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THESIS PRESENTED to THE UNIVERSITY FAculty of coRNELL
UNIvrBs1TY FoR THE DEGREE OF Doctor or PHILosophy º
I 906
offprinted from the AMERICAN Journal, of Psychology
Vol. 17, 1906, pp. 358-393

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3.3/
• ?/ 42
A Study of the Affective Qualities
BY
SAMUEL PERKINS HAYES
THESIS PRESENTED TO THE UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF CORNELL
UNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
I 906
Offprinted from the AMERICAN Journal, of Psychology
Vol. I7, 1906, pp. 358-393
Gift, of
Cornell Univ.
A ug. 13 49C7
A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES.
I. THE TRIDIMENSIONAL THEORY OF FEELING."
By SAMUEL PERKINS HAYES, A. M., Ph. D.
CONTENTS.
Introduction, ſº e © g º te & § de º 358
I. Harmonical experiments, . e * ë e & º 363
Observer M., e tº * tº e * g & 365
Observer G., & ſº tº * tº e & º 373
Observer C., tº e g gº e sº & & 374
Observer W., fº * g & ſº o & º 377
II. Metronome experiments, e de * te º g (g 38o
Observer M., e * g * e & gº & 382
Observer G., g gº & º gº e © & 384
Observer C., e tº e e & º g $º 388
Conclusion, e * g * © ſº ſº g º . 389
INTRODUCTION.
Wundt’s theory of feeling has undergone a continuous proc-
ess of development, in which three fairly distinct stages may
be distinguished. In the first period “there is but one class of
elements, sensations. Feeling is a third attribute of most of
these, and represents their subjective aspect. More specifi-
cally, it is the mode of reaction of attention upon sensational
content. The way in which a perception is taken up into con-
sciousness at large determines feeling. Feeling thus depends
on the general subjective disposition in a way which is not true
of quality and intensity. Its poles are pleasantness and un-
pleasantness.” In the second period, “quality and intensity
of feeling are mentioned for the first time, and its close relation
to will is emphasized. Pleasure and pain in the form of de-
sire and repulsion govern all volition. Feeling is on the one
lmand inseparable from sensations and ideas, and on the other,
it could not exist without a will, the tendency of which it man-
ifests.” In the third period, feelings become independent ele-
ments in consciousness : they cannot be reduced to any simpler
elements; and, although we cannot isolate them directly as we
can sensations, by focusing the attention upon them, we can
isolate them indirectly—from each other—by isolation of their
perceptual substrate.” It is in the writings of this third and
1 From the Psychological Laboratory of Cornell University.
* Hollands: Wundt’s Doctrine of Psychical Analysis: II, Feeling
and Feeling-Analysis. American Journal of Psychology, XVII, 1906,
208 ft., 2I4.
** 2: . .
359] A study of THE AFFEctive ouALITIES. 3
. . . . . . . . . .
final period that Wundt’s tridimensional theory first appears.
The general outlines of the new theory are well known.
Simple feelings are at once more numerous and more various
than simple sensations; but they may be grouped in a tridi-
mensional manifold, in which the various intensities of feeling
are indicated by distances from the central indifference point,
and the qualities of feeling by the direction from this indiffer-
ent centre. Our concrete feelings are, in the great majority of
cases, compounded of all three feeling dimensions; an actual
feeling that lies in one dimension only, or even in two dimen-
sions, is an exceptional occurrence, a limiting case." In
other words, the simple feelings tend strongly to fuse; they
give rise to unitary feeling resultants, which are introspectively
unanalyzable as they occur. If we wish to analyze them, we
must have recourse to the sort of psychophysical analysis that
we employ, e. g., in the case of a color sensation. By vary-
ing the components of the color stimulus, we discriminate
color-tone, saturation and brightness, though the color as given
is a quality of sensation, psychologically unanalyzable.” So
with feeling: by varying the components of the perceptual sub-
strate, or by varying the sensory stimulus in the case of the
multidimensional sensation systems, we are able, psychophy-
sically, to bring out the elementary components of the unita-
rily experienced feeling.”
The tridimensional theory first appeared in the Gruzdriss
der Psychologie, 1896. In 1899 Titchener published a criticism
of the theory as here formulated, maintaining that strain-
relaxation and excitement-depression are not pairs of maxim-
ally opposite qualities, but rather positives and negatives;
calling attention to the fact that Wundt’s treatment of feeling
in the Vorleszengen of 1897 was at variance with that of the
Grundriss, and asserting that Wundt had presented no ex-
perimental evidence for his theory." Wundt replied in detail
to this criticism, and appealed to the curves in Lehmann's Die
Äärperlichen Aeusserungen psychischer Zustände as experimental
evidence.” Stevens then made a study of Lehmann’s Atlas, and
showed that the curves in question could not be regarded as
evidence for the tridimensional theory." Titchener next at-
1 Phys. Psych., II, 1902, 288, 307.
*See I. M. Bentley: American Journal of Psychology, XIV, 1903,
2 f.
9 * On this point, and on the various changes in the exposition of the
tridimensional theory (changes that may be summed up as showing
an increased caution in statement, and a greater readiness to admit
the possibility of feeling-analysis), see Hollands : op. cit., esp. 218 f.
4 Zeitschrift f. Pschol., XIX, 1899, 321 ff.
* Philos. Stud., XV, 1900, I49 ff.
"American Journal of Psychol., XIV, 1903, 13 ff.
§ {... [...eſſ: A 6.3
# 36348
4. FIAYES : [360
tempted to submit the question to experiment, by a variation
of the method of impression, and published his results in the
Wundt Festschrift.” In these experiments the evidence, so far
as it goes, is decidedly in favor of the dual, and against the
tridimensional theory of feeling.
The evidence, however, does not go far enough. As the
author himself points out, the number of experiments was
limited, and they were made in two only, not in all three, of
the Wundtian dimensions.” And this criticism has, naturally
enough, been repeated by various reviewers.” The question
then remains, whether or not it is worth while to extend the
investigation; to increase the number of experiments, by call-
ing in the aid of new observers, and to take into account, for
one and the same set of stimuli, all three of the feeling direc-
tions. In order to answer this question, it is necessary to esti-
mate the idea which underlay Titchener's study. That idea
was two-fold; and the study appealed to two lines of evidence,
objective and subjective. On the objective side, there is the
appeal to the ‘curves’ which present in quantitative form the
course of the affective judgments. No one denies the validity
of pleasantness-unpleasantness as a feeling dimension: all other
dimensions are matters of dispute. If, then, the resultant
curves all take the form which is taken by the curves of pleas-
antness and unpleasantness, if there is no specific type of
curve for excitement-depression and strain-relaxation,-then
we have at least an indication that pleasantness and unpleas-
antness are the only fundamental affective categories. Apo-
dictic proof we most certainly have not; but the indications
will be in favor of the dual theory. For it would surely be a
strange thing if a given set of stimuli affected a given observer
by way of excitement-depression (or strain-relaxation) pre-
cisely as it affected him by way of pleasantness-unpleasantness.
Coincidence might occur here and there; but the wider the
range of observers, the larger the number of stimuli employed,
and the more varied the type of affective judgment, the less
likely would it be, on the basis of the plural theory, that coin-
cidence should appear. On the subjective side, again, there is
the appeal to the introspection of the observers. If the ob-
servers declare that the affective judgment in terms of pleas-
antness-unpleasantness is direct, easy and natural, while judg-
ment in terms of strain-relaxation and excitement-repression
1 Philos. Stud., XX, I902, 382 ff.
* “Freilich ist nicht zu tibersehen, dass dies Resultat bei einer zwei-
dimensionalen Darstellungsweise und der Begrenztheit der Versuche
nicht beweisend ist.” Op. cit., 405.
8 So, e. g., Moskiewicz in Zeitschrift f. Psychol., XXXIV, 1904,
3I4.
361] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 5
is forced, difficult, associatively mediated, etc., then the evi-
dence of the method is in favor of the dual theory. And if,
further, the observers state that their judgments of excitement
depression and strain-relaxation, so far as they are affective
judgments at all, are based upon pleasantness-unpleasantness,
this evidence is proportionately strengthened. Here, also, the
value of the evidence will be cumulative: the more numerous
the observers, the more varied the stimuli, the more nearly
exhaustive the affective categories, the more certain will the
outcome be.
Unless, then, the above reasoning can be seriously impugned,
—unless, that is, some better method for the investigation of
the tridimensional theory can be proposed,—it would seem
very much worth while to extend the experiments of the
Wundt Fes/schrift.”
We are now, therefore, confronted by the problem of the
choice of stimuli. Experiments made by the method of paired
comparisons consume so much time that selection is necessary;
it is impossible, in a single investigation, to cover a very wide
field. In the earlier study, clangs and metronome beats were
chosen as offering, on Wundt's own testimony, salient exam-
ples of what we may call the unorthodox feeling dimensions.
Whatever else they may be, Wundt said, clangs are exciting
and depressing; whatever else they may be, time-intervals are
straining and relaxing. The earlier study was planned with
regard to this assertion of Wundt’s.” The object of the present
* Moskiewicz (op. cit., 315) writes as follows. “Es hindert nichts,
anzunehmen, dass trotz der Einfachheit der Reize die in uns ausge-
1östen Gefühle komplizierter sind, dass wir auf sie sowohl mit Lust
als auch mit Erregung resp. Lösung reagieren. Es ist durchaus
nicht ausgeschlossen, dass es andere Reize gibt, auf die wir 11ur init
Erregung oder Spannung zu reagieren imstande sind. Auch die
Gleichheit der Kurven braucht nicht zu Verwundern. Warum sol1 eine
Reihe von Reizen nicht in gleicher Weise Lust und Erregung steigernd
auf ein und dieselbe Person einwirken können, ohne dass Lust und
Erregung identisch waren P” To the first sentence it may be replied
that the stimuli (clangs and metronome rhythms) were by no means
simple, and that it was partly for this reason that they were selected as
a means by which to test the very complexity of affective reaction
which the writer assumes. To the second, it may be replied that
experiments, however limited, are better than vague conjecture.
After working with clangs and time-intervals, Titchener made sup-
plementary experiments with colors (op. cit., 403). What, now, may
the “andere Reize” be? Certainly not tastes and smells, which are
11otoriously pleasant and unpleasant. What then P The suggestion,
thus thrown out irresponsibly, is worth nothing, in default of definite
reference. To the third and fourth sentences answer has been made
in the text. The writer is attacking the objective side of Titchener's
argument, and has ignored the subjective side.
* Moskiewicz declares: “es wurden nur solche Reize gewöhlt, die
zu zwei Gefühlsdimensionen gehören” (op. cit., 314). There is, we
believe, nothing in Titchener’s paper that could suggest this idea.
6 HAYEs: [362
study is somewhat different; it is, to make a tridimensional
test of the tridimensional theory. Nevertheless, we have, after
consideration, selected the same materials to work with, –har-
monical clangs and metronome beats. For one thing, it is im-
portant to repeat Titchener's experiments, and to confirm or to
refute his conclusions; and repetition of the two-dimensional
method is, of course, included in the application of a tridimen-
sional method. There was here, also, the added advantage that
the technique of these experiments had already been worked
out in the Cornell laboratory. For another thing, the stimuli
are sufficiently complex to justify the assumption of a complex
affective reaction to them, if such a complex reaction occurs at
all. Wundt’s latest statement of his theory would seem to
admit the application of the method to color;” but we had
nothing to gain by having recourse to color, and a good deal to
lose, if time forbade us to employ also the clangs and intervals
of the earlier investigation. Lastly, there seems to be no pos-
sible objection, from Wundt’s own point of view, to our selec-
tion of stimuli. “Feelings of strain and relaxation,” he says,
“are always connected with the processes of attention. Thus,
when we expect a sense impression, we note a feeling of strain,
and upon the arrival of the expected event, we note a feeling
of relaxation. Both the expectation and satisfaction may be
accompanied at the same time by a feeling of excitement or,
under special conditions, by pleasant or unpleasant feelings.” ”
This passage appears, in the light of the previous study, to
cover the use of clangs for the production of feelings of all three
dimensions. “Again, the series of pleasurable and unpleasur-
able feelings is united with that of feelings of strain and relax-
ation, in the case of the affective tones of rhythms. The reg-
ular succession of strain and relaxation in these cases is
attended by pleasantness, the disturbance of this regularity, by
the opposite feeling, as when we are disappointed or sur-
prised. Then, too, under certain circumstances the feeling of
rhythm may be of either an exciting or a subduing char-
acter.” “ This passage appears to justify the recourse to met-
ronome intervals.
Since, then, there is no positive objection to the use of clangs
and metronome beats; and since presumptive evidence in favor
of such a procedure is furnished both by Wundt’s general view
of the affective life and by his criticism of Titchener's experi-
ments; we take the affective efficiency of these stimuli for
granted, and ask our observers to pass upon each of them judg-
1 Hollands: off. cit., 2I9.
2 Outlines, IQO2, 92.
8 Outlines, 1902, 93; cf. Phys. Psych., II, I902, 286.
363] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 7
ments in terms of all three feeling dimensions. The results of
experiment are as follows.
I. HARMONICAL ExPERIMENTS.
The method employed in these experiments was the same as
that described in Titchener's article. The same harmonical
and noiseless pendulum, marking seconds, were used. The 24
tones in the three octaves C-c (64-128 vs.), cº-cº (256-512 vs.),
cº-cº (1,024-2,048 vs.) were combined in all possible pairs,
thus making a series of 276 pairs of tones. The series was
formed by chance, and then so rearranged that the same tone
should never occur in two successive pairs. This series was
given 12 times to each observer : 6 times upward (/N), i. e.,
with the lower tone first, and 6 times downward (N, ), i. e., with
the upper tone first ; making a total of 3,312 experiments for
each observer, exclusive of ‘make-up' experiments.
In each series the observer was asked to report upon one
affective quality only.”
These twelve series were given in irregular order, but not in
precisely the same order to all three observers. In part of the
experiments, all three observed together, sitting with their
backs to the harmonical, about 2 meters from it, with screens
between them. As the observers and the experimenter were
engaged at different hours upon other university work, it was
impossible to make the experiments at the same hour on suc-
ceeding days; but the experiments upon each particular series
were made within as few days as possible, and often at the
same hour on succeeding days. Two vacations occurred dur-
ing the progress of these experiments, which further inter-
rupted their regularity.” When it was possible to have only
two observers at a time, the series was repeated later for the
absent observer. For these reasons the 12 series could not be
given to all the observers in exactly the same order. The ex-
periments with the harmonical were made during the months
of November, 1905–February, 1906, and April, May, 1906.
The observers were given slips of paper upon which to record
their judgments, and were informed that they were to make
series of judgments upon the relative pleasantness, etc., of the
tones in the pairs given. They were instructed to listen to
each tone separately, and to make their judgments without
1 Titchener: op. cit., 388.
* Titchener’s experiments were made in the short summer session,
when the observers could work every day. And, as is usual in the
summer sessions, his observers were specializing in psychology, and
had not the pressure of other work upon them. Under such condi-
tions it is natural, as will appear to be the fact, that his curves should
be somewhat more regular than those obtained in the present investi-
gation.
8 - HAYES : [364
bias as to which tone ‘ought’ to be the more pleasant or un-
pleasant. They were distinctly cautioned against forming any
theory which might influence their judgments, as, e. g., that
‘all high tones are liable to be unpleasant.” After 30 to 40 pairs
of tones had been given, the observers were allowed a rest of
from 3 to 5 minutes, which was generally spent in ordinary con-
versation. They were encouraged to record introspections
during this period, or at the end of the experimental hour,
but were cautioned against comparing notes, or discussing
results with one another.
The actual conduct of an experiment is as follows. The ex-
perimenter stands before the organ with one foot upon the
raised pedal, the paper containing the series of tones in his left
hand, the pendulum bob in his right. At the signal “ready,”
he releases the bob and presses down the first note to be
sounded. After two full swings of the bob (2 seconds), he
treads once quickly and once slowly upon the pedal, and keeps
a strong, even tone sounding for two swings of the bob. Then,
after two seconds of silence, the second tone is sounded for two
seconds in the same way. An interval of from 2 to 6 seconds
is allowed, between the pairs of tones, for recording the judg-
ment. After the first two days of experimenting, an interval
of from 4 to 6 seconds was found to be most comfortable for
observers M. and G. Observer W. found this interval very
fatiguing, and when she observed alone the interval between
pairs was cut down to 2 seconds. The judgments on all the
affective qualities required practically the same length of time.*
The experimenter exercised the greatest possible care to
keep the tones strong and even in intensity, and to prevent
noises from the mechanism of the organ. But in spite of care
and practice, the pedal occasionally creaked in certain kinds of
weather. In such cases, and also when other noises within or
without the building disturbed the observers, a record was
made of the judgments formed under these disturbed condi-
tions, and the pairs of tones were repeated in make-up series.
Practice in the experiment, however, soon developed in the
observers such power of concentration that they heard no
sounds but the tones, and occasionally surprised the experi-
menter by insisting that they had not heard noises which he
* None of the judgments exceeded the above time limits, al-
though, as will be shown later, the judgments of the various affective
dimensions presented varying degrees of difficulty. It would, of course,
have been fairly easy to take approximate measurements of the actual
times required for the formation of the judgments; but in view of the
tentative and exploratory character of the investigation, this proced-
ure did not appear either necessary or advisable, especially since it
would have involved a complication of method both for the observers
and for the experimenter. -
365] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 9
had supposed must make it impossible for them to form a judg-
ment upon the tones themselves.”
Certain tones in the scale were at times of different intensity
from the rest; c was apt to sound suddenly and at high inten-
sity; b% and cº were rather faint; cº occasionally developed a
tremolo. The pairs in which cº sounded in this way were noted,
and repeated in the make-up series. Whenever the observers
thought b% or cº too weak, the pairs in which they occurred
were repeated later. Therefore, these variations in the tones
themselves can have had no appreciable influence in making the
curves irregular, and may be considered negligible. The
curves do, however, show quite distinctly the effect of the Sud-
denness and intensity of the tone c, the curves being clearly
deflected from their general course at this point.
Make-up series were arranged and given to the observers
separately. These series consisted of (I) those pairs of tones in
which the observer was unable to detect in either tone the
affective quality looked for (negative cases); (2) pairs in which
the observer found the quality in an equal degree in both
tones, and was therefore unable to choose between them (un-
decided cases); (3) pairs in which the observer decided with
difficulty, and even after decision was not sure that the judg-
ment was correct (doubtful cases); and (4) pairs in the obser-
vation of which the observer was disturbed.
Observer M. is Miss E. Murray, graduate scholar in psy-
chology, Before these experiments, M. had had 2 years’ expe-
rience in the psychological laboratory. She was familiar with
Wundt’s tridimensional theory of the affective qualities, but
had not read Titchener's article, and had only a vague idea of
the purpose of these experiments. M. is musical.
The experiments were made in the following order: P^,
PN), E/N, UAN, D/N, UN, , E Ny, S/N, R \, , S N), R \, D^.
P^ was repeated at the completion of the I2 series. In all,
with make-up series, M. made 3,885 comparisons.
(I) Pleasantness.” After the first series (P/N), M. had no
* The absence of a noiseless room in the Cornell Laboratory is justi-
fied by experiences of this kind, which show that with practice and
keen attention to the problem in hand observers readily become so
absorbed in their work that they are oblivious to everything except
the particular stimuli upon which they are expected to react. See
Titchener: Mind, N. S., VII, 1898, 311; Wirth: Zeits. f. Psychol.,
XXV, Igor, I29.
* Attention may here be called to a distinct difference between the
P-U introspections, for this and for the other observers, and the
introspections with E-D and S-A’. Throughout the investigation,
it was the rule that the P-O judgments were given, so to say, a smat-
ters of ultimate fact, without possibility of further analysis : the ana-
1ytical introspections, bearing, e. g., upon the organic reaction set up
IO HAYES : [366
particular difficulty in deciding which of two tones was the
more pleasant. In the first series (P/N), the observer was so
new to the experiment that she was easily distracted. The
occasional creaking of the pedal of the organ and various
noises outside the building often prevented her from forming
any judgment upon the tones given. On the second day of
experiment, M. reported both tones unpleasant in I2 out of
the 56 pairs of tones given, and at the end of the hour said she
had felt tired and stupid and had had great difficulty in keep-
ing her attention upon the work. M. also thought that the
musical interval formed by the notes influenced her judgment;
when the second note made a pleasant interval with the first,
its intrinsic pleasantness was increased, and so it was reported
the more pleasant of the two, and conversely. In series P/M,
c” did not respond normally, but gave a tremolo effect. This
was remedied before the next series of experiments. For
these reasons it seemed best to regard this series (P/M) as a
practice series, and to repeat it after the completion of the
other experiments.
In the series PN, both tones were reported unpleasant in II
only out of the 276 pairs of tones. In 14 cases the tones were
reported equally pleasant. In 2 cases M. thought that the
interval formed by the two tones influenced her judgment.
These pairs were repeated, after the completion of the series,
and judgments were obtained in all but two cases. No dis-
tractions were reported.
Tones C, D, F, and G were each reported once as “funny,”
and D once as “amusing.” D and A were each once said to
give M. “cold shivers.” Such associations were not encour-
aged, and were not reported after this series."
by the stimulus, are the exception and not the rule. For the remain-
ing feeling dimensions, the contrary is true : analytical introspections
were the rule. We have set down, in summary, all the introspective
material at our disposal. But it must be said, and said emphatically,
that the P-O introspections do not represent the normal course of
the experiments, as the E-D and S-AC introspections do. Ordina-
rily, the observers termed a stimulus pleasant or unpleasant as
directly and finally as they might term it red or sweet. When, there-
fore, the assertion is made, in the individual summaries printed
below, that the P. U judgments were direct and immediate, this
statement must not be regarded as conflicting with the introspective
records; it is a statement based upon the general trend of the work,
and so upon experiments from which the introspective harvest was
exceedingly scanty. On the other hand, the introspections for E-D
and S-R may be considered as typical of the general course of the
investigation.
* This rapid decrease of associations in experiments upon affection
has been noted before. Titchener calls attention to it (op. cit., 403),
and quotes a passage from Cohn (Phil. Stud., X, 1894, 565, 596) in
which this investigator recorded the same tendency. Observers G.
and W. also reported associations during the first few hours of experi-
mentation, but soon ceased to experience them.
367] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. II
M. reported that the tones of the highest octave (cº-cº) were
harsh and straining, and these were the tones oftenest judged
unpleasant. During the first series (P/N) she said that they
were “as unpleasant as quinine,” and made her feel “all
screwed up ;” that it was very hard to keep her attention on
the harsh high tones, and that they sometimes pained her
ears; that they did not seem to spread out and give a general
reverberation, but remained localized in the ears. In this
series M. reported that the high tones gave her “a feeling of
revulsion.” "
(2) Unpleasantness. This series was made during the sec-
ond month of experimenting. No distractions or associations
were reported, nor did M. say that any of her judgments were
influenced by the musical interval formed by the two tones.
In 27 pairs, both tones were reported pleasant, only one of
these pairs being in the highest octave. M. reported that the
high tones were very unpleasant. In 7 cases both tones were
reported equally unpleasant.
M. described the unpleasantness as “usually a matter of dis-
comfort in the head.”
During the series U \, , M. reported that none except the
high tones were in themselves unpleasant. The others could
be judged unpleasant only by comparing them with pleasanter
tones. On the very rare occasions when there was a sensible
difference of intensity, the louder tone seemed the more un-
pleasant. In IO cases both tones were reported pleasant, only
2 of these pairs being in the highest octave; in 28 other cases
the tones seemed equally unpleasant.
P N, was a repetition of the first series. M. said that it was
difficult to disregard the influence of the musical interval. She
* The word “feeling” here and in similar instances hereafter is not
intended by the observers to express any definite affective quality,
but represents a loose use of the word common in conversational
English, as well as in the earlier English psychology, in which it
covers any mental state or process which is difficult of analysis. “It
is plain,” says Ward (Encyclopaedia Britannica, XX, 4o), “that fur-
ther definition is requisite for a word that may mean (a) a touch, as
feeling of roughness; (6) an organic sensation, as feeling of hunger;
(c) an emotion, as feeling of anger; (d) feeling proper, as pleasure
or pain.” Common usage goes much farther. We can easily feel the
force of M.’s thought when, as below, she speaks of an “interval feel-
ing,” and later of “a sort of question and answer feeling.” The
present tendency among psychologists generally is to analyze these
complexes, and to limit the word ‘feeling’ to their affective quality.
Curiously enough, however, there seems to be an opposite tendency
among certain recent German writers, who are introducing the use of
Bezvusstsein slage in much the same sense as our colloquial ‘feeling,”
thus avoiding a careful analysis of the complex experienced, and hin-
dering the development of an exact terminology. See, e.g., Mayer
and Orth, Zeitschrift f. Psychol., XXVI, 1901, 6.
I 2 HAYES : [368
was quite unconscious of distractions; for instance, she had not
even noticed a steam whistle blown outside the building until
the experimenter called her attention to it by asking her if it
had disturbed her in making her judgments. No negative
cases were reported and only one doubtful case, though M.
once said that the decision was often difficult where the two
tones were very near together in pitch, and that she had at
last, after making a choice, felt that she might perhaps as well
have chosen the other tone as the more pleasant."
(3) Faccitement. M. had no particular difficulty in deciding
which of two tones was the more exciting, though these
judgments were not quite so easy as those upon P and O.
In the first series (AE/N), M. defined excitement as a “feel-
ing of muscular pull.” In the series Æ N. M. reported that the
standard of judgment tended to fluctuate; sometimes excite-
ment meant “the amount of disturbance in consciousness,’’
Sometimes “the amount of muscular response the sound seemed
to demand.” Sometimes the greater intensity of a tone made
it more exciting; * sometimes the judgment, in spite of instruc-
tions to the contrary, was based on the relation between tones;
after some tones, certain other tones seemed restful and quite
lacking in excitement. M. said that sometimes she seemed to
get tired of the high tones, and then none of them were excit-
ing. She reported definitely that the feeling of E was un-
pleasant. No distractions or associations were reported. In
series E AN there were 7 negative and 28 undecided cases. Of
the negative cases, 6 were pairs of tones within the middle
octave, which, as the curves show, was the least exciting part
of the whole series. In series Æ N, there were two negative,
I9 undecided and 3 doubtful cases.
(4) Depression. M. had great difficulty in giving these
judgments. When the series D/N was begun, M. reported that
all the tones came as either exciting or soothing, and it was
possible to get the feeling of depression only by a special effort,
—by associating the idea of groaning or shuddering to the low
tones. By this reading-in process, 14 low tones were judged
depressing; the remaining I I I judgments made on the same
day were upon the soothing quality of the tone. On the Sec-
ond day M. tried again to give judgments of depression (Sad,
melancholy). She reported: “I did not get this feeling sponta-
1. It may be worth while to remark again that reflective judginents
were not sought in these experiments. What was required and regis-
tered was the immediate reaction to the stimulus. Cf. the instruc-
tions to the observers given above. Apparently, the reflective ten-
dency was unusual with M., for she reported only II doubtful cases in
the whole series of 3,312 experiments.
*Note the sudden jump upward of M.'s E-curves at c.
369] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. I3
neously, but only by trying to see how depressed I, could feel
while the tone was sounding. I involuntarily adopted the
method of breathing out on the tone and delaying inspiration
and relaxing other muscles.” In this manner the two series
of judgments on depression (N and N, were made. In series D/N
there were 19 negative and 14 undecided cases; in series D \,,
7 negative and one undecided case. At the end of the series
D Ny, M. reported: “the ability to annex a depressing feeling
to tones seems to vary,” and “it seems easier to be depressed
on a high note after a number of high notes have been given.’’
In order to obtain comparable judgments upon the same
quality on successive days, the experimenter showed M. her
first introspections on depression, each time that judgments on
depression were sought."
In response to a question as to the relation of D to E, M.
wrote: “I should hardly say that depression is the opposite of
excitement; that is, in this series, those notes that were not
depressing were not thought of as exciting or neutral but as
irritating, disquieting or disturbing.”
(5) Strain. In the first days of these experiments, M.
said that the feeling of strain seemed to be merely the effort to
attend to a tone, that the strain was usually unpleasant, and
that when she was in doubt as to which tone was the more
straining she was inclined to rely upon the unpleasantness of
it. Therefore we are not surprised to find the strain curves
similar to those of unpleasantness. At the end of the experi-
ments on strain, M. reported as follows: “Straining is not a
simple immediate judgment, as is the case with judgments
upon Por U. I should not be able to make the judgment un-
less I was prepared in a special way to respond to the stimuli.
I do not get any judgment on strain unless I follow the notes
somehow, with inspiration or expiration, or with general mus-
cular contraction; except in the case of high Squeaking tones
which give a sense of involuntary strain in the ear and head.”
In series S ^ there were 12 negative and 8 undecided pairs; in
series S N there were I I negative and 19 undecided cases.
(6) Adelaxation. M. had great difficulty, again, in obtain-
ing a feeling of relaxation. A trial series was given of 5 pairs
* The same plan was adopted in the experiments on strain and re-
laxation. These responses tended to be so artificial that there was
danger that M. would forget how she obtained the judgments, and by
adopting some new method for their production give a different series
of judgments each day. By refreshing her memory, the whole curve
for each quality was made up of responses of the same kind.—It need
hardly be said that the associations involved in these judgments are of
an entirely different nature from the casual and unsystematic associa-
tions referred to above as quickly disappearing in the course of affec-
tive work.
14 HAYES : [370
of tones /\, and M. said that she had been judging them with
regard to their relaxing quality. But, upon further considera-
tion, she decided that she had been confusing relaxation with
depression. A trial series of 5 tones V was then given, and as
both M. and G., who was observing with her, found it much
easier to judge of relaxation in the downward series, the series
A N, was given before the series A*/N. -
On the first day of experimenting on relaxation M. wrote:
“The drop, rather than the second tone itself, seems to be re-
laxing; usually there is no relaxation with the first note, un-
less it is very high; the negative cases seem to occur when
there is no interval feeling.” During the next series she wrote:
“Apparently the relaxing feeling is merely the release of atten-
tion from the first note. Each pair of notes gives you a sort of
question and answer feeling.” The following day M. gave
judgments on strain, and at the end of the hour wrote: “In
making judgments on strain I realize that, in the previous
judgments on relaxation, I was not judging of the affective
quality of the individual notes at all—which very seldom gave
anything like a feeling of relaxation—but merely on the transi-
tion from one to the other. If you do not attend to the tran-
sition or interval but to each note separately, you get either the
‘straining’ feeling or absence of any feeling, -not relaxation.”
During the series R^, M. reported : “Relaxation seems to
be similar to depression. I get the judgment ‘relaxing’ by
trying to see how relaxed I can be while the note is sounding.
Relaxation seems to be associated with a visual picture of
height. It seems to require a greater effort to feel relaxed on
high notes.”
After the completion of both series of experiments on relaxa-
tion, M. said that the feeling of relaxation was like the muscu-
lar strain of stooping downward; that she arranged the tones
in a visual line sloping downward from right to left, and that
when a high was followed by a low tone she felt as if she were
bending downward with the second tone; in other cases the
feeling arose when tones were lower than she had expected
them to be; when there was no bending with the tone, there
was no feeling of relaxation.
In R^ there were 12 undecided and two negative cases.
In R \, there were 3 undecided and 24 negative cases.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR M.
Putting together, now, the subjective and objective evidence
to be derived from introspections and curves, we arrive at the
following conclusions. g gº
(1) The Pand U curves take typically opposite courses.
(2) The judgemnts of P and U are direct or immediate
371] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. I5
PLATE I.
2 ºf
Fº *A*N. P],
º `-y-
U^. \/ Uº.




I6 HAYES : [372
judgments. This does not mean, of course, that the affective
Quality always attaches blindly, so to say, and with introspec-
tive finality to the clang. It has been sufficiently shown, e.g.,
by Whipple's experiments, that every sensory stimulus sets up
a wide-spread organic reaction, over and above the exercise of
its specific influence." At times, the organic factors are more
prominent, as the sense-basis of the affective reaction, than
is the clang itself. In terming the A-CW judgments direct,
therefore, we mean only that the affective quality of pleasant-
ness or unpleasantness appears in consciousness at once as the
clang-stimulus produces its conscious effect. Whether the
attention is caught mainly by the clang as such (which then
appears ‘intrinsically' pleasant or unpleasant), or whether it
is centered rather upon the muscular adjustments and organic
‘sets’ to which the clang stimulus necessarily gives rise (in
which case these sets and adjustments appear as the immediate
vehicle of the feeling), —these alternatives, however important
their decision in other connections, are irrelevant for our pres-
ent purpose. The point here to notice is that the A-C/judg-
ments are passed at once, without hesitation or reflection.
(3) No particular difficulty is experienced with the AE-
reactions. The AE-curves closely resemble the CV-curves, and
the introspective record states definitely that excitement was
unpleasant. Excitement is thus interpreted by M. as the
opposite of soothing calm, quiet tranquilization; not as the
opposite of depression in the sense of melancholy, sadness.
(4) On the other hand, the D-reactions are, precisely as
in Titchener’s experiments, relatively difficult. They are
obtained only by setting-up and maintaining an artificial
standard of judgment. The curves show an oscillatory down-
ward course from deep to high tones; the judgments are mat-
ters of emotive association. It may be noted that, in her oppo-
sition of exciting to soothing, and depressing to irritating
clangs, M. shows the same tendencies as Titchener’s observers
N. and second G. (op. cit., 394 f.). Her curves are of the
same type as G.'s curves in Figg. 8, II, 12 of Titchener's arti-
cle. So far, therefore, we have at all points a general con-
firmation of Titchener’s conclusions. We now come to new
ground.
(5) No particular difficulty is experienced with the S-
reactions. But the curves are very similar to the curves
for U, and the introspections bear out the hypothesis that
the affective factor in judgments of strain is the factor of
unpleasantness.
(6) On the other hand, the difficulty experienced with D
recurs with R. The mechanism of judgment in the two cases
1 American Journal of Psychology, XII, I900-I, 444.
373] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 17
is much the same; and the Aº-curves, like the D-curves, show
an oscillatory downward course from deep to high tones.
There can be little doubt that the curves are associative arti-
facts.
Observer G. is Mr. L. R. Geissler, assistant in the psychologi-
cal laboratory. G. had had 2 years' experience in experimental
work. He had no more definite knowledge of the purpose of
the experiments than M. He also is musical.
The experiments were made first in the following order:
P^, PN), D AN, UN, , Æ V, S/\, R/N, CVAN, S N , E/N, R N , D \,;
and then repeated in the order P^, E Ny, S/N, D^, ON, , R \,,
A. (N, S N , PN), D \, , UAN, A& M : in all, 6,845 comparisons.
(1), (2). Pleasantness and unpleasantness. Although G.
reported only one negative case (P/N) in the I, IO4 experiments
upon P and U, he seemed at first to have difficulty in decid-
ing which of two tones was the more pleasant or unpleasant.
In the series P^ he reported 63 undecided cases, in PN, , 58,
in Ü/N 64, and in O'N, 21. He said that he found it difficult
to choose between tones very far apart or very near together
in the scale. But when these pairs were repeated later, the
total of all undecided cases in A and Ü was reduced to 2. He
reported the influence of interval on only one day. On that
day he said that the succeeding tones often suggested a melody.
This he found somewhat distracting, and it made the judgment
of pleasantness more difficult. G. reported no other distrac-
tions or associations. He had a particular dislike for c, which
is clearly shown in all his curves.
(3), (4). AExcitement and depression. G. had a good deal of
difficulty in experiencing the feeling of excitement, and finally
concluded that “if there is anything more than unpleasantness
at all ” it must be the state of muscular restlessness which
some tones aroused. We note that the curves of excitement
and unpleasantness are almost identical.
‘‘Depression is a vague, general feeling of quiet, letting-go,
avoiding activity; one feels so lazy that it seems an unpleasant
interruption to the general state of mind to have to record a
judgment on the tones.” This state of mind, he says, is pleas-
ant, though depression is a rather more passive and neutral
state than what he terms pleasantness. The depression curves
are very similar to those of pleasantness.
(5), (6). Strain and relaxation. Strain and relaxation are
described in muscular terms. G. has a tendency to sing the
tones, and those that are within his range are easy and pleas-
ant; those above his range are unpleasant and straining.
These muscular strains are localized in the throat, face and
forehead. Some, especially the very high tones, are so un-
pleasant that it is a constant strain to listen to them. Then,
2
I8 HAYES : [374
G. finds strain sensation in the ears, and various muscular
contractions involved in the effort of attention. The curves
bear out the close connection between strain and unpleasant-
ness which is indicated by these introspections.
Relaxation seems to be merely the absence of the various
kinds of muscular strain just enumerated. G. had great diffi-
culty with these judgments, because he ‘‘had no standard.
There was nothing but the general diffused feeling of relaxed
muscles and a vague, undisturbed state of mind.” This ex-
perience was generally pleasant. We note that the curves of
relaxation are good opposites of those of strain, and run prac-
tically the same course as those of pleasantness.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR G.
(1) The P-U curves show typically opposite courses.
(2) After initial practice, the P-U judgments are direct
or immediate.
(3) Excitement is with difficulty differentiated from un-
pleasantness, and what difference there is appears simply as a
difference in the range of the organic vehicle of the feeling.
The curves of E resemble the curves of U.
(4) Depression, the given opposite of (unpleasant) excite-
ment, is interpreted to mean soothing restfulness, undisturbed
calm. It is pronounced pleasant, and the curves agree with
the curves of P. The curves are of the same type as those of
Titchener’s first observer G. (op. cit., Figg. I-6).
(5) S and R are described in muscular terms, S being un-
pleasant and R pleasant. The curves agree in general with
the U-P curves.
Observer C. is Mr. J. H. Coffin, assistant in the psychologi-
cal laboratory. C. had had 2 years’ experience in experimental
work before these experiments were begun. He was familiar
with Wundt’s tridimensional theory, but had not read Titch-
ener's article, and had only a general idea of the purpose of
the experiments. He is musical.
The experiments were made in the following order: P^,
E V , S/N, D^, UN), R V , E^, SV, PN, , DN), U^, A /\;—
3,312 comparisons. -
In all the experiments with the harmonical, C. reported a
constant tendency to sing the tones given. His judgments
were largely dependent upon the ease or difficulty of the mus-
cular adjustment to tones in different parts of the scale.
(1), (2). Pleasantness and unpleasantness. During the first
series given (P/N), C. reported that he was influenced in his
judgments by the intensity, quality, and clang-tint of the
tones, and occasionally by the intervals they formed. This
last he thought was due to the fact that he had a constant
375] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. I9
PLATE II.

20 HAYES : [376
tendency to sing the tones. Those tones were the pleasantest
which lay in the middle of his range, and could be sung most
easily.
During the second series on pleasantness, C. reported that he
had been noticing some organic sensations which stood out
quite prominently. “The pleasant tones start a little jerk or
thrill in or near my heart, which spreads upward and culmi-
nates in a sort of thrill or glow in the neck and cheeks.”
C.’s judgments of unpleasantness seemed to depend upon
the muscular strain involved in trying to sing tones above or
below the natural range of his voice. He says that it is diffi-
cult to write introspections upon unpleasantness without using
the words “muscular strain.” He localizes the strain sensa-
tions in the throat, forehead and chest, and occasionally in the
ears. “The more strain there is, the more unpleasant a tone
is.”
It will be noted that the curves bear out these introspections.
It is the very high tones that are seldom chosen as pleasant,
and almost always as unpleasant ; the middle and lower tones
are very often chosen in the AE series and seldom in the U.
series.
(3), (4). AExcitement and depression. The series E N was
given immediately after the first series on pleasantness (P/N).
C. noted again the constant tendency to sing the tones.
“Tones that are either above or below my range seem more
stirring—awaken more muscular response in both chest and
throat. The excitement consists in this muscular tension or
disturbance.” During the series E^, C. said that excitement
was a “stirring or thrilling’’ experience, and mostly organic.
C. reported that the high tones were generally unpleasantly
exciting, while the low tones were sometimes pleasantly ex-
citing. It is to be noted that the curves of excitement follow
in general the course of the unpleasant curves.
C. had great difficulty in experiencing depression with the
tones, and felt great uncertainty about his judgments all
through the series. He said he did not think that muscular
tensions had anything to do with this quality; that very low
tones were depressing because they were big and heavy, and
high ones because they were so little and insignificant; the
low ones sometimes seemed to bear down upon him, the high
ones “made him tired.” Depression was generally accom-
panied with difficult breathing; his chest often “felt weighted.”
He sometimes found himself holding his breath. He reported
that the depression was usually unpleasant, though the low
tones were often depressing and pleasant. He said that de-
pression was not in any sense the opposite of excitement. We
note that the curves of depression are quite similar to those of
377] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 2 I
unpleasantness, differing mainly in the fact that the tones of
the lowest octave were the most depressing.
(5), (6). Strain and relaxation. “Strain is clearly a case
of muscular tension; those tones are the most straining which
require the most muscular effort to sing them.” To this he
adds the strain of muscular adjustment in the ears, which in
the case of very high tones was quite as noticeable as the strain
occasioned by the effort to sing the tones. This strain was
always unpleasant. We note that the curves of strain are
strikingly similar to those of unpleasantness.
Relaxation is simply the absence of strain, and is always
pleasant. The R curves are practically the same as the P
CU1ſ VeS. -
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR C.
(1) The P- U curves take typically opposite courses. They
are of the type of those obtained from Titchener's second ob-
server G.
(2) The P-O judgments are direct or immediate, though
the spread of the organic reaction is more marked than in the
cases of the previous observers.
(3) Judgments of excitement are based upon muscular
tensions. In general, E corresponds to U, though the lowest
tones may be pleasantly exciting. The curves bear out this
introspective report. It is clear that C. did not place any defi-
nite affective value upon the term ‘exciting,” but took it (as
the muscular tensions suggested) now as the opposite of mel-
ancholy, now as the opposite of soothing calm.
(4) Judgments of depression are difficult and uncertain.
They are based, according to the introspective report, in part
upon associations, in part upon unpleasantness. The curves
show the former influence in the lowest octave, the latter in
the two higher octaves. -
(5) Strain and relaxation are also muscular matters, and
are pronounced respectively unpleasant and pleasant. The
curves bear out the introspections.
Observer W. is Miss M. C. West, graduate scholar in philos-
ophy. W. had had no experience in experimental psychology
before this year, was unfamiliar with Wundt’s tridimensional
theory, and did not know the purpose of these experiments.
She is musical.” -
The experiments were first made in the following order:
PAN, PN), DAN, UN, , Æ V, S/\, R/N, UAN, S \,, E/N, R \, ,
DV. The curves obtained were irregular, and it seemed
* If we classify our observers as objective and subjective in type
(Titchener, Experimental Psychology, I., ii, 499:, .xxv. f.), the order
from objective to subjective will be: M., C., §§.W.;-- ºn: he inter-
vals will become larger as the series progresses. ' ' ' ". .
22 HAYES : [378
PLATE III.

379] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 23
probable that W. had not precisely understood her instructions.
Accordingly, the whole series of experiments was repeated
later in the following order: P^, E Ny, S^, D/N, UN, , RN, ,
E/N, S N , PN), D \, , UAN, RAN. The curves obtained in the
second series were almost as irregular as those of the first
series, but showed similar tendencies. The curves published
are formed by combining the four curves upon each affective
dimension. W. made 6,809 comparisons.
(I), (2). Pleasantness and unpleasantness. These judg-
ments were easy and immediate. In the P-series there were
a good many cases in which both tones were reported unpleas-
ant. W. was sometimes influenced by the intensities of the
tones, and occasionally by the intervals they formed. Once
she wrote that it was difficult “to rid the tones of ideational
associations,” but did not specify what these were. W. said
that unpleasantness arose when the tones were harsh, rough,
scraping, nasal, or shrill. She found it difficult to decide
which tone was the more unpleasant when the two were widely
separated on the scale.
After the first few days of experimenting, W. was not easily
distracted. The loud jingling of sleigh bells, and the noise of
an electric car groaning up-hill, were not even noticed.
(3), (4). Excitement and depression. W. reported that the
exciting quality of the tones seemed to “wake her up muscu-
larly;” that the excitement was a lively, active, motor feeling,
characterized by tightening-up of the muscles and short breath-
ing. Sometimes she noted a tightening of the ear-drums. She
said that high and loud tones seemed to be most exciting; also
thrilling tones, and those that reminded her of a trumpet or a
horn. She found excitement pleasant rather than unpleasant,
though she twice reported that unpleasant tones were occa-
sionally exciting.
In order to get judgments upon depression, W. found it nec-
essary to put herself in a melancholy mood; which, on some
days, was difficult to do. This mood was characterized by “a
constrained, paralyzing feeling,’’ ‘‘a weight on the chest,”
“slow, deep breathing,’’ ‘‘a feeling of weariness and heaviness.”
W. said, during the last D series, that there were two alterna-
ting elements in the mood of depression; a passive longing
which was pleasant, and a feeling of fear or dread that was
distinctly unpleasant.
(5), (6). Strain and relaxation. W. described strain in
muscular terms. She reported a general feeling of tense mus-
cles, and a contraction of the ear muscles, both accompanied
by short breathing. She said that the high tones were the more
straining, though occasionally low tones were straining, when
they were especially intense.
24 HAYES : [38O
Strain seemed to her always unpleasant. In fact she thought
that the strain sensations were the main element in the un-
pleasantness of the tones.
To get the feeling of relaxation, W. found it necessary to
use an artificial method similar to those used by M. in the
series on D and S. “I try to take a long breath,” she
writes, “and, if the tone does not interfere with a good long
breath and a general let-go feeling, I call it relaxing; if it
makes me draw together, I call it less relaxing.” “I can’t
relax on an unpleasant tone.” Relaxation seemed to her a
pleasant feeling due to the absence of muscular strains.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR W.
(1) The P-U judgments are direct. The curves, though
irregular, take generally opposite courses.
(2) The E-judgments are based upon muscular tensions.
A is generally pleasant, sometimes unpleasant. The curve is
very irregular; though it seems to resemble the P-curve at
first, and the O-curve in its later course.
(3) The Z2-judgments are artificially mediated, and there
seems to have been no constant standard of judgment. W.
had first to “put herself in a melancholy mood,” to pass
judgment at all; and the mood, when realized, had alternations
of pleasant and unpleasant phases. The curve perhaps re-
sembles the CW-curve at first, and the AE-curve in its later
course. It is clear, however, that W. attached no definite
affective value to the terms E and D.
(4) S is reported unpleasant, and the S-curve is a very fair
reproduction of the U-curve.
(5) The R-judgments are associatively mediated. On the
whole, the R-curve bears out the introspective verdict that R
is pleasant.
II. METRONOME EXPERIMENTs.
The method and apparatus used in these experiments were
the same as those described in Titchener's article. Two met-
ronomes of equal rates were placed in sound-proof boxes.
From each box a rubber tube, fitted with a brass cock, carried
the sound to a brass Y, whence the sound passed through a
metal tube into the adjoining dark room, where it was distrib-
uted by means of a megaphone funnel.
The 14 rates used by Titchener were combined in all possible
pairs, making a series of 91 tests. These rates were: 44, 50,
60, 76, 92, IoS, I2O, I32, I44, I52, 160, I76, 192, and 208 in
the I min. The series was formed by chance, and then so
arranged that the same rate should never occur in two succes-
sive pairs. This series of 91 pairs of rates was given 6 times,
thus making a total of 546 experiments. In each pair, the
381]
A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 25
* AI ĶĪĻV’IĞI

26 HAYES : [382
slower rate was always given first. In each series the observ-
vers were asked, as in the harmonical experiments, to judge of
one affective quality only.
The experiments were made upon all three observers at the
same time. The series were given in the following order:
pleasantness, strain, unpleasantness, relaxation, excitement,
depression. The whole series of experiments was made dur-
ing the months of February and March, 1906.
The three observers, Miss Murray, Mr. Geissler and Mr.
Coffin, sat about the funnel in the dark room, and as in the
harmonical experiments recorded their judgments and intro-
spections in the intervals between experiments. As before,
they were instructed to make their judgments without bias,
and were cautioned against comparing results. At the end of
each Io pairs of rates, a rest of from 2 to 5 minutes was allowed.
The actual conduct of the experiment is as follows. The
experimenter sets the two metronomes at the proper rates, puts
them in the boxes, and closes the doors. With watch in hand,
he taps on the metal tube as a ready signal, and after 5 sec-
onds opens the cock and allows the observers to hear the met-
ronome beating at the first rate, for 7 seconds. After an inter-
val of silence lasting for 5 seconds, he opens the second cock,
and leaves it open for 7 seconds. The experimenter then rap-
idly sets the metronomes at the rates to be next given. This
requires from 30 to 50 seconds. During this interval the ob-
servers write their judgments and introspections.
During these experiments with the metronome, the observ-
ers were much more disturbed by noises than during the har-
monical experiments. As a result, it was at first often im-
possible for the observers to hear the stimuli at all. But, as
in the harmonical experiments, they soon learned to concen-
trate their attention upon the metronome beats, and were less
and less disturbed by noises as the experimenting went on.
At the conclusion of the 6 series of experiments, each ob-
server was given a make-up series in which negative, undecided
and doubtful pairs of rates were repeated.
OBSERVER M. 595 COMPARISONS.
(I), (2). Pleasantness and unpleasantness. Series P was
the first made. M. twice reported that the sound was so faint
that she had to keep uncomfortably still to hear the beats at
slow rates. This effort, and the suspense accompanying the un-
certainty whether or not the stimulus was still sounding, some-
times made the slow rates seem unpleasant; and in three cases
this faintness was made the basis of judgment of unpleasant-
ness. M. often found herself making an effort to accommodate
her breathing to the slower rates; then the ease with which
383] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 27
she could make this accommodation determined the pleasant-
ness or unpleasantness of the rates. Rapid rates often made
her head throb unpleasantly, and sometimes gave her “an un-
comfortable feeling in one ear.” A slight difference in pitch
between the two metronomes was noted on the second day of
experimenting; this was made the basis of judgment in one
case. On the same day she said that the rates sometimes sug-
gested pleasant or unpleasant associations which tended to
influence her decisions. *
In the P series there were 5 negative, 5 undecided, and 3
doubtful cases; in the U series, II undecided, 2 doubtful, and
no negative cases.
(3), (4). Excitement and depression. M. reported that in
reacting to the exciting character of the rates, consciousness
was completely filled with the processes (mainly muscular)
involved in the excitement; that there was a succession of
muscular strains “in the effort to keep up with the rate,”
accompanied by more or less confusion and hurry, La sort of
“driven feeling; ” that there was also “a continuous whirr in
the head.” The higher degrees of this experience were decid-
edly unpleasant. As to depression, M. writes: “I think I
could not give judgments upon this unless I especially directed
my attention to it beforehand, and regarded it as the oppo-
site of excitement.” In order to obtain the depressed feeling
it was often necessary to call up associations. When expe-
rienced, depression was accompanied by the relaxation of
certain muscles and by slow breathing; M. felt either quite
indifferent to the stimulus, or was only slightly affected by it.
The state in general was neither positively pleasant nor posi-
tively unpleasant, but rather indifferent.
In series E there were 2 negative, one doubtful and no un-
decided cases; in series D 6 negative and no undecided or
doubtful cases.
(5), (6). Strain and relaxation. M. described the feeling
of strain as a ‘‘general muscular tension, due to a rigid atti-
tude.” One day this strain seemed to be localized in her fore-
head. It was accompanied by a breathless feeling. She was
“completely absorbed in following the stimulus.” Conscious-
ness seemed crowded, so that there was no room for associa-
tions. On another day she thought the strain localized in her
ears; it accompanied each stroke of the metronome, but disap-
peared at the least relaxation of the attention. The strain
often grew less after the first few beats of a group. She
reported that the feeling of strain was generally unpleasant.
The second metronome seemed at times to her to be of a slightly
* “Feeling’ in the general sense of Bezwusstseinslage.
28 HAYES : [384
higher pitch; this, she thought, increased the straining quality
of the beats.
M. describes relaxation as a pleasant feeling, with no confu-
sion or effort. The rates which were accompanied by relaxa-
tion were those which could be easily followed with the throat
muscles, or did not conflict with an easy rate of breathing,
Relaxation seemed to be the opposite of excitement as well as
of strain. She said that the “whirr in the head” noted above
under excitement was quite lacking.
In the series S, there were I negative, 9 undecided, and 2
doubtful cases; in the series R, I undecided, I doubtful and
no negative cases.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR M.
(1) The P and O curves take roughly opposite courses.
In general type they resemble the curves of Titchener's ob-
servers M. and D. (op. cit., 4OO).
(2) Judgments of P and O were direct or immediate.
The organic factors in the sensory vehicle of the feeling were
often prominent.
(3) In the case of E and D, judgment was passed mainly
in terms of sensation (‘muscular' sensations, in the widest
sense of that phrase). We find, accordingly, that the curves
tend to take a straight course, the quickest rates being the
most exciting, and the slowest the most depressing. Increase
of E is unpleasant, and the latter half of the Æ-curve shows a
similar course to that of the CW-curve. The D-judgments are
difficult ; they are regarded merely as the logical opposite of
the E-judgments, and are often mediated by association. No
constancy of affective tone is reported. It must, therefore,
probably be concluded that this curve is an associative arti-
fact.
(4) Judgments of strain and relaxation were easy and
direct. The introspections resemble those given for P and Ü,
and the curves (as in Titchener's experiments) accord well
with the curves for P and O.
(5) Neither in the E-D nor in the S-R experiments is
there evidence of any affective factor other than P. U. It is
noteworthy that M. regards R as the opposite both of S and
of Æ.
OBSERVER G. 606 COMPARISONS.
(I), (2). Pleasantness and unpleasantness. With the slow
rates, G. had a feeling of strained expectation or suspense,
which made them seem unpleasant. Very rapid rates gave
him an uncomfortable, hurried feeling. “It is,” he writes,
“always unpleasant for me to be hurried faster than I want to
go.” In cases where the two rates were nearly equal, he
385]
29
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3O HAYES : [386
found it impossible to decide which was the more pleasant or
unpleasant without the help of associations. During the first
two days, G. said he could detect no difference in rate between
the following pairs: 50 and 60, 60 and 76, 92 and IOS, 120 and
132, 144 and I52, 152 and 160, 176 and 192. G. reported a
slight occasional difference in pitch between the two metro-
nomes, which sometimes influenced his judgments. During
the experiments upon excitement, G. reported that when the
slow rates approximated his natural rate of breathing, they
seemed decidedly pleasant.
In series P there were 7 doubtful, no negative, and no un-
decided cases; in series O., 2 negative, I6 undecided and 2
doubtful cases.
(3), (4). Excitement and depression. G. seems to have
made his judgments upon these two qualities principally by
the help of the train of ideas suggested by the rates. The
faster rates suggested horses racing, rapid musical composi-
tions, etc.; the slower, bad weather, funeral marches, etc.
Without the help of these associations he was unable to feel
either excited or depressed. He described the feeling of ex-
citement as muscular restlessness attended by “a restlessness
of mind” in which these associations rapidly succeeded one an-
other. The higher degrees of excitement were unpleasant.
In the series D, G. chose the first rate of the pair every
time, as if he had decided beforehand that slow rates must be
the more depressing. No negative, undecided or doubtful
cases were reported in either series.
(5), (6). Strain and relaxation. On the first day of the
strain series, G. reported a feeling of strained expectation,
which was especially noticeable with the slower rates. This
is the same observation as that which he made during the series
U. Later he said that it was difficult to keep from confusing
strain with unpleasantness or with the sensations of muscular
tension accompanying the effort of attention. In 4 cases, both
rates seemed the same (44 and 50, 50 and 60, 60 and 76, 76
and 92).
G. described relaxation in organic or muscular terms as
restfulness, “settling down,” quietude. This was easiest to
experience with the rates of moderate speed. Very slow rates,
he said, “seemed to hold him in suspense” and so made relaxa-
tion impossible.
In series S, there were three negative, 14 undecided, and 6
doubtful cases; in series A", no negative, 6 undecided and 4
doubtful cases.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR G.
: ; ...(1) : The P-U curves take opposite courses, which agree in
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387] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 3I
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32 HAYES : [388
(2) Judgments of P. U are direct.
(3) The E-D curves wear an artificial appearance, and the
judgments are avowedly mediated by associations. There is
no evidence of an affective factor, save that high degrees of ex-
citement are pronounced unpleasant. The curves approximate
straight lines, the highest rates being the most exciting, the
slowest the most depressing.
(4) Judgments of S and R are based partly upon ‘muscular'
sensations, partly upon the P-C/ factors. In general the R-
curve resembles that of P, the S-curve that of U. Indeed,
when we consider the degree of practice implied in these ex-
periments, we may probably say that the curves agree as well
together as would pairs of P or of O curves.
In all the experiments with the metronome, C. noted a con-
stant tendency to “keep time” with the beats by some sort of
muscular movement, with the throat, feet, hands, etc., and his
judgments were based upon the ease or difficulty of this pro-
cedure. C. made 556 comparisons.
(1), (2). Pleasantness and unpleasantness. These judg-
ments were directly determined by the ease or difficulty of the
muscular response to the rates. In very rapid rates, C. grouped
the beats by fours and then counted one to each group, accent-
ing the first beat. In medium rates, the single beats suggested
a rhythm and the muscular response was pleasant. In two
cases (pairs I44 and I52, 176 and I92) the rates seemed to be
the same. Where they were widely different, he found it diffi-
cult to compare them in order to choose between them. On
the first day he thought that the pleasantness or unpleasant-
ness of the different rates depended somewhat upon his general
condition : when he was sleepy, he preferred the slow; when
he was wide awake, the faster were the more pleasant.
In series P there were 5 undecided, but no negative or doubt-
ful cases; in series U there were no negative, undecided or
doubtful cases.
(3), (4). Excitement and depression. During the E series,
C. wrote: “there seems to be a rate of bodily movement which
is natural and easy; the attempt to keep time with rates faster
than this natural rate is exciting. Depression is merely the
absence of excitement and not itself a positive quality.”
“When very slow rates are given, I cannot help dividing
the long interval between beats, and counting twice to a beat.
In this way I obtain a rate that is twice as fast as that given
and much more comfortable.” No negative, undecided or
doubtful cases were reported in either series.
(5), (6). Strain and relaxation. To C. strain seems to
havg meant the muscular tension involved in the effort to
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389] A study of THE AFFECTIVE ouALITIES. 33
“keep up with’’ the beats. The most straining rates, he
says, are those “that require the most muscular tension in the
effort to keep time, those that are farthest from a natural
bodily rhythm.” These were unpleasant.
Relaxation was merely the absence of strain. Those rates
seemed most relaxing that called forth the least muscular exer-
tion and approximated the “natural rhythm.” Relaxation
was thus not differentiated from depression.
In series S there were no negative, I doubtful and 4 unde-
cided cases; in series Ae, no negative, doubtful or undecided
cases were reported.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR C.
(1) The curves of P and U take opposite courses. The
A-curve shows some irregularities; but the U-curve is more
regular, and both are of the familiar type.
(2) The P-U judgments are direct.
(3) The observer shows the tendency to make the faster
rates exciting, the slower rates depressing, which we have
found also in M. and G. The irregularities at the beginning
of the curves are apparently due to the observer's tendency to
double the rates.
(4) Strain was unpleasant, and the curves of S and of U.
accord. R is identified with D, and the same type of curve
results. $
CONCLUSION.
We have now obtained the six series of affective judgments
posited by the tridimensional theory of feeling, (I) with clangs,
from four observers, and (2) with metronome intervals, from
three observers. The results may be briefly summarized as
follows.
(1) For all observers alike, and for both kinds of stimula-
tion, judgments of P and U were easy, direct and natural. It
was exceptional to find any reason, any basis, for these judg-
ments: the stimuli were intrinsically pleasant and unpleasant,
more pleasant or more unpleasant than their neighbors: and
where a reason or a basis was found, outside of intrinsic affect-
ive tone, it lay in the organic reaction set up by the stimulus
employed. The curves of P and U followed opposed courses.
There can be no doubt, then, upon any theory of feeling, as
regards the validity of the A-CW dimension.
(2) No evidence was obtained, throughout the investiga-
tion, of the existence of a plurality of Por of U qualities. On
the contrary, P and U appeared to be homogeneous and sim-
ple, identical in all experiments. Variations in the ‘color” of
3
34 HAYES : - [390
PLATE VII.
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391] A STUDY of THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 35
A and Ü were referred by the observers to variations in the
organic reaction set up by the stimulus.
(3) For all observers alike, and for both kinds of stimula-
tion, judgments of strain were easy and, on the whole, direct.
Strain was, however, described in ‘muscular’ terms through-
out, and increasing strain meant, uniformly, increasing un-
pleasantness. The curves of S correspond closely to the curves
of U. So far as its affective side is concerned, therefore, strain
may be identified with unpleasantness; there is no evidence of
a new affective quality or affective dimension.
(4) Less direct, but still fairly natural, were Æ-judgments
upon clangs. In the case of M. and G., excitement means
unpleasant muscular tension ; and the E-curves agree with
the O-curves. In the case of C., excitement means, accord-
ing to the nature of the muscular tensions aroused, now the
opposite of melancholy, now that of calm : usually it means
the latter, and is unpleasant. For W., on the contrary, E is
usually pleasant, sometimes unpleasant. There is no evidence
of a specific E-dimension, or of a number of different B-
qualities. The E-judgments upon metronome intervals tend to
be purely intellectual (sensationally motived) and not affective
judgments. Fast rates are termed exciting, slow rates depressing.
High degrees of excitement are found unpleasant.
(5) Still less direct are the D-judgments. For M., with
clangs, the whole experiment was associatively motived, and
the standard of judgment associatively maintained. We may
surmise from the introspections that, had M. been asked to
judge of the ‘soothing' (instead of the depressing) character
of the clangs, she would have given a P-curve as response to
the instruction. For G., D means tranquility, soothing calm ;
and his curve is a P-curve. For C., D vacillates in meaning :
his judgments are either associatively mediated, or judgments
of CW (depression=melancholy). For W., D is a still more
artificial and still more vacillating term. The mood of de-
pression is associatively aroused, and shows alternating phases
of P and C/. In the metronome experiments, D has for M. no
constant affective value; the judgments are intellectual, and
associatively motived. The judgments of G. and C. do not
either show any affective influence.
(6) The R-judgments of M. with clangs are associatively
motived : R is much the same as D. G., C. and W., on the
other hand, make R the opposite of unpleasant strain, and ac-
cordingly give P-curves. In the metronome experiments,
the results are the same, but their distribution is different, M.
and G. give P-curves, making relaxation mean pleasurable
muscular attitude or pleasurable organic set; C. identifies R
36 HAYES : [392
with D, and gives a curve similar to his D-curve. Nowhere
is there any evidence of a specific R-dimension or R-quality.
(7) The conclusions drawn by Titchener from his two-
dimensional study of the Wundtian theory are confirmed by
our results.
(8) The tridimensional extension of the method of paired
comparisons is justified by the directness of all S-reactions
and of the majority of the R-reactions to clangs. On the
other hand, the E-D experiments with metronome intervals
failed entirely to educe an affective reaction, whether of the
familiar P-O or of the hypothetical E-D type.
Our evidence, then, is against the tridimensional theory of
feeling; it supports the dual theory in its traditional form.
We have, now, no desire to press this evidence to the breaking-
point. We grant freely that the experiments are not even
yet very numerous; that the observers also should be increased
in number; and that the range of stimuli has been limited.
What we urge is, that the experiments, so far as they go, all
point in the same direction. And we urge, further, that they
are experiments: that our observations have been made under
standard conditions, with trustworthy and conscientious ob-
servers, and by an approved method which allows of the corre-
lation of subjective and objective results. More than this we
do not assert. It may be that future investigation will show
our procedure to have been too crude and general to do justice
to the full complexity of factors co-operating in the affective
consciousness. It may be that that subtle and intangible in-
fluence of ‘laboratory atmosphere' has, in spite of all our
care and of the attempted impartiality of our observers, been
at work to vitiate our conclusions. We cannot disprove either
of these objections, if it be brought against us. We shall be
satisfied if we have shaken the pluralists, for the moment, out
of their dogmatic slumber.
For the pluralistic theory may, surely, be described as a
dogma. On the experimental side, appeal has been made by
its representatives only to the results of the method of expres-
sion. This method has repeatedly been declared, by Wundt
himself, to be subsidiary to the method of impression. That
apart, however, the appeal has broken down almost as soon as
made. Or is there, at the present time, any iota of evidence
for the multidimensional theory to be drawn from the pub-
lished investigations? The evidence seems to be found, rather,
in the bias of the psychologizing mind. The affective life
is extremely rich, extremely complex; and it appears, so to
say, derogatory to the composition of the human mind to
find the affective factors proper solely in pleasantness and
393] A STUDY OF THE AFFECTIVE QUALITIES. 37
unpleasantness. When James says that the dual theory “is a
hackneyed psychological doctrine, but on any theory of the
seat of emotion it seems to me one of the most artificial and
scholastic of the untruths that disfigure our science;’” when
Ladd writes of the same theory that it is not only ‘‘wholly
inadequate to describe and explain the admitted data of con-
sciousness, but even contradictory of those data,’’—that it
“receives confutation at every point from the data of psycho-
1ogical science;” when Wundt declares that to the observer
who has freed his mind of prejudice, and who adopts the right
method and principles, there “drängt sich unweigerlich eine
Anzahl seelischer Zustände der Wahrnehmung auf, denen
man zwar durchaus den Charakter von Gefühlen zuerkennen
muss, die sich aber in die Schablone der Lust und Unlust
nimmermehr einzwängen lassen ;”” when Lipps postulates,
besides pleasantness-unpleasantness, primary feelings of effort,
of certainty, of reality:* we can understand the attitude which
these authors take up, and we can give a hearty assent to their
insistence upon the variety, the delicate shading, the subtle
transitions of emotive experience. The question of the plu-
rality of the affective elements sensu stricio is, however, a ques-
tion of fact; and we have a right to demand more than casual
self-observation, more even than intense psychological convic-
tion,--we have a right to demand evidence of the combined
objective and subjective sort which direct experimentation
alone can furnish. So long as no attempt is made to bring
such evidence, is not the pluralistic theory a dogma P Do not
the differences which the different authors evince in their
catalogues of the primary affective dimensions show, with all
desired clearness, that the theory is a matter of personal im-
pression and prepossession, rather than of systematic work?
And may we not, with justice, challenge the partisans of the
theory to take up the issue, experimentally, and at least to
withhold their condemnation of the traditional view until
some positive evidence for their own has been adduced 2–
To us, it has seemed best, instead of extending the method
of paired comparisons beyond the point now reached to other
classes of stimulus, to change the venue of the problem alto-
gether, and to attack it on the side of mixed feelings. A sec-
ond article will therefore report an experimental study of
these much-discussed processes.
* Psychol. Rev., i, 1894, 525.
* Psychol., descrip. and explan., 1894, 167, 169.
* Phys. Psych., ii, 1902, 285.
* Selbstbewusstsein, Empfindung und Gefühl, 1901; Vom Fühlen,
Wollen und Denken, 1902.
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