HF NON 370 CIRCULATING 565 IK P CELE A 58208 0 3 CASSITERIDES BY GEORGE SMITH L.LD. &c. THE ܨܐܪܨܐ 27 *****PRZYJE E ¡ ARTES LIBRARY 18371 KAZAJĀ VERITAS UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN S MARINQUENCIES TUBBOR SCIENTIA OF THE PATASTASES INSINJAI ERIS-PENINSULAM·AMONAM CIRCUMSPICE WA TEZAKRONARITARIIERBER ܃ ܂ ܃ ، ܃ : AJ SALAAM ܚܥ܂ x=- ban th 430 ! WERK TEST EX ! Paz 12121. + SAN HF I 3770 565 537 3/ THE CASSITERIDES: AN INQUIRY INTO THE Jul Aug COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS OF THE PHOENICIANS IN WESTERN EUROPE, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE BRITISH TIN TRADE. BY GEORGE SMITH, LL.D., F.A.S., MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LITERATURE, ETC., ETC. "THEIR numerous flects were scattered over the Indian and Atlantic Ocean, and the Tyrian pennant waved at the same time on the coasts of Britain and on the shores of Ceylon." HEEREN. LONDON: LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS. 1863. # LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM NICHOLS, 46, HOXTON SQUARE. 20 Ecan fit Gamot PREFACE. THE preparation of the following sheets has not arisen from any strong desire to maintain the opinions which they set forth; but from a wish to ascertain and vindicate what is believed to be the truth respecting the subject of which they treat. This study is not new to the Author. Twenty years ago, when preparing for the publication of his "Religion of Ancient Britain," he was led to a careful examination of the antiquities of our country, and brought to a full conviction that the traditions respect- ing the early intercourse of the Phoenicians with this island were founded on fact; and that their trading with Cornwall for tin was entitled to be regarded as an established his- torical truth. Holding this opinion, he has lately been sur- prised and felt regret to find eminent authors, for whose learning and talents he has sincerc respect, allude in several recent works to this Phoenician intercourse with Britain as a - A 2 iv PREFACE. f groundless tradition,--a notion which must pass away before a fair historical investigation of the subject. The expression of these doubts, however, has not been accompanied by such historical evidence as proves that the old and prevalent opinion is unworthy of confidence, nor is it shown by what other means the ancient tin markets of Tyre and Egypt were supplied. In these circumstances the Author has renewed his acquaintance with the subject, and has carefully considered all that has been said on the other side; and, finding his former convictions not only unshaken, but greatly strengthened, by the inquiry, has been induced to put forth the following brief essay, which, if it does nothing toward removing the doubts of those who are sceptical as to the ancient Phoenicians having visited Cornwall for the purchase of tin, may at least serve as an apology for those who, like him, in opposi- tion to such authorities, still entertain old- fashioned opinions on this subject. TREVU, CAMBORNE, January 12th, 1863. NA CONTENTS. Doubts recently cast on the ancient British tin trade. Tin was found in Palestine in very remote times. Mr. W. D. Cooley's opinions Was tin brought from the East? The Periplus of Arrian-its testimony The trade of Adooli The trade of Abelites The trade of Mosullon The trade of Opone The trade of Rhapta The trade of Moosa The trade of Kane The trade of Omana The trade of Barbarike The trade of Barugaza The trade of Nelkunda . فع ង A Tin not anciently exported from India Tin exported from Egypt to the East The situation of Tarshish Phoenician colonies Cyprus and Rhodes. Crete and Sicily Malta, Sardinia, and Corsica • 1 PAGE 1 3 4 5 6 7 9 11 12 13 15 16 17 18 19 20 23 25 27 29 30 32 35 vi CONTENTS. Gades, on the coast of Spain Antiquity of Sidon. Perfection of the Phoenician navy Date of the building of Gades The quantity of tin found in Spain Geography of the Cassiterides The Belgæ in Britain Tin not anciently carried across Gaul Ezekiel on the tin trade Herodotus on the Cassiterides Julius Cæsar on Britain Diodorus on the Phoenicians and their Trade with • Britain Strabo on Gades and Britain Pliny on Spain and Britain-their mines and metal trade The Tyrian Hercules His extensive success Observations on Herodotus Remarks on the account of Cæsar Notes on Diodorus and Strabo Remarks on the statement of Pliny Antiquity of Phoenician commerce Celebrity of their manufactures Devotion to commerce, the ruling spirit of Phoenicia . 68 74 76 78 80 85 87 89 94 97 98 · 100 103 105 Monumental remains of Phoenicia in Western Europe 109 Productions and commerce of Gades 110 Legends of Melkarth Inventions ascribed to Hercules Phoenician conquest of Tartessus Phoenician settlement in Gaul • · PAGE 37 39 41 43 46 51 55 57 58 59 60 . 62 66 I CONTENTS. Phoenician trade with Britain Origin and emigrations of the Belgæ Grote on the commerce of Phoenicia Immense profits of this trade. Ezekiel on the commerce of Phoenicia Phoenician rapine and violence Assyrian aggression on Western Asia Rise and progressive power of Carthage The Phocean Greeks-their commercial and maritime energy Tyre besieged by Nebuchadnezzar The "Ora Maritima" of Avienus · PAGE 112 . 115 117 . 119 120 123 125 127 vii 129 . 130 134 136 140 143 The voyage and character of Pytheas The knowledge the ancients had of Britain Decline of the power of Phoenicia Carthage succeeds to Phoenician influence and com- merce in the West Commercial prosperity of Massilia Tin carried across Gaul The result of our inquiry Conclusion 145 . 146 149 151 153 NOTE.-In reference to the sketch, on page 46, showing the relative quantities of mineral ground worked in Spain. Ma Ir is stated, on page 46, that these quantities are exclusive. of the Government Mines. We accordingly made further inquiry as to whether the Spanish Government does at present work any tin mines, and whether any information could be obtained as to the production of tin, in Spain, in ancient times. The information received from the Government Engineers, at the College of Mines in Madrid, is to the following effect :- "I cannot learn that Spain ever produced any quantity of this metal. The Government do not work any mines of tin. The quantity being produced at present is very small, chiefly by streamers; or rather labourers, while out of their regular employ- ment, search some of the rivers near the granite hills in Galicia and in Zamora. I cannot learn that there is any tin mining in the country." This communication was received too late to be inserted in its proper place. THE CASSITERIDES. FOR many ages it was currently believed that the Cassiterides were either a part of Britain or islands contiguous to its coast; and that the tin supplied to the East was brought direct from them by Phoenician merchants. This opinion is still received as an established fact, by great numbers of well-informed per- sons in this country and abroad. Ga But, recently, great doubt has been raised on these allegations; and a growing scepticism avowed by several intelligent writers. Among others, Mr. W. D. Cooley, in his "History of Maritime and Inland Discovery," and Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, in the "Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients," have spoken strongly against the probability of a very carly direct intercourse between the Phoni- cians and Britain. The problem, therefore, remains to be solved ; and we are desirous of making a brief yet complete investigation of the subject. B 1 2 THE CASSITERIDES. Questions of this kind do not admit of very clear and ample proof. This tin trade was begun and carried on in remote times, indeed, before the age of authentic history commenced; and by a people who have left neither literary nor monumental memorials of their doings. We must, therefore, be content with such scattered and unconsecutive evi- dence as it may be possible to collect. Some facts may be mentioned in limine, respecting which no doubt can exist. Tin was known on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean in the most ancient times. It was found among the spoils of the Midianites in the days of Moses.* The Greeks used it before the Trojan war, to mix with copper for the manufacture of armour and weapons. It is, indeed, an undoubted fact, that tin is mentioned in the most ancient authors, neither as a rare nor as a very precious metal. It is also certain, that this metal was not a product of Phoenicia, Syria, or Judea. The great marts of Tyre and Egypt must therefore have been supplied either by overland or maritime transit. A pak ** Numbers xxxi. 22. "Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients. By W. VINCENT, D.D.,” vol. i., p. 308. 17. THE PHOENICIANS HAD TIN. ලය fair presumption in favour of the latter mode is, that it was found in the greatest abun- dance among the Phoenicians, who were the most extensive and successful commercial na- vigators of ancient times. Thus far our way is plain. On these points no real difference of opinion is entertained. Here arises the first question to be solved. Was tin, in the earlier ages, brought to Sidon and Tyre from the East, or the West? from India, or from Spain and Britain ? Mr. Cooley has authoritatively decided this question. It may be regarded as set at rest, so far as his decision has weight. He writes, "There can be no difficulty in determining the country from which tin first arrived in Egypt. That metal has been in all ages a principal export of India: it is enume- rated as such by Arrian, who found it abun- dant in the ports of Arabia, at a time when the supplies of Rome flowed chiefly through that channel. The tin mines of Banca are, probably, the richest in the world. But tin was unquestionably brought from the West at a later period." * This dictum, and other statements of the author, have such influence on an eminent reviewer, that he observes, "Maritime and Inland Discovery," vol. i., p. 131. B 2 4. THE CASSITERIDES. C "The cherished tradition that the Phoenicians traded direct to Cornwall in ships, is one which, in our judgment, will not endure searching criticism. Many years ago, in his excellent compendium on Maritime and In- land Discovery,' Mr. W. D. Cooley exhibited elaborate and, to us, convincing arguments to show the extreme improbability, not to say incredibility, of this tradition." * Id If we felt disposed to receive this opi- nion of Mr. Cooley with implicit faith, we should be bound to consider the vast distance of time which the authority he cites is made retrospectively to cover. He refers to the Periplus of Arrian, which Dean Vincent, after a careful and learned scrutiny, has attri- buted to the tenth year of Nero, or A.D. 64. According to Hales, the Israelites crossed the Jordan about B.C. 1608. So that tin was known and used in Palestine about seventeen centuries before Arrian wrote. We are of opi- nion that in placing such a work before his readers, as proof that tin at first came to Egypt from India; the fact that the work on which he relied as an authority was written above sixteen hundred years after its introduc- tion and use, ought to have been stated. * "London Quarterly Review," No. xxxvii., p. 18. WAS TIN BROUGHT FROM THE EAST? 5 We will not, however, urge this objection. We do not believe that the traffic with the East greatly changed even in this long period. And if, as is alleged, tin was in the days of Arrian extensively brought from India to Egypt and Palestine, we freely admit that there would be a strong probability of its having been an article of commerce between the two countries for a long period, although, even in that case, we should not allow its pri- ority over the tin trade of the West, without very careful inquiry into the circumstances of the traffic in very ancient times. The contents of the Periplus do not jus- tify these allegations. They are, we regret to say, the most remarkable we remember to have seen. We will not anticipate the judg- ment which the reader shall have an oppor- tunity of forming for himself. The details of the traffic, furnished in this ancient work, are so curious, and so little known, that we will transcribe the substance of the account from the pages of Dr. Vincent. Before doing this, it will be necessary to observe, that the author of the Periplus was not the Arrian of Nicomedia in Bithynia, who wrote a Life of Alexander the Great, and other works; but a merchant navi- gator of Alexandria in Egypt, who had him- 6 THE CASSITERIDES. self made several commercial voyages from the head of the Red Sea, to the coasts of Africa, as far as the tenth degree of south latitude, and around Arabia and India to the neighbourhood of Ceylon. The information which he thus acquired respecting the geogra- phy, navigation, and commerce of those coun- tries, he collected and published under the title of "The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea." "This work," Dean Vincent says, "contains the best account of the commerce carried on from the Red Sea, and coast of Africa, to the East Indies, during the time that Egypt was a province of the Roman Empire." * The Periplus is divided into two parts. The first treats of the commercial intercourse car- ried on between Egypt and the eastern coast of Africa. We direct attention to this section, and, excluding all other matter, however in- viting, confine our account to a record of the several ports or marts; a list of Exports and Imports of which is furnished. JET Adooli, or Aduli, is placed about sixteen de- grees north latitude. It is believed to be the same with the bay and harbour of Masuah, so well known by the accounts of the Jesuits, and * "Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean," vol. ii., p. 3. TRADE OF ADOOLI. 7 of Bruce, as the only proper entrance to Abyssinia. At this port we are told the EXPORTS were ivory, and horns of the rhinoceros. The IMPORTS:-Cloth, with the nap on, of Egyptian manufacture, for the Barbarian market. Robes, made up, the manufacture of Arsínoè or Suez. Single cloths dyed, in imitation of those of superior quality. Linen, supposed to be from the Latin linteum. Cloth, striped or fringed. Glass, or crystal. Porcelain, made at Diospolis, in Egypt, in imitation of the Oriental. White copper, for ornaments, and for coin. Ramusio supposes it to contain gold. Gold, by the ounce, is still the medium of commerce, not coined, but exchanged by weight or in the parcel. There seems some allusion to this in the Periplus, where the expression is, εἰς συγκοπὴν αντὶ voμloμatos, "cut into pieces so as to pass νομίσματος, "" for money. Brass, for culinary vessels, for bracelets, and 8 THE CASSITERIDES. • ornaments of the legs, still worn in Abys- sinia.* Iron, for spear heads, to hunt the elephants, &c., and for weapons of all sorts. Hatchets. Adzes. Knives, daggers or kanjars. Drinking vessels of brass, large and round. Denarii, specie for the use of merchants resident in the country. The term proves the currency to be Roman. Wine, Laodicean, i. e., Syrian and Italian. Oil, but in no great quantity. Gold plate According to the fashion of Silver plate the country, and as presents, or for the use of the king. Watch coats, camp cloaks. Coverlids, plain. of no great value. not many. "J ور Iron, of Indian temper or manufacture. Indian cottons, wide and plain; perhaps blue Surat cottons, still common in Abys- sinia. Lipp Cotton, for stuffing couches, mattresses, &c. Sashes, still an article in great request. Coverlids. * See BRUCE, vol. iii., p. 54. ABALITES. 9 Cotton cloth, of the colour of the mallows flower. Muslins, in no great quantity. Gum lac; but Salmasius thinks it the colour of a cloth or cotton.* No one can fail to see the business character of this list. It is precisely such an inventory as a merchant would make for his guidance in subsequent transactions with this country. The further accounts are precisely similar. The next commercial mart, of which the Periplus speaks, is Abalites, close to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. This was a road or bay, not a port or harbour; the goods being con- veyed to and from the ships in boats or rafts. The EXPORTS from this place are:- Gums, odoriferous gums. Ivory, in small quantity. Tortoise-shell. WA Myrrh, in very small quantity, but of the finest sort. The IMPORTS:- Flint glass of various sorts. Dipse, rob of grapes, called pacme, pacme, and * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 116. B 5 10 THE CASSITERIDES. doushab: it is used as a sauce, or relish, and mixed with water as a drink. Cloths, for the Barbarine coast, of various sorts, with the nap on. Corn. Wine. Tin, in small quantity.* Malaô, about eighty miles further south, EXPORTS myrrh and frankincense, thus, or olibanum of Adel. Cinnamon, cassia lignea. Cinnamon, of inferior sorts. The gum cancamus. Tila, sesamum, carried to Arabia. But see Pliny, xii., 8, who calls it an aromatic from India: the bark red, the root large. The bark used in dysenteries. Slaves, a few. The IMPORTS are such as are specified in the preceding list, and in addition:- Jackets. Cloaks, or blanketing, manufactured at Arsi- noè or Suez, with the nap on, and dyed. Brass or copper, prepared to imitate gold. Iron. * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 127. UN MALAO AND MOSULLON. Specie, gold and silver, but in no great quantity.* 11 Mosullon, written Mossylon by Pliny, is our next station; it is found rather more than half way from the Straits to the Aromata pro- montory, the present Cape Guardafui. This was the grand mart of the ancients on this coast. Its EXPORTs were :- Cinnamon, of an inferior quality, and in great quantities; for which reason, vessels of a larger sort are wanted at this mart. Fragrant gums. Gums or drugs. Tortoise-shell, of small size, and in no great quantity. Incense, in less quantities, or inferior to that of Moondus. Frankincense, from ports farther east. Ivory. Myrrh, in small quantities. The IMPORTS are the same as have been already specified, with others peculiar to the place * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 129. 12 THE CASSITERIDES. I Silver plate, or plated. Iron, but in less quantity. Flint glass.* The Periplus names many other places, far- ther south, on the coast, where commercial operations are carried on, without giving fresh lists of exports and imports; the differ- ence being so slight as not to require mention. Gal At Opone, we are told, the IMPORTS are the same as at the preceding marts; but The EXPORTS are given, as :--- Cinnamon, particularized as native. Fragrant gums, or odours; but possibly a species of cinnamon. Cinnamon, of inferior quality. Slaves, of a superior sort, and principally for the Egyptian market. Tortoise-shell, in great abundance, and of superior quality. At this port, mention is made of a voyage which took place annually between the coast of India and this part of Africa,-undoubtedly by the monsoon. The cargoes specified are * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 135. 13 precisely such as would be still imported from Guzerat and Concan. Corn. Rice. Butter, that is, ghee. Oil of sesamum. Cotton, in the web, and in the flock, for stuffing. OPONE AND RHAPTA. Sashes. Honey, from the cane, called SUGAR:* Several other commercial harbours are named, as we proceed southward on the coast; but the next list refers to Rhapta, an import- ant port at about nine degrees south latitude, the furthest point to which the author of the Periplus sailed, in exploring African com- merce The EXPORTS from this place are:- Ivory, in great quantity, but of inferior quality to that obtained at Adooli from Abyssinia. Rhinoceros, the horn. Tortoise-shell, of a good sort, but inferior to that of India. * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., pp. 152, 153. 14 THE CASSITERIDES. A shell for ornament; but the term is dubious. The IMPORTS:- Javelins, more especially such as are the actual manufacture of Moosa. Hatchets or bills. Knives, Awls. Crown glass of various sorts. Thus closes the information furnished by this interesting record concerning the charac- ter of the commerce between Egypt and the several ports on the eastern coast of Africa. We now direct our attention to the second part of the Periplus, which treats of the trade that existed between Alexandria, Arabia, and India. In this statement we follow the same guide, Dean Vincent, who places before us all the information afforded by the Periplus, supplemented by much more that he has collected from other sources. The first port mentioned in this account is Moosa, which is just within the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, on the cast shore of the Red Sea. The EXPORTS from this place are:- mpetentanglayi MOOSA. 15 Myrrh of the best quality. Stactè, or gum. White stones. Alabaster: with a variety of other articles. The IMPORTS:- Purple cloth; fine and ordinary. Clothes made up in the Arabian fashion, with sleeves, plain and common, and mixed or dappled. Saffron. Cyperus. Aromatic rush. Muslins. Cloaks. Quilts, a small assortment; some plain, and others adapted to the fashion of the country. Sashes, embroidered, or of different shades. Perfumes. Specie, for the market, or in considerable quantity. Wine and corn, not much. The country pro- duces some corn, and a good deal of wine.* (3) Kane, a port on the coast of Arabia, to the East of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, is spoken of as a place of considerable trade, subject to Eleasus, king of the Incense Country. The * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 316. 16 THE CASSITERIDES. وو Exports are the natural products of the country, frankincense and aloes. From this mart there was an established intercourse with the countries eastward, that is, with Barugáza, Scindi, Oman, and Persis; so that there was a considerable importation from Egypt, consisting of the following articles:- A small quantity of wheat. Wine. Clothes for the Arabian market. common sort. plain. mixed or or adulterated, in great quantities. دو 1 رو Brass. Tin. Coral. Storax, a resin. And many other articles, the same as are usually imported at Moosa. Besides these also there are brought, Plate, wrought, and Specie for the king. Horses. Carved images. Plain cloth, of a superior quality." * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 336. KANE AND OMANA. Our author mentions several other places, and notices the pearl fishery of the Persian Gulf; but gives no other catalogue of Exports and Imports relating to Arabia. Our next information of this kind describes the traffic at Omana in Gadrosia, a port not many leagues from Cape Jask, at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. 17 The EXPORTS from this place were :- Pearl in great quantities, but of an inferior sort. Purple. Cloth for the natives. Wine. Dates in large quantities. Gold. Slaves. The IMPORTS. Brass. Sandal-wood. Wood squared. Horn. Ebony in round sticks.* We are now brought to Barbarike, at the * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 379. 18 THE CASSITERIDES. mouth of the Indus. The EXPORTS from this port are: Costus, a spice. Bdellium, a gum. Yellow dye. Spikenard. Emeralds or green stones. Sapphires. Furs from China. Cottons. Silk thread. Indigo, or perhaps Indian ink. The IMPORTS. Clothing, plain and in considerable quan- tity. Clothing, mixed. Cloth. Cottons very fine, or larger in the warp than the woof. Topazes. Coral. Storax. Frankincense. Glass vessels. Plate. Specie. Wine.* *DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 390. BARBARIKE AND BARUGAZA. Barugáza in the Gulf of Cambay is the next commercial station, the traffic of which is detailed. This was not only an important port; but was also the entrepôt for the com- merce of Ozênè, an inland city, which lay some distance eastward of the port, and was the capital of the country. The EXPORTS from this place were :-- Onyx stones. Porcelain. Fine muslins. Muslins of the colour of mallows. A large quantity of ordinary cottons. The following articles are also spoken of as passing through through Ozênè, for export from Barugaza, viz. :- Spikenard. Costus. Bdellium. 19 Ivory. Onyx stone. Myrrh. Box-thorn. Cottons of all sorts. Silk. Mallow-coloured cotton. Silk thread. Long pepper. 20 THE CASSITERIDES. The IMPORTS at Barugáza are:- Wine-Italian in preference to all other. Laodicean, Syrian. Arabian. Query, palm or toddy. دو "" Brass. Tin. Lead. Coral. Topazes. Cloth,-plain. mixed, of all sorts. Variegated or fine sashes, half a yard wide. Storax. Sweet lotus. White glass. Ore of Cinnabar. Stibium for tinging the eyes. Ordinary perfumes, or unguents, and in no great quantity.* دو The next port, Barákí or Nelkunda, is believ- ed to be the extent of the personal voyaging of the author of the Periplus in this direction. It lies about midway between Goa and Cape Comorin. The EXPORTS are: * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 409. NELKUNDA. Pepper, in great quantity, which grows only in this one place, and which is called the pepper of Cottonara. Pearls, in quantity and quality superior to others. Betel. Ivory. Fine silks. Gapanic spikenard it is usually read Gangetic. 21 ور from the countries farther to the East. All sorts of transparent or precious stones. Diamonds. Jacinths. Rubies. Tortoise-shell from the Golden Island, (either Khrusè ? or Maldives ?) and another sort taken in the islands which lie off the coast of Limúrikè (the Lacca- dives). The principal IMPORTS:- Great quantities of specie. Topazes. A small assortment of plain cloth. Fine cloths of different colours. Stibium for colouring the eyes. Coral. White glass. Calga 22 THE CASSITERIDES. Brass. Tin. Lead. A small quantity of wine. Cinnabar. Orpiment. Corn. Only for the use of the ship's com- pany the merchants do not sell it.* At the risk of being tedious, we have placed the details of this traffic before the reader, and for this simple reason,-that it does not supply what is so frequently found in investigations of this sort, namely, conjectures and opinions, but sterling matters of fact. Here we have set before us, with all the particularity of a modern invoice, the exact articles of traffic between Egypt, Ceylon, and Africa, eighteen hundred years ago. Were we discussing ancient commerce generally, there would be many and interesting subjects for observation, suggested by these lists. We might notice the sameness of character which the trade with the East has always maintained; and the uniform and continuous demand for specie which the East has always made on the western world. But we are confined to one * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 459. 23 Kj section of the subject, the trade of the ancients in tin. We were sent to the writings of Arrian, and to the ports of Arabia, for proofs that Egypt derived her supplies of this metal from the East. We were told that this "metal has been in all ages a principal ex- port of India,"-that "it is enumerated as such by Arrian." * We ask, in reply, Where does Arrian say this? this? When was tin first exported from India? We can find no such information in Arrian. His profoundly learned translator and commentator has found nothing of the kind. We have ranged over the whole line of Egyptian maritime commerce, as given in its earliest authentic records; but find no trace of tin being carried from the East or the South to that country. We have examined the commerce of the ports of Abyssinia, Arabia, and India. And what has been the result? We have found, indeed, that tin was known, and recognised as an article of traffic; but that, instead of its coming from the East to Egypt, it has been invariably exported from Egypt to the East. We have found tin in the great mart of Kane in Arabia; but then we are distinctly told that it was exported from Egypt to that * COOLEY'S "Maritime," &c., vol. i., p. 131. TIN NOT EXPORTED FROM INDIA. 24 THE CASSITERIDES. great centre of Arabian commerce, from which the surrounding countries derived their sup- plies. At Barugaza in the Gulf of Cambay, and at Nelkunda on the coast of Malabar, tin has been found as an element of trade; but in every instance as an export from Egypt. Where, then, we ask, is the proof that this metal had been supplied by India? The commercial operations which we have reviewed embrace the great traffic of the East. We have found articles that must have been supplied from the further parts of India; we have even recorded the sale of furs from China; but we have heard of no supplies of Indian tin. We might show at length, that if there ever was such a trade, it must have existed at this time, and have been carried on by this route. P The supplies of tin at Banca are, we are assured, even now, inexhaustible; so that if these mines had been wrought in the early ages, there must have been an abundance for sale in the times of Arrian. We fully agree with Dr. Vincent, that in the earliest times traffic was chiefly conducted by overland routes; but it is equally true, that generally, and especially in Arabia, this mode of transit has always been dangerous and expensive; TIN EXPORTED FROM EGYPT TO THE EAST. 25 and not very When gold, and particularly for a heavy costly commodity, like tin. specie, and diamonds were would not be sent overland. pursue this argument. The question is settled by one fact. If the merchants of Malabar could have procured tin from the East, they would not have imported it from Egypt. We are told, it is improbable that the most successful and experienced navigators of their day should sail from Cadiz to Cornwall. Yet those who make this assertion find no difficulty in believing that a people whose practice of navigation is entirely unknown to us should sail twice that distance, from Ceylon to Banca. Those who, in the face of this evidence, assert that tin was in the earliest times procured from the East, and who decry the Phoenician maritime intercourse with Britain, nevertheless speak of the "rashness of modern criticism," as though they alone had employed patient investigation and sound induction on the subject. The venerable Dean of Westminster-who translated, dissected, and commented on the Periplus of Arrian the merchant, and who rendered a similar service to the account of the Voyage of Nearchus with Alexander's с sent by sea, tin But we need not 26 THE CASSITERIDES. fleet down the Indus, along the coast of Beloochistan to the Persian Gulf, and thence up to Susa, written by the more eminent Arrian-has expressed his opinion on this question. Having added to the knowledge of eastern navigation and commerce acquired by these translations and researches an immense fund of information derived from other sources, he had no doubts in his mind as to the country whence the tin exported to India from Egypt was procured. He says, "Tin was another of the articles enumerated: and if we find this produce of Britain conveyed to Malabar in the earliest period that history can reach, we find the spices of Malabar in Britain in an age when the course of the communication with India was probably as little known as the existence of America. The Venerable Bede, who died in the year A.D. 735, was possessed of pepper, cinnamon, and frankincense. Did no one ever ask the question, how, in that age, these luxuries had been conveyed to Britain, or were treasured in a cell at Weirmouth ? "* But we have no intention of prejudging the question, or of endeavouring to settle it by the authority of a great name. We claim at present simply to have disproved the allegation, that in * DEAN VINCENT, vol. ii., p. 460. 27 WHERE WAS TARSHISH ? the time of Arrian and in the earlier ages tin was carried as an article of commerce from India to Egypt. We, on the contrary, maintain, that reasonable proof has been afforded, that until this time India itself was dependent upon Egypt for supplies of tin, as Egypt undoubtedly was on the West of Europe. The main subject of our investigation is now placed before us in this new phase. We find tin in the early ages abundant in Phoenicia, and a current commodity of commerce at Tyre, B. c. 600.* It was known and used in Palestine at least six hundred years earlier. It was not the product of those countries or of the neigh- bouring ones, but procured at the later date certainly from Tarshish. We have to search out this locality, with this one limitation to the range of our inquiry: that although this term may have been sometimes used with a wide range of meaning, and as applicable to different countries; in this case, it cannot refer to India on the East. We have ascertained beyond all doubt, that down to a time long after this the East did not export this metal, but had to procure their supplies of it from the West. The oriental countries are therefore excluded from further inquiry. We must look else- * Ezek. xxvii. 12. + Ibid. C 2 28 THE CASSITERIDES. 5 where for the source which supplied this metal to the ancient world. Tyre being the great emporium of the tin trade, at the date above mentioned, B.C. 600, and Tarshish the country from whence the merchants brought this commodity, we have to ascertain the situation of the mines that produced this metal, and the route by which it reached the Phoenician capital. As a preliminary to this investigation, it is necessary to remind the reader that, although the period which has been mentioned is so remote, it does not represent the beginning of this commerce, but the time when it had at- tained its maturity, and when the Phoenicians were in the zenith of their greatness. Greece had just then risen to distinction; her earliest history began but two hundred years before; and Herodotus, the father of her historians, did not appear until another century had elapsed. Rome had been founded about one hundred and fifty years, and was still an unwalled and insignificant Italian town. Yet even at this early period Phoenicia had existed more than sixteen hundred years, and during the far greater portion of that time had been a wealthy commercial nation. These circum- PHOENICIAN COLONIES. 29 stances, in the absence of consecutive histori- cal records, may warrant the admission of circumstantial evidence of a reasonable and conclusive character. The limited territory which the Phoenicians possessed on the coast of Palestine has been frequently referred to, as insufficient to be the seat of a great and powerful state. But those who have urged this objection have overlooked the important fact, that this peo- ple, being devoted to commerce and commer- cial navigation, as the grand means of their national greatness, sought in extensive colo- nial establishments a means of support, and appliances for the promotion of their great objects, which no extent of continental soil could supply. To these colonies we shall have to refer, as the best available means of tracing the pro- gress, extent, and times of Phoenician com- mercial enterprise. Cyprus is a large and important island, within sixty-five miles of Laodicea, on the Phoenician coast, and is dis- tinctly visible from Mount Cassius. The ad- vantage of this position to a maritime nation is self-evident. It commands the waters of the Levant, the coasts of Syria and Cilicia; it contains many excellent harbours; and, what Ho 30 THE CASSITERIDES. is of pre-eminent importance in the present consideration, it afforded abundance of excel- lent timber and every other material for the building and equipment of ships. But if the archives of Tyre, or of Sidon, (for it is more likely that Cyprus was colonized in the times when the parent city was in the ascendant,) contained any records of the establishment of Phoenician settlements on this island, they have long since perished. We have only one or two attesting facts, in proof of an occupation which cannot be doubted. In historic times Cyprus was divided into nine kingdoms; and of these, five are shown by their names and traditions to have had a Phoenician origin. The mention of Cyprus in the Iliad proves, that so early as the time of the Trojan war it was regarded as a powerful state. But the most significant fact is the statement, that Cinyras, king of Cyprus, presented to Aga- memnon, when about to sail to the Trojan war, a very curious breastplate, composed of lead, gold, and tin; * thus showing that the Kó "Next he placed around his breast a corslet which Cinyras once gave him to be a pledge of hospitality. For a great rumour was heard at Cyprus, that the Greeks were about to sail to Troy in ships; wherefore he gave him this, gratifying the king. Ten bars, indeed, (of the corslet,) were CYPRUS AND RHODES. Cyprian colonists possessed the staple commo- dities and metallurgic skill of the parent state. Rhodes is inferior in size to Cyprus, but is more fertile, and has excellent harbours. Of its occupation by the Sidonians, Mr. Kenrick, who has fully investigated the subject, ob- serves, "The traces of Phoenician intercourse are numerous; those of colonization are less distinct than in Cyprus, but sufficient to jus- tify the conclusion that the Phoenicians were once predominant in the island." * If we may rely on the curious production of the alleged follower of Idomeneus, Dictys Cretensis, this intercourse of Phoenicia with Rhodes was of a very early date; for he speaks of the expedition led by Memnon to the Trojan war, and which was composed in great part of Ethiopians (or Phoenicians,)† as having landed and settled here. In Crete, also, there are traces of the Phoenicians, although the nearer we 46 31 of dark cyanus, twelve of gold, and twenty of tin; and three serpents of cyanus stretched towards the neck on each side like unto rainbows."-Literal Translation of HOMER'S Iliad," lib. xi., p. 24. Bohn's Edition. *KENRICK'S "Phoenicia," p. 79. + De Bello Trojano, lib. iv., 4. Amsterdam. 1702. † HERODOTUS, vii., 90. 32 THE CASSITERIDES. approach to Greece, the more completely has the later Greek population swept away the remains of ancient Phoenician intercourse. Yet there still remain clear historical proofs of Phoenician colonization. of one of the harbours bears dence of this fact.* It was celebrated for its mines of gold. A curious incident, recorded by Herodotus, gives countenance to the evi- dent probability that Crete also had been brought under Phoenician influence, or had been in frequent communication with that country. We are told that the inhabitants of the isle of Thera, having consulted the oracle at Delphi as to the removal of a destructive drought with which they were afflicted, were commanded by it to build a city in Libya. Not knowing where this country was, they sent messengers to Crete, to inquire whether any one there knew the place. They found a man who had been in Libya, and who was "a dyer of purple," an art in which the Phoeni- cians were pre-eminent.† Still farther north, on the mainland, oppo- site to Samothrace, the Phoenician mining operations were so extensive, that Herodotus speaks of his having seen the works, and says, + Melpomene, 151. * Acts xxvii. 12. The name some evi- My CRETE AND SICILY. 33 that a mountain had been effectually levelled by the miners. He observes, that these mines were discovered by the Phoenicians, who were under the direction of Thasus.* Melos, one of the Cyclades, also contained many mineral productions, which must have been very valu- able to the Phoenicians. It was rich in alum of superior quality, had inexhaustible mines of sulphur, besides other useful products. Mr. Kenrick places the Phoenician colonization of this island about B.c. 1200.† Without staying to notice many other places which bear wit- ness to the early and persevering enterprise of this wonderful people, we proceed to refer to more distant settlements. Sicily affords similar evidence of a very early Phoenician occupation, and of this being greatly modified by subsequent circum- stances. However ignorant the Greeks might have been of this island, it must have been well known to the Cretans and Phoenicians long before the times of Homer: it com- mended itself to the attention of the latter people by the abundance and superior quality of its corn, wine, and other productions. At first, they appear to have occupied all the principal promontories; but afterwards, when * Erato, 47. + "Phoenicia," p. 96. об jame 34 THE CASSITERIDES. the Greeks aspired to be a naval power, and multiplied their colonies, it was found incon- venient to defend so many settlements. The Phoenicians accordingly withdrew their people and property from the other localities, and concentrated all their wealth and power at the north-western angle of the island, where, as Thucydides* states, they continued to live in alliance with the Elymi, who occupied a part of that neighbourhood. The concentration of the Phoenicians at this place is by Mr. Kenrick supposed to have occurred about B.C. 736;† and as he calculates from the known times of the Greek movements which occasioned the removal, there can be little doubt of his accuracy. Malta was an island of too much importance to be overlooked by these mari- time merchants. We are told by Diodorus "that it is about eight hundred furlongs from Syracuse, is furnished with very good harbours, and that the inhabitants are very rich; for it is full of all sorts of artificers, among whom there are excellent weavers of fine linen. Their houses are very stately and beautiful, adorned with graceful cor- nices and ornaments in plaster. The inha- bitants are a colony of Phoenicians, who, + "Phoenicians," p. 106. * THUCYDIDES, vi. 2. - MUC) 35 MALTA, SARDINIA, AND CORSICA. trading as merchants as far as the western ocean, resorted to this island on account of its commodious ports and convenient situation for a sea trade; and by the advantage of this place the inhabitants soon became famous for their wealth and merchandise." * As this island was at first a bare rock of limestone, the perse- vering people who had taken possession of it brought soil from the neighbouring coast of Africa, and carefully provided it with the means of cultivation, until its fertility became proverbial.t = It would be unnecessary, even if it were possible, to notice all the settlements which the Phoenicians formed in the Mediterranean; or it might be shown that Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic, and other islands, had been more or less occupied by them, and rendered sub- sidiary to their great commercial purposes and plans. Carthage cannot, with strict propriety, be placed in the category of colonies, ‡ although + OVID. Fast., iii., 567. * DIOD. SIO., v., 1. + "There would seem to be much probability in the con- jecture that the city originated in a mere emporium, (or, in modern language, a factory, like that in which the Anglo- Indian empire had its first beginning,) established jointly by the mother city and Utica, on account of the convenience of its position; and that it rose into importance by the natural process of immigration." (DR. SMITH'S "Dictionary 36 THE CASSITERIDES. it has been conjectured that its origin was of this character; but it was an important off- shoot from the Phoenician stock, and was regarded as such throughout their whole history; so that, as Herodotus informs us, Cambyses, when he had determined to invade Carthage, was obliged to lay aside his design, because the Phoenicians refused to aid him with their navy against their descendants.* Even then it was an admitted fact, that all the Persian navy was unequal to cope with that of Carthage, unless assisted by the Phoenicians. Utica, as already intimated, was also founded on the African continent many years before Carthage, became an important port and city, and long survived its more powerful neigh- bour. But, not content with the commerce of this inland sea, Phoenician enterprise passed through the Straits of Hercules, explored the shores of the Atlantic, and formed settlements on the ocean coasts of Africa and Spain. It is of Geography," vol. i., p. 531.) If any reliance is to be placed on the legend of Dido, it is much more probable that her expedition should sail to a small and rising colony, and take possession of it, than that it should seek an unoccupied. part of the coast, and found an entirely new settlement. * Thalia, 19. GADES ON THE COAST OF SPAIN. 37 extremely difficult to fix with any precision the origin and progress of this colonization. Its issue in the establishment of an important settlement at Gades or Gadeira (Cadiz) is well known; but it is more than probable that this was not the first attempt to take possession of part of the coast of Spain. The inhabitants of Gades affirmed that their island was not the first place fixed on for a colony. And Strabo* gives countenance to the facts which had thus obtained currency, by the following narra- tive-It was reported that the Tyrians were warned by an oracle to send a colony to the Pillars of Hercules, and that the expedition selected for this purpose fixed on a place near Malaga. As the sacrifices offered by them were inauspicious, they returned home for further instructions. A second deputation, sent for the same purpose, passed the straits, and, finding an island dedicated to Hercules, opposite to Huelva, at the confluence of the Odiel and Tinto, they again sacrificed, and again found the appearance of the victims unfavourable. A third expedition fixed on Gadeira.-Although this account is coloured with the superstitions which affected alike the actors in these movements and the historians * STRABO, iii., 55. W 38 THE CASSITERIDES. 1 * by whom the information has been transmitted to our times, no reasonable doubt can be entertained that it exhibits a series of long- continued endeavours to effect a permanent location on the Spanish soil. Success at last abundantly crowned these persevering efforts. Gades rose to be a most important entrepôt of commerce, a large naval establishment, and a very wealthy and flourishing town. Strabo says, it was second only to Rome in his time; and there was only one city (Padua) in Italy, Rome excepted, which could produce an equal number of citizens of the equestrian order. This was the case, although the limits of the city were small, and a large proportion of the inhabitants were always engaged in navigation or foreign commerce; for, according to the authority already given, Gades equipped and sent to sea, both for the Mediterranean and ocean trade, more and larger vessels than any other port. Of course this refers to the time of Strabo, (B.C. 20,) long after Tyre and Carthage had perished. The Phoenicians also founded Seville, calling it Hispalis; this, too, became a flourishing city. We have hitherto spoken of these colonies without any regard to the chronological order * STRABO, iii., 5, 3. ANTIQUITY OF SIDON. 39 of their foundation. Indeed, with respect to many of them, it is impossible to specify any date approximating to their first occupation. It seems probable that generally a long- continued commercial intercourse preceded any colonial establishment; and that even when a settlement was made, its progress was so gradual that no date could, with strict pro- priety, be assigned to it. Yet it is important to trace as nearly as possible the beginning of this remarkable course of commercial ar- rangements, and the successive foundation of some of the most famous colonies. MAN The rise of the commercial power of Sidon is lost in its extreme antiquity. It was called the "great Sidon" during the administration of Joshua, B.C. 1600. And not only had it, at this early date, opened up markets for pro- curing the materials necessary for a vast range of metallic and fibrous manufactures, but it had actually attained, what it must have occupied a long space of time to acquire after these materials had been procured, consummate per- fection in all the arts of design, composition, and manipulation. Our limits forbid forbid an enumeration, or we might give a catalogue of the most elegant and costly articles of the times, which emanated from this city. 40 THE CASSITERIDES. Yet all this commercial activity had been exercised, and these arts successfully and extensively practised, long before the Trojan war, which may be fixed at about 1200 B.C. Homer, who never names Tyre, celebrates, as being specifically of Sidonian manufacture, the most rare and valuable presents which his kings and heroes received. But Sidon was abandoned, and the arts and power of Pho- nicia transferred to Tyre, just a year before the fall of Troy;* so that the rise, progress, and glory of Sidonian navigation, commerce, and manufacture took place before this date. It is true, we have at Tyre to deal with the same people and the same pursuits as at Sidon. Yet the transfer affords an intelligible epoch, which exhibits, in a very striking manner, the long and successful career which the parent city had previously accomplished. Turning from the foundation and growth of Phoenician cities to the formation of the vast colonial system which the Phoenicians reared up, it is easy to conceive of an aspiring people, with a limited continental territory, taking possession of contiguous islands like Cyprus and Crete; but what progress must have been made in ship-building and in navi- * JUSTIN, xviii., 3. H THE PHOENICIAN NAVY. 41 gation, before Sardinia or Malta would have been visited from Sidon! Yet this had been accomplished. Inventions so numerous had been devised, and such wonderful progress made in all the various arts employed in the construction and management of large vessels, that the Phoenician navy was for ages the wonder of all beholders. In the Economicus of Xenophon, a Greek is represented as having said, "The best and most accurate arrange- ment of things, I think, I ever saw, was when I went to look at the great Phoenician ship. For I saw the greatest quantity of tackling separately disposed in the smallest stowage. You know that a ship comes to anchor or gets under way by means of many wooden in- struments, and many ropes, and sails by means of many sails, and is armed with many machines against hostile vessels, and carries about with it many arms for the crew, and all the apparatus which men use in a dwelling- house, for each mess. Besides all this, the vessel is filled with cargo which the owner carries for his profit. And all that I have mentioned lay in not much greater space than would be found in a chamber large enough for ten beds. All things, too, lay in such a way that they did not obstruct one another, so ¿ 42 THE CASSITERIDES. that they needed no one to seek them, could be easily got together, and there were no knots to be untied, and cause delay, if they were suddenly wanted for use."* But these arrangements must have been rendered very perfect, and their science and practice of navigation much beyond what is usually ascribed to them, before they would attempt to explore the ocean, and to form settlements on its shores. It is a well-known fact, that the earliest Greek writers regarded Sicily and the coast of Italy as on the extreme verge of the world; bordering on the regions of endless night. Yet these adventurous people dared to leave these shores far behind them, and to pass the straits into the vast ocean beyond. We have seen that the first attempts to colonize the west coast of Europe were not successful; but they were repeated until the end was attained. There can be little doubt that Tartessus had been often visited, and a valuable commerce established there, long before any attempt was made to occupy a part of the coast. And yet the dates of the early Phoenician settlements, as far as they are ascertained, aro very remote. Carthage is believed to have *KENRICK'S "Phoenicia," p. 235. DATE OF THE BUILDING OF GADES. 43 been founded about B.C. 813; Utica, accord- ing to Strabo, was built two hundred and eighty-seven years before Carthage, which places the foundation of that colony B.c. 1100. It is stated by Velleius Paterculus, in his Compendium of Roman History, that "at this time, about eighty years after Troy was taken,...a fleet of the Tyrians, then very powerful at sea, founded the city of Gades, in the remotest coast of Spain, at the extremity of one part of the world, and on an island surrounded by the ocean, divided from the continent only by a very narrow strait. By the same people, also, a few years afterwards, Utica, in Africa, was built." According to Pliny, this last-mentioned city was built eleven hundred years before our era; for, writing in B.C. 77 or 78, he observes: "The temple of Apollo at Utica is equally cele- brated; there we see beams of cedar still in existence, and in just the same condition in which they were when erected in the first building of that city, eleven hundred and seventy-eight years ago." + Pomponius Mela, also, having mentioned the temple of Hercules, at Gades, adds, that the foun- * VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, i., 2. + PLINY, Nat. Hist., xvi., 79 (40). 10). 44 THE CASSITERIDES. dation of the colony was from "the time of Troy. "'* We have set down the fall of the Phrygian capital at about B.C. 1200, the most reliable authorities placing it near that date;† and this conclusion makes the era of the building of Gades sufficiently in harmony with the decision of Mr. Kenrick, who, having most elaborately investigated the whole subject, says, "The first event in the history of the Phoenicians to which a date can be assigned, is the foundation of Gades in the twelfth century B.C." There was therefore the long preceding commercial exploration of Western Europe, the extensive traffic with Tartessus, the three successive attempts at colonization, of which we have spoken; and all this took place before the establishment of Gades, about or soon after B.C. 1200. But it will be seen, that this is just the date that the circum- stances of the case require. Tin must have been largely imported into Phoenicia at least as early as B.C. 1500; and to this conclusion. all the accounts tend. If tin was used in N * POMPONIUS MELA, iii., 6. + Eratosthenes and Apollodorus place the fall of Troy, B.C. 1183; Dionysius, B.O. 1184: and the Parian Marble, B.O. 1209.—CLINTON's Fasti Hellenici, vol. i., pp. 129-132. DATE OF THE TIN MARKET AT GADES. 45 articles of the most elaborate design and manufacture prior to the Trojan war; then, as there was no supply of this metal, as far as we can learn, from the East, there must have been a known market from whence it was pro- cured. All our sources of information agree, therefore, in placing the Phoenician tin market at Gades, for several centuries before B.C. 1100, when it may be regarded as in great prosperity. The question which arises out of these facts, is simply this: Whence was this market supplied? We are told that tin in ancient times was abundant in Spain. We are all well aware, that silver was found plentifully there. But we have never seen any satis- factory evidence, that tin in any considerable quantities was produced in that country.* Agak *The most remarkable feature in tin mining seems to be the enduring character of the mines. Wherever tin has been produced in any considerable quantities within the range of authentic history, there it is still abundantly found. In Banca, we are told, the supply is inexhaustible; and Cornwall can now supply as large a quantity annually as it ever could. On this principle, we have inquired as to the supply of tin at present in Spain; and our informant, who has been some years in active employment in the principal mining districts of that country, says, "I have never mot a tin miner nor a tin streamer in Spain; all the tin I have seen exposed for sale had been imported from England." 46 THE CASSITERIDES. NICKEL- [CB{COBALT} □ QUICKSILVER SPAIN, 1859. S.H TIA Nor do any of the accounts or traditions that have come come down down to us indicate as much. Tarshish supplied Tyre with tin; but the Cas- siterides are spoken of as the place where the commodity was mined; and the Cassi- terides have generally been regarded as the 4 - MANGAFESE Another fact bearing on this point is important. Silver is generally found in contact with lead, seldom or never with tin ores. In ancient times, it is well known, that Spain produced abundance of silver. The Revissa Minera of 1860 showed the quantity of ground let out to miners throughout the whole of Spain to search for minerals of all kinds. The quantities then in the possession of miners for this purpose is given in the annexed sketch, from which it will be seen, that while the surface occupied for lead mining is decidedly the largest, the appropriation for search after tin is all but the smallest; the whole surface bored for tin mining throughout the whole of Spain being little more than one square mile. Calend N.B.A VARA IS 38 ENGLISH INCHES SURFACE CRANTED FOR THE SEARON OF MINERALS. IN ALL SPAIN TO END OF THE YEAR 1859. - ARSENIC SILVER I We ㅁㅁ ​GOLD D IRON jux ZIRC D LICNITE J VARAS 10.000 It སྒྱུཟླ4172 ࿏ ) THE GOVERNMENT MINES NOT INCLUDED. COAC -SCALE- ་ لیے LEAD 20000 D VARAS BRITAIN SUPPLIED GADES WITH TIN. 47 south-western part of the British islands. Even Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, who cannot believe that Phoenician ships sailed to this island, is constrained to say, "It cannot be doubted that Britain was the country from which the tin sold by the Phoenicians to the Greeks was chiefly procured." * But we are told that it is "incredible " that the Phoenician vessels should have visited Cornwall for the purposes of trade. Let us consider this objection. Let it have all the weight to which it is entitled. We only desire the subject to be fairly considered. It is alleged that the distance is great. We admit it. The distance from Cadiz to Cornwall in a straight course is about one thousand miles; and, following the coast, as probably ancient na- vigators usually did, considerably more. But then let it be remembered, that we ascribe this voyage to men who had built a city, as a colonial settlement, two thousand five hundred miles from their native shores; to a people so familiarized with maritime commerce, as to have established depóls on most of the islands and on every shore of the Mediterranean! Is it reasonable to suppose, that Gades would have been built at the extreme distance to * "Historical Survey," &c., p. 451. 48 THE CASSITERIDES. which their commerce reached? Let it be con- ceded for a moment, that the tin fields of Corn- wall had become known to the Phoenicians; where could they have had a colonial station more advantageously situated for prosecuting this intercourse, than at Cadiz ? There was a mart for valuable commodities at hand, and a fine harbour with every convenience for repairing or refitting their vessels. And from thence to Cornwall was a shorter voyage than from Tyre to Malta, Carthage, or Sicily, which they were performing continually. It is well known, that the shores of the bay round to Cape St. Vincent were regarded as Phoenician soil, and that this Cape was spoken of as "the sacred promontory." We confess that we are puzzled to find the difficulty which has stag- gered so many eminent writers. If we were ascribing this discovery and commercial navi- gation to persons who had no means of transit on the water but British coracles, or Indian boats, sewn together with strips of bark, or hides, we should expect the idea to be rejected. But when it is attributed to a people who had a navy, and naval skill to go to and fro with impunity over the stormy gean, who could dare without fear the tempests of the middle Mediterranean, and even launch on the wide WONDERS OF PHOENICIAN COMMERCE. 49 Atlantic, we think we are neither unreason- able nor rash in ascribing to the Phoenicians direct naval intercourse with Cornwall. The extent to which Phoenician commerce was carried is startling to modern ears in every respect. Four days' sail from Gades, in the waters of the Atlantic, we are told, the people of Gades established a fishery for conger-eels and tunnies, which were cured in a manner that rendered them luxuries at Athenian tables.* So valued was this article, that when the Carthaginians succeeded to the trade after the fall of Tyre, they prohibited the export of it to any other place. And although patent on the pages of their Bibles, perhaps most readers will feel some surprise at being told, that the Tyrians had a fish market at Jerusalem.t The mackerel was also a very important element of merchandise. From this fish, the people of Carteia ‡ prepared a sauce which brought fabulous prices, equal to those of the richest perfumes. As salt was a com- modity imported into Britain, in return for the tin exported from thence, it does not appear to be improbable that Cornish fish, as well as * KENRICK'S “Phoenicia," p. 225. Nehemiah xiii. 16. A place five miles west of Gibraltar. D 50 THE CASSITERIDES. tin, was taken from thence by the Phoenicians, and carried to distant markets. It is an admitted fact, that the Phoenician voyagers sailed to the south of the Straits of Hercules, far enough to discover the Canary Islands. These were called by the Grecks the Islands of the Blessed, and by the Latins the Fortunate Islands. Yet, although this is a part of undoubted history, learned men think it improbable and incredible that they should have sailed a little further from Cadiz, to trade with a country so rich in various important commodities as the south-west parts of Eng- land. BOLJ It is further objected, that the accounts which are given of the Cassiterides are in- definite and contradictory. These objections may be given as diligently summed up by Mr. Cooley. He says, "The name Cassiterides (Tin Islands) is evidently but an epithet, im- plying the want of particular acquaintance with the countries thus vaguely denominated. But as geographers feel peculiar pleasure in fixing the position of every wandering name, the title of Tin Islands' was inconsiderately bestowed by Greek and Roman writers, at one time on real islands in which there was no tin, at another on imaginary islands . GEOGRAPHY OF THE CASSITERIDES. 51 near the coasts abounding in that metal. Almost all these accounts refer the Cas- siterides to the coast of Spain. Some writers place them many days' sail in the western ocean; others, nearly opposite to Corunna; but they are never mentioned (with a single exception) with respect to their distance from the coast of Britain; a circumstance which, to those acquainted with the ancient system of navigation, must be a convincing argument that the Cassiterides were not the Scilly Islands. Cæsar and Tacitus, though they mention the gold, silver, and pearls of Britain, take hardly any notice of its tin mines. Pliny, moreover, after discussing all the accounts relating to the Cassiterides, concludes, that these islands had but a fabulous existence; and observes, that tin in his time was brought from Galicia."* We have copied this long extract, because we wish to consider the subject in all its bearings. In doing this, there are some questions which we can scarcely refrain from putting on this passage. Why does the term Cassiterides imply the want of acquaintance with the place so denominated? Why, any more than the Gold Coast of Africa? The *Maritime and Inland Discovery," vol. i., p. 132. D 2 52 THE CASSITERIDES. terms alike simply indicate the principal pro- duct of the country: the name, per se, neither intimates an acquaintance with the position of the place, nor the absence of this knowledge. It might in the case of the "Tin Islands " have been given, as it was by Herodotus, with a very limited knowledge of the locality. But that says nothing as to the knowledge of those who applied the term in the first instance. If Greek and Roman writers used the term Cassiterides, without any definite acquaint- ance with the geography referred to, it is excusable; seeing that this trade must have been opened five hundred years before Grecian history began, and still longer before the foundation of Rome was laid. It is also objected, that this term is sometimes applied to islands where there is no tin, and at other times to places which are not islands. If the former part of this remark is intended to apply to Scilly, it is incorrect: Scilly has produced tin, although in modern times not in large quantities. The latter part of the observation has been answered by its author. He knew that the Hebrew, Phoenician, and cognate languages had no terms which dis- tinctly specified islands, peninsulas, &c.; CORNWALL OPPOSITE TO CORUNNA. 53 one word being used to signify islands, sea- coasts, and even remote countries. In those languages, the whole coast of Cornwall and Devonshire might be termed island or islands. Then, again, it is mentioned as contradictory, that these Cassiterides are by some writers placed many days' sail in the western ocean; and by others, nearly opposite to Corunna ! But what is there contradictory in this state- ment ? Let the reader look on a map of western Europe. He will find Corunna a short distance to the north-east of Cape Finis- terre, on the south-west extremity of the Bay of Biscay; and the coast soon afterwards runs in a direction nearly east and west. If a vessel, therefore, was to sail from Corunna eastward, on this coast, about one hundred and twenty or one hundred and thirty miles; and then, starting exactly at right angles with the line of coast, should sail direct north, it would reach the Mount's Bay, in the south- west extremity of Britain, and the centre of the tin mines; the distance from this, point, on the southern shore of the Bay of Biscay, to Cornwall, being somewhat more than four hundred miles, which would be several days' sail in the western ocean. It is not just to construe the language of ancient writers under BO 54 THE CASSITERIDES. the false impression, that the western coast of the European continent is a straight line, running from north to south, and that an island, to be opposite any given point, must lie to the west of it. To be opposite a coast, is to be in such a position, that, leaving that coast at right angles, you will reach the place so described. Cornwall is in this sense nearly opposite Corunna; that is, it is directly op- posite a point about one hundred miles from Corunna, and lies in that direction, several days' sail in the western ocean. It may be fully admitted that the Greek and Latin writers had no very clear knowledge of the Cassiterides. It is well known that the Phoenicians were in advance of every other nation in these discoveries and pursuits, and that they endeavoured as much as possible to keep the knowledge of them to themselves. In such circumstances, obscurity in the classic accounts is rather a proof of truth and genuineness, than the reverse. But the grand objection to the Phoenician intercourse with Britain is the allegation that the tin trade was carried on overland through Gaul to Marseilles. As it is an undoubted fact that some of this traffic, at a certain period, did take this course, it is necessary to look care- 55 fully into circumstances and dates, that we may ascertain the truth as nearly as possible. It must, then, be remembered, that all our information respecting the commerce of Bri- tain with Gaul refers to times subsequent to the location of the Belge on the island. Cæsar informs us, that when he invaded Britain, the inland parts of the island were inhabited by the aborigines, but that the sea-coast was "peopled with Belgians." "These," he ob- serves, "passing over from different parts, still retain the names of the several states whence they are descended." * They had established an active commercial intercourse with their Gallic kinsmen on the Continent. One reason or pretext which Caesar assigned for the inva- sion of this country, was, "that in all his wars with the Gauls, the enemies of the common- wealth had ever received assistance from " Bri- tain. The commerce carried on by those kindred people, on each side of the Channel, was so extensive, that the merchants who con- ducted it were many, and well known. So much so, indeed, that when Cæsar meditated his invasion, he called a meeting of these mer- chants, hoping to learn from them "the nature of the inhabitants, and acquaint himself Wars," v., 10. † Ibid., iv., 28. THE BELGE IN BRITAIN. pć } 56 THE CASSITERIDES. T • with the coast, harbours, and landing-places, to all which the Gauls were perfect strangers,' as, he says, "scarcely any but merchants resort to that island."* But the merchants seemed to think it not likely to promote their interests to be communicative. Cæsar did not procure the desired information. But the Britons, nevertheless, learned from them the designs of Caesar, and sent ambassadors to Gaul to meet him with offers of submission. Of the trade carried on by these merchants, Cæsar says, "They use brass money, and iron rings of a certain weight. The provinces. remote from the sea produce tin; and those upon the coast, iron; but the latter in no great quantity. Their brass is all imported.” From this account we do not think it will be generally inferred, that, prior to Cæsar's wars, the tin trade of Cornwall was carried across the Channel, and over Gaul to Marseilles. But, however this may have been, the trade of which we speak began at least as early as B.C. 1200, and lasted for more than a thousand years. Now Marseilles was built by the Phocean Greeks shortly before the expulsion of that people from their native city, by Harpa- gus, the Persian general, about B.C. 600. When "Wars," iv., 28. + Ibid., v., 10. >> TIN NOT CARRIED ACROSS GAUL. 57 we consider, therefore, the isolated position of the inhabitants of Britain from the Conti- nent, before the location of the Belge in the island, the unsettled and martial character of the various tribes occupying the country be- tween the present Calais and its neighbour- hood, and the mouths of the Rhone,-and add to these the fact, that Marseilles was not founded earlier than B.C. 600, and Narbo not until four hundred years later, it is presumed that none will be disposed to contend that tin was taken from Britain by this overland route, before that date, namely, B.C. 600. Can there be a vestige of probability in such a supposi- tion ? That the Phoenicians could have any part in it, is simply absurd. If they conducted the commerce in Cornwall, it would be infi- nitely more to their advantage to take the com- modity direct in their vessels to Cadiz, than to transport it to Gaul, allow it to go entirely out of their hands for a thirty days' land journey, and then to re-ship it at the mouth of the Rhone. This could not have been the case. Yet, prior to this date, the trade had attained its widest extent. > 142 THE CASSITERIDES. ancients, whose circumstances differed from ours in almost every respect. In these days of newspapers and electric telegraphs, when information is disseminated with a rapidity and power that defies restraint, trade is open to universal competition. In the times of which we write, it was not so. Great success in commerce then mainly depended on the pos- session of some knowledge of goods, merchan- dise, or markets, which others did not possess ; and when a merchant, or the merchants of any city or country, obtained such valuable infor- mation, it was guarded by them with the utmost care, and rendered subservient to important operations, and the acquisition of great wealth. The voyage of Pytheas, whatever its extent, was unquestionably undertaken for the pur- pose of affording his countrymen such know- ledge as would enable them to prosecute their commercial plans with greater advantage. How far this was effected we have no means of ascertaining; but it is an established truth, that Marseilles flourished as a rich and powerful commercial city, maintaining a first-rate rank as a maritime power, and sending out numerous colonies for extending her commercial interests.* Wate * STRABO, iv.; GROTE's "History of Greece," vol. xii., p. 613. DECLINE OF PHOENICIAN POWER. 143 After Gades had become independent of Phoenicia, it is uncertain whether the other colonies followed her example in this respect. But in course of time all the colonies in the north of Africa, including Malta, were brought into subjection to the Punic power. This action clearly displays the striking contrast between the colonial policy of the parent state and that of Carthage. Phoenicia established her colonies with a view to commerce, and accord- ingly left them to govern themselves, satisfied with a monopoly of their trade as far as it could be secured. Carthage aimed at empire, and to this aim her important commercial policy became subordinate. In these circumstances two centuries elapsed, during which we know very little concerning the operations at Gades. As there was a con- tinual demand for the produce which the At- lantic emporia alone supplied, this commerce was continued; but the waning of the power of Persia, the brilliant era of Grecian arms and letters in the East, and the rising power of Rome and of Carthage in the West, fill up the history of these times. The evident decline of Persia induced Egypt and Phoenicia, in the year B.C. 351, to throw off the yoke of her supremacy, and to assert their 144 THE CASSITERIDES. independence. But they had over-estimated their own power, or mistaken that of their former sovereign. They were soon brought again under subjection, Sidon being taken and destroyed in the struggle. This was only the prelude to a more terrible fate. In less than twenty years afterward, Alexander, having invaded Asia, laid siege to Tyre, and utterly destroyed it. But it is not improbable that it might have arisen again, phoenix-like, even from this ruin, if the conqueror had not reared up Alexandria in Egypt to take its place as the great emporium for the interchange of the merchandise of the East and the West. This measure consummated and perpetuated the ruin of Phoenicia. It was probably soon after this event that the circumstances occurred which are recorded by Justin. Speaking of the removal of the sacred things of Hercules from Tyre to Gades, which would be likely to take place just prior to the entire destruction of the old city, he says, the neighbouring people of the country, being jealous of this city, attacked "the Gadi- tani in war." This assault was so powerful, that Gades was obliged to seek aid from Carthage; which, we are told, was promptly and efficiently supplied. "The expedition 145 being successful, they both secured the Gadi- tani from injury, and added the greatest part of the province to their own dominions." * From henceforth the commerce of Gades, and the other marts on the shores of the Atlantic, must be regarded as thrown open to considerable competition. From the conduct of the king of Tartessus to the Phocean voy- agers long before this time, it is very plain that the natives of that territory had learned the value of the productions of their country, and had asserted their right to participate in the trade which had been created. Carthage, by the assistance which it had rendered to Gades, and the success of her arms in the neighbourhood, had adopted means for ex- tending her influence on the Spanish soil, and sharing more largely than heretofore in the profits of the commerce of Western Europe. For some considerable period this purpose was certainly secured. By means of her influence at Gades and her colonies in Spain, every opportunity was afforded to Carthage to grasp a dominant power over the Spanish and Bri- tish trade. But her aims at empire here again interfered with her commercial interests. The building of Carthagena, and the attempt to * JUSTIN, xliv., 5. J CARTHAGE SUCCEEDS PHOENICIA. H + 2 146 THE CASSITERIDES. add Spain to her dominions, brought her once more into fatal conflict with Rome, from whom she had already suffered much. Eighty years of alternate bloody war and deceitful peace, from the foundation of the Punic city on the east coast of Spain, sufficed to blot the name of Carthage for ever from the roll of independent nations, and to place her soil among the number of Roman provinces. During this period Massilia luxuriated in the highest commercial prosperity. This mer- chant city neither devoted her own people to any great extent to the profession of arms, nor, like other great centres of trade, relied for her home protection on mercenary troops. Situated very near to Rome, who in her mar- tial pride had proscribed commerce on her own soil,* Massilia mainly depended on her connexion with the imperial city for defence in any emergency. And the position of the Greek community was such, that for a long season its friendship amply repaid Rome for the protection which the rising commercial city received. Thus, "under the shelter of this great military power, their commerce flourished and expanded on all sides. Syra- cuse and Carthage were crushed by the uni- * MERIVALE'S "Roman Republic," p. 8. kawan COMMERCIAL PROSPERITY OF MASSILIA. 147 versal conqueror; the maritime power of the Etrurians had already dwindled away before they fell under his baneful domination. The mercantile genius of Greece, which had mi- grated from Athens to Rhodes and Corinth, was impaired by internal weakness, and re- pressed by the harassing activity of the pi- rates in the Eastern Mediterranean. Accord- ingly Massilia reigned for a considerable period without a rival in the career of commerce. But her trade was mainly supplied by the produce and the wants of the vast continent which lay behind her."* If the mineral produce of the western parts of Britain was ever landed in Gaul, and carried across that country to Massilia, it must have been during the period in which that city enjoyed this commercial ascendancy. It is, however, very unlikely that this could have been done, until the imperial power had fully reduced Gaul into the condition of a Roman province. Notwithstanding all the support which Massilia received from her Roman ally, Mr. Merivale freely admits, that "it with difficulty maintained its own exist- ence against the tribes of the interior." Is * MERIVALE'S "History of the Romans under the Em- pire," vol. i., p. 229. † Ibid., p. 228. II 2 148 THE CASSITERIDES. it probable that in those circumstances a regu- lar succession of valuable merchandise could be carried across the Continent from the At- lantic to the mouth of the Rhone? That this was subsequently done there is little doubt. As the author already quoted has observed, "Massilia opened regular communications with the interior of Gaul, and from thence with the ocean and the British isles; thus substituting a direct and safer route for the perilous circumnavigation of the Phoenician coasting vessels."* This might of course be expected, as soon as the land route was more direct and more safe than the transit by sea. But before that time, to a people like the Massiliots, who had no mi- litary posts in the interior, who had frequently to maintain war with the tribes occupying the neighbouring districts even for their existence, and who were also possessed of the best mercantile marine then in the world, the land route could not be more safe than the sea voyage. But when the campaigns of Cæsar had com- pletely reduced Gaul to subjection under the imperial power, and Massilia was brought under the Roman government, then the land * "History of the Romans under the Empire," vol. i., p. 229. Hand TIN CARRIED ACROSS GAUL. 149 transit would become feasible, and was un- questionably adopted. This conclusion agrees with the history of the times and the authorities we have quoted. Cæsar subdued the last effort of Gallic inde- pendence about B.C. 50, after which date the Roman domination proceeded to harmonize discordant elements, and to blend the nations of Western Europe into friendly concert for their mutual advantage. In B.C. 30, Augustus obtained supreme dominion over the Imperial State, and gave peace to the world: this was proclaimed the following year by the shutting of the temple of Janus. These events afforded unrestricted action to commerce. Merchants could then adopt the best means for conduct- ing their business, and the best modes of transit for the conveyance of their goods. After this state of things had existed twenty years, Diodorus wrote, that the British tin was taken from Ictis to the coast of France, and thence across the country to the mouths of the Rhone. No one can reasonably doubt the truth of this statement: it is sanctioned by every probability, and all the dictates of common sense. But that this was the route pursued a thousand years before, is in our judgment an impossibility. J H 3 150 THE CASSITERIDES. After a candid and careful inquiry into the whole subject, our conclusion is, that between B.C. 1500 and B.C. 1200 the Phoenicians sailed into the Atlantic, discovered the mineral fields of Spain and of Britain, and enjoyed a monopoly of this commerce for several centuries, trading directly with both countries: That afterwards, as the power of successive nations rose and waned, this traffic was shared by the Greeks, Carthaginians, Gaditani, Massi- liots, and others; and when the world was sub- jected to the sway of Rome, the general course of the tin trade was that indicated by Diodo- rus, namely, from Ictis to the French coast, and thence overland to Marseilles. In compiling our summary of information respecting this ancient commerce, we have no expectation of securing universal assent to our conclusions. We have, however, to the best of our ability, with the limited time and means at our command, redeemed our pledge, and given a brief but complete investigation of the subject. We have done this under a convic- tion that it is not only worthy of careful re- search, but demands it, and ought to be can- vassed until the truth attainable respecting it has been elicited and exhibited to the public. We recall attention to the simple fact, that tin 151 THE RESULT OF THIS INQUIRY. was an article of ancient commerce, at least as early as B.C. 1200, on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. This is an established truth. Notwithstanding all the speculations which Beckmann has so laboriously conceived and col- lected,* it is certain that tin was used and sold at Sidon and Tyre at this early date. No historical evidence can be adduced to prove that it was brought from the East. Whence then did it come ? The universal testimony of all history and tradition answers, From Britain. This testimony has been re- ceived, and the British origin of the tin sup- plied as an article of commerce in the ear- liest times has been believed, by great num- bers of learned men in different ages and countries. Having carefully studied the sub- ject, they have been fully convinced that the ancient Phoenicians traded with Britain for this metal, and regularly took it from the coast of this island in Phoenician ships to Tyre and * "Bronze, which is one of the oldest alloys of copper we are acquainted with, contains about ten or twelve per cent. of tin." It has been found by analysis that this is just the composition of the bronze instruments found in the sepul- chral barrows of Europe, of the nails which fastened the plates to the roof of the treasury of Atreus, at Mycenae, and of the instruments found in the tombs of ancient Egypt. (KENRICK'S "Phoenicia," p. 213.) 152 THE CASSITERIDES. Sidon. The names of those who have enter- tained this opinion would, if collected, exhibit a body as numerous, as intelligent, and as entitled to deference and respect, as could be found supporting almost any historical truth. İ There are men, however, who dissent from this judgment, some of whom deny that tin in these early ages came from Britain. Others object that Phoenician ships fetched it from thence, but maintain that, if obtained from this island, it was carried across the Con- tinent to the mouths of the Rhone. We have assigned reasons for the opinions we have formed, and we think this should be done by those who take conflicting views. If it is maintained that tin was not brought from Britain, we respectfully ask, Whence was it brought ? If Phoenician ships did not then visit our shores for the purchase of tin, what maritime people did? Was the metal taken a thousand years before our era from Cornwall to the coast of France in British coracles, made of osiers and skins, or by what other means? How was this commodity transferred to the mouths of the Rhone hundreds of years before Marseilles and Narbo were built? We propound these questions with great 153 respect and seriousness. We will venture to say that we have stated a means by which this market, in the earliest ages, might have been supplied. That the Phoenicians traded to Gades is an undoubted fact; and, this being admitted, the possibility of their reaching Cornwall cannot be denied. If, then, this is deemed improbable and incredible, let us have some probable and credible means exhibited, by which the metal was taken to the East. We repeat that this ought to be done. When men who have established a world-wide repu- tation for learning, and those who conduct periodicals which are circulated over the globe, repudiate what has been long and widely held as an undoubted truth, we have a right to ask for a substitute to fill up the chasm and restore unity and completeness to our know- ledge of the subject. In a case like this, when the old popular tradition of Phoenician intercourse with Britain is denied, the world is entitled to something more from such quar- ters than an uninstructive expression of scep- ticism,―a barren declaration of disbelief. The world has outlived the day when the dictum of the learned could create or annihilate an CONCLUSION. article of popular faith. It is now happily essential that facts and reasons be given, if old 154 THE CASSITERIDES. errors are to be exploded, or new truths fixed in the public mind. When this is done, we shall be ready with frankness and candour to correct our judgment on this subject; but till then, no mere expressions of doubt or disbelief, however high the source whence they emanate, will shake our faith in "conclusions " which we believe to be founded on legitimate historical evidence, and worthy to be regarded as established truths. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM NICHOLS, 40, HOXTON SQUARE. Works by the same Author. In Three Volumes, crown 8vo., (the Second and Third bound in Two Parts each,) price 34s., SACRED ANNALS : OR, RESEARCHES INTO THE HISTORY AND RELIGION OF MANKIND, from THE CREATION TO THE TIME OF CHRIST. VOL. I. 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