these
measurements all hollows in the fore and aft.
under-water profile of the vessel to be treated
as filled up straight. Bulb or ballasted
boards to be measured in the same way as
fixed or fin keels.
SA = Sail area as now measured.
(Add together length, beam, three-quarter
girth and half the square root of the sail
area : the sum divided by two to be the linear
rating.)
The length on load-line will be measured
as at present.
The girth is to be measured at 4% of the
load-line from the fore end (see Fig. 399) at a. a.
Should a piece be added, as at b, then a line
would be drawn from b to c and girth be
measured to d.
In case the depth at e e (Fig. 400) exceeds
the depth at a q, twice the excess to be added
to the girth taken at a, a.
In the case of a centre-board, 13 times the
drop of the board below the keel to be added
to the girth as taken at a a ; and presumably
if the board were dropped below the keel at
e e, the excess at e e would be added to girth
just as if no board were used.
Bulb or ballasted centre-boards to be
measured as fixed keels.
The girth is to be taken from load-line to
load-line under the keel, following the curve
of the cross section as shown by the dotted
line in Fig. 401.
Should the keel have a bulb it will be
measured with the fin, as shown in Fig. 402.
= Rating.
Dictionary of General Information.
723
Example of working :
L.W.L. = 45'6ft. Beam = 13-0.
Girth = 23:4. Sail area = 2600.
Three-quarter the girth is 17:55, as follows :
23'4
O'75
1170
1638
17:55
This will be about the linear rating of one
of the present 20-raters.
The classes under the new rule are as
follows:
Old Class New Class | Old Class New Class
Bating. Bating. Rating. Rating.
0.5 18ſt. 10 42ft.
1-0 24ft. 20 52f}.
2.5 30ft. 40 65ft.
5-0 36ft.
FIG. 400.
| -- --
FIG. 401.
The square root of the sail area is 51
(w/2600 = 51).
sum will be :
45-60
13:00
17:55
25-50
2)101.65
50-87 = linear rating.
Half 51 is 25'5. Then the
FIG. 40.
A new time scale was adopted, but the
allowances will remain the same in ratings
from 80 downwards; but they are largely
increased above.
Yacht Register.—A book compiled by the well
known committee of Lloyd’s Society, at the
request of yacht owners. Hitherto difficulty
was experienced in arriving at the age and
condition of a yacht, but the Register con-
tains all the particulars an intending purchaser


A
A
2
724 Yacht and Boat Sailing.
Yacht Register—continued.
need know. Owners will derive benefit from
having their yachts surveyed and classed at
Lloyd's, and special facilities now exist for
making such surveys and assigning characters.
The Register contains the following particu-
lars : Names of yachts; official number,
number in the Register; signal letters; rig ;
Sailmaker's name; registered tonnage, N.M.;
Thames tonnage; dimensions (length, breadth,
and depth); repairs to yacht, and date thereof;
nature of repairs; class; materials used in
her construction ; builder's name ; date of
building ; port ; port of survey; fastenings;
sheathing ; description of engines; builders
of engines, &c. The first part of the Register
contains the rules and regulations for building
for classification. These rules and regula-
tions relate to wood, iron, and composite
yachts; and tables of scantlings, fastenings,
&c., are given for each, together with a table
for anchors, chains, &c., for sailing yachts
and steam yachts. This part of the book is
most valuable, and will be a large help to
builders who have little experience of the
particular work required in a yacht, and will
as well be found of great use to the more
experienced builders. A yacht can be built
of any material and fastened in almost any
way an owner or builder may desire, and still
she can be admitted with a grade into the
book. Existing yachts can be surveyed, and,
if approved, assigned the A 1 class for four-
teen years, or any other grade, according to
their construction, condition, and age. The
Register also contains full information as to
the manner of having a survey effected ; list
of surveyors and their addresses ; list of
owners and their addresses ; list of subscribers
and their addresses. The offices are Lloyd's
Register of British and Foreign Shipping,
White Lion Court, Cornhill, E.C. (See
Iloyd’s.)
Mr. John Harvey, the Wivenhoe yacht
builder, was the originator of the Register,
in this way. In November, 1876, he addressed
a letter to Mr. Dixon Kemp on yacht con-
struction, in which occurred the following
paşSage :
“Lloyd’s Registry of British and foreign
built ships bears now, and has enjoyed for
many years past, such world-wide reputation
for integrity, that ome feels as safe in the
purchase of a vessel, or in the insurance or
underwriting her, according to her standing
on the list, as if every timber and fastening
were open to inspection. Seeing that the
general public are thus guardianed, we ask
ourselves the question why any gentleman
who is about to purchase or build a yacht
should not have similar protection P. Some
agree that it would be better to build yachts
in accordance with the directions given in
Lloyd’s book ; but there are reasonable
objections to this, as an unnecessarily heavy
and costly structure would be produced; and
thus seeing and admitting that the unsatis-
factory system of building yachts under no
special survey continues, I submit that the
state of things points to the necessity of
framing a set of rules to be observed in the
building of yachts such as Lloyd’s have
framed for the construction of merchant
vessels.”
From the knowledge Mr. Kemp had of
yacht construction, he could not but agree
that Mr. Harvey’s scheme was an excellent
one. He took it up warmly, and was fortu-
nate in obtaining the co-operation of the
following well-known yacht owners and yacht
builders as a committee :
Marquis of Tºxeter.
Mr. I'rank Willinn.
Sir G. C. Lampson.
Mr. Clement Millward, Q.C.
Capt. J. W. Hughes,
Prince Batthyany.
Capt. Garrett, It. A
Col. Angus Hall.
Mr. W. Baden-Powell.
Col. Dugmore.
Sir Richard Sutton.
Sir W. B. Forwood.
Marquis of Ailsa.
Mr. W. Cuthbert Quilter.
Col, Gamble, C. B.
Mr. A. D. Macleay.
Mr. J3enjamin Nicholson
(Messrs. Camper and Wichol-
Son).
Mr. John Harvey (John
Iſarvey, Ship and Yacht-
building (ſompany).
Mr. Dixon Kemp.
Mr. J. A. Welch.
When the scheme was made public, Lloyd’s
society, divining exactly what was required,
came forward and offered to undertake the
whole of the work that had been sketched out
at the preliminary meetings. This was at
once recognised as a great advantage, as
Lloyd’s society had the machinery ready to
hand for making surveys, and it was already
foreseen that the proposed new Society would
experience some difficulty in obtaining and
supporting duly qualified surveyors. Lloyd's
adopted the scheme in its entirety; formed
special rules for the building, equipment, and
classing of wood, composite, and iron yachts;
issued a special book containing these rules,
which book contains a list of yachts and such
particulars as it is necessary should be known
concerning them.
Yard.—A spar used to extend a Hail.
Yard Arm.—The extremities of yards.
Yarm.—A yarn is generally understood to mean
one of the parts of a strand of a rope. The
strands of old rope are separated and used as
stops for temporarily securing sails when
rolled up, &c. A narrative, a tale, a long
story, or discourse. (See “Strands.”)
Yaw.—When a vessel’s head flies from one direc-
tion to another ; generally when a vessel does
not steer a straight or steady course.
Yawl.--A cutter-rigged vessel with a mizen
mast stepped in her counter.
Yellow Flag or Yellow Jack.--The quarantine or
fever flag.
Yoke.—The lower cap on the masthead. It is
cut out of solid wood, and either strengthened
by an iron plate over the whole of its top,
or an iron band round its entire edge. The
cross trees are fitted on the yoke. (See
page 32.) A yoke is also the crossbar put
on the rudder-head of small boats, to which
lines, termed yoke lines, are attached for
steering.
Z.
Zig-Zag World.—Working to windward.
IND EX.
Admiralty warrants ........................ page 573
AEre Perennius, single-handed cruiser......... 414
Agreement for building a yacht ............... 576
Agreement for hiring yacht ..................... 636
Agreements with crew ........................... 144
All standing gybe ................................. 103
American boats—sharpies and sneak boats 443
Anchor (floating) ................................. 624
to scow ................................. 125, 669
tripping ....................................... 586
Anchors for small boats ..................... 35, 582
for yachts of different tonnage ......... 36
Specimens of ................................. 582
Anchoring under various conditions ......... 124
Anti-fouling compositions ..................... 22
A 1 ................................................... 587
Articles, signing of................................. 677
Australian sailing boats ........................ 440
Auxiliary steam yachts........................... 462
Baby, 0-5 rater .................................... 407
Balance lug sails................................ ... 299
Ballast................................................ 589
Balloon foresail, to set ........................... 87
Balloon sails.................................... 173, 589
Balloon topsails.................................... 25
Bawley boats ....................................... 395
Belfast yawls....................................... 433
Bells ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142, 591
Bembridge rig ................................. 289, 345
Bermudian yachts ................................. 437
Bilge keels .......................................... 592
Bill of sale .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
Blocks for yachts of all sizes .................. 38
tail, to put on a rope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Boarding a yacht at Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Boat, heaving to, to pick up .................. 105
building, instructions for .................. 277
|Boats, cautions for rowing and sailing ...... 137
Boats, cautions for sailing ... . . . . . . . . . . . . page 136
Clyde ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
construction of ........................ 361, 594
(Cowes) .................................... ... 292
danger of capsizing ........................ 130
decks for ....................................... 291
for rowing and sailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
for sailing on land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
going into bows of, when tacking ...... 355
instructions for sailing ..................... 132
mainsheets, &c. .............................. 137
management of Mersey..................... 355
management of Sails ........................ 131
open sailing.................................... 129
qualities of .................................... 128
Royal Clyde Yacht Club .................. 367
yacht's cutter ................................. 293
Boatswain, his duties.............................. 140
Bobstay ............................................. 63
carrying away............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
setting up the ................................. 97
Boiler survey ....................................... 16
Bolsters ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Bombay yachts ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Books on steam machinery ..................... 465
Bowsprit, carrying away ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
shrouds ....................................... 62
spinnaker...................... ~~~~ 94.
to reef ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 97
Britannia and Vigilant, &clat of racing
them ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Britannia, rigging of .............................. 43
Brighton beach boats ........................... 332
Buffers for main sheet ........................... 37
Burgee etiquette ................................. 601
Burgoine's jib travellers ........................ 303
Cabin arrangements .............................. 75
fittings.......................................... 76
726
Index.
Cables for yachts of all sizes page 36
Canoe aprons ......................" * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 497
centre-boards ........................... 492, 531
cockpits and fittings ........................ 525
cruising outfits for........................... 558
cruising tents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
deck seats ............ ..................... 508
hammocks .................................... 563
hatches ....................................... 602
lights ............... . ..................... ... 500
pumping and baling ........................ 501
sails ........................... 506, 510, 511, 533
steering gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
tents ................... , s , , , , , , , , , , , , 499, 500, 544
yawl, Nautilus ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 551
yawls, Humber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
yawls, various designs for. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54.7
Canoes for two persons...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Irish............…........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
cruising and travelling ............... 501, 512
management of ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Canoeing ............................................. 485
Cap ................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Capstains ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Carpenter, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Catamarans.......................................... 448
Caustic soda ....................................... (306
Canvas boats ....................................... 603
weight of....................................... 603
Centre-board boat for sailing and rowing ..., 280
boat for rowing and sailing ............... 271
Centre-board bull keel ........................... 551
case construction ..................... 489, 529
cases, construction of .................. ... 277
rudder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Centre-boards and stability .................. .. 267
history and uses of........................... 263
strains of........................ .............. 609
Various. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Challenge, Thames 1-rater ... . . . . . . . . . ......... 330
Chinese lug sails ................................. 308
Cigarette, single-handed cruiser ............... 409
Class racing, sport of ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Closehauled.......................................... 611
Sailing ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Clothes, cost of .................................... 149
Club hauling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Clyde restricted boats ........................... 370
Sailing boats ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Cobles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Cooking stoves ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Cook, wages of .................................... 148
Cooks and stewards .............................. 673
Collapsible boats ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
Commission, selling a yacht in ............... 17
Compass fluid....................................... 625
points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
variation ................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7()2
Composition for boat's bottom............ page 613
for yacht's bottom ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 22
quantity required for yacht's bottom ... 24
Copper sheathing ........................... 23, 681
Coquette, 0.5-rater......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Coracle's canvas.................................... 605
Cordage or rope, description of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
Corinthian crews ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Coxswain, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Cowes waterman's skiff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Crew, agreements with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 144
at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
breaches of discipline—penalties......... 678
discipline of ................................. 143
Crews, customs as to clothes .................. 145
general conduct of............. 145
management of ........................... ... 145
liberty of . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... 144
of steam yachts .............................. 464
regulations as to Smoking.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
(seamen) duties of and agreements
with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
Slovenly ... . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 241
Smartness of appearance .............. ... 145
spirits supplied to ........................... 145
under the Merchant Shipping
Act ............. • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 673
Cutter and yawl, difference in weight of
Spal'S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 6
Cutter rig .......................................... 615
to tack.......................................... 99
(yachts) ....................................... 293
éclat of racing large, like Britannia,
&9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 7
Dabchicks .......................................... 395
Dacia, 5-rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 406
Dagger centre-boards ........................... 608
Decimal equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 616
Depth moulded .................................... 616
Deck fittings of yachts ........................... 37
Decks for boats ... . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
tightness of...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 14
T) eva, Mersey boat... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Dimensions of yachts.............................. 48
Dinghy man, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 140
Displacement per inch of immersion ......... 619
Dock, floating....................................... 625
Dorothy, single-handed cruiser ............... 416
Dory (American) ................................. 619
Double boats ....................................... 448
centre-boards ........................... 265,493
Downhauls .......................................... 87
Traught of water, to measure .................. 617
Drink, regulations and customs for, on board
yachts ... .......................................... 145
Index. 727
T}rogue for small boats ..................... page 134 Holly, centre-board 1-rater ............... page 331
Lublin Bay Sailing Club boats ............... 376 Hookers (Galway) ................................. 431
Hope, Linton, Clyde boats ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
- - Horizontal keel plate for weatherliness...... 637
Engineers .......................................... 463 || Hull of yachts, parts of, described ............ 26
Ensign and Admiralty warrants ......... 574, 621 || Humber canoe yawls .............................. 551
Equipment of yacht ....... ... • * * *. s • * * * * * * * * * * * * a s e s 25 “Golddusters ” .............................. 430
Examination and purchase of yacht ......... 9 * * * * * * *
- - - - Ice Sailing on skates .............................. 665
Falmouth Quay punts ........................... 393 || Ice yachts ......... … 4.73
Fids, various self-acting, for topmasts ...... 58 at Pinner................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Fife’s Clyde boats ............ ............ . . . . . . . . . 3.71 construction of ... ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Fittings for cabins................................. 76 speed of ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 466
of yachts ....................................... 37 table of speeds of various . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Flat-bottomed boats ................ ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 || Insurance, notes on ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Flatfish, 5-rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 | Itchen boats ...... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Floating anchor ..............* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 624 boat Wril ............ . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Floor and keel construction of yachts......... 12 length class boat Minima .................. 388
Flºors of yachts...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 26 sailing punts ................................. 389
Fore halyards, &c. ................................. 67 * • * * * * - - - -
Foresail, balloon, to set ........................ 87
to reef .......................................... 87 | Jaw fittings, Aldous’... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Forestay ............ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 60 Jib sheets, angle for ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
carrying away................................. 122 shifting of .................................... 88
sail, to set .................................... 87 topsail, to set ...'.............................. 91
Frames, double and single, for yachts, com- to set .......................................... 87
pared. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 11 travellers, tack, &c. ............... 64
French nautical terms ........................... 627 travellers, Burgoine’s ..................... 303
Jibs for reefed mainsails ... . . . . ............... 85
Jullanar spar, fittings of ........................ 32
Gaiety Girl, 1-rater ................. ** * * * * * * * * * * * * 406 -
&alway canoes .................................... 445
hookers ....................................... 431 | Kedging ............................................. 125
pookhauns ............. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 431 Ketch rig ... ................................. 5, 641
Getting under way, under various conditions 97 Ketches and luggers ................ 721
Girth rule of rating .............................. 351 | Kingstown boats ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Glue, marine ....................................... 650 | Knots and feet per second ......... . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Godiva, single-handed cruiser .................. 412 and bends ........ . . . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
“Golddusters ” (Humber). ..................... 430 and miles .................................... 641
Groomsport yawls ................................. 433 and splices ......................... 2 . . . . . . . . . . 642
Gunter sails ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
rig …......…............…. 630, 683
'Gybing ....................................... 102, 103 || Lady Nan, 2.5-rater .............................. 406
meet her with the helm..................... 119 | Land boats .......................................... 643
small boats .................................... 134 Lanyards, how to reeve........................... 50
Lateen sails ......................................... 317
- Laying off lines .................................... 490
Hanks of various kinds........................... 631 || Laying up a yacht ................................. 633
Hatasoo, Clyde boat .............................. 371 | Lee boards (various) . . . . . . . . . ..................... 647
Haze, cruising centre-board boat............... 341 | Le Lison, French yacht's, sails ............... 305
Heaving to .......................................... 103 || Liberty men ......................................, 144
for picking up a boat........................ 105 || Linear rating rule for 1896 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
small boats .................................... 134 rating rule ........................ ........... 722
Holm ................................................ 142 | Lloyd's, classing a yacht at ..................... 18
Herreshoff double boats ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 450 classing a yacht under ..................... 21
Hiring a yacht .................................... 151 fees ............…............................. 9
agreement for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 636 survey of yachts by ........................ 9
728 Index.
Lloyd’s Yacht Register................ ..... page 722 || Oil on troubled waters ..................... page 653
Lough Erne yachts .............................. 343 || Oilskins as waterproofs........................... 653
Luggers and ketches .............................. 721 | Oimara as a yawl ................................. 5
Lug sails ........................ 299, 309, 312, 354 || Outhaul slide on main booms .................. 69
Maharanee, 1-rater .............................. 406 dº
Main and peak halyard blocks........ © tº e º ſº e º s a tº 31 | Papoose, 2-5 rater is a e º e º e s ſº e º e i s m e tº dº º is tº £ tº 6 & 4 W & © tº g g g 406
boom outhaul slides ........................ go Parole, American centre-board.................. 327
boom traveller ... 7 Passengers on yachts ........................... 657
Mainsail to bend ................................. 81 | Passing a seizing ........................... . . . . . . 125
to reef .......................................... 84 || Peak earring, to pass ........................... 82
to Bet .......................................... 83 halyard .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
to stow.......................................... 86 | Pearl canoes ....................................... 527
to stow and set the trysail ............... 86 | Pendants .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Mainsheet .......................................... 69 | Penzance luggers ................................. 417
buffers .......................................... 37 | Pilot vessels, rig of .............................. 5
horse ... 69 | Pollywog, centre-board yacht .................. 335.
horse and slip................................. 649 | Pookhauns, &c. .................................... º:
Maintopmast staysails ........................... 92 Preventer backstays tº e º ſº s tº tº a e º g º e º 'º g tº tº t t e º e º 'º g º º º)
Marine glue.......................................... 650 | Punt building ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Mast carrying awby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 | Pyjamas for canoe cruising ..................... 560.
Mastheads described .............................. 30
Mast h d winches ........................ 32
8,S º WłIlCI108 318, 352 Quarter-master, duties of......................... 140,
Master of yacht .................................... 670
* ith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 sº g
º with 138 Racking for reef earing........................... 85.
wages of º 147 Rackings ............................................. 51
Masters of yachts, characteristics of ...... ... 147 * III., centre-board 1-rater....... º :
Mate of yacht, his duties ........................ 138 g ºute gº..…... 2
Wages of ....................................... 148 of New Brighton Club ... .................. 351
Matthew Walker knots........................... 51 rules ....…...................... 696, 722
Mayflower, Bawley boat 396 Recognised yacht club ........................... 661
Mermaids 3 -–" " ' " + \'ºy ºf \'ºv v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Reef earing and its racking ............, p = • * * * * * 85
"2 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . . . . . . - sheet bend for .............................. 85
Mersey boats, º of .................. 355 to shake out ................................. 86
canoe Y&W18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 Reefing a mainsail................................. 84
Sailing boats 351 g
Miles and knot, ... " gº Bail, on a roller boom........................ 707
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Il tº ....................................
Mildew in sails .................................... ºn | Rºº, boats º:
.º º centre-boarder ............ 99 º Register of yachts ................................. 722
: ... [...] ... . . .” • 3 Registering a yacht .............................. 661.
* º Sailing boat ......... 280 Rheola, single-handed cruiser .................. 416
M Z0 º * * * * g s tº boards. * | Rhode Island rig ................................ 307
i. aim QS Centre-boarder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 330 Ribband carvel construction .................. 489
9°ring gº........................... * | Rig of Itchen boats ......................... 389.
Mosquito fleet of yachts ......................., 651 of Mersey sailing boats 352
Mudhook Yacht Club burgee .................. 2 tº º y g ... .…
'Mudian rig 437 Rigging º yachts of all sizes.................. 39.
ſº ſº of yacht explained........................... 25.
Mystery, centre-board boat ..................... 287 plan for 5-rater .............................. 49
BCrOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 52.
Nautilus, bulb centre-board..................... 551 Bizes for not governed by tonnage ...... 43.
canoe yawl .................................... 551 | Roller boom reefing gear .................. 540, 707
Cano08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 | Rope strength, a stretching of.................. 53.
New Brighton Sailing boats ..................... 351 (wire), a strength of ........................ 708
Norwegian pilot boats ........................... 435 | Ropes and cordage, description of ............ 662.
Rowing in a sea way.............................. 135
Oceana, boat for rowing and Sailing ......... 279 || Royal Clyde Yacht Club boats.................. 367
Index.
729
Ruby, centre-board gig, and alterations to
her .................................... page 285
Rules of the road ................................. 663
of yacht racing (see “Yacht Racing’”)... 152
Runner, carrying away........................... 122
Runners ................... , º s 2 g º e a s g g g g s s e º e º 4 & 4 * * * * 59
and pendants for 20-raters ............... 60
Running before a heavy sea..................... 119
before the wind .............................. 118
Sail area of various yachts ..................... 48
Sailmaking .............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Sail plan for 2:5 rater ........................... 407
Sailing boats for land ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
by the wind.......................... . . . . . . . . . . 106
for marks by the wind ..................... 113
in a heavy sea .................... . . . . . . . . . . 113
off the wind .............................. 117, 118
on skates........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
open boats .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
to windward, instructions for . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Sailing masters and crews (see “Crews’’)... 241
Sailors, character of .............................. 241
Sails, balloon topsails ........................... 25
for boats ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
for centre-board boats ..................... 301
of yacht described........................... 25
old characteristics of........................ 16
Salutes, customs of saluting .............. ... 667
Sappho, great speed of........................... 685
Scandalising a mainsail .................. 105, 106
Schooner and yawl rig ........................... 2
description of a, origin of the name 413
mastheads and topmasts of ............... 29
rig of, described.............................. 29
to tack...................................... ... 100
Schooner's main topmast staysails ............ 92
rigging of .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 45
Scourge, single-handed cruiser ............... 413
Scowing an anchor........................... 125, 669
Sculling with the rudder in matches ......... 227
Seamanship........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Seizing, to pass .................................... 125
Selling a yacht (Bill of Sale) .................. 592
Selvagee strops .................................... 127
Sharpies ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Sheet bend for reef earing ..................... 85
Shipkeeper, wages of.............................. 147
Side lights .......................................... 682
Signing articles .................................... 677
Single-handed cruisers .......................... 408
Skiff, Cowes ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Skippers, habits of some, when at the helm... 112
Sliding gunters ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Small class yacht racing. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Smoking by crews................................. 145
Sneak boats... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Sorceress, centre-board 1-rater ........ , page 328
Spans for peak halyards ........................ 68
for yards.............................. . . . . . . . . . 319
Spars, mensuration of ........................... 684.
Specification for building a yacht ... . . . 18, 577
Speculation boats of Mersey .................. 355
Speed indicators.................................... 684.
Speed of ice yachts ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,73
of ice yachts greater than wind speed
explained.................................... 4,73.
of yachts....................................... 685.
Spell O' ............................................. 142
Spinnaker boom, to shift .................. . . . . . . 95
booms ....................................... ... 74
bowsprit ....................................... 94.
halyards, sheets, and tacks ............... 73
origin of ....................................... 686
to set .......................................... 93.
to take in .................................... 94
Splices and knots ................................. 642.
Sprit rig, Mersey ................................. 354;
sails ............................................. 313.
Squalls and open boat sailing .................. 132
how to prepare for........................... 105
Square sail, to set ................................. 92.
Stability and centre-boards ..................... 267
Standing rigging ... .............................. 49
Steam yachts, books on ........................ 465
cabin arrangements ........................ 466
coal consumption ........................... 461
survey of .................................... 15
Steam yachting, expenses of..................... 457
Sternway in tacking .............................. 100
Steward, wages of ................................. 147
Stewards and cooks .............................. 673
Stiffness of boats ................................. 128
Stoves for cooking ................................. 78
Strops ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 127
and tail blocks .............................. 691
to put on a rope.............................. 123
Survey, how to conduct ........................ 13
Lloyd’s fees for .............................. 9
of iron and steel yachts..................... 15
of rigging and sails ........................ 16
of steam yachts ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
payment of fees by intending purchaser 10
Sutton Yacht Club boats........................
Sydney boats ... .................................... 440
Tacking a cutter, yawl, or schooner ......... 99
going into bows of boats .............., 355
Tail blocks .......................................... 691
to put on a rope.............................. 123
Tents for canoe cruising ........................ 565
Thames Dabchicks................................. 395
Timber, duration of, in yachts ............... 14
Time allowance scales ........................... 692
730
Index.
Topmast backstays, carrying away...... page 123
Topmast, carrying away ........................ 121
funnel housing .............................. 56
rigging... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
to send up ; to house ............ . . . . . . . . . 96
"Tonnage, B.M. . ................................. 591
various methods for computing ......... 697
"Tons, Thames and Lloyd’s ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
"Topping lifts ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Topsail and Schooner's fore gaff topsail...... 91
halyards, to bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
halyards, sheets, and tacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
sheet bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
sheeting home ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
to set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
to take in ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
trip halyards ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Topsails, balloon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Traveller for main boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 71
Travellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352, 699
for mast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Triatic stay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
carrying away. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Treenails as fastenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Trick at helm ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Truant, American centre-board yacht......... 265
Trysail, to set. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Types of sailing vessels...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Una boats ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Windermere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
TJnder way explained........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
to get, under various conditions . . . . . . . . . 97
Union Jack, history of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Unmooring ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
TJnsinkable boats (air-tight cases) . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Venture, Mersey boat ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Vida, Clyde boat............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Virginia, 2.5 rater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Vivid, single-handed cruiser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Wages of cook, Steward, &c. .................. 147
of crew. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
of yacht master .............................. 147
of yacht seaman.............................. 14,7
Wall knots.......................................... 51
Warrants, Admiralty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574,
Watches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 140, 703
Waterproofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Waterproofing ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 704.
Water, salt and fresh ........................... 667
Waterwags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374,
Watson's Clyde boats ........................... 368
Watson's Yarmouth yawl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 421
Waves, proportions of, and breaking . . . . . . . . . 120
size and speed of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704.
Wearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Weather helm..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Weight and bulk of substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
Weight of chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
of metal plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
“Will Watch” ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Winches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Windermere yachts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Windlass for small yachts ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 34
Wind, velocity and pressure of . ............... 707
Winning flags....................................... 707
Wire rigging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Wire rope, size and strength of ............... 708
Witch, Lough Erne yacht ..................... 343
Worry Worry, 1-rater ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Yacht, advantages of 5-tonner for schooling 2
architecture, guide to building............ 11
builder's work and cheapness of ......... 19
building a, under roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
building, cost of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
building, how to proceed ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
building under Lloyd's survey............ 19
building, weight of material for ......... 20
club, recognised .............................. 661
composite building ........................ 22
construction of ............... . . . . . . . . . . . ... 26
customs of Royal Navy to be ob-
served ....................................... 146
deck fittings ................................. 37
difference of weight of material for
cruising and racing ..................... 20
duration of timber used in construction
of ... ... …...................... 14
general cost of maintaining............... 150
hiring of ....................................... 151
living on board small........................ 1.
metal and other fastenings of ..........., 21
of 300 tons, rig for ........................ 2
Dą,886.Ing GT8 OI) , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
purchasing, subject to survey ............ 9
registering of ................................. 661
rigging and Hails of ........................ 25
Selecting, to suit tastes..................... 1
Belling in commission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Speed of ....................... * - - - - - - a s - - - - - - - e. g. 684
Survey fees to be paid by intending
purchaser ................................. 10
Survey of ground tackle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
timbers and planking of ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
to board a .................................... 136
when in commission ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 17
Yachting etiquette afloat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 711
luxuries of .................................... 2
Ind €,Y’.
731
------------------ . - - . . .-- -- - -- - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - ----- - - -
Yacht racing .............................. ... page 164
advice if yacht runs aground ............ 260
advice in rounding marks.................. 258
amenable to rules ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 183
anchoring, steering with the anchor ... 228
Yacht Racing Association rules ............... 713
explained....................................... 152
Yacht racing, attempts to cheat the rating
length of waterline ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
bearing away ................................. 254
before the wind under spinnaker......... 257
blanketing, shaking a yacht up, &c. ... 265
boats and life buoys to be carried ...... 176
carrying side lights ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
cases arising under port and starboard
tack rules ................................. 185
cases of protest at starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
centre-boards ......................... `… 170
character of yacht sailors ............... 241
circumnavigating marks .................. 206
converging, overtaking, &c. ............... 252
cruising trim ................................. 236
disqualifying without protest ............ 232
distinguishing flags ........................ 171
errors in certificates of rating ............ 166
expenses of .............................. 147, 243
finishing ....................................... 183
fittings and ballast ........................ 176
flying starts ................................. 237
fouling marks, or causing same to shift
position .................................... 227
general principles for conducting yacht
racing ....................................... 153
give plenty of room between starting
marks ....................................... 238
gybing all standing ........................ 258
hailing to go about ........................ 199
hailing to go about at a mark vessel 226
handling yachts in a race.................. 239
hard cases .................................... 205
head reaching and converging ............ 250
head reaching and weathering............ 250
hove to on port tack ........................ 191
instructions as to courses and marks ... 171
kedging ....................................... 228
kedging if yacht runs ashore ............ 261
length of courses to be exact ............ 238
luffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................... 251
luffing and bearing away......... . . . . . . . . . 214
man overboard . . . . . ...................... 231
marking the waterline ..................... 158
means of propulsion ; sculling with the
rudder ....................... ............... 227
means to be used for getting off after
running aground ........................ 226
means to be used for sounding ......... 230
measurement of sails ... .................. 155
meeting free and end on .................. 192
Yacht racing, meeting obstructions ... page 199
member of club to be on board. . . . . . . . . 170
no limit as to duration of race ......... 238
number of crew on board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
obstruction to sea room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
order of taking marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
over-reaching ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
overtaking and Bea room. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
overtaking, luffing, and bearing away... 248
ownership—hired yachts ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
paid hands leaving a yacht during a
race ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 174
penalties for breaches of rules ......... 235
pilots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
port and starboard tack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
port and starboard tacks at marks ...... 200
post entries .................................... 166
postponement of races ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
precautions to be observed before the
wind......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
protesting against acts of committee ... 234
protests and displaying the ensign ... ... 231
protests, rules for ........................... 231
rating of yachts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
requiring a yacht to tack under various
conditions ................................. 220
removal of flag boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
re-sailed matches ........................... 164
rig allowances................................. 237
right of entering more than one yacht 169
rights, close hauled and free............... 184
running risks of collision .................. 184
rounding marks ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 193
rounding marks in heavy weather ...... 238
running for marks on opposite gybes ... 204
sagging to leeward........................... 252
Sailing over for a prize ..................... 170
sails to be carried ........................... 173
setting up sails ........................... ... 260
shortening courses........................... 164
soaking together...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
starting, how to judge ..................... 248
starting regulations .................. 176, 245
tacking when there is not room to tack
196, 198, 250
time allowances .............................. 164
various cases under the lufting rule ... 218
weather bowing .............................. 254
when is a mark rounded ?.................. 205
winning and losing money ............... 244
yachts inconvenienced by row boats ... 205
yachts in different matches ............... 236
Yacht’s cutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Yachts, age of............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12
class racing, sport of..................... .. 8
floor, construction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
history of....................................... 708
laws relating to ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
732
Index.
Yachts, number in existence ............ page 710
racing, built to Lloyd's class ............ 21
small, Y.R.A. rating .................... ..., 405
strains of....................................... 13
Yawl, advantages of snugly rigged ............ 3
and cutter, difference in weight of
Spars ....................................... 4, 6
and schooner rig ........................... 2
for racing .................................... 7
mizen of ....................................... 28
Yawl, reefing of ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 87
to tack......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Yawls (canoe)............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
of Belfast and Groomsport ............... 433.
Yarmouth yawls............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... 421
Yoke........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Zinnia, Mersey boat .............................. 353.
Zythum, centre-board boat ..................... 290,
JAdvertisements.
NORIE & WILSON,
YACHTING WAREHOUSE,
156, MINORITES, LONDON.
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Binnacles and Compasses.
Anchor and Side Lights. Cabin Lamps.
Aneroid Barometers and Clocks.
Binocular Glasses. Telescopes. Sextants.
SETS OF CHARTS FOR ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.
YACHTING REQUISITES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION.
ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE ON APPLICATION





























.Advertisemvents.
R
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CLOAPK MAPKER
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TO THE FROYAL FAMILY.
D SHAWLS.
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ShUſting, Fishing,
and GOlf.
Tr(Is is an improvement.
on the ordinary stalking
- cape, having the advantage.
*T* ~~ of sleeves, thus giving free-
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..ºr- 3.2% - -- dom to the arms, and at the
\\ %2%; -- ~ * * * same time protection from
. . 22 ºf £ the weather.
= . . It will be found exceed-
º š ingly useful for golf, fishing,
==-º- fiğs #| driving, and shooting. The
- * ... Cape hº º i.” full
ºlºš SS • ‘T.’” it, falls round the knees.
############, Š iss S$sº when sitting, and is a
l ſ | S-º thorough protection against
I, wind and rain when
§ – walking.
f : For golf it is made with
Éſ a belt round the waist, and
jº — for shooting it can be worn
# ~ with either the arms in the
º - III ITTUTI * = | sleeves or without, as an
ordinary cape.
*s 2-— The tweeds of which the
--~~~~ *º- ~~ **-m-s-s-s-s- capes are made are water-
*—S f : - ===~ ; proofed by a special pro-
cess, so can be relied upon
for use in all weathers.
EE--->
YACHTIN
Gowns, Cloaks, Coats, & Jackets
for Wedding Trousseaux,
Waterproof Scotch Tweeds,
Highland Capes,
Travelling COats,
HIGH LAND SUITS
IDIECIK. R.UGS
115 & 115 A, BEG ENT
NS AND SUITS,
Rugs, Mauds, and Plaids,
Travelling Wraps,
Scotch Tweeds,
Hand-knit Stockings,
Harris and Shetland HO mespuns.,
|N ALL THE CLANS MADE TO ORDER.
PATTERNS OF MATERIAIS SENT FREE.
. from 21/- | SCHOOL, BOYS' RUGS
Ulsters,
from 14/6
(Corner of Vigo Street), VV.
Telegraphic Address—“SCOTT AIDIH), LONIDO.N.”













.Advertisements.
Sil|Öll,Siliſkálds(0.
LIMITED,
DARTMOUTH AND TEDDINGTON,
BUILD WACHTS AND STEMM LAUNCHES
OIF A-T_T, CT, ALSSIES,
For either River or Sea VVork, and for Business or
Pleasure. We are prepared to quote for Launches.
for any requirements and any speed.
The above is a Photo of a 40ft. River Launch with
High Pressure Engines, going at a speed of 18} miles
per hour.
VVe are prepared to quote for Launches either for
Sea or Fiver VVork, and with either Condensing or
Non-condensing Engines, and with speeds as fast as
the above Launch in proportion to their length.
VVhere speed is not of great innportance, the dura-
bility and economy of our Machinery and comfort of
Our Launches is unsurpassed.
VVe are also open to supply Machinery only of all
types, and to supply other builders with Designs of
Boats if required.

JAdvertisements.
«'SETIAIYHL-NO-NOIS? NIXI 'GINIOĐ?Ina » : ssoappy ogºfăſoaffºnaſ
"CºſP ‘SI/NIOO^T +E) NIINT,ITW7T_^^. --STEIICTV7TTI
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"SIGNITIĞI ĐNITIIVS JĀNIGINI WEI SAGINIO{)}{[18I
38/H 80 57WS 803 S/W08 0/VH-QW005'S ? MJW 30 X001S 308 W7 W
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*9AOqe se UIO! QeoțIdde uo “o? ºsoqoĻI
"GI BIH HOH aeſ"， ¿ e ¡, SH HON OVT WVGIJLS
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‘GINI008I/18 CIGIHOITW

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