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55 7
(Eb: Einihctsitp of Qflbicagu “D
_—-__
CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES DUE TO
COOKING
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY
OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE
IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF HOUSEHOLD ADMINISTRATION
BY
MINNA CAROLINE DENTON
Private Edition, Distributed By
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO LIBRARIES
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Reprinted from
JOURNAL or How: Ecoxomcs, Vol. XI, No. 4
April, 1919
ADDENDUM
The author takes pleasure in acknowledging her indebtedness to
Dean Marian Talbot, Head of the Department of Household Admin-
istration; to Major A. J. Carlson, and to Dr. A. B. Luckhardt, of the
Department of Physiology; and to Dr. F. C. Koch, of the Depart-
ment of Physiological Chemistry, University of Chicago; for advice,
supervision, and many favors in the Way of laboratory facilities.
E12 fim'hersitp Of (ltbizagu
CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES DUE TO
COOKING
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY
OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE
IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF HOUSEHOLD ADMINISTRATION
BY
MIN NA CAROLINE DENTON
Private Edition, Distributed By
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO LIBRARIES
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Reprinted from
JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS, Vol. XI, NO. 4
April, 1919
"\
i “ J M'Lw'fi'ivfl- $95;
Reprinted from THE JOURNAL or Horm ECONOMICS, Vol. XI, No. 4, April, 1919
CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES DUE TO
COOKING*
EFFECT or VARYING HOUSEHOLD MANIPULATIONS
MINNA C .- DENTON
I. INTRODUCTION
Recent progress in nutrition is emphasizing heavily the inadequacies
of a diet with a preponderance of cereal products and vegetable fats—our
cheapest sources of protein and calories—at the same time that food
scarcity puts some of their most effective supplements, such as eggs,
milk, meat, and animal fats, very nearly out of the reach of all except
the Well-to-do classes. It seems that many of the fresh vegetables and
fruits have some value, in several respects, as supplements to inadequate
diets of certain types. But at most seasons of the year these, too, are
considered to be out of reach of the limited purse, With a few exceptions,
prominent among which are vegetables which may be canned in time of
plenty, and the “winter vegetables.” If these local products are to be
more largely used in the diet, both as supplements to the cereals and meats
and as substitutes for them, an extended knowledge of their value with
regard to various dietary factors is desirable. This study is concerned
with the factors which are usually the first ones to be determined—their
fuel values and ash content——these being determined from the vegetables
as served to us at the table, after household manipulation, possibly also
after commercial manipulation, as in the case of canned foods.
With the exception of potatoes, the winter vegetables are mostly
strong-juiced or highly flavored, and their flavors do not commend
themselves to all persons, particularly often not to those of highly dis-
criminating or of irritable nervous organizations, unless the flavor can
be somewhat modified. Partly for this reason and partly for purposes
of convenience, the methods very generally employed in cooking and in
canning them have involved the use of a greater or less excess of water,
which has considerable extractive power at the temperatures employed.
* This paper was presented as part fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Ph.D.
in Household Administration, University of Chicago, August, 1918.
1 .
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2 THE JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS [April
Food conservationists are urging that these vegetable foods should be
baked, or steamed, or boiled in their jackets, or that the vegetable stock
should be utilized; yet practical objections, such as those in the following
list, continue to be urged upon some occasions.
1. It is apparent that neither cabbage heads nor large root stalks can
be boiled whole,——their size forbidding this possibility.
2. Chlorophyl-bearing tissue usually turns more or less brown when
steamed, though boiling water (even distilled, but especially when“hard”
or when salted or made alkaline with soda) satisfactorily “sets” the
green color of cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, peas, string beans,
and the yellow color of blanched celery. If the cooking be not too long
continued, this green color is satisfactorily retained in boiled vegetables.
3. The steamed product is dryer and less water-logged than the boiled,
and of different texture; it has of course no flavor of added salt, and yet
(steamed at 90° to 100°C.) it may retain its characteristic odor and taste
more strongly than does the boiled vegetable. The consequence is
that the uninitiated frequently pronounce steamed cabbage both rank
and insipid, also “not done.”
4. The washing of spinach or greens which have been transported for
long distances “packed in mud” (cracked ice) is a tedious process and
often more or less of a failure, even when a good deal of pains has been
taken. Under these circumstances it is a great help to boil in excess of
water and skim out the greens when done, because thus the remaining
sand and grit fall to the bottom of the kettle, instead of sticking to the
leaves, as is the case with the steamed product.
5. The strong taste of condensed spinach juice, such as is produced by
cooking the leaves in a very small amount of water, proves Objectionable
to many persons, including children not old enough to express them-
selves verbally upon the subject.
6. Baking is desirable, yet often impracticable for various reasons,
among which are the expense of fuel, and the overheating of the kitchen
from the oven.
7. Home and commercial canning methods alike usually call for a pre-
liminary “blanching” process which is advisable for various reasons; yet
this period of boiling in excess of water, which apparently is never utilized
to advantage, seems inconsistent with our customary efforts to “save
the juice.” (This objection does not apply to the steam blanch or to
blanching in skins.)
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 3
8. The vegetable canned in excess of water at high temperature, as
are some of the commercially prepared products, may well lose a large-
part of its nutrient values of various sorts to the “juice” drained off
when the can is opened; yet this juice, especially when excessive in
amount, is often not palatable, and is feared by some because of its pos-
sible content in tin, lead, or iron salts derived from a metal container.
9. The cook often finds it a convenience to pare vegetables and cut
them ready for serving, early in her preparation of the meal. She does
not wish to add peeling of potatoes or carrots to the list of things which
must be done in the busy period just before the meal is served when the
biscuits are to be baked and the coffee to be put over, the gravy to be
made, and the salad to be dressed. She therefore objects to cooking
vegetables in their skins.
10. The use of a large rather than a small amount of water with vege-
tables shortens the period of their cooking to such an extent that the
average home cook often prefers to use an excess of water rather than
barely water to cover.
Thus it would appear that a single generalization does not suffice to
dispose of all cases, butv that the cooking of each vegetable is a question
to be decided on its Own merits, if the conservation of nutritive value is
to be combined with maximum palatability and practical convenience.
Other questions which occur to the dietitian who compares the cooked
vegetable with the raw, are such as these: After careful consideration of
the details of every-day practice to be observed all about us, how are
we to estimate the dietetic Value of vegetables Cooked in diverse ways?
Shall we in computing or planning dietaries, assign to the cooked vege-
table 90 per Cent or 75 per cent or 50 per cent of the caloric value of the
edible portion of raw vegetables? What is the proportionate loss sus-
tained by vegetables which have been “blanched” in excess of unsalted
boiling water, as practiced in some canning processes; by vegetables
covered with water and cooked in quart jars in bath of boiling water for
two and three hours, as recommended for home Canning? Does the vege-
table with high content of soluble carbohydrate lose proportionately
more than that with lower content? Does the root stalk cut into large
pieces suffer considerable loss? Do uncut vegetables which present a
large amount of exposed cuticle (leguminous seeds, leaf greens, fleshy
buds and flowerets as loose-leaved cabbage and cauliflower) suffer con-
siderable loss from the extractive effect of boiling water? Are the losses
from steaming at 90° to 100°C. (efficient home steamer) negligible; are
4 THE JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS [April
those from direct exposure to steam at 100° to 120°C. "(institutional
cooker) also negligible? vDoes the addition of salt to the cooking
water, in small amounts (1.5 per cent solution at beginning of process)
increase or diminish the cooking loss? Does the loss diminish if section-
ing be done longitudinally (parallel with the fibro-vascular bundles)
rather than crosswise (across them, exposing their cut ends at both
surfaces of each slice to the solvent action of water)?
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON LOSSES IN COOKING VEGETABLES
Most of the Work done on losses of cooked vegetables is concerned
chiefly with mineral constituents. In many cases very few details as to
method of cooking are given, which makes it difficult to compare results
of different investigators.
Wagner and Schaefer1 reported finding that potatoes steamed in their
skins lost 1.17 per cent of their crude ash, 0.69 per cent of their potas-
sium, 0.03 per cent of their phosphorus. Steamed after paring, these
losses were 7.28 per cent, 6.93 per cent, and 4.57 per cent, respectively.
Boiled in their skins, they lost 3.64 per cent of their crude ash, 3.32
per cent of their potassium, 1.12 per cent of their phosphorus; boiled
after peeling, 28.86 per cent, 38.33 per cent, and 22.87 per cent, re-
spectively. 1 kgm. of spinach lost 8.578 grams of dry matter (1.684
gram N, 3.375 grams of ash); 1 kgm. of carrot tops, chopped, lost 15.252
grams drymatter (3.312 grams N, 6.331 grams ash). Average losses in
boiling werev 9 to 18 per cent of the total soluble matter found in the
unboiled vegetable food.
Snyder, Frisby, and Bryant2 found that potatoes when pared, soaked
3 to 5 hours, and put over to cook in cold distilled water, lost 46 to 58
per cent of their total nitrogen (about one-half of which is in the form
of protein), 25 per cent of their protein, and 38 per cent of their mineral
salts. When pared, put into either hot or cold distilled water, and
cooked at once, the losses were half these amounts or less; when cooked
in skins, the nitrogen loss was‘1 per cent, the protein loss 0.5 per cent, the
mineral loss 3.3 per cent. Frisby and Bryant, in another experiment,
found that pared potatoes, put into cold distilled water and cooked,
lost 9.2 per cent of their nitrogen, 2.7 per cent of their carbohydrate,
1 Sachs, Landw. Ztsckr, vol. 33, p. 369, 1885. (Abstr. in Jahresb. f. Agrikult-ur. Che-112.,
N. F. 8, vol. 28, p. 443, 1885.)
2 Bull. 43, Ofice of Exp. Sta., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1897.
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE or VEGETABLES 5
and 17.2 per cent of their ash; when cooked in their skins, they lost 1.6
per cent of their ash. Varying the experiments by using “alkaline
water” or “lime water,” instead of distilled, produced no important
variations in losses—except that it seemed that the lime Water (and the
cold alkaline water) took out a little more protein than did the dis-
tilled water controls. Carrots, scraped and cut into pieces, lost from
20 to 40 per cent of their nitrogen, and from 29 to 47 per cent of their
ash, according to size of pieces. Half a solid cabbage, put into cold water
and cooked, lost from 33 to 46 per cent of its nitrogen, 33 to 42 per cent
of its fat and carbohydrate, 48 to 54 per cent of its ash; put into hot water
and cooked, the losses were usually (but not always) a little less. On
the whole, the alkaline and lime Waters had a slightly greater extractive
action than did the distilled Water.
Kraus3 found that cabbage turnip when cooked had lost 20 per cent
of its carbohydrate; cauliflower, 33% per cent; spinach, 71 percent;
winter cabbage, 53 per cent.
Zschokke4 worked on losses in “blanching” (boiling in hot water) of
carrots (cut in pieces), peas, string beans cooked whole and also cut into
pieces. In each case, one-half of the vegetable was steamed and the
other half boiled for 25 to 30 minutes. The losses in total dry matter
were about five times as much by boiling as by steaming; losses in salts,
usually only from three to four times as great in boiling as in steaming.
He gives no data for raw foods, but, if we were to judge from American
analyses for these foods, we should conclude that his losses in protein
and mineral salts were markedly lower than those reported by most
workers, while his losses in “nitrogen-free extract” run only a little lower
than some losses in caloric value reported in the present paper. (He
found a loss of 3.43 grams of nitrogen-free extract per 100 grams raw ma-
terial in boiled carrots, 2.43 gramsin boiled peas, 0.624 grams in beans
boiled whole, 0.768 gram in beans boiled in pieces.)
Haensel5 reports a loss of about 0.08 gram of iron oxide from 100
grams of fresh vegetable, in boiling spinach; and 70 per cent of its
iron, in boiling lettuce in water—if I have correctly interpreted his report.
Williams6 gives a number of analyses of cooked foods, calculated to
moist condition; but in her earlier articles, no corresponding analyses of
3Ztsclzrf. f. Dir'z't. 2.1.. pkysik. T lawn, vol. 1, p. 69, 1898. Cited in Hutchison’s Food and
Dietetics.
4 Landw. Jalzrb. d. Schweia, vol. 19, p. 615, 1905.
‘Bios/rem. Ztsclzn, vol. 16, p. 9.
‘Jaw. Amer. Chem. 500., vol. 26, p. 244, 1904.
6 THE JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS [April
raw materials Were made, so that it is impossible to judge of the propor-
tionate losses. A later article7 reports a loss of 10.59 per cent of its pro-
tein and 5.36 per cent of its ash, by celeriac, pared, sliced thin, and
cooked 30 minutes in boiling Water. Chicory, borecole, and endive
(procedure not stated) lost from 30 to 43 per cent of their protein and
from 12 to 19 per cent of their ash. Dried legumes (butter beans, green
flageolets, soy beans), soaked 12 hours and then cooked (Whether in the
same Water, and hoW much, is not stated), lost into their cooking Water
26 to 28 per cent of their protein, and 5.5 to 17.05 per cent of their ash.
Chestnuts (evidently fresh) lost 54 per cent of their protein and 7 per
cent of their ash. A still later paper8 evidently reports further Work,
especially With regard to protein losses. Cooked in boiling water by the
usual method, spinach, with 10 per cent of total solids, loses one-fourth
of these; celeriac loses half of its total solids (7 per cent of its ash, 54
per cent of its protein); turnips, almost half; lettuce, one-fourth; aspara-
gus, one-sixteenth; curly greens (borecole) 40 per cent (16 per cent of
its ash, 54 per cent of its protein); chicory, 20 per cent (12 per cent of
its ash, 43 per cent of its protein); butter beans, 10 per cent (19 per cent
of its ash, 30 per cent of its protein); endive, 25 per cent (19 per cent of
its ash, 30 per cent of its protein).
Furthermore, Miss Williams gives the following analyses, together
With those of many other foods, in a table in the Appendix of the, third
volume of Van N oorden’s Metabolism and Practical Medicine, 1907.
It is not stated, Whether all of the analyses represent original Work, or
Whether some of them are compiled from the Works of others. N 0 de-
tails as to cooking procedure are given. Apparently the analyses for the
raW vegetables are not intended as strict controls for those upon the
cooked samples; rather, each represents a sample picked up more or
less at random. Indeed, the editor’s note states that in many cases
these figures must be looked upon as merely illustrative, rather than as
the basis for generalizations. It is therefore hardly possible to com-
pare these results With those given in Tables I and II of this paper.
These items have been rearranged alphabetically and also so as to
places figures for raw and cooked samples side by side, instead of having
them in different tables, as they were printed in the Van N oorden text.
7 J our. Ind/list. Eng. Che-2a., vol. 5, p. 653, 1913.
8Chem. News, vol. 113, p. 143, 1916.
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 7
Analysis of raw and cooked vegetables


PROTEIN ASH CALORIES
VEGETABLE (N x 6.25) PER 100 GRAMS
Raw Cooked Raw Cooked ‘Raw Cooked
per cent per cent per cent per cent
Asparagus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.8 2.1 0.7 0.7 22.7 18.1
Artichoke, green . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 2 .9 1.6 1.1 72 .4 45 .3
Artichoke, ~Terusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 .0 1.8 1.1 0.6 71.8 27 .1
Beans, haricot (dried) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.0 4.6 3.2 0.7 344.4 60.7
Beans, scarlet runner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 1.8 0.8 0.4 42 .4 17.4
Beetroot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.6 0.4 1.1 0.4 47.2 14.1
Broccoli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3.8 2.5 0.9 0.6 33.2 22.6
Brussels sprouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 2 .8 1.3 0.5 17 9* 30.1
Cabbage, savoy’f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.5 0.6 1.2 0.1 34.5 " 4.6
Carrots..._, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.5 0.5 1.0 ' 0.1 6.7* 16.7
Cauliflower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.8 0.9 0.7 0.2 31.2 6.2
Kale (sea-kale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.4 0.4 0>6 0.2 21 1 3.7
Leeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.2 1.4 0.7 0.8 233* 38.6
Lentils (dried) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24.2 8.8 2.6 0.7 368.8 121.9
Onions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.5 0.1 0.5 0.1 28.4 4.2
Parsnips.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.6 0.2 1.4 0.1 82.5* 8.2
Peas, (dried) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21.0 9.4 2.6 0.7 329.9 139.7
Peas, green . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7.0 2.8 1.0 0.3 102.7 30.6
Potatoes, boiled in skins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 .1 1 .6 0.7 1 .3 1095 84.1
Potatoes, boiled after pared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 1 .6 0. 7 0 .7 109.5 78.5
Spinach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.1 0.3 2.1 0.2 24.4 2.9
Turnips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.3 0.3 0.8 0.3 36.1 4.6
Vegetable marrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.6 0.1 0.5 0.1 14.8 0.8

* Evidently a misprint, for this number does not correspond to the analysis for pro~
tein, fat, and carbohydrate printed in the table from which this is an abridgrnent.
TIt is not clear whether the raw and cooked cabbage were from the same or from dif-
ferent Varieties.
Maurel and Carcassagne9 found that blanching for 30 minutes (or 15
minutes? the two reports conflict) in distilled water, removed 40 per
cent of the total salts from cauliflower, 44 per cent from Brussels sprouts,
55 per cent from cabbage sprouts, 26 per cent from celery root (celeri
pied), 37 per cent from celery leaves, 35 per cent from asparagus, 34
per cent from green beans, 19 per cent from white beans, 33 per cent
from lentils, 61 per cent from potatoes. Amounts of potassium lost were
in all these cases, except two, relatively high, ranging from 25 to 73 per
cent of total potassium. In general, 40 to 50 per cent of total salts (50
9 Compt. rend. Soc. BioL, vol. 67, p. 91, 211, 1909.
8 THE JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS [April
to 75 per cent of total potassium) was lost in this blanching process. In
the case of legumes, 30 minutes’ blanching removed a much larger
amount of potassium (73 per cent in white beans, 38 per cent in lentils)
than did the remainder of the three hours’ cooking (16 and 22 per cent,
respectively). These authors also quote Laborde10 as finding a loss of
75 per cent total salts (60 per cent of potassium) in the blanching of
cabbage; and Labille11 as reporting losses of 29, 70, and 54 per cent of
total potassium for 5 minutes’ blanching of green beans, sorrel, and
spinach, respectively; also, loss of 36 per cent of potassium in 10 minutes’
blanching of potatoes.
Poppe12 cooked (or soaked) fresh green peas in two and one-half times
their~own weight of water or liquid, for 1 hour at 100°C., for two hours
at 50°C., for 24 hours at 20°C. They used seven liquids—distilled water,
saturated N aCl solution (56 per cent), half-saturated, and quarter-sat-
urated (10 per cent N aCl), saturated sugar solution (about 105 per
cent), half-saturated, and quarter-saturated (18.4 per cent). They
found that the peas boiled in distilled water lost 10 per cent of their ni-
trogen (it seems the raw peas contained 19 per cent of protein), 13.6 per
cent of their carbohydrate (6.92 per cent carbohydrate in raw peas), 3.9
per cent of their phosphorus (0.66 per cent in raw peas), none of their
chlorine. The salt solutions removed less of the nitrogen than did dis-
tilled Water, and very little phosphorus or carbohydrate; the str_onger salt
solutions removed less nitrogen, in general, than did the weaker, but
there was little difierence in their extractive effect on carbohydrate.
All losses were, as a rule, greater at the higher temperatures, because
these kill the protoplasm and convert it from a semi-permeable mem-
brane to a permeable one, whereas at 20°C. the living protoplasm,
though it imbibes water, is able to regulate its loss of solutes and the
entrance of solutes from its environment, to a considerable degree. The
peas took up about 1 per cent of their own weight in salt from the
boiling quarter-saturated salt solution, and about 1.5 per cent of their
own weight of sugar from the boiling quarter—saturated sugar solution.
It is not stated whether the solutions were kept at their original strength
by renewal of water as they boiled, or whether they became more con-
centrated as cooking proceeded. Unfortunately these most careful and
scientifically made observations can apply only somewhat remotely to
1° Soc. (1. Hist. not. TouL, March 28, 1900, p. 67.
11 Traits de l’Alimentatz'on, vol. 3, p. 522, 44, 35.
1213241. $00. shim. Belg, vol. 25, p. 136, 1911.
1919] CHANGES IN Eoon VALUE OF VEGETABLES 9
the problem of cooking losses, since solutions as strong as these could
not be used in preparing vegetables.
Berry13 found that boiled spinach lost 50 per cent of its salts; boiled
cabbage 40 per cent; boiled carrots (cut in pieces) 11.5 per cent of their
salts (23 per cent of phosphorus) and 26 per cent of soluble carbohydrate.
Berg14 suggests that in some cases the losses in alkali as a result of
boiling vegetables are so great that the vegetable may actually lose its
basic ash, and come to possess an acid ash.
Bodinus15 announces that the loss of solids in boiled potatoes is at
least 2 per cent if pared. If sodium chloride be added to the water, the
loss is 1.25 per cent of the starch and 10 per cent of the potato salts;
if no salt is added, the potato loses 33 per cent of its salts. -
Morgan16 reports a smaller loss of salts in peas canned by the com-
mercial process than in those canned by the three-day sterilization home
process. (Specifications and detailed results not given.) She found a
loss of 18 per cent of the ash (25 per cent of phosphorus) due to blanching.
Blunt and Otis17 boiled 5 to 10 grams of spinach, string beans, navy
beans, and peas, respectively, in 25 to 75 cc. distilled water in a covered
beaker for 20 to 40 minutes (navy beans two hours); potatoes were also
boiled (seven were scraped, cooked together, and mixed). Th'ese vege-
tables, both raw and cooked, and the cooking water were then analyzed
for iron. The losses found were: spinach, between 43 and 50 per cent of
its total iron; string beans, between 39 and 43 per cent; navy beans,
between 32 and 39 per cent; peas, 36 per cent; potatoes, between 15 and
22 per cent.
Visawanath18 found that neutral salts (of calcium, magnesium, and
sodium) retard, and alkaline salts (e.g., Na2CO;~,) accelerate the cooking
of legumes (dhall) because they retard or accelerate respectively, the
solution of protein and starch, but more especially of protein.
Courtney, F ales, and Bartlett19 cooked seven varieties of vegetables
by “thorough boiling” for 30 to 150 minutes, and analyzed cooked vege-
tables and cooking water for calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, chlorine,
13 Jam’. Home Econ., vol. 4, p. 405, 1912.
1‘ Nahrzmg. u. Genzissmittel, Aschbestandteile, Dresden, 1913.
15 Chem. Zentr., Bd. 2, p. 37, 1915.
15 four. Home Econ, vol. 7, p. 72, 1915.
‘7 four. Home Econ, vol. 9, p. 213, 1917.
18 Mem. Dept. Agri, India, Chem. Ser. 4, No. 5, p. 149, 1916. Abstr. from ChfliiLfl £230.,
1917. '
19 Amer. Jour. Dis. Children, vol. 14, p. 31, 1917. ’
,-
O
10 THE JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS [April
potassium, sodium, sulphur, iron, and nitrogen. The percentage losses
on most salts were greater than losses in calcium and nitrogen. New
Zealand spinach was an especially heavy loser (72 per cent of total ash),
yet it lost very little of its calcium, and the same thing was true of ordi-
nary spinach. (Both these vegetables are especially good sources of
calcium, if one were to judge from chemical analyses alone,—a ques—
tionable proceeding.) Carrots, onions, and asparagus lost but a trace of
iron; spinach, 28 per cent of its iron; New Zealand spinach 51 per cent.
Reducing the time of cooking made little difference in the losses (spinach
cooked 10 minutes instead of 90, string beans cooked 60 minutes instead
of 150 minutes lost almost as much as before). Steaming, however,
reduced the losses materially (spinach only half as much loss as when
boiled, asparagus one-third as much, carrots one-fourth as much). New
Zealand spinach and onions still lose 20 to 30 per cent of their more
‘soluble constituents, when steamed (for 30 minutes).
Weibull2o concludes that While potatoes do not lose appreciably if
boiled in their skins, they lose 0.5 per cent of their solids if pared before
boiling. If sweetened by chilling, they lose 0.5 per cent when boiled in
skins, 1.5 per cent when pared before boiling. Cooked in hard water,
they retain their solanin; cooked in distilled Water, they lose one~third
of it.
Wardall,21 working to develop a method of making vegetables free of
digestible carbohydrate for the use of the diabetic, placed the finely cut
vegetables in cold water, brought this to the boil, boiled for several
minutes, then poured the water off and repeated the process. She found
that, while beets give a test for reducing sugar after two such extrac-
tions and are then exhausted of such carbohydrate, cabbage still gives
the test after 8 extractions, carrots after 6, eggplant after 7, parsnips
after 6, pineapple after 9. Extracted in Water at 60°C., 1 hour was re-
quired to extract all reducing carbohydrate from beets; 1% hours for
carrot; 2 hours for eggplant; 1 hour for parsnips; 3% hours for pine-
apple. Cabbage seemed to give up little of its reducing substance to a
60°C. extraction.
2° Kungl. Landlbr'aks-akad. Handling a2‘ Tidskrift, vol. 56, p. 348, 1917. Abstr. in Che-m.
Abslra, 1917.
2110m’. Amer. Med. Assn, December 1, 1917.
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE or VEGETABLES 11
iMasters22 tried the effect of boiling dried beans in a large excess of
water (five times their own weight) treated in various ways. She found
that soaking the beans overnight reduced the time of cooking only from
2 hours and 5 minutes to 2 hours. (The experience of the author of
this paper is very nearly in accord with hers, though there is a good
deal of variability among the different kinds and difl'erent grades of
maturity. If the beans be put directly into boiling instead of into
cold water to cook, the time is still further reduced in some instances.)
The soaked beans lost a larger proportion of their solids than did the
unsoaked (12.2 per cent instead of 10.5 per cent in tap water; 12.6
per cent instead of 11.1 per cent, in distilled Water). Salting the
water reduced the losses considerably: in 0.25 per cent N aCl, they
lost 9.2 per cent of their solids; in 0.5 per cent NaCl, 8.7 per cent;
in 1 per cent NaCl, 8.3 per cent. Even the salts of tap water had a
slight effect in this respect (11.1 per cent loss when boiled without
Soaking, instead of 10.6 per cent loss in tap water), when soaking and
cooking were not too much prolonged. Adding soda increased the losses;
boiled (without soaking) in 0.1 per cent Solution of sodium bicarbonate
in tap water, they lost 11.3 per cent of their solids; in 0.25 per cent
solution, 14.3 per cent; in 0.5 per cent solution, 22.3 per cent; in 1 per
cent solution, 27.3 per cent. Disintegration was very rapid at the
higher concentrations, and the flavor was such that the beans were
uneatable; the most satisfactory results were those when 0.1 per cent
sodium bicarbonate was used.
Cooking by steaming was also tried; 100 grams beans were covered
with 250 grams boiling water, the basin was placed quickly in a steamer,
and closed with a tightly fitting lid. When thus Steamed without pre-
vious soaking, they lost 8.9 per cent of their solids; soaked overnight and
thus cooked, they lost 10.4 per cent; cooked (without soaking) in 0.25 per
cent N aCl, they lost 8.4 per cent; cooked (without soaking) in 0.1 per
cent sodium bicarbonate and 0.25 per cent salt, they lost 7.8 per cent;
cooked in 0.1 per cent soda and 0.25 per cent salt after previous soaking
they lost 8.1 per cent of their original weight.
Denton and Kohman23 fed young white rats raw carrots, boiled
carrots with the concentrated cooking water, boiled carrots without
iThis thesis was prepared in March 1918. The following notes were added in March,
1919, in order to bring the bibliography up to date.
2‘~’L"iochem. Jozna, Oct., 1918.
23 J our. Biol. Chem., vol. 36, p. 259, November, 1918..
12 THE JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS [April
the cooking water, and canned carrots (processed two hours in
boiling water bath). During the short period (five weeks) when
carrots formed the sole diet (except for certain salts which were
added), it was clear that those animals fed on raw carrots had the
advantage over the others. Difficulties which the animals had in
accommodating themselves to the unsuitable diet appeared to be
greater, in proportion to the length of time the carrots had been cooked.
However all animals rallied and began to improve in time, except those
on the canned carrots, who were started later than the rest and had not
suflicient time to show what they could do before a change in diet was
made. When protein, fat, and starch were added to the diet in such
proportions that the carrots furnished only one—half to two-thirds of
the solids and of the calories of the diet, cooking of the carrots seemed
to have no deleterious effects. True, however, it was observed that
those animals which received carrots with the concentrated juice cooked
down to some degree of caramelization did, after a time, fall considerably
behind the rest in food consumption and also somewhat in rate of
growth. The reason for this difference, which was perfectly apparent
to all those who handled the animals and their food, cannot be stated,
' so far as I know, at the present moment.
Those animals fed boiled carrots without the juice, on the other hand,
developed unusually large appetites, though their growth curves were not
quite as good as those of animals similarly fed on raw carrots. Presum-
ably this shows the efiect of the loss of a considerable portion of the
caloric value of the vegetable into the cooking water.
Daniels and McClurg24 fed young white rats on a diet in which cab—
bage (raw, or boiled in water or in soda and water, or autoclaved) was the
only source of water-soluble vitamine. The cooking water was in-
clued in the diet in all cases. If my method of figuring this dietary is
correct, the cabbage of these diets furnished 15 per cent of the calories;
250 grams of cabbage were used to 100 grams of dry ration (casein plus
starch plus salts plus fat). The soda was added in the proportion of
1% teaspoons per cup of raw beans (33 cc. of 5 per cent solution of so—
dium bicarbonate to 50 grams of soy beans); and 1% teaspoonful to 1
pound of cabbage (63 cc. of 5 per cent solution, to 250 grams cabbage);
this proportion of soda is about what is very commonly used in cooking
these vegetables. Their experiments continued only through one month
24.702”. Biol. Chem, vol. 37, january, 1919.
1919] CHANGES IN roon VALUE or VEGETABLES 13
in the case of cabbage feeding; but it is believed that the effects of a
decided deficiency of water-soluble Vitamine should be apparent within
that time. Yet animals on all of these cooked diets throve equally well
with those fed raw cabbage, and all animals kept pace with or exceeded
the normal rates of growth. Evidently, then, cooking of cabbage even
at high temperatures or even in alkaline medium did not sufficiently
impair the water-soluble Vitamine so that growth was perceptibly
interfered with, under the conditions above described. _
It must, however, be noted with respect to the last two investigations
reported, that it is possible the results might have been slightly dif-
ferent if the amount of Vegetable fed had been reduced to the minimum,
or that which would furnish barely sufficient Vitamine to meet the needs
of growth. In case cooking does have a slightly prejudicial effect on
vitamines, it would be more likely to appear when the margin of safety
is a narrow one than when it is a very wide one. It may be added,
that the amounts of vegetables fed (especially in the carrot diets) in the
diets described above are larger, proportionately, than is usually con-
sidered possible in human dietaries. Even in the case of the cabbage
diets, it will be observed that the vegetable furnishes 15 per cent of the
calories; this would call for 2.45 pounds edible portion, or 2.91 pounds of
cabbage as purchased, in the 2500-calories-a-day dietary; or 2.94
pounds edible portion, or 3.48 pounds as purchased, in the 3000 calorie
diet of man.
As Miss Daniels remarks, this excessively wide margin of safety in
respect to vitamines may perhaps account for the fact that her results
are different from those of McCollum and co-workers (Jour. Biol.
Chem., Vol. 33, p. 55) who found that the water soluble Vitamine
extracted from the wheat embryo was apparently destroyed by 60
minutes boiling in alkaline medium.
Stanley25 gives tables showing losses due to blanching varying from
19 per cent in wax beans to 53 per cent in cabbage. Another table
shows 52 per cent of mineral matter lost in boiled spinach, 9 per cent
in steamed; 41 per per cent in boiled cabbage, 11.5 per cent in
steamed. Details of manipulation are not given.
III. PURPOSE OF THIS INVESTIGATION
This work was undertaken with a View to determining how great are
the variations in food value resulting from different methods of house-
25 Cooking of Vegetables. Cir. 1, Agr. Ext. Service, Univ. of Mo., 1915.
14 THE JOURNAL OE HOME ECONOMICS [April
hold manipulation, in any given process of cooking. The process most
frequently studied was that of boiling vegetables. The details consid-
ered cover such points as those mentioned on page 3 of the introduction.
IV. METHODS
The methods which were used by the writer in cooking these vegetable
samples are described in the tables given below. After cooking, the
vegetable was ground or mashed or thinly sliced into lead caps or on to
glass plates, and dried at 30° to 80°C. in an oven, or warm air blast,
or over a water bath. The amounts of vegetable cooked were ordinarily
between 50 and 100 grams, or often much more. This amount was
necessary in order that the process should have some resemblance to the
ordinary household process; also, in order to secure an approach to
homogeneity of samples. After drying, the samples were finely ground
for burning in the bomb calorimeter. Often they were formed into pel-
lets by hammering against a metal rod in a metal tube. This was done
in order to prevent scattering when the first rush of oxygen enters the
bomb; usually, however, this precaution was unnecessary.
The control (uncooked vegetable) was always taken from the same lot
as were those that were cooked. As individual specimens, even from a
given lot, may often vary considerably among each other in water con-
tent and consequently in percentage composition, the control was,
whenever possible, a part of the same individual vegetable specimen. In
cutting the samples used as controls (uncooked), pains was taken to
secure strips running lengthwise through every region of bud or root-
stock, so that proportionate amounts of cortex, pith, fibro-vascular
bundles, parenchyma, or growing region, would be about the same in
control as in other samples. Where it was necessary to take transverse
sections, these were selected alternately from the various regions, so that
each sample might contain representatives or every region.
Combustion was conducted in a platinum or nickelled capsule, by
means of a Riche adiabatic bomb calorimeter (vacuum insulation; igni-
tion by means of linen thread instead of iron wire was frequently used).
A differential thermometer was read so as to show differences in tem-
perature of 0.001°C. Bomb calorific values are thus obtained directly,
for the dried material.
It is not practicable to give calorific values in terms of weight of
cooked vegetables, since this weight varies enormously according to the
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 15
details of manipulation, and varies, indeed, from moment to moment
as the steaming vegetable cools and loses water. I have therefore cal-
culated all values for cooked vegetables upon the basis of raw weight.
For example, suppose that 100 grams of raw parsnips weigh 95 grams
after cooking (at the moment of manipulation), which dry down to 20
grams; and that this dried parsnip shows a caloric Value of 4000 (gram-
calories) per gram. Then the raw vegetables with a corresponding
value should be assigned 20 per cent of 4000 calories, or 800 gram—
calories per gram; which is 363 kilo-calories per pound. If the control
or uncooked parsnip shows a value of 1000 gram-calories per gram of
fresh vegetable (or 454 kilo-calories per pound), then it is evident that
this parsnip has lost 20 per cent of its caloric value in the cooking
process.
Duplicate samples taken from the same Vegetable specimen (or from
the same lot if of very small size, as peas) should check within 2 or 3
per cent at farthest. A closer check (0.5 per cent) is usual, but not
always possible with raw vegetables, because of the lack of homogeneit
of the material. When a high salt content (spinach, some beans) inter- I
feres with complete combustion in the calorimeter (by the fusing of salts
so as to encase carbon particles and protect them from combustion),
the difliculty may sometimes be remedied by spreading the dried pow-
dered sample over a piece of filter paper, whose dry weight and caloric
value per grain are known, rolling the whole like a cigarette and be- '
stowing it in the capsule for combustion. Substracting the calories due
to the filter paper, one has then left the calories due to the dried vege-
table. Usually, however, if the linen thread (instead of the iron wire)
be used for igniting, there is no difficulty.
Furthermore, the calorie value of the total cooked sample plus the
calorie value of the concentrated cooking water must be approximately
equal to the calorie value of an uncooked sample of the same size, as
calculated from the control. This check was conducted in a number of
instances (though by no means in case of all Samples reported) by
> evaporating the cooking water to a few cc. of sirup, taking it up on
a weighed piece of filter paper of known calorific value, drying and burn-
ing the whole mass together, or in fractions, as might be necessary. In
those cases where the amount of extract is too great to be concentrated
into a volume convenient for such a test, it may be dissolved in a rela-
tively large volume of water (e.g., 100 to 250 cc.), mixed until thoroughly
homogeneous, and divided into aliquot portions in any convenient
16 THE JOURNAL OF HOME EcoNoMrcs [April
manner. One of these portions is then concentrated, collected, dried,
and burned as above. Any suspended particles must be allowed to
settle, and then be filtered out of the whole sample before division into
aliquots, finally to be dried and burned separately.
Doubtless the question will suggest itself, why should so large a per-
centage of these determinations have been made with carrots and pars-
nips? The reasons were that their cheapness (price per pound) and the
ease with which they are stored have put them into general use; that
they are usually pared and out before cooking, largely as a matter of con-
venience to the cook; that their high sugar content makes them sensi-
tive indicators upon which the effect of varying manipulations may be
detected.
Total salts were determined by the water-leaching method (Official
Methods, Association Official Agricultural Chemists, Bureau of Chem-
istry, Bulletin 107); ignition in muffle furnace.
vr. DISCUSSIONS AND ooNcLUsroNs26
1. The vegetables experimented on, when boiled until tender in ex-
cess of water which is thrown away, lose from 15 to 60 per cent of their
fuel value. (It is a very simple matter to demonstrate these losses
ocularly, by cooking pared parsnips, pared carrots, some varieties of
peapods, cabbage, onions, etc., finely cut or even coarsely cut, in plenty
of water, and then concentrating this water, after pouring off, to small
bulk, when it takes the form of a molasses.)
The losses are, of course, less, proportionately, when there is less soluble
matter to lose. Turnips, cabbage, cauliflower, young carrots, aspara-
gus, Onions, spinach, peas, string beans, lose less than do parsnips and
mature sweet carrots and Brussels sprouts (compare C III, 2, also C
IV, 3, with C I and C II). Apparently carrots have their carbohydrate
more largely in soluble form, than do parsnips, for their losses are pro-
portionately heavier, under the same treatment, especially in those cases
where their calorie values at all approach those of parsnips. (See P II,
6 and C I, 6.)
2. The losses in salts in every case except one (Spinach I, 2 steamed)
parallel the calorie losses, and usually rather closely. They are, as a
rule, slightly greater than the calorie losses. (The same thing was true
of nitrogen losses, in those cases where such determination was made.)
26 References are to table 1, unless otherwise stated.
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 17
TABLE I
Losses in cooking vegetables, caloric values

C9 CG?“ QQH Z
Ez a whim mag H
“E m M222 Mgr-1 H
in 6% 8AM 81-1“? 8
gma fig 083 08$ r‘
gt‘le A: as: as? a
mm 0 0m
0 mm m [-1
SERIAL NUMBER MANIPULATION o If, 2 g a ‘El U; m g m. g Q
i-l o
DEE §> <54”! gigs a
"as a >e§ we saw
Ham m" fir-i Flt-10 “*2
menu 22,‘ mm” 3mm HQ
woo 0 00m 00:4 00
see as see see as
3 o 0 u>m 0


Peas, I. Young green, purchased May 9, 1917; pods well filled, peas quite juicy

gram- gram- kilo-
calones calories calorzes
Peas I, 1 Uncooked.* 25 .50 4102 1044 473
Peas I, 2 82 grams vegetable blanched 4min- 24.97 4139 1033 469 0.8
utes in 400 cc. salted distilled wa-
ter (1.4 per cent); cold—dipped un-
der running tap. Then placed in
80 cc. boiling salted distilled water
(1.5 per cent); boiled twenty min-
utes; peas had taken up all the wa-
ter. Washed in 90 cc. distilled wa-
ter, brought to boil in four and one
half minutes, then drained off.
Weight, after cooked, 90 grams.
grams per cent


Peas, II. Young green, purchased June 5, 1917; pods filled with varying sized peas, some
large ones

Peas 11,1 Uncooked.* 26.16 4249 1112 504
Peas II, 2 102 grams raw vegetable blanched 21.99 4270 939 426 15
six minutes in 500 cc. boiling dis-
tilled water; cold-dipped under
running faucet. Weight, after
cooled, 106 grams.
Peas II, 3 115 grams raw vegetable blanched 24.4 4212 1028 466 8
six minutes in 500 cc. boiling salted
distilled water (1.4 per cent); cold-
dipped. Weight, after drained and
cooled, 111 grams.
Peas II, 4 103 grams raw Vegetable blanched 22.6 4288 969 440 13
six minutes in 500 cc. boiling tap
water; cold-dipped. Drained, and
cooled, weight = 106 grams.


* Omit word “cooked” throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
TABLE I—Continued

SERIAL NUMBER ' MANIPULATION .

PER GRAM OF RAW WEIGHT
PER POUND OF RAW WEIGHT

VEGETABLES, CALCULATED

VEGETABLES, CALCULATED
CALORIE VALUE OF COOKED
CALORII‘IC MATTER LOST IN
COOKING

WEIGHT 100 GRAMs RAW
VEGETABLES AFTER BEING
COOKED AND DRIED
CALORIE VALUE PER GRAM
OF DRIED VEGETABLES
CALORIE VALUE OF COOKED


String Beans, 1. Young green, purchased May 9; strung, cut into half-inch lengths

_ _ k-l _
grams cilgies clgz’lgries calzoroies per Gem
S. B. I, 1 Uncooked.* 10.16 3960 402 183
S. B. I, 2 80 grams raw vegetable blanched 9.317 3750 349 159 13
five minutes in 500 grams salted
distilled water (0.2-4 per cent salt),
cold—dipped. Drained, cooled, 99
grams.
S.B.I,3 71 grams raw vegetable blanched 8.43 4046 341 155 15
five minutes in 500 grams boil-
ing distilled water, cold-dipped.
Drained, cooled, 92 grams.


String Beans, II. Young green, purchased June 5; “strung” and cut into half-inch lengths

II 1 Uncooked.* 11.7 3768 441 200
S. B. II, 3 80 grams raw vegetable boiled in 10.16 3890 395 179 10
500 cc. distilled Water (0.4 per
cent salt) for twenty minutes.
Drained, cooled, Weight = 89
grams. (Not quite “done”
enough to eat.)
S.B.II,4 87 grams raw vegetable steamed 11.52 3872 446 202 1+,
twenty minutes on wire gauze, 3 (gain)[‘
inches from level of boiling water;
covered, but not perfectly tight.
Drained, cooled, weight = 85
grams. (Not quite “done”
enough to eat.)
S. B. II, 2 199 grams raw vegetable autoclaved 11.04 3862 436 198 1
in wire basket twenty-five minutes
at pressures between 10 and 15
pounds; entire period of steaming
in autoclave, forty-four minutes.
Cooled, weight = 174 grams.
Flavor unpleasant, like hay, other-
wise tasteless; mealy texture.


* Omit Word “cooked” throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
[This apparent gain may probably be due to some error in determining the factor noted
in the third column. The sample used for drying was an unusually small one. Or, it may
be due to lack of homogeneity in raw materials. '
18
TABLE I—Continuea








r: s-I a
5% 2 13am 55:11 E
“a H546 ME-flo H
m 0m 3%; 03a '12
Inga NE 3
5mm ‘£32 FBI-‘E; kn-la 9,
ME}; NH 08g Q53“, #1
w ' w a
SERIAL NUMBER MANIPULATION 0 mg 52 S 6% gm-Q; Q
osz e» is zen :
"'Q‘‘ a >m§ >mg 2g
H35: ‘3H ‘55% “30 NZ
mane M“ Em” 3am mg
Qoo 0:’ 0004 00m 00
Euro in new: man :0
B>u c,c: §>m §>m 00
String Beans, II. (Continued)
rams gram- grarn- kilo~ per cent
g calories 60101168 calories
S. B. II, 5 159 grams raw vegetable in pint jar 9.535 3785 361 164 18

with 260 grams water and 1.7
grams salt, Cover Screwed down;
cooked in autoclaved run as de-
scribed in S. B. II, 2, above. Jar
was opened fifteen minutes after
removal from autoclave; tempera-
ture of contents, 90°. Drained
and cooled, beans weighed 191
grams. Flavor of beans and of
juice, fairly good; juice rather
cloudy.






String Beans, III. Purchased March 18, 1918. Green, tender.
“Strung,’ ’ cut into % inch pieces








S. B.III,1 Uncooked.* 9.863 3926 387 176
S. B. III, 2v 133 grams raw vegetable boiled 6.646 4120 274 123 30
thirty minutes in 700 cc. tap wa- '
ter; cooking water at end of proc-
ess, 350 cc. Weight of beans
after cooked, 150 grams.
Spinach, I. Purchased March, 1918. Somewhat stale. Not washed
Spin. I, 1 Uncooked.* 8.636 3491 302 137
Spin. I, 2 111 grams of raw Vegetable steamed 8.180 3257 266 121 12
seventeen minutes on false bottom
over 150 cc. water. Drained and
cooled, 107 grams.

Spinach II. Purchased April, 1918. Fresh. Washed with ordinary care

Spin. II, 1
Spin. II. 2
‘Spin. II, 3

Uncooked.*
205 grams boiled twenty-five min-
utes in 3000 cc. tap water (2200 cc.
at close). Weight after cooled
and drained, 168 grams.
200 grams steamed twenty—five min-
utes on wire gauze. Weight after
drained, 169 grams.

8.235
5.200
7 .450




*Ornit word “cooker.
pa
19
throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
20 THE JOURNAL or HOME EcoNOMIcs [April
TABLE I—Continued

SERIAL NUM'B ER MANIPULATION
WEIGHT 100 GRAMS RAW
VEGETABLES AFTER DELIG
. OOKED AND DRIED
cALoRIE VALUE PER GRAM
or DRIED VEGETABLES
cALoRIE vALUE or COOKED
VEGETABLES, CALCULATED
PER GRAM RAW WEIGHT
cALoRIE vALUE or COOKED
VEGETABLES, CALCULATED
PER POUND OF RAw WEIGHT
CALORIFIC MATTER LosT IN
COOKING


Cauliflower, I. Half-pound head. Leafy bracts and petioles tender green. Head divided

vertically
_ - k'l -
grams 51113;?“ $3383 calhfz'es 1)” 68m
Caul. I, 1 Uncooked.* 14.24 3828 545 247
Caul. 1, 2 55 grams raw vegetable boiled in 10.26 4059 416 189 23
500 cc. tap water (150 cc. at end of
period) for fifteen minutes. Cold,
drained, weight = 52 grams.
Caul. I, 3 50 grams raw vegetable steamed 14.36 3773 542 246 0
twenty-five minutes. Cold,
drained, weight = 49 grams.
Caul. I, 4 Outer leaf stalk only, uncooked.* 15 .02 3702 556 252
Caul. I, 5 Outer leaf stalk only, 25 grams raw 11.60 3671 426 194 23
stalk boiled in same water with
Caul. I, 2, above, for twenty-five
minutes. Cold, drained, weight
= 25 grams.
Caul. I, 6 Outer leaf stalk only, 15 grams 12.60
steamed twenty-five minutes.
Cold, drained, weight = 12 grams.


Brussels Sprouts, I. A good fresh green. A little dry

Uncooked.* 17.055 4154 709 322
94 grams raw vegetable boiled 14.31 4246 608 276 14
whole, five minutes in boiling tap
water (500 cc.). Cooled, weight
= 108 grams
B. S. I, 3 94 grams raw vegetable boiled 10.96 4539 414 188 42
Whole twenty-five minutes in 500
cc. tap water. Cooled, weight =
112 grams.
B. S. I, 4 97 grams raw vegetable, each head 14.41 4266 615 279 13
cut lengthwise into three or four
slices, boiled twenty-five minutes
in 500 cc. tap water. Cooled,
weight = 120 grams.
we
in?”
“Hg—i
to»;


*Omit word “cooked” throughout in readinrr column headin s for this sam le.
D 7 D 7
TABLE I—Contz'nued


0 r‘ on QQH
“g 0m 0%} 6<r3 51
m 7111 0'40 0''‘1 C5
2g ceH 09H up? .4
<CHf=l Q4 PIP-I; [241-3 9!,
Ming H O<I Q<< {=4
sEaiAL NUMBER MANIPULATION u, 58 5,55 DU-g t;
J \
8% .<> see as :1
Hm“: >13 >ra§ >m§ 0Q
<9. mm #14‘ i=i<D "'2:
Here. ,.-..»- Hm HO FB
trims: as“ ‘Emu 53mg. gr;
01:10 09 owe 00m 00
see as see see M
a U O>Fu 0>Q4 6L.


Cabbage, I. Purchased January, 1918. Firm, white head about 1% pounds. Outer leaves
missing. No green. Cut vertically

gram- gram~ kilo-
grams calories calories calories 96' 68”’
Cab. I, 1 Uncooked.* ‘ 7.914 3803 301 137
Cab. I, 2 188 grams raw vegetable (one- 8.388 3763 316 143 4.4
fourth of cabbage head), steamed (gain)’[
thirty minutes. Weight, after
cooked and cooled, 175 grams.
Cab. I, 3 203 grams raw vegetable (one- 5.835 4001 234 106 21
fourth of head), cooked thirty
minutes in 1000 cc. boiling tap
water (700 cc. at end of cooking
period). Weight after cooked and
cooled, 215 grams.
Cab. I, 4 180 grams raw vegetable (one- 7.591 3335 253 115 14
fourth of head), cooked thirty
minutes in 1000 cc. boiling salted
tap water (1.5 per cent salt); 750
cc. at end of cooking period.
Cooked and drained, 167 grams.
“Cooked to pieces” more than
Cab. I, 3 (which was a more com—
pact piece).


Cabbage, II. Purchased November, 1917. Small, compact, crisp heads; outer leaves pale
green. Cut vertically

Cab. II, 1 Uncooked,* ground and dried. 10 .00 3809 381 173
Cal). II, 2 900 grams raw vegetable (one small 10.107 3664 371 168 3
solid head cut into eighths) '
lanclied in 4500 cc. boiling tap
water ten minutes, then cooled un-
der running tap. Packed tightly
into quart jar, with hot water and
10 grants salt. (57.5 grams re-
mainin g as juice at end of process.)
jar processed two hours in bath of
boiling water. \Veight of drained
cabbage, 797 grams.


*
Omit word “cooked throughout, in reading column headings, for ‘this sample.
5' This discrepancy is, so far, unexplained.
21
22 THE JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS [April -
TABLE I—Contimled



O czar-I QQH
Ez E mam gram 5
M5 M22 :53 H
a: wig 8AM 8 M 8
gen: “'4 U8? 0%? '4
<r=1m ‘53$ kit-1B FRI-‘g m
pal-IE H o¢< 0-15 m
054g gm mom M0 H
s‘ERIAL NUMBER MANIPULATION o a A g p mag D £8 £3,
m A Ah]
3H5 3” <53: r’H-‘Q f,
‘a E >p°< )QD Ho
H<=Q m... as“ mac, Hz
use E“ are a“ as
Q m
Que 0 00m own‘ 00
was as are ass as
B> o u u 0
Cabbage, II. (Continued)
grams gram‘ gram‘ kdo‘ per cent
calories calories calories
Cab. II, 3 Duplicate of Cab. II, 2, except not 5.7 3654 209 94 46
packed so closely. 276 grams of
drained cabbage and 120 cc. liquid
in pint jar. (375 grams of raw
cabbage had been packed into it.)


Onions, I. Ordinary yellow. Purchased February, 1918. Outer scaly leaves rejected

O. 1,1 Uncooked,* vertical halves of two 8.075 3817 313 142
onions. Control for O. I, 2.
O. I, 2 83 grams raw vegetable, vertical 7.394 3783 280 127 11
halves of same onions used for
O. I, 1. Soaked twelve and one-
half hours in 650 cc. water, after
slicing horizontally (Went all to
pieces). Drained, weight = 104
grams. Bud swelled, unequal tis-
, sue strains apparent.
O. I, 3 Uncooked,* lower half of an onion, 11.89 3940 469 213
same lot. Control for O. I, 4 (PP?)
O. I, 4 44 grams raw vegetable, upper half 9.527 3585 342 155 27[
same onion as in O. I, 3. Soaked '
in 350 cc. salted tap water (two per
cent salt) for twelve and one-half
hours, having been cut into three
horizontal slices. Held together
fairly well; wilted, except for
smallest inner bud. Drained,
weight = 48 grams.
0. I, 5 68 grams raw vegetable, (1 onion), 4.421 4097 181 82 41
cut crosswise into halves. Boiled
forty minutes in 1100 cc. tap Water
(700 cc. at end of period).
Cooked and drained, weight =
58 grams. Cooking water concen-
trated, yielded 8438 kilo-calories.


* Omit word “cooked” throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
['See p. 31 for discussion of comparison between 0. I, 2 and 0.1, 4.
1919] CHANGESIN'FOOD VALUE OF'VEGETABLES 23
TABLE I—Continued



o ooa o [-l
52 3 Help; 5155 E
“a m idI-‘U H H
m o 8"’51 8,553 m
w E 0S3 00B 0
Ema ‘*4 0 u '4
§I=Jm ‘if: cup-13 “n43 m
:2 o<c< °< H
‘Lac: 5 no“ no H
MANIPULATION SERIAL NUMBER o m Q So prim raw-g F
on: 21E gm‘: gram Q
“E 7’ >g >§g 0::
H<a a rag #130 Eiz
as 52 En” 3mm as
woo 00 Good 0094 oo
5&8 i8 15%‘. 59%‘. ‘<18
3 Q Q U U
Onions, I. (Continued)
grams gram- gram- krlo- p” can,
calories calories calories
O. I, 6 50 grams raw Vegetable (1 onion), 6.868 3842 264 120 34
boiled whole forty minutes in 1000
cc. tap water (700 cc. at end of
cooking period). Weight, after
cooled and drained, 41 grams.
Cooking water concentrated,
yielded 6878 calories.


Turnips, I. White, purchased january 15, 1917; 290 grams each. Pared, quartered length-
wise, in T. I, 1 and 2

T. I, 3 Uncooked.* 5.29 3850 204 92
T. I, 1 61 grams raw vegetable cooked 3.761 4098 154 70 24
thirty minutes in 500 Cc. boiling - ~
tap water. Weight, after drained
and cooled, 57 grams.
T. I, 2 65 grams raw vegetable cooked 6.041 3283 198 90 2
thirty minutes in 500 cc. boiling
salted tap water (1.5 per cent salt).
Weight, after drained and cooled,
59 grams. (Water boiled almost



dry.)
Asparagus, I. Purchased March, 1918. Base of stems tough, trimmed OE.
Aspar. I,1 Uncooked.* 7.953 4068 324 147
Aspar. I, 2 76 grams blanched five minutes in 7.185 4139 297 135 8
1000 cc. boiling tap water.
Weight, after cooled and drained,
76 grams.

Asparagus, II. Purchased May, 1918. Trimmed, washed

Aspar. II, 1 Uncooked.* 7.590
Aspar. II, 2 69 grams Cut into 1%,: inch lengths, 7.597
blanched five minutes in 500 cc.
boiling tap water. Weight, after
drained, 71 grams.

*Omit word “cooked throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
TABLE I—Conlinued


O QQH QI-l _,
Ez 5: emu: 53mm Z
[:45 M M82 M80 H
U) m o"l> 0"]; O
<HF‘1 9.41 an? Far-4 M
cams; [-4 o<<n 05¢ p4
o<Q para mom m :2 H
SERIAL NUMBER ‘\VIANIPULATION o w Q S g D {Em D (5% s
[:1 l-qmo Hm ‘
m‘: “a :> >722? 0
Cl #1 m< D H6
E-(<p_-_] Ell—4 [54:94 IYJ<O HZ
mm“ mm Fl‘ [1] M94
H00 0 00m Owed 00
we as awe we as
3 o u> o p‘ o


Parsnips, II. Purchased january, 1917. Medium size, pared, cut lengthwise into eighths.
Wilted

gmm- gram- kilo-
_ grams calories calories calories per cent
P. II, 8 Uncooked.* 26 3916 1018 462
P. II,7 Blanched five minutes in 1000 cc. 17 4125 701 318 31
tap water; cold dipped; 86 grams
of vegetables cooked twenty-two
minutes in 1000 cc. hot unsalted
tap water; weight, after cooking,
83 grams.
P. II, 6 Blanched in 1000 cc. salted distilled 20 3941 788' 357 23
water (T77; per cent salt) five
minutes; cold dipped; 85 grams of
vegetables cooked twenty-two
minutes in 1000 cc. hot salted
distilled water (15% per cent salt);
Weight after cooking, 83 grams.


Parsnips, III. Purchased Ianuary, 1918. Medium size, badly wilted before used, pared

P. III,1 Uncooked.* 31.38 4450 1396 633
P. III, 2 61 grams of raw vegetable (one half 26.57 3967 1054 478 25
parsnip, cut lengthwise), cooked
thirty minutes in 900 cc. boiling
tap water. Weight, after cooked
and drained, 68 grams. Control,
P. III, 1. _
P. III, 3 Uncooked”< (second parsnip from 38.11 3912 1491 676
same lot as P III, 1).
P. III, 4 58 grams of raw vegetable cut cross- 26.93 4013 1081 491 27
wise from same parsnip as P. III, 3,
alternately from top and tip;
blanched three and one-half min-
utes in 500 cc. boiling tap water;
weight after cooked and drained,
67 grams. I
P. III, 5 50 grams raw vegetable, duplicate of 25 .26 4027 1018 462 32
P. III, 4, but cooked seven minutes
in boiling tap, 500 cc. \Veight,
after cooked, 58 grams.


*Omit word “cooked” throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
24
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 25







TABLE I—Continued
BO 21 gage Q_H z
:5 & ass sés H
2% M 83;; 35“ %
‘Qua xiii 0B3 0mg 3
m can 0 v
Bra ‘in: mg; FHA? a;
H H O<: Q<=<:
wig mm H02 @094 E
SERIAL NUMBER MANIPULATION U, Q 3g p mm D (is 2
gfiz <1> @510 :52 2
"55‘ >29. >25 w; 8w
H m an“ WHO “Z
555 2g Em» Ewe‘ as
(DO 0 COM CUM 00
‘M8 18 ii“ 211m“ 51°
;> o 0 Q4 o>P~l 0U

Parsnips, IV. Purchased February, 1918. Medium size, mature, unwilted, pared

:w
P—ll—l
P. w, 3
P. IV, 4
P.IV, 5

Uncooked.*
74.5 grams raw vegetable (one-half
of same individual as P. IV, 1, cut
lengthwise), cooked thirty-three
minutes in 550 cc. boiling tap wa-
ter (380 cc. at end of cooking
period). Weight, after cooked
and drained, 72 grams.
33 grams raw vegetable (one-quarter
of same individual as P. IV, 1, cut
lengthwise). Cooked thirty-three
minutes in 550 cc. boiling tap wa-
ter (230 cc. at end of cooking
period). Weight, after cooked,
32 grams
Uncooked,* second parsnip from
same lot as P. IV, 1. Sliced cross-
wise, slices taken alternately from
top and tip.
58.5 grams raw vegetable, duplicate
of P. IV, 4, cooked thirty-three
minutes in 550 cc. boiling tap wa-
ter (310 cc. at end of cooking
period). Weight, after cooked, 55
grams.

grams
22.78
18.77
17.94
21.42
13.45
gram-
calories
3858
3989
4118
3987
4022
gram-
calories
879
749
739
854
541
kilo-
calorzes
399
340,
335
387
246
per cent
15
16
36








(Dry, slightly wilted.)
Carrots, I. Purchased January, 1917. Mature, medium size, pared, and sliced crosswise.
.00
“>00
Uncooked.*
70 grams of vegetable put into 500
cc. cold distilled water; ten min-
utes coming to boil; boiled twenty-
five minutes. IVeight cooked, 55
grams.
21.4
8.1
3632
3809
777
308
352
140
*Omit word “cooked” throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
26 THE JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS [April
TABLE I—Conlinued



o rat-1 H
:2 2 gram 55m E
‘=4 Um O<E3 o<1§ m
no"n ‘*1 014% 0'';g 0
Ema “'4 06 QB '4
<lflm E3 Fur-1a mu? pd
M82 [.4 O<< O<<£ i=1
(52in gm Hum 994 [-4
sEmAL NUMBER MANIPULATION 0 "FR El m P‘
‘95% 1°‘ 3"’0 e8‘) ‘‘
2'34 t>> gag ‘(Ag 2
< 8 m§ ‘Hit: 3°
mm MM 3"” EEE All
9 m
8:30 O 0091 0O“ 00
“$8 ‘I28 1MB‘. 21?? i8
3 o u> o u
Carrots, I. (Continued)
gram- gram- kilo-
grams calories calories calories 1,” cm‘
C. I, 5 87 grams of vegetable put into 500 12.0 3682 442 201 43
cc. cold distilled water; five min-
utes coming to boil; boiled fifteen
minutes. Weight cooked, 77
‘grams. Water boiled away quite
extensively. ‘Not quite “tender.”
C. I, 1 92 grams of vegetable put into 500 13.0 2835 368 167 53
cc. hot salted distilled water (1.5
per cent NaCl), cold dipped.
Boiled thirt r-two minutes.
Weight cooked, 88 grams. Boiled
gently, Water level not much low-
ered at end of period.
C. I, 6 83 grams of vegetable blanched 12.0 3117 374 170 52
seven minutes in 500 grams, salted
distilled water (1.5 per cent NaCl),
cold dipped; boiled twenty-two
minutes in 500 cc. hot salted dis—
tilled water (1.5 per cent NaCl).
Weight (cooked), 67 grams. Wa-
ter boiled away quite extensively.


Carrots, II. Purchased April, 1917. Mature, pared, and sliced crosswise, unless Otherwise
designated. (Wilted somewhat.)

C. 11,3 84 grams vegetable cooked thirty 9.29 3720 346 157 56
minutes in 500 cc. boiling distilled
water. Weight, after cooked, 93
grams. Volume of. water at end
of process not observed.
C. 11,4 18 grams vegetable (one fourth 15.44 3724 575 261 26
carrot sliced lengthwise) cooked
thirty minutes in 500 cc. boiling
distilled water. Weight, after
cooked 30 grams.


* Omit word “cooked” throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
1919] ~ CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 27
TABLE I—Contz'nued

SERIAL NUMBER MANIPULATION
WEIGHT 100 GRAMS RAW
VEGETABLES AFTER BEING
COOKED AND DRIED
CALORIE VALUE PER G'RAM
OF DRIED VEGETABLES
CALORIE VALUE or COOKED
VEGETABLES, CALCULATED
PER GRAM 0F RAW WEIGHT
CALORIE VALUE OF COOKED
VEGETABLES, CALCULATED
PER POUND 0F RAW WEIGHT
CALORIEIC MATTER LosT IN
COOKING


Carrots, II. (Continued)

gram- gram- kilo-
calorzes calorzes ._ealories
C. II,6 71 grams cooked vegetable which 7.58 3638 276 125 65
came from steam pressure insti-
tutional cooker. Pared and
sliced crosswise before Cooking as
usual. Weight, before cooking,
unknown]L
grams per cent


Carrots, III. Purchased May, 1917. Small, young, pared, and sliced crosswise

C. III, 1 Uncooked.* 11.6 3597 418 190
C. III, 2 54 grams vegetables boiled in 500 cc. 7 .002 3776 265 120 37
hot distilled water for twenty-
' three minutes. Weight, after
cooked, 57 grams.
C. III, 3 62 grams vegetable steamed thirty 11.78 3646 416 189 0.95
minutes over 1000 cc. Water.
Weight, after cooked, 57 grams.

J



Carrots, IV. Purchased January, 1918. Medium size, pared, and sliced as described
C. V, 1 Uncooked.* (Control for C. IV and 10.8 3618 391 177
C. V.)
C. IV, 1 39 grams vegetable cut into length- 6.885 3788 268 118 33
wise slices, 10 grams each;
blanched in 500 cc. boiling tap wa-
ter, five minutes. Weight, after
blanched, cold dipped and drained,
36 grams.
* Omit word “cooked” throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
i Steam cooked vegetables usually lose weight in cooking, but it may be that these pieces
were so situated that they took up some water (Condensed steam) which Washed over them.
In calculating this sample, the raw weight has been assumed to be identical with the weight
after cooking. If the weight of raw vegetable was greater than the Weight Cooked, then the
cooking loss is still greater than here calculated; if less, then the loss would be somewhat less.
28 THE JOURNAL OF HOME EcoNoMIcs [April







_TABLE I—Continued
3 o a; _ e-1 o a E
m 6 [=1 0 H “i 0 51 l“ 8
"I M a M a o B 3 o u 3 ,4
2 a N g‘, .c g. a: g m H E as
H H < 0 <1 <1 pa
0 g‘: in‘ ‘=1 ‘'1 i=1 0 M a U ‘x H
SERIAL NUMBER MANIPULATION o m a a g p u; m ;: uyg 5,‘,
O ‘=4 Z <1 > Q Q o g f‘: q H
“ g ‘i > o > a g > S g o (9
H 5 5 E‘. E ‘*4 55 E 25 o a E
111 i=1 a 04 g '2 k1 ‘9 m a o '52 M
Has 2.. as“ as“ as
l; :> o a o 3 :> ii at > iii 8 8
Carrots, IV. (Continued)
gram~ gr m- kilo-
grams calories caloll'ies calories per cent
C. IV, 3 34 grams vegetable cut lengthwise 5.027 4035 203 92 48
into strips of 10 grams each;
cooked twenty-five minutes in
boiling tap water, 500 cc. Weight,
after cooked, 28 grams. Water
cooked down to 180 cc. at end of
. cooking period .
C. IV, 5 72 grams vegetable cut lengthwise 8.714 3603 314 142 20
into 7 strips laid on wire gauze
screening, autoclaved fifteen min-
utes at 15 pounds; total length of
time in autoclave, thirty-seven
minutes. Weight, after cooked,
55 grams.
C. IV, 6 82 grams vegetable cut crosswise 8.834 3598 318 ' 144 19
into 15 slices, autoclaved over wire
gauze in same cooker and at same
time as above. Weight, after
cooking 61 grams. Surface ex-
posed, considerably less than in
C. IV, 5.








Carrots, V. Purchased January, 1918. Medium sized, pared, and sliced crosswise

c.v,1
c.v,2
c.v,s
Uncooked.*
46 grams vegetable put into 500 cc.
salted boiling tap water (1.5 per
cent), cooked thirty-six minutes.
Weight, after cooked, 32 grams.
51 grams vegetable put into 500 cc.
unsalted boiling tap water, cooked
thirty-six minutes. Weight, after
cooked, 43 grams.

10.8
12.4
5.945
3618
2036
3725
391
252
222
177
115
101
35
43
*Omit word “cooked” throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 29
TABLE I—Cancluded


>0 cams a
22 5; Lamb: 55:11 a
‘=3 0m 04H 04*“ :0
Pi} Q 0H5! QHN 0
mm My} 0D? 0D? ,4
ENE: E13 AS; was a:
“a; {.4 04¢ o<< $14
U<Q NH MUM mom E"
SERIAL NUMBER MANIPULATION omQ Bib’ Du?“ ‘31/73 S
' HQO n-lpq ‘
8:32 <> ‘ii-1 ‘ii-IQ a; "a >22 >825 8°
Hard Ell-1 8H0 fiz
111mm an em" mam m5!
goo 0° 00m 00m 00
Mme rim éHk-‘l Amp: :0
B>o 00 o>m §>m 00


Carrots, VI. Purchased November, 1917. Fairly large, juicy; pared, and sliced crosswise

3mm‘ gram- kilo-
calones 60107168 cslories per cm!
I 1 Uncooked.* 11.56 3643 421 191
I, 2 700 grams vegetable blanched six 9.911 3546 351 159 18
minutes in about 5000 cc. boiling
tap water; cold-dipped, packed
tightly into quart glass jar; spaces
filled with boiling water, cover and
rubber gasket adjusted; jar set
into boiling water bath covering
it. Time of process, two hours.
Water bath boiled away some~
what, jar'lost water, 2 to 3 inches
space (and partial vacuum) above
level of juice in jar when cold.
Contents when opened, 699 grams
of cooked and drained carrots,
283 cc. juice.
C. VI, 3 Duplicate of C. VI, 2, from different 8 .024 3802 305 138 28
jar, 700 grams raw carrots; cooked
and drained, 672 grams, 300 grams
(290 cc.) of juice.
grams
* Omit word “cooked” throughout, in reading column headings, for this sample.
It is, however, the more soluble, rather than the difficultly soluble or
insoluble carbohydrates and salts, which are the measure of available
food; therefore the food losses exceed rather than run below the per-
centage here stated.
3. The “blanching” process as ordinarily used in home canning,
causes losses of 8 to 15 per cent (Peas II, 2, 3, 4; Aspar. I, 2; Spin. I,
2; Brussels sprouts I, 3; String beans, 1, 2, 3) and 27 to 33 per cent
if vegetables are peeled and sliced (sliced parsnips, P III, 4 and 5) . These
peas were blanched for 6 minutes, the string beans and carrots for 5
minutes. The peas might have received a somewhat shorter blanch (2
to 4 minutes), which would reduce their loss somewhat, but not propor-
TABLE II
Losses in mineral salts due to cooking

‘
IggEIGHT
N ..
SAMPLE as. “are AFTER VEGETABLE TO FRESH
COOKED MATERIAL WEIGHT ‘COOKING
AND DRIED
grams per cent per cent per cent
Asparagus II, 1, raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.590 8.33 0.63
Asparagus II, 2, blanched five minutes . . . . . . . . . 7.597 7 .86 0.60 5
Beans, String, S. B. III, 1, raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.863 5.897 0.58
Beans, String, S. B. III, 2, boiled thirty minutes 6.646 5 .479 0.36 38
Brussels Sprouts,I,1, 17.055 6.50 1.11
Brussels Sprouts, I, 2, blanched five minutes. . . 14.31 6.244 0.89 20
Brussels Sprouts, I, 3, boiled twenty-five minutes 10.96 5.10 0 . 56 50
Cabbage, I, 1, raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.786 7.27 0.57
Cabbage, I, boiled thirty minutes tap . . . . . . . . . . 5 .835 7.18 0.42 26
Carrots, II, 5, raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.21 10.51 1.46
Carrots, II, 1, boiled thirty minutes . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.74 6.80 0.59 60
Cauliflower, I, 1, raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.24 9.04 1.29
Cauliflower, I, 2, boiled fifteen minutes . . . . . . . . . 10.26 6.91 0.71 45
Cauliflower I, 3, steamed twenty-five minutes. . . 14.36 8.13 1.17 9
Onions, I, 1, raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.075 3.17 0.26
Onions, I, 2, soaked twelve hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.394 3.07 0.23 12
Onions, I, 3, raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.89 4.70 0.56
Onions, I, 6, boiled-forty minutes whole . . . . . . . . 6.868 4.28 0.29 P
Parsnips, III, 3, raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.11 4.84 1.85
Parsnips, III, 4, boiled three and one-half min—
utes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.93 3.84 1.03 42
Parsnips, III, 5, boiled seven minutes . . . . . . . . . . 25 .26 3 .42 0.86 54
Peas, II, 1, green, raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.16 3.31 0.87
Peas, II, 2, boiled in distilled water, six min-
utes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.99 3.27 0.72 17
Peas, II, 4, boiled in tap water, six minutes. . . . . 22.6 3 .25 0.74 15
Spinach, I, 1, raw, unwashed* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.636 23.66 2.04
Spinach, I, 2, steamed seventeen minutes . . . . . . . 8.180 24.2 1.98 2 .94
Spinach, II, 1, raw, washed* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '8 .235 24.34 .01
Spinach, II, 2, steamed twenty-five minutes... . . '7 .450 16.55 1.26 37
Spinach II, 3, boiled'twen-ty-five minutes. . . . .' 5 .200 12.42 0.67 67

*The determinations on spinach were made on washed and unwashed lots, after reading
Rubner’s statement1('Berl. Klin. W chnschrft. Apr. 10,1916) that, owing to the cook’s custom
of washing spinach on one side of the leaf only, a large part of the “ash” is sand which clings
to the leaves.
half of the dry'matter to be ash.
30
This may have been true of the spinach which he analyzed, which showed
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 31
tionately to the reduction in time of blanching, since the losses are rela-
tively heavier in the earliest moments of the extraction period. (Com-
pare Parsnips III, 4 and 5.) String beans, fresh prime stock, are often
blanched even longer (3% to 6 minutes or more) under trade conditions.
4. The losses in blanching might be somewhat decreased by the
use of a salted water. In case of peas the loss decreases from 15 per
cent in distilled water (Peas II, 2 or 4) to 8 per cent in a 1.5 per cent
salt solution (Peas II, 3); for string beans, from 15 per Cent for dis—
tilled water (S. B‘. I, 3) to 13 per cent for 0.25 per cent salt solution
(S. B. I, 2) or 10 per cent loss on 20 minutes’ boiling in 0.4 per cent salt
solution (S. B. II, 3). Stronger solutions could well be used when short
cooking is given. Here a slight increase in strength of salt solution
has made more difference in amount extracted than has a fourfold in—
crease in time. In case of longer boiling “until tender,” the decreases
in fairly comparable samples are: Parsnips, from 31 per cent in tap water
(P II, 7) to 23 per cent (P II, 6) in 0.7 per cent salt solution; white
turnips, from 24 per cent (T I, 1) to 2 per cent (T I, 2) in 1.5 per cent
salt. See also Cabbage, 1, 3;, and 4.
Boiled in a small amount of salted water, or in water which eventually
boils down to a small amount, the losses are still smaller. See C VI, 2—
only 18 percent loss, though they went through a 6 minutes’ blanch
before this long cooking period of several hours very near the boiling
temperature. See also Peas I, 2, in which the salted water was entirely
taken up; they apparently show less than 1 per cent loss, though they
went through a 4 minutes’ salt blanch before cooking.
The difference in extractive power between distilled and tap Water
(Lake Michigan at Chicago), is evident but not great enough to be of
practical significance (Peas II, 2 and 4).
In comparing Onions I, 2 and 4, it should not be too hastily Concluded
that the effect of salt has been to increase the extraction. Unfortunately
O I, 4 contains only the upper half of the bulb, and this may easily have
been before soaking considerably lower in sugar than was the lower
half (O I, 3) from which the amount of extraction is estimated.
5. Cooking losses are, of course, still further decreased by cutting the
vegetable into large instead of into small pieces, particularly so if the
cut runs parallel with fibro-vascular bundles rather than across them.
Compare P II, and P III, 2, with P III, 4 and 5; 3% to 7 minutes extract
as much from the cross-cut parsnip as do 30 minutes (or 27 minutes)
from the lengthwise-cut parsnip. ' I ‘ Y i t
32 THE JOURNAL OF HOME EcoNoMIcs [April
6. Steaming, if properly performed, results in losses so small as to
be ordinarily quite devoid of significance (Caul. I, 3; Spin. I, 2, table
II,——but see also table I; Cab. I, 2; S. B11, 4; C III, 3); this may be
the case, even when the temperature is so high and the process so greatly
prolonged as to result in serious detriment to flavor, as is possible in
high pressure cooking (S. B. II, 2). However, this considerable period
Of steaming at higher temperatures than the boiling point is likely to
extract a considerable amount of soluble material, when this is abun-
dantly present (C IV, 5 and 6). Again, if the arrangement is such
that steam condenses and water washes down over the heated vegetable
tissue, the losses may be as great as in any other possible method of
treatment (C II, 6); this is true in steamers of the household type as
well as in those of institutional type, as those who may have seen the
yellow water under steaming squash or pumpkin can testify.
7. It is obvious that extraction of soluble constituents will. depend
largely upon length of the period of cooking (e.g., P III, 4 and 5, C I,
4 and '5), and upon relative proportions of water and vegetable (e.g.,
compare P II, and P III, with P IV), especially as the cooking process
nears its end and the water boils away more or less rapidly according
to the rate at which heat is applied; e.g., compare C I, 1 with C I, 6
(differing amounts of water at close). These two factors are widely
variable and exceedingly uncertain, in ordinary household practice, as
is also the relative surface exposed, when the vegetable is cut or pared.
Add ‘to this the varying degree of extraction possible with different
vegetables, owing to the different proportions of readily soluble carbo-
hydrate and salts which they contain, and it will be seen that there is
no possible universal factor which can be applied, in dietary calculations,
to show losses of fuel or other values of foods, incurred in cooking; or
none which can lay claim to the slightest approximation to accuracy
upon all occasions.
Such statements as, “Boiling extracts three-fourths of the iron in
spinach,” or “one-fourth of the salts of potato” or- “two-thirds of the
sugar of carrots” may fit one instance precisely and yet be far from the
truth in another.
Naturally these generalizations do not apply to the “conservation”
methods of cooking (steaming, baking, boiling in jackets, utilization of
vegetable stocks as soups or sauces) where the loss is reduced to practi-
cally‘nothing at all. One of the best of these economical methods is
that in: which the edible portion of the vegetable is cut fine and cooked,
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 33
in a small amount of water or milk which is almost entirely absorbed, and
which Consequently is served with the vegetable. This cooking may
be done directly over the flame, or on a hot plate of asbestos or heavy
metal, or on the back of the range, or in a double boiler. The hard,
sweet core of young cabbage heads, heated 15 to 30 minutes in this
fashion, is a very different product from that which has been long
boiled in water. The same thing is true of the outer stalks at the base
of a head of cauliflower, which, though often discarded as refuse, ap-
parently may have a higher food value than the fleshy part, and one as
easily extracted as that of the fleshy floweret which is usually eaten.
(See Caul. I, 1 and 4.)
It is also evident that preliminary soaking in cold water, or starting
the cooking process in cold instead of in boiling water, will greatly in-
crease cooking losses by prolonging the period of cooking, and by adding
the extractive power of the water at lower temperatures to that at
boiling temperature. (C I, 4 and 5; O I, 2 and 4.)
8. When steamed, all vegetables lose weight, mostly because of
evaporation of water. (C III, 3; C IV, 5 and 6; S. B. II, 4; Caul. I,
3 and 6; Cab. I, 2; Spin. I, 2 and II, 3.) When boiled in an open dish in
excess of water, a starchy, or dry, or wilted vegetable, or one with air
spaces which can become waterlogged, or one unusually high in crystal-
loids (salts and sugars, which increase osmotic powers of the tissues),
will take up water enough to gain in weight, even though it may have
lost considerable amounts of solid matter (Pars. III, Car. II, green
peas, string beans, Brussels sprouts). But a juicy or watery vegetable,
or one protected by impermeable cuticle, loses water as well as solids,
even when boiled in water, due no doubt to disturbances of colloidal
systems within the tissues by the application of heat. The ease with
which juice flows from heated meat or fruit (or from heated proto-
plasmic structures seen under the microscope) is a matter of com-
mon observation, as is the dryness of boiled meat in comparison with
properly roasted meat. Again, a sound potato, boiled in its unpierced
jacket, almost always loses a little in weight; and often a slight ac-
cumulation of water may be perceived underneath the skin, before it
has succeeded in escaping. Vegetables cooked in salted water (see'
Peas, Turnips, Cauliflower, Cabbage) tend to lose weight more strongly
than do those cooked in distilled or tap water; the strong solution out-
side the tissues draws water out of them by osmosis, as does salt on meat,
or sugar on berries. Soaking vegetables in cold distilled or tap water,
34 THE JOURNAL OF HOME ECONOMICS [April
however, swells them but does not cause heavy loss of solids (Onions
I, 2), since the protoplasm is not killed and is able to retain its solutes to
considerable degree for a time, at least before bacterial action shall
have made itself felt.
It is evident, then, that a comparison of weights before and after
cooking can give no information as to the extent of loss of solids. Yet
we sometimes hear the commercial canners using this line of argument,
in denying that losses take place in blanching. But the circumstance
that young peas may show no increase in weight during blanching, does
not prove nor indicate that no loss of salts, sugar, or protein of the
pea, takes place.
9. It may be readily observed in case of a well-packed jar that the
processing method used in home canning of vegetables or fruit sub-
merged in a boiling water bath results in the presence of a mini-
mum amount of juice in the jar. In Cab. II, 2 and 3, the combined
weight of vegetables and brine or juice is less than the original weight
of raw vegetable. In S. B. II, 5, there is an excess of water, due partly
to the fact that there were not enough beans on hand to fill the jar, but
also to the different method of canning, that of cooking with pressure
steam while the jar is completely sealed, thus preventing any escape
of liquid.)
This small amount of juice is a very different condition from that
which sometimes has obtained in commercially canned goods. While
due chiefly to differences in closeness of pack, it is also due to the fact
that during the two or three hours of processing in boiling water bath
the contents of the partially sealed jar are continually giving off steam
to the water bath (even when the bath completely submerges jar and
cover), or to the atmosphere above it, in case submersion is incomplete.
The constantly escaping stream of air and steam bubbles, over or under
the rubber gasket, can readily be observed during the entire period of
processing. When the jar is lifted out of the bath, presumably the
operator at once makes the seal tight; and, even though the seal should
perhaps not chance to continue absolutely tight during the process of
cooling, there is more or less vacuum remaining until the jar is Opened,
in a successful product which “keeps” well. The smaller amount of
water or juice in the jar, then, may have only a moderate or even a rela-
tively low extractive value, in spite of the long boiling period. F urther-
more, the flavor of this juice is good, and it can be served with the vege-
table, which is often not the case with jars or cans containing a large
amount of watery juice in metal containers.
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 35
We may conclude, then, that the methods for home canning, as prac-
ticed in following the directions issued by extension workers in agri-
culture and home economics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, compare very
favorably with other methods of canning as to effect upon nutritive
Value of product, provided pains be taken to reduce losses from the
blanching process. This precaution is particularly important in case of
young tender peas, carrots, corn, vegetables of the cabbage and onion
families, and any vegetables pared and cut or broken into shreds or
short lengths before blanching.
It is clearly of the greatest importance (as has been so often dem~
onstrated) that the juice of vegetables escaping into cooking water
should be conserved, and methods of making this juice palatable de-
serve the cook’s attention. If onions must be boiled in excess of water
to reduce their flavor, at least this Water may be concentrated by boil-
ing until it can furnish a suitable flavor for milk or cream soups, or broths
or sauces, for vegetable or meat hash or stew, or loaf or croquettes.
A great deal of trouble has been taken to discover the best method
of cooking each cut and kind of meat so as to secure optimum results.
It is time that vegetable cookery received a larger share of attention from
the average woman. The problems which arise in the cooking of each
kind of vegetable should be given attention on their own merits. General
directions for the cooking of the different classes as underground tubers
and root stocks, green vegetables, etc., are exceedingly useful, yet
further details appropriate to each occasion should not be forgotten.
Here is one small illustration concerning a point too often overlooked:
When some parts of a vegetable are very much tougher and more re-
sistant than others the two should not as a rule be cooked together
until the toughest part is “done,” for this is likely to destroy the more
delicate flavor of the tender parts. We do not expect to cook the ten-
derloin strip and the tail piece of a porterhouse steak successfully by the
same process; or if this is done, the tougher pieces are finely chopped
before cooking, and this reduces the extra time needed. Often the same
method of procedure can be used with vegetables. It is a clear waste,
in time of high prices, to throw away the leaf petioles of kohlrabi or
cauliflower, the central core of young cabbage or parsnips; very likely
these have as high a soluble carbohydrate value as does the remainder of
the vegetable. If grinding or chopping be substituted for a portion of the
cooking process, or if these more resistant parts can be given a separate
long slow cooking in fireless cooker or double boiler, then the palata-
36 THE JOURNAL OF HOME EcoNOMIcs [April
bility of ‘the combination may be greatly enhanced, and its nutrients
conserved.
One word remains to be said, from the standpoint of modern theories
of nutrition. Indications are not lacking that we may at last ‘come to
believe that spring “rheumatism” and pallor and skin disturbance; those
cases of pyorrhea which are akin to what has sometimes been called
scurvy, low resistance to many winter infections, and that common evil,
constipation, can conceivably be favorably affected by such an increase
in the diet of these vegetable salts, acids (and possibly “vitamines”), as
occurs when we change from a winter diet of canned and heavily extracted
vegetables to a spring diet of fresh or lightly cooked ones.27 At least it
seems worthwhile to take measures to prevent ‘our foods from being de-
pleted of these vegetable extracts which should no more be thrown
away than should the drippings of fat and juice which cook out ‘of
meat. Yet many a woman, who would be shocked at the idea of
throwing away a meat broth, does not hesitate to discard a much more
highly nutritious vegetable broth.
Since the above words were written a study has appeared (Jour.
Amer. Med. Assn., March 30, 1918) which exactly illustrates the point
in view. Dr. Hess, a notable authority on scurvy, rickets, and other
phases of pediatrics, considers it likely that the rickets, so commonly
occurring among negroes in New York City, may have some relation to
the lack of fresh vegetables and fruits in the diet. He finds that these
emigrants from the West Indies never have the disease while living
where the diet contains large amounts of fresh vegetables and fruits.
SUMMARY
1. Boiled vegetables may lose as low as 15 per cent or as high as 60
per cent of their fuel value, according to the method of manipulation.
(Those vegetables which are cooked within their own heavy, intact
jackets, such as unpeeled Irish potatoes and beets, will of course lose
much less even than this The extent of the loss depends
upon the amount of soluble carbohydrate and protein present in the
vegetable tissues, as well as upon the manipulation.
2. Losses in salts *and nitrogen often, if not always, slightly exceed the
fuel or caloric losses.
27 It is of great interest and pleasure to the first holder of the Ellen H. Richards F ellow-
ship, at the University of Chicago, who writes these lines, to learn that this doctrine was vig-
orously propagated by that wise and far-seeing woman.
1919] CHANGES IN FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES 37
3. Blanching for 5 or 6 minutes causes losses of 8 to 15 per cent (salts,
fuel value). Peeled and sliced vegetables lose twice as much.
4. Salting the water (1.5 per cent solution, or about 1 tablespoon to
the quart) decreases the losses in fuel value due to boiling.
5. Cutting the vegetable crosswise instead of lengthwise, or into small
instead of large pieces, increases the losses.
6. Steaming usually cuts the caloric losses down almost to zero; also
the salt losses, except in case of leafy tissues which expose a very large
amount of surface to the action of the condensing vapor (cabbage,
spinach). However, if conditions within the steamer are such that water
washes down over the vegetable mass, steaming may cause very large
losses. Particularly is this the case with pressure steamers.
7. The two factors most potent in causing variations in cooking losses
are varying lengths of time of cooking, and varying amounts of water
used in proportion to mass of vegetables to be cooked.
8. Steamed vegetables always lose in weight. Boiled vegetables may
gain in weight because their intercellular spaces take up water at the
same time that they are losing heavily in mineral salts and soluble
carbohydrates and proteins.
9. Home canning often results in a maximum amount of vegetables
and a minimum amount of watery juice in the jar, partly because of
close packing and partly because liquid is driven off during the period of
processing with seal only partially made. This relatively small amount
of juice in the jar is a great advantage from the standpoint of true
nutritive economy,——whatever may be its effect upon ease of sterilization
of the vegetable mass.

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