1817
ARTES
SCIENTIA
VERITAS
LIBRARY
OF THE
| UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
FLORIDUS UNUS
TUEROR
SHQUARIS PENINSULAM AMEENAM
CIRCUMSPICE
VANDUVLAADUNVANJU
MUSEUM
Museum
AE
5
386
1816
set:
AMERICAN EDITION
OF THE
BRITISH ENCYCLOPEDIA,
OR
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS AND SCIENCES.
COMPRISING
AN ACCURATE AND POPULAR VIEW
OF THE PRESENT
IMPROVED STATE OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE.
BY WILLIAM NICHOLSON,
Author and Proprietor of the Philosophical Journal, and various other Chemical, Philosophical, and
Mathematical Works.
ILLUSTRATED WITH
UPWARDS OF 160 ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS.
VOL. II. B..... E.
PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL A. MITCHELL & HORACE AMES.
W. Brown, Printer, Church Alley.
1817.
。
Museum Lib.
1-28-1935
5 volo
THE
BRITISH ENCYCLOPEDIA.
BUC
BUC
B
UBROMA, in botany, a genus of the The buccaneers are of two sorts: the
Polyadelphia Dodecandria class and buccaneers ox-hunters, or rather hunters
order. Nat. order Columniferæ . Malva- of bulls and cows; and the buccaneer's
ceæ, Jussieu. Essential character; calyx boar-hunters, who are simply called hun-
three-leaved; petals five, arched, semi- ters; though it seems that such a name be
bifid; anthers on each filament three; less proper to them than to the former,
stigma simple ; capsule muricate, ending since the latter smoke and dry the flesh
in a five-rayed star, punched with holes, of wild boars, which is properly called
five-celled, valveless, not opening. There buccaneering, whereas the former pre
is but one species, viz. B. guazuma, elm- pare only the hides, which is done with
leaved bubroma or theobroma, or bastard out buccaneering.
cedar. This tree rises to the height of Buccaneering is a term taken from Buc-
forty or fifty feet in the West Indies, hay. can, the place where they smoke their
ing a trunk as large as the size of a man's flesh or fish, after the manner of the sa-
body, covered with a dark brown bark, vages, on a grate or hurdle, made of Bra-
sending out many branches towards the oil wood, placed in the smoke a consider-
top, which extend wide every way; leaves able distance from the fire; this place is
oblong, heart-shaped, alternate, nearly a hut of about twenty-five or thirty feet
four inches long, and two broad near the in circumference, all surrounded and co-
base, ending in acute points; the branches vered with palmetto leaves.
have a nap scattered over them; they BUCCINATOR, in anatomy, a muscle
have no buds; the flowers are in co- on each side of the face, common to the
rymbs. In Jamaica it is known by the lips and cheeks. See ANATOMY.
name of bastard cedar, and is peculiar to BUCCINUM, in natural history, a ge-
the low lands there, forming an agreeable nus of the Vermes Testacea. Animal a
shade for the cattle, and supplying them limax; shell univalve, spiral, gibbous; ap-
with food in dry weather, when all the perture ovate, terminating in a short ca-
herbage is burned up or exhausted. The nal leaning to the right, with a retuse
wood is light, and so easily wrought that beak or projection; pillar-lip expanded,
it is generally used by coachmakers in There are between two and three hun-
all the side pieces; it is also cut into dred species, separated into eight divi-
staves for casks.
sions; viz. A. inflated, rounded, thin, sub-
BUCCANEERS, those who dry and diaphonous, and brittle. B. with a short
smoke flesh or fish, after the manner of exserted beak ; lip unarmed outwardly.
the Americans. This name is particularly C. lip prickly outwardly on the hind part;
given to the French inhabitants of the in other respects resembling division B.
island of St. Domingo, whose whole em- D. pillar-lip dilated and thickened. E.
ployment is to hunt bulls or wild boars, in pillar-lip appearing as if worn flat. F.
order to sell the hides of the former and smooth, and not among the former divi-
the flesh of the latter.
sions. G. angular, and not included among
a
BUC
BUC
the former divisions. H. tapering, subu- viz. B. buceras, olive bark tree, is a tree
late, smooth.
growing from twenty to thirty feet in
BUCCO, the barbet, in natural history, height; the branches and twigs are di-
a genus of birds of the order Picæ. Ge- varicate or flexuose, roundish, smooth,
neric character; bill sharp-edged, com- and even flowers, in racemes from the
pressed on the sides, notched on each crowded leaves, simple, spreading, ma-
side near the apex, bent inwards, with a ny-flowered; calyx "hoary without, to-
long slit beneath the eyes ; nostrils cover. mentose within ; filaments twice as long
ed with incumbent feathers; feet formed as the calyx ; anthers roundish, yellow;
for climbing. These birds live chiefly in germ flatted, with ten streaks at the base.
warm climates, and are very stupid ; bill It is a native of the West Indies, flower-
strong, straightish, almost covered with ing in spring.
bristles; tail-feathers usually ten, weak. BUCHNERA, in botany, so named in
There are nineteen species, of which we honour of A. C. Buchner, a genus of the
shall notice only B. jamatia, or spotted- Didynamia Angiospermia class and order.
bellied barbet. This bird is found in Bra- Natural order of Personatæ. Pedicu-
zil and Cayenne, is clumsy in its shape, lares, Juss. Essential character: calyx,
and pensive and solitary in its manners. obscurely, five-toothed; corolla border
It is so lethargic in its disposition, that it five-cleft, equal; lobes cordate ; capsule
will suffer itself to be shot at several two-celled. There are eleven species,
times before it attempts to escape. Its of which B. Americana, North American
food consists of insects, and particularly buchnera, has the stem scarcely branch-
targe beetles, and the feathers of its tail ing ; flowers in a spike remote from each
are much worn by friction, so as to indi- other; two of the stamens in the jaws of
cate the probability of the tail being em- the corolla, and two in the middle of the
ployed, agreeably to the known habit of tube. The herb grows black in drying.
woodpeckers, in propping or supporting It is a native of Virginia and Canada. B.
the body.
cernua, drooping buchnera, is a shrub
BUCEROS, the hornbill, in natural his- half a foot in height, branching regularly;
tory, a genus of birds of the order Picæ. a little jointed from the scars left by the
Generic character; their bill is convex, leaves, purplish; flowers sessile, erect,
curved, sharp-edged, large, outwardly with a linear, sharp bracte, shorter than
serrate, with a horny protuberance near the calyx, and two shorter lateral bristles;
the base of the upper mandible ; the nos- calyx tubular, oblong semiquinquefid,
trils are behind the base of the bill; the equal; corolla white, with a filiform tube,
tongue is sharp-pointed, and short ; the twice as long as the calyx, and bent back;
feet gressorial. There are sixteen spe- border flat, five-parted'; segments subo-
cies enumerated by Gmelin, though La- vate ; anthers within the jaws, two low-
tham reckons only four ; of these the most er than the other two; stigma inclosed,
curious is, the B. abyssinicus, or Abyssi- reflex, thickish. Native of the Cape of
nian hornbill. This is found in the coun- Good Hope.
try from which it takes its name, princi- BUCK, in natural history, a male horn-
pally among fields of jaff, and nourishes ed beast, whose female is denominated a
itself by the green beetles which abound doe. See CERVUS.
in them. Its young are numerous, some- BUCKET, a small portable vessel to
times amounting even to eighteen. hold water, often made of leather, for its
Though capable of flying far, it chiefly lightness and easy use in cases of fire. It
runs. It builds its nest in large thick is also the vessel let down into a well, or
trees, near churches or other elevated the sides of ships, to fetch up water.
buildings: this nest resembles a magpie's, BUCKING, the first operation in the
in being covered, but is several times whitening of linen-yarn or cloth: it con-
larger than an eagle's; it is seldom much sists in pouring hot water upon a tubful
elevated above the ground, but almost al. of yarn, intermingled with several strata
ways firm on the trunk, and the entrance of fine ashes of the ash tree. See BLEACH-
to it is always from the east. This bird ING,
is, in some places, called the bird of BUCKLER, a piece of defensive ar-
destiny
mour used by the ancients. It was worn
BUCIDA, in botany, a genus of the Do- on the left arm, and composed of wickers
decandria Monogynia class and order. woven together, or wood of the lightest
Natural order of Holoracæ, Elæagni, sort, but most commonly of hides, fortifi-
Jussieu. Essential character; calyx five- ed with plates of brass or other metal.
toothed, superior ; corolla none; berry The figure was sometimes round, some-
one-seeded. There is but one species; times oval, and sometimes almost square.
BUD
BUD
Most of the bucklers were curiously the calyx. B. occidentalis ; spear-leaved
adorned with all sorts of figures of birds buddlea ; this plant is much taller than
and beasts, as eagles, lions : nor of these the first, and divides into a greater num-
only, but of the gods, of the celestial bo- ber of slender branches, which are cover-
dies, and all the works of nature; which ed with a russet hairy bark, with long
custom was derived from the heroic spear-shaped leaves, ending in sharp
times, and from them communicated to points; these grow opposite at every
the Grecians, Romans, and Barbarians. joint; at the end of the branches are pro-
BUCKLERS, votive. Those consecrated duced spikes of white flowers, growing
to the gods, and hung up in their tem- in whorls round the stalks. It grows in
ples, either in commemoration of some sheltered places in the West Indies, be-
hero, or as a thanksgiving for a victory ing too tender to resist the force of strong
obtained over an enemy; whose buck- winds.
lers, taken in war, were offered as a tro- BUDDING, in gardening, is a method
phy
of propagation, practised for various sorts
BUCKRAM, in commerce, a sort of of trees, but particularly those of the
coarse cloth made of hemp, gummed, ca- fruit kinds. It is the only method which
lendered, and dyed several colours. It can be had recourse to with certainty, for
is put into those places of the lining of a continuing and multiplying the approved
garment, which one would have stiff and varieties of many sorts of fruit and other
to keep their forms. It is also used in trees; as, although their seeds readily
the bodies of women's gowns; and it grow, and become trees, not one out of a
often serves to make wrappers to cover hundred, so raised, produces any thing
cloths, serges, and such other merchan- like the original; and but very few that
dises, in order to preserve them and keep are good. But trees or stocks raised in
them from the dust, and their colours this manner, or being budded with the
from fading
proper sorts, the buds produce invariably
BUCOLIC, in ancient poetry, a kind of the same kind of tree, fruit, flower, &c.
poem relating to shepherds and country continuing unalterably the same after-
affairs, which, according to the most ge- wards.
nerally received opinion, took its rise in The stocks for this use are commonly
Sicily. Bucolics, says Vossius, have some raised from seed, as the kernels or stones
conformity with comedy. Like it, they of these different sorts of fruit, &c. sown
are pictures and imitations of ordinary in autumn or spring in beds, in the nur-
life; with this difference, however, that sery, an inch or two deep, which, when
comedy represents the manners of the a year or two old, should be transplanted
inhabitants of cities; and bucolics, the into nursery rows, two feet asunder, and
occupations of country people. Some- fifteen or eighteen inches distant in the
times, continues he, this last poem is in rows, to stand for budding upon, keeping
form of a monologue, and sometimes of a them to one stem, and suffering their
dialogue. Sometimes there is action in tops to run up entire; when of two or
it, and sometimes only narration; and three years growth, or about the size of
sometimes it is composed both of action the little finger at bottom, or a little
and narration. The hexameter verse is more, they are of due size for budding
the most proper for bucolics in the Greek upon.
and Latin tongues. Moschus, Bion, The- Stocks raised from suckers arising from
ocritus, and Virgil, are the most renown- the roots of the trees of these different
ed of the ancient bucolic poets.
sorts, layers, and cuttings of them, are
BUDDLEA, in botany, so named in also made use of, but they are not so good
honour of Adam Buddle, a genus of the for the purpose. Budding may likewise
Tetrandria Monogynia class and order. be performed occasionally upon trees
Natural order of Personatæ. Scrophu- that already bear fruit, when intended to
lariæ, Jussieu. Essential character: ca- change the sorts, or have different sorts
lyx four-cleft; corol four-cleft; stamens on the same tree, or to renew any par-
from the divisions; capsules two-furrow- ticular branch of a tree; the operation
ed, two-celled, many-seeded. There are being performed on the young shoots of
eight species, of which B. americana, long the year, or of one or two year's growth
spiked buddlea, is a shrub the height of only. The most proper height to bud
a man; leaves ovate-lanceolate; flowers stocks varies according to the intention,
in long slender spikes, axillary, and ter- but from about three or four inches to six
minating ; composed of little, opposite, feet or more from the ground is prac-
many flowered, crowded racemes; co- tised. To have dwarf trees for walls and
polla coriaceous, scarcely longer than espaliers, &c. they must be budded from
BUD
BUI
within about three to six inches from wet may pass off, and not enter into the
the bottom, that they may first furnish stock. To the part of the stock which is
branches near the ground: for half stand-left, some fasten the shoot, which pro-
ards, at the height of three or four feet; ceeds from the bud, to prevent the dan-
and for full standards, at from about five ger of its being blown out, but this must
to six or seven feet high; the stocks be- continue no longer than one year; after
ing trained accordingly. The necessary which it must be cut off close above the
implements and materials for this pur- bud, that the stock may be covered by it.
pose, are a small budding knife for pre- BUFF, in commerce, a sort of leather
paring the stocks and buds for insertion, prepared from the skin of the buffalo,
having a flat thin haft to open the bark of which dressed with oil, after the manner
the stocks in order to admit the buds; of shammy, makes what we call buff-skin.
and a quantity of new bass strings well This makes a very considerable article in
moistened to tie them with. In perform- the French, English, and Dutch com-
ing the operation of budding, the head merce at Constantinople, Smyrna, and all
of the stock is not to be cut off, as in along the coast of Africa. The skins of
grafting, but the bud inserted into the elks, oxen, and other-like animals, when
side, the head remaining entire till the prepared after the same manner as that
spring afterwards, and then cut off. A of the buffalo, are likewise called buffs.
smooth part on the side of the stocks at BUFFALO, in zoology, an animal of
the proper height, rather on the north the ox kind, with very large, crooked,
side away from the sun, should be chosen; and resupinated horns. See Bos.
and then with the knife an horizontal cut BUFFONIA, in botany, so named in
made across the rind, and from the mid- honour of the Count de Buffon, a genus
dle of that cut a slit downwards about two of the Tetrandria Digynia class and order.
inches in length, in the form of the letter Natural order of Caryophyllei. Essential
T, being careful lest the stock be wound- character: calyx four-leaved ; corol four-
ed. Then having cut off the leaf from petalled; capsules one-celled, two-seed-
the bud, leaving the foot-stalk remaining, ed. There is but one species, viz. B. te.
make a cross-cut about half an inch be- nuifolia; small buffonia, or bastard chick-
low the eye, and with the knife slit off the weed, has an annual root, the stem half a
bud with part of the wood to it, some foot in height, upright, commonly branch-
what in the form of an escutcheon, pull- ed at the base ; leaves in pairs at each
ing off that part of the wood which was joint, resembling grass leaves, but when
taken with the bud, being careful that the plant is in flower they are dry and
the eye of the bud be left with it, as shrivelled ; stamens two, sometime four;
all those buds which lose their eyes filaments very slender, shorter than the
in stripping should be thrown away as corolla, fastened to the receptacle; an-
good for nothing: then having gently thers saffron coloured; the capsule splits
raised the bark of the stock, where the at top into two hearts; seeds blackish.
cross incision was made with the flat haft It is a native of England, France, Italy,
of the knife clear to the wood, thrust the and Spain. It flowers in May and June.
bud in, placing it smoothly between the BUFO, toad. See RANA.
rind and the wood of the stock, cutting BUG See CIMEX.
off any part of the rind belonging to the The house bug, or cimex lectuarius, so
bud, which may be too long for the slit; extremely troublesome about beds, is of
,
and after having exactly fitted the bud to a roundish figure, and of a dark cinna-
the stock, tie them closely round with mon colour. One of the best methods
bass strings, beginning at the under part for extirpating these insects from bed-
of the slit and proceed to the top, taking steads, is by thoroughly washing all the
care not to bind round the eye of the parts where they are likely to lodge with
bud, which should be left open and at a solution of muriated mercury, or, as it
liberty. When the buds have been in- is called in the shops, corrosive sublimate.
serted about three weeks or a month, Great caution should be had in the use of
examine which of them have taken; this mixture, as it is one of the most
those which appear shrivelled and black deadly poisons known.
being dead, but such as remain fresh and BUGİNVILLÆA, in botany, a genus
plump are joined; and at this time loosen of the Octandria Monogynia class and or-
the bandage, which, if not done in time, der. Corolla inferior, tubular, four-tooth-
is apt to pinch the stock and greatly in- ed; stamina inserted on the receptacle;
jure, if not destroy, the bud. The March fruit one-seeded. One species, B. specta-
following, cut off the stock about three bilis, found at the Brazils.
inches above the bud, sloping it, that the BUILDING, a fabric erected by art,
-
BUILDING
either for devotion, magnificence, or con- transverse pieces of oak, called sleepers,
veniency
about two feet distant from each other,
BUILDING is also used for construct- firmly on the ground; having their upper
ing and raising an edifice; in which sense surface level with the bottom of the
it comprehends as well the expenses, as trench, and their length equal to its
the invention and execution of the design. breadth, or about two feet longer than the
There are three things chiefly to be con- width of the intended masonry at the
sidered in the art of building, viz. con- bottom of the wall: over these lay planks
venience, firmness, and delight. To ac- in the length of the foundation to the
complish which ends, Sir H. Wotton con breadth of the masonry, where it is to be
siders the subject under these two heads, in contact with the ground, and pin or
the situation and the work. As to the si- spike them down.
tuation, either that of the whole is to be But if the ground be very bad, provide
considered, or that of its parts. In the piles of wood, of such length that they
first, regard must be had to the quality, may be able to reach the sound ground,
temperature, and salubrity of the air ; to and of such thickness as to be about a
the quality of the soil ; to the conveniency twelfth part of their length, and drive these
of water, fuel, carriage, &c. and to the either close to each other, or with inter-
agreeableness of the prospect. As to the stices such as the soil may require, and
situation of the parts, the chief rooms, fix planks to their heads or upper ends.
studies, and libraries, should lie towards If the ground be generally sound, turn
the east; those offices which require heat, arches over the loose places. When nar-
as kitchens, brew-houses, bake-houses, row piers are to stand upon the founda-
and distillatories towards the south; those tion, inverted arches might be turned be-
which require a cool fresh air, as cellars, low the apertures, in order to present a
pantries, granaries, to the north ; as also greater surface of resistance to the ground.
galleries for paintings, museums, &c. which When the outer walls of a building are
require a steady light. The ancient Greeks piled, the inner ones must be so likewise,
and Romans generally situated the fronts that the whole may stand uniformly firm,
of their houses towards the south ; but the without the possibility of one wall sinking
modern Italians vary much from this rule. from another.
And indeed, as to this matter, regard If narrow piers are to support a great
must still be had to the country, each be- structure, planks should be placed below,
ing obliged to provide against its own in- in order to prevent the piers from pene-
conveniences.
trating the ground. If a building is
The situation being fixed on, the next founded upon an inclined plane, the
thing to be considered is the work itself, trenches should be made like steps, hav-
under which come first the principal parts, ing their upper surfaces level, and the
and next the accessories or ornaments. risings perpendicular.
To the principals belong the materials, Forced earth is unfit for a foundation
and the form or disposition.
for a considerable time.
Modern buildings are, in general, much Foundation is also the substructure or
more commodious and beautiful than bottom of a wall, consisting of one or
those of former times. Compactness and more regular steps on each side of the
uniformity are now so much attended to, wall below the level of the underside of
that a house built after the new way, will the floor of the lowest story of a house,
afford, on the same ground, double the in order to prevent it from sinking into
conveniences which could be had in an the ground, by opposing a greater sur-
face of resistance to it, and for preventing
In this article we shall give an account the wall from being overturned by a tem-
of the principal parts of a building; be pest or storm : each course of steps is
ginning with the foundation.
called a footing
Foundation is the trench or trenches ex- The breadth of the substructure should
cavated out of the ground, in order to rest be proportioned to the weight of the su-
the edifice firmly on its base. The trench- perstructure, and to the softness of the
es should be sunk till they come to an ground on which it rests; if the texture
uniform firm texture of ground, or to the of the ground is supposed to be constant,
solid rock; but when there is no prospect and the materials of the same specific
of a firm and uniform bed of gravel, clay, gravity, the breadth of the foundation
or rock, then recourse must be had to an will be as the area of the vertical section
artificial foundation.
passing through the line on which the
If the ground is tolerably firm, lay breadth is measured : thus, for example,
old one.
BUILDING
suppose a wall 40 feet high, 2 feet thick; Wedge-like stones forming an arch are
to have a sufficient foundation at 3 feet arch stones.
în breadth, what should be the breadth of The joints between the arch stones
a foundation of a wall 60 feet high, 2} are called sommerings.
feet thick: by proportion it will be 40 X 2 The support or supports of an arch are
:3:: 60 X 2j : the ans. = 5% feet. This called the reins of that arch.
=
calculation will give the breadth of the When the support or supports of an
foundation of the required wall equal arch are stone-walls, the upper course or
to the breadth of the insisting wall itself, courses on which the beds of the ex-
when the height of the required wall is treme arch stones rest, are called the
equal to the ratio, which is the first term imposts.
40 X 2=80, divided by the second term Spring course, or chaptrels of the arch,
80
are called the butments or abutments, or
3, that is = 26. Thus a wall of 261 spring beds, or skew backs of the arch.
3
,
feet would have the breadth of its foun-
When an arch is either recessed in any
dation, equal to its thickness above the piece of masonry, or forms the head of
foundation, and less than 26 feet would an aperture through that piece of mason-
have a thinner foundation than even the
ry, the arch stones which are common to
the intrados and to the face of the mason-
superstructure. But though the calcula- .
tion in this case gives the foundation less voussoir is called the key stone.
ry, are called voussoirs, and the middle
breadth than the thickness of its super-
Stone arches are used for a variety of
structure, it must be considered that
,
it only calculates the true breadth of purposes, in supporting different parts of
a building, over apertures, when the
surface that should be opposed to the
ground, in order to prevent the wall from apertures are two wide for lintelling, and
over a wooden or stone lintel, to assist
penetration by its weight : though the in supporting the superincumbent build-
:
rule gives all the breadth that is necessary,
ing
on account of the weight of the insisting
Arches are also used to prop the sides
wall, yet the breadth of the substruc- of a building, and in soft foundations in-
,
ture should always be greater than that verted arches are used, between narrow
of the superstructure; as it will stand piers, to prevent the pier from penetrat-
more firmly on its base when affected by ing, by opposing a greater surface of re-
lateral pressure, and be less liable to rock sistance to the ground.
by the blowing of heavy winds. The Floors and roofs are frequently sup-
least breadth that is commonly given to ported with arches, in order to render the
the substructure of stone walls is one building more secure from fire.
foot thicker than the superstructure. In Arches employed for several of these
damp foundations the superstructure purposes have been denominated as fol-
should always be separated from the sub- lows: those over wooden lintels have
structure by lead, tarred paper, or other been called occult discharging arches, or
arches of discharge; those used to prop
Stone Arch. Stone arch is a number of the sides of a building are called arch
stones so arranged that, in consequence of boutants, or flying buttresses; and those
their pressure upon one another and upon over apertures, the intrados of which are
their supports, they may be suspended horizontal planes, have been absurdly
over a hollow space; every interior stone called straight arches; it is only for the
being such, that, if a plummet be depend property of its radiating joints this last is
ed by a line from any point in that stone, called an arch.
the line will fall within the hollow space. Because the courses in every kind of
Stone arches are generally hollow be- masonry ought to be horizontal, or the
low, and concave towards that hollow. nearest position to it that the nature of
The interior stones ought to be truncated the arch will admit of, in stone arching,
wedges, and their faces, which form the it follows, that when the intrados is a ro-
intrados, of less dimensions than the up- tative figure with a vertical axis, the
per opposite surfaces which form the ex- coursing joints will be conic surfaces, and
trados; so that when any stone endea- their intersections upon the intrados ho-
vours to descend through the aperture rizontal circles, and the transverse joints
which surrounds it, it will be prevented will be planes tending to the axis : when
by the dimensions of the lower part of the the axis is horizontal, the coursing joints
aperture being less than those of the top will be planes tending to the axis, and
of the stone which has to fall through it. the transverse joints will be either ver-
means.
BUILDING
tical circular rings, or conic surfaces, thirds of the foundation, then build them
having the same common axis with the in- alternately, with the joints on the upper
trados.
bed of each footing, so that the joint of
Stone Walls. Stone walls are those every two stones may fall as nearly as pos-
built of stone, with or without cement in sible in the middle of the length of the
the joints; the bedding joints have most one, or each adjoining stone ; observing
commonly a horizontal position in the to dispose the stones alike on each side
face of the work, and this ought always of every footing: A wall, the superstruc-
to be the case when the top of a wall termi- ture of which is built of unhewn stone laid
nates in a horizontal plane or line. In in mortar, is called a ruble wall. They
bridge building, and in the masonry of are of two kinds, coursed and uncoursed.
fence walls upon inclined surfaces, the The most common kind of ruble is the
bedding joints on the face sometimes fol- uncoursed, of which the greater part of
low the direction of the top or terminat- the stones is crude, as they came out of
ing surface.
the quarry, and the rest hammer dressed.
The footings of stone walls ought to be This kind of walling is very inconvenient
constructed of large stones, which, if not for the building of bond timbers; but if
naturally near the square from the quar- they are to be preferred to plugging, the
ry, should be reduced by hammer dress- backing must be levelled in every height
ing to that form, and to an equal thick- in which the bond timbers are disposed.
ness in the same course ; for, if the beds The best kind of ruble is the coursed; the
of the stones of the foundation are suffer- courses are all of accidental thicknesses,
ed to taper, the superstructure will be adjusted by a sizing rule, as the slating
apt to give way, by resting upon mere of a roof; the stones are either bammer
angles or points; or upon inclined sur. dressed or axed. This kind of work is
faces the footings ought to be well bed- favourable for the disposition of bond tim-
ded upon each other with mortar, and all bers, but as all buildings, constructed
the upright joints of an upper footing either in whole or in part of timber, are
should break joint; that is, they should liable to be burnt, strong well built walls
fall upon the solid of the stones below, should never be bound with timber, but
and not upon the joint.
should rather be plugged, for if such ac-
The following are methods practised incident take place the walls will be less lia-
laying the footings of a stone foundation : ble to warp.
when the walls are thin and stones can be Walls faced with squared stones, hewn
got conveniently, that their length mayor rubbed, and backed with ruble stone
reach across each footing from one side or brick, are called ashler. The medium
of the wall to the other, the setting of size of each ashler measures horizontally
each course with whole stones in the in the face of the wall about 28 or 30
thickness of the wall should be preferred. inches; in the altitude one foot, and in the
But when the walls are thicker, and bond thickness 8 or 9 inches. The best figures
stones in part can only be conveniently of stones for an ashler facing are formed
procured, then every other succeeding like truncated wedges; that is to say, they
stone in the course may be a whole stone are thinner at one end than at the other
in the thickness of the wall; and every in the thickness of the wall, so that when
other interval may consist of two stones the stones of one course, or a part of a
in the breadth of the footing; this is plac- course, are shaped in this manner, and
ing the header and stretcher alternately, alike situated to each other, the back of
like Flemish bond in nine-inch brick work. the course will form an indention like the
But when bond stones cannot be had con- teeth of a joiner's saw, but more shallow
veniently, every alternate stone should be in proportion to the length of a tooth; the
in length two-thirds of the breadth of the next course has its indentations formed
footing upon the same side of the wall; the same way, and the stones so selected,
then upon the other side of the wall a that the upright joints break upon the so-
stone of one-third of the breadth of the lid of the stones below
footing should be placed, opposite to one By these means, the facing and backing
of two-thirds; and one of two-thirds op- are toothed together, and unquestionably
posite to one of one-third; so that the stronger than if the back of each ashler
stones may be placed in the same man. had been parallel to the front surface of
ner as those of the other side.
the wall; as the stones are mostly raised
In broad foundations where stones can- in quarries of various thicknesses, in an
not be procured for a length equal to two- ashler facing, it would greatly contribute
VOL. II.
B
BUILDING
to the strength of the work to select the short horizontal dimensions, not exceed.
stones in each course, so that every alter- ing a length of stones that can be easily
nate ashler may have broader beds than procured, every stone should be quite
those of every ashler placed in each alter- level on the bed, without any degree of
nate interval. In every course of ashler concavity, and should be one entire piece
facing bond stones should be introduced, between every two horizontal joints. This
and their number should be proportioned should be particularly attende, to on
to the length of the course. This should piers, where the insisting weight is great,
be strictly attended to in long ranges of otherwise the stones will be in danger of
stones, both in walls without apertures splintering and crushing to pieces, and
and in the courses that form wide piers; perhaps occasion a total demolition of the
when they are wide, every bond stone of fabric. Vitruvius has left us an account
one course should fall in the middle of of the manner of the construction of the
every two bond stones in the course be- walls of the ancients, which were as fol.
low. In every pier where the jambs are lows: the reticulated is that wherein the
coursed with the ashler, and also in every joints run in parallel lines, making angles
pier where the jambs are one entire height, of 45° each with the horizon in contrary
every alternate stone next to the aperture ways, and consequently the faces of the
in the former case, and every alternate stones form squares, of which one diago-
stone next to the jambs in the latter case, nal is horizontal, and the other vertical.
should bond through the wall, and also This kind of wall was much used by the
every other stone should be placed length. Romans in his time. The incertain wall
wise, in each return of an angle, not less was formed of stones, of which the one
than the average length of an ashler. Bond direction of the joints was horizontal, and
stones should have no taper in their beds; the other vertical ; but the vertical joints
the end of every bond stone, as well as of the alternate courses were not always
the end of every return stone, should ne- arranged in the same straight line: all
ver be less than a foot. There should be that they regarded was to make them
no such thing as a closer permitted, un- break-joint. This manner of walling was
less it bond through the wall. All the used by the Romans in times antecedent
uprights, or joints, should be square, or to the time of Vitruvius. Vitruvius di-
at right angles to the front of the wall, rects, that in both the reticulated and in-
and may recede about aths of an inch certain walls, instead of filling up the
from the face, from thence gradually spaces between the sides with ruble pro-
widen to the back, and thereby make hol- miscuously, they should be strengthened
low, wedge-formed figures, which will with abutments of hewn stone or bricks,
give sufficient cavities for the reception or common flints, built in walls two feet
of packing and mortar.
high, and bound to the front with cramps
Both the upper and lower beds of eve- of iron. The emplection consisted of two
ry stone should be quite level, and not sides or shells of squared stone, with al-
form acute angles, as is often the case; ternate joints, and a ruble core in the
the joints from the face to about åths of middle.
an inch within the wall should be either The walls of the Greeks were of three
cemented with fine mortar, or with a mix. kinds, named isodomum, pseudosodo-
ture of oil, putty, and white lead : the for- mum, and emplection. The isodomum
mer is the practice both in London and had the courses all of an equal thickness;
Edinburgh, and the latter in Glasgow. but the pseudosodomum had them un-
The putty cement will stand longer than equally thick: in both these walls, wher-
most stones, and will be prominent when ever the squared work was discontinued,
the face of the stones has been corroded the interval, or core, was filled up with
with age. The whole of the ashler, ex- common hard stones, laid in the manner
cept that mentioned of the joints toward of brick, with alternate joints. The em-
the face of the wall, the ruble work, and plection was constructed wholly of squar-
the core, should be set and laid in the ed stones; in these bond stones were
best mortar, and every stone laid on its placed at regular intervals, and the stones
natural bed.
in the intermediate distance were laid
All wall-plates should be placed upon a with alternate joints in the same manner
number of bond stones, and particularly as those of the face: so that this manner
those of the roof; by which means they of Greek walling must have been much
may either be joggled upon the bonds, or stronger than the emplection of the Ro-
fastened to them by iron and lead. In man villagers. This is a most strong and
building walls or insulated pillars of very durable manner of walling, and in modern
BUILDING.
.
times it may be practised with the utmost circle draw a straight line, parallel to any
success; but in the common run of build- one of the lines drawn through the cen-
ings it would be too expensive.
tre and circumference of the former ; also
Stone Columns Stone columns should from the point in the circumference of
be executed with as few joints as possi- the last drawn circle, where the line
ble; if they can be procured in one drawn through the centre cuts this cir-
piece, they will have a strong and grand cle, divide the circumference into the
effect. There should be no such thing as same number of equal parts as that of the
vertical joints; for they not only destroy circle formerly drawn; then draw lines
the beauty of the column, but are incon- from the centre to each of the points so
sistent with the laws of strength. Before divided, and these lines will be respec-
the number of pieces can be fixed, two tively parallel to those of the former cir-
important circumstances must be taken cle; the extremities of each pair of pa-
into consideration : first, to find out those rallel lines, in each circumference, will
quarries which will produce durable regulate the chisel draught, which is to
stones, of the size and colour wanted, and be wrought along the surface of the co-
the nearer to the place of erection the lumn. The corresponding draught be-
better; next, to inquire concerning the ing made from each pair of parallels, the
price of the carriage ; if these come with- spaces between will be more easily
in the maximum limit of what the propri- wrought down; then, if the number of
etor would chuse to fix, then the number pieces which compose the column ex-
of pieces is determined; but, if not, this ceed seven or nine, a straight edge may
number must be increased, in order to be applied, the side of which always be-
make it equal to, or less than, the pro- ing in a plane passing through the axis ;
posed sum, observing to choose the near- but if fewer pieces are used, make a di-
est odd number. The circumstances be- minishing rule, that is, to the line of the
ing thus accommodated to each other, column: on the side of the diminishing
and the stones laid down at the place in- rule draw a straight line parallel to the
tended for building, draw a section of the axis; this rule will serve to plumb the
column through its axis, to the full size; stones in setting them; and to work the
divide the height of this section, by lines convex surface of each stone: prepare
parallel to the base, into heights equal in another rule, equal in length to that of a
number to that of the stones; by these stone, having its edge straight the same
means, the diameters of each end of eve- as the diminishing rule.
ry stone in the altitude will be deter- The cement used in setting each co-
mined. The upper and lower bodies of lumn stone is either oil-putty, or white
each stone are first to be wrought exact- lead, or white lead mixed with chalk-
ly to parallel planes, and as one great putty, orfine mortar, or milled lead rolled.
beauty of columns is to make them ap- very thin. If the column be large, and
pear, at a small distance, as if they were rolled lead be used, it needs only to form
in one entire piece, they should be rub- a ring half an inch distant from the edge
bed at first with a large coarse stone, in of the joint, and let the joint at the edge
order to prevent the surface from being be filled with oil-putty,
excavated, and then with a fine stone of Stone Stairs. When stairs are support-
the same size as the coarse one; with ed by a wall at both ends, nothing diffi-
the utmost care observing to try the cult can occur in the construction; in
straight edge, or rule, as the rubbing this the inner ends of the steps may ei-
goes on; in this the edge of the rule ther terminate into a solid newal, or be
should always coincide with the surface, tailed into a wall surrounding an open
otherwise the two superficies which are newal. Where elegance is not required,
to form the joint can never coincide. and where the newal does not exceed
The two beds of a stone being thus form- two feet six inches, the ends of the steps
ed, find the centre, and describe the cir- may be conveniently supported by a solid
cle at one end, divide the circumference pillar; but when the newal is thicker, a
into a convenient number of equal parts ; thin wall surrounding the newal would be
(it is usual to divide it into six or eight;) cheaper. In the stairs of a sunk story,
draw lines from each point to the centre; where there is a geometrical stair above,
find the centre of the circle on the other the steps next to the newal are generally
bed, so that the two centres may be in supported upon a dwarf wall. Geome-
the straight line forming the axis of the trical stairs have the outer end fixed in
column; that is, when the straight line the wall, and one of the edges of every
joining their centres is perpendicular to step supported by the edge of the step
each bed; through the centre of this last below, and constructed with sally-formed
BUILDING
a
joints; so that they cannot descend in the itself, or on the edge of the preceding
inclined direction of the stair, nor yet in stair stone, whether the stair stone be a
a vertical direction; the upper sally of plat or step. The stones forming a plat-
every step forms an interior obtuse an- form are generally of the same thickness
gle, called a back rebate, and the lower, as those forming the steps.
of course, an exterior one; and the joint Roofs. Roof is that part of a building
formed of these sallies is called a joggle. raised upon the walls, and extending over
The upper part of the joint may be level all the parts of the interior, which con-
from the face of the risers, to about one sists not only of the covering or exterior
inch within the joint.
part, but of all the necessary supports of
This is the plane of the tread of each that part, for protecting its contents from
step, continued one inch within the sur- inclement seasons. There are many
face of each riser; the lower part of the forms of roofs, the most simple of which
joint is a narrow surface, perpendicular is that which has only one plane, and is
to the rake of the stair, at the end next called a shed roof; but the form which
to the newal. In stairs constructed of has always been, and still continues to be
most kinds of stone, the thickness of eve- in most general use, wherever the nature
ry step, at the thinnest place of the end of climate requires it to be raised, is that,
next to the newal, has no occasion to ex- the vertical section of which consists of
ceed two inches, for steps of four feet in two sloping sides, is consequently trian-
length, that is, by measuring from the in- gular, and called a span or pediment
terior angle of every step perpendicular roof.
to the rake.
Here it will be proper to say some-
The thickness of steps at the interior thing of the changes of inclination or
angle should be proportioned to the pitch which have prevailed in this simple
length of the step; but allowing that the form, among different nations, from time
thickness of the steps at each interior an- to time, arising as well from the nature of
gle is sufficient at two inches, then will the climate as the caprice of the people,
the thickness of the steps at the interior and as transmitted down to the present
angles be half the number of inches that age. The ancient Egyptians, Babyloni-
the length of the steps has in feet: thus ans, and Persians, as well as other eastern
a step five feet long would be two inches nations; and also the present inhabitants
and a half at that place.
of those climates, where rain seldom ap-
The stone platform of geometrical pears, make their roofs quite flat. The
stairs, viz. the landing half spaces, and ancient Greeks, perceiving the inconve-
quarter spaces, are constructed of one, nience of this, raised them in the middle,
two, or several stones, according to the with a gentle inclination towards the
difficulty of procuring them. When the sides; the height from the middle to the
platform consists of two or more stones, level of the walls not exceeding one-
the first platform stone is laid upon the ninth or one-eighth part of the span; as
last step that is set, and the one end may be seen by many ancient temples
wedged in the wall: the next platform still remaining in that country. The Ro-
stone is joggled, or rebated, into the one mans made the height from one-fifth to
next set, and the end again fixed in the two-ninth parts of the span. After the
wall, as that and the preceding steps are, decline of the Roman empire, high pitch-
and every stone in succession, till the ed roofs began to be in general request
platform is completed. If there is occa- all over Europe, and the vertical section
sion for another flight of steps, the last of that which most generally prevailed,
platform becomes a spring stone for the seems to have been an equilateral triangle,
next step, the joint is to be joggled, as which was considered as the standard.
well as all the succeeding steps, in the In Germany this has been remarkable,
same manner as the first Aight. Geome- from very remote antiquity, as appears
trical stairs, executed in stone, depend from Vitruvius: the equilateral pitch,
on the following principle: that every and that of a higher one, appears to have
body must at least be supported by three continued as long as pointed architecture
points, placed out of a straight line, and, prevailed.
consequently, if two edges of a body in When Grecian and Roman architecture
different directions be secured to ano. was first introduced into this country
ther, the two bodies will be immovable in from Italy, roofs began to be made lower,
respect of each other. This last is the and the rafters were three-fourths of the
case in a geometrical stair: one end of a breadth of the building: this was called
stair stone is always tailed into the wall, true pitch, and subsequently the square
and one edge either rests on the ground seems to have been considered as the
BUILDING
true pitch. In these several gradations consists of four sloping sides on the out-
of changes, the material for the covering side, each two forming an exterior an
has been supposed to be impervious stone gle, the roof is called
a curb or mansard
or slates, and the roofs themselves to be roof, whether there are gables on the
those which cover ordinary dwellings; other two sides of the building, or the
for, after the Italian architecture began different sides of the roof, equally in-
to prevail in the last century, platform clined, all around, upon each respective
roofs, and those of a pediment pitch, wall.
were introduced in many sumptuous man- Figures of roofs which rise from square,
sions and public edifices; but the mate- rectangular, and polygonal plans, forming
rial employed for covering was lead. At only exterior angles on the outside, and
the present day, when good slates are to which terminate in a point over the cen-
be had in abundance, we can execute tre of the plan, are denominated from
roofs to the Grecian declivity, but with the base on which they rise, and from a
regard to the general practice, the pitch vertical section passing through the apex,
of the roof depends on the style of ar- perpendicular to any one of the sides of
chitecture introduced in the buildings; the base and to the horizon; that is, a roof
the proportion of the pitch in ordinary standing upon a square pentagonal or oc-
dwellings, is between one-third and one-tagonal plan, having a triangular vertical
fourth part of the span; mansions and section, is called a square pentagonal or
public buildings are executed in every octagonal pyramidal roof; when such a
style that has prevailed in different times, roof is said to be polygonal, the epithet
and among different people ; and the only applies to the figure of the base. An
proportion of the roof, as well as other octangular roof is one whose base is an
parts, are rigidly adhered to: this con- octagon, whatever be the form of the
sequently produces a great diversity in vertical section. All roofs, the horizon-
the heights.
tal sections of which are similar figures,
There are some advantages in high either polygons as above described, or
pitched roofs; they discharge the rain circles or ellipses, and the vertical sec-
with greater rapidity; snow continues to tions of which are segments of convex
lie a much shorter time on their surface, curves, such as of circles, ellipses, para-
and they are less liable to be stripped by bolas, &c. are called domes; hence a
heavy winds.
square dome is one that rises from a
Low roofs require large slates, and the square plan; an octangular dome, from
utmost care in the execution ; but they an octangular plan; a circular dome from
have, however, this advantage, that they a circular plan ; and an elliptic dome,
are much cheaper, since they require from an elliptical plan. Domes upon cir-
shorter timbers, and consequently much cular plans are called cupolas. A circular
smaller scantling ; besides, they have less or elliptical roof, the vertical section of
pressure on the walls. The roof is one which consists of two similar and equal
of the principal ties to a building, when concave curves meeting in the apex, is
executed with judgment, as it binds the called a trumpet-mouthed roof. When
exterior walls together. There are a va- the roof is circular or elliptical, and the
riety of forms in the vertical section of vertical section an isosceles triangle, the
roofs, besides the simple and customary apex of which is that of the roof, the roof
one above mentioned. The figure of the is simply called a conical or conoidal roof.
roof depends on two or more vertical and When the vertical section of a circu-
horizontal sections. A span, or pent lar dome is a parabola, hyperbola, or el-
.
roof, is that which stands upon walls of a lipsis, the dome is then called a parabo-
quadrangular plan, and of which the loidal dome, a hyperboloidal dome, or
transverse vertical section is every where ellipsoidal dome; these epithets com-
a triangle throughout its length; and prehending both the base of the figure
slopes from two opposite sides. A hipt, and vertical section. All figures of roofs,
or Italian roof, is that, the sides of which which insist on the foregoing bases,
incline alike to the horizon, and termi- whatever be the form of their verti-
nates either in a point, line, or raised plat- cal sections, are called by the general
form. Vitruvius calls a hipt roof, which name of pavilion roofs, as they only cover
rises from a rectangular plan, a testudi- one simple building. From the inter-
nated roof, or simply a testudo. When sections of two or more simple roofs of
the plan of a roof is a parallelogram, and the same or of different kinds, a multitude
when the vertical section across the two of complex figures will be formed; the
opposite walls, which have not a greater plans of some of these are denominated
span than that across the other two walls, by letters of the alphabet, as an ell roof
BUILDING.
a
is one which rests upon a plan in the form river runs in the valley, a wide part of
of the letter L; a tee roof upon a plan in the stream must be preferred to a narrow
the form of the letter T; and an aitch part, as the water at this narrower part
roof upon a plan formed like the letter has not only a greater degree of velocity
H; but when two common roofs, having of itself, but the velocity would also be in-
their ridges parallel to each other, and a creased by the piers of the bridge ; in
side of the one either joins one of the times of heavy floods it would be liable to
other, or these two sides intersect each be thrown down, and in a navigable river
other, and thereby leave a gutter above the navigations would be impeded. As
the roof; then the roof which is thus com- the expense depends on the bed of the
pounded of the two simple roofs, is call. river, it must also be taken into the ac-
ed an em roof, as the vertical section is in count.
the form of the letter M, or rather an in- These being settled, the form and
verted Was M: this is an instance where height of the arches come next under
the roof is denominated by the vertical consideration; the height of the arches,
section, and not by the plan. All roofs which determine that of the bridge, de-
whatever are said to be truncated, whe- pends on the rise of the water in time of
ther they terminate in a plane or raised foods; and whether there is to be a na-
platform, or have a void at the top, bound- vigation, and what kind of vessels there
ed by a level curb.
are to pass.
When the side of a roof is a plane sur- Stone bridges ought to be constructed
face, except at the eaves, at which place with as few arches as possible, which will
it is concave, the roof is said to have a bell not only give greater beauty, but will re-
cast at that place.
quire fewer foundations, piers, and cen-
The general names of the timbers are terings, and also easier passage for craft.
straining pieces, tie pieces, and bearers : The piers ought to be so proportioned as
under straining pieces are included prin- to enable them to withstand the thrust of
cipal rafters, camber beams, hip and val- the adjacent arches, though the rest were
ley rafters, collar beams, or straining thrown down. The number of arches
beams, straining sills, struts, auxillary raf- ought to be odd, in order that one may
ters, or principal braces and studs. stand in the middle, where the stream
Under tie pieces are included, tie has its greatest velocity.
beams, diagonal ties, and truss posts; and When the passage-way along the top
under bearers are included, plates, pur- of the bridge is a convex curve, the arch-
lins, common rafters, small rafters, ridge es should diminish from the middle to-
pieces, boarding and dragon beams. wards each extreme, so as to be similar
The sloping sides of roofs are of two to the middle one, this will allow a more
kinds, single and double, or plain, and free passage to the water, the velocity
carcase: single roofs are those which have being greatest in the middle. With re-
one row of rafters upon the same side; spect to the choice of arches, the ellipti-
double or carcase roofs are those which cal, cycloidal, and equilibrated arches,
have two tie of rafters; the lower tie sup- are not only convenient, in allowing more
porting the upper by the intervention of room for the passage of ships at the
transverse pieces called purlins.
hanches, but they require fewer materials
Stone Bridges. A stone bridge is a thick than most other curves of the same di-
wall built across a hollow, with one, two, mensions.
three, or a series of apertures, formed in- When the extrados is convex, and the
to arcades, which either serve to lighten height of the arch small in proportion to
the masonry, or to give passage to a the span, a segment of a circle may be
stream of water, or both.
used with success in this case the arch
When a stone bridge is resolved upon, should not exceed 60 degrees.
the first consideration is its place: in this These particulars being fixed, the prac-
several particulars should be taken into tice is as follows:-When the foundation
consideration, and the advantages com- of a stone bridge is to be laid in a river
pared to the disadvantages. As the height which is not very deep, a single or dou-
of the bridge depends on the banks of ble inclosure of wood is formed, and the
the river, the expense will be increased intervening space is rammed well with
according to their height, therefore a con- clay or chalk, to prevent the water from
venient situation should be chosen, where coming in. These inclosures are either
the banks will be adequate in height to made with piles driven closely together,
that necessary for the bridge, though the and dovetailed at their joinings, or by
expense will be increased by the length piles driven at certain distances from one
of the bridge. In most cases, where the another, and grooved on the sides oppo
BUI
BUL
site each other, and the intervals are shut sure of earth between the sides of the
with boards let in between the grooves. abutments, these sides should be both
This kind of fence against the water is concave in any vertical and also in any
called a batterdeaux, or coffer-dam. The horizontal sections.
batte rdeaux, or coffer-dam, requires a In stone bridges, when the extrados is
good foundation of solid earth or clay. If a curve, and when the work is coursed,
the bed of the river be of a loose consis- the intersection of the bedding joint of
tence, the water will ooze through it in every two courses on the face of the
too great abundance. The sides of the masonry ought to be parallel to the in-
inclosure must be made very strong, and tersection of the extrados with this face;
well braced within, to prevent the am- as this position of the joints is not only
bient water from fercing its way into the more beautiful, but is also more agreea-
batterdeaux.
ble to the laws of strength, than those
Where the water is deep, but having a bedding joints which have their intersec-
sound bottom, a strong chest, called a tions in horizontal planes.
caisson, must be formed, so that the sides BULB, or BULBOUS root, in the anato-
may easily be disengaged from the bottom my of plants, expresses a root of a round
of the river, being bevelled, where the or roundish figure, and usually furnished
pier is to be built, and the caisson pro- with fibres at its base. See BOTANY.
perly placed over it, and kept in this BULBOCODIUM, in botany, a genus
situation by ropes : begin to build, and as of the Hexandria Monogynia class and
the work advances it will sink gradually, order. Liliaceous plants. Order Spatha-
and at the same time keep continually ceæ : Narcissi, Jussieu. Essential charac-
bracing the sides with timber, to prevent ter: corolla funnel-form, hexapetalous,
the ambient water from chrushing it toge- with a narrow claw bearing the stamens;
ther, and thereby not only spoiling the capsule superior. There is but one spe-
work, but drowning the workmen. When cies, viz. B. vernum, spring flowering bui-
the pier is of such height as to be deeper bocodium, resembles the common col-
than the water, the sides may be disen- chicum in shape, though much smaller ;
gaged, and the bottom of the caisson will it is covered with a dark brown skin.
remain under the pier, as a footing on About the middle of February, according
which it is to rest for this purpose the to the season, the flowers spring up
bottom of the caisson should be made ve- inclosed within three brownish green,
ry strong Where the foundation is not leaves, opening themselves as soon almost
firm, recourse must be had to piling, as as they are out of the ground, and shew
in other such foundations.
their buds for flowers within them very
With regard to the superstructure of a white, before they open far; though
stone bridge, the arch stones sometimes sometimes purplish at first appearing
terminate in a curve parallel to the in- There is frequently but one flower, and
trados, and sometimes the joints of the never more than two; they are smaller
arch stones are continued through the than those of colchicum. After the flow-
spandrils, observing to break joint side- ers are past the leaves grow to the length
ways; at other times, the upper ends of of a finger, and in the middle of them
the arch stones terminate so as to fit the rises up the seed vessel, which is smaller,
beds and upright joints of every course of shorter, and harder than that of colchi-
stone. The joints of the arch stones are cum, and contains many small brown
sometimes joggled with plugs, in order seeds. It is a native of Spain and of Rus-
to prevent them from passing each other. sia in mountainous situations.
The piers are generally solid pieces of BULIMY, a disease in which the patient
masonry from the foundation till they is affected with an insatiable and perpe-
come to the spring, or above the tual desire of eating ; and unless he is
spring of the arch; thence arches, or com- indulged, he often falls into fainting fits.
plete cylindrical vaults, are sometimes It is also called fames canina, canine ap-
thrown, in order to lighten the bridge, petite.
and brace every two adjacent arches be- In the third volume of the "Memoirs
tween which they are placed. When the of the Medical Society of London,” is in-
abutments are deep, and extend consi- serted the history of a case of bulimy, ac-
derably along the road-way at each end, companied with vomiting, wherein 3791bs.
walls on each side of the road-way should of meat and drink were swallowed in the
be built, similar to those used in aquatic space of six days; yet the patient lost
piers, and either strengthened with coun- flesh rapidly. A cure was effected by
terforts, or vaulted under and across the giving food boiled down to a jelly, fre-
road-way. When there is a heavy pres- quently, and in small quantities. In this
BUL
BUL
form the food was retained, and the body BULL finch. See LOXIA.
being duly supplied with nourishment, Bull, among ecclesiastics, a written
the stomach and rest of the system reco- letter dispatched by order of the Pope,
vered their proper tone and energy. But from the Roman chancery, and sealed
the most extraordinary instance of buli- with lead, being written on parchment,
my which perhaps ever occurred, is that by which it is partly distinguished from a
recorded in the third volume of the “ Me- brief. See BRIEF.
dičal and Physical Journal,” communi- BULL, golden, an edict or imperial con-
cated by Dr. Johnson, commissioner of stitution, made by the Emperor Charles
sick and wounded seamen, to Dr. Blane, IV. reputed to be the magna charta, or
formerly physician to the navy. The the fundamental law of the German em-
subject was a Polish soldier, named pire.
Charles Domery, in the service of the It is called golden, because it has a gol-
French, on board of the Hoche frigate, den seal in the form of a pope's bull, tied
which was captured by the squadron un- with yellow and red cords of silk : upon
der the command of Sir John Borlase one side is the Emperor represented sit-
Warren, off Ireland, in 1799. He was ting on his throne, and on the other the
21 years of age, and stated that his fa- capital of Rome. It is also called Caro-
ther and brothers had been remarkable line on Charles IV's account. Till the
for their voracious appetites. He began publication of the golden bull, the form
when he was 13 years of age. He would de- and ceremony of the election of an em-
vour raw and even live cats, rats, and dogs, peror were dubious and undetermined,
besides bullock's liver, tallow-candles, and the number of the electors not fixed.
and the entrails of animals. One day (viz.
This solemn edict regulated the func-
September 7th, 1799), an experiment tions, rights, privileges, and pre-eminen-
was made of how much this man could ces of the electors. The original, which
eat in one day. This experiment was is in Latin, on vellum, is preserved at
made in the presence of the before men- Frankfort ; this ordinance, containing
tioned Dr. Johnson, Admiral Child, and thirty articles or chapters, was approved
,
Mr. Foster, agent for prisoners at Liver- of by all the princes of the empire, and
pool, and several other gentlemen. He
remains still in force.
had breakfasted at 4 o'clock in the morn-
ing on 4lbs. of raw cow's udder ; at half BULLA, in natural history, a genus of
past nine o'clock there were set before insects of the Vermes Testacea. Animal
him 516s. of raw beef and 12 tallow-can- a limax; shell univalve, convolute, un-
dles of 116. weight, together with 1 bottle armed, with teeth ; aperture a little
of porter ; these he finished by half past straightened, oblong, longitudinal
, very
ten o'clock; at one o'clock there were entire at the base ; pillar oblique, smooth.
put before him 5lbs. more of beef, 116. of There are nearly sixty species. B. ligna-
candles, and three bottles of porter: he sia is found on European coasts, and is a-
was then locked up in the room, and cen- bout three inches long. The shell is thin,
tries were placed at the windows to pre- of a dirty colour, but within it is white.
vent his throwing away any of his provi- The inhabitants of this species, and, ac-
sions. At two o'clock he had nearly cording to Gmelin, those of most of the
finished the whole of the candles and genus, are furnished with an organ re-
great part of the beef; but without hav. sembling the gizzard of a fowl, and which
ing had any evacuations by vomiting, they appear to use for the purpose of
stool, or urine. His skin was cool, pulse masticating their food.
regular, and spirits good. At a quarter BULLET, an iron or leaden ball, or
past six he had devoured the whole, and shot, wherewith fire-arms are loaded.
declared he could have eat more ; but the Bullets are of various kinds; viz. red-hot
prisoners on the outside having told him bullets, made hot in a forge, intended to
that experiments were making upon him, set fire to places where combustible mat-
began to be alarmed.
ters are found. Hollow bullets, or shells
BULK heads are partitions made made cylindrical, with an aperture and
athwart the ship with boards, by which fuse at one end, which giving fire to the
one part is divided from the other; as the inside when in the ground, it bursts, and
great cabin, gun-room, bread-room, and has the same effect with a mine. Chain-
several other divisions. The bulk head bullets, which consist of two balls, joined
afore is the partition between the fore- by a chain, three or four feet apart.
castle and gratings in the head.
Branch-bullets, two balls joined by a bar
BULK breaking. See BREAKING. of iron, five or six inches apart.
Two-
BULL. See Bos.
headed bullets, called also angles, two
BUL
BUL
halves of a bullet, joined by a bar or diameter sought, which is 738 inches,
chain.
observing that the number found will be
The diameter of a leaden bullet, weigh- always a decimal, because the number
ing one pound, is 1.69 inches, according subtracted is greater than the other. We
to Sir Jonas Moore ; or, by a table in may also deduce the diameter of any bul-
Muller's “Treatise of Artillery,” 1.672 let from its given weight, provided that
inches; and the diameter of any other the specific gravity of lead is known; for,
bullet is found by dividing 1.69 inches by since a cubic foot of lead weighs 11325
the cube root of the number, which ex- ounces, and 678 is to 355 as the cube of
presses how many of them make a pound; a foot or 12 inches, i.e. 1728, to the con-
or by subtracting continually the third tent of a sphere, which is therefore
part of the logarithm of the number of 5929.7 ounces: and since spheres are as
bullets in the pound, from the logarithm the cubes of their diameters, the weight
.2278867 of 1.69, and the difference will 5929.7 is to 16 ounces, or one pound, as
be the logarithm of the diameter requir- the cube 1728 is to the cube of the diame-
ed. Thus the diameter of a bullet, of ter of a sphere, which weighs sixteen
which 12 make a pound, will be found by ounces, or one pound; which cube is
subtracting .3597270, a third part of 4,66263, and its root is 1.6706, the diame-
1.0791812 the logarithm of 12, from the ter sought.
given logarithm 2278867 ; or because By the rule above laid down is calcu-
this logarithm is less than the former, lated the following table, shewing the di-
an unit must be added, so as to have ameters of leaden bullets, from 1 to 39 in
1.2278867; and then the difference the pound.
.8681597 will be the logarithm of the
TABLE
0
1
2
3
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
0
1.69 1.3411.1721.0640.988 0.930 0.8830.845 0.812
1
10.784 0.760 0.7380.719 0.701 0.6850.671 0.657 0.6450.633
2 10.6230.612/0.603 0.594 0.586 0.5780.570 0.563 0.556 0.550
3 0.544 0.5370.532 0.527|0.521|0.5170.512 0.507|0.503|0.498
|
The upper horizontal column shews fectly refined ; or when they are perfect-
the number of bullets to a pound; the ly refined, but melted down in bars or
second their diameters; the third, the ingots, or in any unwrought body, of any
diameters of those of 10, 11, 12, &c. and degree of fineness.
the fourth those of 20, 21, 22, &c. and the When gold and silver are in their puri-
last, those of 30, 31, 32, &c.
ty, they are so soft and flexible, that they
The government allows 11 bullets in cannot well be brought into any fashion
the pound for the proof of muskets, and for use, without being first reduced and
14.5 in the pound, or 29 in two pounds, hardened with an alloy of some other
for service ; 17 for the proof of carabines, baser metal.
and 20 for service; and 28 in the pound To prevent those abuses, which some
for proof of pistols, and 34 for service. might be tempted to commit in the mak-
The diameter of musket bullets differs ing of such alloys, the legislators of civi-
but zoth part from that of the musket- lized countries have ordained, that there
barrel; for if the shot but just rolls into shall be no more than a certain propor-
the barrel, it is sufficient. Cannon bul- tion of a baser metal to a particular quan-
lets or balls are of different diameters and tity of pure gold or silver, in order to
weights, according to the nature of the make them of the fineness of what is
piece.
called the standard gold or silver of such
BULLION, uncoined gold or silver in a country.
According to the laws of England, all
Those metals are called so, either when sorts of wrought plate in general ought
smelted from the native ore, and not per- to be made to the legal standard ; and the
VOL. II.
С
the mass.
BUN
BUO
mosæ.
price of our standard gold and silver is the outside, of a chesnut colour, whithin
the common rule whereby to set a value white, solid, putting forth slender fibres
on their bullion, whether the same be in from the sides and bottom, of an agreea-
ingots, bars, dust, or in foreign specie; ble sweetish taste, lying deep in the
whence it is easy to conceive, that the va- ground, commonly four or five inches
lue of bullion cannot be exactly known, deep, the stems from the surface taper-
without being first assayed, that the ex- ing towards it, flexuose or bending to and
act quantity of pure metal therein con- from, and of a white colour ; the univer-
tained may be determined, and conse- sal involucre consists seldom of more
quently whether it be above or below the than one, two, or three very slender
standard.
leaves, but in most instances is altoge-
Silver and gold, whether coined or un- ther wanting; the partial umbel has
coined (though used for a common mea. sometimes twenty rays; the petals are
sure of other things) are no less a com- lanceolate, entire, but rolled inwards so
modity than wine, tobacco, or cloth; and as to appear as if they were emarginate;
may, in many cases, be exported as much the filaments are longer than the petals;
to the national advantage as any other the pistils at first close, after divaricate,
commodity.
but never bend back. This description
BUMALDA, in botany, a genus of the applies to the plant as usually found in
Pentandria Digynia. Natural order of Du- Great Britain. That brunium which is
Rhamni, Jussieu. Essential cha- most common in many parts of the conti-
racter; corolla five-petalled ; styles vil- nent is somewhat different from ours;
lose ; capsule two-celled, two-beaked. the segments of the leaf are not so fine,
There is but one species; viz. B. trifolia, and nearer to parsly, whereas ours ap-
with a shrubby stem ; branches close, in proach to fennel. The root is not so far
all parts smooth ; branches obscurely an- within the ground, the leaves are larger
gular, jointed purple ; leaves opposite, and greener, and it sends forth leaves
Petioled, ternate, pale underneath, on from the bulb itself. With us it grows on
very short capillary petioles, spreading heaths, in pastures, woods, and among
very much, or reflex; flowers terminat. bushes, in a gravelly or sandy soil : it
ing the branches in racemes, or capillary flowers in May and June.
peduncles. Native of Japan.
BUNT, of a sail, the middle part of it,
BUMELIA, in botany, a genus of the formed designedly into a bag or cavity,
Pentandria Monogynia class and order. that the sail may gather more wind. It
Essential character; corolla five-cleft, is used mostly in top-sails, because courses
with a five-leaved nectary ; drupe one- are generally cut square, or with but
seeded. There are seven species, all small allowance for bunt or compass. The
trees or shrubs, and natives of the West bunt holds much leeward wind, that is, it
Indies.
hangs much to leeward.
BUNIAS, in botany, a genus of the Te- BUNT lines are small lines made fast to
tradynamia Siliquosa. Natural order of the bottom of the sails, in the middle
Siliquosa. Cruciferæ, Jussieu. Essential part of the bolt rope, to a cringle, and so
character: silicle deciduous, four-sided, are reeved through a small block, seized
muricated with unequal acuminate an- to the yard. Their use is, to trice up
gles. There are nine species, of which B. the bunt of the sail, for the better furling
cornuta, horned bunias, is a very singular it up.
plant. It has silicle transversely oval, BUNTING. See EMBERIZA.
finishing on each side in a horn, or very BUOY, at sea, a short piece of wood,
long and strong spine, so that the silicle or a close-hooped barrel, fastened so as to
resembles a pair of horns; in the middle float directly over the anchor, that the
of the silicle are four small spines, direct- men who go in the boat to weigh the an-
ed different ways. It is a native of the chor may know where it lies.
Levant and Siberia. B. spinosa, thorny Buoy is also a piece of wood, or cork,
bunias, is an annual plant, and a native of sometimes an empty cask, well closed,
the South of France, Switzerland, Austria, swimming on the surface of the water,
and Italy.
and fastened by a chain or cord to a large
BUNIUM, in botany, a genus of the stone, piece of broken cannon, or the
Pentandria Digynia class and order. Na- like, serving to mark the dangerous
tural order of umbellatæ. Essential cha- places near a coast, as rocks, shoals,
racter: cor. uniform ; umbel crowded; wrecks of vessels, anchors, &c.
fruits ovate. There is but one species, There are sometimes, instead of buoys,
viz. B. bulbocastanum, earth nut, or pig pieces of wood placed in form of masts, in
mut, has a perennial, tuberous root, on conspicuous places; and sometimes large
BUP
BUP
trees are planted in a particular manner, BUPLEURUM, in botany, a genus of
in number two at least, to be taken in a the Pentandria Digynia. Natural order
right line, the one hiding the other, so as of Umbellata. Essential character: in-
the two may appear to the eye no more volucres of the umbellule larger, five
than one.
leaved; petals involuted; fruit roundish,
TO Buoy up the cable is to fasten some compressed, striated. There are 19 spe.
pieces of wood, barrels, &c. to the cable, cies, of which B. rotundifolium, common
near the anchor, that the cable may not thorough wax, so called from the singular
touch the ground, in case it be foul or circumstance of the stalk waxing or grow-
rocky, lest it should be fretted and cut ing through the leaf; the root is annual,
ofl.
small, and fibrous; the stem a foot high,
BUPHAGA, the African beef-eater, in upright, round, perfectly smooth, alter-
natural history, a genus of birds of the nately branched: every part of the plant
order of Picæ. Generic character: its is remarkably hard and rigid, and has a
bill is straight, and somewhat square ; its slight aromatic smell. It is a native of
a
mandibles are gibbous, entire, more gib- most parts of Europe. B. stellatum, star-
bous externally, and its legs well formed ry hare's ear, has a perennial root, with
for walking. It is found not only in Se- a stem about 18 inches high, with long
negal, but near Caffraria. Its manners grass-like root-leaves, some ending ob-
much resemble those of the starling. It tusely, others drawing to a point; scarce-
feeds on various kinds of insects, and ly any on the stem, except one embrac-
alighting on the backs of antelopes, sheep, ing leaf under a branch. Universal invo-
and oxen, and by pressure on the elevat- lucre of one, two, or three leaves. Partial
ed part of the hide, which contains the involucre coloured, longer than the
larvæ of the oestrus, forcing this out, flowers, eight or nine-cleft at the edge,
greatly relieves the animal, and procures but united at bottom, so as to form a sort
itself an exquisite banquet.
of basin, in which the flowers are lodged.
BUPHTHALMUM, in botany, a genus It is a native of the Alps, of Switzerland,
of the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua, and Dauphine. Most of the Bupleurums
Natural order of Composite Oppositifo- are herbaceous plants, some of them are
liæ. Corymbiferæ, Jussieu.
.
Essential shrubby, and one is thorny; the leaves
character: stigma of the hermaphrodite are mostly simple and entire. The little
floscules undivided : seeds have the sides, flowers are yellow, and but few in an um-
especially in the ray, edged; down an bel. The involucre is many-leaved and
obscure edge ; receptacle chaffy. There short, though it has sometimes only three
are twelve species, of which, B. frutes or five leaves. They are almost all of
cens, shrubby ox-eye, rises with several them natives of Switzerland and the south
woody stems from the root, and grows to of France.
the height of eight or ten feet, furnish- BUPRESTIS, in natural history, a ge-
ed with leaves very unequal in size, some nus of insects of the order Coleoptera,
of which are narrow and long, others Generic character: antennæ setaceous.
broad and obtuse. The foot-stalks of the of the length of the thorax; head half
larger leaves have, on their upper side, withdrawn beneath the thorax. This ge-
near their başe, two sharp teeth standing nus of insects is very conspicuous, on ac-
upward, and a little higher there are ge- count of the superior brilliancy of its co-
nerally two or three more growing on the lours, with which many of the larger spe-
edge of the leaves. The flowers are pro- cies shine with a metallic lustre. It is a
duced at the ends of the branches single: very numerous genus, consisting, accord-
these are of a pale yellow colour, and ing to Gmelin, of 156 species. Among
have scaly calyxes. It grows naturally in these we shall notice the B. gigantea,
America. B. arborescens, tree ox-eye, which is the largest hitherto discovered,
seldom grows higher than three feet, measuring two inches and a half in length:
sending out many stalks from the root, the thorax is smooth, resembling the co-
which are succulent; it has spear-shaped lour of polished bell-metal, and the wing-
leaves placed opposite ; the flowers are sheaths are of a gilded copper colour',
produced upon foot-stalks, which are two with a cast of blue green. It is a native
inches long. These flowers are larger of India, China, and many other parts of
than those of the first sort, of a bright yel. Asia, and is also found in South America.
low colour. They appear in July, Au- Its beauty is so very singular, that the
gust, and September. Some of these Chinese attempt to imitate it on bronze,
plants are shrubs, but most of them are in which they have sometimes succeeded
herbs. The flowers are commonly ter- so well, that the copy has been mistaken
minating, and mostly of a yellow colour. for the reality. This insect proceeds
,
BUR
BUR
a
a
:
from a large white larva resembling that by the right of sending members to par.
of the lucanus cervus, or great stag-chaff- liament; and where the right of election
er. Of the European insects of this ge- is by burgage tenure, that alone is a proof
nus, the B. rustica is one of the largest, of the antiquity of the borough. Tenure
measuring about an inch and a half, and in burgage, therefore, or burgage tenure,
of a coppery colour, with several longitu- is where houses, or lands which were for-
dinal furrows along the wing-shells; the merly the scite of houses, in an ancient
thorax of a deep blue green, with numer- borough, are held by some lord in com-
ous impressed points: it is found in the mon socage, by a certain establishment.
woods. The European Buprestes fall far The free socage, in which these tene-
short of the Indian and American species, ments are held, seems to be plainly a
both in point of size and splendour, though remnant of Saxon liberty; and this may
among them may be numbered several account for the great variety of customs,
elegant insects.
affecting many of these tenements so
BURCARDIA, in botany, so named in held in ancient burgage; the principal
honour of Henry Burckhard, a genus of and most remarkable of which is that call-
the Pentandria Pentagynia class and or- ed borough English; which see. There
der. Essential character: calyx five are also other special customs in different
leaved; corolla five-petalled; capsule burgage tenures; as in some, that the
angular, one-celled, three-valved, seven wife shall be endowed of all her hus-
or eight seeded. There is but one spe- band's tenements and not of the third part
cies, viz. B. villosa, an annual plant, with only, as at the common law : and in others,
a branched stem two feet high, hirsute that a man might dispose of his tenements
with reddish brown hairs. Flowers at by will, which in general was not per-
the end of the stem and branches, axil- mitted after the conquest, till the reign
lary, solitary, on long hairy peduncles. of Henry VIII.; though in the Saxon
The whole plant is covered with stiff times it was allowable. A pregnant proof,
hairs. It is found on the sandy coasts of says Judge Blackstone, that these liber-
Cayenne and Guiana.
ties of socage tenure were fragments of
BURDEN, or BURTHEN, in a general Saxon liberty.
sense, implies a load or weight, supposed BURGESS, an inhabitant of a borough,
to be as much as a man, horse, &c. can or one who possesses a tenement there-
well carry. A sound and healthy man in. In other countries, burgess and ci-
can raise a weight equal to his own. An tizen are confounded together, but with
able horse can draw 35011. though for a us they are distinguished: the word is
length of time 30016. is sufficient. Hence also applied to the magistrates of some
calculations are formed by the artillery towns. Burgess is now ordinarily used
officers. One horse will draw as much as for the representative of a borough-town
in parliament.
BURDEN of a ship is its contents, or num- BURGH-bote signifies a contribution
ber of tons it will carry. The burden of towards the building or repairing of cas-
a ship may be determined thus: multi- tles or walls, for the defence of a borough
ply the length of the keel, taken within or city.
board, by the breadth of the ship within BURGLARY, in law, or nocturnal
board, taken from the midship-beam, house-breaking, an unlawful entering into
from plank to plank, and multiply the another man's dwelling, wherein some
product by the depth of the hold, taken person is, or into a church, in the night.
from the plank below the keelson, to the time, in order to commit some felony, or
under part of the upper deck plank, and to kill some person, or to steal something
divide the last product by 94, then the thence, or do some other felonious act;
quotient is the content of the tonnage whether the same be executed or not.
required.
This crime has been always regarded as
BURGAGE, in law, a tenure proper to very heinous; partly on account of the
boroughs and towns, whereby the inhabi- terror which it occasions, and partly be-
tants hold their lands and tenements of cause it is a forcible invasion and distur-
the King, or other lord, at a certain year- bance of that right of habitation, which
ly rate. This tenure is described by Glan- every individual might require, even in
vil, and is expressly said by Littleton to a state of nature, and against which the
be but tenure in socage. It is indeed on- laws of civil society have particularly
ly a kind of town socage; as common so- guarded. Whilst they allow the posses-
cage, by which other lands are holden, sor to kill the aggressor, who attempts to
is usually of a rural nature. A borough break into a house in the night time, they
is usually distinguished from other towns also protect and avenge him, in case the
seven men.
BUR
BUR
a
assailant should be too powerful. Such stantial and forcible irruption. Such are
regard, indeed, has the law of England to breaking, or taking out the glass of, or
the immunity of a man's house, that it otherwise opening a window, and taking
stiles it his castle, and will never suffer it out goods ; picking a lock, or opening it
to be violated with impunity; for this with a key; and lifting up the latch of a
reason no outward doors can in general be door, or loosing any other fastenings
broken open to execute any civil process; which the owner has provided. But if a
though, in criminal cases, the public safety person leaves his doors or windows of his
supercedes the private. Hence, also, in house open, and a man enters by them, or
part, arises the animadversion of the law with a hook or by any other means draws
upon eaves-droppers, nuisancers, and in- out some of the goods of the owner, it
cendiaries; and to this principle it must is no burglary; but if, having entered, he
be assigned, that a man may assemble peo- afterwards unlocks an inner or chamber
ple together lawfully (at least if they do door, or if he comes down a chimney, he is
not exceed eleven) without danger of deemed a burglar. If a person enters by
raising a riot, rout, or unlawful assembly, the open door of a house, and breaks open
in order to protect and defend his house; a chest and steals goods, this is no bur-
which he is not permitted to do in any glary by the common law, because the
other case. The definition of a burglar, chest is no part of the house. 4. As to
as given by Sir Edward Coke, is," he that the intent; it is clear, that such breaking
by night breaketh and entereth into a and entry must be with a felonious intent,
mansion-house with intent to commit a otherwise it is only a trespass. And it is
felony." In this definition, says Judge the same, whether such intention be actu-
Blackstone, there are four things to be ally carried into execution, or only de-
considered ; the time, the place, the man monstrated by some attempt or overt act,
ner, and the intent. 1. The time must be of which the jury is to judge.
by night, and not by day; for in the day- BURGOMÄSTER, the chief magistrate
time there is no burglary. In considering of the great towns in Flanders, Holland,
what is reckoned night, the day was an- and Germany. The power and jurisdic-
ciently accounted to begin at sun-rising and tion of the burgomaster is not the same
to end immediately upon sun-set : but the in all places, every town having its
better opinion seems to be, that if there particular customs and regulations: at
be daylight or twilight sufficient begun or Amsterdam there are four, chosen by the
left for discerning a man's face, it is no voices of all those people in the Senate
burglary. But this does not extend to who have either been burgomasters or
moon-light: for then many midnight burg- echevins. Their authority resembles that
laries would go unpunished; and besides, of the lord-mayor and aldermen; they
the malignity of the offence does not so dispose of all under offices that fall in
properly arise from its being done in their time, keep the key of the bank, and
the dark, as at the dead of night; when enjoy a salary but of 500 guilders, all
the whole creation, except beasts of prey, feasts, public entertainments, &c. being
is at rest; when sleep has disarmed the defrayed out of the common treasury.
owner, and rendered his castle defence- BURGUNDY pitch, in medicine, the
less. 2. As to the place. It must be by juice of the pinus abies, boiled in water,
the definition a mansion-house; and, and strained through a linen cloth. It
therefore, in order to account for the is chiefly employed for external purposes
reason why breaking open a church is in inveterate coughs, &c. Plasters of this
burglary, as it undoubtedly is, Sir Edward resin, by acting as topical stimulants, are
Coke quaintly observes, that it is “ domus frequently found of considerable service.
mansionalis Dei.” But it is not necessa- BURIAL, the interment of a deceased
ry that it should in all cases be a mansion- person. The rites of burial make the
house ; for it may be committed by break- greatest and most necessary care, being
ing the gates or walls of a town in the looked upon in all countries, and at all
night. 3. As to the manner of commit- times, as a debt so sacred, that such as
ting burglary; there must be both a neglected to discharge it were thought
breaking and an entry to complete this accursed: hence the Romans called them
offence. But they need not be done at justa, and the Greeks vopred, duela, odia,
once: for if a hole be broken one night, &c. words implying the inviolable obliga-
and the same breakers enter the next tions which nature has laid upon the liv-
night through the same, they are burglars. ing to take care of the obsequies of the
There must in general be an actual break- dead. Nor are we to wonder that the an.
ing, so that it may be regarded as a sub- cient Greeks and Romans were extreme-
BUR
BUR
.
ly solicitous about the interment of their The place of burial among the Jews
deceased friends, since they were strongly was never particularly determined. We
persuaded that their souls could not be find they had graves in the town and
admitted into the Elysian fields till their country, upon the highways, in gardens,
bodies were committed to the earth; and and upon mountains. Among the Greeks,
if it happened that they never obtained the temples were made repositories for
the rites of burial, they were excluded the dead in the primitive ages, yet the
from the happy mansions for the term of general custom in later ages with them,
an hundred years. For this reason it as well as with the Romans and other
was considered as a duty incumbent upon heathen nations, was to bury their dead
all travellers who should meet with a without their cities, and chiefly by the
dead body in their way, to cast dust or highways. Among the primitive Chris.
mould upon it three times, and of these tians, burying in cities was not allowed
three bandfuls one at least was cast upon for the first three hundred years, nor in
the head. The ancients likewise consid- churches for many ages after, the dead
ered it as a great misfortune if they were bodies being first deposited in the atrium
not laid in the sepulchres of their fathers; or church-yard, and porches and porticos
;
for which reason, such as died in foreign of the church : hereditary burying-places
countries bad usually their asbes brought were forbidden till the twelfth century.
home, and interred with those of their BURIALS, in law, persons are to be buri.
ancestors. But, notwithstanding their ed in woollen, or their representatives shall
great care in the burial of the dead, there forfeit 51. and affidavit is to be made there-
were some persons whom they thought of before a justice under a like penalty.
unworthy of that last office, and to whom BURIALS, as practised by the military,
therefore they refused it: such were, differ in some respects according to the
1. Public or private enemies. 2. Such as rank of the deceased. The funeral of a
betrayed, or conspired against their coun- field-marshal is saluted with three rounds
try. 3. Tyrants, who were always looked of fifteen pieces of cannon, attended by six
upou as enemies to their country. 4. battalions and eight squadrons : that of a
Villains guilty of sacrilege. 5. Such as general, with three rounds of eleven pieces
died in debt, whose bodies belonged to of cannon, four battalions and six squad.
their creditors. And, 6. Some particu- rons; and so on, decreasing in honour,
lar offenders, who suffered capital punish- till that of a private, which is attended by
ment.
one sergeant, and thirteen rank and file,
Of those who were allowed the rites of with three rounds of small arms. "The
burial, some were distinguished by par- pall is to be supported by officers of the
ticular circumstances of disgrace attend- same rank with that of the deceased. The
ing their interment: thus persons killed order of march to be observed in military
by lightning were buried apart by them- funerals is reversed with respect to rank.
selves, being thought odious to the gods; For instance, if an officer is buried in a
those who wasted their patrimony forfeit- garrison-town, or from a camp, it is cus-
ed the right of being buried in the sepul. tomary for the officers belonging to the
chres of their fathers; and those who other corps to pay his remains the com-
were guilty of self-murder were privately pliment of attendance; in which case the
deposited in the ground, without the ac. youngest ensign marches at the head im-
customed solemnities. Among the Jews, mediately after the pall, and the general,
the privilege of burial was denied only to if there be one, in the rear of the commis-
self-murderers, who were thrown out sioned officers, who take their posts in
to rot upon the ground. In the Christian reversed order, according to seniority.
church, though good men always desired The battalion, troop or company follow
the privilege of interment, yet they were the same rule.
not, like the heathens, so concerned for BURLESQUE, a jocose kind of poetry,
their bodies, as to think it any detriment chiefly used in the way of drollery and
to them, if either the barbarity of an ene- ridicule, to deride persons and things.
my, or some other accident, deprived BURMANNIA, in botany, so named,
them of this privilege. The primitive in honour of John Burmann; a genus of
Christian church denied the more solemn the Hexandria Monogynia class and order.
rites of burial only to unbaptised persons, Natural order of Liliaceous Flowers. Co.
self-murderers, and excommunicated per- ronariæ, Linnæus. Bromeliæ, Jussieu. Es
sons, who continued obstinate and impe- sential character; calyx prismatic colour-
nitent, in a manifest contempt of the ed, trifid ; angles membranous ; petals
church's censures.
three; capsule three-celled, straight; seeds
BUR
BUR
minute. There are but two species; of that a silver sixpence melted in 7)"; a
which B. disticha has the root composed King George's halfpenny melted in 16",
wholly of capillary fibres, very small. The and ran in 34"'; tin melted in 3', and a
plant has the appearance of an anthericum; diamond weighing 4 grains, lost seven-
root-leaves six, grass-like or ensiform, two eighths of its weight.
inches long, quite entire ; stem upright, That of M. de Buffon is a polyhedron,
simple, a span and half in height, having six feet broad, and as many high, consist-
six or seven small alternate leaves an inch ing of 168 small mirrours, or flat pieces
long ; two equal divaricating spikes, each of looking-glass, each six inches square ;
composed of about nine flowers, terminate by means of which, with the faint rays of
the stem ; the flowers are sessile, in a sin- the sun in the month of March, he set on
gle row; they are blue, very elegant, and fire boards of beech wood at 150 feet dis-
do not fall off. It is a native of Ceylon B. tance. Besides, his machine has the con-
biflora, has strong fibrous roots, with seve- veniency of burning downwards, or hori-
ral oblong oval leaves arising from it, zontally, as one pleases; each speculum
which are smooth and entire, four or five being moveable, so as, by the means of
inches long; among these springs the three screws, to be set to a proper incli-
fower stem, six or eight inches high, ter- nation for directing the rays towards any
minating by blue flowers, growing together given point; and it turns either in its
in each sheath. It is a native of Virginia greater focus, or in any nearer interval,
and Carolina.
which our common burning-glasses can-
BURN, in medicine and surgery, an in- not do, their focus being fixed and de-
jury received in any part of the body, in termined. M. de Buffon, at another time,
consequence of the application of too great burnt wood at the distance of 200 feet.
heat. See SURGERY.
He also melted tin and lead at the dis-
BURNING.glass, a convex or concave tance of above 120 feet, and silver at 50.
glass, commonly spherical, which being Mr. Parker, of Fleet-street, London,
exposed directly to the sun, collects all the was induced, at an expense of upwards of
rays falling thereon into a very small space, 7001. to contrive and at length to com-
called the focus; where wood, or any other plete a large transparent lens, that would
combustible matter being put, will be set serve the purpose of fusing and vitrifying
on fire. See OPTICS.
such substances as resist the fires of or.
We have some extraordinary instances dinary furnaces, and more especially of
and surprizing accounts of prodigious ef- applying heat in vacuo, and in other cir-
fects of burning-glasses. Those made of cumstances in which it cannot be applied
reflecting mirrours are more powerful than by any other means. After directing his
those made with lenses, because the rays attention for several years to this object,
from a mirrour are reflected all to one and performing a great variety of experi-
point nearly; whereas, by a lens, they are ments in the prosecution of it, he at last
refracted to different points, and are there- succeeded in the construction of a lens,
fore not so dense or ardent. The whiter of flint-glass, three feet in diameter, which,
also the metal or substance is, of which when fixed in its frame, exposes a sur-
the mirrour is made, the stronger will be face two feet 8! inches in the clear, with-
the effect.
out any other material imperfection be-
The most remarkable burning glasses, sides a disfigurement of one of the edges
or rather mirrours, among the ancients, by a piece of the scoria of the mould,
were those of Archimedes and Proclus; which unfortunately found its way into
by the first of which the Roman ships, be- its substance. This lens was double con-
sieging Syracuse, according to the testi- vex, both sides of which were a portion
mony of several writers, and by the other, of a sphere of 18 feet radius. It is diffi-
the navy of Vitalian besieging Byzantium, cult to form an accurate estimate of the
were reduced to ashes. Among the mo- burning power of this lens; inasmuch as
derns, the burning mirrours of greatestem- it is next to impossible to discover what
inence, are those of Villette, and Tschirn should be deducted for the loss of power,
hausen, and the new complex one of M. in consequence of the impediments that
de Buffon.
the glass of which it was made must oc-
That of M. de Villette, was three feet casion, as well as the four reflections and
eleven inches in diameter, and its focal two more by way of diminution; but we
distance was three feet two inches. Its will endeavour to appreciate it after mak-
substance is a composition of tin, copper, ing a full allowance for these deductions,
and tin-glass. Some of its effects, as found which must necessarily result from every
by Dr. Harris and Dr. Desaguliers, are, means of concentrating the solar rays,
BURNING-GLASS.
a
and which must be considered to be as i.e. that part in contact with the charcoal,
the friction of an engine, of which nature was first melted, when that part which
they really partake. The solar rays re- was exposed to the focus remained un-
ceived on a circular surface of 2 feet 8! fused: an evidence of the effect of flux on
inches, when concentrated within the di- this metal.
ameter of an inch, will be 1056.25 times Several of the semi-crystalline substan-
its intensity, or this number of times ces, exposed to the focal heat, exhibited
greater than the heat of the sun as felt on symptoms of fusion : such as the agate,
the surface of the earth. We will suppose oriental flint, cornelian, and jasper ; but
that as the heat of the air, in ordinary as the probability is that these substances
summer weather, is 650, and in sultry were not capable of complete vitrification,
weather is 750, the average of which is it is enough that they were rendered ex-
70°, and that we take this degree as the ternally of a glassy form. Garnet com-
average effect, the accumulated power of pletely fused on black-lead in 120", lost
the lens, on the supposition of an equal th of a grain, became darker in colour,
effect over the whole surface of the focus, and was attracted by the magnet. Ten
will be equal to 73938º.
cut garnets taken from a bracelet began
It must be recollected by those who to run the one into the other in a few se-
have had an opportunity of examining the conds, and at last formed into one globu-
effects of this lens, that the external part lar garnet. The clay used by Mr. Wedg-
of the focal light was less intense than wood to make his pyrometric test run in
that part which was near the centre of it; a few seconds into a white enamel. Seven
or rather, that the effect was very much other kinds of clay sent by Mr. Wedg-
accumulated in the centre; but as it is wood were all vitrified. Several experi-
possible that the refraction of the light ments were made on lime-stone, some of
and of the caloric fluid may not take place which were vitrified, but all of which were
in the same angles, we think it safest to agglutinated; it is, however, suspected
consider it as of an uniform effect, and that some extraneous substance must
after deducting one-fourth part thereof have been intermixed. A globule pro-
as a compensation, there remains 55454°, duced from one of the specimens, on
as the expression of its power. As the being put into the mouth, flew into a thou-
application of the second lens reduced sand pieces, occasioned, it is presumed, by
the diameter of the focus to half an inch, the moisture.
the effect, without allowing for the reduc- Some experiments were made in the
tion of its power, would be equal to year 1802, with Mr. Parker's lens, with
221816°, but deducting one-fourth for the view of ascertaining whether the moon
the second transmission, there remains communicated any heat to the earth, in
166362°, as the expression of its power. common with the reflected light from
Mr. Parker farther informs us that a which we derive so much advantage.
diamond, weighing 10 grains, exposed to This experiment was attended by Sir Jo-
this lens for 30 minutes, was reduced to seph Banks, with several members of the
6 grains; during which operation it open- Royal Society, together with Dr. Craw-
ed, and foliated like the leaves of a flower, ford, who provided the most sensible
and emitted whitish fumes, and when thermometers; but after applying them
closed again it bore a polish and retained to the luminous focus, so far from a
its form. Gold remained in its metallic perceptible increase of heat, it was
state without apparent diminution, not thought there was perceived rather a di-
withstanding an exposure at intervals of minution thereof; but this suspicion did
many hours: but what is remarkable, the not lead them to a fair investigation of
rest, or cupel, which was composed of the fact. Since this period some experi-
.
.
bone-ash, was tinctured with a beautiful ments have been made, that evince the
pink colour,
power of communicating cold by reflec-
The experiments on platina evince that tion; but as this fact has not yet been ex-
the specimens were in different states of plained consistently with the present re-
approach to a complete metallic form ; ceived theory, we shall content ourselves
several of them threw off their parts in with taking notice of the experiment made
sparks, which in most instances were by M. Pictet. Two concave mirrors being
metallic. Copper, after three minutes ex- placed at the distance of 103 feet from
posure, was not found to have lost in each other, a very delicate air
thermome-
weight.
ter was put into one of the foci, and a
What is remarkable with regard to ex- glass matrass full of snow in the other.
periments on iron, is, that the lower part, The thermometer sunk several degrees,
a
BUR
BUR
2
and rose again when the matrass was re- try; but from the failures of the subscrip-
moved. When nitric acid was poured tion, and some other concurring circum-
upon the snow (which increased the stances, Mr. Parker was induced to
cold) the thermometer sunk 5° or 6º dispose of it to Capt. Mackintosh, who
lower. Here cold seems to have been accompanied Lord Macartney in the em-
emitted by the snow, and reflected by bassy to China ; and it was left, much to
the mirrors to the thermometer, which the regret of philosophers in Europe, at
it is thought could not happen unless Pekin; where it remains in the hands of
cold were a substance. It has been found, persons, who most probably know neither
that upon an admixture of equal quanti- its value nor use.
ties of snow, which is always at 320, and BURNING-mountains, the same with vol-
of water heated to 172°, the result is, that canoes. See VOLCANO.
the compound only retains the lowest BURNISHER, a round polished piece
heat of 32°, so that 140° of heat or caloric of steel, serving to smooth and give a lus-
disappears. Much has been said respect- tre to metals.
ing the point or degree at which the Of these there are different kinds of
thermometer should indicate the pre- different figures, straight, crooked, &c.
sence of heat. The experiments of Dr. Half burnishers are used to solder silver
Crawford seem to place it at 1268° below as well as to give a lustre.
the present0; Mr. Kirwan places it at BURNISHING, the art of smoothing
10480 ; Messrs. Lavoisier and La Place at or polishing a metalline body by a brisk
2736° ; and by a mixture of four parts of rubbing of it with a burnisher.
sulphuric acid with three pints of water, Book-binders burnish the edges of their
it seems that it should be placed at 5803° books by rubbing them with a dog's
below 0. Experiments of this kind may tooth. Gold and silver are burnished by
be made ad infinitum, and in time it may rubbing them with a wolf's tooth, or by
possibly be ascertained that cold is a real the bloody stone, or by tripoli, a piece of
substance; but for the purpose of get- white wood, emery, and the like. Deer
ting an answer to the present question, are said to burnish their heads by rub-
we will accommodate the scale of Fah- bing off a downy white skin from their
renheit, by adding 108° thereto, so as to horns against a tree.
make the correspond with the caloric BURŘ pump, or BILDGE pump, differs
imbibed by snow or ice before it can from the common pump in having a staff
melt.
6, 7, or 8 feet long, with a bar of wood
The superficies of spherical bodies are whereto the leather is nailed, and this
to each other as the squares of their re- serves instead of a box. So two men
spective diameters. The diameter of the standing over the pump thrust down this
moon is considered to be 2180 miles, and staff, to the middle whereof is fastened a
its mean distance from the earth 240,000; rope for 6, 8, or 10 to hale by, thus pull-
from which it follows, on the suppositioning it up and down.
that all the solar rays received by the BURSARIA, in natural history, a genus
moon were reflected back, and that the of worms of the order Infusoria. Worm
earth was absolutely without heat, that very simple, membranaceous, hollow.
the effect of this reflection would be There are three species, viz. the trunca
found to be .00367 of a degree (for tella, hirundinella, and duplella, found in
240,000 X2: 178° :: 2180°:.00367); which marshy water: the first has a white body,
multiplied into 1056.25, and this sum in- oval, with a large hollow descending to
creased four times for the increased pow. the base, with sometimes four or five
er of the second lens, would give 15.51234º eggs at the bottom; the second is a pel-
as the heat of the focus; 92.28766° be- lucid hollow membrane, moving for-
low the present o, or 124.28766° below wards like a bird in flight; the third is
the freezing point. This dissertation is found among duck-weed, without visible
interesting in another point of view, for intestines.
this calculation ascertains that the light
BURSARS, in the Scotch universities,
afforded by the moon, when compared are youths chosen as exhibitioners, and
with that by the sun, abstracting all im- maintained for the space of four years at
pediments in both cases, is only as 1 to the rate of 1001. per ann. Scots.
48480.
BURSE, in a commercial sense, a place
A subscription was proposed for raising for merchants to meet in and negociate
the sum of 700 guineas towards indemni. their business publicly, with us called ex-
fying the charges of the inventor, and re. change.
taining the very curious and useful ma- BURSERA, in botany, so called in ho-
chine above described in our own coun- nour of Joachim Burser, a genus of the
VOL. IL
D
a
BUS
BUT
Polygamia Dioecia. Essential character: knee; it was very rich and fine, and prin
Herm. calyx three-leaved; corolla three- cipally used on the stage by actors in
petalled; capsule fleshy, three valved, tragedy. It was of a quadrangular form,
one-seeded. Male, calyx five-toothed; and the sole was so thick as that by means
corolla five.petalled; stamina ten. There thereof men of the ordinary stature might
is but one species, viz. B. gummifera, be raised to the pitch and elevation of
Jamaica birch tree, is very lofty, with an the heroes they personated. The colour
upright, round, smooth trunk, covered was generally purple on the stage: here-
with a livid shining bark, peeling off in in it was distinguished from the sock
round pieces, like the European birch ; worn in comedy, that being only a low
branches terminating, smooth, horizon- common shoe. The buskin seems to have
tal; flowers small and white; capsule been worn not only by actors, but by
red, resembling a drupe. On the male girls to raise their height; travellers and
trees the flowers are more copious, and hunters also made use of it to defend
crowded in the racemes, but are scarcely themselves from the mire.
larger. This tree is common in all the In classic authors we frequently find
sugar islands of the West Indies. The the buskin used to signify tragedy itself,
bark is very thick, and exudes a clear because it was a mark of tragedy on the
transparent resin, which soon hardens in stage.
the air. It flowers from May to July. It is also sometimes understood for a
With us it has not flowered, although it lofty strain, or high style.
has been cultivated since the year 1690. BUSS, in maritime affairs, a small sea
BUSH, burning, that bush wherein the vessel, used by us and the Dutch in the
Lord appeared to Moses at the foot of herring fishery, commonly from forty-
Mount Horeb, as he was feeding his fa- eight to sixty tons burden, and sometimes
ther-in-law's flocks. As to the person more: a buss has two small sheds or ca-
that appeared in the bush, the scripture, bins, one at the prow, and the other at
in several places, calls him by the name the stern; that at the prow serves for a
of God: he says of himself, " that he is kitchen. Every buss has a master, an
the Lord, the God who is the God of A. assistant, a mate, and seamen in propor-
braham, Isaac, and Jacob, &c.” And tion to the vessel's bigness; the master
Moses, blessing Joseph, says, “ let the commands in chief, and without his ex-
blessing of him that dwelt in the bush press order, the nets cannot be cast nor
come upon the head of Joseph.” But the taken up; the assistant has the command
Hebrew and the Greek septuagint im- after him; and the mate next, whose
port that the angel of the Lord appeared business is to see the seamen manage
to him. St. Stephen, and several others, their rigging in a proper manner, to mind
read it in the same manner; and, moreover, those who draw in their nets, and those
some say that it was an angel that repre- who kill, gut, and cure the herrings, as
sented the Lord : yet there are persons they are taken out of the sea. The sea-
hold the Son of God to be the person that men generally engage for a whole voy-
appeared in the bush.
age in the lump. The provisions which
The Mahometans believe that one of they take on board the busses, consist
Moses's shoes, put off by him as he drew commonly in biscuit, oatmeal, and dried
near the burning-bush, was placed in the or salt fish ; the crew being content for
ark of the covenant, in order to preserve the rest with what fresh fish they catch.
the memory of this miracle.
BUST, or Busto, in sculpture, &c. a
BUSHEL, a measure of capacity for term used for the figure or portrait of a
dry things, as grain, fruits, dry pulse, &c. person in relievo, shewing only the head,
containing four pecks, or eight gallons, shoulders, and stomach, the arms being
or one-eighth of a quarter.
lopped off: it is usually placed on a pe-
A bushel, by 12 Henry VII. c. 5, is to destal or console. The bust is the same
contain eight gallons of wheat; the gal- with what the Latins called herma, from
lon eight pounds of troy weight; the the Greek Hermes, Mercury, the image of
ounce twenty sterlings; and the sterling that god being frequently represented in
thirty-two grains, or corns of wheat grow. that manner by the Athenians.
ing in the midst of the ear. See MEASURE Bust, communicative. See ACCOUSTICS.
and WEIGHT.
BUSTARD, in ornithology. See OTIS.
BUSKIN, a kind of shoe, somewhat in BUTCHER, a person who slaughters
manner of a boot, and adapted to either cattle for the use of the table, or who cuts
foot, and worn by either sex.
up and retails the same. Among the an-
This part of dress, covering both the cient Romans there were three kinds of
foot and mid-leg, was tied underneath the established butchers, whose office was to
.
BUT
BUT
furnish the city with the necessary cat- ly custom that was payable upon the im-
tle, and to take care of preparing and portation of wines, and was taken and re-
vending their flesh. The suarii provid- ceived by virtue of the regal prerogative,
ed hogs; the pecuarii
, or boarii, other for the proper use of the crown. But for
cattle, especially oxen; and under these many years past, there having been grant-
was a subordinate class, whose office was ed by parliament subsidies to the king's
to kill, called lanii, and carnifices. of England, and the duty of butlerage not
To exercise the office of butcher repealed, but confirmed, they have been
among the Jews with dexterity, was of pleased to grant away to some noblemen,
more reputation than to understand the who, by virtue of such grant, is to enjoy
liberal arts and sciences. They have a the full benefit and advantage thereof,
book concerning shamble-constitution; and may cause the same to be collected
and in case of any difficulty, they apply in the same manner that the kings them-
to some learned rabbi for advice: nor selves were formerly wont to do. The
was any allowed to practise this art with- name was derived from the circumstance
out a licence in form; which gave the of the duty being formerly paid to the
man, upon evidence of his abilities, a king's butler.
power to kill meat, and others to eat BUTMENTS, in architecture, a mass
what he killed; provided he carefully of stone or brick-work, on or against
read every week for one year, and eve- which the feet of arches rest.
ry month the next year, and once a quar- BUTT, in commerce, a vessel or mea-
ter during his life, the constitution above sure of wine, containing four hogsheads,
mentioned.
or two hundred and fifty-two gallons.
In London, the furnishing of butcher's BUTT, or BUTT-ends, in the sea lan-
meat is separated into different trades. guage, are the fore-ends of all planks un-
We have carcass-butchers, who kill the der water, as they rise, and are joined
meat in great quantities, and sell it to one end to another. Butt-ends in great
others, who retail it among their custo- ships are most carefully bolted; for if
mers. Besides these there are salesmen any one of them should spring or give
who attend the markets at Smithfield, way, the leak would be very dangerous
and who act between the carcass butcher and difficult to stop.
and the breeder and feeder of cattle in BUTTER, a fat unctuous substance,
the country. The butchers were incor- prepared from milk, by beating or churn-
porated into a company in the third year ing it. It was late before the Greeks
of James I.
appear to have had any notion of butter;
BUTCHER bird, in ornithology. See LA- their poets make no mention of it, and
NIUS.
yet are frequently speaking of milk and
BUTCHER's broom, in botany. See Rus- cheese.
The Romans used butter no
CUS.
otherwise than as a medicine, never as a
BUTEA, in botany, a genus of the food. The ancient Christians of Egypt
Diadelphia Decandria class and order. burnt butter in their lamps instead of oil;
Calyx slightly two-lipped; corolla with and in the Roman churches it was an-
a very long lanceolate banner: legume ciently allowed, during Christmas time,
compressed, membranaceous; one-seed- to burn butter instead of oil, on account
ed at the tip. Two species; viz. Fron- of the great consumption of it otherways.
dosa and Superba, found on the coast of See MILK.
Coromandel.
BUTTER, is a name given in the old che-
BUTLER, the name anciently given mistry to several metallic muriates, on
to an officer in the court of France, be- account of their texture when newly pre-
ing the same as the grand echanson, or pared. According to this system, there
great cup-bearer of the present times. are the butters of antimony, arsenic, bis-
BUTLER, in the common acceptation muth, and tin. They all agree in the fol-
of the word, is an officer in the houses of lowing particulars: they are formed by
princes and great men, whose principal sublimation; their texture is not unlike
business is to look after the wine, plate, that of butter in warm weather; they are
&c.
decomposable by being dropped into
BUTLERAGE of wine, is a duty of two pure water, a precipitation of white ox-
shillings for every ton of wine imported ide taking place. There are likewise ve-
by merchants strangers ; being a compo- getable butters, a term applied to those
sition in lieu of the liberties and free- vegetable expressed oils that require a
doms granted to them by King John and greater heat than that of the atmosphere
Edward 1., by a charter called charta mer- to keep them in a fluid state : of these the
catoria. Butlerage was originally the on. palm oil is best known: a similar oil may
BUT
BUT
be obtained from the cocoa nut; and the at bottom sheathing, at top flat and twist-
celebrated Park found in Africa a tree, ed; flowers to thirty, each on a single,
called by the natives shea, from the fruit round, smooth peduncle, from an inch to
of which a tolerably pure butter was ob- about a finger's length, forming an up-
tained.
right umbel, surrounded at bottom by an
BUTTER-milk, a kind of serum that re- involucre of three withering membran-
mains behind, after the butter is made. ous sheaths, besides a smaller stipule to
BUTTERFLY, the English name of a each peduncle ; corolla very handsome
numerous genus of insects, called by zoo- and large, of a bright flesh colour; fila-
logists papilio. See PAPILIO.
ments placed on a regular circle on the
BUTTERY, a room in the houses of receptacle; the pollen is of a bright yel-
noblemen and gentlemen, belonging to low colour ; germ nearly triangular. This
the butler, where he deposists the uten- is the only plant of the class Enneandria
sils belonging to his office, as table-linen, which grows wild in Britain.
napkins, pots, tankards, glasses, cruets, BUTTON, an article of dress, serving
salvers, spoons, knives, forks, pepper, to fasten cloaths tight about the body,
mustard, &c.
made of metal, silk, mohair, &c. in va-
BUTTNERIA, in botany, so named rious forms. Metal buttons are either
from David Sigismunda Augustus Butt- cast in moulds, in the manner of other
ner; a genus of the Pentandria Monogy- small works, or made of thin plates of
nia class and order. Natural order of Co- gold, silver, or brass, whose structure is
lumniferæ. Malvaceæ, Jussieu. Essen- very ingenious.
tial character ; corolla five-petalled; fila- Of the manufacture of metal buttons.
ments at the top connate with the petals; These are originally formed in two differ-
capsule five-grained, muricate. There ent ways; the blanks are either pierced
are three species; viz. B. scabra, is a pe- out of a large sheet of metal with a punch
a
rennial plant, from three to five feet high, driven by a fly-press, or cast in a pair of
with alternate, long, angular branches, flasks of moderate size, containing 10 or
armed with cartilaginous prickles; at the 12 dozen each. In this latter case, the
axils of the leaves, stem, and branches, shanks are previously fixed in the sand,
the flowers are produced singly on short exactly in the centre of the impression
peduncles : it is found at Cayenne. B. formed by each pattern, so as to liave
carthaginensis is a shrub branching and their extremities immersed in the melt-
spreading on every side, in manner of the ed metal when poured into the flask, by
common bramble; racemes short, aggre- which means they are consequently firmly
gate, and axillary on the young branches; fixed in the button when cooled. The for-
Howers without smell, white, and very mer process is generally used for yellow
numerous: native of Carthagena and St. buttons, and the latter for those of white
Domingo; flowering in September and metal. We shall first give an instance of
October: and B. microphylla differs but the former mode of procedure as used
little from the foregoing, in having the in the manufacture of gilt buttons. The
trunk and branches larger and round, the gilding metal is an alloy of copper and
peduncles one-flowered, and the corolla zinc, containing a smaller proportion of
purple and white, variegated: it was the latter than ordinary brass, and is
found in the island of St. Domingo by Jac- made either by fusing together the cop-
quin, and brought into Europe.
per and zinc, or by fusing brass with the
BUTTOCK of a ship, is that part of her requisite additional proportion of copper.
which is her breadth right a-stern, from This metal is first rolled into sheets of
the tack upwards; and a ship is said to the intended thickness of the button, and
have a broad or a narrow buttock, ac- the blanks are then pierced out as before
cording as she is built, broad or narrow mentioned. The blanks thus formed are,
at the transum.
when intended for plain buttons, usually
BUTTOMUS, in botany, a genus of the planished by a single stroke of a plain die
Enneandria Hexagynia. Natural order of driven by the same engine, the fly-press:
Tripetaloideæ. Junci, Jussieu. One of when for ornamented buttons, the figure
the connecting links between lilies and is frequently also struck in like manner
rushes. Essential character; calyx none; by an appropriate die, though there are
petals six; capsule six, many-seeded. others which are ornamented by hand.
There is but one species; viz. B. umbel. The shanks, which are made with wonder-
latus, flowering rush or gladiole, has a ful facility and expedition by means of a
perennial root; leaves ensiform, long, very curious engine, are then temporarily
triangular, smooth, quite entire, spongy, attached to the bottom of each button by
BUTTON.
a wire clamp like a pair of sugar tongs, the buttons, whose surfaces are already
and a small quantity of solder and resin thinly covered or wetted with mercury,
applied to each. They are in this state in an earthen vessel, with the requisite
exposed to heat on an iron plate contain- proportion of amalgam and a small quan-
ing about a gross, till the solder runs, tity of diluted nitric acid, by which means
and the shank becomes fixed to the but- the amalgam also attaches itself to their
ton, after which they are put singly in a surfaces with a considerable degree of
lathe, and their edges turned off smooth- equality. The necessary quantity of gold
ly. The surface of the metal, which has is about five grains to a gross of buttons
become in a small degree oxydated by of an inch in diameter.
the action of the heat in soldering, is next The next process is the volatilization of
to be cleaned, which in this, as in a great the mercury by heat, which is usually
variety of other instances in the manufac- called by the workmen drying off. This
ture of metallic articles, is effected by is performed by first heating the buttons
the
process of dipping or pickling ; that is, in an iron pan, somewhat like a large fry-
some dozens of them are put into an ear. ing-pan, till the amalgam with which they
then vessel, pierced full of holes like a are covered becomes fluid, and seems
cullender; the whole dipped into a vessel disposed to run into drops, on which they
of diluted nitric acid, suffered to drain are thrown into a large felt cap, called a
,
for a few seconds, again dipped succes. gilding cap, made of coarse wool and
sively into four or five other vessels of goat's hair, and stirred about with a brush
pure water, and then dried.
to equalize the covering of the surface
The next operation is the rough burnish- by the gold. After this they are again
ing, which is performed by fixing the but- heated, again thrown into the gilding cap,
tons in the lathe, and applying a burnish- and srirred, and these operations succes-
er of hard black stone from Derbyshire : sively repeated till the whole of the mer-
the minute pores occasioned by the suc- cury is volatilized, When the mercury is
cessive action of the heat and the acid are volatilized from the buttons, or, as the
thus closed, and the subsequent process workmen denominate it, when the buttons
of gilding considerably improved, both are dried off, they are finally burnished,
with regard to economy and perfection. and are then finished and fit for carding.
The first step towards the gilding of all The white metal buttons, which are
the alloys of copper consists in covering composed of brass, alloyed with different
the surface uniformly with a thin stratum proportions of tin, after having been cast
of mercury, by which means the amalgam, as before mentioned, are polished by turn-
which is afterwards applied, attaches it- ing them in a lathe, and applying succes-
self to it much more readily than it would sively pieces of buffalo skin glued on
otherwise do. This part of the process is wood, charged with powdered grindstone
called quicking, and is effected by stirring and oil, rotten stone, and crocus martis.
the buttons about with a brush, in a vessel They are then white-boiled, that is, boiled
containing a quantity of nitric acid super with a quantity of grain tin in a solution of
saturated with mercury, which latter is, crude red tartar,or argol, and, lastly,finish-
of course, by the superior elective attrac. ed with a buff with finely prepared crocus.
tion of the copper for the acid, precipitated Glass buttons. These articles are also
in its metallic state on the buttons, whose frequently wholly composed of glass of va-
surfaces become uniformly and brilliantly rious colours, in imitation of the opal,
covered with it. The mercury, which lapis lazuli, and other stones. The glass
hangs in loose drops on the buttons, is is in this case kept in fusion, and the but-
then shaken off, by jerking the whole ton nipped out of it whilst in its plastic
violently in a kind of earthen cullender state, by a pair of iron moulds like those
made for the purpose, and they are then used for casting pistol shot, adapted to
ready for receiving the amalgam. The the intended form of the button; the
amalgam is made by heating a quantity workmen previously inserting the shank
of grain gold with mercury in an iron ladle, into the mould, so that it may become
by which means the former is soon dis- imbedded in the glass when cold.
solved, and the whole is then poured into Mother of pearl
buttons. This substance
a vessel of cold water. The superabun- is also frequently used in the manufacture
dant mercury is strongly pressed out of buttons: in which case, the mode of
through a piece of chamois leather, and fixing in the shank is somewhat ingenious.
the remaining amalgam, which is of about It is done by drilling a hole at the back,
the consistence of butter, is then fit for which is under-cut, that is, larger at the
application. This is performed by stirring bottom than the top, like a mortise, and the
BUX
BYR
a
shank being driven in by a steady stroke, der upwards; triangular-compressed, ob-
its extremity expands on striking against liquely truncate at the end, of a blackish
the bottom of the hole, and it becomes brown colour. The wood of the box-tree
firmly rivetted into the button. To these sells at a very high price, by weight, be-
foil-stones are also frequently added, in ing very hard and smooth, and not apt to
which case, they are usually attached with warp. It is a native of most parts of Eu-
isinglass-glue Steel studs are also often rope, from Britain southwards.
rivetted into buttons of this and various BY-LAWS, or Bye-Laws, private and
other kinds.
peculiar laws for the good government of
The practice of wearing buttons con- a city, court, or other community, made
sisting merely of a mould covered with by the general consent of the members.
the same kind of cloth as the garment All by-laws are to be reasonable, and for
itself, being at present extremely general, the common benefit, not private advan-
it may, perhaps, be proper to remark, that tage of any particular persons, and must
this is prohibited on pain of pecuniary be agreeable to the public laws in being.
penalties, from 40s. to 51. per dozen, by If made by corporations, they are to be
several statutes which have been made at approved by the Lord Chancellor or Chief
different times for the promotion of this Justice, or justices of assize, on pain of
manufacture, and under which several con- 401, if against the good of the public. But
victions have taken place within a few years it is said a corporation cannot make by-
BUTTRESS, a kind of butment built laws without a custom for it, or the king's
archwise, or a mass of stone or brick, charter : nor may they make any by-law
serving to support the sides of a building, to bind strangers that live out of their
wall, &c. on the outside, where it is either corporation, or to restrain a person from
very high, or has any considerable load to working in or setting up his trade, though
sustain on the other side, as a bank of it may be for the order and regulating of
earth, &c.
trades; and notwithstanding such a by-
BUXBAUMIA, in botany, a kind of law may inflict a reasonable penalty,
moss, of which there are only two species. which may be recovered by distress or
Both are to be found in the dissertation action of debt, yet none can be imprison-
of the younger Linnæus on mosses. ed upon it, as it is contrary to Magna
BUXUS, in botany, a genus of the Mo- Charta.
noecia Tetrandria class and order. Natu- BYRLAW, or BURLAW laws in Scot-
ral order of Tricoceæ Euphorbiæ, Jus. land, are made and determined by neigh-
sieu. Essential character: male calyx bours, elected by common consent in byr-
three-leaved ; petals three ; styles three; law courts. The men chosen as judges,
capsule three-beaked; three-celled; seeds are called byrlaw or burlaw-men, and take
two. There is but one species : viz. B. cognizance of complaints between neigh-
sempervirens, box-tree, is well known in bour and neighbour.
its dwarf state and as a shrub, about three BYRRHUS, in natural history, a genus
feet in height. The wood is of a yellow of insects of the order Coleoptera : generic
colour, very hard and ponderous. It is character; antennæ longer than the head,
the only one of the European woods which clavate, the club perfoliate ; feelers equal,
will sink in water. The leaves are ovate subclavate ; jaw and lip bifid. There are
in the common sort, hard, smooth, glossy, about 12 species found in different parts
evergreen, very dark green above, and of Europe. The B. scrophularia is a small
pale green underneath, like those of myr- insect of the size of the lady-bird ; its
tle, but blunt and emarginate at the end; colour is drak brown, clouded with bro-
from the axils of the leaves come out the ken or irregular white bands, and the
small herbaceous flowers, in round bun- edges, constituting the line of division be-
ches; a female flower occupying the tween the wing sheaths, are red. This
middle of the bunch, being surrounded in sect is found more frequently on the
by several males.
plant called scrophularia aquatica than
The female flower is succeeded by a elsewhere. B. pilula is a larger species,
capsule of a globular form, very smooth, equalling or rather exceeding the size of
shining, tricoccous, and before it opens the common lady-bird; it is of an extreme-
having three beaks resembling a tripod ; ly convex shape, and when disturbed
the cocculi or grains are of the consistence contracts its limbs, and lies in an inert
of paper, two valved, and opening with state,' resembling the appearance of a
an elastic spring ; receptacle central, seed or pill. It is found on various plants,
three-sided, and short; in each cell is a and about garden-grounds, &c. The an-
pair of seeds, ovate, growing more slen- tennæ in this species are longer than in
a
CAA
CAB
others, and rather foliated than merely ing: corolla, upper lip bifid ; covers tri
knobbed.
fid; stamens distant. There are seven
BYSSUS, in botany, a genus of the species, of which B. pectinatum, balm-
Cryptogamia Algæ, and the last in the leaved bystropogon, has an herbaceous
scale of vegetation in that class. They ap- stem, generally five or six feet high, leaves
pear in the form of threads, on rotten petioled, cordate, veined; spikes simple
wood, the bark of trees, rocks, and walls, or manifold; scarcely leafy; composed
especially in damp cellars; one sort is of whorls; supported by several bristle-
common on wine casks; at first is like shaped bractes, the length of the flow-
flakes of snow, but turns yellow; in this ers, which grow thick together, curiously
state it has black grains at the base like disposed on the smaller slips of the
gunpowder. The green paper byssus is branched tops; they are whitish, and all
a farina concreting on the surface of the the parts very small; the neck of the
water, and forming a wide thin film. calyx and filaments are commonly cover-
There are many species, but the numbered with down. The corolla is scarcely
is doubtful.
larger than the calyx; stamens the length
BYSTROPOGON, in botany, a genus of the corolla and distant ; style purplish ;
of the Didynamia Gymnospermia class stigmas simple, seeds roundish, black
and order. Natural order, Verticillatæ. and glossy. This plant is a native of Ja-
Labiatæ, Jussieu. Essential character: maica. It is found in all the low lands
calyx five-subulate, bearded at the open- about Kingston and Spanish Town.
C.
C.
the third letter, and second conso. by Abraham and Ishmael his son. It is
nant of the alphabet, is formed by towards this temple they always turn their
forcing the breath between the tongue, faces when they pray, in whatever part
elevated near the palate (to make the of the world they happen to be.
voice somewhat sibilous) with the lips This temple enjoys the privilege of an
open. It has two sounds, hard and soft; asylum for all sorts of criminals; but it
hard, hike k before a, u, o, l, and r; as is most remarkable for the pilgrimages
in call, cost, cup, clean, crop ; and soft, made to it by the devout Mussulmen,
like s before i, e, and y; as in city, ces- who pay so great a veneration to it, that
sion, cyder : before h it has a peculiar they believe a single sight of its sacred
sound, as in chance,chalk: in chord, chart, walls, without any particular act of devo-
and some other words, it is hard like k: tion, is as meritorious, in the sight of God,
but in many French words it is soft before as the most careful discharge of one's
h, like s, as in chaise, chagrin.
duty, for the space of a whole year, in
As a numeral, C signifies 100, CC 200, any other temple
&c.
CAB, an Hebrew dry measure, equal to
C, in music, the highest part in the two and five-sixths pints of our corn mea-
thorough base ; again, a simple C, or sure.
rather a semicircle, placed after the cliff, CABBAGE. See BRASSICA.
intimates, that the music is in common CABBAGE tree. See ARECA.
time, which is either quick or slow, as it CABBAGING, among gardeners, a
is joined with allegro or adagio: if alone, term used for the knitting of cabbages
it is usually adagio.
into round heads.
If the C be crossed or turned, the first CABBALA, properly signifies tradition,
requires the air to be played quick, and and is the name of a mysterious kind of
the last very quick.
science, thought to have been delivered
CAABA, or CAABAH, properly signi- by revelation to the ancient Jews, and
fies a square building; but is particu- transmitted by oral tradition to those of
larly applied by the Mahometans to the our times; serving for the interpretation of
temple of Mecca, built, as they pretend, the books both of nature and scripture.
CAB
CAB
a
be
The Cabbala is properly the oral law press, or chest of drawers, in which arti-
of the Jews, delivered down by word of cles of curiosity are contained, but im.
mouth from father to son; and it is to plies at once both the repository itself,
these interpretations of the written law, and the articles arranged in it
that our Saviour's censure is to be ap-
Cabinets of fossils, sheils, and corals,
plied, when he reproves the Jews for have the drawers sometimes divided for
making the commands of God of none ef- this purpose into small compartments, by
fect, through their traditions.
means of an inner frame work, that lets
CABBALISTS, the Jewish doctors, who into the bottom of the drawer; but trays
profess the study of the cabbala. In the of various sizes, made either of card or
opinion of these men, there is not a word, pasteboard, have a much neater appear-
letter, or accent in the law, without some ance, and are preferred by many as being
mystery in it. The Jews are divided into more commodious, and more easily shift-
two general sects; the Karaites, who re- ed from one part of the drawer to another,
fuse to receive either tradition or the tal- as the addition of new acquisitions in any
mud, or any thing but the pure text of particular tribe or genus may require.
scripture; and the rabbinists, or talmud- Nothing can be more desirable than to
ists, who, besides this, receive the tradi- have the cabinets well made, that the
tions of the ancients, and follow the tal- drawers may slide with perfect ease in
mud. The latter are again divided into their proper recesses in the press The
two other sects; pure rabbinists, who ex- drawers should fit so close, when shut
plain the scripture, in its natural sense, up, as to preclude the entrance of dust
by grammar, history, and tradition; and of any kind. The cabinet itself should
cabbalists, who, to discover hidden mysti- be also placed in a dry situation, as
cal senses, which they suppose God to there are few articles of natural history
have couched therein, make use of the that are not affected in a greater or less
cabbala, and the mystical methods above degree by an excess of damp, or even
mentioned.
heat. The drawers are uniformly made
CABECA, or Cabesse, a name given shallow, the bottom of each is lined
to the finest silks in the East Indies. with cork, and the top is covered with
CABIN, in the sea language, a small glass, through which the insect
may
room or apartment, whereof there are a seen without being exposed to the air, or
great many in several parts of a ship; accidents that would arise from their
particularly on the quarter-deck, and on being touched by the incautious spec-
each side of the steerage, for the officers tator.
of the ship to lie in. The great cabin Cabinets for insects are built of vari-
is the chief of all, and that which properly ous sizes, from those which contain ten
belongs to the captain or chief comman- or a dozen drawers to others that include
der.
above an hundred. They are usually of
CABINET, the most retired place in mahogany, but it is immaterial whether
the finest part of a building, set apart for they be made of mahogany or wainscot ;
writing, studying, or preserving any thing some have them of cedar, but seldom of
that is precious. A complete apartment deal, or any other wood of a soft texture
consists of a hall, anti-chamber, chamber, The drawers may be from fifteen to thir-
and cabinet, with a gallery on one side. ty inches in length, the same, or nearly
Hence we say, a cabinet of paintings, cu- the same, in breadth, and about two or
riosities, &c.
three inches in depth. The cork with
CABINET, in natural history. This term which the bottoms are lined must be cho-
is applied, with some latitude, to any small sen as free from cracks and holes as pos-
or select collection of natural curiosities, sible; it should be also glued into the
without regarding whether the articles it drawers to prevent its warping, and be
comprises be contained within a cabinet filed or cut very level; and after this the
or not. ,
Thus, for instance, it is not un irregularities on the surface of the cork
frequent with us to speak of cabinets of should be rubbed down with pumice-
animals, cabinets of birds, of fishes, rep- stone, till the whole is rendered perfect-
tiles, and other similar articles, as a mode ly smooth, before the paper is pasted
expressing such an assemblage of natu- over it. The paper should be of a fine
ral history as may not be of sufficient im- smooth and even grain, but neither very
portance to deserve the epithet of a mu- stout nor highly stiffened with size, lest
seum. The word cabinet, in its usual it should turn the points of the pins,
acceptation with the naturalist, is not when placing the insects in the drawers
therefore confined solely to the boxes The top of every drawer must be cover-
રી
of
a
CAB
CAC
.
.
.
2
.
ed with a plate of glass, to prevent the ple engaged in marine commerce, who
admission of dust or air. This plate is fit out merchant-men for their own ac-
usually fitted into a frame of the same size count, or freight them for the account
as the drawer, and is made either to slide of others.
in a groove, or let in on a rabbet; the A table of the number of threads and
latter contrivance is much the best, be- weight of cables of different circumfer-
cause in sliding the glass along the groove, ences.
if any of the pins happen to stand so high
as to touch the frame-work, the insects Circumf Threads. Weight.
will be injured by the jerk, or, as more 3 inches, 48 . . . . 192 pounds.
frequently happens in this case, be bro-
4..
77
308
ken to pieces. On the contrary, when
5.... 121. 484
the frame falls in upon a rabbet, it is of
6. ... 174. 696
no consequence whether the edge of the
7.... 238. 952
frame sinks into the drawer below the
8.... 311 .. .. 1244
level of the beads of the pins on which
9.... 393 .. .. 1572
the insects are placed or not; it is only
10... 485 .. 1940
necessary to observe, that the glass does 11 .... 598 ..
2392
not press upon the pins, since it is the
12.... 699. .. 2796
glass only that can come in contact with 13. ... 821 .... 3284
them.
14.... 952. . 3808
CABLE, a thick, large, strong rope,
15....1093.... 4372
commonly of hemp, which serves to keep
16 ....1244.... 4976
a ship at anchor.
17....1404.
. 5616
There is no merchant ship, however 18....1574 ..... 6296
weak, but has, at least, three cables;
19....1754 .... 7016
namely, the chief cable, or cable of the 20....1943 .... 7772
sheet-anchor, a common cable, and a
smaller one.
CABLE, sheet anchor, is the greatest ca-
Cable is also said of ropes which serve ble belonging to a ship.
to raise heavy loads by the help of cranes, CABLE, to splice a, is to make two
pullies, and other engines. The name of pieces fast together, by working the se-
cable is usually given to such as are, at veral threads of the rope, the one into
least, three inches in diameter; those the other.
that are less are only called ropes of dif-
CABLE, pay more, is to let more out of
ferent names, according to their use.
Every cable, of what thickness soever it out apace.
the ship. Pay cheap the cable, is to hand
Veer more cable, is to let
it be, is composed of three strands, every more out, &c.
strand of three ropes, and every rope of
three twists; the twist is made of more or
CABLED, in heraldry, a term applied
less threads, according as the cable is to to a cross, formed of the two ends of a
be thicker or thinner.
ship's cable ; sometimes also to a cross
In the manufacture of cables, after the covered over with rounds of rope, more
ropes are made, they use sticks, which properly called a cross corded.
they pass first between the ropes of which
CABOCHED, in heraldry, is when the
they make the strands, and afterwards heads of beasts are borne without any
between the strands of which they make part of the neck, full faced.
the cable, to the end that they may all CACALIA, in botany, a genus of the
twist the better, and be more regularly Syngenesia Polygamia class and order.
wound together; and also to prevent Natural order of Compositæ Discoidea:
them from twining or entangling, they Corymbiferæ, Jussieu. Essential charae.
bang at the end of each strand and of ter: calyx cylindric, oblong, at the bye
each rope a weight of lead or of stone. only subcalycled; down capillary; -cep-
The number of threads each cable is tacie naked. There are thiry-three
composed of is always proportioned to species, of which we shall nly give a
its length and thickness; and it is by this short description of two or tree. C. pa-
lue are ascertained ; thus a cable of three foot stalk very strofide, being
destitute
number of threads that its weight and va- pillaris, or rough stalke cacalia, has the
thick,
inches circumference, or one inch diame- set round on evethree truncated foot
ter, ought to consist of forty-eight ordi- of leaves,
nary threads, and weigh 192 pounds: stalks ; and.nner from external injuries.
is the stem defended in
and on this
foundation is calculated the a singular e of the Cape of Good Hope,
.
following table, very useful for all peo. It is a v
VOL. IL
wis
CAC
CAD
and is cultivated in England, but has ne. manent in duration, singular and various
ver yet produced flowers. C. suaveolens, in structure; generally without leaves,
sweet-scented cacalia, has a perennial having the stem or branches jointed; for
creeping root, sending out many stalks ; the most part armed with spines in bun-
these rise to the height of seven or eight dles, with which, in many species, bris-
feet, are streaked, quite simple, and ter- tles are intermixed. The bundles of
minated by corymbs of white flowers; spines are placed on the top of the tu-
the peduncles above the ramifications bercles in the C. mammillaris, smaller
have bristle-shaped bractes scattered o- melon thistle, which is tubercled all over,
ver them, which are smooth. It is a na- and produces its flowers between the
tive of Virginia and Canada; flowering in tubercles. In C. melocactus, great melon
August, and ripening its seeds in Octo- thistle, or turk's cap, the spines are rang-
ber. The roots which have been cast out ed in a single row on the ridge of the
of the Chelsea gardens have been carried ribs; when it is cut through the middle,
by the tide to a great distance, and lodg- the inside is found to be a soft, green,
ed on the banks of the rivers, and fasten- fleshy, substance, very full of moisture.
ed themselves to the ground, where they The flowers and fruit are produced in
have increased so much as almost to ap- circles round the upper part of the cap.
pear as if they were natives. C. articu. C. pitajaya, torch thistle, or torch wood,
lata, jointed stalked cacalia, is an elegant is upright, and grows to the height of
plant, smooth and glaucous, of an un- eight or ten feet. The flower is whitish,
pleasant flavour : stems many, Aeshy, very handsome, but has scarcely any
round, upright but weak, marked with smell; it is half a foot in diameter, and
scars from the fallen leaves, and painted blows in the night. The fruit is of the
with lines of a deep green; forets twen- form and size of a hen's egg, of a shining
a
ty-five, a little longer than the calyx, scarlet colour on the outside ; the pulp
white, with border acute and spreading is white, fleshy, sweet, eatable, full of
much; anthers dark purple; stigma bi- small black seeds. C. grandiflorus, great
fid, yellow; seeds linear, crowned with flowering creeping cereus; and c. fla-
a white sessile egret. Found at the Cape gelliformis, pink flowering creeping ce-
of Good Hope. It flowers in Novem- reus, are the same with those already
ber.
mentioned, except that the stems are
CACAO, the chocolate tree, in botany, weak, and cannot support themselves;
See THEOBROMA.
they therefore seek assistance, and throw
CACHRYS, in botany, a genus of the out roots from the stem like ivy. C. mo-
Pentandria Digynia class and order. Na- niliformis, necklace Indian fig; the
tural order of Umbellatæ. Essential cha- branches are jointed, and very much flat-
racter; fruit subovate, angular, suberous, ted; the bundles of apines or bristles are
cortical. There are five species, of which scattered over the surface, and the flow-
C. libanotis, smooth-seeded cachrys, hasers are produced from the edge of the
a thick fleshy root like fennel, which runs branches. C. phyllanthus, spleenwort-
deep into the ground, sending out seve- leaved Indian fig, has the branches much
ral narrow pinnate leaves, ending in ma- thinner, and may be fairly denominated
ny points; between these arises a smooth leaves; they are indented along the edge,
jointed stalk, about three feet high, and the flowers come out singly from the
which is terminated by large umbels of indentures. The fruit in some of the
yellow flowers. Native of Sicily. C. te- sorts is small, like currants, but in most it
nuifolia, five-leaved cachrys: root peren- is large and shaped like a fig; whence
nial, fleshy, gratefully aromatic, with their name of Indian fig. These singular
branches an inch thick, a cubit in length, plants are all natives of the continent of
covered with a smooth bark ; umbels al. South America and the West Indian
taost a span in diameter, consisting of islands.
fron sixteen to twenty rays, about two CADENCE, in music, according to the
ches in length ; flowers yellow. Native ancients, is a series of a certain number
of Montp
of notes, in a certain interval, which
Icosandria sin botany, a genus of the strike the ear agreeably, and especially
Natural order opgynia class and order. at the end of the song, stanza, &c. It
sieu. Essential occulentæ. Cacti, Jus- consists ordinarily of three notes.
leafed, superior, imbacter: calyx one. dence, in the modern music, may be de-
fold; berry one-cellete;
corolla mani. fined a certain conclusion of a song, or of
There are twenty-seven many-seeded. the parts of a song, which divide it, as it
genus consists of succulent cies. This were, into so many numbers or periods.
Ants, per- It is when the parts terminate in a chore
a
CACTUber, flowering in May.
CAD
CÆS
a
or note, the ear seeming naturally to ex. caducous is expressive of the shortest
pect it; and is much the same in a song period of duration, and has different ac-
as the period that closes the sense in a ceptations, according to the different
paragraph of a discourse. See Music. parts of plants to which it is applied. A
CADENCE, in rhetoric and poetry, the calyx is said to be caducous, which drops
running of verse or prose, otherwise at the first opening of the petals, or
called the numbers, and by the ancients even before, as in the poppy. Petals are
ρυθμος.
caducous which are scarcely unfolded
Cadence, in dancing, is when the se- before they fall off, as in the meadow
veral steps and motions follow, or corres-
rue; and such leaves have obtained this
pond, to the notes and measures of the denomination as fall before the end of
music.
the summer.
CADENCE is used as a military term, and CADUS, in antiquity, a wine vessel of
implies a very regular and uniform me- certain capacity, containing 80 am-
thod of marching, by the drum and mu- phoræ, or firkins, each of which, accord-
sic: it may not, says a good writer on ing to the best accounts, held nine gal-
this subject, be improperly called ma- lons.
thematical marching for after the length
CÆCUM, or CECUM, in anatomy, the
of the step is determined, the time and blind gut, or first of the large intestines,
distance may be found.
See ANATOMY.
CADET is a military term, denoting a
CÆNOPTERIS, in botany, a genus of
young gentleman who chooses to carry the Cryptogamia Filices. Generic cha-
arms in a marching regiment as a private racter: fructifications in submarginal la-
man. His views are to acquire some
teral lines, covered with a membrane
knowledge in the art of war, and to ob- gaping on the outside. There is but one
tain a commission in the army. Cadet species; viz. C. rhizophylla, common
,
differs from volunteer, as the former peduncle or rachis, round, brown, and
takes pay, whereas the latter serves with smooth, elongated at the tip, leafless;
out any pay. There is a company of gen- bulbiferous rooting; partial peduncles
tlemen cadets maintained at Woolwich, green, flatted, sometimes winged. Fruc-
at the King's expense, where they are tifications in short, solitary, lateral lines,
taught all the sciences necessary to form beginning at the nerve towards the base
a complete officer.
of the pinnules, and covered with an en-
CADI, or Cadhi, a judge of the civil af- tire scariose brown membrane. Native of
fairs in the Turkish empire. It is gene- the island of Dominica.
rally taken for the judge of a town: CAESALPINA, in botany, a genus of
judges of provinces being distinguished the Decandria Monogynia class and or.
by the appellation of mollas.
der. Natural order of Lomentaceæ. Le-
CADIA, in botany, a genus of the De- guminosa, Jussieu. Essential character:
candria Monogynia class and order. Es- calyx five-parted, the lowest segment
sential character: calyx five-cleft; petals longer, and slightly arched; stamen wool-
five, equal, obcordate ; legume many- ly at the base; petals five ; legume com-
seeded. There is but one species ; viz. pressed. There are eight species, of
c. purpurea, purple flowered cadia, is a which C. elata is a tree with bipinnate
shrub rising to the height of three feet. leaves of seven pairs; the leaflets fifteen
The leaves are pinnate, coming out al- pairs, quite entire, minute : flowers large,
ternately; leaflets from 15 to 30 pairs, and of a yellow colour: filaments very
linear, retuse, the nerve ending in a little dark purple, villose at the base. It is a
point. The corolla is rose coloured, or native of India. C. pulcherrima, the Bar-
rather the colour of a peach blossom; badoes flower fence, rises with a straight
legume somewhat less than a span in stalk ten or twelve feet high : it is covera
length, containing eight or ten seeds. It ed with a smooth grey bark: it divides
is a native of Arabia.
into several spreading branches at the top,
CADUCI, in botany, the name of a class arched at each joint with two short,
of plants in Linnæus's Methodus Calycina, strong, crooked spines. The branches
consisting of plants of which the calyx is are terminated by loose spikes of flowers,
a simple perianthium, supporting a sin. which are sometimes formed into a kind
gle flower, or fructification, and falling of pyramid, and at others they are dispos-
off either before or with the petals. It ed more in form of an umbel. The pe-
stands opposed to the Persistentes, in the duncle of each flower is nearly three in-
same method, and is exemplified in mus- ches long: The petals are roundish at
tard, sinapi, and ranunculus. The term the top they spread open, and are beau-
a
CÆS
CAI
:
tifully variegated with a deep red or verses of twelve or thirteen syllables,
orange colour, yellow, and some spots of the cæsure must always be on the sixth
green, and have a very agreeable odour. in verses of ten, on the fourth ; and in
This beautiful plant is a native of both those of twelve, on the sixth : verses of
Indies. It is planted in hedges to divide eight syllables must not have any cæ-
the lands in Barbadoes, whence it has the sure.
name of fiower-fence.
CÆTERIS paribus, a Latin term, often
CÆSAR, in Roman antiquity, a title used by mathematical and physical wri.
borne by all the emperors, from Julius ters, the words literally signifying “the
Cæsar to the destruction of the empire. rest, or the other things, being alike, or
It was also used as a title of distinction equal.” Thus we say, the heavier the
for the intended or presumptive heir bullet, "cæteris paribus," the greater
of the empire, as king of the Romans is the range : i.e. by how much the bullet is
now used for that of the German empire. heavier, if the length and diameter of
This title took its rise from the surname the piece, and the quantity and strength
of the first emperor, C. Julius Cæsar, of the powder be the same, by so much
which, by a decree of the senate, all the will the utmost range or distance of a
succeeding emperors were to bear. Un- piece of ordnance be greater. Thus also,
.
der his successor, the appellation of Au- in a physical way, we say, the velocity
gustus being appropriated to the em- and quantity of the blood circulating, in a
perors, in compliment to that prince, the given time, through any section of an
,
title Cæsar was given to the second per- artery, will,“ cæteris paribus," be accord.
son in the empire, though still it continu- ing to its diameter, and nearness to, or
ed to be given to the first ; and hence distance from the heart.
the difference betwixt Cæsar used simply CAILLE (NICHOLAS LEWIS DE LA,)
and Cæsar with the addition of Imperator in biography, an eminent French mathe-
Augustus
matician and astronomer, was born in the
CÆSARIAN section, in midwifery, a diocese of Rheims in 1713. His father
chirurgical operation, by which the fætus having quitted the army, in which he had
is delivered from the womb of its mother, served, amused himself in his retirement
when it cannot be done in the natural with studying mathematics and mechan-
way. See MIDWIFERY.
ics, in which he proved the happy author
ČÆSULIA, in botany, a genus of the of several inventions of considerable use
Syngenesia Æqualis. Receptacle chaffy; to the public. From this example of
seeds involved in the chaff; calyx three- his father, our author, almost in bis in-
leaved. Two species; viz. C. axillaris, a fancy, took a fancy to mechanics, which
native of the East Indies, and C. radicans, proved of signal service to him in his
a native of Guinea.
maturer years. At school he discoy-
CÆSURA, in the ancient poetry, is ered early tokens of genius. He next
when, in the scanning of a verse, a word came to Paris in 1729, where he studi.
is divided, so as one part seems cut off, ed the classics, philosophy, and mathe-
and goes to a different foot from the matics. He afterwards studied divinity
rest; as,
in the College de Navarre, with the view of
Mentiſri noſli, nun(quam men|dacia | pro- embracing the ecclesiastical life, but never
sunt.
entered into priest's orders. His turn
where the syllables ri, li, quam, and men, for astronomy soon connected him with
are cæsuras.
the celebrated Cassini, who procured him
Cæsura more properly denotes a cer- an apartment in the observatory : where,
tain and agreeable division of the words assisted by the counsels of this master,
between the feet of a verse, whereby the he soon acquired a name among the as-
last syllable of a word becomes the first tromomers. In 1739 he was joined with
of a foot, as in
M. Cassini de Thury, son to M. Cassini,
Arma virimque cano, Troje qui primus in verifying the meridian through the
ab oris,
whole extent of France; and in the same
where the syllables no and je are cæsu- year he was named professor of mathe.
matics in the College of Mazarine.
In
Cæsuna, or CÆSURE, in the modern 1741 he was admitted into the Academy
poetry, denotes a rest, or pause, towards of Sciences, and had many excellent pa-
the middle of an Alexandrine verse, by pers inserted in their memoirs ; beside
which the voice and pronunciation are which, he published several useful trea-
aided, and the verse, as it were, divided tises, viz. Elements of Geometry, Astro-
into two hemistichs. In Alexandrine
nomy, Mechanics, and Optics. He also
las.
CAI
CAI
6
carefully computed all the eclipses of the moisture. And, lastly, he shewed an
sun and moon that had happened since easy and practicable method of finding
the christian æra, which were printed in the longitude at sea by means of the
the work entitled, “L'Art de verifier les moon. His fame being now celebrated
Dates," &c. Paris, 1750, in 4to. He also every where, M. de la Caille was soon
compiled a volume of astronomical ephe- elected a member of most of the acade-
merides for the years 1745 to 1755; an- mies and societies of Europe, as London,
other for the years 1755 to 1765; and a Bologna, Petersburgh, Berlin, Stockholm,
third for the years 1765 to 1775; as also and Gottingen. He died in 1762, aged 49.
the most correct solar tables of any; and CAISSON, in the military art, a wooden
an excellent work entitled, “ Astronomia chest, into which several bombs are put,
Fundamenta novissimis Solis et Stellarum and sometimes only filled with gunpow-
Observationibus stabilita."
der ; this is buried under some work,
Having gone through a seven year's whereof the enemy intend to possess
series of astronomical observations in his themselves, and when they are masters
own observatory in the Mazarine College, of it, is fired, in order to blow them up.
he formed the project of going to observe CAISSON is also used for a wooden
the southern stars at the Cape of Good frame, or chest, used in laying the founda-
Hope ; being countenanced by the court, tions of the piers of a bridge.
he set out upon this expedition in 1750, The practice of building in caissons is
and in the space of two years he observed a method sometimes adopted in laying
there the places of about 10,000 stars in the foundation of bridges in very deep or
the southern hemisphere, that are not vis- rapid rivers. These are large hollow
ible in our latitudes, as well as many vessels framed of strong timbers, and
other important elements, viz. the paral- made water tight, which being launched
laxes of the sun, moon, and some of the and floated to a proper position in the
planets, the obliquity of the ecliptic, the river, where the ground has been previ-
refractions, &c. Having thus executed ously excavated and levelled, are there
the purpose of his voyage, and no present sunk. The piers of the bridge are then
opportunity offering for his return, he built within them, and carried up above,
thought of employing the vacant time in or nearly to the level of the water, when
another arduous attempt; no less than the sides of the caisson are detached from
that of taking the measure of the earth, the bottom, and removed; the bottom,
as he had already done that of the heavens, composed of a strong grating of timber,
whence he discovered, that the radii of remaining, and serving for a foundation
the parallels in south latitude are not the to the pier. The most considerable
same length as those of the corresponding work, where caissons have been used,
parallels in north latitude. About the was in the building of Westminster-
23d degree of south latitude be found a bridge; of these, therefore, a particular
degree on the meridian to contain 342222 account may be acceptable. Each of the
Paris feet. The court of Versailles also caissons contained 150 loads of fir timber,
sent him an order to go and fix the situ- and was of more tonnage than a man of
ation of the Isles of France and of Bour. war of 40 guns; their size was nearly 80
bon.
feet from point to point, and 30 feet in
M. de la Caille returned to France in the breadth ; the sides, which were 10 feet
autumn of 1754, after an absence of about in height, were formed of timbers Jaid
four years ; loaded, not indeed with the horizontally over one another, pinned
spoils of the East, but with those of the with oak trunnels, and framed together
southern heavens, before then almost un- at all the corners, except the salient an-
known to astronomers. Upon his return, gles, were they were secured by proper
he first drew up a reply to some strictures iron-work, which being unscrewed, would
which the celebrated Euler had published permit the sides of the cassion, had it
relative to the meridian ; after which he been found necessary, to divide into two
settled the results of the comparison of parts. These sides were planked across
his observations for the parallaxes, with the timbers, inside and outside, with 3-inch
those of other astronomers : that of the planks, in a vertical position. The thick-
sun he fixed at 9}"; of the moon at 56' ness of the sides was 18 inches at bottom,
56'' ; of Mars in his opposition, 36" ; of and 15 inches at top; and in order to
Venus 38". He also settled the laws by strengthen them the more, every angle,
which astronomical refractions are varied except the two points, had three oaken
by the different density or rarity of the knee timbers properly bolted and secured.
air, by heat or cold, and by dryness or These sides, when finished, were fasten.
:
CAI
CAL
ed to the bottom or grating, by 28 pieces CAKILE, in botany, sea-rocket, a genus
of timber on the outside, and 18 within, of the Tetrandria Siliculosa class and order.
called straps, about 8 inches broad, and Silicle lanceolate, somewhat four-sided,
about 3 inches thick, reaching and lapping consisting of two deciduous joints, with-
over the tops of the sides; the lower out valves, and each containing a single
part of these straps were dove-tailed to seed: the lower joint with a tooth on
the outer curb of the grating, and kept each side at the tip. There are two
in their places by iron wedges. The pur- species, viz. C. maritima, found on the
pose of these straps and wedges was, sea-coast of England, C. Ægyptiaca, a
that when the pier was built up suffici. native of Italy and Egypt.
ently high above low-water mark, to ren- CALAGUALA root, brought from A-
der the caisson no longer necessary for merica for medicinal purposes, and has
the masons to work in, the wedges be- acquired considerable reputation on the
ing drawn up, gave liberty to clear the continent. It is supposed to be obtained
straps from the mortices, in consequence from a species of polypodium. Its colour
of which the sides rose by their own bouy- is brown, and partly covered with scales
ancy, leaving the grating under the foun- like the roots of fern, and is hard and
dation of the pier. The pressure of the difficult to reduce to powder. It is as-
water upon the sides of the caisson serted by Vauquelin that it contains
was resisted by means of a ground timber
or ribbon, 14 inches wide and 7 inches
thick, pinned upon the upper row of tim-
Woody fibre
Colouring matter
Gum
Malic acid
bers of the grating ; and the top of the
Resin
Muriate of potash
sides was secured by a sufficient number
Sugar
Lime
of beams laid across, which also served
Starch
Silica.
to support a floor on which the labour-
ers stood to hoist the stones out of the
lighters, and to lower them into the cais. The mode of analysis may be thus de.
son. The caisson was also provided with scribed. Alcohol dissolves the resin and
a sluice to admit the water. The method sugar. By evaporating the solution to
of working was as follows: A pit being dryness, and treating the residue with
dug and levelled in the proper situation water, the sugar is separated, and the
for the pier of the same shape as the cais- resin left. Water dissolved the gum and
son, and about five feet wider all round; the muriate of potash, whic
the caisson was brought to its position, a tained by evaporation. Diluted nitric
few of the lower courses of the pier built acid dissolved the starch and colouring
in it, and sunk once or twice, to prove matter, and let fall the former, when
the level of the foundation ; then, being mixed with four times its bulk of alco-
finally fixed, the masons worked in the hol. The woody fibre remained, which
usual methods of tide-work. About two when incinerated left carbonate of lime,
hours before low water, the sluice of muriate of potash, and a little silica. As
the caisson, kept open till then, lest the decoction reddened vegetable blues,
the water, flowing to the height of many it is possible that the lime was in com-
more feet on the outside than the inside, bination with malic acid.
should float the caisson and all the stone-
CALAMANCO, a sort of woollen stuff
work out of its true place, was shut manufactured in England and in Brabant.
down, and the water pumped low enough, It has a fine gloss, and is chequered in
without waiting for the lowest ebb of the warp, whence the checks appear only
the tide, for the masons to set and cramp on the right side. Some calamancoes are
the stonework of the succeeding courses. quite plain, others have broad stripes
Then, when the tide had risen to a con- adorned with flowers; some with plain
siderable height, the sluice was opened broad stripes, some with narrow stripes,
again, and the water admitted ; and as and others watered.
the caisson was purposely built but 16 CALAMARIÆ, in botany, the name of
feet high to save useless expence, the a third order in Linnæus's “ Fragments
high tides flowed some feet above the of a Natural Method.” This order will
sides, but without any damage or incon- be easily distinguished from the family of
venience to the works. In this manner grasses, by recollecting, 1. That the base
the work proceeded till the pier rose to of the leaf, which embraces the stalk like
the surface of the caisson, when the a glove, has no longitudinal aperture in
sides were floated away to serve the plants of this order, but is perfectly en-
same purpose at another pier.
tire ; 2. The stalk is generally triangular,
CAL
CAL
end without knots or joints; 3. The flow. base, diminishing to a pyramidal top
ers have no petals.
seeds very small, almost cylindric, streak-
CALAMINARIS, or lapis calaminaris, ed: native of Peru, in moist places.
a mineral containing zinc, united with CALCINATION, in chemistry. A sub-
iron and other substances. It is heavy, stance is said to be calcined when it has
hard, and brittle, or of a consistence be- been exposed to heat of a sufficient inten-
tween stone and earth. The colour is sity to drive off every thing volatile, but
whitish or grey, sometimes inclining to short of that by which it might be fused:
yellow, and sometimes to black. It is a calx, therefore, was formerly under-
found in great plenty in many parts of stood to be a pulverulent substance, no
Europe ; but the best is obtained in this longer combustible, or capable of fur-
country. It seldom lies deep, and in ther alteration by fire than that of vitrifi-
many parts it is found mixed with lead cation. As most metals were found to
ores. Calamine is the only true ore from be reducible to such a form by the con-
which zinc is obtained by calcination, tinuance of the melting heat, the term
See ZINC
“calces of metals” was long appropri-
CALAMUS, in botany, a genus of the ated to them, and is still partially retained,
Hexandria Monogynia class and order. though it has been chiefly supplanted
Natural order Tripetaloideæ. Palmæ, Jus- by the more characteristic appellation of
sieu. Essential character : calyx six- oxide, which expresses the peculiar
leaved; corolla none; berry dried, one change that occurs in metallic bodies by
seeded, imbricate backwards. According the absorption of oxygen. Calcination
to Martyn, there is but one species, expresses the mode by which, in metals,
though Loureiro has discriminated six; this change is produced, and oxydation
viz. C. rotang, rattan, has a perennial the circumstance of change. It is, how-
stem, quite simple or unbranched, with- ever, improper to consider the term cal-
out any tendrils: leaves alternate, sub- cination as synonymous with oxydation,
lanceolate, quite entire, scarcely a foot even in speaking of metals, since the
long: flowers commonly hermaphrodite, former term implies the agency of fire ;
almost terminating on one spadix or whereas oxydation may be produced a's
more. The rattan seems to form the well by the action of acids, as by beat and
connecting link between the palms and air.
the gramineous plants, having the flower CALCITRAPA, in botany, a genus of
of the former, but the habit of the latter, the Tetrandria Monogynia class and or-
The palm called raphia has the embryo der: calyx four-cleft; corolla four-cleft ;
placed in the same manner, namely, on a berry four-seeded. There are twelve spe-
lateral cavity of the horny albumen ; in cies, found in both Indies, Cochin-China,
the fruit and spadis it agrees nearly with and Japan.
this in form, only they are much larger :
CALCULATION, the act of comput-
the flowers differ but little, except that ing several sums, by adding, subtracting,
they are monoecous, as the flowers of the multiplying, or dividing. See ARITH.
rattan probably are.
METIC.
CALCAR, corolla, in botany, the spur
An error in calculation is never protect-
of the corolla. The pectarium so called, ed or secured by any sentence, decree,
which terminates the corolla behind, like &c. for in stating accounts it is always un-
a cock's spur, in valerian, orchis, violet, derstood that errors of calculation are
balsam, larkspur, &c.
excepted.
CALCEOLARIA, in botany, a genus of
CALCULATION is more particularly
the Diandria Monogynia class and order. used to signify the computations in as-
Natural order of Corydales. Scrophula-tronomy and geometry, for making tables
riæ, Jussieu. Essential character; corolla of logarithms, ephemerides, finding the
ringent, inflated; capsule two-celled, two- time of eclipses, &c.
valved ; calyx four-parted, equal. There CALCULATION, in music : many emi-
are seven species, of which c. pinnata, nent mathematicians suppose that a good
pinnated slipper-wort, has an annual root; ear and strong hand on instruments,
stem erect, two feet high, round, brittle, where the tone depends on the performer,
with a thick down, and from sixteen to are the musician's best guide, without
twenty joints ; flowers from each top and having recourse to calculation. On this
stalk double ; corollas yellow ; upper- subject the celebrated D'Alembert says,
lip subglobular, inflated, emarginate in “It is an achievement of no small im-
front, with a cleft for the prominent an- portance to have deduced the principal
thers; capsule thin, from a swelling facts to a system from one experiment,
a
CAL
CAL
viz. the harmonies of a single string. rious forms. Gall-stones in general are
Calculation may, indeed, facilitate the distinguished for their lightness and in-
intelligence of certain points of theory, flammability, few of them being so heavy
such as the relation between the tones of as to sink in water, and when put to a
the gamut and temperament; but the lighted candle they usually melt like
calculation necessary for treating these wax, and kindle with a bright flame, at-
two points is so simple and trifling that tended with an ammoniacal smell.
it merits no display. Let us not, there- CALCULI, urinary, concretions formed
fore, imitate those musicians who believe in the kidney or bladder ; and composed
themselves geometricians, or those ge- in greater or smaller proportions, of the
ometricians who fancy themselves musi- following substances, wz. uric acid, urate
cians, and in their writings heap figures of ammonia, phosphate of lime, phosphate
on figures, imagining, perbaps, that this of ammonia and magnesia, oxalate of
display is necessary to the art." See lime, silex and animal albumen. These
D'ALEMBERT.
principles being more or less common,
CALCULI, biliary, in chemistry, are and in different proportions, give rise to
small stones found in the gall-bladder, and numerous varieties, .
probably formed by the changes produ- The calculi most common are those
ced on the bile while it remains in that composed of uric acid ; they are gene-
;
organ. These are not uniform in their rally of a brown or yellowish colour,
appearance, but vary in colour, texture, smooth on the surface, and with a tex-
and hardness. The most common are ture compact or radiated; they are per-
of a lamellated structure, resembling fectly soluble in alkaline solutions, and
spermaceti, disposed in crystalline lami- give a red colour when treated with nitric
næ, which have a close resemblance in acid. Dr. Wollaston has arranged the
their properties to ADIPOCIRE, which urinary calculi under four species, viz. 1.
see. Biliary calculi are soluble in oil of The uric acid concretion : 2. The fusible
turpentine ; but more completely in the calculus, or phosphate of ammonia and
fixed alkalies, by which they are reduced magnesia : 3. The mulberry calculus, or
to a saponaceous state. Ammonia, un. oxalate and phosphate of lime: And, 4.
less in the boiling state, has little effect the bone earthy calculus, composed of
upon them. Nitric acid dissolves them, phosphate of lime, which forms the basis
,
forming a liquid similar to the oil of cam- of bone. Fourcroy and Vauquelin have
phor, which becomes concrete, and with- given a different arrangement; they af-
out any crystalline structure, and is more firm that in all calculi there exists a quan-
soluble in ether, and the alkalies, than the tity of animal matter which appears to
original matter. This substance is con- connect their particles; but independently
tained in a greater or less degree in of this, which is common to the whole,
nearly all the human biliary calculi; they compose three genera ; the first
hence they partake of its properties; contains three species, each formed of
are fusible, inflammable, and more or less one ingredient : the second comprises
soluble in the re-agents which dissolve seven species, formed of two ingredients
it. Other calculi are occasionally found each : and in the third there are two
in the gall-bladders of quadrupeds, which species, consisting of three or four ingre-
have been supposed to consist of inspis- dients; this system is exhibited in the
sated bile; they are irregular, and of va- following table:
SSpecies 1. Calculus of uric acid.
Genus I.
2.
urate of ammonia
2 ..3.
oxalate of lime.
4. ...
Suric acid and earthy phosphates, in dis-
2 tinct layers.
Suric acid and earthy phosphates, inti-
5...
mately mixed
Surate of ammonia and phosphates, in dis-
... 6.
tinct layers.
7.
urate of ammonia and phosphates, inti-
Genus II.
mately mixed
..8...
Searthy phosphates, either mixed intimate-
ly or in fine layers.
9. .
Soxalate of time and uric acid, in distinct
2 layers.
oxalate of lime and earthy phosphates, in
..10...
distinct layers.
.
CAL
CAL
...11. .
Genus III
{
Suric acid, or urate of ammonia, earthy
? phosphates, and oxalate of lime.
Suric acid, urate of ammonia, earthy phos-
2phates, and silex
.. 12..
a
а
It becomes a question of great impor- CALCULUS specialis, or literalis. See Al-
tance and interest to mankind, how far GEBRA.
the solution of calculi in the bladder may CALCULUS differentialis is a method of
be practicable. From what has been said differencing quantities, that is, of finding
it is evident that, being of very different an infinitely small quantity, which being
chemical composition, the same solvent taken an infinite number of times, shall
cannot be applicable to all of them. Long be equal to a given quantity. An infinite-
experience has sufficiently established ly small quantity, or infinitesimal
, is a
the advantage of alkaline remedies; and portion of a quantity less than any assign-
as the calculi composed of uric acid are able one; it is therefore accounted as no-
unquestionably the most abundant, it is nothing; and hence two quantities only dif-
doubt from the chemical action they ex- fering by an infinitesimal, are reputed
ert upon it that the benefit is derived. equal. The word infinitesimal is merely
Lime, under the form of lime-water, has respective, and implies a relation to ano-
been employed as a solvent; and from ther quantity; for example, in astronomy,
some experiments of Dr. Egan, it should the diameter of the earth is an infinite-
seem that lime water acts with more en- simal in respect of the distance of the fix-
ergy than an alkaline solution of similar ed stars. Infinitesimals are likewise call-
strength, in destroying the aggregation of ed differentials, or differential quantities,
urinary concretion. Mr. Murray bears when they are considered as the differ-
his testimony to the same fact : “I ob ences of two quantities. Sir Isaac New-
served,” says he, “this effect strikingly ton calls them moments, considering them
displayed in a comparative trial which as momentary increments of quantities;
these experiments led me to make. In a for instance, of a line generated by the
dilute solution of pure potassa, a calculus flux of a point, of a surface by the flux of
of the uric acid kind was in part dissolv. a line, or of a solid by the flux of a sur-
ed, the liquor, after a short time, giving face. The calculus differentialis, there-
a copious white precipitate with muriatic fore, and the doctrine of fluxions, are the
acid; but the remaining calculus preserv- same thing, under different names, the
ed its aggregation, apparently without latter given by Sir Isaac Newton, and the
much alteration, the external layer hav- former by Mr. Leibnitz, who disputes
ing been merely removed; while a cal- with Sir Isaac the honour of the discove-
culus of a similar kind, and discharged ry. There is, however, one difference
from the person, immersed in lime-water, between them, which consists in the man-
became in a few days white and spongy: ner of expressing the differentials of
it appeared at length to be entirely pene- quantities : Mr. Leibnitz, and most fo-
trated; its cohesion was subverted; it reigners, express them by the same let-
presented a kind of loose scaly appear- ters as variable ones, prefixing only the
ance, and the least touch made it fall letter d: thus the differential of x is call-
down. The lime probably operates more ed d x, and the differential of y,
,
d
upon the albumen or animal matter, dx is a positive quantity if x continually
which appears to serve as the cement or increase ; and a negative quantity if x de-
connecting substance, than upon the uric crease.
the uric crease. We, on the other hand, follow-
acid; and in endeavouring to disco- ing Sir Isaac Newton, instead of d x, write
ver solvents for these concretions, our X, (with a dot over it), and instead of dy,
views ought perhaps rather to be di- y. But foreigners reckon this method not
rected to this operation than to the ef- so commodious as the former, because if
fect on the saline matter. If lime, when differentials were to be differenced again,
received into the stomach under the the dots would occasion great confusion
form of lime-water, can be secreted by not to mention, that printers are more
the kidneys, as the alkalis unquestion- apt to overlook a point than a letter, See
ably are, it would appear from these ob- FLUXIONS,
servations to be superior to them as a CALCULUS exponentialis, among mathe-
solvent."
maticians, a method of differencing ex-
CALCULUS denotes a method of com- ponential quantities, and summing up the
putation, so called from the calculi, or differentials of exponential quantities.
counters, anciently used for this purpose. By an exponential quantity is meant 2
VOL. II.
y: and
CAL
CAL
power, the exponent of which is varia- protestant countries, and in our nation
ble, as 2*, am. In order to difference an
till the year 1752. This year is disposed
exponential quantity, nothing else is re- into quadrennial periods, of which the
quired than to reduce the exponential three first years, which were called com-
quantities to logarithmic ones, upon mon, consisted of 365 days, and the fourth
which the differencing is managed as in bissextile, of 366. See BISSEXTILE.
logarithmic ones.
The Julian account was afterwards cor-
By the same method may be found the rected by Pope Gregory XIII., which on
differential of an exponential quantity of that account obtained the name of the
any power. This calculus was invented Gregorian calendar, or new style, the
by Mr. John Bournoulli, and is used in Julian being called the old style : and
investigating the properties of exponen- though the Gregorian calendar be pre-
tial curves.
ferable to the Julian, yet it is not without
Calculus integralis is a method of sum- its defects: perhaps, as Tycho Brahe and
ming up differential quantities ; that is, Cassini imagine, it is impossible ever to
from a differential quantity given, to find bring the year to a perfect justness.
the quantity from whose differencing the CALENDAR, Julian Christian, that where-
given differential results.
in the days of the week are determined
It is the inverse of the calculus differ- by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, by
entialis; whence the English, who usual- means of the solar cycle; and the new
ly call the differential method fluxions, and full moons, especially the paschal full
give this calculus, which ascends from moon, with the feast of Easter, and the
the fluxions to the flowing quantities; or, other moveable feasts depending there-
as Wolfius and other foreigners express on, by means of golden numbers rightly
it, from the differences to the sums, the disposed through the Julian year. See
name of the inverse method of fluxions. CYCLE, DOMINICAL LETTER, and GOLDEN
See FLUXION.
NUMBER
CALEA, in botany, a genus of the Syn- CALENDAR, Gregorian, that which, by
gynesia Polygamia Æqualis. Natural or- means of epacts rightly disposed, through
der of Compositæ Oppositifoliæ. Corym- the several months, determines the new
biferæ, Jussieu. Essential character: and full moons, and the time of Easter,
calyx imbricate ; down hairy or none; with the moveable feasts depending there-
receptacle chaffy. There are seven spe- on, in the Gregorian year. Therefore the
cies, of which C. Jamaicensis has a shrub- Gregorian calendar differs from the Ju-
by stem, six or seven feet high ; leaves lian, both in the form of the year, and in
hairy, rugged, three-nerved ; fowers ter- that epacts are substituted instead of gol.
minating, frequently three together; the den numbers. See Epact.
pedicles of the same length with the Dr. Playfair, in his “System of Chro-
Howers; calyx coloured; the pappus, or nology," observes, that the method of in-
,
down, is rugged, and as long as the flow- tercalation used in the Gregorian Calen-
er. Native of Jamaica, chiefly in the dar is not the most accurate. Ninety-
woods and inland parts of the island. seven days, or 100—3, are inserted in the
CALENDAR, a distribution of time, space of four centuries. This supposes
accommodated to the various uses of life, the tropical year to consist of 3654, 56,
but more especially such as regard civil 49', 12'. On this supposition the inter-
and ecclesiastical polity; in which sense polation would be exact, and the error
it differs nothing from the modern al- would scarcely exceed one day in 268,000
years. But the reformers of the calen-
The first calendar was made by Romu- dar made use of the Copernican year of
lus, who divided the year into 10 months 3654, 55, 49', 20'. Instead, therefore, of
only, beginning on the first day of March, inserting 97 days in 400 years, they ought
and containing 304 days, in which time to have added, at proper intervals, 41
he imagined the sun performed his course days in 169 years, or 90 days in 371 years,
through all the seasons.
or 131 in 540 years, &c. Recent obser-
This calendar was reformed by Numa vations have determined the quantity of
Pompilius, who added two months more, the tropical year to be 3654, 55, 48', 453";
"
viz. January and February, placing them Admitting this to be the true quantity of
before March : his year began on the it, the intercalations ought to be made as
first of January, and consisted of 355 days. follows:
This afterwards
Cesar, and was ng him called the Julian # 175 125 5,5 673 sti 929 1057 1185
by
t- + + + +
account, which reduced the year to 365
4 33 801
days 6 hours; and was retained in most 1'4'8'31'13'163'199'225' 256 287
manacs.
.
CALENDAR
+
-
of the olympic year. Each day, from
1313 1441 2754 4067 9447 51302 midnight to midnight, is divided into 10
318' 349' 667' 985'2288' 12425"
985'2288' 12425% parts, each part into 10 others, and so on
+
to the least measurable portion of time.
60749 172800
In this calendar too the months and
14713' 41851
" that is, one day ought to days of them have new names. The first
be intercalated in the space of 4 years, three months of the year, of which the
,
or rather 4 days in 17 years, or 8 days in autumn is composed, take their etymolo-
33 years, &c. If 41,851 days were inter- gy; the first from the vintage, which
calated in 172,800 years, there would be takes place from September to October,
no error. The signs + and — indicate and is called Vendemaire ; the second,
that the number of intercalary days above Brumaire, from the mists and low fogs,
which they are placed is too great or too which show, as it were, the transudation
small. Every succeeding number is
of nature from October to November;
more
accurate than that which goes before the third, Frimaire, from the cold, some-
.
As this method of interpolation is differ times dry and sometimes moist, which is
ent from that now in use, it is obvious felt from November to December. The
that the Gregorian calendar must be cor-
three winter months take their etymolo-
rected after a certain period of years. gy: the first, Nivose, from the snow
;
The correction, however, will be inconsi- which whitens the earth from December
derable for many ages, as it will amount to January; the second, Pluviose, from
only to a day and a half
, which is to be the rains which usually fall in greater
а
suppressed in the space of 5000 years.
abundance from January to February;
CALENDAR, reformed or corrected, that the third, Ventose, from the wind which
,
which, setting aside golden numbers,
dries the earth from February to March.
epacts, and dominical letters, determines The three spring months take their ety-
the equinos, with the paschal full moon, mology; the first, Germinal, from the
;
and the moveable feasts depending there fermentation and developement of the
on, by astronomical computations, accord- sap from March to April; the second,
ing to the Rudolphine table. This calendar Floreal, from the blowing of the flowers
was introduced among the Protestant from April to May; the third, Prairial
,
States of Germany in the year 1700, when from the smiling fecundity of the meadow
11 days were, at once, thrown out of the crops from May to June. Lastly, the
month of February, by which means the three summer months take their etymo-
corrected style agrees with the Grego- logy; the first, Messidor, from the ap-
rian.
pearance of the waving ears of corn and
CALENDAR, French, new, is a quite new the golden harvests which coverthe fields
form of calendar, that commenced in from June to July; the second, Thermi-
France on the 22d of September, 1792.
dor, from the heat, at once solar and ter-
The year, in this calendar, commences restrial, which inflames the air from July
at midnight, the beginning of that day in to August; the third, Fructidor, from the
which falls the true autumnal equinox for fruits gilt and ripened by the sun from
the observatory of Paris. The year is di- August to September. Thus, the whole
vided into 12 equal months, of 30 days twelve months are,
each ; after which 5 supplementary days
are added, to complete the 365 days of
AUTUMN.
the ordinary year these 5 days do not
belong to any month. Each month is di-
Vendemaire Germinal
vided into three decades of 10 days each;
Brumaire
Floreal
distinguished by 1st, 2d, and 3d decade.
Frimaire.
Prairial.
All these are named according to the or-
der of the natural numbers, viz. the 1st,
WINTER.
2d, 3d, &c. month, or day of the decade,
or of the supplementary days. The years
Nivose
Messidor
which receive an intercalary day, when
Pluviose
Thermidor
the position of the equinox requires it, Ventose.
Fructidor.
which we call embolismic or bissextile,
they call olympic; and the period of four From these denominations it follows,
years, ending with an olympic year, is that by the mere pronunciation of the
called an olympiade; the intercalary day name of the month, every one readily
being placed after the ordinary five sup- perceives three things, and all their re-
plementary days, and making the last day lations, viz. the kind of season, the tem-
SPRING
SUMMER
CAL
CAL
times.
perature, and the state of vegetation : which makes its axis : the uppermost
for instance, in the word Germinal, his board is loaded with large stones cement-
imagination will easily conceive, by the ed together, weighing 20,000lb. or more.
termination of the word, that the spring It is this weight that gives the polish, and
commences; by the construction of the makes the waves on the stuffs about the
word, that the elementary agents are rollers, by means of a shallow indenture
busied; and by the signification of the or engraving cut in it.
word, that the buds unfold themselves. CALENDS, a Roman chronology, the
As to the names of the days of the first day of each month, so called from
week, or decade of 10 days each, which the Greek xaneiv, to proclaim : it being
they have adopted instead of seven, as customary on those days to proclaim the
these bear the stamp of judicial astrolo- number of holy-days in each month.
gy and heathen mythology, they are sim- The calends were reckoned backwards,
ply called from the first ten numbers : or in a retrograde order : thus, the first
thus,
of May begins the calends of May; the
30th of April was the second of the ca-
Primi
Sextidi
lends of May; the 29th, the 3d, &c. to
Duodi
Septidi
the 13th, where the ides commence ;
Tridi
Octidi
which are also numbered in a retrograde
Quartidi Nonidi
order to the 5th, where the nones be-
Quintidi Decadi.
gin, and these are numbered after the
same manner to the first of the month,
In the almanac, or annual calendar, in- which is the calends of April.
stead of the multitude of saints, one for CALENDULA, in botany, the mari-
each day of the year, as in the Popish ca- gold, a genus of the Syngenesia Polyga-
lendars, they annex to every day the mia Necessaria class and order. Natural
name of some animal, or utensil, or order of Compositæ. Corymbiferæ, Jus-
work, or fruit, or flower, or vegetable, sieu : receptacle naked, flat; calyx ma-
&c., appropriate and most proper to the ny-leaved, nearly equal; seeds of the
disk membranaceous. According to Mar-
CALENDAR, astronomical, an instrument tyn there are fourteen species, but Gme-
engraved upon copper-plates ; printed on lin enumerates twenty-five. The flowers
paper, and pasted on board, with a brass are commonly solitary and terminating:
slider which carries a hair, and shows by Many of the species are herbaceous and
inspection, the sun's meridian altitude, natives of the Cape of Good Hope. Of
right ascension, declination, rising, sett- the garden marigold there are the fol-
ing, amplitude, &c. to a greater exact- lowing varieties, viz. The single. The
ness than our common globes will shew. common double flowering. The largest
CALENDAR of prisoners, a list of the very double flowering. The double le-
names of the prisoners in the custody of mon-coloured, and the greater and small-
the respective sheriffs of counties.
er childing marigold.
CALENDARIUM for, among bota- CALENTES, in logic, a sort of syllo-
nists, a calendar, containing an exact re- gism in the fourth, commonly called ga-
gister of the respective times, in which lenical, figure, wherein the major propo-
the plants of any given province, or cli- sition is universal and affirmative; and
mate, germinate, expand, and shed their the second or minor, as well as the con-
leaves and flowers, and ripen and dis- clusion, universal and negative.
This is intimated by the letters it is
CALENDER, a machine used in manu- composed of, where the A signifies an
factories, to press certain woollen and universal affirmative, and the two E's as
silken stuffs, and linens, to make them
many universal negatives. Ex. gr.
even, smooth and glossy, or to give them
waves, or water them, as may be seen in
CA. Every affliction in this world is
mohairs and tabbies. This instrument is
only for a time.
composed of two thick cylinders, or rol-
IEn. No affliction, which is only for a
lers, of very hard and polished wood,
time, ought to disturb us.
round which the stuffs to be calendered
tEs. No affliction ought to disturb us,
are wound: these rollers are placed cross-
which happens in this world.
ways between two very thick boards, the The Aristotelians, not allowing the
lower serving as a fixed base, and the fourth figure of syllogisms, turn this word
upper moveable, by means of a thick into CEIAntEs, and make it only an indi-
screw, with a rope fastened to a spindle, rect mood of the first figure.
perse seeds.
CAL
CAL
CALENTURE, in medicine, a feverish ported into this country, but calicoes
disorder incident to sailors in hot cli- are prohibited under the severest penal-
mates; the principal symptom of which ties.
is, their imagining the sea to be green CALICO-printing: the art of cloth-print-
fields : hence, attempting to walk abroad ing or calico-printing, in other words, of
in these imaginary places of delight, dying in certain colours particular spots
they are frequently lost.
of the cloth, or figures impressed on it,
CALIBER, or CALIPER, properly de- while the ground shall be of a different
notes the diameter of any body ; thus we colour or entirely white, affords perhaps
say, two columns of the same caliber, the the most direct and obvious illustration
caliber of the bore of a gun, the caliber of the application of these principles.
of a bullet, &c.
The mordant which is principally used
CALIBER, compasses, the name of an in this process is the acetate of argil. It
instrument, made either of wood, iron, is prepared by dissolving 3lbs. of alum
steel, or brass : that used for measuring and llb. of acetate of lead in 8lbs. of warm
bullets consists of two branches bending water. An exchange of the principles of
inwards, with a tongue fixed to one of these salts takes place: the sulphuric acid
them, and the other graduated in such of the alum combines with the oxide of
a manner, that if the bullet be compress lead, and the compound thus formed
ed by the ends of the two branches, and being insoluble is precipitated, the acetic
the tongue be applied to the graduated acid remains united with the argil of the
branch, it will shew the weight of the alum in solution. There are added at
bullet.
the same time two ounces of the potash
On these rulers are a variety of scales, of commerce, and two ounces of chalk;
tables, proportions, &c. which are reckon the principal use of which appears to be,
ed very useful to gunners. On the best to neutralize the excess of acid that might
caliber compasses we have the measure act on the colouring matter and alter its
of convex and concave diameters in inches. shade.
2. The weight of iron shot from given The superiority of this acetate of argil
diameters. 3. The weight of iron shot as a mordant to the cheaper sulphate of
from given gun bores. 4. The degrees argil or alum, arises principally from two
of a semi-circle. 5. The proportion of circumstances, --from the affinity between
troy and avoirdupois weight. 6. The its principles being weaker, in conse-
proportion of English and French feet quence of which the argil more easily se-
and pounds. 7. Factors used in circu- parates from the acid, and unites with
lar and spherical figures. 8. Tables of the cloth and the colouring matter : and
the specific gravities and weights of bo- 2dly, from the acetic acid disengaged in
dies. 9. Tables of the quantity of pow. the process, not acting with the same
der necessary for proof and service of force on the colouring matter as the sul-
brass and iron guns. 10. Rules for com- phuric acid would do. The acetate being
puting the number of shot or shells in a also very soluble, and having little ten-
finished pile. 11. Rules concerning the dency to crystallize, can be more equally
fall of heavy bodies 12. Rules for raising mixed and applied. The discovery of
water and for firing artillery and mortars. this mordant, so essential in the art of
13. A line of inches. 14. Logarithmic calico-printing, was altogether acciden-
scales of numbers, sines, versed sines, tal, or rather empirical. The recipes of
and tangents. 15. A sectoral line of the calico-printers were at one time very
equal parts, or the line of lines. 16. A complicated : different articles were from
sectoral line of planes and superficies. 17. time to time omitted or changed, until at
A sectoral line of solids.
length the simple mixture of alum and
CALIBER also signifies an instrument acetate of lead was found to answer as a
used by carpenters, joiners, and brick- mordant, equally with compositions more
layers, to see whether their work be well complicated; and even after its discove-
squared.
ry, its operation for a time was far from
CALICO, a species of cloth of cotton being understood by the artist. The
thread, manufactured formerly in the mordant thus prepared is thickened with
East Indies; but now we have in this gum or starch; or in this country, within
country established manufactories which these few years, with the mucilage pre-
equal those in the East. It is said that pared from lichens scalded and boiled
in this business, and in the printing of with a little potash. It is applied by
calicoes, there are 150,000 persons em- wooden blocks, or stamps, to the parts
ployed. Cotton, in its raw state, is im. of the cloth on which the figures cut in
a
CAL
CAL
2
the stamp are designed to be impressed, repository of flint. It is found chiefly on
or by a pencil, if more delicate lines are sea-coasts, as at Calais and Dover, and
to be traced. The cloth is afterwards several of the Danish islands in the Bal.
dried thoroughly, is washed in warm tic, as Rugen and Zealand : it occurs also
water to remove the mucilage and the in Poland, and several great tracts of
superfluous mordant, and is then dipped country in the south of England are com-
in the dye colour, supposed to be an posed of it. In some parts of Kent a
infusion of madder; the whole is dyed, chalk pit is no contemptible estate, pro-
but the parts which have been impreg. ducing from one to five hundred per
nated with the mordant, receive a brighter annum and upwards. In the manufac-
colour than the part which has not : the tures it is used for polishing and cleansing
colour too of the former is permanent, metals, glass, &c. and when burnt into
while that of the latter is fugitive. It is lime it is of great importance in build-
discharged by subsequent boiling with ing. 3. Lime-stone; denominated kalk-
substances having a weak attraction to stein, which is divided into four sub.
the colouring matter, principally with species, viz. compact-limestone ; foliated
bran, and by exposure on the field, re- limestone ; fibrous limestone ; peastone.
peating these alternately. The ground The first is of a greyish colour, com-
of the cloth is thus at length rendered posed chiefly of lime and carbonic acid,
white, while the colours of the parts with small portions of iron, alumina, and
on which the mordant has been impress- inflammable matter; and is found in the
ed, representing of course the design on sandstone and coal formations of Sasony,
the stamp, remain with little or no al- Bohemia, Bavaria, Sweden, France, Eng-
teration,
land, Scotland, &c It is used as mor-
Sometimes, after the whole cloth has tar, when deprived of its carbonic acid,
been permanently dyed, by having been and in this state also it is employed in
impregnated with the mordant, the colour the manufacture of soap, in tanning, and
is discharged from certain parts, by other processes. It is likewise used as
stamping these with a weak acid liquor: a flux, in the reduction of such ores as
after being washed, these are again are difficultly fusible, by means of its
stamped, either with the same or with a silica and alumina. The Florentine arbo-
different mordant, and dyed with differ- rescent marble, a variety of this species,
ent materials, and thus the most diffi- is, according to Jameson, very valuable
cult kind of cloth printing is effected, for the purposes of ornament; and the
where the ground is coloured, and at the limestone of Pappenheim serves for pav-
same time impressed with a design in ing, grave-stones, and sometimes for po-
different colours. By combining these lishing plate-glass. Of the foliated lime-
methods too, and by dexterously appiying stone, the granular is the most important
to different parts of the cloth different variety: this is purer than common lime
mordants, by stamps adapted to each stone, is found peculiarly beautiful at
other, so as to form a regular design, Carrava in Italy, where it is quarried,
different colours are impressed either on and from thence distributed over Europe,
a white or coloured ground.
for the purposes of statuary. The white
CALK, a genus of minerals, which is marble of Paros has been long celebrated
divided into twenty species. 1. Rock- for its fitness for sculpture, and other
milk, denominated by Werner, berg- useful purposes. Calc-spar is another
milch. 2. Chalk, denominated kreide, variety, of which many of its most beau-
or creta alba : external characters; co- tiful and rare crystallizations are found
lour white; occurs massive disseminated, in Derbyshire, in Ireland, and many parts
and as a crust covering flint; fragments of the continent. The fibrous limestone
indeterminately angular, blunt edged ; occurs only in small veins: the satin spar
opaque ; soils; writes; easily frangible; of Derbyshire belongs to this kind. The
specific gravity according to Kirwan 2.3, calc-sinter is a variety of the fibrous
but bishop Watson takes it at 2.6; vari. limestone, of which there is a striking
ous specimens will no doubt account for instance in the grotto of Anteparos:
this and other differences of the same when it occurs in large masses, it is
kind. It effervesces strongly with acids, used by the statuary for many of the pur-
and is found to consist almost entirely poses of marble. The alabaster of the
of lime and carbonic acid. It constitutes ancients is calc-sinter. It was brought
a peculiar kind of formation; contains from Arabia in considerable quantities,
numerous flinty petrefactions; and is even and used principally for the drapery of
remarkable for being the most general marble statues. Peastone is found in
.
CAL
CAL
great masses in the vicinity of the hot hand, at the same time striking on the
springs at Carlsbad in Bohemia. Parti- flageolet part with the thumb, to coun-
cles of sand appear to be raised in the terfeit the call of the hen quail.
water by means of air-bubbles, and be. CALL, in sea-language, a sort of whistle
come covered with calcareous earth, or pipe, of silver or brass, used by the
which is deposited around them in lamel. boatswain and his mates to summon the
lar concretions of the size of a pea, sailors to their duty, and direct them in
hence the name 4. Schaum earth, or their several employments. It is sound-
foaming earth, found in the neighbour- ed to various strains adapted to the dif-
hood of Gera, in the forest of Thurin- ferent exercises, as hoisting, heaving, &c.
gia, also in the north of Ireland : it is and the piping of it serves the same pur-
called by Werner Schaumerde, and is poses among sailors as the beat of the
thought by him to be nearly allied to drum among soldiers.
slate spar, which is another species, com- CALL of the house, in a parliamentary
posed almost entirely of carbonate of sense, has been sometimes practised, to
lime. The remaining species we pass discover whether there be any in the house
over as of less interest.
not returned by the clerk of the crown;
CALKING, any kind of military draw. but more frequently to discover what
ing upon paper, &c. It is performed by members are absent without leave of the
covering the backside of the drawing with house, or just cause. In the former case,
a black or red colour, and fixing the side the names of the members being called
so covered upon a piece of paper, waxed over, every person answers to his name,
plate, &c. This being done, every line and departs out of the house, in the order
c
in the drawing is to be traced over with a wherein he is called. In the latter, each
point, by which means all the outlines will person stands up uncovered, at the men-
be transferred to the paper or plate, &c. tion of his name.
CALL, among fowlers, means the noise CALLA, in botany, a genus of the Gy.
or cry of a bird, especially to its young, nandria Polyandria class and order. Na
or its mate in coupling time.
tural order of Piperitæ. Aroideæ Jussieu.
The call of a bird, says the honorable Essential character: spathe flat; spadix
Daines Barrington, is that sound which it covered with floscules ; calyx and petals
is able to make when about a month old: none; berries many-seeded. There are
it is, he says, in most instances, a repe- four species, of which C. æthiopica, Ethi-
tition of one and the same note, is retained opian calla, is a plant which grows natu-
by the bird as long as it lives, and is rally at the Cape, but has long been an in-
common, generally, both to the cock and habitant in the English gardens.
hen. One method of catching partridges, CALLICARPA, in botany, a genus of
is by the natural call of a hen trained the Tetrandria Monogynia class and or-
for the purpose, which drawing the cocks der. Natural order of Dumosæ. Vitices,
to her, gives opportunity for entangling Jussieu. Essential character : calyx four-
them in a net.
cleft; corolla four-cleft; berry four-seed-
Calls are also a sort of artificial pipes, ed. There are seven species, of which
made to catch several sorts of birds, by C. Americana, American callicarpa, is a
imitating their notes. Different birds re- shrub from four to six feet in height;
quire different sorts of artifical calls; but calyx cylindric; corolla funnel form;
they are most of them composed of a pipe germ superior. Native of North Ameri-
or reed, with a little leathern bag or purse, ca; also of Cochinchina, which shows the
somewhat in form of a bellows, which, by impropriety of the trivial name.
the motion given thereto, yields a noise CALLIGONUM, in botany, a genus of
like that of the species of bird to be taken. the Dodecandria Tetragynia class and
The call for partridges is formed like a order. Natural order of Holoraceæ. Poly-
boat, bored through, and fitted with a gonez, Jussieu. Essential character: ca-
pipe, or swan's quill, &c. to be blown lyx five-parted ; corolla none; filaments
with the mouth, to make the noise of the about sixteen, slightly united at the base;
cock partridge, which is very different germ superior, four-sided; nut one-celled,
from the call of the hen. Calls for with a crust that has several wings, or
quails, &c. are made of a leathern purse, many bristles There are three species.
in shape like a pear, stuffed with horse The first is a native of America, the se-
hair, and fitted at the end with the bone cond of Egypt and Barbary, and the
of a cat's, hare's, or coney's leg, form. third of Cochinchina.
ed like a flageolet: they are played by CALLIONYMUS, in natural history,
squeezing the purse in the palm of the dragonet, a genus of fishes of the order
CAL
CAL
Jugulares. Generic character: eyes ver- CALM, in sea-language, is when there
tical, approximated; gill.covers shut, with is no wind stirring.
a small aperture on each side the neck; That tract of sea, to the northward of
gill-membrane six-rayed; body naked; the equator, between 40 and 10° of lati-
ventral fins very remote. There are tude, lying between the meridians of Cape
seven species, of which we shall notice, Verde, and of the easternmost island of
C. lyra, or gemmeous dragonet, so called that name, seems to be a place condemned
from the peculiar form of its first dorsal to perpetual calms; the winds that do
fin, the shape of which bears a fancied exist being only some sudden uncertain
resemblance to that of an ancient lyre or gusts, of very small continuance, and less
harp. It is a native of the Mediterrane- extent. The Atlantic Ocean, near the
an and Northern Seas, and measures equator, is very much subject, nay al-
about 12 inches in length. Like most ways attended with these calms.
other fishes, the dragonet varies slightly A long calm is often more fatal to a ship
in colour in different individuals, and at than the severest tempest, for if tight and
different seasons of the year. Mr. Pen- in good condition, she may sustain the
nant describes the pupils of the eyes to latter without much injury, whereas in a
be of a rich sapphirine blue; the irides long calm, the provision and water may
fine fiery carbuncle ; the pectoral fins be entirely consumed, without any oppor-
light brown; the side-line straight; the tunity of obtaining a fresh supply. Calms
colours of the fish yellow, blue, and white, are never so great on the ocean as on the
making a beautiful appearance when Mediterranean, because the flowing and
fresh taken. The blue is of inexpressi- ebbing of the former keep the water in
ble splendor; the richest cærulean, glow- continual agitation, even where there is
ing with a gemmeous brilliancy; the no wind; whereas there being no tides in
throat black C. dracunculus, or sordid the latter, the calm is sometimes so dead,
dragonet, is nearly allied to the preceding; that the surface of the water is as clear as
a native of the Mediterranean and North- a looking-glass; but such calms are
ern Seas; both are numbered with the edi- generally the presages of an approach-
ble fishes, and are supposed to live princi- ing storm. On the coast about Smyrna, a
pally on worms and sea-insects.
long calm is said to be prognostic of an
CALLISIA, in botany, a genus of the earthquake.
Triandria Monogynia class and order. CALODENDRUM, in botany, a genus of
Natural order of Eosatæ. Junci, Jussieu. the Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character: calyx three leaved; Essential character: corolla spreading, five-
petals three; anthers double ; capsule petalled; nectary five-leaved : capsule
two-celled. There is but one species, viz. five-celled. There is but one species,
C. repens, creeping callisia. It is a na- viz C. capense, which is an evergreen.
tive of the West Indies, in low, moist, Flowers in terminating panicles, or oppo-
shady places. Here it flowers in June site one flowered peduncles. Native of
and July.
CALLITRICHE, in botany, a genus of CALOMEL, in the materia medica, a
the Monandria Digynia. Natural order name given to mercurius dulcis. See
of Holoraceæ. Naiades, Jussieu. Essen- MERCURY.
tial character: calyx none ; petals two;
CALOPHYLLUM, in botany, a genus
capsule two-celled, four-seeded. There of the Polyandria Monogynia class and
are two species, viz. C. verna, vernal star- order. Essential character: calyx four-
wort, or star-headed water-chickweed, leaved, coloured; corolla four-petalled ;
and c. autumnalis, autumnal star-wort. drupe globular. There are two species ;
These are very common in ditches and viz. C. inophyllum and c. calaba, both
standing water, and is sometimes so thick. natives of the East and West Indies.
ly matted together, that one may walk They are both lofty trees, ninety feet in
upon it without sinking.
height, and twelve in thickness: leaves
CALLUS, or CALLOsity, in a general like those of the water lily. In Java they
sense, any cutaneous, corneous, or osseous plant these trees about their houses, for
hardness, whether natural or preternatu- the elegance of the shade and the sweet-
ral: but most frequently it means the cal. ness of the flowers.
lus generated about the edges of a frac- CALOPUS, in natural history, a genus
ture, provided by nature to preserve the of insects of the order Coleoptera. Ge-
fractured bones, or divided parts, in neric character: antennæ filiform; four
the situation in which they are replaced feelers, the fore ones clavate, the hind
by the surgeon.
ones filiform; thorax gibbous; shells li-
the Cape.
CALORIC.
near. There are three species; viz. the that the illuminating power and the heata
serraticornis, hispicornis, and pygmæus. ing power of the rays follow such differ-
CALORIC, in chemistry, a word used ent laws. The first exists in greatest
to signify that substance or property by perfection in the middle of the spectrum,
which the phenomena of heat are pro- and diminishes as we approach either ex-
duced. Concerning the nature of caloric tremity; but the second increases con-
there are two opinions, which have divi- stantly from the violet end, and is greatest
ded philosophers ever since they turned at the red end. This led him to suspect,
their attention to the subject. Some sup- that perhaps the heating power does not
pose that caloric, like gravity, is merely stop at the end of the visible spectrum,
a property of matter, and that it consists but is continued beyond it. He placed
in a peculiar vibration of its particles; the thermometer completely beyond the
others, on the contrary, think that it is a boundary of the red ray, but still in the
distinct substance. Each of these opinions line of the spectrum, and it rose still
has been supported by the greatest phi- higher than it had done when exposed to
losophers; and till lately the obscurity the red ray. On shifting the thermome-
of the subject has been such, that both ter still farther, it continued to rise, and the
sides have been able to produce exceed- rise did not reach its maximum till the
ingly plausible and forcible arguments. thermometer was half an inch beyond
The recent improvements, however, in the utmost extremity of the red ray.
this branch of chemistry have gradually When shifted still farther, it sunk a little;
rendered the latter opinion much more but the power of heating was sensible at
probable than the former: and a recent the distance of 13 inch from the red ray.
discovery, made by Dr. Herschel, has at These important experiments have been
last nearly put an end to the dispute, by lately repeated and fully confirmed by Sir
demonstrating that caloric is not a pro- Henry Englefield, in the presence of
perty, but a peculiar substance; or, at some very good judges.
least, that we have the same reason for From these it follows, that there are
considering it to be a substance as we rays emitted from the sun which produce
have for believing that light is material. heat, but have not the power of illumi-
Dr. Herschel had been employed in mak- nating; and that these are the rays
ing observations on the sun, by means of which produce the greatest quantity of
telescopes. To prevent the inconve- heat. Consequently caloric is emitted
nience arising from the heat, he used co- from the sun in rays, and the rays of ca-
loured glasses; but these glasses, when loric are not the same with the rays of
they were deep enough coloured to in- light. On examining the other extremity
tercept the light, very soon cracked, and of the spectrum, Dr. Herschel ascertain-
broke in pieces. This circumstance in- ed that no rays of caloric can be traced
duced him to examine the heating power beyond the violet ray. He had found,
of the different coloured rays. He made however, that all the coloured'rays of the
each of them in its turn fall upon the spectrum have the power of heating : it
bulb of a thermometer, near which two may be questioned, therefore, whether
other thermometers were placed to serve there be any rays which do not warm.
as a standard. The number of degrees The coloured rays must either have the
which the thermometer exposed to the property of exciting heat as rays of light,
coloured ray rose above the other two or they must derive that property from a
thermometers indicated the heating pow- mixture of rays of caloric. If the first of
er of that ray. He found that the most these suppositions were true, light ought
vefrangible rays have the least heating to excite heat in all cases; but it has
power, and that the heating power gra- been long known to philosophers, that
dually increases as the refrangibility di- the light of the moon does not produce
minishes. The violet ray therefore has the least sensible heat, even when con-
the smallest heating power, and the red centrated so strongly as to surpass in
ray the greatest. Dr. Herschel found, point of illumination the brightest can-
that the heating power of the violet, dles or lamps, and yet these produce a
green, and red rays, are to each other as very sensible heat. Here then are rays of
the following numbers:
light which do not produce heat: rays,
too, composed of all the seven prismatic
Violet ...
coloured rays. We must conclude from
Green
22.4
this well-known fact, that rays of light do
Red.
= 55.
not excite heat; and consequently that
the coloured rays from the sun and com-
It struck Dr. Herschel as remarkable, bustible bodies, since they excite heat,
VOL. II.
G
= 16.
CALORIC.
must consist of a mixture of rays of light experiments on this subject, about the
and rays of caloric. That this is the case was year 1790, which led to the same con-
demonstrated long ago by Dr. Hooke, clusion.
and afterwards by Scheele, who separat- All the phenomena concur to shew,
ed the two species from each other by a that the rays of caloric move with a very
very simple method. If a glass mirror be considerable velocity, though the rate
held before a fire, it reflects the rays of has not been ascertained in a satisfactory
a
light, but not the rays of caloric; a me- manner. Some experiments of Mr. Leslie
tallic mirror, on the other hand, reflects would lead us to conclude, that they move
both. The glass mirror becomes hot; the with the same velocity as sound. The
metallic mirror does not alter its tem- following experiment of M. Pictet indi-
perature. If a plate of glass be suddenly cates a very considerable velocity. He
interposed between a glowing fire and placed two concave mirrors at the dis-
the face, it intercepts completely the tance of 69 feet from each other; the one
warıning power of the fire, without caus- of tin, the other of plaster gilt, and 18
ing any sensible diminution of its brillian- inches in diameter. Into the focus of this
cy; consequently it intercepts the rays last mirror he put an air thermometer,
of caloric, but allows the rays of light to and a hot bullet of iron into that of the
pass. If the glass be allowed to remain other. A few inches from the face of the
in its station till its temperature has tin mirror there was placed a thick screen,
reached its maximum, in that situation it which was removed as soon as the bullet
ceases to intercept the rays of caloric, but reached the focus. The thermometer
allows them to pass as freely as the rays rose the instant the screen was removed
of light. This curious fact, which shews without any perceptible interval, conse-
us that glass only intercepts the rays of quently the time which caloric takes in
caloric till it be saturated with them, was moving 69 feet is too minute to be mea-
discovered by Dr. Robinson. These facts sured. The velocity of caloric, if it is
are sufficient to convince us, that the rays equal to that of light, would prove that
of light and of caloric are different, and its particles must be equally minute.
that the coloured rays derive their heat- Therefore, neither the addition of caloric
ing power from the rays of caloric which nor its abstraction can sensibly affect the
they contain. Thus it appears that solar weight of bodies.
light is composed of three sets of rays, Caloric agrees with lightin another pro-
the colorific, the calorific, and the deoxi- perty no less peculiar: its particles are
dizing. The rays of caloric are refract- never found cohering together in masses,
ed by transparent bodies just as the rays and whenever they are forcibly accumu-
of light. We see too, that, like the rays lated, they fly off in all directions, and se-
of light, they differ in their refrangibili- parate from each other with inconceiv-
ty; that some of them are as refrangible able rapidity. This property necessarily
as the violet rays; but that the greater supposes the existence of a mutual repul-
number of them are less refrangible than sion between the particles of caloric.
the red rays. Whether they are trans- Thus it appears that caloric and light re-
mitted through all transparent bodies has semble each other in a great number of
not been ascertained ; neither has the properties. Both are emitted from the
difference of their refraction in different sun in rays, with the velocity of 200,000
mediums been examined. We are cer- miles in a second; both of them are re-
tain, however, that they are transmitted fracted by transparent bodies, and re-
and refracted by all transparent bodies flected by polished surfaces; both of
which have been employed as burning- them consist of particles which mutually
glasses. Dr. Herschel has also proved, by repel each other, and which produced no
experiment, that it is not only the caloric sensible effect upon the weight of other
emitted by the sun which is refrangible, bodies. They differ, however, in this
but likewise the rays emitted by com- particular : light produces in us the sen-
mon fires, by candles, by hot iron, and sation of vision ; caloric, on the contrary,
even by hot water. The rays of caloric the sensation of heat. Upon the whole,
.
are reflected by polished surfaces in the we are authorized by the above statement
same manner as the rays of light. This of facts, to conclude, that the solar light
was lately proved by Herschel; but it is composed of three distinct substances,
had been demonstrated long before by in some measure separable by the prism,
Scheele, who had even ascertained that on account of the difference of their re-
the angle of their reflection is equal to frangibility. The calorific rays are the
the angle of their incidence. M. Pictet least refrangible, the deoxidizing rays
also had made a set of very ingenious are most refrangible, and the colorific
CALORIC.
rays possess a mean degree of refrangi- markably slow. Thus, if we put the end
bility. Hence the rays in the middle of of a bar of iron, 20 inches long, into a
the spectrum have the greatest illuminat- common fire, while a thermometer is at-
ing power; those beyond the red end tached to the other extremity, four mi-
the greatest heating power, and those be- nutes elapse before the thermometer be-
yond the violet end the greatest deoxi- gins to ascend, and 15 minutes by the
dizing power: and the heating power on time it has risen 15°. In this case, the
the one hand, and the deoxidizing pow- caloric takes four minutes to pass through
er on the other, gradually increase as a bar of iron 20 inches in length. When
we approach that end of the spectrum caloric passes in this slow manner, it is
where the maximum of each is concen- said to be conducted through bodies. It
trated. These different bodies resemble is in this manner alone that it passes
each other in so many particulars, that through non-elastic bodies; and though
the same reasoning respecting refrangi- it often moves by radiation through elas.
bility, reflexibility, &c. may be applied tic media, yet we shall find that it is ca-
to all; but they produce different effects pable of being conducted through them
upon those bodies on which they act. likewise. As the velocity of caloric, when
Little progress has yet been made in the it is conducted through bodies is greatly
investigation of these effects; but we retarded, it is clear that it does not move
may look forward to this subject as likely through them without restraint. It must
to correct many vague and unmeaning be detained for some time by the parti-
opinions, which are at present in vogue cles of the conducting body, and conse-
among chemists.
quently must be attracted by them. Hence
From this account of the nature of ca- it follows, that there is an affinity or at-
loric we learn, that it is capable, like traction between caloric and every con-
light, of radiating in all directions from ductor. It is in /consequence of this
the surfaces of bodies; and that when affinity that it is conducted through the
thus radiated, it moves with a very con- body,
siderable velocity. Like light, too, it is Bodies then conduct caloric in conse-
liable to be absorbed when it impinges quence of their affinity for it, and the pro-
against the surfaces of bodies. When it perty which they have of combining in-
has thus entered, it is capable of making definitely with additional doses of it.
its way through all bodies; but its mo. Hence the reason of the slowness of the
tion in this case is comparatively slow. process, or, which is the same thing, of
Heat then moves at two very different the long time necessary to heat or to
rates. 1. It escapes from the surfaces of cool a body. The process consists in an
bodies. 2. It is conducted, or passes almost infinite number of repeated com-
through bodies.
positions and decompositions. We see,
When bodies artificially heated are ex- too, that when heat is applied to one ex-
posed to the open air, they immediately tremity of a body, the temperature of
begin to emit heat, and continue to do so the strata of that body must diminisha
dill they become nearly of the tempera- equably, according to their distance from
ture of the surrounding atmosphere. the source of heat. Every person must
That different substances when placed in have observed that this is always the case.
this situation, cool down with very dif- If, for instance, we pass our hand along
ferent degrees of rapidity, could not an iron rod, one end of which is held in
have escaped the most careless observer; the fire, we shall perceive its tempera-
but the influence of the surface of the ture gradually diminishing from the end
hot body in accelerating or retarding the in the fire, which is hottest, to the other
cooling process, was not suspected till extremity, which is coldest. Hence the
lately. For this curious and important measure of the heat transmitted, must al-
part of the doctrine of heat, we are in- ways be proportional to the excess of
debted to the sagacity of Mr. Leslie, who temperature communicated to that side
has already brought it to a great degree of the conductor which is nearest the
of perfection. To whose work we refer source of heat. The passage of caloric
the philosophical reader, for much useful through a body by its conducting power
and highly interesting matter.
must have a limit; and that limit depends
Although caloricis incapable of moving upon the number of doses of caloric, with
in rays through solid bodies; yet it is which the stratum of the body nearest
well known that all bodies whatever are the source of heat is capable of combin-
pervious to it. Through solids, then, it ing. If the length of a body be so great,
must pass in a different manner. In ge- that the strata of which it is composed
neral its passage through them is re- exceed the number of doses of caloric
CALORIC.
a
:
with which a stratum is capable of com- tor, because the addition of caloric causes
bining, it is clear that caloric cannot pos- it to change its state.
sibly be conducted through the body; With respect to liquids and gaseous bo-
that is to say, the strata farthest distant dies, it would appear at first sight that
from the source of heat cannot receive they also are all conductors; for they can
any increase of temperature. This limit be heated as well as solids, and heated
depends, in all cases, upon the quantity too considerably without sensibly chang-
of caloric with which a body is capable ing their state. But fluids differ from
of combining before it changes its state. solids in one essential particular : their
All bodies, as far as we know at present, particles are at full liberty to move a-
are capable of combining indefinitely with mong themselves, and they obey the
caloric; but the greater number, after smallest impulse; while the particles of
the addition of a certain number of doses, solids, from the very nature of these bo-
change their state. Thus ice, after com- dies, are fixed and stationary One of
bining with a certain quantity of caloric, the changes which caloric produces on
is changed into water, which is convert- bodies is expansion, or increase of bulk;
ed in its turn to steam, by the addition of and this increase is attended with a pro-
more caloric. Metals also, when heated portional diminution of specific gravity.
to a certain degree, melt, are volatilized, Therefore, whenever caloric combines
and oxydated; wood and most other com- with a stratum of particles, the whole
bustibles catch fire, and are dissipated. stratum becomes specifically lighter than
As to the rate at which bodies conduct the other particles. This produces no
caloric, that depends upon the specific change of situation in solids ; but in fluids,
nature of each particular body: the best if the heated stratum happens to be be-
conductors conducting most rapidly, and low the other strata, it is pressed up-
to the greatest distance. When bodies wards by them, and being at liberty to
are arranged into sets, we may lay it move, it changes its place, and is buoy-
down as a general rule, that the densest ed up to the surface of the fluid. In
set conduct at the greatest rate. Thus fluids, then, it makes a very great dif-
the metals conduct at a greater rate than ference to what part of the body the
any other bodies. But in considering source of heat is applied. If it be applied
the individuals of a set, it is not always to the highest stratum of all, or to the
the densest that conducts best : as bo- surface of the liquid, the caloric can only
dies conduct caloric in consequence of make its way downwards, as through so-
their affinity for it, and as all bodies have lids, by the conducting power of the fluid;
an affinity for caloric, it follows as a con- but if it be applied to the lowest stratum,
sequence, that all bodies must be con- it makes its way upwards, independently
ductors, unless their conducting power of that conducting power, in consequence
be counteracted by some other pro- of the fluidity of the body, and the ex-
perty.
pansion of the heated particles. The
All solids are conductors; because all lowest stratum, as soon as it combines
solids are capable of combining with va- with a dose of caloric, becomes specifical-
rious doses of caloric before they change ly lighter, and ascends. New particles
their state. This is the case in a very re- approach the source of heat, combine
markable degree with all earthy and with caloric in their turn, and are displac-
stony bodies; it is the case also with me- ed. In this manner all the particles
tals, with vegetables, and with animal come, one after another, to the source of
matters. This, however, must be under- heat; of course the whole of them are
stood with certain limitations. All bo- heated in a very short time, and the ca-
dies are indeed conductors; but they are loric is carried almost at once to much
not conductors in all situations. Most so- greater distances in fuids than in any so-
lids are conductors at the common tem- lid whatever. Fluids, therefore, have the
perature of the atmosphere; but when property of carrying or transporting ca-
heated to the temperature at which they loric ; in consequence of which they ac-
change their state, they are no longer quire heat, independently altogether of
conductors. Thus at the temperature of any conducting power.
60°, sulphur is a conductor, but when If we take a bar of iron and a piece
heated to 214°, or the point at which it of stone of equal dimensions, and put-
melts or is volatilized, it is no longer a ting one end of each into the fire, apply
conductor. In the same manner ice con- either thermometers or our hands to the
ducts caloric when at the temperature of other, we shall find the extremity of the
200, or any other degree below the freez- iron sensibly hot long before that of the
ing point; but ice at 32° is not a conduc- stone, Caloric, therefore, is not conduct-
CALORIC.
Copper, }nearly equal.
Tron,
ed through all bodies with the same ce- them. The effects which caloric produces
lerity and ease. Those that allow it to on bodies may be arranged under three
pass with facility, are called good con- heads; namely, changes in bulk; changes
ductors; those through which it passes in state ; and changes in combination.
with difficulty, are called bad conductors. It may be laid down as a general rule,
Metals are the best conductors of calo- to which there is no known exception,
ric of all the solids hitherto tried. The that every addition or abstraction of calo-
conducting powers of all, however, are ric makes a corresponding change in the
not equal. Dr. Ingenhousz procured bulk of the body which has been subject-
cylinders of several metals exactly of the ed to this alteration in the quantity of its
same size, and having coated them with heat.
wax, he plunged their ends into hot water, In general the addition of heat increases
and judged of the conducting power of the bulk of a body, and the abstraction of
each by the length of wax-coating melt- it diminishes its bulk; but this is not unie
ed. From these experiments he conclu- formly the case, though the exceptions
ded, that the conducting power of the are not numerous.
metals which he examined were in the Indeed these exceptions are not only
following order:
confined to a very small number of bodies,
Silver,
but even in them they do not hold, except
Gold,
at certain particular temperatures ; while
at all other temperatures these bodies
Tin
are increased in bulk when heated, and
Platinum,
diminished in bulk by being cooled. We
Smuch inferior to the others.
may therefore consider expansion as one
Steel,
of the most general effects of heat. It
Lead,
is certainly one of the most important, as
Next to metals, stones seem to be the it has furnished us with the means of mea-
best conductors; but this property varies suring all the others. See PyroMETER.
considerably in different stones. Bricks Though all bodies are expanded by
are much worse conductors than most heat, and contracted by cold, and this
stones.
expansion in the same body is always
Glass seems not to differ much from proportional to some function of the
stones in its conducting power: like quantity of caloric added or abstracted ;
them, it is a bad conductor. This is the yet the absolute expansion or contraction
reason that it is so apt to crack on being has been found to differ exceedingly in
suddenly heated or cooled. One part of different bodies. In general, the expan-
it, receiving or parting with its caloric be- sion of gaseous bodies is greatest of all;
fore the rest, expands or contracts, and that of liquids is much smaller ; and that
destroys the cohesion. Next to these, of solids the smallest of all. Thus, 100
some dried woods.
cubic inches of atmospheric air, by being
Charcoal is also a bad conductor; ac- heated from the temperature of 32° to
cording to the experiments of Morveau, that of 212°, are increased to 137.5 cubic
its conducting power is to that of fine inches : while the same augmentation of
sand :: 2 : 3. Feathers, silk, wool, and temperature only makes 100 cubic inches
hair are still worse conductors than any of water assume the bulk of 104.5 cubic
of the substances yet mentioned. This is inches : and 100 cubic inches of iron,
the reason that they answer well for arti- when heated from 32° to 212°, assume
cles of clothing: They do not allow the a bulk scarcely exceeding 100.1 cubig
heat of the body to be carried off by the inches. From this example, we see that
cold eternal air. Count Rumford has the expansion of air is more than eight
made a very ingenious set of experiments times greater than that of water; and
on the conducting power of these substan- the expansion of water about 45 times
ces. He ascertained that their conduct- greater tban that of iron. See EXPAN-
ing power is inversely as the fineness of sIoN.
their texture.
All substances in nature, as far as we
Having in the preceding sections con- are acquainted with them, occur in one
sidered the nature of caloric, the manner, or other of the three following states;
which it moves through other bodies and namely, the state of solids, of liquids, or
distributes itself among them ; let us now of elastic fluids or vapours.
. It has been
examine in the next place, the effects ascertained, that in a vast number of cases,
which it produces on other bodies, either the same substance is capable of exist-
by entering into them or separating from ing successively in each of these states.
:
CALORIC.
All solid bodies, a very small number ex- a great number of bodies altogether,
cepted, may be converted into liquids by either into their elements, or it causes
heating them sufficiently; and on the these elements to combine in a different
other hand, every liquid, except spirit of manner. Thus when ammonia is heated
wine, is convertible into a solid body, by to redness, it is resolved into azotic and
exposing it to a sufficient degree of cold. hydrogen gases. Alcohol, by the same
Alí liquid bodies may, by heating them, heat, is converted into carburated hy-
be converted into elastic fluids, and a drogen and water.
great many solids are capable of undergo- This decomposition is in many cases
ing the same change; and lastly, the owing to the difference between the vo-
number of elastic fluids, which by cold latility of the ingredients of a compound.
are condensible into liquids or solids, is Thus, when weak spirits, or a combina-
by no means inconsiderable. These facts tion of alcohol and water, are heated, the
have led philosophers to form this general alcohol separates, because it is more vo.
conclusion, " that all bodies, if placed in latile than the water. In general, the
a temperature suffciently low, would as- compounds, which are but little or not at
sume a solid form; that all solids be- all affected by heat, are those bodies
come liquids when sufficiently heated; which have been formed by combustion,
and that all liquids, when exposed to a Thus water is not decomposed by any
certain temperature, assume the form of heat which can be applied to it; neither
elastic fluids." The state of bodies then are sulphuric, phosphoric, or carbonic
depends upon the temperature in which acids. Almost all the combinations into
they are placed; in the lowest tempera- which oxygen enters without having oc-
tures they are all solid ; in higher tempe- casioned combustion, are decomposable
ratures they are converted into liquids; by heat. This is the case with nitric
and in the highest of all they become acid, hyperoxymuriatic acid, and many
elastic fluids. The particular tempera- of the metallic oxides.
tures at which bodies undergo those All bodies that contain combustibles
changes are exceedingly various, but as component parts are decomposed by
they are always constant for the same heat. Perhaps the mettallic alloys are
bodies. Thus we see that heat produces exceptions to this rule; at least it is not
changes on the state of bodies, convert- in our power to apply a temperature high
ing them all, first into liquids, and then enough to produce their decomposition,
into elastic fluids.
except in a few cases.
When solid bodies are converted by When two combustible ingredients and
heat into liquids, the change in some likewise oxygen occur together in bodies,
cases takes place at once. There is no they are always very easily decomposed
interval between solidity and liquidity ; by heat.
This is the case with the
but in other cases a very gradual change greater number of animal and vegetable
may be perceived; the solid becomes substances.
first soft, and it passes through all the Having examined the nature, and some
degrees of softness, till at last it few of the properties and effects of calo-
becomes perfectly fluid. The conversion ric, as far as the subject has been hitherto
of ice into water is an instance of the investigated, it now only remains for us
first change; for in that substance there to mention the different methods by
is no intervening state between solidity which caloric may be evolved or made
and fluidity. The melting of glass, of sensible, or the different sources from
wax, and of tallow, exhibits instances which it may be obtained. These sour.
of the second kind of change; for these ces may be reduced to five : it radiates
bodies pass through every degree of constantly from the sun; it is evolved
softness before they terminate in per- during combustion ; and it is extrica-
fect fluidity. In general, those solid ted in many cases by percussion, fric-
bodies which crystallize or assume regu- tion, and mixture. The sources of heat,
lar prismatic figures, have no interval be- then, are the Sun, COMBUSTION, PER-
tween solidity and fluidity; while those CUSSION, FRICTION, MIXTURE, which
that do not usually assume such shapes, see. See also CAPACITY.
have the property of appearing succes- CALORIMETER, in chemistry, an in.
sively in all the intermediate states. strument contrived by Lavoisier and La
Celoric not only increases the bulk of Place for measuring the comparative
bodies, and changes their state from quantities of caloric in bodies.
solids to liquids, and from liquids to CALTHA, in botany, a genus of the
elastic fluids; but its action decomposes Polyandria Polygynia class and order,
CAL
CAL
LUS.
Natural order of Multisiliquæ. Ranun- that the rest of mankind he was pleased
culacea, Jussieu. Essential character: to pass by, and ordain to dishonour and
calyx none ; petals five; nectary none; wrath for their sins, to the praise of his
capsule several, many seeded There vindictive justice.
is but one species ; viz. C. palustris, 2. They maintain that, though the
marsb marigold. This is the first flower death of Christ be a most perfect sacri-
that announces the spring in Lapland, fice and satisfaction for sins of infinite
where it begins to blow towards the end value, abundantly sufficient to expiate
of May. The variety with very double the sins of the whole world, and though
flowers is preserved in our gardens for on this ground the gospel is to be preach-
its beauty.
ed to all mankind indiscriminately, yet
CALTROP, in military affairs, an in- it was the will of God that Christ, by the
strument with four iron points, disposed blood of the cross, should efficaciously
in a triangular form, so that three of them redeem all those, and those only, who
are always on the ground, and the fourth were from eternity elected to salvation,
in the air. They are scattered over the and given to him by the Father.
ground where the enemy's cavalry is to 3. They maintain that mankind are
pass, in order to embarrass them.
totally depraved, in consequence of the
CALTROP, in botany, the English name fall of the first man, who, being their
of the tribulus of botanists. See TRIBU- public head, his sin involved the corrup-
tion of all his posterity; and which cor.
CALVARY, in heraldry, a cross so ruption extends over the whole soul, and
called, because it resembles the cross on renders it unable to turn to God, or to do
which our Saviour suffered. It is always any thing truly good, and exposes it to
set upon steps.
his righteous displeasure, both in this
CALVINISTS, a sect of Christians who world and that which is to coine,
derive their name from John Calvin, an 4 They maintain that all whom God
eminent reformer, who was born at No. hath predestinated unto life, he is pleased
gen in Picardy, in the year 1509. He first in his appointed time effectually to call
studied the civil laws, and was afterwards by his word and spirit, out of that state
made professor of divinity at Geneva, in of sin and death in which they are by
the year 1536
nature, to grace and salvation by Jesus
The name of Calvinists seems to have Christ. They admit that the Holy Spirit,
been given at first to those who embraced as calling men by the ministry of the gos-
not merely the doctrine, but the church pel, may be resisted ; and that where
government and discipline established at this is the case, “the fault is not in the
Geneva, and to distinguish them from the gospel, nor in Christ offered by the gos.
Lutherans. But since the meeting of the pel, nor in God calling by the gospel,
synod of Dort, the name has been chiefly and also conferring various gifts upon
applied to those who embrace his leading them ; but in the called themselves. They
views of the gospel, to distinguish them contend, however, that where men come
from the Arminians. The leading princi- at the divine call, and are converted, it is
ples taught by Calvin were the same as not to be ascribed to themselves, as
those of Augustin. The main doctrines, though by their own free-will they made
by which those who are called after his themselves to differ, but merely to him
name are distinguished from the Armi- who delivers them from the power of
nians, are reduced to five articles; and darkness, and translates them into the
which, from their being the principal kingdom of his clear Son, and whose re-
points discussed at the synod of Dort, generating influence is certain and effica.
have since been denominated the five cious.”
points. These are predestination, parti- Lastly, they maintain that those whom
cular redemption, total depravity, effectual God has effectually called and sanctified
calling, and the certain perseverance of by his spirit, shall never finally fall from
the saints.
a state of grace. They admit that true
1. They maintain that God hath chosen believers may fall partially, and would
a certain number of the fallen race of fall totally and finally but for the mercy
Adam in Christ, before the foundation of and faithfulness of God, who keepeth the
the world, unto eternal glory, according feet of his saints : also, that he who be-
to his immutable purpose, and of his free stoweth the grace of perseverance be-
grace and love, without the least fore- stoweth it by means of reading and hear-
sight of faith, good works, or any condi- ing the word, meditation, exhortations,
tions performed by the creature; and threatenings, and promises : but that
.
CAL
CAL
a
none of these things imply the possibility other characters, have the corolla and
of a believer's falling from a state of jus- stamina inserted into the calyx.
tification.
CALYCANTHUS, in botany, a genus
Some think Calvin, though right in the of the Icosandria Polygynia class and or-
main, yet carried things too far: these der. Essential character : calyx one-
are commonly known by the name of leafed, pitcher-form, squarrose, with co-
Moderate Calvinists. Others think he did loured leaflets ; corolla calycine ; styles
not
go far enough; and these are known very many, with a glandulous stigma ;
by the name of High Calvinists. It is seeds very many, tailed, within a succu-
proper to add, that the Calvinistic system lent calyx. There are two species, of
includes in it the doctrine of three co- which C. floridus, Carolina allspice, is a
ordinate persons in the Godhead, in one shrub which rises to the height of eight
nature ; and of two natures in Jesus or ten feet. Where it grows naturally,
Christ, forming one person. Justification the bark of this shrub is brown, and has
by faith alone, or justification by the im- a strong aromatic scent, whence the in-
puted righteousness of Christ, forms also habitants of Carolina give it the name of
an essential part of this system. They allspice.
suppose that on the one hand our sins CALYCERA, in botany, a genus of the
are imputed to Christ, and on the other Syngenesia Segregata class and order.
that we are justified by the imputation of Calyx many-leaved; calycle five-toothed,
Christ's righteousness to us; that is, one-flowered; florets tubular, male and
Christ, the innocent, was treated by God hermaphrodite ; receptacle chaffy; seeds
as if he were guilty, that we, the guilty, naked. One species ; viz. C. herbacea,
.
might, out of regard to what he did and found in Chili.
suffered, be treated as if we were inno- CALYCIFLORÆ, the sixteenth order
cent and righteous.
in Linnæus's "Fragments of a Natural
CALVITIES, or CALVITIUM, in me. Method," consisting of plants which, as
dicine, baldness, or want of hair, parti- the title imports, have the stamina in-
cularly on the sinciput, occasioned by the serted into the calyx. The plants of this
moisture of the head, which should feed order want the corolla: the flowers are
it, being dried up by some disease, old either hermaphrodite and male on the
same root, or male and female upon dif-
CALUMET, a mystic kind of pipe, used ferent roots. The seed-vessel is pulpy,
by the Am rican Indians as the ensign of of a berry or cherry kind, and contains a
peace, and for religious fumigations. It single seed or stone.
is made of red, black, or white marble ; CALYPTRANTHES, in botany, a ge-
the head resembles our tobacco-pipes, nus of the Icosandria Monogynia class
but larger; and is fixed on a hollow and order. Natural order of Hesperideæ.
reed, to hold it for smoking: they adorn Onagræ and Myrti, Jussieu. Essential
it with rounds of feathers and locks of character: calyx superior, truncate, co-
hair, or porcupines' quills, and in it they vered with a veil-shaped, deciduous lid ;
smoke in honour of the sun, especially if corolla none; berry one-celled, one to
they want fair weather or rain. This four-seeded. There are six species, all
pipe is a pass and safe conduct amongst natives of the West Indies and Cochin
all the allies of the nation who has it China,
given: in all embassies the ambassador
CALYX, among botanists, a general
carries it as an emblem of peace, and it term expressing the cup of a flower, or
always meets with a profound regard; that part of a plant which surrounds and
for the savages are generally persuaded, supports the other parts of the flower.
that a great misfortune would befal them, Linnæus describes it to be the termina-
if they violated the public faith of the tion of the cortical epidermis, or outer
calumet.
bark of the plant, which, after accompany-
CALX properly signifies lime, but was ing the trunk or stem through all its
formerly used by chemists for a fine branches, breaks out with the flower,
powder remaining after the calcination and is present in the fructification in this
of metals and other mineral substances. new form. He has distinguished it into
The term oxide has now taken place of seven different kinds. 1. A perianth,
that of calx. See CALCINATION. contiguous to the other parts of the fruc-
CALYCANTHEM, in botany, the tification. This is frequently called em-
name of the seventeenth order in Lin- palement, or flower-cup, by English wri-
næus's “ Fragments of a Natural Me- ters, and to it, as professor Martyn well
thod," consisting of plants which, among observes, should the term cup,
if admit-
age, &c.
CAM
CAM
ted at all, be confined. 2. An involucre, rupeds, of the order of Pecora; distin-
remote from the flower, as in many um- guished from the rest by having no horns.
belliferous plants. 3. An amentum, or See CAMELUS.
catkin, from a common, chaffy, gemma- CAMELEON mineral, a compound so
ceous receptacle. 4. A spathe, bursting called on account of the changes of co-
longitudinally. 5. A glume, formed of lour which it exhibits. It is prepared
valves embracing the seed. 6. A calyp- from the black oxide of manganese finely
tra, covering the capsules of mosses like levigated, and purified nitre, in the pro-
a hood. 7. A volva, a membranaceous portion of one part of the former to five
covering to the fructification of the fungi. of the latter. They are to be fused to-
The involucre is rather a number of gether for half an hour at a high heat, in
bractes; and the amentum, a species of an earthen crucible. A green mass is
inflorescence. See BOTANY.
produced, which deliqueates by exposure
CAMAX, in botany, a genus of the to the atmosphere, and of course requires
Pentandria Monogynia class and order. to be kept in a well-stopped vial. It
Essential character: corolla, wheel-shap- readily dissolves in hot water, making a
ed; filaments inserted between the seg- dark-green solution. This solution,
ments of the corolla; berry four-celled, though kept in a close vessel, will in a
many seeded, all villose. There is but few days deposit a yellow powder, and
one species ; viz. C. guianensis, is a shrub the liquor becomes of a fine blue, which,
growing to the height of fifteen feet; it being diluted with water, assumes a vio-
is a native of Guiana, and flowers in Jant- let colour that afterwards grows red, and
ary. The inhabitants and negroes use the finally loses its colour, a grey oxide of
branches of this shrub for wattling their manganese being thrown down. By the
huts.
addition of a few drops of acid to the
CAMBLET, or CAMLET, a plain stuff, blue liquor, the change to the red is
composed of a warp and woof, which is instantaneous, and the colour is a very
manufactured on a loom, with two tred- beautiful tint, between crimson and pink.
dles. There are camblets of several sorts, CAMELLIA, in botany, a genus of the
some of goat's hair, both in the warp and Monadelphia Polyandria class and order.
woof; others, in which the warp is of Natural order of Columniferæ. Aurantia,
hair, and the woof half hair and hálf silk; Jussieu. Essential character: calyx im-
others again, in which both the warp and bricate, many-leaved; the inner leaflets
the woof are of wool; and lastly, some, larger. There are three species, of which
of which the warp is of wool and the woof C. japonica, Japan rose, is a great and
of thread. Some are dyed in thread, lofty tree, in high esteem with the Japa-
others are dyed in the piece, others are nese for the elegance of its beautiful
marked or mixed ; some are striped, flowers, which exhibit a great variety of
some waved or watered, and some figured colours, and for its evergreen leaves ; but
Camblets are proper for several uses, has no scent. It is common in their gar-
according to their different kinds and dens, flowering from October to April.
qualities; some serve to make garments It varies with single and double flowers,
both for men and women; some for bed- white, red, and purple. It is also a native
a
curtains; others for household furniture, of China.
&c.
CAMELOPARDALIS, the camelopard,
CAMBOGIA, in botany, a genus of the giraffe, in natural history, a genus of the
Polyandria Monogynia class and order. Mammalia, and order Pecora. The gene-
Natural order of Tricoccæ. Guttiferæ, ric character; horns covered with a brist-
Jussieu. Essential character: corolla ly skin, bony and permanent; in the low-
four-petalled; calyx four-leaved ; pome er jaw eight teeth in front, and on each
eight-celled; seeds solitary. There is but side the exterior tooth deeply bilobate,
one species; viz. C. gutta, is a tall tree, There is but one species; viz. the Giraf.
with a trunk sometimes as thick as two fe, which, when fully grown, has been
men can compass, with spreading, oppo- known to attain the extraordinary height
site branches: native of the East Indies among quadrupeds of seventeen feet. Its
and China; it is very abundant in Siam head is small; 'its aspect gentle ; its fore
and Cambodia, where incisions are made parts are much higher than those behind;
in the bark, and a great quantity of gum- its colours arranged so as particularly to
mi guttæ, or gamboge, is extracted and please the eye; and its form, notwithstand-
exported into foreign countries; it is ve- ing the very great length of the neck, and a
ry much in use for miniature painting and general singularity, possesses great beau-
water colours.
ty and elegance. It is a native of seve-
CAMEL, in zoology, a genus of quad. ral parts of Africa, living in forests, prin
VOL. II:
H
.
CAM
CAM
cora.
cipally upon the foliage of trees. It is body and the digestive juices, and from
mild and inoffensive, and in all cases of which, by the contraction of certain mus-
danger has recourse, in the first instance, cles, they make the water mount into
to flight; when obliged to defend itself, their stomachs and throats to macerate
however, it employs very forcible kick- their dry food.
ing. Its general pace is a brisk trot. Travellers in the East, when hard
Giraffes are sometimes seen in small pressed with thirst, have killed their ca-
groups of six or seven. They were first mels to obtain a supply from this natural
introduced into Europe at the Circean and singular receptacle.
games, by Julius Cæsar, and in the six-
In Turkey, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and
teenth century, one was presented to Barbary, camels are almost uniformly em-
Laurentius de Medicis by the Dey of Tu- ployed in the conveyance of merchandise.
nis. The most accurate describer of this They are considered as living carriages,
animal is La Vaillant. See Plate IV. fig. 1. and their burden is often not taken off
CAMELOPARDALUS, a new constel- during their sleep. They kneel down to
lation of the northern hemisphere, form- be loaded and unloaded, at the command
ed by Hevelius, consisting of thirty-two of their keepers, and are the most pa-
stars, first observed by him. It is situated tient, laborious, and valuable of slaves.
between Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Perseus, Their milk, and even their flesh, are used
the two Bears, and Diaco. See AsTRO- by the Arabians for food. Their hair is
NOMY.
extremely soft, and wrought into a great
a
CAMELUS, camel, in natural history, a variety of the most useful and indeed
genus of the Mammalia, of the order Pe- costly stuffs. See Mammalia, Plate IV.
The generic character: horns fig. 3
none; six front teeth in the lower jaw, C. bactrianus, the Bactrian camel.
thin and broad; the canine teeth distant, This is somewhat larger and swifter than
three in the upper jaw, and in the lower the former, and has on its back two
two ; upper lip divided. There are se- bunches. In the deserts bordering on
ven species enumerated by Shaw, of China it is found wild, as also in the north
which we shall briefly notice the follow- of India, whence it is imported into Ara-
ing: C. dromedarius, or Arabian camel : bia, chiefly for the use of the great and
its general appearance, particularly in opulent. In China a particular breed of
consequence of the dorsal bunch, gives them is distinguished by the designation
the idea of deformity, or even of mon- of “Camels with feet of wind.” Fig. 2.
strocity; but, in some attitudes, its aspect C. glama. These animals have by some
is far from inelegant. It inhabits various authors been called the Peruvian sheep.
parts of Asia and Africa, is found even in They are particularly abundant in Peru,
Jamaica and Barbadoes, and is easily do- feeding in immense herds on the bleak-
mesticated. Even a country, such as Ara- est mountains. Their size is about that
bia, destitute of water and of verdure, of a stag. They were the only beasts of
and under a burning sun, where the tra- burden among the ancient Peruvians, and
veller seldom breathes under a shade, will carry a weight of 150 pounds. This
and feels lost in a boundless expanse of animal can abstrain from water four or five
desolation, by the assistance of the camel, days, and may be supported on the coars-
is rendered habitable, and the seat of in- est food, and that in very small quantity,
dependence and comfort. These animals When irritated, it endeavours to bite,
are trained with great assiduity by the and ejects an acrimonious and caustic
Arabs. They will carry a weight of saliva. Its flesh is fat, and excellently
.
1200lbs., and have been known to com- flavoured.
plete a journey of 300 leagues within C. vicugna, or purplish-brown camel,
eight days. They will travel eight or nine abounds in the highest mountains of the
days without water, which they scent at Indies. It is smaller and more slender
the distance of half a league, and drink than the former, and tamed only with
most copiously when they reach it. Deli- considerable difficulty. It will bear small
cate food is far from being requisite for burdens. Its hair is of admirable soft-
them, and they seem even to prefer the ness and silkiness on the breast, particu-
thorns and nettles of the wilderness; and larly wavy and woolly, and extending
while they find plants to brouse, can dis- three inches in length. It is wrought in-
pense easily with the want of drink. to cloth of the most delicate fineness and
They have besides the four stomachs beauty. The vicugna and the paco, ano-
common to all ruminating animals, a fifth, ther species of the camel, are both caught
in which they preserve a great quantity by the Peruvians by the simple process
of water, unmixed with the liquors of the of stretching across the narrow passes of
CAM
CAM
the mountains a cord, with bits of wool the corolla ; anthers either distinct or
attached to it, at small distances, and united ; germ glandular above; style
waving in the wind, which, by the ter- one ; stigma either simple or divided ;
ror or fascination it excites, confines them capsule most commonly five-celled, often
as effectually as bars of iron.
many seeded, and generally opening at
CAMERA obscura, in optics, a ma- its sides; seeds fixed to the interior an-
chine representing an artificial eye, gle of the cells; stems generally herba-
wherein the images of external objects ceous; leaves most frequently alternate ;
are exhibited distinctly, in their native flowers distinct, or in a few instances ag-
colours, either invertedly or erect. See gregate, and enclosed in a common ca-
OPTICS.
lyx.
CAMERARIA, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
CAMPHOR is a principle of vegeta-
der. Natural order of Contortæ. Apo- bles, which, in many of its properties, re-
Аро-
cineæ, Jussieu. Essential character: con- sembles the volatile oils. "Like them it
torted; follicles
two, horizontal ; seeds is odorous, pungent, volatile, inflamma-
inserted into their proper membrane. ble, sparingly soluble in water, and abun-
There are two species, of which c. lati: dantly soluble in alcohol. It differs from
folia, bastard mangeneel, is an elegant them principally in its concrete form, in
tree, about thirty feet in height, abound- its peculiar odour, in its relation to the
ing with an acrid milky juice : flowers acids and alkalis, and the results of its
small and white; follicles brown, bivalve decomposition by heat. Camphor is a
in their structure, but not opening. Na principle contained in many vegetables,
tive of Cuba, Jamaica, and Domingo.
especially the aromatic plants, and even
CAMP, the ground upon which an ar-
those of our own country, as pepper-
my pitch their tents. It is marked out by mint, rosemary, marjoram, and others;
it
the quarter-master-general, who appoints appears to be volatilized in combina-
every regiment their ground.
tion with their essential oil in the pro-
CAMPAIGN, in the art of war, de- cess of distillation, and, when these are
notes the space of time that an army keeps long kept, is deposited in a crystalline
the field, or is encamped, in opposition
form.
to quarters.
The camphor of commerce is procur-
CAMPANACEÆ, in botany, bell-shap- ed, however, from a particular plant, the
ed flowers. The name of the twenty- laurus camphora, a native of the east of
ninth order in "Linnæus's Fragments of Asia. It exists ready formed in the wood
Natural Method." There are two sec- of this tree, can be seen interspersed
tions : 1. bell-shaped flowers, with dis- through it in vesicles, and can be picked
tinct anthers or summits : 2. bell-shaped out. It then forms what has been named
Aowers, with anthers united into a cylin- native camphor. It is usually procured,
der. The plants of this order are gene- however, by the process of sublimation,
rally herbaceous and perennial. Some of The wood of the stem and branches, cut
the bell-flowers and bind-weeds are an- into small billets, is exposed with a little
nual; and a few foreign species of the water to a moderate heat, in a kind of
latter have woody stalks.
alembic, to the head of which is adapted
CAMPANULĂ, in botany, a genus of a capital, in which straw is put. The cam-
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or- phor is volatilized, and attaches itself to
der. Natural order of Campanaceæ. the straw. It is a little impure, but is pu-
Campanulaceæ, Jussieu. Essential cha- rified in Europe by a second sublimation.
racter: corolla bell-form, the bottom The camphor ofcommerce, from its mode
closed with stamineferous valves; stigma of preparation, is in the form of large se
three-cleft; capsule inferior, gaping, with mi-spherical cakes: when broken, it ap-
lateral pores. There are seventy-eight pears in fragments of a texture somewhat
species, most of them natives of our own striated, having a degree of ductility, in
country, well known in the gardens and consequence of which it can be com-
fields.
pressed, and is not easily reduced to
CAMPANULACEÆ, in botany, the powder; of a white colour, and semi-
fourth order of the ninth class of Jussieu's transparent; a little unctuous to the
natural orders, so called from their affi- feel; having a very strong, peculiar, and
nity to the genus Campanula. Jussieu rather fragrant odour, and a taste which
gives them the following character : ca- is pungent and bitter. It is also suscep-
lyx superior, border divided; corolla in- tible of crystallization : when slowly su-
serted on the upper part of the calyx, blimed, or when slowly precipitated from
border divided; stamens inserted under its solution in water by the affusion of als
:
CAM
CAM
cohol, it appears in the form of acicular heat being gradually applied by the me-
prisms.
dium of a sand-bath: nitric oxide and
Camphor, though a concrete sub- carbonic acid gases are disengaged;
stance, is even more volatile than the es- part of the camphor rises in vapour,
sential oils. It evaporates quickly at the while the other part receives oxygen
common temperature of the atmosphere, from the acid.
losing in weight, and an angular frag- Camphoric acid, thus produced, is dif-
ment becoming spherical; and at a tem- ferent from all the known acids. It has a
perature between 100 and 150, it su- slightly acid bitter taste, and reddens in-
blimes in close vessels unchanged. It is fusion of litmus. Its crystals effloresce
highly inflammable, kindles very readily, on exposure to the air ; they are sparing-
and burns with the emission of much ly soluble in cold water, an ounce of wa-
light, and with a dense black sinoke, ter at 50° of Fahrenheit not dissolving
which condenses into a smooth light char- more than 6 grains ; at 212°, about 48
coal. Carbonic acid gas is produced, and grains are dissolved. When the acid is
a portion of the peculiar acid which has placed on ignited fuel, it emits a dense
been named camphoric acid.
aromatic vapour, and is entirely dissipat-
Camphor is very sparingly soluble in ed. By applying heat to it in close ves-
water. When triturated with it, it mere- sels, it first melts and sublimes, but by a
ly communicates its smell and taste to the higher heat its properties are changed ; it
water, which remains odorous, and some- no longer reddens litmus, acquires an
what pungent, even when filtrated; but aromatic smell, its taste is less penetrat-
no appreciable quantity is dissolved. A ing, and it is no longer soluble in water,
phenomenon which has excited some at- or in sulphuric or muriatic acid. Nitric
tention is presented, when pieces of cam acid heated on it turns it yellow and dis-
phor are placed on the surface of pure solves it.
water. They soon begin to move with Camphoric acid is soluble in the mine-
rapidity, and while moving dissolve, the ral acids: it is likewise soluble in alcohol,
solution taking place at the line where and in the volatile and fixed oils. It pro-
the water and the air are in contact; as duces no change in sulphur. The salts
is proved by immersing a cylinder of cam- formed by this acid, with the alkaline,
phor in water part of its length : it be- earthy, and metallic bases, are named
comes excavated, and at length is cut Camphorates. Their properties have
through, exactly on a level with the sur- been examined by Lagrange.
Their
face of the water.
taste is somewhat bitter: they are de-
Camphor is abundantly soluble in alco- composed by heat, the acid being sublim-
hol: the solution is immediately decom- ed: and they all exhibit a blue flame
posed, and the camphor precipitated in when heated before the blow-pipe.
the form of a white powder, by the affu- The alkaline and earthy camphorates are
sion of water ; but if the water be very formed by adding the camphoric acid to
slowly added, and merely in such a quan- the alkali or earth, either pure, or in the
tity as to weaken the affinity of the alco- state of carbonate; the carbonic acid, in
hol to the camphor, the latter, in sepa- the latter case, being disengaged
rating, presents a deutritic crystallization. CAMPHORATES, 2 See the preceding
It is also soluble in expressed and essen- CAMPHORIC Acid, S article.
tial oils. The alkalis do not dissolve CAMPHOR tree, the tree from which the
camphor, or produce in it any sensible camphor of the shops is prepared, being
change. Of the earths, magnesia appears a species of laurel. See LAURUS.
to exert some action on it, as, when they CAMPHORASMA, in botany, from
are triturated together, the camphor is camphora, a genus of the Tetrandria Mo.
reduced to a smooth impalpable powder, nogynia class and order. Natural order
which is easily diffused in water. The of Holoraceæ. Atriplices, Jussieu. Es-
action of the stronger acids on camphor sential character: calyx pitcher-form,
is peculiar, and presents some singular two of the teeth opposite, and the alter-
results.
nate ones very small; corolla none ; cap-
By distilling nitric acid from camphor, sule one-seeded. There are five species,
it is more completely changed, and by of which C. monspeliaca, hairy campho-
this process is converted into an acid rosma, is an annual plant, with trailing
which has received the name of camphor- branches, extending a foot or more in
ic acid. The process consists in distill- length ; leaves linear; the flowers are
ing from four ounces of camphor in a re- produced from the joints, and are so
tort, 116, of nitric acid, so far diluted as small as to be scarcely perceptible.
to be of the specific gravity of 1.33, the Native of France and Spain. The whole
a
CAM
CAN
plant smells of camphor; it abounds in Mechanics,” and “Elements of Arith-
à volatile oily salt, and is warm and stim- metic.”
ulating
CANAL, an aqueduct made for the
CAMUS, (CHARLES STEPHEN LEWIS) purposes of inland navigation. This great
in biography, a celebrated French mathe- improvement in the conveyance of com-
matician, was born at Cressy en Brie, the modities has arrived at a high degree of
25th of August, 1699. His early ingenui- perfection, and enables us to transport
ty in mechanics and his own intreaties
them even over mountains where it would
induced his parents to send him to study appear impossible to preserve a commu-
at a college in Paris, at 10 years of age ;
nication, or rather a continuity of water
where in the space of two years his pro- carriage with the subjacent plains. This
gress was so great that he was able to is effected by the means of locks built of
give lessons in mathematics, and thus to masonry,
each of which serves as the con-
defray his own expenses at the college junction of two different levels. The
without any farther charge to his friends. locks are made only large enough to ad-
By the assistance of the celebrated Va- mit the vessels employed in the business,
rignon, this youth soon ran through the and have two gates, one at each end.
course of the higher mathematics, and When a vessel should ascend to a supe-
acquired a name among the learned. He rior level, the upper gate is shut, and the
made himself more particularly known to vessel being brought within the lock, the
the Academy of Sciences in 1727, by his lower gate is also closed, and the upper
memoir upon the subject of the prize one opened. By this means the water
which they had proposed for that year,
flows in, and the vessel is raised to the in-
viz. “ To determine the most advantage. tended height. The upper gate is clos.
ous way of masting ships;” in conse- ed as soon as the vessel has passed, but
quence of which he was named, that year, the water in the lock is preserved for
Adjoint-Mechanician to the Academy ; the purpose of letting a vessel down,
and in 1730 he was appointed Professor which is done by shutting the upper
of Architecture. In less than three years gate after she is in the lock, and opening
after he was honoured with the secreta-
the lower one; so that she is lowered
ryship of the same; and the 18th of A- gradually to the next level. The water
pril, 1733, he obtained the degree of As- in all cases is let in or out by means of a
sociate in the Academy, where he distin- small hatch, making its rise and fall very
guished himself greatly by his memoirs gradual; else the gates would be torn
upon living forces, or bodies in motion from their hinges by the rush of so large
acted upon by forces, on the figure of a body, and the vessel would be endan-
the teeth of wheels and pinions, on pump gered. We have instances of about twen-
work, and several other ingenious me ty locks all in half a mile’s distance; but
moirs.
there require very powerful springs to
In 1736 he was sent, in company with supply a due quantity of water. Some-
Messrs. Clairaut, Maupertuis, and Mon- times canals are raised above the level of
nier, upon the celebrated expedition to
the country; and we have instances
measure a degree at the north polar cir-
where one canal passes over another.
cle; in which he rendered himself high- for making artificial navigations, depend
The particular operations necessary
ly useful, not only as a mathematician, but
also as a mechanician and an artist, upon a number of circumstances. The
branches for which he had a remarkable situation of the ground; its vicinity or
talent.
connection with rivers ; the ease or dif-
ficulty with which a proper quantity of
In 1741, he invented a gauging rod and water can be obtained: these, and many
sliding rule, by which the contents of all other circumstances, necessarily produce
kinds of casks might be immediately as- great variety in the structure of artificial
certained. He was employed in works of navigations, and augment or diminish the
importance in his own country, and elect- labour and expense of executing them.
ed Geometrician in the French Acade- When the ground is naturally level, and
my. In 1765 he was chosen a Fellow of unconnected with rivers, the execution
the Royal Society of London. On the 4th is easy, and the navigation is not liable to
of May, 1768, he died, in his 69th year, be disturbed by floods; but when the
and was succeeded in his office of Geo- ground rises and falls, and cannot be re-
metrician to the Academy by D'Alem- duced to a level, artificial methods of rais- .
bert. His works are numerous and of ing and lowering vessels must be employ-
great reputation : the principal are “A ed, which likewise vary according to cir-
Course of Mathematics," “ Elements of cumstances,
.
CANAL.
In Mr. Donaldson's “ View of the Pre- tons, might be made at a very reduced
sent State of Husbandry,” it is observed, expense; and after certain leading ones
that the canals already completed or were executed, every man of considera-
forming have had wonderful effects upon ble landed property would find it to be
the agriculture, as well as upon the his interest to make a small canal through
manufactures and general state of ma- his estate, at least capable of floating
ny parts of the kingdom ; these, and the boats of five tons, which would be equal-
navigable rivers, render the carriage of ly convenient for bringing manure, and
bulky articles more easy and less expen- to carry away the produce. In all the
sive. The conveyance of manure, fuel, marsh and fen districts, most of the pre-
&c. into districts whither, without that sent sewers would only want,” he thinks,
medium, they could scarcely have been “a little cleansing to fit them for this pur-
transmitted, has tended materially to the pose.” And he adds, that “the exten-
improvement of these particular districts; sion of canals may become the most pow-
and the ease with which the inhabitants erful means of promoting general culti-
can export the produce of the country to vation. Good roads are certainly very
otherwise almost inaccessible markets, essential, and he thinks canals are at least
while it tends to the same end, has also equally so, in an agricultural view. On
considerable effects on the general mar- the best roads, produce and manure can
kets of the kingdom, and lessens the seldom be carried more then ten miles
number of horses that would be requisite with profit, at the present price of horse-
for transporting these articles from one keep; but if canals were as numerous as
place to another.
roads, corn, hay, manure, &c. could be
Owing to some cause or other, inland sent to every part of Britain, without using
navigation in many parts of the island more road than the towing-paths, and to
have proved ruinous to the adjoining ten times the former distance, without in-
lands; while in many others, the injury creasing the expense. A general canal-
done to the soil in the districts through scheme would, says he, tend to equalize
which these inland navigations are car- the price of every article in life more than
ried, by obstructing the free passage of all other things put together. It would
the rivers to the sea, and by their fre- afford the cheapest, the safest, and speedi-
quently overflowing their banks, and de- est conveyance of every article that might
stroying the crops in the low grounds, is be too bulky and heavy for stage and mail
infinitely greater than any commercial coaches. The benefits would be univer-
advantages that can possibly be derived sal in this island. The inhabitants of Lon-
from them, except by those who are more don and its environs would be infinitely
immediately interested. To render ca- more plentifully and cheaply supplied by
nals, or inland navigations of any sort, of canals than by any system of roads what-
general utility, says he, much circumspec- soever. The remoter parts of this, and
tion is necessary in framing the acts of every other country, would be placed
Parliament; so that while the commerce more on terms of equality with those that
of the country is increased, its agricul- are near, and every other part of the
ture may not be injured. It might, he island might reap advantages which may
thinks, be a wise regulation, that in eve- be foreseen, but which are much too
w
ry instance, without exception, all sorts of great for calculation.” And he concludes
manure should be carried at one half or by remarking, that “canals and irrigation
one third of lockage-dues made payable might be made the means of cultivating
for articles of any other description. every inch of this island, except rocky
Were this point attended to, and minute ground and mountain tops, and these
investigation made as to the probable ought to be planted.” He states, that
consequences that were likely to result “ of two methods of raising the money
“
from granting leave to form canals, and for making canals, the one which seems
deepen the beds of rivers, for the pur- to deserve the preference is the mode by
pose of inland navigations, these means which turnpike roads are usually provid-
of lessening the expense of carriage ed for, instead of entrusting it to the ma-
would not so often prove injurious to the nagement of interested companies. The
best interest of the country, --its agricul- latter method is exceptionable, from its
tural improvement.
creating a perpetual charge on all goods
It has been well observed by Mr. Mid sent by that conveyance, without regard-
dleton, in his able Survey of Middlesex, ing the money expended, or the interest
that “ canals calculated to navigate much it may ultimately produce, which is a ve-
smaller boats than any which have fallen ry imprudent bargain for the public in
under his observation, even down to ten this country, where population, trade,
CAN
CAN
:
manufactures, and commerce are so much provided by nature with any shelly cover
upon the increase.”
ing, uniformly have recourse to such
CANARINA, in botany, a genus of the shells as they find best accommodated
Hexandria Monogynia class and order. to their purpose, and in which their bo-
Natural order of Campanaceæ. Campa- dies are immersed, while their claws are
nulaceæ, Jussieu. Essential character : protruded and unprotected. The corres-
calyx six leaved ; corolla six-cleft, bell- pondence of parts in both sides of al-
form; stigmas six; capsule inferior, six-most all other animals is far from being
celled, many-seeded. There are two universally observable in these. The
species, of which C. campanula, Canary claspers on one side are often of extraor-
bell flower, has a perennial root; stem dinary size, and on the other slender and
three feet high ; corolla resembling that small; and in some instances the large
of a crown imperial, with a yellow eye ; arm is obliged to be supported by the
style club-form. Native of the Canary back of the animal, both while walking
Islands.
and at rest, from its unwieldy and extra-
CANARIUM, in botany, a genus of vagant size. The genus comprehends an
the Dioecia Pentandria class and order. immense variety of species; but the
Essential character : male, calyx two chief division is into the Brachyouri and
leaved ; corolla three-petalled : female, the Macrouri, or the short-tailed and the
calyx two-leaved ; corolla three-petalled long-tailed: under the former of which
stigma sessile ; drupe with a three-cor the crab commonly used in this country
nered nut. There is but one species; for food is the principal. It is found
viz. C. commune. This tree is a native chiefly on the rocky coasts. Among the
of the Molucca islands, Banda, and New Macrouri, the common lobster is the
Guinea. The nuts are eaten both raw principal, and a well-known specimen,
and dressed by the inhabitants; and oil it inhabits in the clearest water, and at
is expressed from them, which is used at the base of rocks which project over the
the table when fresh, and for lamps when sea. It is extremely prolific, depositing
stale : bread is also made from them, about 12,000 eggs each time of laying,
cakes, biscuits, &c. for the table.
The warmth of summer is required for
CANARY bird. See FRINGILLA.
maturing them. The C. Norwegicus, or
CANCER. See CARCINOMA.
Norwegian crab, is naturally of a pale
Cancer, in astronomy, one of the red colour, and variegated with yellow.
twelve signs of the zodiac, represented
It is longer, and more slender than the
on the globe in the form of a crab, and ordinary lobster. For a representation
thus marked () in books. See AsTRO- of it see Entomology, Plate II. fig. 1.
с
grapsus, or the streaked crab, is an
inhabitant of the American and Indian
CANCER, tropic of, in astronomy, a seas. Its general pale yellow is finely
lesser circle of the sphere parallel to the interspersed with red streaks and spots.
equator, and passing through the begin- For a specimen, see Entomology, Plate II.
ning of the sign Cancer.
fig. 2.
CANCER, the crab, in natural history, a CANCROMA, the boat-bill, in natural
genus of insects of the order Aptera. history, a genus of birds of the order
The generic character : eight legs in ge. Grallæ. Generic character : bill gibbous,
neral, sometimes six or ten, besides two shaped like an inverted boat ; nostrils
chelated arms; two eyes, distant, in ge- placed in a furrow, and small; tongue
neral foot-stalked, elongated, and move- small, and toes divided. Of these there
able ; tail unarmed, and jointed. Ani- seems to be only one species, though
mals of this genus at particular periods Gmelin speaks, somewhat doubtfully in
cast their shells, previously to which the deed, of a second. The C. cochlearia,
limbs shrink, to facilitate their extrica- or crested boat-bill, is principally found
tion. The loss of a limb, with other ani- in places near the water. It is a native
mals irreparable, is of little consequence of South America, particularly abounding
to these, as a few weeks suffice to repro- in the northern parts of it. Perching
duce one: and in cases of bruise or mu- on trees which overhang the brooks and
tilation, a consciousness of this eventual, rivers, it darts down on the fish swim-
and indeed speedy reproduction, induces ming underneath, which constitutes its
them violently to rid themselves of the chief food. It is supposed, but not as-
injured member, and to await in seclu- certained, that it feeds also upon crabs.
sion the formation of a complete substi- CANDLE, a small taper of tallow, wax,
tute for it. Some species which are un- or spermaceti; the wick of which is com.
NOMY.
a
CANDLE.
monly of several threads of cotton, spun Others of a cylindrical form, used on ordi-
and twisted together.
nary occasions. The first are either
There are two sorts of tallow-candles ; made with a ladle or the hand. To make
the one dipped, the other moulded : the wax candles with the ladle: the wicks
former are the common candles
being prepared, a dozen of them are tied
Tallow candles should be made of equal by the neck, at equal distances, round an
parts of bullock's and sheep's fat. The iron circle, suspended directly over a
cotton made use of in the manufacture of large basin of copper tinned, and full of
candles comes from Turkey. This is first melted wax: a large ladle fuil of this
wound into rather a fine thread, which is wax is poured gently on the tops of the
cut into proper lengths, and five, six, or wicks, one after another, and this opera.
more united, so as to make it of a fit size tion continued till the candle arrive at its
for the candle required. The machine destined bigness; with this precaution,
for cutting the cotton is a smooth board that the three first ladles be poured on
fastened on the knees, and the upper at the top of the wick; the fourth at the
surface is the blade of a razor, and a height of three-fourths; the fifth at one.
round piece of cane, placed at a certain half; and the sixth at one-fourth ; in or-
distance from one another, according to der to give the candle its pyramidal
the length of the cotton wanted. The form Then the candles are taken down,
cotton is carried round the cane, and be kept warm, and rolled and smoothed
ing brought to the razor, is instantly upon a walnut-tree table, with a long
separated from the balls. The cotton is square instrument of box, smooth at the
then made
smooth by pulling, and bottom.
spread at equal distances, on rods about As to the manner of making wax-can-
half an inch in diameter, called broaches. dles by the hand, they begin to soften the
The tallow is melted, and after it is well wax, by working it several times in hot
skimmed, it is brought to the mould, in water, contained in a narrow, but deep
which the cottons are dipped. The work caldron. A piece of the wax is then ta-
man holds three of these broaches be- ken out, and disposed, by little and little,
tween his fingers, and immerses the cot. around the wick, which is hung on a
tons into the melted tallow; these he after hook in the wall, by the extremity oppo-
wards hangs up till they become cold and site to the neck ; so that they begin with
hard, during which others are dipped. the big end, diminishing still as they de-
When cold they are dipped a second and scend towards the neck. In other re-
a third time, and so on till the candles are spects, the method is nearly the same as
of the proper size. During the operation in the former case. However, it must be
the tallow is kept to a proper tempera. observed, that in the former case, water
ture by means of a small charcoal fire. An is always used to moisten the several in-
invention of modern date has taken off struments, to prevent the wax from
much of the labour of the tallow-chandler: sticking; and in the latter, oil of olives,
this consists of a beam with fixed pullies, or lard, for the hands, &c. The cylin-
round which ropes are made to pass, and drical wax-candles are either made, as
on one end of the ropes can be suspended the former, with a ladle, or drawn. Wax-
six or more broaches, the weight of candles drawn, are so called, because ac-
which is balanced by weights in an oppos- tually drawn in the manner of wire, by
ing scale, and which may be increased, means of two large rollers of wood, turn-
as the candles become larger. The work- ed by a handle, which turning backwards
man by this means has only to guide the and forwards several times, pass the
candles, and not to support them between wick through melted wax contained in a
his fingers. Mould candles are so call- brass basin, and at the same time through
ed from their being run or cast in moulds the holes of an instrument like that used
made of pewter. In these the cotton is for drawing wire fastened at one side of
introdued by means of a wire, and kept the basin.
in a perpendicular position, till the tal- CANDLES, sale or auction by inch of,
low is poured in, and when cold the can- is when a small piece of candle being
dles are easily drawn out.
lighted, the bystanders are allowed to
Wax candles are made of a cotton or bid for the merchandise that is selling;
Maxen wick, slightly twisted, and covered but the moment the candle is out, the
with white or yellow wax. Of these, there commodity is adjudged to the last bid-
are several kinds; some of a conical fi- der.
gure, used to illumine churches, and in CANDLE berry-tree, in botany. See Mr-
processions, funeral ceremonies, &c. RICA.
CAN
CAN
CANDLEMAS, a feast of the church, near the surface of the ground, and at
held on the second day of February, in every knot produce great numbers of
honour of the purification of the Virgin fibres, by which it receives its nourish-
Mary. It is borrowed from the practice ment. The joints are made straight by
of the ancient Christians, who on that day the fire, which occasions those shades
used abundance of lights both in their or clouds frequently seen in them.
churches and processions, in memory, as Bradley thinks the cane-tree might be
is supposed, of our Saviour's being on propagated here, by planting some of the
that day declared by Simeon, “to be a roots with their knots in artificial bog's, &c.
light to lighten the Gentiles." In imita- Canes, rattan, are a smaller sort brought
tion of this custom, the Roman Catholics, from China, Japan, and Sumatra, very
on this day, consecrate all the tapers and tough ; which being split, are used for
candles which they use in their churches making of cane chairs. They are the pro-
during the whole year.
duce of a reed called rattang malabarica
CANDY, or sugar Candy, a prepara- minor, or lesser rattan. The specific name
tion of sugar, made by melting and crys- is rotang, whence rattan, and in the Ma-
tallizing it six or seven times over, to ren- layan language signifies a staff or walk-
der it hard and transparent. It is of three ing stick. These, when dry, being struck
kinds, white, yellow, and red. The white against each other, will give fire, and are
comes from the loaf-sugar, the yellow used accordingly in some places in lieu
from the cassonado, and red from the of flint and steel. Being twisted to-
muscovado.
gether they make cordage of them.
CANE is the name of a long measure, The Chinese and Japanese vessels are
which differs according to the several said to have their cables made of them,
countries where it is used. At Naples, which are less liable to rot in the water
the cane is equal to 7 feet 32 in- than hemp.
ches English measure; the cane of Tou- CANES venatici, in astronomy, the grey-
louse, and the upper Languedoc, is equal hounds, two new constellations, first es-
to the varre of Arragon, and contains 5 tablished by Hevelius between the tail
feet 8{ inches: at Montpellier, Provence, of the great Bear and the arm of Bootes,
Dauphine, and the lower Languedoc, to above the Corona Berenices. That next
6 English feet 5 inches.
the Bear's tail is called Asterion, the
CANELLA, in botany, a genus of the other Chara.
Dodecandria Monogynia class and order. CANICULA, or CANICULUS, in astro-
Essential character: calyx three-lobed; nomy, the same as the Canis Minor. See
corolla five-petalled ; anthers twenty-one, Canis Minor.
fastened to a pitcher-shaped nectary; It is also a name given to one of the
berry three-celled; seeds two to four. stars of the constellation, Canis Major,
There is but one species, viz. C. alba, lau- called the Dog-star, and by the Greeks
rel leaved canella, is a tree, the stem of Sirius.
which rises from ten to fifty feet in height, CANICULAR days, commonly called
straight, upright, branching only at the dog-days, a certain number of days pre-
top. The flowers grow at the tops of ceding and ensuing the heliacal rising of
the branches in clusters, upon divided the Canicula, or the Dog-star, in the
peduncles. It is common in most of the morning. The Ethiopians and Egypti-
West India islands. The whole tree is ans began their year at the rising of the
very aromatic, and when in blossom per- Dog-star, reckoning to its rise again the
fumes the whole neighbourhood. The next year, which is called the annus cana-
flowers, dried, and softened again in rius. The Romans supposed it to be the
warm water, have a fragrant odour, re- cause of the sultry weather usually felt in
sembling that of musk.
the dog-days; and, therefore, sacrificed
CANEPHORA, in botany, a genus of a brown dog every year at its rising to
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or- appease its wrath.
der: common calyx tubular, toothed, ma- CANINE teeth, in anatomy, are two
ny flowered : perianthum five or six-cleft; sharp-edged teeth in each jaw; one on
corolla campanulate, five or six cleft; each side, placed between the incisores
fruit inferior, two-seeded. There are two and molares.
species, viz. the axillaris and capitata, CANINE muscles, a pair of muscles com-
natives of Madagascar.
mon to both lips. They arise from the hol-
CANES, walking, are said by Bradley low on each side under the os jugalis, in
to be joints of the roots of a sort of reed, the os maxillare, and are inserted into the
called canna Indica. This plant shoots in angle of the lips.
joints of about three or four feet long, CANIS, the dog, in natural history, a
VOL. II.
I
CANIS.
genus of Mammalia, of the order Feræ. ing anecdotes. A Florentine nobleman
Generic character: six upper foreteeth; possessed a dog which would attend his
lateral ones longer, distant; the inter- table and change his plates, and carry his
mediate ones lobate; in the lower jaw wine to him with the utmost steadiness,
six, lateral ones lobated; tusks solitary and the most accurate attention to his
and incurvated; grinders six or seven, master's notices.
or more than in other genera of this or- It is related by the illustrious Leibnitz,
der.
that a Saxon peasant was in possession of
This genus is distinguished by its vora- a dog of the middling size, and about
city and by tearing what it devours. It is three years of age, which the peasant's
unable to climb trees; can move with son, perceiving accidentally, as he ima-
great swiftness; has the crown of its gined, some resemblance in its sounds to
head usually fiat, with a lengthened snout; those of the human voice, attempted to
its body very considerably thicker before teach it to speak. By the perseverance
than behind ; its claws are long, some- of the lad, the dog acquired the power,
what curved, but not retractile. The fe- we are told, of pronouncing about thirty
male produces many at a time, and has words. It would, however, exercise this
,
usually four teats on the breast and six extraordinary faculty only with reluc-
on the belly. In the savage state of the tance, the words being first spoken al-
dog, his irritable and ferocious character ways by the preceptor, and then echoed
renders him a dangerous enemy to other by the pupil. The circumstance is at-
animals; but when domesticated, his tested by Leibnitz, who himself heard it
grand object appears to be to please his speak, and was communicated by him in
employers, and to convert to their ser- a memoir to the Royal Academy of
vice his courage, his swiftness, and all France.
his striking and valuable instincts. He is In the theatre of Marcellus, what many
extremely docile, and accommodates him- will consider more probable, but what is
self to the manners and habits of those still extraordinary, is mentioned to have
with whom he lives, with a facility which occurred, by Plutarch. A dog was here
furnishes an admirable lesson. His vigi. exhibited who excelled in various dances
lance over whatever is committed to his of great complication and difficulty, and
charge is connected with a courage in de represented also the effects of disease
fence of it, arising even to rage. His sus- and pain upon the frame, in all the con-
picions are perpetually alive : his infe- tortions of countenance and writhings of
rences, with respect to the just grounds the body, from the first access to that
of apprehension, are astonishingly judi- paroxysm, which often immediately pre-
cious and correct, and he not only sounds cedes dissolution ; having thus apparent-
the tocsin of alarm to the whole family ly expired in agony, he would suffer him-
by which he is employed as centinel, but self to be carried about motionless, as in
darts on a supposed culprit with a vigour a state of death, and after a sufficient con-
and intrepidity which generally over- tinuance of the jest, he would burst upon
whelm the power of resistance. By the the spectators with an animation and
assistance of the dog, man has reduced sportiveness, which formed a very inter-
the other animals to slavery. Dangerous esting conclusion of this curious inter-
and ferocious beasts are hunted down by lude, by which the animal seemed to en-
its means. By conciliating, among the joy the success of his scenic efforts, and
various animals by which he was sur- to be delighted with the admiration
rounded, those, which at the same time which was liberally and universally be-
that they abound in energies are also ca- stowed upon men.
pable of affection and obedience, man
has been enabled to oppose and destroy
This genus comprehends twenty-one
others with which he would have been species, several of which, particularly the
able to establish no compromise, whose C. familiaris, include numerous varieties.
ferocity is untameable, and whose power
The following appear principally desery.
is connected only with ravage and desola ing of notice.
tion. The training of the dog was proba-
The C. familiaris, or the familiar dog,
bly one of the first objects of the atten- of which the variety known by the name
tion of man, and aided him extremely in of the shepherd's dog is imagined to ap-
subduing the earth to his unmolested go- proach most nearly to the original animal.
vernment.
Its use is inferible from its designation.
The capability of instruction, and the It keeps the flock collected, and defends
imitative powers of the dog, have fur- it from injury. In the Alps, and some
nished innumerable curious and interest- other regions of Europe, it is considerably
a
CANIS.
larger and stronger than in England. See but the third obliged the lion to have re-
Mammalia, Plate V. fig. 1.
course to flight.
Another variety is the dingo, Australa- The terrier, another variety, is much
sian, or New Holland dog. Plate V. fig. employed in unearthing foxes, and to all
2. This dog does not bark so readily as those quadrupeds which are comprehend
the European dogs : its appearance much ed in the class of Vermin, bears the
resembles the larger kind of the shep- strongest antipathy. A well-trained ter-
herd's dog, and it is extremely fierce and rier is frequently found an over-match
untractable.
even for the fierce and hardy badger.
The Pomeranian dog, another variety, This dog is extremely useful as an atten-
is generally white, and is distinguished, dant on every pack of hounds, to compel
among several characteristics, by the cur- the game from its close cover of earth or
vature of its tail, extending very nearly thicket.
to a circle. Plate V. fig. 3.
The chief peculiarities of the species, of
A fourth variety is the Siberian. These which these few varieties out of many
dogs are frequently employed in Siberia have been given, are these. It cultivates
and Kamtschatka, in drawing sledges on the society of man ; has rarely been found
the frozen snow, and four or six of them wild; feeds on flesh and farinaceous
yoked to a sledge will convey three per- vegetables, but not on greens; it digests
sons, with the usual quantity of baggage, bones; urines frequently, holding up its
forty miles or more in a day. The exer- leg; dungs upon a stone; vomits itself
tions of these dogs, however, are more to by grass ; runs in an oblique direction ;
be praised than their fidelity or attach- very rarely sweats, but lolls out its tongue
ment. Their perversenes and subtlety when hot. The male young resemble the
are a source of great vexation to their em- dog, and the female the bitch. It is ex-
ployers, who, however, notwithstanding tremely docile, affectionate, and vigilant
the malignity and cunning they are thus so in its intercourse with man; it eats with a
incessantly called upon to counteract, find glancing and envious eye; has a great
these animals indispensable to the conve- aversion to strangers, and particularly to
nience and intercourse of these arctic re- beggars ; licks wounds; hears and dreams
gions. See Plate V. fig. 4.
in its sleep, sets up a howl on hearing
The Iceland dog is but little different musical sounds; and bites stones thrown
from the last, as will be seen by a refer- at it ; it possesses a most acute sense of
ence to Plate V. fig. 5. Its general colour smell ; is liable to gonorrhoa ; is subject
is black.
also to madness, which it imparts by
For the great barbet, see Plate V. fig. 6. biting, and in old age is addicted to gnaw-
The blood-hound was, some ages since, ing itself. It is regarded by the followers
highly esteemed in England, and much of Mahomet as unclean.
employed in the pursuit of robbers. The C. Lupus, the wolf. These animais are
acuteness of its smell is so extraordinary, found in almost all the temperate and cold
that it has traced a man to the distance of climates of the globe. They abounded
seven miles, along a much frequented formerly in Great Britain and Ireland, but
high-way, and through several market were extirpated by government's com-
towns, to the very upper room in which muting the punishments for several of-
he was taking refreshment.
fences for a proportionate number of
The Irish grey-hound, now extremely wolves' tongues, or by the substitution in
rare even in Ireland itself, is perhaps the Wales of a certain number of wolves' heads
most beautiful and majestic, as well as for a particular amount of money in taxes.
the largest of all dogs. It was this dog Some lands were also held on condition of
which was principally employed in clear. the occupiers destroying yearly a certain
ing the island of wolves. It is, however, number of these dangerous animals.
unfit for hunting foxes, hares, or stags, In America, wolves are reported to go
and is kept by a few persons merely for its in droves, and to hunt various animals with
beauty and size. Dr. Goldsmith had seen the most terrific and hideous howlings,
one four feet high.
not scrupling when urged by bunger, to
The mastiff, another variety, is of a very attack even the buffaloe itself. To allay
strong and thick structure, with a large their hunger, it is stated that they will
head, and the sides of the lips pendulous. swallow large quantities of mud. In
In the reign of James I. a trial of its vigour Sweden the carcases of animals are pur-
and courage was made in the Tower of Posely laid in their way, stuffed with tree
London, and three mastiff's being opposed moss and pounded glass, which render
to a lion, two were mutilated and disabled, the repast fatal to them. They are, like
CANIS.
the dog, subject to madness, communi contrary have occurred. Their manners,
cated also by bite, but generally coming however, are particularly untractable
,
on in winter rather than in summer. In and ferocious, and truly indicated by
the north of Europe they live much on that unremitted gloom and malice ex.
seals, and extending their excursions far pressed in their countenance. They in.
on the ice, when that is detached, in habit, principally, rocks and caves, and,
consequence of a change of weather, shunning the light of day, avail them
from the land, they are carried off into selves of darkness to commit their depre-
the ocean, and express the sense of their dations. They feed not only on prey
dreadful and insuperable danger, by the which they have themselves killed, but
most bitter howlings of despair.
putrid carcases supply them with a de-
There is no animal whose carnivorous licious banquet, and the bodies of the
appetite is stronger than that of the wolf, dead are often, with most persevering la-
and he is endowed by nature with all the bour, torn up from their graves in
means of satisfying it, being strong, agile, churchyards, where they have some time
subtle, and enabled not only to explore, been deposited, and devoured with the
but to seize and subdue his prey. keenest relish. They follow the motions
By the perpetual war in which he is in- of contending armies, anticipating by the
volved with man, however, he is often re- associations, furnished from experience,
duced to extreme difficulties, and driven and which are formed in the inferior ani-
far into wilds and forests, where the means mals as well as in man, the feast to be
of satisfying his appetite are scarcely to supplied from human conflict and car-
be found : remoteness from human babi- nage. When they are first put in mo-
tation, in proportion as it adds to his scar- tion they appear, as is not uncommon
city, embarrasses his subsistence. The with dogs, to labour under some fracture
urgency of his wants drives him back to or dislocation in their hind legs. This,
those dangers which he was eager to however, in a short time, totally vanishes.
shun, and inspires him often with courage In Syria, and about Algiers, they live
by no means natural to him, and rising to much, if not principally, on bulbous roots,
all the vehemenee of fury and distraction. in the choice of which they are uncom-
He will in these circumstances of pressure monly fastidious. In Barbary, the Moors
make no scruple of attacking women and will not hesitate to pull the hyæna by the
children, and occasionally assault and de- ears in the day-time, and, indeed, experi-
vour men. The Paris gazette for 1764, ence from it no attempt at injury: they
states the ravages and devastation by will even enter his cave with a torch,
one of these creatures, near Languedoc, and throwing a blanket over bim, hawl
to have comprehended the destruction him out without any inconvenience. In
of no less than twenty persons It will the same country some small animals
devour its own species as well as the have been shut up with a hyæna fasting,
human. It is remarkable for suspicion, for during a whole day, and yet have been
terror at the sound of a trumpet, for ex- found alive and uninjured; but by night,
quisite acuteness of smell, for its endu-
a young ass, a goat, and a fox, locked up
rance of extreme cold and hunger, for with one, were destroyed, and, excepting
its fearfulness of a cord or rope drawn some of the larger bones of the ass,
along the ground, and for leaping over completely devoured before morning.
fences rather than passing through doors In Abyssinia these animals are nearly
or gates. When taken young, its sav- equally active and bold by day and night.
age character has, by assiduous educa. They abound in every part, and are
tion, been not merely greatly mitigated, scarcely less numerous even than sheep.
but, in a few instances, completely sub. Mr. Bruce complains of their being the
dued. The time of gestation in the wolf plague of his life in that country, the
is 100 days, being forty more than that terror of his night-walks, and the destruc-
of the dog, which may considered as a tion of his mules and asses, which were,
radical difference between these species with them, a favourite food. One night,
of animals. See Mammalia, Plate VI. having, for a moment, quitted his tent,
fig. 2.
where he had previously heard some
C. hyæna, or the striped hyæna. These noise within it, the cause of which, how.
animals are generally about the size of a ever, he was unable to discover, and had
large dog, and abound in many parts of ceased to think of, he observed on his
Asia and Africa. They have been al- return, in the dark, two large blue eyes,
most universally believed to be untame- most fixedly glaring on him. A light
able, but several decided instances to the being speedily brought, he discovered
CANIS.
near the head of his bed a hyæna, with some of the intestines of the fox is ex-
several bundles of candles in his mouth. tremely different from those answering
Mr. Bruce immediately struck at him similar purposes in dogs. The different
with a long pike, which penetrated com- times of gestation, however, in the jackal,
pletely through bim, near his heart. The and in the dog, appears no slight objec.
animal no sooner felt the smarting of tion to the theory thus advocated. Plate
the wound, than he appeared animated VI, fig. 3.
by the most fierce and desperate ven- C. vulpes, the fox. This animal is ge-
geance, and strove actually to climb up nerally of a yellowish brown colour, with
the shaft of the pike to reach his de- its tail straight, bushy, and tipped with
stroyer. The servant, however, cleft his white, from the base of which it emits a
head asunder with a battle axe. Plate rank and fetid odour. The skill of the
VI. fig. 1.
fox in the construction of its mansion
C. aureus, the jackal. In the warm ranks it among the higher order of quad.
latitudes of Asia and Africa these animals rupeds. He burrows under firm earth,
abound, and no where more than in Bar- and often where the roof of his dwelling
bary. The jackal is of a light yellow is prevented from falling in by the wat-
colour, with black shades about the back tling of the roots of trees. His subterra.
and legs; and about the size of a mid- neous residence is generally extensive,
dling dog. In its excursions, which are and he provides to it several avenues for
chiefly during night, it commits promis. his convenience or security. Thus, in-
cuous ravage among the more defence- stead of being a houseless vagrant, he
less animals, though vegetables are some possesses all the ideas and comforts which
times used for food by it. Jackals attach to a home, and which are justly
frequently assemble in large droves or supposed to imply superior sentiment and
troops, even so numerous as two hun. intelligence.
dred, and hunt the vast herds of deer or The fox is not unfrequently observed,
antelopes which abound in these regions, in fine weather, to quit his retreat, and
sounding the most horrid yells, and pur- bask at his full length in the sun. His
suing their prey till it sinks under the ravages are reserved for the night, and
exhaustion of fatigue and terror. The are generally committed at a distance
feast of the jackals, however, is gene. from his home. He destroys for his food
rally intercepted, or at least delayed, by various species of vermin. Poultry and
the appearance of the lion, who roused young lambs very frequently fall under
by their sounds, and aware that they are his power, where he has secure access
preparing a banquet which he may enjoy to them. The dung of other animals,
at his leisure, follows their footsteps. berries, snails, frogs, and insects, are
While he gratifies his appetite these hum- sometimes taken by him. Of grapes he
ble and trembling purveyors await at a is proverbially fond, and the vineyards
distance the moment when the lord of suffer very considerably from his depre-
the forest shall have completed his repast, dations. He wastes or destroys far more
and they may safely approach to devour than he devours, often hiding large quan-
the mutilated remains he was unable to tities of his prey in thickets, or beneath
dispose of.
the roots of trees. His sagacity to dis-
It is supposed by some judicious and cern his prey and his enemies is extra-
sagacious naturalists, that the jackal is ordinary. In Palestine, foxes certainly
the real origin of the dog. In the struc- abound; but, from the narrative of Sama
ture of the short intestine called the son's firebrands, might be supposed still
cæcum, they both agree, and their in- more abundant. The animals employed
stinct and manners are extremely similar. by him in that destructive stratagem were
They both are fond of the society of man, probably jackals, which are at least
and approach on being called by their equally abundant, and far more easily
names. The jackal is easily tamed, and accessible. In very northern latitudes,
shows an attachment to dogs; it fawns the fox is frequently black, and affords
on its owner, and exhibits all those indi. a fur more valued than that of almost
cations of joy, sportiveness, and grati- any other animal : it has been sometimes
tude, which characterize the dog. The sold from Kamtschatka for 400 rubles.
jackal and the dog also readily intermix. The fox has been sometimes found per-
The wolf and the fox naturally shun fectly white. The arctic fox, found par-
mankind. The native regions of the wolf ticularly in Nova Zembla, is one of the
also are those of extreme cold, which do hardiest of all animals, unremitted in its
not suit the dog; and the construction of pursuit of prey during the severest ri.
CAN
CAN
gours of winter. In some parts it is com- on one side ; corolla none; styles two;
pelled to sustain itself by berries, shell- nut bivalve, within the closed calyx.
fish, or whatever is thrown up by the There is but one species, viz. C. sativa.
sea. In others, the sustenance of these The uses of hemp are well known, as
animals consists of wild geese, and every well as its great importance to the navy
kind of water-fowls, with their eggs for sails and cordage. Exceedingly good
and in Lapland, particularly, they feed huckaback is made from it for towels
upon a species of mice called lemings, and common table-cloths. The low-priced
which, being migratory at uncertain pe- hempen cloths are a general wear for
riods, induce the consequent migrations husbandmen, servants, and labouring ma-
of the arctic fox, who will, in the pur- nufacturers. The hemp raised in Eng-
suit of this prey, be absent from his na. land is not of so dry and spongy a nature
tive country sometimes for three, or as what we have from Russia, and there-
even four years. The ground in Spitz- fore it requires a smaller proportion of
bergen being eternally frozen, these ani- tar to manufacture it into cordage. Eng-
mals being consequently here unable to lish hemp, properly manufactured, stands
burrow, reside in the cliffs of rocks, and unrivalled in its strength, and is superior
two or three are often found in the same to the Russian. Like many other plants,
hole. The cunning supposed to be cha- generally cultivated, it is difficult to as-
racteristic of the fox, and which it might certain the original place of its native
be supposed that embarrassment and growth. Linnæus gives it to the East
hardship would increase, is by no means Indies and Japan.
a quality of the variety under conside- CANNEL coal. See AMPELITES.
ration, which is indeed rather noted for CANNON, in the military art, an en-
its simplicity; instances having been gine or fire-arm for throwing iron, lead,
known in which the arctic fox, after or stone bullets by force of gun-powder.
standing by while a trap was baitéd, has Cannons at first were called bombarda,
immediately thrust his head into it. The from the noise they made : they had like-
Greenlanders convert the skins of these wise the name of culverin, basilisk, &c.
animals, which are light and warm, but from the beasts that were represented
not lasting, to the purposes of merchan- upon them; and the Spaniards, from de.
dize, manufacturing some of the thicker votion, gave them the name of saints ;
and barder parts into buttons. They oc- witness the twelve apostles which Charles
casionally eat the flesh, and the tendons V. ordered to be cast at Malaga, for his
are divided by them into slender filaments, expedition to Tunis.
and substituted for thread. For a repre- Cannon are classed as field-pieces or
sentation of the fox. See Mammalia, battering-pieces; the former are usually
Plate VI, fig. 4.
made of mixed metals, but sometimes of
Canis Major, in astronomy, a constel- pure brass; the latter, with very few ex-
lation of the southern hemisphere. ceptions, are of cast iron. Every cannon
CANIS Minor, Caniculus, or Canicula, is made by running fused metal into a
in astronomy, a constellation of the nor- mould, and is afterwards finished by being
thern hemisphere. See ASTRONOMY. turned on a lathe. The chace is bored
CANKER, a disease incident to trees, by means of a strong machine. Some
proceeding chiefly from the nature of the suspend the cannon vertically over the
soil. It makes the bark rot and fall. borer, making it press downwards as the
CANNA, in botany, Indian flowering borer revolves; others have a horizontal
reed, or Indian shot, a genus of the Mo. process, in which the cannon is firmly
nandria Monogynia class and order. Na- fixed on a frame, and the borer approach-
tural order of Scitamineæ. Cannæ, Jus- es as the chace proceeds. There is a
sieu. Essential character: corolla six- large cylindrical projection on each side
parted, erect; lip two-parted, revolute; of a cannon, nearly in the middle of its
style lanceolate, growing to the corolla ; length; these are called trunnions; they
calyx three-leaved. There are five spe- serve to support it on the carriage, and
cies, most of them natives of the northern as pivots, whereon a due degree of ele-
provinces of America.
vation or depression may be given. The
CANNABIS, in botany, English hemp, variation in the elevation is made in field-
a genus of the Dioecia Pentrandria class pieces, which usually carry balls of 3, 6,
and order. Natural order of Scabridæ. 9, 12, and up to 1816. weight, by means
Urticæ, Jussieu. Essential character : of a screw fixed to a strong piece of wood
male, calyx five-parted ; corolla none; that joins the two cheeks of the carriage,
female, calyx one-leafed, entire, gaping and is fastened by a loop and bolt to the
CANNON
a
round knob at the end of the cannon, putting many small balls together so as
called the cascabel. As there is great to fit the bore of the piece ; they are
force in the powder when ignited by usually netted to a round piece of board.
means of a match applied to the vent, Cannister is nothing more than a number
which communicates with the end of the of still smaller balls put into a tin cannis-
chace, the quantity of metal must, of ne- ter; these are intended for close attacks,
cessity, be augmented about the breech, especially among cavalry, or large bodies
or hinder parts. Thus all cannons are of infantry : round shot being more suit-
fortified in that part; but battering can- ed to distant operations. Ship guns, and
nons are generally double-fortified, by an such others as are intended to be station-
additional quantity of metal, in conse- ary, are placed on low substantial car-
quence of the large charges of powder riages, moving on four small trucks; these
given, for the purpose of adding to the are elevated by means of wedges called
impetus or force of the shot's action on quoins. Some are discharged by locks,
the place to be battered.
on the same principles as those for mus-
Battering-pieces are generally from 24 quets; and for ship use are certainly the
to 42 pounders, sometimes 18 pounders safest, and best adapted to a certainty of
are used, but their effect is feeble com- aim. Brass six-pounders often weigh so
pared with that of cannons of a larger little as 4cwt. but some of the double for-
calibre.
tified battering cannon amount to full 3
Cannon intended for field service are tons each.
mounted on a carriage, with two stout
A short kind of cannon called a car-
wheels about four feet and a half high, ronade is much in naval use : we have
on a solid wooden, or an iron axle, and some that throw balls of near 70lbs. :
suspended by their trunnions on the two their purpose is chiefly for close attacks,
cheeks, which are as near to each other when their effects are dreadful: these
as the size of the cannon will permit, slide in grooves on a bed carriage. The
tapering down a little towards the ground pieces used for throwing shells, which
at a sufficient angle to oppose the recoil, are hollow balls filled with powder that
or run backward, made by every piece explode when the fuse burns into them,
when fired. The cheeks diverge a little, are howitzers and mortars ; the former
and are kept very firm in their places by are mounted in every respect similar to
means of cross pieces called transoms, cannon, but are very short and chamber-
which are vertical in and secured by ed. These throw either shells or grape
strong bolts. The cannon is turned about with great effect. The mortar is always
to any direction by means of a hand- fired at an elevation of 45 degrees from
spike which fixes into the train. The the horizon, and its range, i.e. the dis-
piece is transported by raising its train, tance at which the shell is to fall, is de-
and passing the tail-transom, which is termined by putting a greater or less
perforated for the purpose, on to a very charge of powder into the chamber.
substantial iron gudgeon firmly fixed on Shells for mortars sometimes measure a
the centre of an axle, which has two diameter of 21 inches, but those for how-
wheels rather lower than those of the itzers rarely exceed 11 inches, and ge-
carriage. This appendage is called a lim- nerally are from 4to 83, or thereabouts.
ber, and carries a stout water-proof box The point blank range of a cannon is that
full of ammunition of various descriptions, distance at which the shot cuts a line,
for the service of the cannon; it has supposed to be drawn parallel with the
likewise a pole, or shafts, whereby horses surface of earth, at a distance equal to
are attached, and the piece thus travels the height of the chace of the cannon
with tolerable ease ; the limber wheels when horizontal
. No shot goes in a right
traversing under the cheeks of the car- line from the muzzle to the object, but
riage.
forms a curve often many yards above
The modes of charging cannon are va- the horizontal line. The point blank dis-
rious, but in general with cartridges, over tance is according to the calibre of the
which wads of spun yarn are well ram- piece, and the proportion of powder, and
med; then the shot, either round or its quality, used for a charge; we may,
grape; and, lastly, a second wad ram- however, state the ranges to be from 400
med home: but in field service, where to 1000 yards.
grape or cannister shot are used, the Mortars will throw shells more than a
whole charge is sometimes made to fit in mile. The carriage of a mortar is a large
immediately after the cartridge, which is horizontal bed of timber, strongly clamp-
invariably made of serge, shalloon, or ed together, and placed on loose sand ; it
other woollen stuff. Grape is made by should be perfectly level. The breech
CAN
CAN
of a mortar is round, and rests in a hol. church. Originally, canons were only
low made in the centre of the bed ; its priests, or inferior ecclesiastics, who liv.
muzzle is held up by a curved iron stay, ed in community, residing near the cathe-
which being acted upon by a screw gives dral church to assist the bishop, depend-
the mortar more or less elevation: the ing entirely on his will, supported by the
trunnions are close to the breech, and revenues of his bishopric, and living in
move upon the bed.
the same house as his domestics or coun-
We shall conclude this article with a sellors, &c. By degrees, these commu-
.
short description of the method of can- nities of priests, shaking off their de-
non boring
pendence, formed separate bodies; in
Fig. 1. Plate Cannon, &c. is an eleva- time they freed themselves from their
tion of a machine for boring cannon; and rules, and at length ceased to live in a
fig. 2. is a plan of it; the same references community. It is maintained that the col-
are used in both figures : A is a cast iron leges of canons, which have been intro-
frame to support the bearing for an iron duced into each cathedral, were not in
shaft, B, turned by a steam engine or the ancient church, but are of modern
water wheel, this has a square box on its appointment.
end, into which a square knob cast on CANON, in an ecclesiastical sense, a law,
the end of the gun is fitted by screws; rule, or regulation of the policy and dis-
the mouth of the gun is supported on an cipline of a church, made by councils,
iron frame, D, sliding on the two bed either general, national, or provincial.
beams, E, E, and can be fixed at any place Canon of scripture, a catalogue or list
by screws; it has also screws to elevate of the inspired writings, or such books of
or depress the brass which forms the the bible as are called canonical ; because
bearing for the gun: F is the boring bar they are in the number of those books
fastened at its end to a large block, G, which are looked upon as sacred, in op-
running on the bed beams with small position to those which are either not ac-
wheels : 1 is a rack fastened by its ends knowledged as divine books, or are re-
to puppets wedged on the bed, passing jected as heretical and spurious, and are
through the block G: a pinion which called apocryphal. This canon may be
works in this rack, is attached to the considered as Jewish and Christian, with
block G, and its spindle has a wheel, I, respect to the sacred writings acknow-
with pins projecting from it: K is a bar ledged as such by the Jews, and those ad-
going between these pins, and carrying a mitted by the Christians.
weight which turns the pinion, and forces Canon, in music, a short composition
the block G, and the boring bar, towards of two or more parts, in which one leads,
the gun. When the weight reaches the and the other follows: or it is a line of
ground it must be lifted up, and its lever, any length, shewing, by its divisions, how
K, hooked between two fresh pins of the musical intervals are distinguished, ac-
wheel.
cording to the ratios, or proportions, that
Cannon, with letter-founders and prin- the sounds terminating the intervals,
ters, a large sized letter distinguished by bear one to another, when considered ac-
this name.
cording to their degree of being acute or
CANNONADE, in marine affairs, is the grave.
application of artillery to the purposes of Canon, in arithmetic, algebra, &c. is a
naval war, or, the direction of its efforts rule to solve all things of the same nature
against some distant objects intended to with the present inquiry; thus, every
last
be seized or destroyed, as a ship, battery, step of an equation in algebra is such a
fortress, &c.
canon; and, if turned into words, is a
CANNULA, in surgery, a tube made of rule to solve all questions of the same
different metals, principally of silver and nature with that proposed. Tables of
lead, but sometimes of iron.
logarithms, artificial sines and tangents,
CANOE, a small boat, made of the are called likewise by the name of canon.
trunk of a tree, bored hollow; and some- Canon law, a collection of ecclesiasti-
times also of pieces of bark, sewed toge- cal laws, serving as the rule and measure
ther. It is used by the natives of Ame- of church government.
rica to go a fishing in the sea, or upon CANONS of the apostles, a collection of
some other expedition, either by sea, or ecclesiastical laws, which, though very
upon the rivers and lakes.
ancient, were not left us by the apostles.
CANON, commonly called prebendary, It is true, they were sometimes called
a person who possesses a prebend, or re- apostolic canons; but this means no more
venue allotted for the performance of di- than that they were made by bishops, who
vine service in a cathedral or collegiate lived soon after the apostles, and were
CAN
CAN
MACY.
called apostolical men. They consist of pours of hot vinegar, and dried in the
regulations, which agree with the disci- sun, and kept in boxes. When dried,
pline of the second and third centuries: they are so light, that fifty of them will
the Greeks generally count eighty-five, scarcely weigh a dram. The Sicilian
but the Latins receive only fifty, nor do cantharides, and particularly those of
they observe all these.
Etna, are reckoned better than those of
CANONICAL, something belonging Spain. See MATERIA Medica and PAAR-
to, or partaking of the nature of a canon :
thus we read of canonical obedience, CANTHARIS, in natural history, a ge-
which is that paid by the inferior clergy nus of insects of the order Coleoptera
to their superiors, agreeably to the canon Generic character; antennæ filiform;
law.
thorax mostly margined, shorter than the
CANOPUS, in astronomy, a star of head; shells flexile; sides of the abdo-
the first magnitude in the rudder of Ar- men edged with folded papillæ. There
go, a constellation of the southern hemis- are more than a hundred species enume-
phere.
rated, which are separated into three di-
CANSIERA, in botany, a genus of the visions; A. four feelers, hatchet-shaped :
Tetrandria Monogynia class and order. B. feelers filiform, the last joint setace-
Calyx ventricose, four-toothed; no co- ous: C. fore-feelers projecting, the last
rolla ; nectary four-leaved, surrounding joint but one with a large ovate cleft ap-
the base of the germ; berry one-celled, pendage, the last joint ovate, acute. This
one-seeded, superior. One species, C. division is denominated Lymexylon. The
scandens, native of India.
whole genus, excepting the last division,
CANTATA, in music, a song or com- which in the grub and perfect state feeds
position, intermixed with recitatives, airs, on green wood, is most rapacious, prey-
and different movements, chiefly intend- ing on other insects, and even on its own
ed for a single voice, with a thorough tribe : C. bipustulata is a very beautiful
base, though sometimes for other instru- insect, of a slender and cylindric shape ;
ments. The cantata, when performed its colour is a very dark, but elegant,
with judgment, has something in it very gilded green, with the tips of the wing-
agreeable; the variety of the movements shells red, and on each side the thorax,
not clogging the ear, like other compo- a little below the setting on the wing-
sitions. It was first used in Italy, then in shells, is a triple vesicle, of a bright-red
France, whence it passed to us.
colour, extensile or retractile at the plea-
CANTEEN, a small vessel made of tin- sure of the insect, and which, if accurate-
plate or wood, in which soldiers, when ly examined by the microscope, will
ge-
on their march, or in the field, carry their nerally be found to exhibit an alternate
liquor. They are cylindrical, like barrels, inflation and contraction, resembling
7 inches diameter, and about four inches that of the lungs in the larger animals.
deep, holding three pints.
This species is found during the summer
CANTHAŘIDES, in the Materia Me- on various plants, and particularly on net-
dica, are insects used to raise blisters. tles.
They differ in their size, shape, and co- CANTHIUM, in botany, a genus of the
lour; the largest are about an inch long. Tetrandria Monogynia class and order.
Some are of a pure azure colour, others Calyx four-toothed, superior ; corolla
of that of pure gold, and others again one-petalled, with a short inflated tube,
have a mixture of gold and azure colours, and four-parted border; the mouth
all brilliant and extremely beautiful. downy; drupe two-celled, with a one-
These insects are more common in hot celled nut in each. One species, C. par-
countries, though they are occasionally viflorum, found in Coromandel.
to be met with in all parts of Europe, at CANTICLES, or the Song of Songs, in
some seasons of the year ; particularly biblical history, a Hebrew mode of ex-
among wheat and on meadows, upon the pression, to denote a song superlatively
leaves of the ash, the poplar, the willow, excellent in style and sentiment. Of this
&c. Such numbers of these insects are ancient poem the author is asserted, by
sometimes together in the air, that they the unanimous voice of antiquity, to have
appear like swarms of bees; they have been Solomon; and this tradition is cor.
likewise a very disagreeable smell, which roborated by many internal marks of au-
is a guide for those who make it their thenticity. In the very first verse it is
business to catch them. Those who col- said to belong to Solomon : he is the sub-
lect them, tie them in a bag or piece of ject of the piece, and the principal actor
linen cloth, that has been well worn, up- in the conduct of it. Though the Song
on which they are killed with the va- of Songs comes down to us recommended
VOL. II.
K
CANTICLES.
by the voice of antiquity, its divine au- rupt for the wildest flights of the Orien-
thority has been called in question by tial Muse, and evidently imply a variety
many writers in modern days. Whiston of openings and transitions; while as a
thinks it a dissolute loose song, composed regular drama, it is deficient in every re-
by Solomon when advanced in years, quisite that could give it such a classifi-
and degenerate in practice; and that cation.” It has been also regarded as a
therefore it ought to be excluded from parable in the form of a drama, in proof of
the canon of the sacred books. Taken which, we are told : First, when closely
indeed in its primary and literal sense, it examined, it will appear to possess all the
must be considered as describing a royal essential qualities of a drama. The mar-
marriage, and may therefore be denomi- riage of Solomon with the daughter of
nated an epithalamium, or hymeneal Pharaoh, (as related 1 Kings i. 1,) a poli-
song. The celebrated Michaelis sup- tical event which, from the personages
posed that the object of it was, to teach concerned in it, would be interesting to
God's approbation of marriage. But the the Jewish nation, was, as such, proper
ideas of Harmer appear much more ra-
to furnish the fable of it. The writer is
tional ; who, though unwilling to give it entirely left behind the curtain, and the
the name of epithalamium, thinks it a whole of the composition is brought for-
marriage song, to be explained by com- ward before the reader in parts between
positions of a similar nature in eastern the speakers. The dramatis persone are
countries. “What can be more likely,” Solomon, the bride, her attendants, and
says he, "to lead us into the literal sense the virgins of Jerusalem. It should be
of an ancient nuptial poem, than the com- observed, though the fact has indeed
paring it with similar modern produc- been overlooked by the critics, that all
tions of the East, along with antique Jew- advance is made by the lady herself. She
ish compositions of the same kind?” Bos. comes to his palace unfetched, and ap-
suet, Bishop of Meaux, was of opinion parently unsolicited. Finding him not
that this song was to be explained by the there, she goes in search of him, intreats
consideration, that the Jews were wont to be received into his embrace; and
to celebrate their nuptials for seven days when, without denying, he eludes her in-
together, distinguished from each other treaties, she pursues him in the ardour of
by different solemnities; and this notion her affection almost beyond the bounds
has been adopted by the author of "A of female delicacy and modesty. On the
new Translation of Solomon's Songs, with contrary, the royal spouse is cold at heart,
a Commentary and Annotations." The and distant, prone to recede, and to in-
principal objection to this opinion is, that trigue with his favourite concubines, but
the conduct of the poem does not admit anxious to conceal his indifference and in-
of such a distribution; and the distin- fidelity under laboured encomiums on the
guishing each day by some distinct cere- beauty of his spouse. The action is com-
mony is a mere supposition, unsupported plete, possessing a beginning, a middle,
by fact. The elegant and learned Bishop and an end, and composed of scenes, the
Lowth devotes two of his Prælectiones shifting of which, if observed by a modern
to an examination of this poem, and he reader, as by an ancient spectator, would
determines it, with Bossuet, to be a sacred have preserved the conduct of the piece
drama, though deficient in some of the uniform and consistent, The plot, it
essential requisites of dramatic compo- must be allowed, is very simple, the in-
sition. Sir W. Jones, from his know- tricacies of it arising only from those un-
ledge of Eastern poetry, was led to com- foreseen impediments which were thrown
pare some parts of it with similar pro- by rival beauties in the way of the royal
ductions among the Arabians, and de- bride, and which threatened to deprive her
livers it as his opinion, that it is to be of the object of her attachment. The catas-
classed with the Hebrew idyls.
trophe is the triumph of honorable love over
Supported by the high authority of this the allurements of seduction, and the secu-
illustrious scholar, Mr. M. Good, in an rityof virtuous enjoyment over the torments
elegant metrical version with which he of jealousy and illicit fruition. Secondly,
has favoured the public, considers the considered as a parable; like other par-
Song of Songs as forming not one con- ables, while it conveys a literal sense in-
tinued and individual poem, but a series teresting and appropriate, it conveys like-
of poems, each distinct and independent wise a religious lesson of supreme impor-
of the other; and he denominates them tance. Now the method of decyphering
sacred idyls. “The Song of Songs,” he a fable or parable is, not by seeking un-
says, “ cannot be one connected epitha- der the veil of the allegory certain max-
lainium, since the transitions are too ab. ims of recondite wisdom, which bear no
CAN
CAN
resemblance to the literal sense, but by followed by the offer of the use of their
facts generally known and fully under- libraries. In the library of one of these
stood nor is the interpretation to be gentlemen he found Martin's Philosophi-
deemed true, unless, as in the case of cal Grammar, which was the first book
the parable of Nathan, or that of the that gave him a taste for natural philoso-
sower, there subsists an obvious and phy. In the possession of another gen-
characteristic analogy between the sim- ileman he saw a pair of globes; a cir-
ple and the metaphorical acceptation. cumstance that afforded him great plea-
On this principle, it is apprehended that, sure, from the great ease with which he
in the parable of the Canticles, the bride could resolve those problems that he had
means the Jewish religion, and the royal hitherto been accustomed to compute.
spouse the Jewish nation, represented Among other persons with whom he
under the name and person of their became acquainted in early life was Dr.
ruler and chief; and the object of it is Henry Miles, of Tooting, who perceiving
to delineate, under images borrowed that young Canton possessed abilities too
from the connubial state, the conduct promising to be confined within the
of the Israelites at large, and that of narrow limits of a country town, prevailed
Solomon in particular, in respect of on his father to permit him to come up to
their knowledge and worship of Jelšovah. London. Accordingly he arrived at the
In proof of this position, it would be neces- metropolis the 4th of March 1737, and
sary to enter farther into the subject than resided with Dr. Miles at Tooting till the
our limits will allow: the reader is there. 6th of May following, when he articled
fore referred, for a justification of this himself, for the term of five years, as a
theory, to Rees's New Cyclopedia. clerk to Mr. Samuel Watkins, master
CANTO, in music, the treble, or, at of the academy in Spital Square. In
least, the higher part of a piece.
this situation his ingenuity, diligence, and
CANTON (John), in biography, an prudence, were so distinguished, that on
ingenious natural philosopher, was born the expiration of his clerkship, in May,
at Stroud, in Gloucestershire, in 1718; 1742, he was taken into partnership with
and was placed when young, under the Mr. Watkins for three years; which gen-
care of Mr Davis, an able mathematician tleman he afterwards succeeded in the
of that place, with whom he had learned school, and there continued during the
both vulgar and decimal arithmetic before remainder of his life
he was quite nine years of age. He next Towards the end of 1745, electricity re-
proceeded to the higher parts of the ceived a great improvement by the dis-
mathematics, and particularly to algebra covery of the famous Leyden phial. This
and astronomy, in which he had made a event turned the thoughts of most of the
considerable progress, when his father philosophers of Europe to that branch of
took him from school, and set him to natural philosophy; and our author, who
learn his own business, which was that of was one of the first to repeat and to pur-
a broad-cloth weaver. All his leisure sue the experiment, found his endeavours
time was devoted to the assiduous culti- rewarded by many notable discoveries.
vation of astronomical science; by which Towards the end of 1749, he was en-
he was soon able to calculate eclipses, and gaged with his friend, the late ingenious
to construct various kinds of sun-dials, Benjamin Robins, in making experiments
even at times when he ought to have slept, to determine the height to which rockets
being done without the knowledge and may be made to ascend, and at what dis-
consent of his father, who feared that such tance their light may be seen. In 1750
studies might injure his health. It was was read at the Royal Society, Mr. Can-
during this prohibition, and at these hours, ton's “ Method of making Artificial Mag-
that he computed, and cut upon stone, nets, without the use of, and yet far supe-
with no better an instrument than a com- rior to, any natural ones.'
rior to, any natural ones." This paper
mon knife, the lines of a large upright procured him the honour of being elected
sun-dial, on which, beside the hour of the a member of the Society, and the present
day, were shewn the sun's rising, his place of their gold medal. The same year he
in the ecliptic, and some other particulars. was complimented with the degree of A,
When this was finished, and made known M. by the University of Aberdeen. And
to his father, he permitted it to be placed in 1751 he was chosen one of the council
against the front of his house, where it ex- of the Royal Society; an honour which
cited the admiration of several neigh- was twice repeated afterwards.
bouring gentlemen, and introduced young In 1752, Mr Canton was so fortunate
Canton to their acquaintance, which was as to be the first person in England who,
CAN
CAO
some
by attracting the electric fire from the winged. There are four species, natives
,
clouds during a thunder-storm, verified of America
Dr Franklin's hypothesis of the similari- CANVASS, in commerce, a very clear
ty of lightning and electricity. Next year uobleached cloth of hemp, or fax, wove
his paper entitled “ Electrical Experi- very regularly in little squares. It is
ments, with an Attempt to account for used for working tapestry with the
their several Phenomena," was read at needle, by passing the threads of gold,
the Royal Society. In the same paper silver, silk, or wool, through the inter-
Mr Canton mentioned his having discov: vals or squares. This also is the name
ered, by many experiments, that some of a coarse cloth of hemp, unbleached,
clouds were in a positive, and some in somewhat clear, which serves to cover
a negative state of electricity : a dis- womens' stays, also to stiffen mens'
covery which was also made by Dr. clothes,
and to make
other
Franklin in America much about the of their wearing apparel, &c. It is like-
same time. Tbis circumstance, together wise the name of a very coarse cloth
with our author's constant defence of made of hemp, unbleached, serving to
the doctor's hypothesis, induced that make towels, and answering other do-
excellent philosopher, on his arrival in mestic purposes. It is also used to
England, to pay Mr Canton a visit, and make sails for shipping, &c.
gave rise to a friendship which ever after
a
CAOUTCHOUC, or, as it is usually,
continued between them. Mr. Canton though improperly named, elastic gum,
was a contributor to the Philosophical is a vegetable matter, which in several
Transactions, and among many other of its physical qualities, as well as in its
papers, he sent, in 1765, an account of chemical relations, has some similari-
the transit of Venus of the 6th of June ty to vegetable gluten, and which so
that year, observed in Spital Square. On far agrees both with it and albumen, as
the 16th of December, the same year, to approach in the nature of its compo.
another curious addition was made by sition to animal matter.
him to philosophical knowledge, in a The substance to which the name of
paper, entitled, “ Experiments to prove caoutchouc, or elastic gum, has been
that Water is not incompressible.” And more particularly given, was brought
”
on Nov. 8, the year following, were read from Spanish America, in the form of
before the Society, his farther “Experi. hollow spheres or bottles, in which state
ments and Observations on the Compres. it is still imported into Europe ; it was
sibility of Water, and some other Fluids.” evident, therefore, that it had undergone
These experiments are a complete refu. some artificial preparation. Condamine
tation of the famous Florentine experi. gave the information, that it is the inspis-
ment, which so many philosophers have sated juice of a tree belonging to the
mentioned as a proof of the incompres- family of the Euphorbia, which has since
sibility of water. For this communica- received the botanical name of Havea
tion he had a second time the Society's guianensis, or Havea caoutchouc. Inci-
prize gold medal. Mr. Canton was a sions are made in the bark of this tree :
contributor to many other publications, a milky juice exudes, which is collected.
particularly to the Gentleman's Magazine. It is applied in successive coatings over
In every period of his life he was an a mould of clay; is dried up by exposure
ardent promoter of useful science; and to the sun, and afterwards by being placed
while philosophy lives the name of Can- in the smoke from burning fuel , when
ton will not be forgotton. He died of dry, the clay mould is crushed, and the
the dropsy in his 54th year, on the 22d fragments extracted, and in this manner
of March, 1772.
the spherical bottles are formed. It has
CANTONING, in the military art, is
since been discovered, that caoutchouc is
the allotting distinct and separate quarters table; but that it is furnished likewise by
not exclusively the produce of this vege-
to each
where they are quartered being divided other plants, either perfectly the same, or
into so many cantons, or divisions, as it is obtained in large quantity from the
with very slight variations of properties.
there are regiments.
Jatropha elastica, a native likewise of
CANTUA, in botany, a genus of the different provinces of South America.
Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Fourcroy procured specimens of the
Calyx three to five-cleft; corolla funnel- juice of the caoutchouc, in the state in
form; stigma three-cleft; capsule three. which it exists previous to its inspissa-
celled, three-valved, many seeded; seeds tion, from the Island of Bourbon, from
CAO
CAP
Cayenne, and the Brazils, and examined particularly its indestructibility, and not
its properties. From experiments he con- being affected by air, water, or indeed
cluded, that caoutchouc exists ready form- the greater number of chemical agents.
ed in the juice of the tree, and is capable Tubes for conveying gases, and other
of being separated in the concrete form ; chemical instruments, are accordingly
but that a portion also exists not suffici prepared from it; and bougies, catheters,
ently perfect to be deposited with its and similar surgical instruments of ca-
elastic property; that it acquires this, to- outchouc, are much preferable to what
gether with its inspissation, from the ac- can be prepared from any other sub-
tion of oxygen; and that by this opera- stance.
tion, exposure to the atmosphere influ. The solution of caoutchouc in some of
ences the concretion of caoutchouc in the the oils has been used as a varnish, to
usual process in which it is brought to render flexible substances, as silk, &c.
the solid form.
impermeable to water or air. It has the
The purest caoutchouc Fourcroy sup- advantage of being perfectly flexible; but
poses to be that which separates sponta- it is long before it dries, and is liable to
neously from the juice in close vessels. It be softened by a very moderate heat.
is white, or of a slight fawn colour. The To render it less viscid, it is generally
properties of caoutchouc have been de- prepared from a mixture of volatile and
termined, principally, from the state in expressed oils.
which it exists in the elastic bottles which
CAP of maintenance, one of the rega-
are imported to Europe ; and in this state lia, or ornaments of state, belonging to
its properties do not seem to have under the kings of England, before whom it was
gone any important change, or to be dif- carried at the coronation, and other great
ferent from those of the pure caoutchouc. solemnities. Caps of maintenance are also
Its colour is a dark brown; its external carried before the mayors of several cities
surface is smooth; its internal texture
in England
is rough, and presents a fibrous appear-
It is of crimson velvet, faced with er-
ance. Its specific gravity is nearly the mine, and was formerly esteemed a badge
same with water, being from 9.3 to 10.0. and symbol of dignity, and suitable to a
It is inodorous, and is also destitute of prince of the blood, being worn by King
taste.
The most remarkable physical property down to Edward VI. but of late it has
Edward III. and succeeding sovereigns
of which this substance is possessed, and been granted to private families. It is
which eminently distinguishes it, is its frequently to be met with above the hel-
high elasticity. It can be stretched out
to a great length, and when the force met, instead of a wreath, under gentle-
mens' crests.
that has been applied to it is withdrawn,
CAP, in a ship, a square piece of tim-
it instantly returns to its former dimen- ber put over the head or upper end of
sions. Its pliancy is increased by heat, any mast, having a round hole to receive
while it is rendered more rigid by cold; the mast. By means of these caps the
and its softness, which is connected with
top-masts and top-gallant-masts are kept
the former quality, is so much increased steady and firm in the tressel-trees where
by warmth, that it can be moulded into their feet stand.
any form, and two parts newly cut may
even be pressed together, so as to be in- put over a touch-hole of a gun to keep
CAP of a gun, a piece of lead which is
timately united.
the priming from being wasted or spoiled.
Caoutchouc, exposed in a dry state to
CAPACITY, in a general sense, an ap-
a high temperature, softens, swells up,
and emits a fetid odour similar to that of titude or disposition to retain or hold any
animal substances : as the heat is in- thing.
creased, it melts into a viscid matter, and CAPACITY, in geometry, is the solid
remains in this state when cold. If heated contents of any body; also our hollow
sufficiently high it takes fire, and burns measures for wine, beer, corn, salt, &c.
with a vivid light and dense smoke : in are called measures of capacity.
the countries in which it is produced it CAPACITY, in the modern doctrine of
has been used for torches. It is perfectly heat, signifies the proportional capabi-
insoluble in water and alcohol, but is dis.lity of a given quantity of any substance
solved in ether.
to absorb and retain caloric, or that dis-
This substance is capable of being ap- position or property by which various
plied to important purposes, from its bodies respectively require more or less
softness and flexibility, its elasticity, and of this fluid to superinduce any given
CAPACITY
--
temperature in a given mass. See CA- a few words. With regard to the first,
LORIC.
the general fact appears to be, that
That this capacity varies in different wherever a body is by any means con-
bodies, and even in the same substance densed, its capacity becomes diminished;
in different states, may be easily shewn. but that where it is dilated or enlarged
.
If the quantities of heat necessary to be in its bulk, it is proportionally increased.
added to or taken from bodies, in order Thus, if a thermometer be suspended in
to produce equal changes in their tem- a receiver, and a quantity of air con-
perature, were in all cases proportional densed into it, the mercury will rise; a
to their respective quantities of matter; part of the caloric which is contained
-as if, for example, it would require the in the air being, as it were, squeezed
same quantity of this fuid to heat a out by its compression, and forced into
pound of water, a pound of oil, or a the mercury in the bulb, whose tempera-
pound of mercury 20 degrees; this would, ture is consequently raised: if, however,
of course, indicate that their capacities on the contrary, the air be rarified, the
were equal : but if, on the contrary, it thermometer will indicate cold; the ca-
should be found that the same quantity pacity of the air in the receiver being
of caloric, applied to these various sub- increased by its rarefaction, and a por-
stances, should produce different changes tion of the caloric in the contiguous bo-
in the temperature of equal quantities, dies consequently absorbed, whereby
or equal changes in the temperature of their temperature is lowered and their
different quantities of each, it would fol- bulk diminished.
low, that their capacities for this fluid The second mode of changing the ca-
must proportionally vary. Let us con- pacities of bodies is by their chemical
ceive, that having three several pounds combination ; and, perhaps, there is no
of water at the temperature of 110° of combination unaccompanied by such a
Fahrenheit's thermometer in separate change. In some instances this takes
vessels, there be added to the first a place in a very remarkable degree, and
a
quantity of water at 50°; to the second it is from hence that we derive the effects
a quantity of spermaceti oil, also at 50°; of calorific and frigorific mixtures. If,
and to the third a quantity of mercury for example, a quantity of sulphuric acid,
at the like temperature of 50°; and that diluted with an equal measure of water,
each of the mixtures be stirred together, be poured on a quantity of crystals of
and the addition continued, till they have Glauber's salt, recently powdered, the
all assumed throughout a common tem- capacity of the compound is considerably
perature of 70°. Now, as each of the greater than that of its component ingre-
pounds of water has, in this case, been dients ;, it becomes, therefore, strongly
deprived of an equal quantity of caloric, absorbent of caloric, which it attracts
(viz. as much as was necessary to raise from the bodies in its vicinity, and a quan.
its temperature 40°, or from 700 to 110°, tity of water in a phial placed in the mix-
,
the absolute capacities of the whole of ture will be soon frozen.
the water, the oil, and the mercury,
The third case of change of capacity,
which have been added, must, of course, by the action of heat itself, is, perhaps,
be equal, whatever be the quantity of productive of more important effects in
each ; each of them having absorbed an nature than either of the other two. The
equal quantity of heat. On comparing capacities of all bodies are increased in
the quantities of these latter substances, some proportion to the dilatation of their
however, it will be found that we have bulk, and the disaggregation of their
employed in the experiment about two constituent particles, as well by the
pounds of water at 50°, four pounds of agency of caloric as by any other cause.
oil, and nearly sixty pounds of mercury, Hence, when a solid is fused, or a liquid
each of which has been heated 20°; so resolved into vapour, cold is produced
that it requires as much caloric to heat by the augmentation of its capacity; and,
one pound of water 20°, as to produce e converso, when steam is condensed, or
the same effect on two of oil, or 30 of congelation takes place, heat is developed
mercury; and their relative capacities by its diminution. Thus, if equal quan-
are therefore inversely in this proportion. tities of pounded ice and water, each at
A change of capacity in the same body 32° of Fahrenheit, be exposed to heat in
is producible in three ways : by mecha- two similar vessels in a water-bath, the
nical compression or dilatation, by che- water will be heated to 178° before the
mical combination, or by the action of ice is all dissolved, the water produced
beat itself, of each of which we shall say from which will, of course, still remain
9
CAP
CAP
at 32°, so that the increase of capacity sons for the army are sometimes a great
in the ice, during its solution, is sufficient bear's skin, and those for stables are of
to enable it to absorb, without any eleva- single buckram in summer and of cloth in
tion of its temperature, as much caloric the winter.
as has raised the temperature of an equal CAPELLA, in astronomy, a bright fix-
quantity of water 146°; and the like quan- ed star of the first magnitude, in the left
tity is also again emitted on its becoming shoulder of the constellation Auriga. It
again congealed. If a quantity of water is in the Britannic Catalogue the four-
be exposed without agitation to a degree teenth in order of that constellation. Its
of cold equal to 24° or 25°, it will fre- longitude is 17° 31' 41", its latitude 22°
quently acquire this temperature without 51' 47".
freezing ; but as soon as congelation be- CAPER. See CAPPARIS,
gins, the thermometer will immediately CAPIAS, is a writ of two sorts, one
rise to 32°, and the whole will remain at whereof is called capias ad respondendum,
that temperature till all the water is con- before judgment, where an original is
verted into ice.
sued out, &c. to take the defendant and
This latter change of capacity appears make him answer the plaintiff : and the
to be absolutely essential to the well-be- other a writ of execution, after judgment,
ing of the universe, as affording a con- being of divers kinds.
stant modification of the action of heat CAPIAS ad respondendum, is a writ com-
and cold, whose effects would otherwise manding the sheriff to take the body of
be inordinate. If this did not take place, the defendant if he may be found in his
the whole of a mass of water which was bailiwic or county, and him safely to keep,
exposed to a temperature above the boil- so that he may have him in court on the
ing point would be instantly dissipated in day of the return to answer to the plain-
vapour with explosion. The fact, how- tiff of a plea of debt, or trespass, or the
ever, is, that the capacity of those por- like, as the case may be. And if the
tions of the liquid, which
are successively sheriff return that he cannot be found,
resolved into a vapour, becomes thereby then there issues another writ, called an
sufficiently augmented to enable them to alias capias ; and after that another, call-
absorb the superabundent caloric as fast ed pluries capias; and if upon none of these
| 1
as it is communicated : and it is for this he can be found, then he may be pro-
reason that boiling water in an open ves- ceeded against unto outlawry. But all
sel never reaches a higher temperature this being only to compel an appearance,
than 212°. The polar ices would all in- after the defendant hath appeared, the
stantaneously dissolve, whenever the effect of these writs is taken off, and the
temperature of the circumambient air defendant shall be put to answer, unless
was above 32°, if it were not that each it be in cases where special bail is re-
particle absorbs a quantity of caloric in quired, and there the defendant is actual-
its solution, and thereby generates a de- ly to be taken into custody.
gree of cold, which arrests and regulates Capias ad satisfaciendum, is a writ di-
the progress of the thaw; and the con- rected to the sheriff, commanding him to
verse of this takes place in congelation, take the body of the defendant and him
which is in its turn moderated by the heat safely to keep, so that he may have his
developed in consequence of the dimi- body in court at the return of the writ,
nution of capacity, which takes place in to make the plaintiff satisfaction for his
the water during its transition to a solid demand; otherwise he is to remain in
state.
custody till he do. When a man is once
CAPACITY, in law, the ability of a man, taken in execution upon this writ, no
or body politic, to give or take lands, or other process can be sued out against his
other things, or sue actions.
lands or goods. But if a defendant die
Our law allows the king two capacities, whilst charged in execution upon this
a natural and a political; in the first he may writ, the plaintiff may, after his death,
purchase lands to him and his heirs; in sue out new executions against his lands,
the latter to him and his successors. The goods, or chattles.
clergy have the like.
Capias utlegatum, is a writ that lies
CAPARASON, or horse-cloth, a sort against a person that is outlawed in any
of cover for a horse. For led horses it is action, whereby the sheriff is command-
commonly made of linen cloth, bordered ed to apprehend the body of the party
round with woollen, and enriched with outlawed, and keep him in safe custody
the arms of the master upon the middle, till the day of the return of the writ, and
which covers the croupe, and with two then present him to the court, there to
ciphers on the two sides. The capara- be dealt with for his contempt. But this
CAP
CAP
а
being only for want of appearance, if he heights to which the fluids will rise in
shall afterwards appear, the outlawry is different tubes will be inversely as the
most commonly reversed,
diameters.
Capias in withernam, is a writ directed Some, however, doubt whether the
to the sheriff, in case where a distress is law holds throughout, of the ascent of
carried out of the county, or concealed the fluid being always higher as the tube
by the distrainer, so that the sheriff can- is smaller. Dr. Hook's experiments, with
not make deliverance of the goods upon tubes almost as fine as cobwebs, seein to
a replevin, commanding him to take so shew the contrary. The water in these,
many of the distrainer's own goods, by he observes, did not rise so high as one
way of reprisal, instead of the other that would have expected. The highest he
are so concealed.
ever found was at 21 inches above the
CAPILLARY tubes, in physics, little level of the water in the basin, which is
pipes, whose canals are extremely nar- much short of what it ought to have been
row, their diameter being only a half, by the law above-mentioned.
third, or fourth of a line.
CAPILLARY vessels, in anatomy, the
The ascent of water, &c. in capillary smallest and extreme parts of the veins
tubes, is a phenomenon that has long em- and arteries.
barrassed philosophers; for let one end CAPITAL, the head, chief, or princi-
of a glass tube, open at both ends, be im- pal of a thing. Thus,
merged in water, and the liquor within CAPITAL, in geography, denotes the
the tube will rise to some sensible height principal city of a kingdom, province,
above the external surface: or if two or or state ; as London is the capital of
more tubes are immerged in the same Britain.
fluid, one of them a capillary one, the CAPITAL, among merchants, traders,
other of a large bore, the fluid will as- and bankers, signifies the sum of money
cend higher in the capillary tube than in which individuals bring to make up the
the other, and this in the reciprocal ratio common stock of a partnership when it
of the diameters of the tubes.
is first formed. It is also said of the
In order to account for this phenome- stock which a merchant at first puts into
non, it will be necessaryfirst to premise that trade for his account. It signifies like-
there is a greater attraction between the wise the fund of a trading company, or
particles of glass and water than there corporation, in which sense the word
is between the particles of water them- stock is generally added to it: thus, we
selves: this appears plain from experience, say, the capital stock of the bank, &c.-
which proves the attractive power in the The word capital is opposed to that of
surface of glass to be very strong; whence profit or gain, though the profit often
it is easy to conceive how sensibly such a increases the capital, and becomes itself
power must act on the surface of a fluid, a part of it.
not viscid, as water contained within the CAPITAL crime, such a one as subjects
small cavity or bore of a glass tube ; as the criminal to capital punishment, that
also that it will be in proportion stronger is, the loss of life.
as the diameter of the bore is smaller ; CAPITAL, in architecture, the upper-
for that the efficacy of the power follows most part of a column or pilaster, serving
the inverse proportion of the diameter is as the head or crowning, and placed im-
evident from hence, that only such par- mediately over the shaft, and under the
ticles as are in contact with the fluid, and entablature.
these immediately above the surface, can The capital is the principal part of an
affect it. Now these particles form a order of columns or pilasters. It is of a
periphery contiguous to the surface, the different form in the different orders,
upper part of which attracts and raises and is that which chiefly distinguishes
the surface, and the lower part, which is and characterizes the orders. Such of
in contact with it, supports and holds these as have no ornaments, as the Tus-
it up, so that neither the thickness nor can and Doric, are called capitals of
length of the tube avails any thing, only mouldings; and the rest, which have
the said periphery of particles, which is leaves and other ornaments, capitals of
always proportional to the diameter of sculptures.
the bore: the quantity of the fluid raised CAPITAL, Tuscan, consists of three mem-
will therefore be as the surface of the bers, viz. an abacus, under this an ovolo
bore which it fills, that is, as the diameter; or quarter round, and under that a neck
as the effect would not be otherwise pro- or colarino, terminating in an astragal or
portional to the cause, since the quanti- fillet, belonging to the shaft.
ties follow the ratio of the diameters, the CAPITAL, Doric, has its abacus plain,
a
CAP
CAP
and three annullets under the ovolo, or from whence all tenures have their main
echinus.
original. The latter was of a particular
CAPITAL, Ionic, that which is distin- subject, so called, because he was the
guished by volutes and ovolos. The first that granted the land in such man-
ovolo is adorned with eggs and darts. ner, and hence he was styled “capitalis
CAPITAL, Corinthian, is the richest of dominus, and caput terræ illius.” This
all, being adorned with a double row of tenure is now abolished, and, with others,
leaves, with eight large and as many turned into common socage.
small volutes, situated round a body, CAPITULATION, in military affairs,
which by some is called campana, or a treaty made between the garrison or
bell, and by others tambour, or capsule. inhabitants of a place besieged, and the
CAPITAL, composite, that which has the besiegers, for the delivering up the place
double row of leaves of the Corinthian, on certain conditions.
and the volutes of the Ionic capital.
The most honorable and ordinary
CAPITALS, among printers, large or terms of capitulation are, to march out
initial letters, in which titles are com- at the breach, with arms and baggage,
posed.
drums beating, colours flying, a match
The English printers some years ago lighted at both ends, and some pieces of
made it a rule to begin almost every sub- cannon, waggons, and convoys for their
stantive with a capital ; a custom not baggage, and for the sick and wounded.
more absurd than that of using no capi- CAPPARIS, in botany, English caper-
tals at all.
bush, a genus of the Polyandria Monogy-
Capitals, however, may very properly nia class and order. Natural order of
commence the first word of every book, Putamincæ. Capparides, Jussieu : Essen-
chapter, letter, note, or any other piece tial character: calyx four-leaved, coria-
of writing : the first word after a period, ceous; petals four; stamens long; berry
and, if the two sentences are totally inde- corticose, one-celled, pedicelled. There
pendent, after a note of interrogation or are twenty-five species. This genus con-
exclamation; but if a number of inter- sists of shrubs. The leaves are simple,
rogative or exclamatory sentences are in the berry-bearing sorts having fre-
thrown into one general group, or if the quently two spines at the base, but in
construction of the latter sentences de- those which bear pods commonly naked
pends on the former, all of them, exceptor bi-glandular. Flowers in a kind of
the first, may begin with a small letter: corymb, terminating: Some of the spe-
the appellations of the Deity: proper cies have a berry, others have a silique
names of persons, places, streets, moun- or pod for a fruit. C. spinosa, common
tains, rivers, ships: adjectives derived caperbush, is a low shrub, generally
from the proper names of places: the growing out of the joints of old walls,
first word of a quotation, introduced the fissures of rocks, and among rubbish.
after a colon, or when it is in a direct It grows wild in the southern countries
form; but when a quotation is introduc- of Europe, and in the Levant. Dr. Smith
ed obliquely after a comma, a capital is thinks it surprising that this beautiful
unnecessary: the first word of an exam- shrub, which is as common in the south
ple: every substantive and principal word of France as the bramble with us, should
in the titles of books: and the first word be almost unknown in our gardens,
of every line in poetry. The pronoun I, where it can scarcely be made to flower,
and the interjection o, are also written except in a stove with great care.
in capitals. Other words, beside the CAPRA, the goat, in natural history, a
preceding, may likewise begin with capi- genus of Mammalia, of the order Pecora
tals, when they are remarkably emphati- Generic character: horns hollow, com-
cal, or the principal subject of the com- pressed; rough, almost close at their
position. The ancient MSS. both Greek base, turned back; eight lower fore
and Latin, are written wholly in capitals. teeth ; no tusks; chin in the male beard-
CAPITATION, a tax or imposition ed. Of these there are three species,
raised on each person in consideration of which we shall attend particularly to
of his labour, industry, office, rank, &c. the C. hircus, or common goat. This
CAPITE, in law, an ancient tenure of animal is found domesticated in almost
land, which was held immediately of the every part of the globe, but was intro-
king, as of his crown, either by knight's duced into America, only on its discovery
service or socage. The tenure in capite by Europeans. In its internal structure
was of two kinds, the one principal and it extremely resembles sheep, but is far
general, the other special or subaltern. superior to them in alertness, sentiment,
The former was of the king, the fountain and intelligence. The goat approaches
VOL. II.
:
.
L
CAPRA.
-
man without difficulty, is won by kind- species, that of Angora is the most cu-,
ness, and capable of attachment. Con- rious. It is principally valued for its
finement is 'ill suited to his excursive long and exquisitely fine hair, which it
tendencies, and he is fond of retiring loses by a change of pasture from the
into solitude, and ranging on the cliffs of immediate vicinity of Angora, and which
the most rugged and barren mountains. the owners are incessantly assiduous in
He will not only climb and stand on the washing and combing, and otherwise
loftiest craggs, but sleep also on the promoting its growth and cleanliness. -
verge of the most steep and terrific pre- it is formed into camlets of the finest
cipices. He is capable of enduring both texture.
cold and heat, and the most ardent rays The Syrian goat is remarkable for its
of the sun produce in him no vertigo or pendulous ears, and is common in va-
sickness of any description; the violence rious parts of the East: the animals of
of storms causes him little or no incon- this variety are driven in flocks through
veniences, but he suffers somewhat from the Oriental towns every morning and
very rigorous cold. His organs are ex- evening, and each house-keeper sees
tremely supple, and his frame is robust drawn from them, before her door, as
and nervous. Almost all herbs are used much milk as she is in want of. See
by him for food, and few are noxious to Mammalia, Plate VI. fig. 6.
him. His favourite nourishment, how- The Chamois goat inhabits the most
ever, is derived from the tender branches elevated mountains of Europe, and feeds
and bark of trees and shrubs, from lichens on shrubs, roots, and herbs: its chase is
and hemlock. He is sprightly, roaming, extremely laborious and dangerous : its
and lascivious in the extreme; inconstant, sight and smell are both exquisite : it is
and capricious in his temper; and the particularly shy: its swiftness is also very
vivacity of his feelings is exhibited in a great, and it makes its way with speed
perpetual succession of rapid, abrupt, over the most pointed rocks, can mount
and sportive movements. He prefers or descend precipices with facility, and
barren heaths to luxuriant pastures, hang on steeps nearly perpendicular.---
avoids moist and marshy places, and Plate VI. fig. 5.
never flourishes but in mountainous, or C. Ibex, or the Ibex goat of Pennant.
at least elevated situations. The female This is considerably larger than the last
will allow itself to be sucked by the species: its blood was formerly deemed
young of various other animals, and a a specific in the materia medica for va-
foal which has lost its mother has been rious diseases: its strength and feeling
seen thus nourished by a goat, which in are extraordinary: it is found in the Car-
order to facilitate the process was placed pathian and Pyrennean mountains, in the
on a barrel. The attachment between Rhætian Alps, in Crete, and in Tartary.
the nurse and foal appeared strong and When hardly pressed it will throw itself
natural. The milk of the goat, con- from a vast height with little or no inju-
taining few oily particles, is much valued ry, contriving always to fall on its horns.
in medicine, and being easily curdled, is Plate IV. fig. 4.
formed into cheese of high estimation.- C. Caucasica, the Caucasan goat, in-
The celebrated Parmesan cheese is babits the most rugged rocks of mount
made of it.
Caucasus, and is, perhaps, superior in
The goats of Wales are generally vigour and agility to all that have been
white, and are both stronger and larger mentioned. A bezoar is sometimes found
than those of other hilly countries. Their in the stomach of this animal, as well
flesh is much used by the inhabitants, as in that of several other quadrupeds.
and often dried and salted, and substitut- Monardes states that he saw one of these
ed for bacon. The skins of kids are creatures leap from a high tower, and
much valued for gloves, and were for- having reached the ground upon his
merly employed in furniture, when paint- horns, immediately, without any wound,
ed with rich colours, of which they are dislocation, or contusion, rise on his feet.
particularly capable, and embellished CAPRARIA, in botany, goat-weed, a
with ornamental flowers and works of genus of the Didynamia Angiospermia
silver and gold.
class and order. Natural order of Per-
The extremely unpleasant odour at- sonatæ. Scrophulariæ, Jussieu : Essen-
tending these animals is supposed to be tial character, calyx five-parted : corol
beneficial, and horses appear so much bell-form, five-cleft, acute; capsules bi.
refreshed by it, that a goat is on this ac- valve, bilocular, many seeded. There are
count often kept in the stables of the seven species, of which C. biflora, shrub-
great of the many varieties of this by goat-weed, or sweet weed, is a shrub
CAP
CAP
seldom exceeding four feet in height; species, though Latham enumerates only
branches long and woody ; leaves oblong fifteen. The most curious and interest-
accuminate at both ends, an inch and ing are-
half long; peduncles one-flowered, slen- C. Europæus, or the European goat-
der; flowers without scent; calyx smooth; sucker. This is the only species met
corolla white; capsule furrowed on both with in Europe, in every part of which it
sides the length of the calyx : seeds may be found, though no where abun-
small. It is common in Jamaica, in all dantly, and it is never observed to unite
the Caribbees, and the neighbouring con- in companies. Being migratory, it arrives
tinent.
in England in May, and quits it in Sep-
CAPRICORN, in astronomy, one of the tember. It is a mortal enemy to various
twelve signs of the zodiac, represented insects, and particularly to cockchafers,
on globes in the form of a goat, and cha- six of which, besides four very large
racterized in books by this mark vs. See motlis, have been found in its stomach.
ASTRONOMY.
The glare of day is overpowering to its
CAPRICORN, tropic of, a lesser circle sight, which is clearest by twilight.
of the sphere, which is parallel to the During this, therefore, it is in quest of
equinoctial, and at 23° 30' distance from food, and in full activity. It is singular
it southwards.
for perching, not across a branch, as other
CAPRIFOLIA, the third order of the birds do, but length-wise : the female
eleventh class of Jussieu's natural system. lays her eggs on the ground instead of a
It has the following characters : calyx nest, apparently little anxious for their
one-leafed, superior, often calycled or maturity; though when disturbed she
bracteated at its base; corolla generally will move them it is said to a place ima-
monopetalous, either regular or irregular, gined by her to be more secure.
in a few instances polypetalous; petals C. Virginianus, or the Virginian goat-
united by a broad base ; stamens of a de- sucker. This bird arrives in Virginia in
finite number, often five, in the monope. April, and inbabits principally the moun-
talous genera always inserted into the tainous parts of that country. As the
corolla, and alternating with its segments; evening advances, it approaches the ha-
in the polypetalous ones sometimes placed bitations of man, and, fixing on a post
upon the pistil, alternating with the pe- or rail, utters many times one plaintive
tals, and sometimes fixed to the middle cry; and from the evening till the morn-
of each petal ; germ inferior ; style gene- ing this movement and cry are with short
rally single, sometimes none; stigma sin intervals repeated. Instead of pursuing
;
gle, or rarely three; fruit inferior, either insects always on the wing, it often leaps
a berry or a one or many-celled cap- up for them as they pass with the most
sule; each cell with one or many seeds; successful dexterity, falling back again
corculum of the seed in a large upper upon its perching place. Its flesh is va-
cavity of the large solid perisperm ; stem lued for food.
either a shrub or a tree, rarely herbace- CAPSICUM, in botany, English Guinea-
ous; leaves in most opposite, in a few pepper, a genus of the Pentandria Mono-
alternate ; stipules none.
gynia class and order. Natural order of
CAPRIMULGUS, the goatsueker, in Luridæ. Solanex, Jussieu. Essential cha-
natural history, a genus of birds of the racter : corolla rotated ; berry exsuc-
order Passeres. Generic character : bill cous. There are five species according
short and hooked at the end ; mouth to Martyn, but many botanists mention
extremely wide, with seven or more stiff sixteen, and others twenty. C. annuum,
bristles on the upper mandible ; tongue annual capsicum, or Guinea-pepper, is
entire at the end and small; tail of ten two feet high, upright, branched, leaves
feathers, and not forked ; legs short'; ovate lanceolate, smooth, and of a dark
toes united as far as the first joint by a green colour; flowers white, lateral, so-
membrane ; middle claw with a broad litary. The fruit is a berry, varying in
;
serrate edge.
size and shape, extremely smooth and
The birds of this genus, unless dis- shining on the outside, scarlet or yellow.
turbed, or in cloudy and gloomy wea. The beauty of the capsicum is in their
ther, seldom make their appearance by ripe fruit, forming a pretty contrast to
day, but by night are active and alert in their dark leaves and white flowers, mak-
the pursuit of insects, which constitute ing a beautiful appearance in the gardens
their food. The female deposits only when properly disposed, or when planted
two eggs, and on the bare ground. in pots for the decoration of courts.
There are according to Gmelin nineteen Most of the sorts of capsicum are na.
a
CAP
CAR
ers.
tives of both the Indies, but they are in apprehending the rebel, and putting
chiefly brought to Europe from Ameri- him in prison.
ca, where they abound in all the Carib- CAPTURE, a prize taken by a ship of
bee islands, and are greatly used in war at sea : vessels are looked upon as
sauces, whence the fruit is called Guinea- prizes, if they fight under any other stand
pepper. From the C. minimum is ob- ard than that of the state from which they
tained the Cayenne-pepper, so much used have their commissions, if they have no
in highly-seasoned cookery. See CAY- charter-party, invoice, or bill of lading
ENNE-PEPPER.
aboard; if loaded with effects belong-
CAPSTAN, or main-capstan, in a ship, ing to the king's enemies, or even contra-
a great piece of timber in the nature of band goods. Those of the king's subjects
a windlass, placed next behind the main recovered from the enemy after remain-
mast, its foot standing in a step on the ing twenty-four hours in their hands are
lower deck, and its head between the deemed lawful prizes if taken. In ships
upper deck; formed into several squares of war the prizes are to be divided among
with holes in them. Its use is to weigh the captors, i.e. officers, seamen, &c. as
the anchors, to hoist up or strike down his Majesty shall appoint by proclama.
top-masts, to heave any weighty matter, tion; but among privateers the division is
or to strain any rope that requireth a according to agreement among the own-
main force.
See PRIZE
CAPSTAN-bars, the pieces of wood CAPURA, in botany, a genus of the
that are put into the capstan holes, to Hexandria Monogynia class and order.
heave up any thing of weight into the ship. Essential character ; calyx none; corolla
CAPSTAN, pawl of a, a short piece of six-cleft ; stamina within the tube; germ
iron made fast to the deck, and resting superior ; stigma globular; pericarp ber-
upon the whelps to keep the capstan ry. There is but one species; viz. C. pur-
from recoiling, which is of dangerous con- purata, native of the East Indies.
sequence.
CAPUT Draconis, the Dragon's head,
CAPSTAN, whelps of a, are short pieces in astronomy, the ascending node of the
of wood made fast to it, to keep the ca- moon. See Node. Caput Draconis is
ble from coming too nigh in turning it also a star of the first magnitude, in the
about.
head of the constellation Draco.
CAPSULE, among botanists, a species CAPUT mortuum, in chemistry, that
of pericarpium, or seed-vessel, composed thick dry matter which remains after dis-
of several dry elastic valves, which usu- tillation of any thing, but of minerals es-
ally burst open at the points when the pecially. These residues were formerly
seeds are ripe: it differs from a pod in thrown away as of no value. Glauber
being roundish and short. This kind of was the first person who examined them
pericarpium sometimes contains one cell with minuteness, and in the research he
or cavity, sometimes more: in the first discovered the sulphate of soda, then
case it is called unilocular, as it is bilocu- named, after himself, Glauber's salt. This
lar, trilocular, &c. when it contains two, he obtained in the caput mortuum re-
three, &c. cells or cavities.
maining after the distillation of muri-
CAPTION, in law, is where a commis- atic acid from common salt and green
sion is executed, and the commissioners vitriol.
subscribe their names to a certificate, de-CARABINE, a fire-arm, shorter than a
claring when and where the commission musket, carrying a ball of twenty-four
was executed. It relates chiefly to com- in the pound, borne by the light
missions, to take answers in chancery, and horse, hanging at a belt over the left
depositions of witnesses, and take fines of shoulder. The barrel is two feet and a
lands, &c.
half long, and is sometimes furrowed
CAPTION and horning, in the law of spirally within, which is said to add to
Scotland. When a decree or sentence is the range of the piece.
obtained against any person, the obtainer CARABUS, in natural history, a genus
thereof takes out a writ, whereby the of insects of the order Coleoptera. Gene.
party discerned is charged to pay or fulfil ric character ; antennæ filiform; feelers
the will of the decree, under the pain mostly six ; the last joint obtuse and trun-
of rebellion : this writ is called letters of cate; thorax flat, margined ; shells mar-
horning. If he refuse to comply, then gined. This is an exceedingly numerous
the writ or letters of caption may be genus, and the insects of it are extremely
raised, whereby all the inferior judges active and quick in running; they devour
and magistrates are commanded to assist the larvæ of otherinsects, and all the weaker
CAR
CAR
animals they can overcome ; the legs are out; which number of soldiers must be
long; thighs compressed; shanks rounded sufficient to defend them, and conduct
and ciliate within, the fore ones spinous be- them with safety to the places for which
fore the tip: the larvæ are found under they are designed, and on a day appoint-
ground, orin decayed wood. Many species ed. The caravan encamps every evening
are to be found in our own coun- near such wells or brooks as their guides
try, among which one of the largest is are acquainted with; and there is a
the C. hortensis, so named from its being strict discipline observed upon this occa-
frequently seen in gardens and pathways. sion, as in armies in time of war. Their
Among the smaller species is the C. cu- beasts of burden are partly horses, but
preus, a very frequent insect, being seen most commonly camels, who are capable
almost every where during the summer of undergoing very great fatigue. The
months in gardens, dry pathways, &c. Grand Signior gives one-fourth of the
generally running, like the rest of the revenues of Egypt to defray the expense
genus, with a very brisk motion; its of the caravan that goes yearly to Mecca
usual length is about half an inch, and its to visit Mahomet’s tomb: the devotees
colour varying from the copper to the in this caravan are from forty to seventy
gold green. Of the British species more thousand, accompanied with soldiers to
than a hundred have been enumerated. protect them from the pillage of the
On the continent the C. crepitans is the Arabs, and followed by eight or nine
most remarkable ; so named from the thousand camels, laden with all necessa-
power which it possesses of discharge ry provisions for so long a passage across
ing from behind, several times in succes. deserts.
sion, on being pursued, a fetid and pene- CARAVAN, is also used for the voyages
trating vapour, accompanied by a very or campaigns which the knights of Malta
smart explosion, thus escaping by terrify- are obliged to make at sea against the
ing its pursuers.
Turks and corsairs, that they may arrive
CARACT, CARAT, CARRAT, the name at the commandaries or dignities of the
of that weight which expresses the de- order. The reason of their being thus
gree of fineness that gold is of. The called, is because the knights have often
mint-master, or custom, have fixed the seized the caravans going from Alexan-
purity of gold at 24 caracts; though it is dria to Constantinople.
not possible so to purify and refine that CARAVANSERA, or KARAVANSERA,
metal, but it will want still about one. a large public building or inn, appointed
fourth part of a caract in absolute purity for receiving and lodging the caravans.
and perfection. These degrees serve to it is commonly a large square building, in
distinguish the greater or lesser quantity the middle of which there is a very spacious
of alloy therein contained : for instance, court; and under the arches or piazzas
gold of 22 caracts is that which has two that surround it there runs a bank, raised
parts of silver, or of any other metal, and some feet above the ground, where the
22 of fine gold. The caract is divided merchants, and those who travel with
them in any capaeity, take up their lodg-
CARACT is also a certain weight which ings as well as they can; the beasts of
goldsmiths and jewellers use, wherewith burden being tied to the foot of the bank.
to weigh precious stones and pearls. The Over the gates that lead into the court
caract by which jewellers estimate the there are sometimes little rooms, which the
weight of diamonds and pearls is about keepers of the caravanseras let out, at a
is of an ounce troy: hence the caract is very high price, to such as have a mind to
about 31 grains troy.
be private. The caravanseras in the East
are something in the nature of the inns in
CARAVAN, in the East, signifies a Europe, only that you meet with little ac-
company or assembly of travellers and commodation either for man or beast, but
pilgrims, and more particularly of mer-
chants, who for their greater security, and with you: there is never a caravansera
are obliged to carry almost every thing
in order to assist each other, march in a without a well or spring of water. These
body through the deserts, and other dan- buildings are chiefly owing to the charity of
gerous places, which are infested with the Mahometans: they are esteemed sa-
Arabs or robbers. There is a chief, or cred dwellings, where it is not permitted
aga, who commands the caravan, and is to insult any person, or to pillage any of
attended by a certain number of janiza- the effects that are deposited there. They
ries, or other militia, according to the even carry their precautions so far, as
countries from whence the caravans set not to suffer any man who is not marrien
in 1, 5, 16
and 32:
1
15
a
CARBON.
to lodge there; because they are of opi- tive appellations which the modern sys-
nion, that a man who has no wife is more tem requires. This substance is not a hy-
dangerous than another.
pothetical being, since, by certain chemi-
CARBON, in chemistry. The term car- cal processes, by the decomposition of
bon having been understood in different carbonic acid for instance, or of alcohol
senses, and having been actually applied by heat, it is possible to obtain it perfect-
to different substances, it is necessary to ly pure. It exists in a large quantity as
guard against the ambiguity arising from a component part of vegetable sub-
this circumstance, and with this view to stances; it enters into the composition of
trace in a general manner the progress of animal matter, and is contained in sub-
those discoveries from which the name stances belonging to the mineral king-
originated, and by which its application dom. This substance, which when it is
has since been changed.
obtained pure exists in the form of a ve-
a
When vegetable matter, especially the ry light black powder, was, until within
more solid parts of plants, the wood for these few years, considered as a simple
example, is exposed to heat in close ves. body; but experiments have proved,
sels, it is decomposed; the more volatile that it is a compound, containing an in-
principles are disengaged, and there re- flammable substance, according to some
mains a black, shining, porous body, com- chemists, in a state of imperfect oxyda-
posed of the various substances which are tion; according to others, combined with
not convertible by a high temperature to hydrogen. It had been known for a con-
the gaseous form. This substance is siderable time, that the diamond, the
termed charcoal
. While the atmospheric most beautiful and most unchangeable of
air is excluded, it is neither fused nor the productions of nature, is combustible,
volatilised by any increase of heat ; but or that when heated with oxygen gas it
when the air is admitted, it suffers suffers combustion. Lavoisier inade some
combustion, and it continues to burn experiments to ascertain the nature of
till nearly the whole of it is consumed; the product of this combustion : and he
the residuum amounting to not more than found it to be an acid precisely the same
the 200th part of the weight of the with that which is produced by the burn-
original charcoal. This residuum is un- ing of charcoal—what is termed the car-
inflammable, and consists principally of bonic acid. He did not, however, as-
saline and metallic matter'. Charcoal certain the proportion of it with suffici-
then is a heterogeneous substance. By ent accuracy to draw any precise conclu.
far the greater part of it consists of an sion. Some time after, Mr. Tennant re-
inflammable substance which combines peated the experiment of oxydizing the
with oxygen, and forms the carbonic acid diamond, by exposing it to heat along
of the modern nomenclature. But this in- with nitrate of potash in a gold tube.
flammable matter, as it exists in the char. He also found that carbonic acid was
coal, is mixed or combined with the formed; and from an experiment on a
saline and metallic substances left after small scale, it appeared that about the
its combustion. For the sake of pre- same quantity of carbonic acid was af-
cision, a distinction is made in the new forded by the oxygenation of the diamond
nomenclature between the pure in- as would have been produced by the
flammable base and the substance in which combustion of the same weight of char-
it is thus presented to us. Charcoal is coal. He concluded that the diamond was
that black porous substance obtained carbon, and differed from charcoal prin-
from vegetable matter, especially from cipally in its form and state of aggrega-
wood, by exposing it to heat; and the tion; that, in short, it might be consider-
pure inflammable substance, which com- ed as carbon crystallized.
poses by far the greater part of the char- At length Guyton resolved to examine
coal, was termed carbon. Carbon, there- this subject, and his experiments afforded
fore, according to this signification, was very important results. The diamond on
charcoal destitute of the small quantity of which he experimented was burnt in a
saline and metallic matter usually mixed vessel of oxygen gas, by directing the so-
with it. The principal advantage of the lar rays upon it through a very powerful
introduction of the name carbon, was not lens. It assumed at first a leaden colour;
merely that of distinguishing the inflam- by the farther continuance of the heat its
mable base from the substance in which surface appeared charred. At length it
it was mixed with other ingredients; but appeared sensibly to diminish, and in lit-
also that of giving a term capable of com- tle more than an hour and a half was en-
bination, and of affording those deriva- tirely consumed. The product of the
-
a
CAR
CAR
of oxygen.
combustion was then examined, and was change the vegetable colours to a green.
found to be pure carbonic acid, the same They combine with oils, forming imper-
as that formed in the burning of charcoal; fect soaps, and the presence of the car.
but what surprised Guyton was, the quan- bonic acid scarcely opposes any obstacle
tity produced was much greater than to the combinations of their bases with the
what would have been produced by the other acids.
combustion of the same weight of charcoal CARBONIC acid, a gaseous product of
in oxygen gas : 28 parts of charcoal form the full saturation of carbon with oxygen.
by combustion 100 parts of carbonic acid; It was made known to chemists by Dr.
that is, combined with 72 of oxygen; Black, under the name of fixed air, and
but from only 17.8 of diamond, the same may be regarded as the first of the aerial
quantity of carbonic acid is produced, fluids that obtained accurate examina-
that quantity having combined with 82.1 tion. It is composed of 75 parts of car-
In other words, 1 part of bon, and 25 of oxygen. See Gas.
charcoal combines with 2 of oxygen, CARBONIC oxide, in chemistry, a gas
forming 3} of carbonic acid, while one supposed to be compounded of carbon
part of diamond requires 4 of oxygen, and oxygen, in the proportion of about 38
and produces 5 of acid. As the term car- to 62, This gas possesses the mechanical
bon in the new nomenclature is under- properties of air. It burns with a deep
stood to be applied to the simple base of blue flame, and gives out little light. See
carbonic acid, it is evident that it can no GAS.
longer be applied to the inflammable mat- CARBUNCE, in heraldry, a charge or
ter of charcoal; for in that matter it must bearing consisting of eight radii, four
be combined with some other principle. whereof make a common cross, and the
Guyton supposes that this principle is oxy. other four a saltier.
gen, or that that inflammable body is an CARBURET, in chemistry, a com-
oxide of carbon, standing in the same rela- pound substance, in which carbon is a
tion to carbon and carbonic acid that ni- constituent part. Carburet of iron, long
trous oxide does to nitrogen and nitric known under the names of plumbago and
acid. Berthollet, on the contrary, has black-lead, is compounded of 90 parts of
supposed that charcoal contains hydrogen carbon and 10 of iron. It is found native,
as a constituent part. Whichever of is of a dark grey or blue colour, and has
these opinions is adopted, the name car something of a metallic lustre. It is
bon, it is obvious, must now be applied to found in many parts of the world, parti-
the simple base, and will therefore be the cularly in Cumberland, From the sub-
chemical or systematic term appropriat- stance obtained there the best black-lead
ed to the diamond. See DIAMOND. pencils are manufactured.
Besides charcoal and carbonic acid, CARCASE, in architecture, the shell or
other substances have been discovered to ribs of a house, containing the partitions,
be binary compounds of carbon. The floors, and rafters, made by carpenters;
one known by the name of black-lead, or or it is the timber-work (or as it were the
plumbago, approaches nearer to the dia- skeleton) of a house, before it is lathed
mond, or combines with more oxygen and plastered : it is otherwise called the
in forming carbonic acid than charcoal framing.
does; and between charcoal and carbonic CARCASSE, or CARCUSS, in the art of
acid is a gaseous compound, into the com- war, an iron case or hollow capacity, about
position of which oxygen enters, though the bigness of a bomb, of an oval figure,
it is still of the nature of an oxide. Car- made of ribs of iron, filled with combus-
bon too combines with hydrogen and oxy- tible matters, as meal powder, salt-petre,
gen, forming various elastic compounds. sulphur, broken glass, shavings of borns
See GAS
turpentine, tallow, &c. The design of it
CARBONATES, in chemistry, salts is, to be thrown out of a mortar to set
formed by a combinatioy of the alkalies houses on fire, and do other execution.
and the carbonic acid. As the acid pow. It has two or three apertures through
ers which carbonic acid actually exerts which the fire is to blaze.
are weak, the changes which it occasions CARCINOMA, in surgery and medi-
in the properties of the alkalies are in cine, a hard schirrus tumuor, accompanied
general inconsiderable. They retain their with acute lancinating pains, ending in
peculiar taste and acrimony, at least to a ulceration.
certain extent: ammonia has still its pe- CARD, among artificers, an instrument
netrating odour, and in part its volatility: consisting of a block of wood, beset with
they still, even when saturated with it, sharp teeth, serving to arrange the hairs
CAR
CAR
a
of wool, flax, hemp, and the like: there and the year following to that of Doctor
are different kinds of them, as hand- of Physic. In 1539 he was admitted a
cards, stock-cards, &c.
member of the College of Physicians at
CARDS, among gamesters, little pieces Milan : in 1543 he read public lectures
of fine thin pasteboard of an oblong on medicine there, and the same at Pavia
figure, of several sizes, but most com- the year following ; but he discontinued
monly in England three inches and an them, because he could not get payment
half long, and two and an half broad, on of his salary, and returned to Milan.
which are painted several points and fi- In 1552, he went into Scotland, having
gures. The moulds and blocks for mak- been sent for by the Archbishop of St.
ing cards are exactly like those that were Andrews, to cure him of a grievous dis-
used for the first books : they lay a sheet order, after trying the physicians of the
of wet or moist paper on the block, which King of France and of the Emperor of
is first slightly done over with a sort of Germany without benefit. He began to re-
ink made with lampblack, diluted in wa- cover from the day that Cardan prescribed
ter, and mixed with some starch, to give for him. Our author took his leave of
it a body. They afterwards rub it off him at the end of about six weeks, leav-
with a round list. The court-cards are ing him prescriptions which in two years
coloured by means of several patterns, wrought a complete cure. Upon this vi-
styled stane-files. These consist of pa- sit Cardan passed through London, and
pers cut through with a pen-knife, and in calculated King Edward's nativity, being
the apertures they apply severally the famous for his knowledge in astrology.
various colours, as red, black, &c. These Returning to Milan after four months ab-
patterns are painted with oil-colours, that sence, he remained there till the begin-
the brushes may not wear them out; and ning of October, 1552, and then went to
when the pattern is laid on the paste- Pavia, from whence he was invited to Bo-
board, they slightly pass over it a brush logna in 1562. He taught in this last city
full of colour, which, leaving it within till the year 1570; at which time he was
the openings, forms the face or figure of thrown into prison ; but some months af-
the card.
ter he was sent home to his own house.
CARDAMINE, in botany, a genus of He quitted Bologna in 1571, and went to
the Tetradynamia Siliquosa class and or- Rome, where he lived for some time with-
der. Natural order of Siliquosæ or Cru- out any public employment.
He was
ciform flowers. Essential character: si- however admitted a member of the Col-
lique opening elastically, the valves revo- lege of Physicians, and received a pen-
lute; stigma entire ; calyx rather gaping: sion from the Pope, till the time of his
There are eighteen species, of which C. death, which happened at Rome on the
bellidifolia has a simple root, white, and 21st of September, 1575.
very long; stem filiform, striated, flex- No man of his time seems to have made
ile, an inch long. Flowers wbite, some- greater progress in philosophy, medicine,
times purplish, with claws the length of and other branches of natural science,
the calyx; siliques half an inch in length than Cardan: in algebra he was a great
This plant has no smell. It flowers in adept, and made many improvements in
July and August.
the analytic art. His dexterity in solving
CARDAMOM, in the materia medica, cubic equations has given him a lasting
is distinguished into three kinds, exclu- name. It is affirmed by Scaliger, that
sive of the ammomum, which is evi- Cardan having, by his pretended skill in
dently of the cardamom kind. They are astrology, predicted the time of his death,
called by the names of the great carda- abstained from all food, in order that he
mom, or grain of paradise; the long or might verify the truth of his prophecy.
middle cardamom; and the lesser com- CARDINAL, in a general sense, an ap-
mon cardamom of the shops.
pellation given to things on account of
CARDAN (HIERONYMUS,) in biogra- their pre-eminence : thus we say, cardi-
phy, was born at Pavia, Sept. 24, 1501. nal winds, cardinal virtues, &c.
At four years old he was carried to Milan, The cardinal virtues are these four, jus-
his father being an advocate and physi- tice, prudence, temperance and fortitude,
cian in that city: at the age of twenty he upon which all the rest hinge.
went to study in the university of the CARDINAL points, in cosmography, are
same city, and two years afterward he the four intersections of the horizon with
gave lectures on Euclid. In 1524 he the meridian, and the prime vertical
went to Padua; the same year he was ad- circle. Of these, two, viz, the intersec-
mitted to the degree of Master of Arts, tions of the horizon and meridian, are
CAR
CAR
called north and south, with regard to purple mantle, and a red hat. When
the poles they are directed to. The they are sent to the courts of princes,
other two, viz. the intersections of the it is in quality of legates a latere: and
horizon and first vertical, are called when they are appointed governors of
east and west. The cardinal points there. towns, their government is called by the
fore coincide with the four cardinal re- name of legation.
gions of the heavens, and are 90° distant CARDING, the combing and prepar-
from each other. The intermediate points ing of wool, cotton, flax, &c. with the
are called collateral points.
instruments called cards.
CARDINAL signs, in the zodiac, are, CARDIOID, in the higher geometry,
Aries, Libra, Cancer, and Capricorn. an algebraical curve, so called from its re-
CARDINAL, more particularly, signifies semblance to a heart.
an ecclesiastical prince in the Romish CARDIOSPERMUM, in botany, a ge-
church, being one who has a voice in nus of the Octandria Trigynia class and
the conclave at the election of a Pope.- order. Natural order of Trihilatæ. Sa-
The cardinals were originally nothing pindi, Jussieu. Essential character; calyx
more than deacons, to whom was en- four-leaved; petals four: nectary four-
trusted the care of distributing the alms leaved, unequal; capsules three, cornate,
to the poor of the several quarters of inflated. There are three species, all of
Rome ; and as they held assemblies of them natives of warm countries. They
the poor in certain churches of their are annual, and perish soon after they
several districts, they took the title of have perfected their seeds. They do
these churches. They began to be call. not thrive with us, excepting in a stove.
ed cardinals in the year 300, during the CARDIUM, in natural history, the
pontificate of St. Sylvester, by which ap- cockle, a genus of worms of the order
pellation was meant the chief priests of a Testacea : animal a tethys; shell bivalve,
parish, and next in dignity to a bishop - nearly equilateral, equivalve, generally
This office grew more considerable after- convex, longitudinally ribbed, striate or
wards, and by small degrees arrived at grooved, with a toothed margin; hinge
its present height, in which it is the re- with two teeth near the beak, and a
ward of such as have served his holiness larger remote lateral on each side, each
well, even princes thinking it no diminu- locking into the opposite. There are
tion of their honour to become member's nearly 60 species,
of the college of cardinals.
CARDUUS, in botany, English thistle,
The cardinals compose the Pope's a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia
council, and till the time of Urban VIII. Æqualis class and order. Natural order
were styled most illustrious; but by a de- of Compositæ Capitatæ. Cinarocephalæ,
cree of that Pope in 1630, they had the Juss. Essential character: calyx ovate,
title of eminence conferred upon them. imbricate, with spiny scales; receptacle
At the creation of a new cardinal, the hairy. There are fifty-one species,-
Pope performs the ceremony of shutting Little need be said of this genus; nature
and opening his mouth, which is done in having made abundant provision for their
a private consistory. The shutting his increase, by annexing to their seeds a
.
mouth, implies the depriving him of the light down, which makes them readily
liberty of giving his opinion in congrega- float in the air, and scatters them wide
tions; and the opening his mouth, which over the neighbouring fields. As they
is performed fifteen days after, signifies are usually considered as noxious weeds,
the taking off this restraint. However, rather than ornamental plants, few of
if the Pope happens to die during the them are admitted into the flower gar-
time a cardinal's mouth is shut, he can den, and those few are valued more for
neither give his voice in the election of a their variety, than for their beauty.
new Pope, nor be himself advanced to CAREENING, in the sea-language, the
that dignity:
bringing a ship to lie down on one side,
The privileges of the cardinals are in order to trim and caulk the other side.
very great: they have an absolute power A ship is said to be brought to the careen,
in the church during the vacancy of the when, the most of her lading being taken
holy see: they have a right to elect the out, she is hauled down on one side by a
new Pope, and are the only persons on small vessel as low as necessary; and
whom the choice can fall: most of the there kept by the weight of the ballast,
grand offices in the court of Rome are ordnance, &c. as well as by ropes, lest
filled by cardinals. The dress of a cardi- her masts should be strained too much,
а
nal is a red sourtanne, a rochet, a short in order that her sides and bottom may
VOL. II.
M
CAR
CAR
be trimmed, seams caulked, or any thing tial character: male calyx very small,
that is faulty under water mended.- five-toothed; corolla five-parted, funnel
Hence, when a ship lies on one side when form; filaments in the tube of the corolla,
she sails, she is said to sail on the careen. alternately shorter; herm. calyx five-
CARET, among grammarians, a charac- toothed ; corolla five-parted; stigmas
ter marked thus A, signifying that some- five; berry one-celled, many seeded.--
thing is added on the margin, or inter- There are two species, viz. C. papaya,
lined, which ought to have come in where common papaw-tree, and C. posoposo,
the caret stands.
dwarf papaw-tree. These plants, be-
CAREX, in botany, English sedge, a ing natives of hot countries, will not
genus of the Monoecia Triandria class thrive in England without the assistance
and order. Natural order of Calamariæ. of the warm stove. Where there are
Cyperoidea, Jussieu. Essential charac- conveniences of a proper height, they
ter: ament imbricate; calyx one-leafed ; deserve a place as well as almost any of
corolla none; female, nectary inflated; the plants which are cultivated for orna-
three-toothed; stigmas three; seeds three ment. They grow to the height of twen-
.
sided, within the nectary. There are ty feet, with upright stems, garnished on
ninety-seven species. These plants are every side near the top with large shining
very nearly allied to the grasses, agreeing leaves. The flowers of the male sort
with them in their general appearance come out in clusters on all sides, and the
and leaves. They are, however, of a fruit of the female growing round the
much harsher texture; the stem is not stalks between the leaves, forming alto-
hollow, but filled with a spongy sub- gether a beautiful appearance.
stance. The difference in the fructifica- CARICATURA, in painting, denotes
tion is very considerable, as will appear the concealment of real beauties, and
from a comparison of the generic cha- the exaggeration of blemishes, but still
racters. They are perennial, and flower so as to preserve a resemblance of the
in May and June. The carices or sedges object.
are classed rather among the noxious CARIES, in surgery, the ulceration of
plants than with such as are useful, for a bone. See SURGERY.
they yield a very coarse grass and fodder, CARINA, in botany, a keel, the name
to the exclusion of real grass and other which Linnæus gives to the lower con-
profitable plants, which they subdue by cave petal of a pea-bloom, or butterfly-
their strong creeping roots.
shaped flower, from its supposed resem
CARGO denotes all the merchandize blance to the keel of a ship.
and effects which are laden on board a CARISSA, in botany, a genus of the
ship, exclusive of the crew, rigging, am- Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
munition, provisions, guns, &c. though Natural order of Contortæ. Apocineæ,
all these load it sometimes more than the Jussieu. Essential character: corolla con-
merchandise.
torted; berries two, many seeded. There
We say that a ship has its cargo, when are two species, natives of the East-Indies
it is as full of merchandize as it can hold; and Africa.
that it has half its cargo, when it is but CARLINA, in botany, English carline
half full; that it brings home a rich cargo, thistle, a genus of the Syngenesia Poly-
when it is laden with precious merchan- gamia æqualis class and order. Natural
dise and in great quantity; that a mer- order of Compound Flowers : division of
chant has made the whole cargo of the Capitatæ. Cinarocephalæ, Jussieu. Es-
ship, or only one half, or one quarter of sential character: calyx radiated, with
the cargo, when he has laden the whole long, coloured, marginal scales. There
ship at his own expense, or only one half, are nine species, most of them natives
or one fourth of it.
of the South of France, Italy, and Spain.
Disposing of any part of the cargo, be- CARLINES, or CARLINGS, in a ship,
fore the vessel reaches her intended port, two pieces of timber, lying fore and aft,
is called breaking bulk.
along from beam to beam, whereon the
Cango, super, a person employed by ledges rest on which the planks of the
merchants to go a voyage, and oversee ship are fastened. All the carlings have
the cargo, and dispose of it to the best their ends let into the beams culvertail-
advantage.
wise: they are directly over the keel,
CARICA, in botany, a genus of the and serve as a foundation for the whole
Dioecia Decandria, or rather Polygamia body of the ship.
class and order. Natural order of Tri- CARMINATIVES, in pharmacy, me-
coccæ. Cucurbitaceæ, Jussieu. Essen- dicines used in cholics, or other flatulent
CAR
CAR
MACY
THUS.
a
disorders, to dispel the wind. See Phar- sharp and pointed, even though situated
in the back part of the mouth; and these
CARMINE, a powder of a very beau- teeth, denominated canine, are so long in
tiful red colour, bordering upon a pur- most of the beasts of prey, that they pass
ple, and used by painters in miniature, a considerable way beyond each other
though but rarely, because of its great when the jaws are closed. The distribu-
price.
tion of the enamel, which is confined to
CARNATION, in botany. See DIAN- the superficies of the teeth, renders them
extremely hard, and this circumstance,
CARNATION colour, among painters, is joined to an extraordinary bulk of those
understood of all the parts of a picture, muscles employed in raising the lower
in general, which represent flesh, or jaw, gives to carnivorous quadrupeds
which are naked and without drapery. the power of breaking the strongest
CARNELIAN. See CHALCEDONY. bones.
CARNIVAL, or CARNAVAL, a time of The rapacious birds are distinguished
rejoicing, a season of mirth, observed by a sharp hard bill, furnished on each
with great solemnity by the Italians, par- side with a pointed process, by which
ticularly at Venice, lasting from Twelfth- they are enabled to tear asunder the
day till Lent.
parts of the animals they feed upon. As
CARNIVOROUS, in zoology, an epi- the digestion of animal substances is ac-
thet generally applied to animals of every complished in a short time, the stomach
description that subsist for the most part of the carnivorous tribes has a simple fi-
or entirely, on animal food. In a more gure, without any processes or separations
limited sense we understand, by carnivo- of its cavity to retain its contents, or to
vous animals, those only of a savage and delay their passage into the intestines;
voracious nature, assimilating in our ideas and as animal food furnishes but little ex-
some instinctive ferocity of character in crement, the intestinal canal is short, and
the manners of those creatures when either totally unprovided with those di-
seeking and attacking their prey, as well latations which are so remarkable in ve-
as actually feeding on flesh. We natu- getable eaters, or possesses them only in
rally consider, for this reason, among the a slight degree.
principal carnivorous animals, the lion, Carnivorous animals are further distin-
the tiger, and the wolf; or among birds, guished by the extraordinary strength of
the eagle and the kite, with a host of their members, which are commonly fur-
other rapacious creatures, upon which nished with sharp claws; these are sa
nature has bestowed pre-eminent advan- contrived, both in the beasts of prey and
tages of courage, strength, and arms, to the accipitrine birds, that they turn in-
aid them in seizing upon, and tearing in- wards by the flexion of the limbs, or the
to pieces, those animals on which they action of seizing any thing, and are re-
feed : they have either formidable canine tracted by the extension of the toes; thus
teeth or fangs; claws or talons; the qua- giving facility and certainty to the cap-
drupeds possessing both, and the birds ture and retention of fugitive animais.
the latter. Fishes, with very few excep- The senses of vision and smellare particu-
tions, are carnivorous, but their only of- larly acute in the carnivorous tribes, as it
fensive weapons are the teeth, or in some is by means of them that they discover
species the spines and prickles disposed or seek out their prey.
on various parts of the body. Quadru- Carnivorous animals are usually cruel
peds that subsist both on flesh and vege- and treacherous in their dispositions ;
tables are more or less deficient with re- they are even unsocial with respect to
spect to those characters, by which carni. their own species; and hence it is that
vorous quadrupeds are known; and those their numbers are so few, in comparison
still more so that subsist entirely on roots, to that of the graminivorous kind : if it
barks, fruits, grass, or other vegetables : were not for this wise ordinance of na-
the brutæ have no cutting teeth either in ture, the defenceless orders of animals
the upper or lower jaw; the pecore would soon be devoured, and the car-
have them only in the lower jaw; and nivorous would become the prey of each
the front teeth of the belluæ are obtuse. other.
The food of those animals is vegetables. CARNOSITY, a term sometimes used
See MAMMALIA.
for an excrescence, or tubercle, in the
Carnivorous animals are characterized urethra, the neck of the bladder, &c.
both by their internal organization, and CAROLINEA, in botany, a genus of
their capacity and inclination for the de- the Monadelphia Polyandria class and or-
struction of their prey; their teeth are der. Natural order of Colummiferæ. Mal-
CAR
CAR
vaceæ, Jussieu. Essential character: mo- floors is of several descriptions, being
nogynous; calyx simple, tubular, trun- made of various materials, and various
cate; petals ensiform; pome five-groov- forms. The Turkey, Persia, and Brus-
ed, two-celled. There are two species, sels carpets, are chiefly made of silk;
of which C. princeps is a large thornless the two former, owing to the vivid co-
tree. Leaves alternate; stipules two, lours with which the materials are dyed,
short, caducous. Flowers solitary, very and the fineness of the texture, are pecu-
large and beautiful; petals yellow. The liarly rich and beautiful. We have vari-
fruit has the appearance of that of the ous extensive manufactories, of which
chocolate, or of cucumber, with seeds those at Wilton and Kidderminster may
like almonds; native of Guiana.
be accounted the principal. Carpets are
CAROLUS, an ancient English broad there made in large pieces, suited to the
piece of gold, struck under Charles I. Its full extent of apartments; while the
value has of late been at twenty-three Scotch carpetting, being made in breadths
shillings sterling, though at the time it of not more than four feet, affords the
was coined, it is said to have been rated convenience of making up to any size;
at only twenty shilling's.
but it is not so lasting. The great car-
CAROLUS, a small copper coin, with a pets are made on frames and rollers not
little silver mixed with it, struck under unlike those for tapestry, and under
Charles VIII. of France.
similar guidance, where the pattern
CAROTIDS, in anatomy, two arteries is intricate. Carpet-making supports
of the neck, which convey the blood from many thousands of the industrious poor
the aorta to the brain, one called the of this country, and being almost whol-
right carotid, and the other the left. See ly founded on the produce of our own
ANATOMY.
island, is of great importance as a national
CAROXYLON, in botany, a genus of benefit.
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or- CARPHALEA, in botany, a genus of
der. Essential character: corolla five- the Tetrandia Monogynia class and order:
petalled; nectary five-leaved, converg- corolla one-petalled, funnel-form, hairy
ing, inserted into the corolla ; seed cloth within ; calyx four-cleft, with spatulate
ed. There is but one species, viz. C. scarious segments; capsule two-celled,
salsola ; has a perennial root; stem ar- two-valved, many seeded. One species,
borescent, erect, very branching, naked. C. corymbosa, found in Madagascar.
Leaves on the branchlets, frequent, im- CARPINUS, in botany, English horn-
bricate, sessile, subglobular, ovate, con- beam, a genus of the Monoecia Polyandria
cave within and smooth ; axils loaded class and order. Natural order of Amen-
with other leaves. In Africa they use taceæ
Essential character ; calyx one-
the ashes with mutton suet to make soap. leafed, with a ciliate scale; corolla none;
а
CARPENTRY, the art of cutting, male stamens twenty; female germs two,
framing, and joining pieces of wood, for with two styles on each; nut ovate.
the uses of building. It is one of the There are four species, of which C. be-
sciences subservient to architecture, and tulus, horn-beam, is very common in ma-
is divided into house carpentry and ship- ny parts of England, but is rarely suffered
carpentry; the first is employed in rais- to grow as a timber tree, being generally
ing, roofing, flooring of houses, &c. and reduced to pollards by the country peo-
the second in the building of ships, ple; but where the young trees have
barges, &c. The rules in carpentry are
been properly treated, they have grown
much the same with those of joinery; the to a large size, nearly seventy feet in
only difference is, that carpentry is used height, with large fine stems, perfectly
in building, and joinery in furniture. straight and sound.
CARPESIUM, in botany, a genus of
CARPODETUS, in botany, a genus of
the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua class the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
and order. Natural order of Compound der. Essential character ; calyx five-
flowers; division of Discoidea Corym- toothed, fastened to the germ ; corolla
biferæ, Jussieu. Essential character: ca- five-petalled; stigma flat-headed; berry
lyx imbricate; the outer scales reflex; globular, five-celled. There is but one
down none; receptacle naked. There species, viz. C. serratus, a native of New
are two species, viz. C. cernuum, droop- Zealand.
ing carpesium, is a native of the south of
CARR, among the ancients, a kind of
France, Italy, Carniola, Austria, Switzer- throne, mounted on wheels, and used in
land, and Japan; and C. abrotanoides is triumphs and other solemn occasions. The
a native of China and Japan.
carr on medals, drawn by horses, lions,
CARPET: this beautiful covering for or elephants, signifies a triumph, or an
a
CAR
CAR
apotheosis ; sometimes a procession of the presentatives of those primary errors,
images of the gods at a solemn supplica- should be, in toto, abolished.
tion; and sometimes of those of some il- 3. We judge the size of wheels, that is,
lustrious families at a funeral. The carr, the length of lever, by which they are
covered and drawn by mules, only signi- moved around their axis, to be of the
fies a consecration, and the honour done greatest moment.
any one of having his image carried at 4. Where a road is firm, we hold it ex-
the games of the circus.
pedient to reduce the bearing point,
CARRIAGE, letter or bill of, a writing namely, the edge of the wheel, into as
given to a carrier or the master of any car. small a diameter as may be found capa-
riage, containing the number and quality ble of sustaining the incumbent pressure.
of the pieces, bales, &c. of merchandises, 5. Where roads are soft and quaggy, we
which he is intrusted with, that he may deem the broad tire to be preferable; both
demand the payment of the carriage, and because it bears up the load, and allows
that the person to whom they are address- of less sinking, whereby considerable op-
ed may see whether they are delivered in position would be created; and that such
the same number, and in as good condition, a construction is more favourable to the
as they were given to the carrier.
track in which the carriage may have
often to travel.
CARRIAGE of a cannon, the frame or
timber-work on which it is mounted, serv-
6. The axis of every wheel ought to
ing to point it for shooting, or to carry it move with as little friction as possible :
from one place to another. It is made of this may be effected by making the spin-
two planks of wood, commonly one half the dle as small and as short as circumstances
length of the gun, called the cheeks, and may allow; taking care to lubricate the
joined by three wooden transums, strength connecting parts well, so as not to allow
ened with three bolts of iron. It is mount of the smallest tendency to adhesion.
ed on two wheels; but on a march has Wheels intended for travelling over un-
two fore-wheels, with limbers added. The equal surfaces should be dished, so that
principal parts of a carriage are the cheeks, whenever they come under the axle. The
the spokes may successively be upright
transums,bolts, plates, train, bands, bridge, bend of each end of the axle downwards
będ, hooks, trunnion-holes, and capsquare. is a convenience, and contributes to the
CARRIAGES. This subject, in detail, foregoing effect, while it causes the upper
would form many an ample volume. The parts of the wheels to diverge, and gives
great variety of opinions, the imperious de- iore scope for the body of the machine :
mands of locality, and the appropriation in some instances, where light but bulky
to particular purposes, must inevitably burthens are in question, this is a deside-
create a curious diversity in the practices ratum; though it contracts the space be-
of a nation. Confining ourselves to gene- tween the points of rotation, and renders
ral principles, we shall discuss only those the machine more liable to overturn. The
points which serve as a general guide, and load should generally be carried more in
may prove useful in giving the reader the centre of four-wheeled carriages
some idea as to the several properties of than is usually done. Carmen have a
the vehicles now in use.
great partiality for burthening the fore-
1. We consider ease of draught as in. wheels: this is a most absurd practice,
dispensable. For this purpose the fore. because they, being less in diameter, are
wheels of a carriage should always be more subject to be impeded by low obsta-
sufficiently large to bring the centre of cles than the hind wheels, which, being
the axle to an angle, of about fifteen de. larger,travel over ruts and clods with much
grees, with that part of the haime, or more facility. In regard to the height of
collar-frame, on which the trace fixes; loads, it is proper to state, that whenever
that being ascertained to be the best rela- a line drawn perpendicular to the horizon,
tive position between the animal and and touching the corner of a square load,
what he has to draw at.
touches the ground on the outside of the
2. We look to proximity of rotation, tire of the opposite wheel, the carriage
that is, the place where the wheel touches must overset; the line of gravity then be-
the ground, and its relation to a perpen- coming exterior to the support; and vice
dicular draft from the croup of the horse, versa. From this we see, that loads car-
as being an essential matter : for the draft ried low are in general very safe ; while
will assuredly be more oppressive in pro- such as are injudiciously elevated, which
portion as the point of rotation is removed. too many of our stage.coaches are, teem
Hence long shafts, great space between with danger. In two-wheel carriages, the
the fore and hind wheels, and all the re- load in going down hill bears extremely
CAR
CAR
heavy on the shaft-horse: this should be calibre, and carried on the upper works,
obviated by cocking the cart backwards, as the poop and forecastle. They are
according to the practice in the West of named from Carron in Scotland, the town
England
in which they were first made.
CARRIER, laws relating to. Every per- CARTES (RENES DES,) in biography,
son carrying goods for hire is deemed a Few persons have a higher claim to dis-
carrier, and as such is liable in law for any tinction than this philosopher; we shall
loss or damage that may happen to them therefore, in the present article, inter-
whilst in his custody. Waggoners, cap- weave an account of his system with that
tains of ships, lightermen, &c. are there of his life.
fore carriers ; but a stage-coachman is Des Cartes was a native of Touraine,
not within the custom as a carrier: nei- in France, and born in 1596. While a
ther are hackney-coachmen carriers with child he discovered an eager curiosity to
in the custom of the realm, so as to be inquire into the nature and causes of
chargeable for the loss of goods, unless things, which procured him the appella-
they are expressly paid for that purpose, tion of the young philosopher. At eight
for their undertaking is only to carry years of age he was committed to the
the person. If a person take hire for care of a Jesuit, under whom he made
carrying goods, although he be not a very uncommon proficiency. He soon
common carrier, he may nevertheless be began to discover defects in existing sys-
charged upon a special assumpsit; for tems, and hoped to be the means of
where hire is taken, a promise is implied; giving to science a new and more pleas-
and where goods are delivered to a car- ing aspect. After spending five years
rier, and he is robbed of them, he shall in the study of the languages and po-
be charged and answer for them on ac- lite literature in general
, he entered
count of the hire, and the carrier can upon a course of mathematics, logic,
be no loser, as he may recover against and morals, according to the methods
the hundred
by which they were then taught. With
Goods sent by a carrier cannot be di- these he was so much disgusted, that
strained for rent; and any person carrying he determined to frame for himself a
goods for all persons indifferently is to be brief system of rules or canons of rea-
deemed a common carrier, as far as re- soning, in which he followed the strict
lates to this privilege. A delivery to a method of the geometricians. He pursued
servant a delivery to the master, and if the same plan with respect to morals. Af-
goods are delivered to a carrier's por- ter all, however, he was so little satisfied
ter and lost, an action will lie against with his own attainments, that he left col.
,
the carrier.
lege, lamenting that the fruits of eight
Where a carrier gives notice by printed years'study were only the full conviction,
proposals, that he will not be responsible that as yet he knew nothing with perfect
for certain valuable goods if lost, if more clearness and certainty. He even threw
than the value of a sum specified, unless aside his books, with a resolution to pursue
entered and paid for as such, and valu- no other knowledge than that which he
able goods of that description are deli- could find within himself and in the great
vered to him, by a person who knows volume of nature. At the age of seventeen
the conditions, but, concealing the value, he was sent to Paris, where the love of
pays no more than the ordinary price pleasure, for a moment, seemed to over-
of carriage and booking, the carrier is, come all desire of philosophical distinction;
under such circumstances, neither re but an introduction to some learned men
sponsible to the sum specified, nor liable recalled his attention to mathematical
to repay the sum paid for carriage and studies; these he again prosecuted in so-
booking
litude and silence for the space of two
A carrier who undertakes for hire to years, after which he entered as a volun-
carry goods, is bound to deliver them at teer in the Dutch army, in order that he
all events, unless damaged and destroyed might study the living world as well as
by the act of God, or the king's enemies; read books. In this situation he wrote a
and if any accident, however inevitable, dissertation to prove that brutes are au-
happen through the intervention of hu- tomata. From the Dutch army Des Cartes
man means, a carrier becomes responsible. passed over to the Bavarian service, but
CARRONADE, a cannon of peculiar wherever he went he conversed with
construction, being much shorter and learned men, and rather appeared in the
lighter than the common cannon, and character of a philosopher than that of a
having a chamber for the powder like soldier. In 1622 he quitted the army,
a mortar; they are generally of a large returned to his own country, with no
DES CARTES.
9)
other profit, he said, than that he had vers more jealousy and ambition than be
freed himself from many prejudices, and came a philosopher.
rendered his mind more fit for the recep- During Des Cartes's residence in Hol-
tion of truth. He fixed his residence at land, he went occasionally to his native
Paris, and began to study the mathema- country, where, in 1643, he published an
tics, in hopes of discovering general prin- abstract of his philosophy, under the title
ciples of relations, measures, and propor- of “Philosophical Specimens.”
He was
tions, applicable to all subjects, by means promised, on one of these visits, an annual
of which truth might with certainty be pension of 3000 livres, which he never re-
investigated, and the limits of knowledge ceived. He was now invited by Christina,
enlarged. From mathematics he turned Queen of Sweden, to visit Stockholm.
his attention to ethical inquiries, and at. That learned princess had read with de-
tempted to raise a superstructure of mo- light his treatise “ On the Passions,” and
rals upon the foundation of natural science, was earnestly desirous to be instructed
conceiving that there could be no better by him in the principles of philosophy.
means of discovering the true principles Des Cartes arrived at Stockholm in 1649,
and rules of action, than by contemplating where he received a most friendly and
our own nature, and the nature of the respectful reception from the enlightened
world around us. As the result of these queen, who urged him to settle in her
inquiries, he wrote a treatise on the pas- kingdom, and assist her in establishing
sions. After some time spent in Italy, an academy of sciences. He had, how- .
whither he went in pursuit of knowledge, ever, been scarcely four months in that
he returned again to Paris, and from severe climate, when, in his visits to the
thence he went to Holland, with a view sovereign, whom he instructed in the
of raising a new system of philosophy. principles of philosophy, he caught a
Here he chose retirement, as the best cold, which brought on an inflammation
means of forwarding the plans which he in his lungs that put a period to his life,
hoped to execute. He employed himself in 1650. His remains were interred in
in investigating a proof from reason, inde- the cemetery for foreigners, and a long
pendently of revelation, of the fundamen- eulogium inscribed on his tomb: but in
tal principles of religion, and published 1666 his bones were transported to France,
« Philosophical Meditations on the First and placed with all the circumstances of
Philosophy.” At the same time he pur- pomp in the church of St. Genevieve.
sued his physical inquiries, and published Such was the life of this great man: his
a treatise "On Meteors.” He paid con- writings and system require a more de-
siderable attention to medicine, anatomy, tailed account,
and chemistry; and wrote also an astro- On the subject of logic, he says, no.
nomical treatise on the system of the thing is ever to be admitted as true,
world, which he suppressed, upon hear which is not certainly and evidently known
ing of the vile and infamous treatment to be so, and which cannot be possibly
that Galileo bad met with for his dis- doubted. In proving any truth, the ideas
cussions on the same subject. See GA- are always to be brought forward in a
LILEO.
certain order, beginning from things the
The Cartesian philosophy was first most simple, and advancing by regular
taught in the schools of Deventer, 1633: steps to those which are more complex
it attracted many zealous admirers, and and difficult. With regard to metaphy.
excited against him a host of opponents. sics, Des Cartes says, that since man is
The system of Des Cartes obtained so under the influence of prejudice, he
much credit in Great Britain, that the in- ought, once in his life, to doubt of every
ventor was invited to settle in England, thing ; even whether sensible objects
as well by the King as by some of the have a real existence; and also of the
principal nobility. This invitation be truth of mathematical axioms. The first
would probably have accepted, had not principle of the Cartesian philosophy is
the civil wars prevented Charles I. from this, I THINK, THEREFORE I AM."
being able to render the philosopher all this is the foundation of Des Cartes's me.
the patronage which he had formerly taphysics : that on which his physics is
tendered him. At this period he was built, is, “THAT NOTHING EXISTS BUT
forced into many disputes, in the course SUBSTANCES."
SUBSTANCES." Substance he makes of
of which, as well as by his collateral con- two kinds; the one that thinks, the other
duct, he displayed an eager desire to be is extended : so that actual thought and
considered the father of a sect, and disco- actual extension make the essence of
:
DES CARTES.
:
:
substance. The essence of matter being the fixed stars; in such sort, that the
thus fixed in extension, Des Cartes con largest spheres are always next the cir.
cludes that there is no vacuum, nor any cumference of the vortex, and the small-
possibility of it in nature, but that the est next its centre. The third element,
universe is absolutely full : by this princi- formed of the irregular particles, is the
ple, mere space is quite excluded; for matter that composes the earth, and all
extension being implied in the idea of terrestrial bodies, together with comets,
space, matter is so too.
spots in the sun, &c.
Des Cartes defines motion to be the He accounts for the gravity of terres-
translation of a body from the neighbour- trial bodies from the centrifugal force of
hood of others that are in contact with the ether revolving round the earth : and
it, and considered as at rest, to the neigh- upon the same general principles he pre-
bourhood of other bodies: by which he tends to explain the phenomena of the
destroys the distinction between motion magnet, and to account for all the other
that is absolute or real, and that which operations in nature.
is relative or apparent. He maintains that Of this great man many eulogia have
the same quantity of motion is always been published, by persons very capable
preserved in the universe, because God of appreciating his worth and his talents.
must be supposed to act in the most we shall mention the opinion entertained
constant and immutable manner : and of him by two or three of our own coun-
hence also he deduces his three laws of trymen.
motion
Dr. Barrow, in his “ Opuscula,” ob.
Upon these principles Des Cartes ex. serves, that Des Cartes was doubtless a
plains mechanically how the world was very ingenious man, and a real philoso-
formed, and how the present phenomena pher, and one who seems to have brought
of nature came to arise He supposes those assistances to that part of philoso-
that God created matter of an indefinite phy relating to matter and motion, which
extension, which he separated into small perhaps no one had done before ; namely,
square portions or masses, full of angles: a great skill in mathematics; a mind ha-
that he impressed two motions on this bituated, both by nature and custom, to
matter; the one, by which each part re- profound meditation ; a judgment exempt
volved about its own centre ; and another, from all prejudices and popular errors,
by which an assemblage or system of and furnished with a good number of
them turned round a common centre. certain and select experiments ; a great
From whence arose as many different deal of leisure ; an entire disengagement,
vortices, or eddies, as there were differ- by his own choice, from the reading of
ent masses of matter thus moving about useless books, and the avocations of life;
common centres.
with an incomparable acuteness of wit,
The consequence of these motions in and an excellent talent of thinking clearly
each vortex, according to Des Cartes, is and distinctly, and of expressing his
as follows: the parts of matter could not thoughts with the utmost perspicuity.
thus move and revolve amongst one ano- Dr. Halley, in a paper concerning op-
ther, without having their angles gradu. tics, affirms that Des Cartes was the first,
ally broken; and this continual friction of who, in modern times, discovered the
parts and angles must produce three ele- laws of refraction, and brought dioptrics
ments: the first of these, an infinitely fine to a science. And Dr. Keil says, that
dust, formed of the angles broken off; the Des Cartes was so far from applying geo-
second, the spheres remaining, after all metry and observations to natural philo-
the angular parts are thus removed ; and sophy, that his whole system is but one
those particles not yet rendered smooth continued blunder, on account of his ne-
and spherical, but still retaining some of gligence in that point; which he could
their angles, and hamous parts, form the easily prove, by showing that his theory
third element.
of the vortices, upon which his system is
Now the first or subtilest element, ac- founded, is absolutely false, for that New-
cording to the laws of motion, must occu- ton has shown that the periodical times
py the centre of each system, or vortex, of all bodies that swim in vortices, must
by reason of the smallness of its parts: be directly as the squares of their dis-
and this is the matter which constitutes tances from the centre of them; but it
the sun, and the fixed stars above, and the is evident from observations, that the
fire below. The second element, made planets, in moving round the sun, ob-
up of spheres, forms the atmosphere, serve a law quite different from this; for
and all the matter between the earth and the squares of their periodical times are
CAR
CAR
a
sun.
a
always as the cubes of their distances : designs are made, whether coloured or
and therefore, since they do not observe with chalks only. Of these cartoons
that law, which of necessity they must, there are many by Dominichino, Leonar-
if they swim in a vortex, it is a demon- do da Vinci, Andrea Mantegna, Michael
stration, that there are no vortices in Angelo, &c.—but the most celebrated
which the planets are carried round the performances of this kind are the car-
toons of Raphael, or Raffaello Sanzio Da
CARTHAMUS, in botany, English bas- Urbino, which are seven in number, and
tard saffron, a genus of the Syngenesia form only a small part of the sacred his-
Polygamia æqualis class and order.- torical designs executed by this famous
Natural order of Compositæ, or com- artist, while engaged in the chambers of
pound flowers, and division of Capitatæ. the Vatican, under the auspices of Pope
Cinarocephalæ, Jussieu. Essential cha- Julius II. and Leo X. As soon as they
racter: calyx ovate, imbricate with scales, were finished, they were sent to Flan-
which at the end are subovate-foliaceous, ders, to be copied in tapestry, for adorn-
There are ten species, of which C. tinc- ing the pontifical apartments; but the
torius, officinal bastard saffron, is an an- tapestries were not conveỹed to Rome
nual plant; it is two feet and a half high, till after the decease of Raphael, and
dividing upwards into many branches, probably not befove the dreadful sack of
with ovate-pointed sessile leaves. The that city in 1527, under the pontificate of
flowers grow single at the extremity of Clement VII.—when Raphae's scholars
each branch, the heads are large, inclos- having fled from thence, none were left
ed in a scaly calyx. It flowers in July to inquire after the original cartoons,
and August. It grows naturally in Egypt, which lay neglected in the store-rooms
and in some of the warm parts of Asia. of the manufactory. The revolution that
CARTILAGE, in anatomy, a body ap- happened soon after in the Low Coun-
proaching much to the nature of bones. tries prevented their being noticed dur-
See ANATOMY.
ing a period, in which works of art were
Cartilage has so much induration, as to wholly neglected. These seven, how-
require the exertion of some force to ever, escaped the wreck of the others,
bend it; and in a morbid state it fre- which were torn in pieces, and of which
quently becomes ossified. Bone, on the some fragments remain in different col-
other hand, is, in the first stages of their lections. These were purchased by Ru-
growth, cartilaginous : it sometimes be- bens for Charles I. but they had been
comes so from disease. A cartilaginous much injured. In this state they also
matter exists in the hardest bones, and fortunately escaped being sold in the
forms their basis ; from which the other royal collection, by the disproportionate
ingredients, the gelatine and earthy mat- appraisement of these seven at 3001. ;
ter, may be removed. Cartilages are and the nine pieces, which were the tri-
solid, but easily cut : they are elastic, umph of Julius Cæsar, by Andrea Man-
dense, white, and semi-transparent. tegna, appraised at 1,0001. The cartoons
They cover the articulated extremities of seem to have been little noticed, till King
bones, and sometimes form distinct parts. William III. built a gallery for the pur-
The matter of cartilage has been exa- pose of receiving them at Hampton court.
mined by Mr. Hatchett, who considers it After having suffered much from the
as indurated albumen.
damps of the situation in which they
CARTILAGINOUS fishes, those with were placed, they were removed by or-
cartilaginous instead of bony skeletons : der of his present Majesty, King George
they constitute an order of fishes, an- III. to the Queen's Palace at Buckingham
swering to the Chondropterygious and House, and from thence to the Castle at
Branchiostegious of Linnæus. See CHON- Windsor. His Majesty is entitled to a
DROPTERYGIOUS.
tribute of respect and applause for his
CARTON, or CARTOON, in painting, a care in preserving these precious trea.
design drawn on strong paper, to be af- sures. They have been long deservedly
terwards traced through, and transferred held in high estimation throughout Eu-
on the fresh plaster of a wall, to be paint- rope, by all authors of refined taste, and
ed in fresco.
by all the admirers of the art of design,
In Italian, whence the term seems to for their various and matchless merit,
be derived, cartone, or cartoni, signifying particularly with regard to the inven-
large paper, denotes several sheets of tion, and to the noble expression of such
paper pasted on canvas, on which large a variety of characters, countenances,
VOL. II.
N
CAR
CAR
over.
and attitudes, as they are differently af- keeled, inflex-emarginate. There is but
fected and suitably engaged, in every one species, viz. C. carui, common cara-
composition
way, a biennial plant; it has a taper root
CARTOUCHE, in architecture and like a parsnip, but much smaller, run-
sculpture, an ornament representing a ning deep into the ground, sending out
scroll of paper. It is usually a flat mem- many small fibres, and having a strong
ber, with wavings, to represent some aromatic taste. It is particularly cultivat-
inscription, vice, cypher, or ornamented in Essex.
of armoury. They are, in architecture, CARUNCULA, in anatomy, a term de-
much the same as modillions; only these noting a little piece of flesh, and applied
are set under the cornice in wainscot- to several parts of the body: thus, Carun-
ting, and those under the cornice at the cula lacrymalis, a little eminence situated
eaves of a house.
in the larger angle, or canthus of the eye,
CARTOUCHE, in the military art, a case where there are also sometimes hairs and
of wood, about three inches thick at the cevtain little glands.
bottom, girt with marlin, holding about CARUS, in medicine, a sudden depri-
four hundred musket balls, besides six or vation of sense and motion, affecting the
eight balls of iron, of a pound weight, to whole body.
be fired out of a howitzer, for the defence CARYATIDES, or CARIATES, in archi-
,
of a pass, &c.
tecture, a style of columns or pillasters,
A cartouche is sometimes made of a invented by the Greeks, under the figure
globular form, and filled with a ball of a of women, dressed in long robes, after
pound weight; and sometimes it is made the manner of the Carian people, and
for the guns, being of ball of half or quar- serving instead of columns, to support
ter pound weight, according to the nature the entablature. The caryatides should
of the gun, tied in form of a bunch of always have their leg's pretty close to
grapes, on a tompion of wood, and coated each other, and even across, or one
athwart the other; their arms laid flat to
CARTRIDGE, in the military art, a their bodies, or to the head ; and as little
case of pasteboard or parchment, holding spread as possible: when they are insu-
the exact charge of a fire arm. Those lated, they should never have any great
for musquets, carabines, and pistols, hold weight to support; and they ought al-
both the powder and ball for the charge; ways to appear in characters proper to
and those of cannon and mortars are the place they are used in.
usually in cases of pasteboard or tin, some- CARYOCAR, in botany, a genus of the
times of wood, half a foot long, adapted Polyandria Tetragynia class and order.
to the calibre of the piece.
Essential character: calyx five-parted ;
CARTRIDGE box, a case of wood or turn- petals five; style usually four; drupe
ed iron, covered with leather, holding a with four nuts, reticulated with furrows.
dozen musquet cartridges. It is worn There is but one species, viz. C. nucife-
upon a belt, and hang's a little lower rum, a tall tree, with ternate leaves,
than the right pocket hole.
Native of Berbice and Essequebo.
CARTS, laws relating to. Carts for the CARYOPHYLLÆUS, in natural his-
carriage of any thing, to and from any tory, a genus of the Vermes Intestina.
place where the streets are paved within Body round; mouth dilated and fringed.
the bills of mortality, shall contain six One species, viz. C. piscium, which in-
inches in the felly : the name of the habits the intestines of various fresh wa-
owner must be on some conspicuous part, ter fish, particularly the carp, tench, and
and his name entered with the commis- bream. The body is of a clay colour,
sioners of the hackney coaches, under about an inch long, rounded at the hind
the penalty of 40s. and any person may part, and broader before.
seize and detain such cart till the penalty
CARYOPHYLLUS, in botany, English
is paid. On changing property, the names clove-tree, a genus of the Polyandria Mono-
are to be altered, and new entries made. Synia class and order. Natural order of
Every driver of a cart riding upon it, Hesperideæ. Myrti, Jussieu. Essential
without having a person on foot to guide character: corolla four-petalled; calyx
it, shall forfeit 20s. if he is the owner, and four-leaved, duplicate ; berry one-seed-
10s. if he is the servant only.
ed, inferior. One species, viz. C. aroma-
CARUM, in botany, English caraway, ticus, clove-tree, rises to the height of a
a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class common apple-tree, but the trunk gene-
and order. Natural order of Umbellatæ. rally divides at about four or five feet
Essential character: fruit ovate, oblong, from the ground into three or four large
striated; involucre, one-leafed ; petals limbs, which grow erect, and are cover-
CAS
CAS
ed with a thin smooth bark, which ad- alike: as the genitive and dative singular
heres closely to the wood: the leaves of the first and fifth declensions of the
are like those of the bay-tree, and are Latin; the dative and ablative plural of
placed opposite on the branches. The all the declensions, &c.; the genitive and
flowers are produced in loose bunches dative dual of the Greek, &c. The Eng-
at the end of the branches; they are lish and many other modern languages
small, white, and have a great number of express the various relations, not by
stamens, which are much longer than the changes in the terminations, as the an-
petals. The flowers are succeeded by cients, but by the apposition of articles.
oval berries, which are crowned by the Grammarians, however, admit of three
calyx, divided into four parts, spreading cases in the English nouns ; viz. the
flat on the top of the fruit : it is the young nominative, possessive, and objective.
fruit, beaten from the trees before they The nominative expresses simply the
are half grown, which are the cloves used name of a thing, or the subject of the
all over Europe. It is found in all the verb; the possessive expresses the rela-
Moluccas, in many of the South Seation of property or possession; and the
islands, and in New Guinea.
objective expresses the object of an ac-
CARYOTA, in botany, a genus of the tion, or of a relation, and follows a verb
Monoecia Polyandria class and order. active or a preposition.
Natural order of Palms. Essential cha- Case, among printers, denotes a slop-
racter: male, calyx common; corolla tri- ing frame, divided into several compart-
partite; stamens very many : female, ca- ments, containing a number of types or
lyx as in the male; corolla tripartite; letters of the same kind. From these
pistil one ; berry dispermous. There are compartments the compositor takes out
two species. C. urens is a lofty palm- each letter as he wants it, to compose a
tree; the trunk is very large, covered page or form. Thus they say, a case of
with a sort of cinerous crust, which is pica, of Greek, &c. Earl Stanhope, who
quite smooth. The flowers are in long has made great improvements in the
pendulous spikes, on which they grow in printing-press, has contrived a case,
pairs. The corolla, which is sometimes which is said to be much more conve
bipartite, but commonly tripartite, is at nient to the workmen than those in com-
first green, then red or purple, and final- mon use.
ly yellow. C. mitis is about fifteen feet in Case hardening, a method of preparing
height, a most beautiful plant, growing in iron, so as to render its outer surface
the woods of Cochinchina.
hard, and capable of resisting any edged
CASCADE, a steep fall of water from tool. The process of case-hardening,
a higher into a lower place. They are which is in truth a superficial conversion
either natural, as that at Tivoli, &c. or of iron into steel, depends on the cemen-
artificial, as those of Versailles, &c. and tation of it with vegetable or animal coals.
either falling with gentle descent, as We have seen small articles of iron con-
those of Sceaux; or in form of a buffet, verted into steel, by heating it in a cruci-
as at Trianon; or down steps, in form of ble with pieces of leather, horn, &c. The
a perron, as at St. Cloud; or from bason whole must be raised to a great heat by
to bason, &c.
means of a forge, furnace, &c. See IRON.
CASE, among grammarians, implies CASE-shot, in the military art, musket-
the different inflections or terminations ball, stones, old iron, &c. put into cases,
of nouns, serving to express the different and shot out of great guns.
relations they bear to each other, and to CASERNS, in fortification, lodging's
the things they represent. There is built in garrison towns, generally near
great diversity among grammarians, with the rampart, or in the waste places of the
regard to the nature and number of cases: town, for lodging the soldiers of the gar-
they generally find six, even in most of rison. There are usually two beds in
the modern languages, which they call each casern for six soldiers to lie, who
the nominative, genitive, dative, accusa- mount the guard alternately; the third
tive, vocative, and ablative; but this part being always on duty.
seems in compliance with their own ideas CASH, in the commercial style, signi-
of the Greek and Latin, which they trans- fies the stock of money which a mer-
fer to their own languages. The termi- chant, trader, or banker, has at his dispo-
nation is not the sole criterion of a case, sal in order to trade.
for though some authors reckon five cases CASHEW nut, the fruit of the acajou
of nouns in the Greek, and six in Latin; tree, reckoned by Linnæus a species of
yet several of these cases are frequently anacardium. See ANACARDIUM.
CAS
CAS
CASHIER, a person who is entrusted the end: thorax and wing-cases with a
with the cash of some public company. broad margin, the former flat, and form-
CASI, in the Persian policy, one of the ing a kind of shield, beneath which the
two judges under the nadab, who decide head is concealed. There are about 90
all religious matters, grant all divorces, species.
and are present at all public acts, having The rotundate figure of the body,
deputies in all the cities of the kingdom. gibbous back, and flattened surface be-
See the article NADAB.
neath, are a strong criterion of this ge-
CASING of timber work, among build- nus. The surface above is commonly
ers, is the plastering a house all over on smooth, and in some species glossy ;
the outside with mortar, and then strik- eyes oval, and placed near each other;
ing it while wet, by a ruler, with the cor- antenne inserted between the eyes :
ner of a trowel, to make it resemble the scutel triangular and small; wing-cases
joints of free-stone. Some direct it to same length as the abdomen; legs short,
be done upon heart laths, because the thighs compressed, shanks rounded, and
mortar would, in a little time, decay the the tarsi consisting of four joints. Many
sap laths; and to lay on the mortar in two of the species are very beautiful when
thicknesses, viz. a second before the first alive, some of which retain their bril-
is dry; this process is commonly called liancy of colours in the height of perfec-
rough-casting
tion after death ; in others, however, and
CASSAVA, in chemistry, a species of those especially of a small size, these
starch prepared from the roots of the are altogether evanescent, their rich me-
jatropha manihat, an American plant. tallic or golden hues fading as the insect
They are peeled and pressed, and the dies, and totally disappearing in the dried
juice that is forced out is a deadly poison, specimens. Cassidæ, immersed in spirit
and employed by the Indians to poison of wine alive, are observed to retain the
their arrows. It deposits, however, a splendour of those golden hues for years,
white starch, which when properly wash- in as high perfection as they appear in
ed is perfectly innocent, and when dried the living insect; but if taken out, and
is used in the preparation of bread. allowed to dry, these change colour in
CASSIA, in botany, a genus of the the same manner as the insect would in
Decandria Monogynia class and order. dying without being steeped in spirits.
Natural order of Lomentaceæ. Legumi- For immediate observation, the true co-
nosa, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx lours of the living insect may, however,
pentaphyllous; petals five; the three su- be revived in the dried specimens at any
perior anthers sterile; the three inferior time, by leaving them for the space of
beaked ; legume. There are 51 species, 15 or 20 minutes in warm water; the
of which C,
diphylla, two-leaved cassia, is colours re-appearing while the insect is
a shrub with a round stem; two semi- kept moist, and fading again as the insect
orbiculate, obtuse, striated leaves on a dries.
short petiole ; stipules covering the whole The larvæ of the cassidæ are common-
branches. It is an annual. Native of the ly found concealed on the under surface
West Indies. Some of the cassias are, of the leaves of the plants on which they
however, very tall trees, as the C. fistula, feed, and often hide themselves under a
Alexandrian purging cassia, cassia stick cover of their own excrements, which
tree, or pudding pipe tree, which is 50 they support in the air above their bo-
feet high, with a large trunk dividing dies by means of their lateral spines, and
into many branches. Native of both In- the bristles at the extremity of their tail,
dies. C.senna, Egyptian cassia, or senna, to shelter themselves from the sun and
the plant which produces the leaves com- rain. The larvæ cast their skins several
monly known in medicine by the name times before they pass
times before they pass into the pupa state.
of senna, is an annual : it rises with an The perfect female insect deposits the
upright branching stalk, a foot high. eggs in regular order on the leaves of
It grows naturally in Persia, Syria, and plants, and covers them with excrements
Arabia, whence the leaves are brought, to conceal them. The common English
dried, and picked from the stalks, to name of the insects of this tribe is the
Alexandria in Egypt, and being thence tortoise beetle. We have only an incon-
annually imported into Europe, it has the siderable number of the species indige-
title Alexandrian added to it.
nous to this country, and those only of
CASSIDA, in natural history, a genus a small size : many of the large kinds,
of Coleopterous insects, which, accord- and those distinguished for their vivid
ing to Linnæus, have moniliform anten- hues and colours, are natives of South
næ, that become rather thicker towards America.
:
CAS
CAS
CASSINE, in botany, a genus of the the castle of Urbino: and he had after-
Pentandria Trigynia class and order. Na- ward committed to him the care of all the
tural order of Dumosæ. Rhamni, Jus- rivers in the ecclesiastical state.
sieu. Essential character: calyx quin- In the mean time he did not neglect his
quepartite ; petals five; berry trisper- astronomical studies, and made several
mous. There are four species, of which discoveries relating to the planets Mars
c. Capensis, Cape cassine, or phillyrea, and Venus, particularly the revolution
has a woody stalk, which in this country of Mars upon his own axis; but the point
seldom rises more than six feet high, he had chiefly in view, was to settle an
sending out many branches, covered accurate theory of Jupiter's satellites ;
with a purplish bark. The flowers are which, after much labour and observa-
produced in roundish bunches from the tion, he happily effected, and published it
side and at the end of the branches; they at Rome, among other astronomical
are white, and have five small petals pieces, in 1666.
spreading open; germ roundish, crown- Picard, the French astronomer, get-
ed by a bifid or trifid stigma. This shrub ting Cassini's tables of Jupiter's satellites,
is a native of the Cape.
found them so very exact, that he con-
CASSINI (JOHN DOMINIC,) an eminent ceived the highest opinion of his skill;
astronomer, was born of noble parents, and from that time his fame increased so
at a town in Piedmont in Italy, June 8, fast in France, that the government de-
1625. After laying a proper foundation sired to have him a member of the aca-
in his studies at home, he was sent to demy. Cassini however could not leave
continue them in a college of Jesuits at his station without leave of his superiors;
Genoa. He had an uncommon turn for and therefore the king, Lewis the XIVth,
Latin poetry, which he exercised so very requested of the Pope and the senate of
early, that some of his poems were pub- Bologna, that Cassini might be permit-
lished when he was but 11 years old. At ted to come into France. Leave was
length he met with books of astronomy, granted for six years, and he came to Pa-
which he read with great eagerness. ris in the beginning of 1669, where he
Pursuing the bent of his inclinations in was immediately made the king's astro-
this way, in a short time he made so a- nomer. When this term of six years was
mazing a progress, that in 1650 the se. near expiring, the Pope and the senate
nate of Bologna invited him to be their of Bologna insisted upon his return, on
public mathematical professor. Cassini pain of forfeiting his revenues and emo-
was but 25 years of age when he went to juments, which had hitherto been remit-
Bologna, where he taught mathematics, ted to him: but the minister Colbert pre-
and made observations upon the heavens, vailed on him to stay, and he was natura-
with great care and assiduity. In 1652 a lized in 1673; the same year also in
comet appeared, which he observed with which he was married.
great accuracy; and he discovered that
The Royal Observatory of Paris had
comets were not bodies accidentally ge- been finished some time, and Cassini was
nerated in the atmosphere, as had been appointed to be the first inhabiter;
supposed, but of the same nature, and which he took possession of in Septem-
probably governed by the same law as ber, 1671, when he set himself with fresh
the planets. The same year he resolved alacrity to attend the duties of his pro-
an astronomical problem, which Kepler fession. In 1672 he endeavoured to de-
and Bulliald had given up as insolvable; termine the parallax of Mars and the
viz. to determine geometrically the apo- Sun; and in 1677 he proved that the di-
gee and eccentricity of a planet, from its urnal rotation of Jupiter round his axis
true and mean place. In 1653, when a 'was performed in 9 hours 58 minutes,
church in Bologna was repaired and en- from the motion of a spot in one of his
larged, he obtained leave of the senate to larger belts: also in 1684 he discovered
correct and settle a meridian line, which four satellites of Saturn, besides that
had been drawn by an astronomer in which Huygens had found out.
1575. In 1657 he attended as an assistant he published a new edition of his “Ta-
to a nobleman, who was sent to Rome to bles of Jupiter's Satellites,” corrected by
compose some differences which had later observations. In 1695 he took a
arisen between Bologna and Ferrara, journey to Bologna, to examine the me-
from the inundations of the Po; and he ridian line which he had fixed there in
shewed so much skill and judgment in 1655; and he showed, in the presence
the management of the affair, that in of eminent mathematicians, that it had
1663 the Pope's brother appointed him not varied in the least during that 40
inspector general of the fortifications of years. In 1700 he continued the meri-
CASSINI.
a
dian line through France, which Picard days 8 houts. From an examination of
had begun, to the very southern limits of Bianchini's observations, which were up-
that country.
on the spots in Venus, he discovered that
After our author had resided at the he had intermitted his observations for
Royal Observatory for more than 40
more than 40 the space of three hours, from which
years, making many excellent and use- cause he had probably mistaken new spots
ful discoveries, which he published from for the old ones, and so had been led into
time to time, he died September the 14th, the mistake. He soon afterwards deter-
1712, at 87 years of age; and was suc- mined the nature and quantity of the ac-
ceeded by his son James Cassini.
celeration of the motion of Jupiter, at
CASSINI (JAMES,) a celebrated French half a second per year, and of that of the
astronomer, and member of the several retardation of Saturn at two minutes per
Academies of Sciences of France, Eng- year; that these quantities would go on
land, Prussia, and Bologna, was born at increasing for 2000 years, and then would
Paris February 18, 1677, being the young- decrease again. In 1740 he published his
er son of John Dominic Cassini, above « Astronomical Tables," and his " Ele-
mentioned, whom he succeeded as as- ments of Astronomy;" which were very
tronomer at the Royal Observatory, the extensive and accurate works.
elder son having lost his life at the battle
Although astronomy was the principal
of La Hogue.
object of our author's consideration, he
After his first studies in his father's did not confine himself absolutely to that
house, in which it is not to be supposed branch, but made occasional excursions
that mathematics and astronomy were into other fields. We owe also to him, for
neglected, he was sent to study philoso- example, experiments on electricity, or
phy at the Mazarine college, where the the light produced by bodies by friction.
celebrated Varignon was then professor Experiments on the recoil of fire arms;
of mathematics; from whose assistance researches on the rise of the mercury in
young Cassini profited so well, that at 15 the barometer at different heights above
years of age he supported a mathemati- the level of of the sea ; reflections on the
cal thesis with great honour. At the age perfecting of burning-glasses, and other
of 17 he was admitted a member of the
memoirs.
Academy of Sciences; and the same year
After a long and laborious life, our au-
he accompanied his father in his journey thor, James Cassini, lost his life by a fall,
to Italy, where he assisted him in the in April 1756, in the 80th year of his age,
verification of the meridian at Bologna, and was succeeded in the Academy and
and other measurements.
Observatory by his second son, Cæsar
In 1712 he succeeded his father as as. François de Thury; who also distinguish-
tronomer royal at the Observatory. In ed himself in the sciences connected with
1717 he gave to the Academy bis re- astronomy; and, as well as his father and
searches on the distance of the fixed stars, grandfather, published many valuable
in which he showed that the whole annu- works. He died in 1784, of the small
lar orbit of near 200 millions of miles dia- pox, and was succeeded by his only son
meter, is but as a point in comparison of count John Dominic Cassini.
that distance. The same year he com-
CASSIOPEIA, in astronomy, a con-
municated also his discoveries concerning stellation of the northern hemisphere, si-
the inclination of the orbits of the satel- tuated opposite to the Great Bear on the
lites in general, and especially of those of other side of the pole. See ASTRONOMY.
Saturn's satellites and ring. In 1725 he In the year 1572, a remarkable new star
undertook to determine the cause of the appeared in this constellation, surpassing
moon's libration, by which she shows Sirius or Lyra in brightness and magni-
sometimes a little towards one side, and tude. It appeared even bigger than Ju-
sometimes a little on the other, of that piter, which, at that time, was near his
half which is commonly behind or hid perigee, and by some was thought equal
from our view.
to Venus, when she is in her greatest lus-
In 1732 an important question in astro- tre; but in a month it began to diminish
nomy exercised the ingenuity of our au- in lustre, and in about eighteen months
thor. His father had determined, by his entirely disappeared.
observations, that the planet Venus re- It alarmed all the astronomers of that
volved about her axis in the space of age, many of whom wrote dissertations
23 hours: and M. Bianchini had publish on it; among the rest Tycho Brahe, Kep-
ed a work in 1729, in which he settled ler, Maurolycus, Lycetus, Gramineus,
the period of the same revolution at 24 &c. Beza, the Landgrave of Hesse, Rosa,
CAS
CAS
&c. wrote to prove it a comet, and the CAST, among the Hindoos, denotes a
same which appeared to the Magi, at the tribe or number of families of the same
birth of Jesus Christ, and that it came to rank and profession. There are in India
declare his second coming: they were four principal casts: the first is called
answered on this subject by Tycho. Se- the cast of Brahmins, from the mouth
veral astronomers are of opinion that this or wisdom, and deemed the most sacred.
star has a periodical return, which Keill These are to teach the principles of reli-
and others have conjectured to happen gion, to perforin its functions, and to cul-
every 150 years. Mr. Pigott adopts the tivate the sciences. They are the priests,
same opinion; and he accounts for its not the instructors, and philosophers of the
being noticed at the completion of every nation. The second order called “Cheh-
term, by its variable lustre at different teree," from arms or strength; to draw
periods, so that it may sometimes increase the bow, to fight, to govern : these are
only to the ninth magnitude ; and if this entrusted with the government and de-
be the case, its period is probably much fence of the state. The third order, call-
shorter.
ed “Bice," from the belly, or nourish-
CASSIUS, precipitate of, obtained from ment, are to provide the necessaries of
the muriate of gold by the means of tin. life by agriculture and traffic; these are
It is bigbly valued for the beauty of the composed of husbandmen and merchants.
colour which it gives to glass or enamel. The fourth class denominated “Sooder,"
It may be obtained by simply immersing from the feet, or subjection; to labour,
a plate of tin in a dilute solution of muri- or serve, consisting of artisans, labour-
ate of gold: but the usual mode is to dis- ers, and servants. Besides these, there
solve pure gold in a nitro-muriatic acid, is a fifth class denominated “ Burrun
composed of three parts of nitric acid, and Sunker,” supposed to be the illicit union
one of the muriatic. The tin is prepared between persons of different casts: they
by dissolving it, without heat, in an acid are mostly dealers in petty articles of re-
composed of two parts of nitric, and one tail trade.
of muriatic acid, previously diluted with CAST iron. See IRON.
an equal weight of water. This solution CASTILLEIA, in botany, so named in
being saturated, is diluted with one hun- memory of Castilleius, a botanist of Ca-
dred parts of water, to which the solution diz, a genus of the Didynamia Angios-
of gold, in quantity equal to half the quan- permia class and order. Natural order
tity of solution of tin, is added : the liquor of Personatæ. Pediculares, Jussieu. Es-
becomes of a beautiful purplish red co- sential character: calyx tubular, com-
lour, and a precipitate subsides, which is pressed, upper lip bifid, lower none;
to be washed and dried. This is the only corol lower, lip trifid, with two glands
preparation capable of giving a red co- between the segments ; capsules two-
lour to glass : which then serves as an celled. There are two species, C. fissi-
imitation of the ruby.
folia and C. integrifolia, both natives of
CASSYTA, in botany, a genus of the New Granada.
Enneandria Monogynia class and order. CASTING, in foundery, the running of
Essential character : corol calycine, sex- a metal into a mould prepared for that
partite ; nectary of three truncate glands, purpose. See FOUNDERY.
surrounding the receptacle ; interior fila- CASTING, a term used for the quitting
ments glanduliferous; drupe monosper- or throwing aside any thing from the
mous. There are but two species, of body of an animal, by an effort of nature.
which C. filiformis is a plant which rises Thus deer cast their horns, snakes their
with taper succulent stalks, dividing into skins, lobsters their shells, hawks their
many slender succulent branches; these feathers, annually. When birds cast their
come out frequently by threes or fours at feathers it is called moulting. A horse
the same joint, afterward they send out casts his hair in the spring, and sometimes
side branches singly without order, and in the autumn; also horses sometimes cast
become very bushy; the flowers come out their hoofs.
on the side of the branches, having no
CASTING of drapery, among painters,
calyx; the corolla is oval, white, with a denotes the distribution of the folds; and
small tincture of red, opening like a na- the drapery is said to be well cast, when
vel at the top, including the germ, sta- the folds are distributed in such a manner,
men, style, and nectareous glands so close- as to appear rather the result of mere
ly, as not to be discovered till the corolla chance than of art, study, or labour. In
is cut open. This plant grows naturally that style of painting which is called
in both Indies,
“the grand," the folds of the draperies
:
CAS
CAS
should be great, and as few as possible, dam is occasionally eight feet. In the
because their rich simplicity is more sus preparation of it they begin with felling
ceptible of great lights. But it is an some very high, but not extremely thick
error to design draperies that are too tree on the border of the river, which can
heavy and cumbersome, for they ought be made to fall into the water; and, in a
to be suitable to the figures, with a com- short time, this is effected by the united
bination of ease and grandeur. Order, operation of many, with their fore-teeth,
contrast, and variety of stuffs and folds, the branches being afterwards cleared by
constitute the elegance of draperies; and the same process. A multitude of smaller
diversity of colours in those stuffs, contri- trees are found necessary to complete the
butes extremely to the harmony of the fabric, and many of these are dragged
whole in historic compositions.
from some distance by land, and formed
CASTLE, in the sea-language, is a part into stakes, the fixing of which is a work
of the ship, of which there are two, the of extreme difficulty and perseverance,
fore-castle, being the elevation at the some of the beavers with their teeth rais-
prow, or the uppermost deck, towards ing their large ends against the cross-
the mizen, the place where the kitchens beam, while others at the bottom dig
are. Hind-castle is the elevation which with their fore-feet the holes in which
reigns on the stern over the last deck, the points are to be sunk. A series of
where the officers cabins and places of these stakes, in several rows, is establish-
assembly are.
ed from one bank of the river to the
CASTOR, the beaver, in natural his- other, in connection with the cross-tree,
tory, a genus of Mammalia, of the or- and the intervals between them are filled
der Glires. Generic character: upper up by vast quantities of earth, brought
fore-teeth truncated and hollowed in a from a distance, and plashed with mate-
transverse angle ; lower transverse at rials adapted to give it tenacity and pre-
the top; four grinders in each jaw; tail vent its being carried off. The bark is
long, scaly, and depressed; clavicles per- formed at the bottom, of about the width
fect. There are two species, of which the of twelve feet, diminishing as it approach-
most worthy of notice is C. fiber. The co- es the surface of the water to two or
lour of the beaver is generally of a deep three ; being thus judiciously constructed
chesnut ; sometimes it has been seen to resist its weight and efforts by the in-
entirely white ; less rarely completely clined plane instead of perpendicular op-
black; it is about three feet long in the position. These preparations of such im.
body; its tail is about the length of one mense magnitude and toil being complet-
foot, and by its peculiarity distinguishes ed, they proceed to the construction of
this animal from every other quadruped ; their mansions, which are raised on piles
it is of an oval form, and flat, with a near the margin of the stream or lake,
slight convexity towards the base, desti- and have one opening from the land, and
tute of hair, and completely covered with another by which they have instant ac-
scaly divisions. The beaver was known cess to the water. These buildings are
to the ancients for its possession of that usually of an orbicular form, in general
sebacious matter called castor, secreted about the diameter of ten feet, and com.
by two large glands near its genitals and prehending frequently several stories.
anus, and of which each animal has about The foundation walls are nearly two feet
two ounces; but they appear to have in thickness, resting upon planks or
been unacquainted with its habits and stakes, which constitute also their floors.
economy; with that mental contrivance In the houses of one story only, the walls,
and practical dexterity, which, in its na- which in all cases are plastered with ex
tural state, so strikingly distinguish it. treme neatness, both externally and with.
Beavers are found in the most northern in, after rising about two feet perpendi-
latitudes of Europe and Asia, but are cularly, approach each other so as at
most abundant in North America. In the length to constitute, in closing, a species
months of June and July they assemble of dome. In the application of the mor-
in large companies, to the number of two tar to their habitations, the tails as well as
hundred, on the banks of some water, and feet of the beavers are of essential ser-
proceed to the formatiou of their esta vice. Stone, wood, and a sandy kind of
blishment. If the water be subject to earth are employed in their structures,
risings and fallings, they erect a dam to which by their compactness and strength
preserve it at a constant level; where completely preclude injury from winds
this level is naturally preserved this la- and rain. The alder, poplar, and willow,
bour is superseded. The length of this are the principal trees which they employi
CASTOR
and they always begin their operations on proach to a hole dug in the ice at a small
the trunk at nearly two feet above the distance, to which they are obliged, after
ground; nor do they ever desist from the a certain time, to resort for respiration.
process till its fall is completed. They The flesh of the anterior part of their
sit instead of standing at this labour, and bodies resembles that of land animals in
while reducing the tree to the ground de- substance and flavour, while that of the
rive a pleasure at once from the success of lower possesses the taste, and smell, and
their toils, and from the gratification of lightness of fish.
their palate and appetite by the bark, The sexual union among these animals
which is a favourite species of food to is connected with considerable individual
them, as well as the young and tender choice, sentiment, and constancy. Every
parts of the wood itself.
couple pass together the autumn and win-
For their support in winter ample stores ter, with the most perfect comfort and
are laid up near each separate cabin, and affection. About the close of winter the
occasionally, to give variety and luxury females, after a gestation of four months,
to their repasts during a long season, in produce, in general, each, two or three
which their stores must bave become dry young, and soon after this period they
and nearly tasteless, they will make ex- are quitted by the males, who ramble
cursions into the neighbouring woods for into the country to enjoy the return of
fresh supplies. Depredations by the te- spring; occasionally returning to their
nants of one cabin on the magazines of cabins, but no longer dwelling in them.
another are unknown, and the strictest When the females have reared their
notions of property and honesty are uni- young, which happens in the course of
Versal. Some of their habitations will a few weeks, to a state in which they can
contain six only, others twelve, and some follow their dams, these also quit their
even twenty or thirty inhabitants; and the winter residence and resort to the woods,
whole village or township contains in gene- to enjoy the opening bloom and renovat-
ral about 12 or 14 habitations. Stranger's ed supplies of nature. If their habitations
are not permitted to intrude on the vicinity; on the water should be impaired by
but, amidst the different members of the floods, or winds, or enemies, the beavers
society itself, there appear to prevail that assemble with great rapidity to repair
attachment and that friendship which are the damage. If no alarm of this nature
the natural result of mutual co-operation, occurs, the summer is principally spent
and of active and successful struggles by them in the woods, and on the ad-
against difficulty. The approach of dan- vance of autumn they assemble in the
ger is announced by the violent striking scene of their former labours and friend-
of their tails against the surface of the ships, and prepare with assiduity for the
water, which extends the alarm to a great confinement and rigours of approaching
distance; and, while some throw them- winter.
selves for security into the water, others When taken young, the beaver may be
retire within the precincts of their cabins, tamed without difficulty, but exhibits few
where they are safe from every enemy but or no indications of superior intelligence.
Some beavers are averse to that associa-
The neatness as well as the security of tion which so strikingly characterises
their dwellings is remarkable, the floors these animals in general, and satisfy them-
being strewed over with box and fir, and selves with digging holes in the banks of
displaying the most admirable cleanness rivers, instead of erecting elaborate habi.
and order. Their general position is tations. The fur of these is compara-
that of sitting, the upper part of the tively of little value. See Mammalia, Plate
body, with the head, being considerably VII. fig. 1.
raised, while the lower touches and is C. huidobrius, or the Chilese beaver.
somewhat, indeed, immersed in the This is found principally in the deep lakes
water. This element is not only indis- and rivers of Chili. Its tail differs from
pensable to them in the same way as to that of the former, in being lanceolated
other quadrupeds, but they carefully and hairy. It produces no castor, and
preserve access to it even when the ice possesses nothing ofthe art of architecture.
is of very considerable depth, for the pur. It is courageous, and even savage in its dis-
pose of regaling themselves by excursions position, and has the power of remaining
to a great extent under the frozen sur- under water for a very considerable time.
face. The most general method of taking Its fur is employed in the manufacture of
them is by attacking their cabins during hats, and of a species of cloth as soft
these rambles, and watching their ap- as the finest velvet,
VOL. IL
0
man,
CAS
CAT
CASTOR-oil, in pharmacy, is 'extracted the Monoecia Monandria class and order.
from the kernel of the fruit produced by Natural order of Coniferæ. Essential
the Ricinus Americanus, or oil nut, which character: male calyx of the ament;
grows in many parts of America, and is corol scalelets two parted; female calyx
much cultivated in Jamaica. A gallon of the ament; corol none; style bifid;
of nuts from this tree will produce about strobile. There are five species, of which
a quart of oil. It is either prepared by C. equisetifolia, horse-tail casuarina, is a
coction or cold drawn; that is, extracted very large spreading lofty-tree; the leaves,
from the bruised seeds. It is sent over or rather blanchlets hanging down in
to us in barrels : and that is reckoned the bunches from twelve to eighteen inches
best which has least colour.
in length, like very long hair, or a horse's
CASTRAMETATION, is the art of tail, all jointed from top to bottom like
measuring or tracing out the form of a the equisetums, or horse tails, is a very
camp on the ground; yet it sometimes remarkable character of this singular tree.
has a more extensive signification, by in- It is a native of the East Indies and the
cluding all the views and designs of a South Sea Islands.
general; the one requires only the know CAT. See FELIS,
ledge of a mathematician, the other the CAT, a ship usually employed in the
experience of an old soldier. The an- coal trade; built very strong, and made
cients were accustomed to fortify their to carry from four to six hundred tons.
camps by throwing up entrenchments It is distinguished by a narrow stern, pro-
round them. The Turks, and other Asia- jecting quarters, and by having no orna-
tic nations, fortify themselves, when in mental figure on the prows.
an open country, with their waggons and CA T-hook, a strong hook fitted to the
other carriages. The practice of the cat, to hook the ring of the anchor
Europeans is quite different ; for the sure. when it is to be drawn up or catted.
ty of their camp consists in the facility CAT-o’nine-tails, an instrument, by
and convenience of drawing out their which discipline is still maintained in the
troops at the head of their encampment; British navy and army, though to the
for which reason, whatever particular honour of other countries, it is said that
order of battle is regarded as the best corporal punishment has been abolished. .
disposition for fighting, it follows of This instrument is composed of nine
course, that we should encamp in such pieces of line or cord, about half a yard
a manner as to assemble and parade our long, fixed upon a piece of thick rope for
troops in that order and disposition as
a handle, and having three knots on each
soon as possible. It is therefore the or- cord, with which the men wbo transgress
der of battle that should regulate the or- the orders of their superiors are pun-
der of encampment; that is to say, the ished.
post of each regiment in the line of bat-
Cat's-paw, a light breeze of wind per-
tle should be at the head of its own ceived at a distance in a calm, by the im-
encampment: from whence it follows, pression made on the surface of the sea,
that the extent of the line of battle from which it sweeps very lightly, and then
right to left of the camp, should be equal decays. The same term is given to a
to the front of the troops in line of battle, particular turn made in the bight of a
with the same intervals in the camp as rope, in order to hook a tackle on it.
in the line. By this means every battalion Car-harpings, in a ship, small ropes
covers its own tents, and they can all running in little blocks from one side of
lodge themselves, or turn out in case of the shrowds to the other, near the deck.
necessity at a minute's warning.
Their use is to force the shrowds and
If the front of the camp is greater than make them taught, for the more security
the line, the troops must leave large inter- and safety of the masts.
vals, or expose their flanks ; if less, the
Cat-heads, two strong beams of timber
troops will not have room to form with projected almost horizontally over the
the proper intervals.
ship’s-bows, on each side of the bow-
The front or principal line of the sprit. The cat-head serves to suspend
camp is commonly directed to face the the anchor clear of the bow, when it is
enemy
necessary to let it go : it is supported by
CASUALS, a term used by military a sort of knee, which is generally orna-
men, in their regimental returns of the mented by sculpture.
British army, signifying men that are dead, CATACAUSTIC curves, in the higher
have been discharged, or have deserted. geometry, that species of caustic curves
CASUARINA, in botany, a genus of which are formed by reflection.
CAT
CAT
tic curve.
-
These curves are generated after the “Down thither prone in flight
following manner. If there be an in- He speeds, and thro' the vast ethereal
finite number of rays, as A B, AC, AD, sky
&c. (plate Miscellanies, fig. 6.) proceed-
Sails between worlds and worlds."
ing from the radiating point A, and re- CATACOMB, a grotto or subterrane-
flected at any given curve BDH, so that ous place for the burial of the dead.
the angles of incidence be still equal to The term is particularly used in Italy,
those of reflection; then the curve BE for a vast assemblage of subterraneous
G, to which the reflected rays BI, CE, sepulchres, three leagues from Rome, in
DF, &c. are tangents continually, as in the Via Appia, supposed to be the sepul-
the points I, E, F, is called the catacaus- chres of the ancients. Others imagine
these catacombs to be the cells wherein
If the reflected I В be produced to K, the primitive christians hid themselves,
so that AB=BK, and the curve K L be Each catacomb is three feet broad, and
=
the evolute of the catacaustic BE G, be- eight or ten high, running in form of an
ginning at the point K; then the portion alley or gallery, and communicating with
of the catacaustic BE=AC-ABX one another.
CE-BI continually. Or if any two in- Mr. Monro, in the Philosophical Trans-
cident rays, as AB, AC be taken, that actions, gives it as his opinion, that the
portion of the caustic that is evolved catacombs were the burial places of the
while the ray A B approaches to a coin- first Romans, before the practice of burn-
cidence with A C, is equal to the differing the dead was introduced; and that
ence of those incident rays x the differ- they were dug in consequence of these
ence of the reflected rays. When the opinions, that shades hate the light, and
given curve is a geometrical one, the love to hover about the place where their
catacaustic will be so too, and always bodies were laid.
rectifiable. The catacaustic of a circle is CATACOUSTICS, an appellation giv-
a cycloid, formed by the revolution of en to the doctrine of reflected sounds.
a circle along a circle. Thus, ABD, See ACOUSTICS.
fig. 7, being a semicircle exposed to
CATALOGUE, a list or enumera-
parallel rays; then those rays which fall tion of the names of several books, men,
near the axis C B will be reflected to F, or other things, according to a certain
the middle point of B C; and those which order.
fall at A, as they touch the curve only,
CATALOGUE of the stars, is a list of the
will not be reflected at all; but any inter fixed stars, disposed in their several con-
mediate ray HI will be reflected to a stellations, with the longitudes and lati-
point K, somewhere between A and F. tudes of each.
And since every different incident ray
The most renowned composers of
will have a different focal point, there- these catalogues are, 1. Ptolemy, who
fore, those various focal points will form added his own observations to those of
a curve line A E F in one quadrant, and Hipparchus Rhodius, about the year of
FGD in the other, being the cycloid Christ 880. 2. Ulugh Beigh made a cata-
above-mentioned. And this figure may logue of the fixed stars in 1437. 3. Tycho
be beautifully exhibited experimentally Brahe determined the places of 777 stars
by exposing the inside of a smooth bowi, for the year 1600. 4. William, Landgrave
or glass, to the sun beams, or strong can- of Hesse, with his mathematicians, deter-
dle light; for then this curve A EFGD mined the places of 400 fixed stars. 5.
will appear plainly delineated on any In the year 1667, Dr. Halley, in the island
white surface placed horizontally within of St. Helena, observed 350 not visible in
the same, or on the surface of milk con- our horizon. And, 6. J. Hevelius, add-
tained in the bowl. The caustic of the ing his own observations to those of the
common semi-cycloid, when the rays are antients, and of Dr. Halley, made a cata-
parallel to the axis, is also a common logue of 1888. But the last and greatest
cycloid, described by the revolution of a is the Britannic catalogue, a performance
circle upon the same base. The caustic the most perfect of its kind, compiled
of the logarithmic spiral is the same curve, from the observations of the accurate
only set in a different position.
Mr. Flamstead, who, with all the talents
CATACHRESIS, in rhetoric, a trope and apparatus requisite for such an un-
which borrows the name of one thing to dertaking, devoted himself to that work
express another. Thus Milton, describ- for a long series of years. It contains
ing Raphael's descent from the empyreal 2934 stars
heaven to paradise, says,
In 1782, M. Bode, member of the Royal
CAT
CAT
Academy of Sciences at Berlin, published volume of Bradley's Observations. These
a very extensive catalogue of the fixed make but a small part of what might
stars, collected from the observations of have been deduced from the labours of
Flamstead, Bradley, Hevelius, Tobias that great man, if his representatives had
Mayer, De La Caille, Messier, La Mon- not withheld the rest from the public.
nier, D'Arquier, and other astronomers; Mr. Francis Wollaston informs us, that
in which the places of the stars, amount- Dr. Bradley had the whole British cata-
ing in number to 5058, are given for the logue calculated to the year 1744, and
beginning of the year 1780. This cata- that traces may be observed in it of his
logue, which is a very valuable work, having examined almost every star in it.
though there is reason to apprehend that He adds, from satisfactory information,
the same star is inserted more than once, that Dr. Bradley observed the British
is accompanied by a celestial atlas, or set catalogue twice through: first, with the
of maps of the constellations, engraved old instruments of the Royal Observato-
in a very delicate and beautiful manner. ry, previous to 1750, and afterwards with
In the catalogue already enumerated, the the new ones. The 380 stars above men-
stars are classed in constellations. In the tioned were carefully rectified for the
following catalogues they succeed each year 1790 by Mr. G. Gilpin.
other, according to the order in which At the end of the first volume of “ As-
they transit the meredian, without any tronomical Observations, made at the
regard to the constellation to which they Royal Observatory at Greenwich,” pub-
belong: the name of the constellation lished in 1776, Dr. Maskelyne, the pre-
being given, with a description of the sent Astronomer Royal, has given a cata-
stars situation in it. The first catalogue logue of 34 principal stars, in right
of the stars, as we conceive, that was ascension and north polar distance,
printed in this form, or in the order of adapted to the beginning of the year
their right ascensions, is that of M. de la 1770, and which, being the result
Caille, given at the beginning of his of several years' repeated observations,
Ephemerides for the ten years between made with the utmost care and the best
1755 and 1765, and printed in 1755. It instruments, may be presumed to be ex-
contains the right ascensions and declina- ceedingly accurate. In 1776 a work was
tions of 307 stars, adapted to the begin- published at Berlin, entitled “Recueil
ning of the year 1750. In 1757 he pub- da Tebles Astronomiques," in which is
lished his "Astronomiæ Fundamenta," contained a very large catalogue of stars
in which is a catalogue of the right from Hevelius, Flamstead, M. de la Caille,
ascensions and declinations of 398 stars, and Dr. Bradley, with their latitudes and
adapted likewise to the beginning of longitudes for the beginning of 1800, with
1750. In 1763, the year immediately a catalogue of the southern stars of M.
succeeding that of his death, the “Calum de la Caille, of double stars, of change-
Australe Stelliferum” of the same author able stars, and of nebulous stars : a work
was published; and this contains a cata- very useful for the practical astronomer.
logue of the places of 1942 stars, all situ- To these may be added Dr. Herschel's
ated to the southward of the Tropic of catalogue of double stars, printed in the
Capricorn, and observed by the same in- Philosophical Transactions for 1782 and
defatigable astronomer while he was at 1783; M. Messier's nebulæ and clusters
the Cape of Good Hope in 1751 and of stars, published in the “Connoissance
1752. The places of these are given for des Temps,” for 1784; and Dr. Herschel's
the beginning of the year 1750. In the catalogue of the same kind, given in the
same year, the Ephemerides for the 10 “Philosophical Transactions” for 1786.
years, between 1765 and 1775, were pub- In 1789, Mr. Francis Wollaston publish-
lished; in the introduction to which, the ed in folio, a “ Specimen of a general
places of 515 zodiacal stars are given, all Astronomical Catalogue, arranged in
deduced from his own observations. The Zones of North Polar Distance, and
stars in this catalogue are rectified to adapted to January 1, 1790.” In forming
the beginning of the year 1765. The this catalogue, Mr. Wollaston has not
Nautical Almanac for 1773 contains a made any use of those which precede
catalogue of 380 stars, in right ascension, Flamstead, except in a small part, that of
declination, longitude, and latitude, de Hevelius: but all the stars in the British
rived from the observations of the late catalogue of 1725 are inserted, as well as
Rev. Dr. Bradley, and adjusted to the those which are in the three latter cata-
beginning of the year 1760. It has been logues of M. de la Caille ; those of Dr.
since, viz. in 1798, re-published with cor- Bradley in the Nautical Almanac for
rections, by Dr. Hornsby, in the first 1773; of M. Mayer; of Dr. Maskelyne ;
a
CAT
CAT
the double stars. of Dr. Herschel; M. ripe for the unravelling in the catas-
Messier's nebulæ ; and all those of Dr. trophe.
Herschel, excepting his second and third CATASTROPHE, in dramatic poetry,
classes; that is, all those which are capa- the fourth and last part in the ancient dra-
ble of being discerned with any teles. ma, or that immediately succeeding the
copes inferior to his own. This work catastasis; or, the fifth act in modern tra-
contains fwe distinct catalogues, viz. Dr. gedy.
Maskelyne's new catalogue of 36 princi- CATCH word, among printers, that
pal fixed stars; a general catalogue of all placed at the bottom of each page; be-
the stars in zones of north-polar distance; ing always the first word of the following
an index to the general catalogue; a page.
catalogue of all the stars, in the order in CATECHU, in chemistry, a substance
which they pass the meredian; and a obtained by decoction and inspissation
catalogue of zodiacal stars, in longitude from the wood of the mimosa catechu, a
and latitude.
native of India, is a very powerful as-
CATANANCHE, in botany, a genus tringent, and contains a large propor-
of the Syngenesia Polygamia Æqualis tion of tannin. It is almost wholly solu-
class and order Natural order of Com- ble in water, and in alcohol, but when
pound Flowers. Division, Semifloscu- acted upon by this, a portion of mucilage
losæ. Cinarocephalæ, Jussieu. Essential remains undissolved: the component
character: receptacle chaffy; calyx im- parts are
bricate; down awned from a five-bristled
calycle. There are three species, of
Bombay catechu.
which C. cærulea puts forth many narrow Tannin ... 54.5
hairy leaves, which are jagged on their Extractive matter 34.0
edges like those of buckshorn plantain ; Mucilage
6.5
but the leaves are broader, the jags
Residue
5.
deeper and at greater distances; these
lie flat on the ground, turning their points
100.0
upwards, which are very narrow. Be-
tween the leaves come out the flower
stalks, which are in number proportion-
Bengal catechu.
able to the size of the plant; for from an
Tannin
.. 48.5
old thriving root there is frequently Extract..
36.5
eight or ten, and young plants do not
Mucilage
8.0
send out more than two or three; each of
Residue
7.
the peduncles are terminated with single
heads of flowers, having a dry, silvery,
100.0
scaly calyx, in which are included three
or four florets; these are of a fine blue
colour, with a dark spot at bottom, and CATEGORY, in logic, a series or order
in each the stamens, with their yellow of all the predicates or attributes con-
summits, standing a little above the petals, tained under any genus.
make a pretty appearance. It is a native The school philosophers distribute all
of the South of Europe.
the objects of our thoughts and ideas into
CATAPLASM, an external topical me- certain genera or classes, not so much,
dicine, of a soft consistence, and prepar- say they, to learn what they do not know,
ed of ingredients of different virtues, ac- as to communicate a distinct notion of what
cording to the intention of the physician. they do know; and these classes the
See PHARMACY.
Greeks called categories, and the Latins
CATARACT, in medicine and sur- predicaments.
gery, a disorder of the humours in the Aristotle made ten categories ; viz. sub-
eye, by which the pupilla, that ought to stance, quantity, quality, relation, action,
appear transparent and black, looks passion, time, place, situation, and habit,
opaque, grey, blue, brown, &c. by which which are usually expressed by the fol-
vision is variously impeded, or totally de- lowing technical distich:
stroyed.
CATARRH. See MEDICINE,
Arbor, sex, servos, ardore, refrigerat,
ustos,
CATASTASIS, in poetry, the third
part of the ancient drama, being that
Ruri, cras, stabo, nec tunicatus ero.
wherein the intrigue, or action, set
CATENARIA, in the higher geometry,
forth in the epitasis, is supported, and the name of a curve line formed by a rope
carried on, and heightened, till it be hanging freely from two points of sus-
a
a
CAT
CAT
a
с
pension, whether the points be horizon- are extremely various in their forms and
tal or not. The nature of this curve was colours, some being smooth, others be-
sought after in Galileo's time, but not set with either simple or ramified spines,
discovered till the year 1690, when Mr. and some are observed to protrude from
Bernoulli published it as a problem. Dr. their front, when disturbed, a pair of short
Gregory, in 1697, published a method of tentacula or feelers, somewhat analagous
investigation of the properties formerly to those of a snail. A caterpillar, when
discovered by Mr. Bernoulli and Mr. grown to its full size, retires to some con-
Leibnitz, together with some new pro- venient spot, and securing itself proper-
perties of this curve. From him we ly by a small quantity of silken filaments,
take the following method of finding either suspends itself by the tail, hang-
the general property of the catenaria. ing with its head downwards, or else in
1. Suppose a line heavy and flexible, an upright position, with the body fasten-
the two extremes of which F and D, ed round the middle by a number of fila -
Plate II. Miscellanies, fig. 8, are firmly ments. It then casts off caterpillar-skin,
fixed in those points; by its weight it is and commences chrysalis, in which state
bent into a certain curve F A D, which it continues till the butterfly is ready for
is called the catenaria.
birth, which liberating itself from the
2. Let B D and b c be parallel to the skin of the chrysalis, remains till its
horizon, A B perpendicular to BD, and wings, which are first short, weak, and
Dc parallel to A B, and the points Bb covered with moisture, are fully extend-
infinitely near to each other. From the ed; this happens in about a quarter of an
laws of mechanics, any three powers in hour, when the animal suddenly quits the
equilibrio, are to one another as the lines state of inactivity to which it had been so
parallel to the lines of their direction, long confined, and becomes at pleasure
(or inclined in any given angle) and ter- an inhabitant of the air.
minated by their mutual concourses ; CATESBÆA, in botany, so called in
hence if D d express the absolute gravity honour of Mark Catesby, a genus of the
of the particle D d, (as it will if we allow Tetrandria Monogynia class and order.
the chain to be every way uniform) then Natural order of Luridæ. Rubiacea, Jus-
Dc will express that part of the gravity sieu. Essential character: corolla mono-
that acts perpendicularly upon D d ; and petalous, funnel-form, extremely long,
by the means of which this particle en- superior; stamens within the mouth ;
deavours to reduce itself to a vertical berry polyspermous. There are but two
position; so that if this lineola dc be species, of which C. spinosa, lily thorn,
constant, the perpendicular action of gra- rises with a branching stem to the height
vity upon the parts of the chain will be of twelve feet, covered with a pale russet
constant too, and may therefore be ex- bark; the branches come out alternately
pressed by any given right line. Further, from the bottom to the top, with small
the lineola Dc will express the force leaves resembling those of the box-tree,in
which acts against that conatus of the clusters all round the branches at certain
particle D d, by which it endeavours to distances; the flowers come out single
l'estore itself in a position perpendicular from the side of the branches, hanging
to the horizon, and hinders it from doing downward, and are of a dull yellow co-
so. This force proceeds from the pon- lour; the berry is the size of a middling
derous line D A drawing according to plum, hollow within, with small angular
the direction D d; and is, cæteris paribus, seeds. This shrub was discovered by Mr.
proportional to the line D A which is the Catesby near Nassau town, in Providence,
cause of it. Supposing the curve FAD, one of the Bahama islands. C. parviflo-
therefore, as before, whose vertex is A, ra is a native of Jamaica.
axis A B, ordinate B D, Auxion of the ax- CATHARTICS, in medicine, are the
is DC=B 6, fluxion of the ordinate dc, same with what are commonly called pur-
the relation of these two fluxions is thus, gatives. See MEDICINE.
viz. dc : Dd :: a : DA curve, which is CATHEDRAL, a church wherein is a
the fundamental property of the curve, bishop's see or seat.
and may be thus expressed (putting After the establishment of Christianity,
AB=X and BD=y and A D=c) the emperors, and other great men, gave
j=
large demesnes and other possessions for
the maintenance of the clergy; on these
CATERPILLAR, in natural history: which were called cathedra, cathedrals,
were built the first places of Worship,
the larvæ of butterflies are universally sees, or seats, from the bishop and his
known by the name of caterpillars, and chief clergy's residence thereon.
a
ах
-.
с
CAT
CAV
GERY.
ones.
.
A cathedral was originally different the King, and half to him that shall sue.
from what it is now, the Christians, till This is the act against forestalling, re-
the time of Constantine, having no liberty grating, &c.
to build any temple. By their churches CATURUS, in botany, a genus of the
they only meant their assemblies; and Dioecia Triandria class and order. Na-
by their cathedrals, nothing more than tural order of Tricocceæ. Euphorbiæ,
consistories.
Jussieu. There are two species: C. spi-
CATHETER, in surgery, a fistulous ciflorus is a tree about twenty feet in
instrument, usually made of silver, or silk height, with many branches diffused all
coated with caoutchouc, to be intro- round; the wood is white and close, with
duced into the bladder, to discharge a thick, dusky, unctuous, inodorous bark,
the urine when suppressed. See SUR- and a yellow pith within the fruit is a
round, yellowish-green, insipid berry, in-
CATHETUS, in geometry, a line or ra- closing one round green seed. Native of
dius falling perpendicularly on another the East Indies. Č. scandens is a native
line or surface : thus the catheti of a of the woods of Cochin-China.
right angled triangle are the two sides CAVA, or VENA CAVA, in anatomy,
that include the right angle.
a vein arising with a large sinus from
CATOPTRICS, that part of optics that the right auricle of the heart. See An-
treats of reflex vision, and explains the ATOMY.
laws and properties of reflection, chiefly CAVALIER, in fortification, an eleva-
founded upon this truth, that the angle of tion of earth, of different shapes, situated
reflection is always equal to the angle of ordinarily in the gorge of a bastion, bor-
incidence ; and from thence deducing the dered with a parapet, and cut into more
magnitudes, shapes, and situations, of the or less embrasures, according to the ca.
appearances of objects seen by the reflec- pacity of the cavalier.
tion of polished surfaces, and particularly CAVALRY, a body of soldiers that
plane, spherical, conical, and cylindrical charge on horseback, and may properly
See OPTICS.
be called the right arm of the army: they
CATTLE. Under this term are com- are of great service in disturbing the
prehended horses and oxen, of both sexes enemy by their frequent excursions, in
and of all ages; these we term black cat- intercepting convoys, and destroying the
tle : while sheep, goats, &c. come under country. The cavalry is divided into
the designation of small cattle. The squadrons, and encamp on the wings of
whole tribe are granivorous, and may be the army,
very easily maintained without the aid of CAUCALIS, in botany, a genus of the
the plough, though it is certain that the Pentandria Digynia class and order. Na-
produce of tilled land will pay better tural order of Umbellatæ. Essential cha-
when appropriated to the support of cat. racter : corolla radiated, in the disc ;
tle, than common pastures, or even arti- male, petals inflex-emarginate ; fruit his-
ficial grasses. The latter, such as clover, pid with bristles; involucres entire.
saintfoin, burnet, &c. are superior to There are nine species. These plants
common meadow hay, for the purposes are all annual, or at most biennial, and
of winter fodder; making the animals are seldom cultivated, except in botanic
appear better in their coats, or hair, and gardens. They will rise readily from
causing them to fatten, and to endure fa- seeds, where they are permitted to scat-
tigue, far beyond what they could un- ter, and will grow in any soil and situa-
dergo on common field grass, or its tion.
hay. We have thousands of cattle-mar- CAVEAR, CAVEER, or CAVIARY, the
kets, where beasts of all descriptions spawn, or hard roes of sturgeon, made
may be purchased, in every stage of con- into small cakes, an inch thick, and of
dition, and in all their varieties. The an hand's breadth, salted and dried in
great improvements made of late years the sun.
in farming, added to our great increase The French and Italians get the cavear
of population, have rendered the busi- from Archangel, but they seldom get it
ness of feeding cattle of great impor- at the first hand, for they commonly buy
tance.
it of the English and Dutch.
CATTLE, law relating to. By a statute CAVEAT, in law, a kind of process in
of Edward VI. no person shall buy any the spiritual courts to stop the proving of
ox, &c. and sell the same again alive in a will, the granting letters of administra
the same market, or fair, on pain of for- tion, &c. to the prejudice of another. It
feiting double the value thereof; half to is also used to stop the institution of a
CAV
CAV
a
clerk to a benefice. A caveat stands in to ruminate, and are extremely apt to
force for three months.
be affected by cold. They are in some
The entering a caveat being at the in- places used as articles of food, and even
stance of the party, is for the benefit considered as delicacies. They are un-
of the ordinary, that he may do no wrong; commonly cleanly in their habitations,
it is a cautionary act for his better in- and are often to be seen smoothing and
formation, to which the temporal courts cleansing their fur with particular atten-
have no regard; therefore, it after a ca- tion and perseverance In contests they
veat entered the ordinary should grant not only bite but kick. It is a curious
administration, or probate of a will, it is circumstance, if it may be depended upon
not void by our law, though it is by the as true, and it is stated by authentic re-
canon law; but our law takes notice of a porters, that the male and female seldom
caveat.
sleep at the same time, but exercise over
CAVERNOSE, among anatomists, an each other alternate vigilance. See Mam-
appellation given to several parts of the malia, Plate VII fig. 2.
body on account of their spongy struc- C. paca, or the spotted cavy, of Pen-
ture: thus the cavernosa corpora are two nant, is clumsily formed; a native, like
spongy bodies, made up of a number of the former, of South America ; is highly
small caverns or cells.
esteemed by the inhabitants of this quar-
CAVETTO), in architecture, the re- ter of the world for its food; is particu-
verse of a quarter round, being a concave larly fond of fruits and of sugar; and,
moulding frequently used in the entabla- continuing in its hole during the day, de-
ture.
votes the night to activity and refresh-
CAVIA, the cavy, in natural history, a ment. See Mammalia, Plate VII. fig. 3.
genus of Mammalia, of the order Glires.
C. capybara, or the river cavy, inhabits
Generic character: two wedge-shaped particularly the eastern parts of South
front teeth; eight grinders; from four to America ; and when full grown weighs
five toes on the fore-feet, from three to about a hundred pounds; it lives not only
five on the bind-feet; tail very short, or upon vegetables, but also upon fish,
none; no clavicles. There are seven spe- which, as it swims and dives extremely
cies, of which those that follow are most well, it procures with facility, but which
deserving attention,
it brings to land before it devours; it is
C. cobaya, or the guinea pig. This of a mild disposition, and easily familiar-
animal is a native of South America, and ized by man; its pursuit of prey is ge-
found particularly in Brazil. It is tamed nerally engaged in by night; it frequents,
with great facility, and is inoffensive, ti principally, marshes and the banks of ri-
morous, and particularly cleanly; it does vers. These animals are reported to as-
not, however, appear susceptible of strong sociate only in pairs. The female pro-
attachments to its benefactors, nor is it duces only one young at a time. Their
remarkable for docility. It is one of the flesh is praised by some as exquisite, but
most prolific of animals, and Buffon cal- others represent it as rank and fishy.
culates that, in twelve months only, one c. aguti, the long-nosed cavy. These
thousand might be produced from a sin- animals move like hares and grunt like
gle pair, as the female has been known pigs; their food consists of various fruits,
to bring forth young when two months and of nuts, which they will hide and
old only; and the time of gestation is abstain from touching for many months ;
only three weeks; and she will produce they breed with the rapidity of rabbits,
at least every two months. They are six no season checking their prolific tenden-
or seven months before they arrive at cies; their flesh is very agreeable to the
their maturity of growth, but within the taste, and even when they are old, ac-
short period of twelve hours from their quires little or no toughness. They are
birth are nearly as alert and active as caught by the Indians in Guinea, and
those fully grown, and therefore require other warm parts of South America,
parental assiduity only for a little time. where alone they are to be met with in
Vegetables form their food, and on a great numbers, sometimes being hunted
great variety of these they will flourish down by their dogs, and frequently being
and fatten: very succulent food of this taken in traps, to which they are allured
description, however, is injurious, and, by the accurate imitation of their pecu-
with sow-thistles and cabbage, should be liar sounds. They are nearly of the
employed for them nourishment of more size of a hare; when pursued they re-
consistency, such as grain and bread. treat to burrows or holes of trees, which,
They drink but little, appear, after eating, indeed, constitute their irregular and
3
CAU
CAY
frequently changed abodes, and in which that province; otherwise, when contain-
they are almost uniformly found alone ; ed within their own bounds, they are
or the female with its young ones. They not repugnant to physical causes.
hold their food in the same manner as CAUSEWAY, or "CAUSEY, a massive
the squirrel ; they make their excur- construction of stones, stakes, and fas-
sions for food during the day, and may cines; or an elevation of earth, well beat-
be easily domesticated, though not so en; serving either as a road in wet mar-
completely as to exclude altogether their shy places, or as a mole to retain the
natural wildness. See Mammalia, Plate waters of a pond, or prevent a river from
VII. fig. 4.
overflowing the lower grounds.
CAUKING, or CAULKING of a ship, is CAUSTIC, a substance is said to
driving oakum, or the like, into all the CAUSTICITY, S be caustic when it
seams of the plank of a ship, to prevent produces the same effect on the tongue
leaking and keep out the water.
as that of actual fire, that is, an imme-
CAULKING irons, are iron chissels for diate sensation of burning, followed with
that purpose. Some of these irons are a slight disorganization of the surface ac-
broad, some round, and others grooved. tually in contact. Thus alkalies are call-
After the seams are stopped with oakum, ed caustic when deprived of carbonic
it is done over with a mixture of tallow, acid, because, when concentrated, they
pitch, and tar, as low as the ship draws then burn and blister the tongue almost
water.
instantly. Caustic substances are also
CAUL, in anatomy, a membranaceous generally corrosive, or such as act upon
part of the abdomen, covering the great- organized matter, and decompose it with
est part of the intestines.
rapidity. The term caustic prefixed to
CAULIFLOWERS, in gardening, a the alkalies and earths, to distinguish the
much esteemed species of brassica, or cab. pure or decarbonated state, is now almost
bage.
always omitted, as unnecessary by the
CAUSE, causa, that from whence any use of the term carbonate ; thus to the
thing proceeds, or by virtue of which any terms caustic potash, and mild potash, are
thing is done : it stands opposed to effect. substituted those of potash, and carbonate
We get the ideas of cause and effect, says of potash respectively. We also say
Mr. Locke, from our observation of the lime, and the carbonate of lime. There
vicissitude of things, while we perceive is still some confusion with regard to
some qualities or substances begin to ex- the term soda among others; soda
ist, and that they receive their existence meaning in chemical language pure or
from the due application and operation caustic soda, but in commerce, and in
of other beings. That which produces, common use, the mild or carbonate of soda.
is the cause, and that which is produced, CAUSTIC lunar, the old name for ni.
the effect : thus, fluidity in wax is the trate of silver, melted and cast into cy-
effect of a certain degree of heat, which lindrical pieces about the size of small
we observe to be constantly produced by black-lead pencils, for the use of sur-
the application of such heat.
geons: and the solution of lunar-caustic
CAUSE, first, that which acts of itself, is the proportion of from 8 to 12 grains
and of its own proper power or virtue : in an ounce of water, and has been found
God is the only first cause in this sense. an excellent remedy in cases of ring.
CAUSES, second, are those which de- worm, as it is called, that is, when the
rive the power and faculty of action from hair falls off in patches from the head.
a first cause: these are improperly called CAUSTIC curve, in the higher geome-
causes, as they do not, strictly speaking, try, a curve formed by the concourse or
act at all, but are acted on: of this kind coincidence of the rays of light, reflected
are all those that we term natural causes. or refracted from some other curve. See
CAUSES, final, are the motives induc- CATACAUSTIC.
ing an agent to act; or the design and CAYENNE pepper. This is the levigat-
purpose for which the thing was done. ed or ground pod of the plant common.
Lord Bacon says that the final cause is ly known to us by the name of capsi-
so far from being serviceable, that it cor- cum. There are many varieties; but
rupts the sciences, unless it be restrain- the principal are:-1. The berberry cap.
ed to human actions : however, continues sicum, much resembling that fruit in size
he, final causes are not false, nor unwor- and colour, though infinitely more glow-
thy of inquiry in metaphysics : but their ing. It is perhaps the most pungent of
excursions into the limits of physical all the vegetable simples with which
causes hath made a great devastation in we are acquainted. 2. The long-pod,
VOL. II.
P
:
CEC
CED
which is extremely common, and gene. snake-wood; this tree commonly rises to
rally grows as large as a man's middle a considerable height, being seldom under
finger. 3. The cockspur, which takes forty feet in the most perfect state. The
that name from its shape, and is highly trunk and branches are hollow every
pungent. 4. The caffree, which is round where, and stopped from space to space
and wrinkled, and ordinarily about the with membranous septas, answering to so
size of a small medlar. All these may many light annular marks in the surface.
be raised from the seed on hot-beds, The wood of this tree, when dry, is very
and be planted out in June. They are bien- apt to take fire by attrition : the native
nials in their native climate; viz, in Cay- Indians always kindle their fires in the
enne, whence the pepper derives its woods by rubbing a piece of it against
name, and in every part of the torrid some harder wood. The bark is strong
zone; but we cannot keep them through and fibrous, and is frequently used for
the winter. Cayenne is esteemed a stimu- cordage. It is a native of South Ameri-
lant, and commonly has a place among ca, Jamaica, and other West India
the sauces, &c. intended for the table. Islands,
CAYS, a term used by sailors to denote CEDAR, comprehended by Linnæus
the little islands and rocks that are almost among the junipers. See JUNIPER. Ce.
every where dispersed among the West dar-wood, which is of a fragrant smell
India islands,
and fine grain, is almost incorruptible
CAZEMATE, or CASEMATE, in forti- by reason of its bitterness, which renders
fication, a certain retired platform in the it distasteful to worms. Historians tell
Aank of a bastion, for the defence of us, that some of this timber was found
the moat and face of the opposite bas- in the temple of Apollo at Utica, 2000
tion.
years old. The cedars of Lebanon are
CEANOTHUS, in botany, a genus of famous as having been used by Solomon
the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. in building the temple at Jerusalem.
Natural order of Dumosa. Rhampi, Jus- CEDRELA, in botany, a genus of the
sieu. Essential character: petals five, Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
sacular, vaulted; berry dry, three celled, Natural order of Miscellaneæ. Meliæ, Jus-
three-seeded. There are six species, of sieu. Essential character: calyx wither-
which C. Americanus, American ceano- ing; corolla five-petalled, funnel-form,
thus, or New Jersey tea, seldom rises fastened by the base to the receptacle to
more than three or four feet high in Eng- one-third of its length; capsule woody,
land, sending out branches on every side five-celled, five-valved; seeds imbricate
from the ground upward. These branches downwards, with a membranaceous wing.
are ornamented with oval pointed leaves, There is but one species ; viz. C. odorata,
having three longitudinal veins running Barbadoes bastard cedar; rises with a
from the foot-stalk to the point, and di- straight stem to the height of 70 or 80
verging in the broad part of the leaves feet : while young the bark is smooth,
from each other; at the extremity of and of an ash colour ; but as it advances,
each shoot the flowers are produced in the bark becomes rough, and of a darker
close thick spikes, and are composed colour. Toward the top it shoots out
of five small petals of a clear white. many side branches, garnished with
These appear in July, making a pretty winged leaves, composed of sixteen pair of
appearance during their continuance; for leaflets, which are broad at their base,and
as every shoot is terminated by one of are near two inches long, of a pale colour ;
these spikes, the whole shrub is covered these emit a rank odour in the summer
over with flowers, the branches growing season, so as to be very offensive. The
very close to each other, and when the fruit is oval, about the size of a part-
autumn proves mild, these shrubs often ridge's egg, smooth, of a dark colour, and
flower again in October,
opens in five parts, having a five-cornered
CECROPIA, in botany, a genus of the column standing in the middle, between
Dinecia Diandria class and order. Natu- the angles of which the winged seeds are
ral order of Scabridæ. Urticæ, Jussieu. closely placed, lapping over each other
Essential character, male ; spathe cadu. like the scales of fish. This tree is
cous; ament imbricate, with turbinate commonly known under the name of cedar
scales, compressed-quadrangular; corol. in the British West India islands.
la none; female as in the male ; germs CEDROTA, in botany, a genus of the
imbricate ; style one; stigma lacerated ; Octandria Monogynia class and order.
berry one-seeded. There is but one Essential character : calyx six-parted ;
species, viz. C. peltata, trumpet-tree, or corolla none; germ superior, surrounded
;
a
а
CEL
CEL
by a gland; style short. There is but CELLEPORA, in natural history, a ge-
one species ; viz. C. Guianensis; this is nus of the vermes zoophyta. Animal an
a lofty tree, forty feet in height, and two hydra or polype; coral somewhat mem-
in diameter, with a thick, unequal, wrink- branaceous, composed of round cells.
led bark, full of clefts, and is a heavy There are eight species, of which we
aromatic wood, which becomes light shall notice C. ramulosa, which is found in
when dry. It grows in the great forest the Northern Ocean, very brittle and
of Guiana, flowering in May.
much branched, and appearing as if com-
CELARENT, in logic, a mode of syl- posed of grains of sand. C. spongites
Jogysm, wherein the major and conclusion has rows of tubular top-shaped cells, in
are universal negative propositions, and single layers, the openings of which are
the minor an universal affirmative. As margined.
margined. This species inhabits the Me-
ce No man that is a hypocrite can be diterranean and North seas: white, grey,
saved :
or red, and marked on the under side of
LA Every man who with his lips only the cells with lines between each row ;
cries Lord, Lord, is a hypocrite : they are from two to five inches in dia-
RENT Therefore, no man, who with his meter.
lips only cries Lord, Lord, can be
CELLULAR substance, in anatomy, or
saved.
Cellular membrane, is the medium
CELASTRUS, in botany, a genus of which connects and supports all the va-
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or- rious parts and structures of the body.
der. Natural order of Dumosæ. Rham- It is composed of an assemblage of fi-
ni, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla bres, and laminæ of animal matter; con-
five-petalled, spreading ; capsule triangu- nected to each other, so as to form innu-
lar, trilocular; seeds calyptrated. There merable cells, or small cavities, from
are twenty-two species. This genus con- which its name of cellular is derived.
sists of shrubs or small trees, with alter. This substance pervades every part of the
nate leaves, and the flowers many toge. animal structure. By joining together
ther, on axillary subdichotomous pedun- the minute fibrils of muscle, tendons or
cles. They are mostly natives of Ame. nerve, it forms obvious and visible fibres;
rica and the Cape of Good Hope.
it collects these fibres into larger fascicu-
CELERITY, the swiftness of any body li; and by joining such fasciculi to each
in motion. See MECHANICS.
other, constitutes an entire muscle or
CELESTINE, in mineralogy, a species nerve.
It thus forms an investment com-
of the Strontian genus : it is divided by mon to the whole muscle, and bestows
Werner into two sub-species; viz. the on each bundle of fibres, nay, on each fi-
fibrous and the foliated : the colour of the bre, down to the most minute threads,
former is intermediate between indigo peculiar sheaths, delicate and tender in
blue and bluish grey, and sometimes proportion to the subtilty of the fibre. It
passes into a milk white. It loses its co- joins together the individual muscles, and
lour in keeping. It is found massive and is collected in their intervals. It surrounds
in plates, also crystallized; the fragments each vessel and nerve in the body; often
are splintery. It shews a tendency to connecting these parts to each other by a
prismatic distinct concretions, which ap- firm kind of capsule; and in a looser form
pear to be parallel and conformable with joining them to the neighbouring mus.
the fibrous fracture. Specific gravity is cles, &c.
When condensed into a firm
383. Its geognostic situation is very im- and compact structure, it constitutes the
perfectly known; it is imagined to occur
various membranes of the body; which,
in marl. It is found in France, and at by long maceration in water, may be re-
In the
Frankstown in Pennsylvania. The foliated solved into a cellular texture.
celestine is milk white, which falls into bones, it forms the basis and ground-
blue : it occurs massive, and is crystalliz. work of their fabric; a receptacle, in the
ed in six-sided tables that intersect one interstices of which the earth ot' bone is
another. It is found in Sicily, and in Eng- deposited. The only parts of the body
land, near Bristol: specific gravity 3.6, in which the cellular texture seems to be
nearly, and the constituent parts are, ac-
wanting, are the proper substance of the
cording to Vauquelin,
brain, the crystalline lens, enamel of the
Sulphate of strontian ... 91.42
teeth, and the insensible integuments of
Carbonate of lime .. 8.33 the body ; viz. the epidermis, nails, and
Oxide of iron
hair. As the cellular substance is entirely
soluble in boiling water, it is ascribed
100.00
by chemists to the peculiar modification
.
.. 0.25
CEL
СЕМ
.
of animal matter, termed gelatine. Its when it arrives to any size, its hardness,
watery solution assumes, when cold, the toughness, and flexibility entitle it to very
appearance of jelly, and, after a particular important services. its fine regular
mode of preparation, constitutes glue. spreading head, of a cheerful green co-
From the universal extent of this cel- lour, render's this tree very proper for
lular texture, two conclusions may be clumps in parks, groves, single trees, or
drawn. 1. It forms the basis of the
avenues.
whole animal fabric, in such a way that, CEMENT copper. The copper procur-
if we conceive every part removed, ex-ed from the sulphate by precipitation
cept this, the form of the whole would with iron is so called.
still be expressed in cellular substance. CEMENTATION, in the arts, a gene-
2. It forms a connection and passage be- ral method of forming steel from iron, by
tween all parts of the body, however re- means of the application of charcoal. In
mote in situation, or dissimilar in struc- a proper furnace, layers of bars of malle-
ture. For the cells of this substance able iron, and layers of charcoal, are
every where communicate, as we may placed one upon another, the air exclud-
collect from facts of the most common ed, the fire is raised to a great height,
and familiar occurrence. The air in em- and kept up for eight or ten days. If
physema spreads rapidly from the chest after this the conversion of the iron into
to the most remote parts of the body; it steel be complete, the fire is extinguished,
has been known in such a case to gain ad- and the whole is left to cool for six or
mission into the eye-ball.
eight days longer. Iron prepared in this
CELOSIA, in botany, a genus of the manner is named blistered steel, from the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order. blisters which appear on its surface.
Natural order of Miscellaneæ. Amaranthi, Copper is converted into brass by cemen-
Jussieu. Essential character: calyx three- tation with a powder of calamine and
leaved ; leaflets similar to those of the charcoal. The powder thus used is called
five-petalled corolla ; stamina conjoined cement powder.
at the base to the plated nectary; cap- CEMENTS and lutes. Under this ar-
sule gaping horizontally. There are four- ticle may be mentioned the receipts for
teen species. Celosias, or cock’s combs, preparing some of the most useful sub-
are all herbaceous plants, and annual. stances of this kind, that are required in
The flowers are glomerate in spikes or common chemical operations. The uses
panicles, some of which are flated and of lutes and cements are either to close
shaped somewhat like the comb of a cock. the joinings of chemical vessels to pre-
Natives of the East Indies, China, Cochin vent the escape of vapours and gases dur.
China, and Japan.
ing the processes of 'distillation, sublima-
CELSIA, in botany, a genus of the Di- tion, and the like, or to protect vessels
dynamia Angiospermia class and order. from the action of the fire, which might
Natural order of Luridæ. Solaneæ, Jus- crack, or fuse, or calcine them; or
,
sieu. Essential character: calyx five- sometimes to repair flaws and cracks, and
parted; corolla rotated; filament beard- for a variety of other smaller purposes.
ed; capsule two-celled. There are four From the vast variety of receipts for
species. Natives of the Levant, Crete, lutes and cements of different kinds, the
the East Indies, and Peru.
following may be selected, which will an-
CELTIS, in botany, English lote, or swer most of the purposes of the expe-
nettle-tree, a genus of the Polygamia Mo- rimental chemist.' To prevent the es-
noecia class and order. Natural order of cape of the vapours of water, spirit, and
Scabridæ. Amentaceæ, Jussieu. Essen- liquors not corrosive, the simple applica-
tial character: Herm. calyx five-parted; tion of slips of moistened bladder will an-
corolla none; stamina five; styles two ; swer very well for glass, and paper with
drupe one-seeded; male, calyx six-part- good paste for metal. Bladder, to be ve-
ed; corolla none; stamina six. There
ry adhesive, should be soaked some time
are seven species, of which C. australis, in water moderately warm, till it feels
European nettle tree, or lote tree, with a clammy, it then sticks very well : if
black fruit, is about fifty feet in height, smeared with white of egg, instead of wa-
with slender branches, which have a ter, it adheres still closer. Another ve-
smooth dark coloured bark with grey ry convenient lute is linseed meal, mois-
spots. The fruit is the size of a pea; it tened with water to a proper consistence,
grows naturally in the south of France, well beaten, and applied pretty thick
where it is one of the largest trees. The over the joinings of the vessels. This
wood of this tree is exceedingly hard, and immediately renders them tight, and the
СЕМ
CEN
lute in some hours dries to a hard mass. ment, for cellars and places liable to
Almond paste will answer the same pur- damp.
pose. The use of the above lute is so ex- All the above-mentioned cements, with
tensive, that no other is required in clos- lime, become very hard by drying, inso-
ing glass vessels in preparing all com- much that they cannot be separated from
mon distilled liquors; and it will even glass vessels without the help of a sharp
keep in ammonia, and acid gases, for a knife and some violence; and hence de-
longer time than is required for most ex- licate vessels and long thin tubes, cement-
perimental purposes. It begins to scorch ed with it, are apt to break when the ap-
and spoil at a heat much above boiling, paratus is taken down, and sometimes
and therefore will not do as a fire-lute. even by the mere force of contraction in
It is still firmer, and dries sooner when setting. It is a great advantage, how-
made up with milk, or lime-water, or ever, that they may be applied imme-
weak glue. A number of very cohesive diately to any accidental crack or failure
cements, impervious to water and most of the lute already on, notwithstanding a
liquids and vapours, and extremely hard stream of vapour is bursting through ;
when once solidified, are made by the and in large distillations it is of advantage
union of quick-lime with many of the ve- always to have some of the materials at
getable or animal mucilaginons liquors. hand.
The variety of these is endless. We may CENCHRUS, in botany, a genus of the
first mention the following, as it has been Polygamia Monoecia class and order.
extensively employed by chemists for Natural order of Grasses. Essential cha-
centuries. Take some whites of eggs racter: invol. laciniate, echinate, two
with as much water, beat them well to- flowered; calyx glume two-flowered, one
gether, and sprinkle in sufficient slaked male, the other hermaphrodite; Herm.
lime, to make up the whole to the con- corolla glume awnless; stamina three;
sistence of thin paste. The lime should seed one; male corolla glume awnless;
be slaked by being once dipped in water, stamina three. There are eleven species,
and then suffered to fall into powder, all natives of both Indies.
which it will do speedily, with great emis- CENSOR of books, are a body of doc-
sion of heat, if well burnt. This cement tors or others established in divers coun-
should be spread on slips of cloth, and tries to examine all books before they
applied immediately, as it hardens or sets go to the press, and to see they contain
very speedily. While hardening, it may nothing contrary to faith and good man-
be of use to sprinkle over it some of the ners.
lime in fine powder. This cement is of- In England, we had formerly an officer
ten more simply, and as conveniently ma- of this kind, under the title of licenser of
naged, by smearing slips of linen on both the press; but since the revolution, our
sides with white of egg, and when appli- press has been laid under no such re-
ed to the joining of the vessels, shak- straint.
ing some powdered lime over it: it then CENT, in commerce, an abridgement
dries very speedily. Another lute of the of centum, is used to express the profit
same kind, and equally good, is made by or loss arising from the sale of any com-
using a strong solutiou of glue to the lime, modity. Thus we say, there is 10 per
instead of the white of egg: it sets equal- cent. profit, or 10 per cent. loss; which is
ly soon, and becomes very hard. A mix- one-tenth profit, or one-tenth loss, upon
ture of liquid glue, white of egg, and the sale of the whole.
lime, makes the lut d'ane, which is so firm, CENTAUREA, in botany, a genus of
that broken vessels united with it are al- the Syngenesia Polygamia Frustranea
most as strong as when sound. None of class and order. Natural order of com
these lutes, however, will enable these pound flowers. Cinarocephalæ, Jussieu.
vessels to hold liquids for any great There are seventy-seven species, of which
length of time. Milk or starch, with we shall only mention C. moschata, pur-
lime, make a good but less firm lute. A ple sweet centaury, which is an annual,
very firm and singular lute of this kind is and has been many years propagated in
made by rubbing down some of the poor- the English gardens, under the title of
est skimmed-milk cheese with water, to Sultan flower, or sweet Sultan. It was
the consistence of thick soup, and then brought from the Levant, where it grows
adding lime, and applying as above: it naturally in arable land among the corn;
answers extremely well. Lime and blood, it sends up a round, channelled stalk,
with a small quantity of brick-dust, or nearly three feet high, which divides in-
broken pottery, stirred in, is used in to many branches, from the sides of which
some places as a very good water-ce- come out long naked peduncles, each
CEN
CEN
:
bx
a
bx
=
a
a
sustaining a single head of flowers; they DE drawn parallel to the base, conse-
have a strong odour, so as to be very of- quently the center of gravity of the tri-
fensive to many people ; they are purple, angle will be found somewhere in the
white, or flesh-coloured; there is also a line B G. The area of the triangle may
variety with fistula flowers, and another he considered as consisting of an infinite
with fringed flowers; but these degene- number of indefinitely small parallelo-
rate in a few years, however carefully the grams, D, E, b, a, each of which is to be
seeds may be saved.
considered as a weight, and also as the
CENTER, in carpentry, an arch fram- fluxion of the area of the triangle, and so
ed of wood, upon which a stone or brick may be expressed by 2 yx, (putting B F
2
arch is turned.
x, and FE=y) if this fluxionary
CENTER, or CENTRE, in geometry, a weight be multiplied by its velocity s,
point equally distant from the extremities
of a line, figure, or body.
we shall have 2 y x x for its momentum.
a
=
Now put BG= a and AC=b, then
dle of a circle, or circular figure, from B G (a): AC (6) :: BF (*): DE =
which all lines drawn to the circumfe- 2 y, therefore the fluxion of the
rence are equal.
Center of a conic section, a point where weights 2 yx =
CENTER
and the fluxion of
in the diameters intersect each other. In
the ellipsis, this point is within the fi-
bxxx
the momenta 2 y x x = whence
gure, and in the hyperbola, without.
CENTER of a curve of the higher kind, the
6 x 3
point where two diameters concur. When the fluent of the latter, viz. divided
3 a
all the diameters concur in the same
b x2
point, Sir Isaac Newton calls it the gene. by the fluent of the former,viz. will
ral center.
2a
2
CENTER of an ellipsis, the point where give 5 x for the distance of the point
the transverse and conjugate diameters
intersect each other.
from B in the line B F, which has a velo-
CENTER of gravitation and attraction, in city equal to the mean velocity of all the
physics, that point to which the revolving particles in the triangle D B E, and is
planet or comet is impelled or attracted therefore its center of gravity. Conse-
by the impetus of gravity.
quently the center of gravity of any tri-
CENTER of gravity, in mechanics, that angle ABC, is distant from the vertex
point about which all the parts of a body B { B G a right line drawn from the an-
В
do, in any situation, exactly balance each gle B bisecting the base A C. And since
other. Hence, 1. If a body be suspended the section of a superficial or hollow cone
by this point as the center of motion, it is a triangle, and circles have the same
will remain at rest in any position indiffe- ratio as their diameters, it follows that the
renty. 2. If a body be suspended in any circle whose plane passes through the
other point, it can rest only in two posi- center of gravity of the cone, is of the
tions, viz. when the said center of gravi: length of the side distant from the vertex
ty is exactly above or below the point of of the said cone.
suspension. 3. When the center of gra-
vity is supported, the whole body is To find the center of gravity of a solid
kept from falling. 4. Because this point cone. As the cone consists of an infinite
has a constant endeavour to descend to number of circular areas, which may be
the center of the earth; therefore, 5. considered as so many weights, the cen-
When the point is at liberty to descend, ter of gravity may be found as before, by
the whole body must also descend, ei- putting BE=x (fig. 2.) B G=, the
ther by sliding, rolling, or tumbling circular area D FÈ=y, and A GC=b;
down. 6. The center of gravity in regu- and from the nature of the cone, a? : x2
lar uniform and homogeneal bodies, as
bx
6x²x
squares, circles, &c. is the middle point
-: but my=
y=
a
in a line connecting any two opposite
bx3x
points or angles; wherefore, if such a ion of the weights; and y x x=
line be bisected, the point of section will
be the center of gravity.
=Auxion of the momenta, whence the
To find the center of gravity of a tri- fluent of the latter, viz. divided by
angle. Let B G (Plate III. Miscell. fig.
1,) bisect the base AC of the triangle the fluent of the former
bx3
ABC, it will also bisect every other line
8 aછે
:: 6
:
= flux-
a
a
6 x4
4 az?
will give
CENTER
x for the center of gravity of the part A, or that A X CA=B XCB; then is
D BE F, consequently the center of gra- C the center of gravity of the bodies A
vity of the cone A B C G is distant from and B. If the center of gravity of three
the vertex B of the side B G, in a circle bodies be required, first find C the center
parallel to the base.
of gravity of A and B; and supposing a
To find the center of gravity in a paral- body to be placed there equal to the sum
lelogram and parallelopiped, draw the of A and B, find G the center of gravity
diagonal A D and EG (fig. 3,) likewise of it and D; then shall G be the centre of
CB and HF; since each diagonal AD gravity of the three bodies A, B, and D.
and C B divides the parallelogram ACDB In like manner the center of gravity of
into two equal parts, each passes through any number of bodies is determined.
the center of gravity : consequently the The sum of the products that arise by
point of intersection, I, must be the cen- multiplying the bodies by their respective
ter of gravity of the parallelogram. In distances, from a right line or plane given
like manner, since both the plane CBFH in position, is equal to the product of the
and AD GE divide the parallelopiped sum of the bodies multiplied by the dis-
into two equal parts, each passes through tance of the center of gravity from the
its center of gravity, so that the common same right line or plane, when all the
intersection T K is the diameter of gravi- bodies are on the same side of it: but
ty, the middle whereof is the center. when some of them are on the opposite
After the same manner may the center side, their products, when multiplied by
of gravity be found in prisms and cylin- their respective distances froin it, are to
ders, it being the middle point of the be considered as negative, or to be sub-
right line that joins the center of gravity ducted. Let IL (fig. 6,) be the right
of their opposite bases
line given in position, the center of
The center of a gravity of a parabola is gravity of the bodies A and B; A a, B b,
found as in the triangle and cone. Thus, Čc, perpendiculars to IL in the points
let B F in the parabola A B C (fig. 4) be a, b, and c; then if the bodies A and B be
equal to x, DE= y, then will y s be the
å be the on the same side of IL we shall find A+
fluxionary weight, and y m sc the fluxion of Aa+bXBb=A+B X Cc. For draw-
the momenta ; but from the nature of the ing through C, the right line M N paral..
curve we have y=x); whence yü= xlel to IL meeting A a in M, and B bin N,
we have A:B :: B C:A C by the proper-
2
ä, and y x x =
= xxx, whose fluent? x} ty of the center of gravity, and conse-
5
quently A:B::BN: AM, or A XAM
2 3
3
divi
livided xịthe fluent of æīs will give şa AXCc+A XAM + BXCc-B XB
=BX BN; but A X Aa+B X B b =
3
=BF for the distance of the center of N=A XCc + BxCe=A+B X Ce.
=A.
When B is on the other side of the right
gravity from the vertex B in the part of line I L (fig. 7,) and C on the same side
DBE; and so of B G is that center in with A, then AX Aa-B X Bb=AX
the axis of the whole parabola A B C from Cc+A X AM-B X BN+B XCC=
the vertex B.
A+B XCc; and when the sum of the
The center of gravity in the human products of the bodies on one side of IL
body is situated in that part which is call- multiplied by their distances from it, is
ed the pelvis, or in the middle between equal to the sum of the products of the
the hips. For the center of gravity of bodies multiplied by their distances on
segments, parabolics, conoids, spheroids, the other side of I L, then Cc vanishes,
&c. we refer to Wolfius.
or the common center of gravity of all
Center of gravity of two or more bodies, the bodies falls on the right line IL
a point so situated in a right line joining Hence it is demonstrable, that when
the centers of these bodies, that if this any number of bodies move in right
point be suspended, the bodies will equi- lines with uniform motions, their com-
ponderate and rest in any situation. In mon center of gravity moves likewise in
two equal bodies it is at equal distances a right line with an uniform motion; and
from both : when the bodies are unequal that the sum of their motions estimated in
it is nearer to the greater body, in pro- any given direction, is precisely the same
portion as it is greater than the other; or as if all the bodies in one mass were car-
the distances from the centers are in- ried on with the direction and motion of
versely as the bodies. Let A (fig. 5,) be their common center of gravity,
greater than B, join A B, upon which CENTER of an hyperbola, a point in the
take the point c, so that CA:CB::B: middle of the transverse axis.
=
:
1
=
aži ;
-
CENTER
5
=
iz
Center of magnitude, of any homoge- tangle RS = b, the distance of the cen-
neal body, the same with the center of ter of oscillation from the axis will be
gravity.
found = { b.
CENTER of motion, that point which The center of oscillation in an equila-
remains at rest, while all the other teral triangle SAH oscillating about its
parts of a body move about it. And this axis RI, parallel to the base S H, is found
is the same in uniform bodies of the at a distance from the vertex A equal to
same matter throughout, as the center of 2 A E the altitude of the triangle.
gravity.
CENTER of oscillation, that point in a
The center of oscillation in an equila-
pendulum, in which, if the weight of the teral triangle SAH oscillating about its
several parts thereof were collected, base SH, is found at a distance from the
each vibration would be performed in vertex A = 1 A E.
the same time as when those weights
For the centers of oscillation of para-
are separate. This is the point from bolas and curves of the like kind oscillat-
whence the length of a pendulum is ing about their axis parallel to their bases,
measured, which in our latitude, in a they are found as follows. In the apol-
pendulum that swings seconds, is 39 lonian parabola, the distance of the cen-
inches and to
ter of oscillation from the axis 응
The center of suspension is the point A E.
on which the pendulum hangs.
In the cubical paraboloid, the distance
A general rule for finding the centre of os- of the center from the axis 7. AE. In a
cillation. If several bodies be fixed to an biquadratic paraboloid, the distance of the
inflexible rod suspended on a point, and
each body be multiplied by the square of center from the axis = }} A E.
its distance from the point of suspension,
CENTER of percussion, in a moving body,
and then each body be multiplied by its that point wherein the striking force is
distance from the same point; and all the greatest, or that point, with which if the
former products when added together, body strikes against any obstacle, no
be divided by all the latter products add-shock shall be felt at the point of suspen-
sion.
ed together, the quotient which shall
arise from thence, will be the distance of
The center of percussion, when the
the center of oscillation of these bodies striking body revolves round a fixed
from the said point.
point, is the same with the center of os-
Thus, if C F (fig. 8) be a rod on which cillation, and consequently may be deter-
are fixed the bodies A, B, D, &c. at the mined by the same rule.
several points A, B, D, &c. and if the body
Hence a stick of a cylindrical figure,
A be multiplied by the square of the dis- supposing the center of motion at the
tance C A, and B be multiplied by the hand, will strike the greatest blow at a
square of the distance C B, and so on for distance about two-thirds of its length
the rest; and then if the body A be mul- from the hand.
tiplied by the distance CA, and B be
The center of percussion is the same
multiplied by the distance CB, and so on with the center of gravity, if all the
for the rest; and if the sum of the pro- parts of the striking body be carried
ducts arising in the former case be divid- with a parallel motion, or with the same
ed by the sum of those which arise in the celerity.
latter, the quotient will give C Q, the dis- CENTER of a parallelogram, or polygon,
tance of the center of oscillation of the the point in which its diagonals inter-
bodies, A, B, D, &c. from the point C. sect.
To determine the center of oscillation of CENTER of a sphere, a point in the mid-
the rectangle RIHS (fig. 9) suspended dle, from which all lines drawn to the
on the middle point A of the side RI, and surface are equal. Hermes Trismegistus
oscillating about its axis RI. Let RI= defines God an intellectual sphere, whose
.
SH=a, AP= x, then will P p, =dx center is every where, and circumference
and the element or the area, consequently no where.
one weight = ad x and its momentum
=
a x dx. Wherefore sa 2 dx : sax d
CENTINEL or CENTRY, in military
language, is a private soldier, from the
=
{ax3 : 1 ax = {x, indefinitely ex- guard posted upon any spot of ground, to
presses the distance of the center of os- stand and watch carefully for the security
cillation from the axis of oscillation in the of the said guard, or of any body of troops,
segment RCDI. If then for æ be sub- or post, and to prevent any surprise from
stituted the altitude of the whole rec- the enemy. All centinels are to be very vigi-
-
=
CEN
CEN
lant on their posts; neither are they to sing, ceed from the influence of some power
smoke, or suffer any noise to be made that acts incessantly; which power may
near them. They are not to sit down, be measured, in the first case, by the
lay their arms out of their hands, or sleep; pressure of the quiescent body against
but keep moving about their posts during the obstacle which prevents it from mov-
the two hours they stand, if the weather ing, or by the velocity gained or lost
will allow of it. No centry to move more in the second case, or by the flexure of
than 50 paces to the right, and as many to the curve described in the third case :
the left of his post, and let the weather be due regard being had to the time in
ever so bad, he must not get under any which these effects are produced, and
other cover but that of the centry.box. other circumstances, according to the
No one to be allowed to go from his post principles of mechanics. Now the power
without leave from his commanding offi- or force of gravity produces effects of
cer; and to prevent desertion or maraud- each these kinds, which fall under our
ing, the centries and videttes must be constant observation near the surface of
charged to let no soldier pass.
the earth : for the same power which
CENTRAL forces, the powers which renders bodies heavy, while they are at
cause a moving body to tend towards, or rest, accelerates their motion when they
recede from, the centre of motion. descend perpendicularly; and bends the
If a body A (plate III. Miscel. fig. 10,) track of the motion into a curve line,
be suspended at the end of a string A Ć, when they are projected in a direction
moveable about a point C, as a centre, oblique to that of their gravity. But we
and in that position it receive an impulse can judge of the forces or powers that
in an horizontal direction, it will be there- act on the celestial bodies by effects of
by compelled to describe a circle about the last kind only. And hence it is, that
the central point. While the circular mo- the doctrine of central forces is of so
tion continues, the body will certainly en- much use in the theory of the planeta-
deavour to recede from the centre, which ry motions.
is called its centrifugal force, and arises Sir Isaac Newton has treated of central
from the horizontal impetus. With this forces in his Principia, and has demon.
force it acts upon the fixed centre-pin, strated this fundamental theorem, viz. that
and that, by its immobility, re-acts with the areas which revolving bodies describe
an equal force on the body, by means by radii drawn to an immoveable centre,
of the string, and solicits it towards the lie in the same immoveable planes, and
centre of motion ; whence it is called are proportional to the times in which
the centripetal force; and when we speak they are described.
of either or both indefinitely, they are The theory of this species of motion is
called the central forces of the revolving comprised in the following propositions.
body.
1. When two or more bodies revolve at
The doctrine of central forces makes equal distances from the center of the
a considerable branch of the Newtonian circle they describe, but with unequal
philosophy, and has been greatly cultiva- velocities, the central forces necessary
ted by mathematicians, on account of its to retain them will be to each other as the
extensive use in the theory of gravity, squares of their velocities. That is, if one
and other physical and mathematical revolves twice as fast as the other, it will
sciences.
require four times the retaining force the
In this doctrine it is supposed that other does ; if with three times the ve.
matter is equally indifferent to motion or locity, it will require nine times the force
rest; or that a body at rest never moves to retain it in its orb, &c.
itself; and that a body in motion never of 2. When two or more bodies move with
itself changes either the velocity or the equal velocities, but at unequal distances
direction of its motion; but that every from the center they revolve about, their
motion would continue uniformly, and its central forces must be inversely as their
direction rectilinear, unless some exter- distances. That is, by how many times
nal force or resitance should affect it, or greater the distance a body revolves at
act upon it. Hence, when a body at rest is from the center, so many times less
always tends to move, or when the veloci- force will retain it.
ty of any rectilinear motion is continually 3. When two or more bodies perform
accelerated or retarded, or when the di- their revolutions in equal times, but at
rection of a motion is continually changed, different distances from the center they re.
and a curve line is thereby described, it volve about, the forces requisite to retain
is supposed that these circumstances pro. them in their orbs will be to each other as
VOL II.
Q
CENTRAL FORCES.
the distance they revolve at from the cen- as the cubes of their mean distances from
ter: for instance, if one revolves at twice the seat of that power.
the distance the other does, it will require 9. If the retaining power decrease some-
a double force to retain it, &c.
thing faster as you go from the seat there-
4. When two or more bodies revolving of (or, which is the same thing, increase
at different distances from the center are something faster as you come towards it)
retained by equal centripetal forces, their than in the proportion mentioned in the
velocities will be such, that their periodi- last proposition, and the orbit the revolv-
cal times will be to each other as the ing body describes be not a circle, the
square roots of their distances. That is, axis of that figure will turn the same
if one revolves at four times the distance way the body revolves: but if the said
another does, it will perform a revolution power decrease (or increase) somewhat
in twice the time that the other does; if slower than in that proportion, the axis of
at nine times the distance, it will revolve the figure will turn the contrary way.
in thrice the time.
Thus, if a revolving body, as D, (fig. 11)
5. And, in general, whatever be the dis- passing from A towards B, describe the
tances, the velocities, or the periodical figure A D B, whose axis A B at first
times of the revolving bodies, the retain- points as in the figure, and the power
ing forces will be to each other in a whereby it is retained decrease faster than
ratio compounded of their distances di- the square of the distance increases, after
rectly, and the squares of their periodical a number of revolutions, the axis of the
times inversely. Thus, for instance, if figure will point towards P, and after
one revolves at twice the distance another that towards R, &c. revolving round the
does, and is three times as long in moving same way with the body; and if the re-
round, it will require two-ninths, that is, taining power decrease slower than in
two-ninths of the retaining power the that proportion, the axis will turn the
other does.
other way.
6. If several bodies revolve at differ-
Thus it is the heavenly bodies, viz. the
ent distances from one common center, planets, both primary and secondary,
and the retaining power lodged in that and also the comets, perform their respec-
center decrease as the squares of the tive revolutions. The figures in which
distances increase, the squares of the the primary planets and the comets re-
periodical times of these bodies will be volve are ellipses, one of whose foci is at
to each other as the cubes of their dis- the sun the areas they describe, by lines
tances from the common center. That is, drawn to the center of the sun, are in
if there be two bodies, whose distances, each proportional to the times in which
when cubed, are double or treble, &c. they are described. The squares of
of each other, then the periodical times their periodical times are as the cubes of
will be such, as that when squared only their mean distances from the sun. The
they shall also be double, or treble, &c. secondary planets describe also circles or
7. If a body be turned out of its rec- ellipses, one of whose foci is in the cen-
tilineal course by virtue of a central ter of their primary ones, &c.
force, which decreases as you go from the From what has been said may be de-
seat thereof, as the squares of the distances duced the velocity and periodic time of
increase; that is, which is inversely as the a body revolving in a circle, at any given
square of the distance, the figure that body distance from the earth's center, by means
shall describe, if not a circle, will be a
parabola, an ellipsis, or an hyperbola; space described by gravity, at the surface,
,
of its own gravity. Put g=1672 feet, the
and one of the foci of the figure will be at in the first second of time, viz. =
the seat of the retaining power. That is, if then, putting r = the radius A C; it is
tween the projectile force of the body and A E=V A B XAM= 2.
the central power necessary to cause it to velocity in a circle at its surface in one
descrioe a circle, it will then describe one
second of time; and hence, putting c=
of those other figures, one of whose foci 3.14159 &c, the circumference of the earth
will be where the seat of the retaining being 2 cr=25,000 miles, or 132,000,000
12
8. If the force of the central power de. feet, it will be/2gr : 2 cr :: 1" :C,
3
creases as the square of the distance in- =5078 seconds nearly, or 1h 24m 38s, the
creases, and several bodies revolving periodic time at the circumference : also
about the same describe orbits that are
elliptical, the squares of the periodical the velocity there, or 2 gr is = 26,000
times of these bodies will be to each other feet per second nearly. Then, since the
= AM;
=
3r the
power is.
-
CEN
CEN
J-
and WW: VR3 : 1,0r 5078" : 5078/53
13
force of gravity varies in the inverse dupli. be inscribed in that curve perpendicular
cate ratio of the distance, by the rules laid to any diameter, a rectangle formed of the
down, it is /R:r::vor 26,000: 26,000 segments of the inscript is equal to the
rectangle of the intercepted diameter and
V, the velocity of a body re- parameter of the axis.
volving about the earth at the distance R; over Des Cartes and De Latere's methods
The central rule has the advantage
of constructing equations, in that both
73 these are subject to the trouble of pre-
T, the time of revolution in the same. paring the equation, by taking away the
So if, for instance, it be the moon revolv- second term.
ing about the earth at the distance of 60 CENTRIFUGAL force, that force by
semi-diameters ; then R = 60 r, and the which all bodies that move round any
above expressions become V = 26,000 other body in a curve endeavour to fly off
=3357 feet per second, or 382 miles from the axis of their motion in a tangent
per minute, for the velocity of the moon to the periphery of the curve, and that in
R3 every point of it.
in her orbit; and T=5078
Mr. Huygens demonstrates, that this
force is always proportional to the cir-
2,360,051 seconds, or 27-3 days nearly, cumference of the curve in which the re-
for the periodic time of the moon in 'her volving body is carried round. The cen.
orbit at that distance.
trifugal force of any body is to the cen-
Thus, also, the ratio of the forces of tripetal as the square of the arch which
gravitation of the moon towards the sun
a body describes in a given time, divided
and earth may be estimated. For one by the diameter, to the space through
year, or 3654 days, being the periodic which a heavy body moves, in falling from
time of the earth and moon about the a place where it was at rest in the same
time.
sun, and 27-3 days the periodic time of
the moon about the earth, also 60 being than itself, the centrifugal force is the
If any body swim in a medium heavier
the distance of the moon from the earth, difference between the specific weight of
and 23,920 the distance from the sun, in the medium and the floating body.
semi-diameters of the earth, it is
All moving bodies endeavour after a
60 23920
23902 27.32 rectilinear motion, because it is the easi-
X
:: for 1:
27.32 365.252
60 365.252 est, shortest, and most simple : whenever
=2?; that is, the proportion of the moon's therefore they move in any curve, there
gravitation towards the sun is to that to. must be something that draws them from
wards the earth as 24 to 1 nearly.
their rectilinear motion, and detains them
in their orbits; and were that force to
Again, we may hence compute the cen- cease, the moving body would go straight
trifugal force of a body at the equator, off in a tangent to the curve in that very
arising from the earth’s rotation. For, point, and so would get still further and
the periodic time when the centrifugal further from the focus, or centre of its
force is equal to the force of gravity, it curvilinear motion,
has been shown above, is 5078 seconds; It may be, that in a curve where the
and 23 hours, 56 minutes, or 86,160 se force of gravity in the describing body is
conds, is the period of the earth's rota- continually variable, the centrifugal force
tion on its axis ; therefore, as 86,1602 : may also continually vary in the same
50782 :: 1:zig, the centrifugal force re- manner, and so that one may also supply
1
289
quired, which therefore is the 289th part the defect, or abate for the excess of the
of gravity at the earth's surface. See other, and consequently the effect be
Simpson's Fluxions, vol. i.
every where equal to the absolute gravity
CENTRAL rule, a rule discovered by of the revolving body,
Mr. Thomas Baker, whereby to find the
CENTRIFUGAL Machine, a curious
center of a circle designed to cut the pa- machine, for raising water by means of a
rabola in as many points, as an equation centrifugal force, combined with the pres-
to be constructed hath real roots. Its sure of the atmosphere. This machine
principal use is in the construction of consists of a large tube of copper, &c. in
equations, and he has applied it with the form of a cross, placed perpendicu-
good success as far as biquadratics. larly in the water, and resting at the bot-
The central rule is chiefly founded on tom on a pivot. At the upper part of the
the property of the parabola, that if a line tube is an horizontal cog-wheel, which
.
CEN
CEP
touches the cogs of another in a vertical perpendicular tube by the pressure of
position ; so that by the aid of a double the atmosphere, it is evident that this
winch, the whole machine is moved round machine cannot raise water above thirty-
with very great velocity. Near the bot. two feet high.
tom of the perpendicular part of the tube CENTRIPETAL force, that force by
is a valve opening upwards; and near the which a body is every where impelled, or
two extremities, but on the contrary sides any how tends towards some point as a
of the arms, or cross part of the tube, are center ; such is gravity, or that force
,
two other valves opening outwards. These whereby bodies tend towards the center
two valves are kept shut, by means of of the earth ; magnetical attraction,
springs, till the machine is put in motion; whereby the load-stone draws iron; and
when the centrifugal velocity of the wa- that force, whatever it be, whereby the
ter forces them open, and discharges it. planets are continually drawn back from
self into a cistern or reservoir placed right-lined motions, and made to move in
there for that purpose. On the upper curves.
part of the arm are two holes, which are The greater the quantity of matter in
closed by pieces that screw into the metal any body is, the greater will be its centri-
of the tube. Before the machine can work, petal force, all things else alike. If a
these holes must be opened, and water body laid upon a plane revolve at the same
poured in through them, till the whole time, and about the same center with that
tube be full: by these means all the air plane, and so describe a circle ; and if the
will be forced out of the machine, and centripetal force, wherewith the body is
the water supported in the tube by means drawn every moment towards the center,
of the valve at the bottom. The tube should cease to act, and the plane should
being thus filled with water, and the continue to move with the same velocity,
holes closed by their screw-caps, it is the body will begin to recede from the
turned round by the winch ; when the center about which the plane moved. See
water in the arms of the tube acquires CENTRAL forces.
a centrifugal force, opens the valves near CENTRISCUS, in natural history, a
the extremities of the arms, and flies out genus of fishes, ranked among the bran-
with a velocity nearly equal to that of the chiostegous order of Linnæus, but by Dr.
extremities of the said arms.
Shaw among the Cartilagenei. Generic
If the men who work the machine be character: snout lengthened; body com-
supposed to turn the winch round in three pressed, carinated beneath ; ventral fins
seconds, the machine will move round its united. There are but three species ;
axis in one second ; and, consequently, viz. the scutatus, scolopax, and the veli-
each extremity of the arms will move taris. All are found in the Indian seas,
with a velocity of 18.8 feet in a second. and the scolopax is likewise a native of the
A column of water, therefore, of three Mediterranean.
inches diameter, will issue through each CENTROGASTER, in natural history,
of the valves with a velocity of 18.8 feet a genus of fishes of the order Thoracici,
in a second; but the area of the aperture Generic character : head compressed,
of each of the valves is 7.14 inches ; which, smooth ; gill-membraned, mostly seven
being multiplied by the velocity in inches rayed; body depressed, smooth ; fins spi.
=125.6, gives 1610.784 cubic inches, the nous; ventral connected by a membrane,
quantity of water discharged through one with four sharp spines, and six soft rays.
of the apertures in one second ; so that There are four species.
the whole quantity discharged in that CENTUNCULUS, in botany, a genus
space of time through both the apertures of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and
is = 3221.568 inches; or 193294 08 cubic order. Natural order of Rotaceæ. Lysi-
inches in one minute. But 60812 cubic machiæ, Jussieu. Essential character :
inches make a tun, beer-measure; con- calyx four-cleft; corol four-cleft, spread-
sequently, if we suppose the centrifugal ing : stamina short; capsules one-celled,
machine to revolve round its axis in one opening horizontally. There is but one
second, it will raise nearly 3 tuns 44 gal- species, viz. C. minimus, bastard pimper-
lons in one minute; but this velocity is too nel, is an annual, and a native of Italy,
great, at least to be maintained for any France, Germany, and Denmark—with us
considerable time : so that, when this on Hounslowheath, Ashford-common,
and other deficiencies in the machine near Hampton Court, Chiselhurst, &c. It
are allowed for, two tuns are nearly the flowers from June to August.
quantity that can be raised by it in one CEPHAELIS, in botany, a genus of
minute As the water is forced up the the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
:
CER
CER
der: flowers in heads, involucred; corol sions, viz. A. feelers equal, filiform ; the
tubular; stigma two-parted; berry two- subdivisions in this class are, a jaw cy-
seeded ; receptacle chaffy. There are 12 clindrical entire ; in some the thorax has.
species; found chiefly in the West Indies. moveable spines, in others the thorax is
CEPHALANTHUS, in botany, button margined; b. jaw obtuse, one-toothed;
wood, button tree, or pond dogwood, a c. jaw bifid, horny; d. jaw bifid, mem-
genus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class branaceous; thorax unarmed. B. feelers
and order. Natural order of Aggregatæ. equal, capitate ; thorax spinous. C. feel-
Rubiacex, Jussieu. Essential character: lers equal, clavate; thorax unarmed. D.
calyx common, none; proper superior, feelers unequal, the two fore-ones fili-
funnel form ; receptacle globular, naked; form, the hind-ones clavate. The larvæ
seed one, lanuginous. There are five of this genus resemble soft, oblong,
species, of which C. occidentalis, Ameri- slender worms, with a scaly head and six
can button wood, is a shrub, which in hard legs on the fore part : they bore
this country is seldom higher than seven through the inner part of trees, pulver-
feet. The branches come out by pairs izing the wood, and are transformed into
opposite at each joint: the ends of perfect insects in the cavities which they
which are terminated by loose spikes of make: many of them diffuse a strong
spherical heads, about the size of a mar- smell, perceivable at a great distance ;
ble, each of which is composed of many and some when taken utter a sort of cry,
small flowers, of a whitish yellow co- produced by the friction of the thorax on
lour, fastened to an axis in the middle; the upper part of the abdomen and
these appear in July, and in warm sea- shells. The antennæ are deemed short
sons are succeeded by seeds, which when they are shorter than the body; mo-
sometimes ripen.
derate when of equal length with the bo-
CEPHALIC medicines are remedies for dy; and long when they exceed the body.
disorders of the head.
In the division C. the species violaceus,
CEPHALOPHORA, in botany, a ge- so called from the colour of its body, is
nus of the Syngenesia æqualis class and found chiefly in fir timber which has
order : receptacle chaffy-fleshy ; down been felled some time, and which has
simple ; calys ovate, imbricate. One spe- not been stripped of its bark: it bores
cies found in Guinea.
serpentine cavities between the bark and
CEPHEUS, in astronomy, a constella- the wood, which are larger in diameter
tion of the northern hemisphere. See as the insect increases in size, filling the
ASTRONOMY
space it leaves behind with its excre-
CEPOLA, in natural history, the band ment, which resembles saw dust.
fish, a genus of fishes of the order of CERASTIUM, in botany, English
Thoracici. Generic character : head mouse-ear or mouse-ear chickweed, a genus
short; teeth curved, sharp; body very of the Decandria Pentagynia class and
long and compressed ; abdomen ex- order. Natural order of Caryophyllei.
tremely short; gill membrane, six-ray- Essential character: calyx five-leaved ;
ed. There are three species according petals bifid ; capsules unilocular, gaping
to Gmelin, viz. 1. C. tænia, or silvery at the tip. There are eighteen species.
band-fish, with red fins, very obtuse head, None of the mouse-ear chickweeds make
and attenuated tail. This fish swims with much appearance, and are therefore
great rapidity, and presents a beautiful only cultivated in botanic gardens. Some
spectacle by the undulating flexures of of them are common weeds in most parts
its body. It lives on the smaller kind of of Europe; the smoother sorts are not
crabs, and shell-fish; and as it frequents disagreeable to cattle; the seeds are use-
the shores, it is often used as a bait for ful to birds.
other fishes. 2. C. rubescens, reddish CERATE. See PHARMACY and WAX.
band fish; and 3. C. Trachyptera: both
CERATOCARPUS, in botany, a genus
natives of the Mediterranean. Dr. Shaw of the Monoecia Monandria class and
mentions another species, viz. C. Her- order. Natural order of Holoraceæ. Atrip-
manniana.
lices, Jussieu. Essential character: male,
CERAMBYX, in natural history, a ge- calyx one-leafed, bifid; corol none; female
nus of insects of the order Coleoptera. calyx one-leafed, keeled, permanent,
Antennæ setaceous ; feelers four ; thorax two-horned; styles two; seeds single,
spinous or gibbous ; shells linear. Of compressed, inclosed in and covered by
this very beautiful and finely variegated the calyx. There is but one species,
family, many hundred species have, by viz. C. arenarius, is an annual, branching
naturalists, been noticed and described. plant, with very narrow leaves. Three
They have separated them into four divi- male flowers sessile in each division of
CER
CER
the stems; females solitary, sessile in tree. The flowers come out in loose
each axilla of the leaves. It has no pro- bunches at the end of the branches; they
per pericarp, but the calyx when ripe are of a cream colour. It flowers in July,
becomes a sort of oblong-triangular com- but never produces fruit in England.
pressed sheath, with a ridge on each The wood of this tree is exceedingly of-
side, and two innocuous spines, diverg- fensive, and the kernels of the nuts are a
ing almost horizontally at the end. With- most deadly poison.
in this is a single obovate seed, com- CERCARIA, in natural history, a ge-
pressed, and at bottom very sharp-point- nus of the Vermes infusoria : worm in-
ed, which does not drop from its cover- visible to the naked eye, pellucid, and
ing. Native of Tartary.
furnished with a tail. There are 13
CERATONIA, in botany, English ca- species, of which c. gyrinus is round,
rob tree, St. John's bread, a genus of the with a sharp pointed tail; found in ani-
Polygamia Trioecia class and order. Na- mal infusions ; white, gelatinous, fore-
tural order of Lomentaceæ. Leguminosä, part nearly globular. Č. catellus; body
Jussieu. Essential character: hermaphro- three parted, with a forked tail ; is met
dite; calyx five-parted; corol none; sta- with in waters where flowers have been
;
mens five; style filiform; legume coria- kept ; head moveable, affixed to the
ceous; many seeded; dioecous; male body by a point ; abdomen not so wide,
and female separate. There is but one but twice as long as the head, and filled
species, viz. C. siliqua. The carob tree, with intestines ; tail shorter than the
which is a native of Syria, Palestine, head and narrower than the abdomen,
Egypt, Cyprus, Candia, Sicily, Apulia, ending in two bristles, which it can unite
Spain, &c.
and separate at pleasure; C. mutabilis ;
CERATOPETALUM, in botany, a ge- changeable, cylindrical, red or green,
nus of the Decandria Monogynia class with a pointed slightly bifid tail ; found
and order. Calyx five-parted, permanent, in stagnant pools in such innumerable
bearing the stamina; petals five, pinnati- myriads, as to cover the whole surface
fid ; antheræ spurred, capsule covered with a sheet of green or red, giving it
in the bottom of the calyx; two-celled, sometimes the appearance of being ting-
one species, a native of New Holland. ed with blood ; varies its posture from a
CERATOPHYLLUM, in botany, a ge- long cylindrical body, larger in the mid-
nus of the Monoecia Polyandria class and dle, to a nearly globular one ; the ex-
order. Natural order of Inundatæ. Nai- tremities are pellucid.
ades, Jussieu. Essential character: male CERCIS, in botany, English-Judas tree,
calyx many-parted; corol none; stamens a genus of the Decandria Monogynia
sixteen to twenty; female calyx many- class and order. Natural order of Lomen-
parted; corolla none; pistils one; style tacea. Leguminosa, Jussieu. Essential
none; seed one, naked. There are two character: calyx five-toothed, gibbous
species, viz. C. demersum; prickly-seeded below; corol papilionaceous; standard
horn wort; and C. submersum ; smooth- short, beneath the wings ; legume.
seeded hom wort. They grow in ditches There are two species, viz. C. siliquas-
and slow streams, flowering in August trum, common Judas-tree ; and C. cana-
and September in Europe ; also in densis, Canada Judas tree, or red bud-
Japan. It is common in Jamaica, called ing tree. These trees are usually plant-
there morass weed, and used to cover ed with other flowering trees, for orna-
fish, &c. when carried to any distance. ments to pleasure gardens, and for their
CERBERA, in botany, a genus of the singular beauty deserve a place as well as
Pentandria Monogynia class and order. most other sorts. The wood is also beau-
Natural order of Contortæ. Apocineæ, tifully veined with black and green, and
Jussieu. Essential character: contorted; taking a fine polish, may be converted to
drupe one-seeded. There are five spe- many uses.
cies, of which C, ahouai, oval-leafed cer- CEREBELLUM, in anatomy, the hind-
bera, grows naturally in the Brazils, and er part of the brain. See ANATOMY.
also in the Spanish West-Indies in plen- CEREBRUM, in anatomy, denotes the
ty; and there are some of the trees brain, but more particularly applies to
growing in the British Islands of Ameri- the anterior and larger portion of the
ca. This tree is about ten feet high, send- brain; separated from the cerebellum by
ing out many crooked diffused branches, the tentorium. See ANATOMY.
which toward the top has thick succulent CEREMONIES, master of the, an officer
leaves about three inches long and near instituted by King James I. for the more
two broad, of a lucid green colour, full honourable reception of ambassadors and
of a milky juice, as is every part of the strangers of quality; he wears about his
CER
CER
neck a chain of gold, with a medal with tated from its acid solutions by the alkalies,
the crown of Great Britain, having on it is white, but acquires a shade of yellow
one side an emblem of peace, with the when dried in the air, and, when exposed
motto, Beati pacifici ; and on the other, to a continued heat, becomes of a brick
an emblem of war, with Dieu et mon red colour. The white, according to Vau-
droit ; his salary is three hundred pounds quelin, is the one at the lower degree of
per annum.
oxidizement; but the difference in the
CERINTHE, in botany, English honey- proportion of oxygen is, he remarks, in-
wort, a genus of the Pentandria Monogy- considerable. Neither of them can be
nia class and order. Natural order of fused by heat. Borax determines their
Asperifoliæ. Borraginea, Jussieu. Es- fusion: the globule, heated by the ex-
sential character: border of the corolla terior flame of the blow-pipe, is of a
tube-bellied; throat pervious; seeds two, blood-red colour, which, by cooling, be-
bilocular. There are two species, of comes of a yellowish green, and, at
which C. major, great honeywort, is length, colourless and transparent; or, if
about eighteen inches high, round, the proportion of oxide has been large,
smooth, branching, and leafy. Leaves opaque and pearly.
glaucous, becoming blue by age, without The metal itself, in the trials which
prickles, but ciliated about the edge, Vauquelin made with it, proved insoluble
dotted with white. The tube of the co- in any unmixed acid, and was dissolved.
rolla is yellow, but the border is purple: with great difficulty in nitro-muriatic
the toothlets very short and revolute. C. acid. Its oxide, however, combines
minor, small honeywort, is very nearly with the acids easily, and the properties
allied to the foregoing; the corolla five- of its salts have been fully determined.
cleft to one-third of the length, whereas CEROPEGIA, in botany, a genus of
that is only five-lobed at the edge. An- the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
nual when sown in the spring, but bien- der. Natural order of Contortæ. Apo-
nial when sown in autumn. Both these cinæ, Jussieu. Essential character: con-
plants are natives of France, Italy, Swit- torted; follicles two, erect; seeds plu-
zerland, and Germany.
mose; border of the corolla converging.
CERITE. See CERIUM.
There are six species, of which C. can-
CERIUM, in chemistry, a new metal delabrum is a twining plant, with slender
obtained from a fossil found in Sweden, stems, round, green, or reddish. Leaves
to which has been given the name of Ce- opposite, ovate, thick, soft and smooth.
rite. This fossil occurs disseminated or The peduncle, and at first the flowers,
massive; it is of a flesh red colour, more hang down, but when open they erect
or less deep, with sometimes a shade of themselves, and, being placed in a circle,
yellow : it is semi-transparent: its fresh have the appearance of a set of lamps
fracture has considerable lustre. It strikes suspended. The follicles or seed-ves-
fire with steel with difficulty: is not at- sels hang down. It is a native of the
tracted by the magnet : its specific gra- East Indies.
vity is from 4.7 to 4.9. Exposed to a CERTHIA, the creeper, in natural his-
strong heat it does not melt, but loses 5 tory, a genus of birds of the order Picæ.
or 6 per cent of weight, becomes friable, Generic character: bill sharp-pointed,
and acquires a bright yellow colour. slender, and incurvated; nostrils small;
With borax it forms a globule, greenish tongue varying in shape ; legs somewhat
while hot, but colourless when cold. stout; toes three before and one behind,
From 100 parts of it, the Swedish che- the latter large; claws long and hooked;
mists obtained about 50 of oxide of ce- tail of twelve feathers.
rium, 22 oxide of iron, 23 silex, and 5.5 These birds are distinguished from
carbonate of lime. According to Vau- humming birds, with which they have
quelin's analysis, the proportions are, ox- sometimes been confounded, by the cir-
ide of cerium 63, silex 17.5, oxide of iron cumstances of their being to be met with
2, lime from 3 to 4, water 12. The pure in every quarter of the world; by their
oxide of cerium is extracted from the bill universally terminating in a point,
cerite, by dissolving this mineral in nitro and by their feeding in a great degree,
muriatic acid, and, after saturating the though not exclusively, on insects.
clear solution with an alkali, precipitating There are no less than forty-nine spe-
by tartrate of potash. The precipitate, cies, of which the principal are,
well washed, calcined, and digested in C. familiaris, the tree-creeper of Albi-
vinegar, is the oxide of cerium.
nus. This bird is scarcely larger than
The oxide of cerium exists in different the crested wren, and is to be observed
degrees of oxidizement. When precipi. in various parts of Europe, but especially
a
CER
CER
a
its young
in England. It runs on the bark of a tree lies where the King would be certified
with extreme ease and rapidity, and the for a record. Indictments from inferior
instant it perceives a human being near courts, and proceedings of the quarter
it, conceals itself on the opposite side of sessions of the peace, may also be re-
the trunk or branch, repeating this move- moved into the King's Bench by a cer-
ment according to the corresponding tiorari ; and here the very record must
movement of the person whose notice it be returned, and not a transcript of it ;
wishes to avoid, and thus perpetually en- though usually in Chancery, if a certiora-
deavouring, and almost in all cases with ri be returnable there, it removes only a
success, to evade the observation of its tenor of the record.
pursuer. It feeds almost solely on in- CERVICAL nerves, in anatomy, are
sects, which it finds in the hollows, and eight pair of nerves, so called, as having
among the moss of trees.
their origin in the neck.
C. Lotenia, or Loten's creeper, is a CERUMEN, is a viscid yellow-colour-
native of Ceylon and Madagascar. It ed liquid secreted by the glands of the
builds its nest of the down of plants, and auditory canal, which gradually becomes
is subjected to the hostility of a spider, concrete by exposure to the air. It has
in those countries, nearly as large as an orange-yellow colour and a bitter
itself, which pursues it with extreme ar- taste. When slightly heated upon paper,
dour, and delights in sucking the blood of it melts, and stains the paper like an oil ;
at the same time it emits a slightly aro-
C. cærulea, or blue creeper, is an inha- matic odour. On burning coals it softens,
bitant of Cayenne, and is remarkable for emits a white smoke, which resembles
the ingenuity it exhibits in the construc- that given out by burning fat; it after-
tion of its nest, by which it precludes wards melts, swells, becomes dark-co-
any attack from the monkeys and snakes, loured, and emits an ammoniacal and em-
as well as lizards, which abound in that pyreumatic odour. A light coal remains
country. This nest is suspended from behind. When agitated in water, ceru-
some slender twig at the end of a branch, men forms a kind of emulsion, which
to which those animals dare not venture, soon putrefies, depositing at the same
as it would be too weak to support them. time white flakes. Alcohol, when as-
.
The entrance to the nest is towards the sisted by heat, dissolves five-eighths of
ground, and about a foot distant from the cerumen; the three-eighths which
the body of it, to which the bird climbs remain behind have the properties of al-
through a narrow neck of this extraordi- bumen, mixed however with a little oily
nary length.
matter.
C. sannio, or mocking creeper, is found Ether also dissolves this cily body;
in New Zealand, has an agreeable note, but it is much less bitter and much
and can so modulate its voice, as seem- lighter coloured. When the albuminous
ingly to imitate the notes of all birds : part of cerumen is burnt, it leaves traces
hence it is called the mocking creeper. of soda and of phosphate of lime. From
See Plate IV. Aves, fig. 3.
these facts, Vauquelin considers ceru-
CERTIFICATE, in law, a writing men as composed of the following sub-
made in any court, to give notice to stances :
another court of any thing done therein. 1. Albumen
The clerks of the crown, assize, and the 2. An inspissated oil
peace, are to make certificates into the
3. A colouring matter
King's Bench, of the tenor of all indict-
4. Soda
ments, convictions, outlawries, &c.
5. Phosphate of lime.
CERTIORARI, a writ which issues out CERUSSE, or white lead, a substance
of the chancery, directed to an inferior compounded of the acetic acid and lead.
court, to call up the records of a cause it is formed by the metal plates of lead
there depending, in order that justice being exposed to the vapours arising from
may be done. And this writ is obtained, boiling vinegar, and the metal being oxy-
upon complaint that the party who seeks dized by the action of the air, aided by
it has received hard usage, or is not like the affinity of the acid. This has been
to have an impartial trial in the inferior regarded either as an oxide or a sub-car-
court. A certiorari is made returnable bonate of lead; though it appears pro-
either in the King's Bench, Common bable that it should contain some acetic
Pleas, or in Chancery.
acid. It serves as the basis from which
It is not only issued out of the Court of the more perfect salt, the sugar of lead
Chancery, but likewise out of the King's of commerce, is formed: the cerusse, in
Bench, in which last-mentioned court it fine powder, is boiled in distilled vinegar,
а
CER
CER
ra
the vinegar being poured off as it loses extricably entangled amidst slips of raw
its acidity, and fresh qualities being suc- hides, or confined within so small a com-
cessively added. The liquors thus pro- pass, that they become sure marks for
cured are then evaporated nearly to the the arrows of their adversaries It is re-
consistence of honey; and, on cooling, marked of the elk, that when first dis-
masses are formed, consisting of a con- lodged, he drops on the ground for a
geries of needle-like prisms. From the few seconds, as if labouring under a com-
account given by Pontier of the manu- plete prostration of strength, occasioned,
facture of this salt, it appears that it is probably, by the influence of fear. This
also formed by exposing plates of lead is the moment invaluable to the hunter,
to the action of distilled vinegar and of who, if he miss this opportunity, fre-
the atmospheric air: the plates, as they quently fails in every other, as the ani-
are incrusted with oxide at the surface of mal, after a very short pause, is roused to
the vinegar, are plunged to the bottom, the most vigorous flight, which he con-
until this oxide is dissolved, and are again tinues without suspension, for a progress
raised to the surface. The acid is thus of twenty or thirty miles.
at length saturated, and, by evaporation, In the bogs of Ireland, as well as in
the solution is brought to crystallize. America, horns have been repeatedly dug
CERVUS, the deer, in natural history, up of an enormous size, which apparently
a genus of Mammalia of the order Peco- belonged to an animal of the deer kind,
The generic character: horns solid, but are far superior in dimensions to those
and while the animal is young covered of any animal now known by naturalists.
with a bairy skin, growing from the top, Their length has sometimes been of eight
annual, branched, and naked ; eight front feet, and the distance from the tip of one
teeth in the lower jaw ; no canine teeth. to that of another has extended to four-
There are twelve species, of which we teen feet. These are justly considered as
shall particularly notice the C. Aces, or most curious specimens in the collection
the elk. This animal sometimes attains of natural productions, and the idea of
the height of seventeen hands, and the their annual reproduction is well calcu-
weight of twelve hundred and thirty lated to excite astonishment. Mamma-
pounds; but such cases are somewhat lia, Plate VIII. fig. 1.
extraordinary. It is larger in Asia and C. tarandus, or the rein deer. When
America than in Europe. It abounds in full grown, this animal is about the height
the cold countries of Sweden, Siberia, and of four feet six inches, and both sexes
Canada, and in the last is called also the are furnished with horns, those of the
moose deer. Its principal food is derived male, however, being much larger than
from the boughs of the forest trees in these the females. It is found more abundantly
desolate regions, and the night is gene- than any where else in Lapland and Nor-
rally preferred for its repasts. Its man- way. It is met with in the north of Asia,
ners are extremely gentle and inoffen- so far as Kamschatka, and in America so
sive; it will, however, defend itself with far south as Canada. With the Lapland-
great courage and dexterity, both with its er the rein deer is a complete substitute
horns and fore feet, and has been known, for the horse, the cow, the sheep, and the
with a single blow from the latter, to de- goat. He possesses two breeds of this
stroy a wolf. Among the North Ameri- animal, the wild and the tame. The for-
can Indians the hunting of the elk is an mer of these are by far the most vigo-
employment of considerable interest and rous, but are also often extremely obsti-
preparation. One party is occupied in nate, and not a little ferocious, turning
surrounding a large tract of country near upon their drivers with dangerous, and
the lakes or rivers, and, by means of their sometimes fatal, fury. The tame rein
dogs, in rousing the elks contained in it, deer, therefore, is almost universally pre-
who, finding all escape from danger im- ferred. It is trained when young to draw
practicable by land, press onwards to the the sledge, which is the common vehicle
water. Here, however, they are received of the country, which is made extremely
by another party of enemies, whose ca- light, and covered with the skin of a
noes, extending in a crescent form, in- young deer. The deer is fastened to this
close a considerable space, and reach carriage by a strap, which passes round
from shore to shore, and who destroy his neck, and comes down between his
their victims by clubs and lances. They legs, and is guided by a cord, tied round
are often taken also by snares, into which his horns, and beld by the driver, whose
they are driven by the noises and alarms cheering voice is perpetually exerted to
of the Indians, and in which they are in- encourage the animal on his progress, and
VOL. II.
R
CERVUS
who is furnished also with a goad for oc- moss and bark; in spring of the cat-
casional applications. One of these deer kins of willow and hazel, and the flowers
has been known several times to draw its and buds of cornel; in summer, of the
sledge and owner a journey of fifty miles grain of rye and the tender shoots of the
without stopping ; an exertion, however, alder; in autumn, of the leaves of bram-
which is almost uniformly fatal to it. To bles, and the flowers of heath and broom.
a progress of thirty miles without halting He eats with slowness, and ruminates
it is competent, without any injury. The with some considerable effort, in conse
constant mode of travelling in Lapland in quence of the distance between the first
winter is by means of the deer and sledge. stomach and the mouth. In March, ge-
It is extremely speedy, yet at the same rally, he sheds his horns, which are not
time inconvenient and dangerous, and completely renewed till August. It will
čan be accomplished only when the snow live to between thirty and forty years of
is frozen and glazed. The favourite food age, and was, formerly, amidst the other
of this animal is a species of moss, which, vulgar errors of antiquity, supposed capa-
in Lapland, covers the face of the coun- ble of attaining most extraordinary dura-
try through large tracts, and to obtain tion. The stag is supposed to have been
which, in winter, the horns of the rein introduced from France into England,
deer enable it to dig through the snow where it has latterly been made to give
with great facility. The attention paid way to the fallow deer, an animal more
by the Laplander to these animals consti- gentle in its manners, and more valuable
tutes his principal occupation. In the ri. as food. In some parts of Scotland the
gour of winters they are sheltered and stag is yet to be found in its original wild
nursed by him ; in the short summers state.
they are led to the banks of the lakes and C. dama, or the fallow deer. This ani-
rivers, or to the tops of the mountains, mal is, in general, much smaller than the
where they may brouse on their favourite stag ; but in Spain is nearly equally
lichen ; which from the fulness and sweet. farge : in France and Germany, it is rare-
ness of the pasture, supplies all the rich- ly to be found, and it has never been
ness and variety of his temperate ban- known to have existed in America : it has
the elegance of the stag, connected with
C. elaphus, or the stag. This animal is a much more tractable disposition : it
found in nearly all the temperate climates sheds its horns, which, as in the stag spe-
of Europe and Asia. It is also found in cies, are peculiar to the male, every year;
North America, but attains its largest is stated to live to the age of twenty years,
size in Siberia. From the branchiness and arrives at its maturity in three : it is
of its horns, the elegance of its form and by no means fastidious in its food. Fig. 4.
movements, and the strength of its limbs, C. capreolus, or the roe. This is the
it deservedly attracts particular admira- smallest of the animals of this class in
tion, and may be regarded as a principal Europe, and generally of a reddish brown
embellishment of the forest. The stag colour: it is graceful, sprightly, and cou-
is remarkable for a fine eye and an acute rageous, particularly cleanly, and de-
sense of smelling. Its ear, also, is ex- lighting in dry and mountainous situa-
quisitely sensible, and musical sounds ap- tions: it leaves a strong scent behind it,
pear to possess over him the power of but possesses such arts of defence, that,
exciting complacency, if not rapture. His by various doublings, and intermixtures
enemies not unfrequently employ the of past with present emanations from its
shepherd's pipe to decoy him to his de- body, it frequently baffles the most ex-
struction; and Mr. Playford, in his “In- perienced dogs, and remains in a state of
troduction to Music,” states, that he once security while the full pack passes almost
met a herd of twenty stags near Royston, close by its retreat, distinguishing it nei-
which readily followed the tones of a ther by sight nor smell: it differs from
violin and bagpipe, played by their con- the stag in the constancy of its attach-
ductors, but stopped whenever the music ments, and the parents and their young
was suspended. Their whole progress constitute a family, never associating with
from Yorkshire to Hampton-court was strangers : two fawns are generally pro-
attended, and it was supposed extremely duced by the female at a birth, one of
facilitated, by these sounds. The stag is each sex, which, living together, form a
simple and unsuspicious, and employs no mutual and invincible attachment. When
arts to avoid detection or pursuit, until af- a new family is to be nursed, the former
ter having received considerable molesta- is driven off to provide for itself, but re-
tion. His food consists, in winter, of turns again after a certain interval to the
quets, fig 2.
.
a
CER
CES
mother,whose former affection is restored: himself, as a deed of release, &c. which
a final separation speedily takes place, how the bailiff did not or might not plead for
ever, soon after this return, between the him, desires a farther examination of the
fawns of the season preceding the last and cause, either before the same justices or
their dam, and the former remove to a others, and obtaineth letters patent to that
distance, constituting a distinct establish- effect.
ment, and rearing an offspring of their CERTIORARI, writ of, is an original
own. When the female is about to bring writ, issuing out of the Court of Chancery
forth, she secludes herself in some re- of the King's Bench, directed in the King's
mote recess of the forest, from which she name, to the judges or officers of inferior
returns at the end of about ten days, courts, commanding them to certify or to
with her fawns, just able slowly and return the records of a cause depending
weakly to follow her steps: in cases of before them, to the end that the party
danger, she hides them in a place deem- may have the more sure and speedy jus-
ed by her most secure from the enemy, tice, before the King, or such justices as
and attracts the attention of the latter he shall assign to determine the cause.
from them to herself; happy, by her own A certiorari lies in all judicial proceed-
perils, or even destruction, to effect the ings in which a writ of error does not
security of her offspring. In winter these lie ; and it is a consequence of all inferior
animals feed on brambles, broom, heath, jurisdictions erected by act of parliament,
and catkins; and in spring they eat the to have their proceedings returnable in
young wood and leaves of almost every the King's Bench.
species of trees, and are said to be so af- In particular cases, the court will use
fected, as it were with intoxication, by the their discretion to grant a certiorari, as,
fermentation of this food in their sto- if the defendant be of good character, or
machs, that they will approach men and if the prosecution be malicious, or attend.
other enemies, whom they generally shuned with oppressive circumstances.
with extreme care, without apprehension The Courts of Chancery and King's
or suspicion. The flesh of these animals Bench may award a certiorari to remove
is excellent, though after two years of the proceeding from any inferior courts,
age that of the males is ill-flavoured and whether they be of ancient or newly
tough. Some roes have been found per- created jurisdiction, unless the statute or
fectly white, and in the forest of Lucia, in charter which creates them exempts them
the duchy of Lunenburgh, a race of jet from such jurisdiction.
black roes is to be met with, in every CESARE, among logicians, one of the
other respect but this marked peculiarity modes of the second figure of syllogisms;
of colour, (which is also stated to be an the minor proposition of which is an uni-
invariable distinction) resembling the versal affirmative, and the other two uni-
common roe.
versal negatives: thus,
Roes may be tamed to a certain degree, Ce No immoral books ought to be
but never so as to be completely familiar-
read :
ized. The share of natural wildness which SA But every obscene book is immo-
they ever retain is connected, especially
ral :
in males, with much caprice, and even RE Therefore no obscene book ought
antipathy to particular individuals, whom
to be read.
they will assault with their horns, and af- CESSION, in law, an act by which a
terwards violently trample on with their person surrenders and transmits to ano-
feet. The roe exists now in no part of ther person, a right which belonged to
Ireland, and, in Great Britain, only in a himself. Cession is more particularly
few districts of the Highlands.
used in the civil law for a voluntary sur-
C.axis, or spotted axis, is a most beau- render of a person's effects to his credi-
tiful animal, marked with numerous tors, to avoid imprisonment.
spots: it is described by Pliny, and is CESSION, in the ecclesiastical law, is
said to bave been sacred to Bacchus among when an ecclesiastical person is created a
the ancients. Fig. 3.
bishop, or when a parson of a parish
CERTIFICATION of assize of novel dis- takes another benefice without dispensa-
seisin, a writ granted for the re-examina- tion, or being otherwise qualified. In
tion or review of a matter passed by as- both these cases their first benefices be-
size before any justices; as where a man come void by cession, without any resig-
appearing by his bailiff to an assize nation; and to those livings that the per-
brought by another, hath lost the day, son had, who was created bishop, the
and having something more to plead for King may present for that time, whoso
CET
CEY
ever is patron of them; and in the other the critical observations of naturalists ap-
case the patron may present ; but by pear too abstruse to be generally examin.
dispensation of retainder, a bishop may ed, and of consequence to be commonly
retain some or all the preferments 'he understood. The cetaceous tribes live in
was entitled to, before he was made the same element as fishes, and, partaking
bishop
somewhat of their external figure, will
CESTRUM, in botany, English bastard ever be considered as appertaining to that
jasmine, a genus of the Pentandria Mo- class of animals by the less informed por-
nogynia class and order. Natural order tion of mankind.
of Luridæ. Solaneæ, Jussieu. Essential Cetaceous animals, or, as Dr. Shaw ex.
character: corolla funnel-form; stamens presses them, " fish-formed m mmalia,"
emitting a toothlet from their middle ; have lungs, intestines, and other internal
berry unilocular. There are nine species, organs, formed on the same principal as
of which c. nocturnum, night smelling in quadrupeds; and, indeed, on strict
cestrum, is about seven feet high, covered comparison, the principal differences that
with a greyish bark, and divides upward exist between them will not be found.very
into many slender branches, which gene- considerable ; one of the most material
rally incline to one side ; they are garnish- seems to consist in their want of posterior
ed with leaves placed alternately, nearly legs, the peculiar structure of the tail sup-
four inches long, and one and a half plying that defect, this being extremely
broad; the flowers are produced at the strong and tendinous, and divided into two
wings of the leaves, in small clusters, horizontal lobes, but which has no inter-
standing upon short peduncles, each nal bones. Like quadrupeds, they have
sustaining four or five flowers, of an her- a heart furnished with two auricles, and
baceous colour. They appear in Au- two ventricles, and their blood is warm
gust, but are not succeeded by berries in and red: they breathe by their lungs, and
this country : those which come from not by means of gills, as in true fishes. In
America are small, and are of a dark their amours they agree with quadrupeds;
brown colour. It is a native of the island the female produces her young alive,
of Cuba.
which rarely happens among fishes, and
CESTUI, a French word, signifying she suckles them with her teats, as in the
he or him, frequently used in our law- true mammalia. The structure of their
writings. Thus “cestui qui trust,” a brain, their sexual organs, stomach, and
person who has lands, &c. committed to liver, resemble those of mammiferous ani-
him for the benefit of another; and if mals. Their skin is smooth, or not co.
such person does not perform his trust, vered with scales; and their tail is placed
he is compellable to it in Chancery. in a position the very reverse of fishes, in
“Cestui qui vie," one for whose life any being always flat and horizontal, instead
lands, &c are granted. “Cestui qui use," of vertical. The cetaceous animals, the
a person to whose use any one is infeoffed cachalot and dolphin genera, have the
of lands or tenements. Formerly the mouth armed with conic teeth; the whales
feoffees to uses were deemed owners of with horny laminæ in the upper jaw; and
the land, but now the possession is ad- the narval with teeth, or tusks of enor-
judged in cestui qui use.
mous length. They are neither sanguinary
CETE, in natural history, the seventh nor ferocious. Their stomachs are large,
order of Mammalia, in the Linnæan sys- and divided into chambers to the number
tem of animals, including the four genera, of five, as in the whale and porpoise, or
Monodon, or narval ; Balæna, whale ; even seven, as in the narval. In the last
Physeter, cachalot; and Delphinus, dol- particular they seem to constitute an in-
phin. The cetaceous tribe has one or termediate link between carnivorous and
more spiracles placed on the fore part of herbivorous animals, approaching nearly
the skull; no feet; pectoral fins without to ruminating quadrupeds ; but differ in
nails, and tail horizontal. The cetaceous subsisting on animal food, as they live
order of animals has nothing peculiar to chiefly on actiniæ, medusæ, and other
fish, except living in the same element, zoophytes, on crustaceous animals, and
and being endowed with the same powers on small fish. See MONODON, BALÆNA,
of progressive motion as those fishes PhySETER, and DELPHINUS.
which are intended to move with conside- CEYLANITE, in mineralogy, a species
rable velocity. The popular idea of ceta- of the flint genus, of a dark indigo-blue,
ceous animals being fishes is so strongly which passes into a bluish or greenish
impressed on the public mind, that it can black. It recurs sometimes in rolled
never, perhaps, be entirely removed, for pieces, and angular pieces, and sometimes
CHÆ
CHA
also crystalized. Specific gravity 3.76 to er obtained by the dressing of grain or
3.79. It is found, in sand, with tourmalin made from straw and other matters by
and other fossils.
cutting, is highly useful in the feeding of
CHÆROPHYLLUM, in botany, a genus horses and many other animals, as saving
of the Pentandria Digynia class and order. much other more valuable food. Besides
Natural order of Umbellatæ. Essential its advantage in the common feeding of
character: invol. reflected, concave; pe- animals, it is of vast utility in the fattening
tals heart-inflected; fruit oblong, even, of different sorts of animals, where much
There are ten species, of which c bulbo- iuxuriant green food is given as a dry
sum, tuberous chervil, is about five or six meat ; as without some sort of material
feet high, with reddish spots, smooth and of this nature they never go on well.
even at top, swelling at the joints. Both CHAIN, a long piece of metal com-
umbels of unequal rays, the partial rather posed of several links or rings, engaged
convex; petals white, obcordate, un- the one in the other. They are made of
equal; some florets of the disk abortive. divers metals, some round, some flat,
It is a native of Germany, Austria, Switz- others square, some single, some double.
erland, and Norway; in hedges and by A gold chain is one of the badges of the
wood sides; flowering in June and July. dignity of the Lord Mayor of London, and
C. silvestre, wild cicely or cow-weed, and remains to the person after bis being
C. temulum, wild chervil, rough cow- divested of that office, as a mark that he
parsley, are both common weeds; the has passed the chair. It is also the badge
others are admitted only into botanic gar- of office of the sheriff, but only while in
dens, not being in use either for medi- office
cine or in the kitchen.
CHAIN is also a string of gold, silver,
CHÆTODON, in natural history, a ge- or steel-wire, wrought like a tissue, which
nus of fishes of the order Thoracici: ge- serves to hang watches, tweezer-cases,
neric character : head and mouth small; and other valuable toys, upon. The inven-
teeth close set, flexile, setaceous; gill tion of these pieces of workmanship was
membrane three, four, five or six rayed; derived originally from England, whence
body broad, compressed, and generally foreigners give them the name of chains
faciated; dorsal and anal fin thick, fleshy, of England
and scaly at the base. The fishes of this In making these chains, a part of the wire
numerous genus are generally extremely is folded into little links of an oval form,
beautiful, their colours remarkably vivid, the longest diameter about three lines,
and their variegations consisting chiefly the shortest one. These, after they have
of stripes, lines, bends, or spots; their been exactly soldered, are again folded
body covered with strong scales, which into two, and then bound together and
are finally denticulated at the margin; interwoven by means of several other lit-
the dorsal and anal fins are remarkably tle threads of the same thickness, some of
broad. According to Gmelin there are which passing from one end to the other,
about 60 species. Dr. Shaw has enumerat. imitate the warp of a stuff, and the others,
ed and described still more. The latter which pass transversely, the woof; there
has divided them into classes, of which are at least four thousand little links, in a
the first is described as having a single chain of four pendants, so equally, and at
dorsal fin; and even or rounded tail, or the same time so firmly connected, that
very slightly inclining to crescent-shaped the eye takes the whole to consist of one
in some few species; among the species piece.
of this class is C. plectorhenchus, or pleat-
CHAIN, in surveying, a measure of
nose chætodon. See Plate III. Pisces, fig. length, made of a certain number of links
1. The species of the second class have of iron-wire, serving to take the distance
a single dorsal fin, and forked or lunated between two or more places. Gunter's
tail; those of the third class have two chain is of 100 such links, each measur-
dorsal fins.
ing 792 inches, and consequently equal
107
CHAFF, in agriculture, the husky sub- to 66 feet, or four poles. When you are
stance of corn, which is separated by to measure any line by this chain, you
threshing and winnowing. It also some need have regard to no other denomina-
times signifies the rind of corn; thus, bar- tion than chains and links, which are to
ley that has a thick rind is said to be be set down with a full point between
thick-chaffed; and it likewise implies them Thus, for instance, if the side of
straw, &c. cut small for the purpose of a close is found to be 10 chains 14 links,
being given to horses and other cattle, it must be set down thus, 10.14. But if
mixed with corn. This substance, wheth- the links be under 10, a cypher must be
CHA
CHA
:
prefixed; thus 10 chains 7 links, must be it is affirmed that no stone of the kind
set down 10.07.
is found near Mocha.
Then if the field be a square or paral- The principal colour of the carnelian is
lelogram, if you multiply the length ex- blood red, of all degrees of intensity;
pressed in chains and links, by the breadth from this it passes into milk-white, and
expressed in the same manner, and cut also into a kind of yellow. Semi-transpa-
off' five figures from the product, those rent; and in many other of its characters
towards the left hand will be acres; then it agrees with the common chalcedony.
multiply the separated figures by four, It is found accompanying agate, and, in
cutting off the same number of figures, and general, has the same geognostic situa-
you will have the roods or quarters of an
tion as chalcedony. The fine oriental va-
acre ; and lastly multiply the remaining rieties occur in rolled pieces. The
figures by 40, cutting off five as before, most beautiful carnelian is brought from
and you will have the square perches. Arabia and Hindostan; it is also found in
See SURVEYING.
different parts of Europe, and is used
Chains, in a ship, those irons to which for seals, bracelets, crosses, and other or-
the shrouds of the masts are made fast to naments.
the chain walls.
CHALCIS, in natural history, a genus
Chain walls, in a ship, the broad tim- of insects of the order Hymenoptera
bers which are made jetting out of her mouth with a horny compressed jaw;
sides, to which the shrouds are fastened feelers four equal; antennæ short, cylin-
and spread out, the better to secure the drical, fusiform ; the first joint a little
masts.
thicker; thorax gibbous, lengthened be-
CHAIN shot, two bullets with a chain hind in the place of a scutel; abdomen
between them. They are used at sea to rounded and slightly petiolate. There
shoot down yards or masts, and to cut are eleven species.
the shrouds or rigging of a ship.
CHALDRON, a dry English measure,
consisting of thirty-six bushels, heaped
CHAIN pump. See Pump.
up according to the sealed bushel kept
CHALCEDONY, in mineralogy, a spe- at Guildhall, London: but on ship-board,
cies of the flint genus: of which there are, twenty-one chaldron of coals are allowed
according to Werner, two subspecies, viz. to the score.
the common chalcedony and the carne- CHALK, in natural history, a species
lian : the colour of the former is grey in of Calk, which see.
all its shades. It is commonly semi- Chalk, where it is found at all, is the
transparent, harder than flint, brittle, dif- preponderating substance, and may there-
ficultly frangible; and the specific gravity, fore be considered as characterizing a
according to Kirwan, is about 2.6. Infusi- peculiar species of mineral formation. It
ble before the blow-pipe. It is found is perhaps the most recent of all the va-
mostly in balls, in amygdaloid, also in rieties of calcareous carbonates; it occurs
angular pieces and veins, in porphyry and in strata for the most part nearly horizon-
amygdaloid. The cubic variety occurs tal, alternating with thin layers of fint
in Transylvania, and the other varieties nodules, and with the same irregularly
in Iceland, the Feroe Islands, Silesia, Sax- dispersed through its substance: it con-
ony, Siberia, Cornwall, Scotland, &c. It tains in abundance the relics of marine
is susceptible of a fine polish, and is em- organized bodies, such as echinites,
ployed as an article of jewelry. It de- glossopetræ, pectinites, &c. and also not
rives its name from Chalcedon, in Asia, unfrequently the hard parts of amphibi-
where it was first found. Onyx is con- ous and land animals, as the heads and
sidered as the most valuable variety of vertebræ of crocodiles, and teeth of ele-
this species, and on account of its be- phants. Chalk hills never rise to a high-
ing capable of receiving a high polish er elevation than three or four hundred
is very much prized. It is principally feet, and are at once distinguishable by
cut in bas relief work, and the finest the smooth regularity of their outline,
specimens for that purpose are brought and their remarkable tendency to form
from the East Indies. The dendritic cup-shaped concavities. Ridges of chalk,
variety is named mocha stone, being in England at least, are always bordered
brought, originally, as was supposed, by parallel ranges of sand or sand stone,
from Mocha on the Red Sea; but it is beneath, and alternating with which are
now generally understood that the word situated the beds of fullers-earth. Chalk
mocha is a corruption from the German hills are also singularly characterized by
word mocks, which signifies moes; and their dryness and their verdure: the most
CHA
CHA
a
porous sandstone is scarcely so deficient Of course, after the discovery of urie
in springs of water, and yet, except upon acid by Scheele, it was usual to consider
almost perpendicular descents, the white the gouty chalk-stones as collections of
surface of the chalk is uniformly covered that acid. They were subjected to a
with fine turf or wood.
chemical analysis by Dr. Wollaston in
The chalk hills in England occupy a 1797, who found them composed of uric
greater extent than in any other country, acid and soda. Gouty concretions are
they run in a direction nearly from east soft and friable. Cold water has little ef-
to west, parallel to each other, and sepa- fect upon them; but boiling water dis-
rated by ranges of sand-stone, and low solves a small portion. If an acid be add-
tracts of gravel and clay. The most north-ed to this solution, small crystals of uric
ern and loftiest range of chalk com- acid are deposited on the sides of the
mences at the promontory of Flambo- vessel. These concretions are complete-
rough-head, in Yorkshire, and proceeds ly soluble in potash, when the action of
westward for nearly 20 miles. In the the alkaline solution is assisted by heat.
county of Lincoln are some fragments of When treated with diluted sulphuric or
a ridge near Grantham. Two ridges tra- with muriatic acid, the soda is separated ;
verse the midland counties, and reach as but the uric acid remains, and may be se-
far west as the borders of Oxfordshire : parated by filtration. The liquid, when
these ridges are no where so conspicuous evaporated, yields crystals of sulphate or
as in the county of Bedford, where they muriate of soda, according to the acid
approach near to each other, being only employed. The residuum possesses all
separated by the Woburn and Ampthill the characters of uric acid.
range of sand-stone. The country southWhen uric acid, soda, and a little warm
of the Thames also contains two ridges, water, are triturated together, a mass is
the one commencing at the North and formed, which, after the surplus of soda
South Foreland, passing through the is washed off, possesses the chemical pro-
north of Kent, the middle of Surry, and perties of gouty concretions.
the north of Hampshire, and including CHALLENGE, in law, is an exception
the North Downs of Banstead, Epsom, made to jurors, who are returned to a
&c. : the other, commencing near Hast- person on a trial.
ings and at the lofty promontory of This challenge is made either to the
Beachy-head, passes through Sussex and array, or to the polls: to the array, when
the south of Hampshire, into Dorsetshire, exception is taken to the whole number
including the South Downs. The north of jurors impannelled; and to the polls,
part of France also abounds in chalk: when an exception is made to one or
it is besides met with in some of the more of the jury as not indifferent.
Danish islands in the Baltic, and in Po- Challenge to the jurors is likewise di-
land.
vided into challenge principal or pe-
The uses of chalk are very extensive : remptory, and challenge for cause; that
the more compact kinds are used as is, upon cause or reason alleged. Chal-
building stone, and are burnt to lime lenge principal, is what the law allows
(nearly all the buildings in London being without any cause alleged, or further ex-
cemented with chalk-mortar:) it is also amination : as a prisoner arraigned at the
largely employed in the polishing of me- bar for felony may challenge peremptori-
tals and glass, in constructing moulds to ly the number allowed him by law, be-
cast metal in, by carpenters and others as ing twenty, one after another, alleging
a material to mark with, and by starch- no further cause than his own dislike :
makers and chemists to dry precipitates and the jurors, so challenged, shall be
on, for which it is peculiarly qualified on put off, and new ones taken in their
account of the remarkable facility with places.
which it absorbs water.
In cases of treason, the number of thir-
CHALK stones. It is well known that ty-five jurors may be peremptorily chal-
concretions occasionally make their ap- lenged, without shewing any cause; and
pearance in joints long subject to gout. more, both in treason and felony, may be
These concretions, from their colour and challenged, shewing cause.
softness, have received the name of If those who prosecute for the king
chalk-stones. They are usually small, challenge a juror, they are to assign the
though they have been observed of the cause; and if the cause alleged be not a
size of an egg. It had long been the good one, the inquest shall be taken.
opinion of physicians that these concre. When the king is party, if the other side
tions were similar to the urinary calculi. challenge any juror above the number
See CALCULI.
allowed, he ought to show cause of his
CHA
CHA
a
challenge immediately, while the jury is the Syngenesia Segregata class and or-
full, and before they are sworn. This der. Calyx six or eight flowered, imbri-
was supposed to be law with regard to cate, many-leaved; calycle one-flower-
challenges made for the crown, but in ed, many-leaved; florets tubular, all
the memorable state trials of 1794, the hermaphrodite ; receptacle naked; seeds
crown lawyers challenged without shew- covered with a calycle growing to them;
ing cause, declaring that they were not one species, a native of the South of Eu-
bound to shew reason till the whole pan- rope.
nel was gone through, and then, only in CHAMÆROPS, in botany, dwarf palm,
case that a sufficient number of jurors or palmetto. Essential character: herma-
were not left. This was the case, and phrodite; calyx three-parted ; corolla
the consequence was, that the persons three petalled; stamina six; pistils three;
whom they had challenged were then drupes three, one-seeded: males, dioe-
taken, against whom it was ascertained cous, as in the hermaphrodite. There
there was no cause of challenge whatever. are three species, of which C. humilis,
Challenge to the array is in respect of dwarf fan palm, never rises with an up-
the partiality or default of the sheriff, right stem; the foot stalks of the leaves
coroner, or other officer that made the rise immediately from the head of the
return; and it is then twofold. First, root, and are armed on each side with
principal challenge to the array, which if strong spines ; they are flat on their
it be made good, is a sufficient cause of upper surface, and convex on their un-
exception, without leaving any thing to der side: from between the leaves comes
the judgment of the triers, as if the out the spadix or club, which sustains the
sheriff be of kindred to either party, or if flowers; this is covered with a thin spathe
any of the jurors be returned at the no- or hood, which falls off when the bunch-
mination of either of the parties. Second- es open and divide. It grows naturally
ly, challenge to the array for favour, in Italy, Sicily, and Spain, particularly in
which being no principal challenge, must Andalusia, where, in the sandy land, the
be left to the discretion and conscience of roots spread and propagate so fast, as to
the triers. As where either of the par- cover the ground in the same manner as
ties suspect that the juror is inclined to fern in England.
favour the opposite party. Principal CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged
challenge to the polls, is where cause is with the management and direction of a
shewn, which if found true, stands suffi- chamber.
cient of itself, without leaving any thing There are almost as many kinds of
to the triers; as if the juror be under chamberlains as chambers, the principal
the age of 21, it is a true cause of chal- of which are as follow:
lenge.
CHAMBERLAIN, Lord, of Great Britain,
CHALYBEATE. See MINERAL WA- the sixth great officer of the crown; to
TERS.
whom belongs livery and lodging in the
CHAMA, in natural history, a genus king's court; and there are certain fees
of Vermes Testacea. Animal a tethys : due to him from each archbishop or
shell bivalve, rather coarse ; hinge with bishop, when they perform their homage
a callous gibbosity, obliquely inserted in to the king and from all peers at their
an oblique hollow: anterior slope closed: creation, on doing their homage. At the
about 25 species, of which we shall no- coronation of every king, he is to have
tice only the C. gigas: shell plaited, with forty ells of crimson velvet for his own
arched scales; posterior slope gaping, robes. This officer on the coronation
with crenulate margins. It inhabits the day, is to bring the king his shirt, coif,
Indian ocean, and is sometimes so small and wearing clothes; and after the king
as not to measure an inch in length; is dressed, he claims his bed, and all the
sometimes far exceeds all other testa- furniture of his chamber, for his fees : he
ceous productions, having been found of also carries at the coronation, the coif,
the weight of 532 pounds, and the fish or gloves, and linen, to be used by the king
inhabitant so large as to furnish 120 men on that occasion ; also the sword and
with food, and strong enough to cut scabbard, the gold to be offered by the
asunder a cable and lop off mens' hands; king, and the robes royal and crown: he
shell lucid, white, sometimes rosy, varied dresses and undresses the king on that
with yellow, red, and white; posterior day, waits on him before and after din-
aperture ovate, with a tumid crenate cir- ner, &c. To this officer belongs the care
cumference; margin toothed; hinge arm- of providing all things in the House of
ed with a tooth besides the callus. Lords, in the time of the Parliament: to
CHAMÆLEON, in botany, a genus of him also belongs the government of the
زا
CHA
CHA
palace of Westminster : he disposes like- the counter. To have leisure to pursue
wise of the sword of state, to be car- this work, he quitted Mr. Senex, and
ried before the king, to what lord he took chambers at Gray's Inn, where he
pleases.
chiefly resided during the rest of his
The office of Lord Great Chamberlain life. The first edition of the Cyclopædia,
of England is hereditary ; and where a which was the result of many years in-
person
dies seized in fee of this office, tense application, appeared in 1728, in 2
leaving two sisters, the office belongs to vols. folio. The reputation that Mr.
both, and they may execute it by depu- Chambers acquired by the execution of
ty, but such deputy must be approved of this work, procured him the honour
by the king, and must not be of a degree of being elected F. R. S. November 6,
inferior to a knight. To the Lord Cham- 1729. In less than ten years time, 2
berlain the keys of Westminster Hall, second edition became necessary; which
and the Court of Requests, are delivered accordingly was printed, with correc-
upon all solemn occasions. He goes on tions and additions, in 1738 ; and this
the right hand of the sword next the was followed by a third edition the very
king's person. The Gentlemen Usher of next year.
the Black Rod, Yeoman Usher, &c. are Mr. Chambers's close and unremitting
under his authority.
attention to his studies at length impair-
CHAMBERLAIN, Lord, of the Household, ed his health, and obliged him occasion-
an officer who has the oversight and di- ally to take a country lodging, but with-
rection of all the officers belonging to out much benefit; he afterwards visited
the king's chambers, except the precinct the south of France, but still with little
of the king's bed-chamber.
effect; he therefore returned to England,
He has the oversight of the officers of where he soon after died, at Islington,
the wardrobe at all his Majesty's houses, May 15, 1740, and was buried at West-
and of the removing wardrobes, or of minster Abbey.
beds, tents, revels, music, comedians, After the author's death, two more
hunting, messengers, &c. retained in the editions of his Cyclopædia were publish-
king's service. He moreover has the ed. The proprietors afterwards procured
oversight and direction of the serjeants a supplement to be compiled, by Mr.
at arms, of all physicians, apothecaries, Scott and Dr. Hill, but chiefly by the lat-
surgeons, barbers, the king's chaplains, ter, which extended to two volumes
&c. and administers the oath to all offi- more; and the whole has since been re-
cers above stairs.
duced into one alphabet in four volumes,
CHAMBERLAIN of London, keeps the by Dr. Rees, forming a very valuable
city money, which is laid up in the cham- body of the sciences.
ber of London: he also presides over
A new edition of the same work, or
the affairs of masters and apprentices, rather a new work under the title of the
and makes free of the city, &c. His of- “New Cyclopædia,” is now publishing
fice lasts only a year, but the custom by the same learned Editor. This work,
usually obtains to re-choose the same of which Dr. Rees has published already
person, unless charged with any misde- nine volumes, will probably extend to
meanor in his office.
thirty volumes quarto. It will, when
CHAMBERS, (EPHRAIM,) author of complete, be unquestionably the most
the dictionary of sciences called the comprehensive body of science ever pre-
Cyclopædia. He was born at Milton, sented to the world.
in the county of Westmoreland, where CHAMELEON. See LACERTA.
he received the common education for CHAMPION, a person who under-
qualifying a youth for trade and com- takes a combat in the place or quarrel
merce. When he became of a proper of another; and sometimes the word
age, he was put apprentice to Mr. is used for him who fights in his own
Senex, the globe-maker, a business cause.
which is connected with literature, espe- It appears that champions, in the just
cially with geography and astronomy. It sense of the word, were persons who
was during Mr. Chambers's residence fought instead of those that, by custom,
with this skilful artist, that he acquired were obliged to accept the duel, but had
that taste for literature which accompa- a just excuse for dispensing with it, as
nied him through life, and directed all being too old, infirm, or being ecclesias-
his pursuits. It was even at this time tics, and the like. Such causes as could
that he formed the design of his grand not be decided by the course of common
work, the Cyclopædia ; some of the first law, were often tried by single combat ;
articles of which were written behind and he who had the good fortune to con-
VOL. II.
S
>
CHA
CHA
quer, was always reputed to have justice champion drinks, and has the cup for his
on his side. Champions who fought for fee. This office is hereditary.
interest only, were held infamous: these CHANCE, in a general sense, a term
hired themselves to the nobility, to fight applied to events not necessarily produc-
for them in case of need, and did homage ed, as the natural effects of any proper
for their pension.
foreknown cause. We certainly mean no
When two champions were chosen to more in saying that a thing happened by
maintain a cause, it was always required chance, than that its cause
is unknown to
that there should be a decree of the us: for chance itself is no natural agent
judge to authorize the combat: when the or cause ; it is incapable of producing
judge had pronounced sentence, the ac- any effect, and is no more than a crea-
cused threw a gage or pledge, originally ture of man's own making; for the things
a glove or gantlet, which being taken up done in the corporeal world are really
by the accuser, they were both taken into done by the parts of the universal mat-
safe custody, till the day of battle ap- ter, acting and suffering, according to
pointed by the judge.
(the laws of motion established by the au-
Before the champions took the field, thor of nature.
their heads were shaved to a kind of Chance is also confounded with fate
crown or round, which was left at the and destiny.
top: then they made an oath that they CHANCES, doctrine of, in mixed mathe-
believed the person who retained them matics, a subject of great importance, es-
to be in the right, &c. They always pecially as applied to the doctrine of
engaged on foot, and with no other life annuities, assurance, &c. in a great
weapon than a club and a shield, which commercial country like this. The
weapons were blessed in the field by the writers on this branch of science have
priest, with a world of ceremonies; and been comparatively few. In our own
they always made an offering to the language the principal treatises are, a
church, that God might assist them in large quarto by De Moivre, and a very
the battle.
small work by the celebrated Mr. Tho-
The action began with railing, and giv- mas Simpson, in which, however, there
ing each other ill language ; and at the are some problems never before attempt
sound of a trumpet, they went to blows. ed, or at least never before communicat-
After the number of blows or encoun- ed to the public. In the year 1753, Mr.
ters expressed in the cartel, the judges Dodson rendered this subject more acces-
of the combat threw a rod into the air, sible to persons not far advanced in ana-
to advertise the champions that the com- lytical studies, by publishing in his se-
bat was ended. If it lasted till night, or cond volume of the “ Mathematical Re-
ended with equal advantage on both pository” a number of questions, with
sides, the accused was reputed the vic- their several solutions, with an express
tor. If the conquered champion fought in reference to the doctrine of life annui-
the cause of a woman, and it was a capital ties, We shall give his first problem.
offence, the woman was burnt, and the Suppose a round piece of metal, equal-
champion hanged. If it was the cham- ly formed, having two opposite faces,
pion of a man, and the crime capital, the one white, the other black, be thrown
vanquished was immediately disarmed, up, in order to see which of those faces
led out of the field, and hanged, together will be uppermost after the metal has
with the party whose cause he maintain- fallen to the ground, when, if the white
ed. If the crime was not capital, he not face appears uppermost, a person is to
only made satisfaction, but had his right be entitled to 51. it is required to deter-
hand cut off; the accused was close mine before the event what chance or
confined in prison, till the battle was probability that person has of receiving
over.
the 51. and what sum he may expect
CHAMPION of the king, a person whose should be paid to him in consideration of
office it is, at the coronation of our kings, his resigning his chance to another.
to ride armed into Westminster-hall, Solution. Since there is nothing in the
while the king is at dinner there, and, by form of the metal that can incline it to
the proclamation of a herald, make chal- shew one face rather than the other, and
lenge to this effect, viz. "That if any man since it must shew one, it will follow, that
shall deny the king's title to the crown, there is an equal chance for the appear-
he is there ready to defend it in single ance of either face, or there is one chance
combat, &c.” Which done, the king out of two for the appearance of the
,
drinks to him, and sends him a gilt cup, white face, and consequently the proba-
with a cover, full of wine, which the bility of it may be expressed by the frac-
CHANCES.
-
a
1
,
tion *; if, therefore, any other person the event's happening to be denoted by
2
,
should be willing to purchase his chance, a, and of its failing by b, the expectation
he must give for it the half of 51. or 21. will be either expressed by
Αα
or by
10s. This is one of the most simple ca-
atb
ses: before, however, we proceed, it Aь
may be proper to give some definitions ato, according as it depends either on
introductory to the doctrine.
the event's happening, or on its failing,
Def. 1. The probability of an event is
Def. 3. Events are independent, when
the ratio of the chance for its happening the happening of any one of them does
to all the chances for its happening or neither increase nor lessen the probabi-
failing : thus, if out of six chances for its lity of the rest. Thus, if a person un-
bappening or failing there were only two dertook with a single die to throw an ace
chances for its happening, the probabili- at two successive trials, it is obvious
ty in favour of such an event would be in (however his expectation may be effect-
the ratio of 2 to 6; that is, it would be a ed) that the probability of his throw
fourth proportional to 6, 2, and 1, or ž: ing an ace in the one is neither increas-
For the same reason, as there are four ed nor lessened by the result of the
chances for its failing, the probability that other trial.
the event will not happen, will be in the
ratio of 4 to 6, or in other words, it will
Theor. The probability that two subse-
be a fourth proportional to 6, 4, and 1, the product of the probabilities of the
quentevents will both happen, is equal to
ors. Hence, if the fractions expressing happening of those events considered se-
the probabilities of an event's both hap-
pening or failing be added together, they
parately.
will always be found equal to unity. For Suppose the chances for the happening
let a be the number of chances for the and failing of the first event to be denot-
event's happening, and b the number of ed by b, and those for its happening only
chances for its failing, the probability in to be denoted by a. Suppose, in like
manner, the chances for the second
the first case being-
and in the se-
a+b'
event's happening and failing to be de-
b
noted by d, and those for its happening
cond case
their sum will be = only by c; then will the probability of the
happening of each of those events, sepa-
= 1. Having therefore determin- rately considered, be (according to Def.
at6
ed the probability of any event's either 1) 7 and a respectively. Since it is ne-
d
happening or failing, the probability of
the contrary will
always be obtained by before any thing can be determined in
cessary that the first event should happen
subtracting the fraction expressing such regard to the second, it is evident that
probability from unity.
the expectation on the latter must be
Def. 2. The expectation of an event lessened in proportion to the improbabi-
is the present value of any sum or thing lity of the former. Were it certain that
which depends either on the happening the first event would happen, in other
or on the failing of such an event. Thus,
if the receipt of one guinea were to de- words, were a=b, or g =1, the expec-
7
pend on the throwing of any particular
face on a die, the expectation of the per-
tation on the second event would be =
son entitled to receive it would be worth But if a is less than b, and the ex.
3s. 6d.; for since there are six faces on a
a
die, and only one of them can be thrown pectation on the second event is restrain-
to entitle the person to receive his mo- ed to the contingency of its having hap-
ney, the probability that such a face will pened the first time, that expectation will
be thrown being according to Def. 1) be so much less than it was on the
(,former
it follows that the value of his interest supposition as ő is
is less than unity,
before the trial is made, or, which is the
same thing, that his expectation is equal Hence we have 1 :
for the
to one-sixth of a guinea, or 3s. 6d. Were
ī a bd
his receiving the money to depend on his true expectation in this case.
throwing either of two faces, his expecta- Cor. By the same method of reasoning
tion would be equal to two-sixths of a it will appear that the probability of the
guinea, or 7s. And, in general, supposing happening of any number of subsequent
the present value of the money or thing events is equal to the “product of the
-
a+b
atb
с
a
с
а
с
ac
::
.
CHANCES.
an
a
a
Х
at
+0
probabilities of those events separately by the preceding corollary, be x = 6
considered,” and therefore if a always on these conclusions depend all the com-
denote the probability of its happening, putations, however complicated and labo-
and b the probability of its happening and rious, in the doctrine of chances. But this,
failing, the fraction will express the perhaps, will be more clearly exemplifi-
"bn
ed in the two following problems, which
probability of its happening n times suc- will serve to explain the principles on
cessively, and (by Def. 1) the fraction which every other investigation is found-
b
ed in this subject.
will express the probability of its Prob. 1. To determine the probability
un
failing n times successively.
that an event happens a given number of
Rem. It should be observed, that in times and no more, in a given number of
trials.
some instances the probability of each
Sol. 1. Let the probability be required
subsequent event necessarily differs from
that which preceded it, while in others it and let the ratio of its happening to that
of its happening only once in two trials,
continues invariably the same through of its failing be as a to b. Then, since the
any number of trials. In the one case
the probabilities are expressed, as in the ing the first, and failing the second time,
event can take place only by it happen-
and denominators continually vary, in the probability of which is a+6X
the other they are expressed, as in the
6
corollary, by one and the same inva-
a 6
riable fraction. But this perhaps will a+b
2, or by its failing the
a to
be better understood, by the following first and happening the second time, the
examples.
ba
1. Suppose that out of a heap of coun- probability of which is 2, the sum
ters, of which one part of them are white
at 6
and the other red, a person were twice of these two fractions, or=
2 a 6
will be
successively to take out one of them, and
a to
that it were required to determine the the probability required.
probability that these should be red coun- 2. Let the probability be required of
ters. If the number of the white be 6, its happening only twice in three trials.
and the number of the red be 4, it is evi- In this case, the event, if it happens, must
dent, from what has already been shown, take place in either of three different
that the probability of taking out a red ways: 1st, by its happening the first two,
one the first time will be : but the and failing the third time, the probabili-
10
probability of taking it out the 2d time
аа Б
will be different; for since one counter ty of which is
by its
atbl
has been taken out, there are now only failing the first, and happening the other
nine remaining; and since, in order to
two times, the probability of which is
the 2d trial, it is necessary that the coun
ba a
ter taken out should ave been a red 3 ; or, 3dly, by its happening the
one, the number of those red ones must a+b
have been reduced to 3. Consequently, first and third, and failing the second
the chance of drawing out a red coun- time, the probability of which is
ter the 2d time will be ş, and the
a +03
bability of drawing it out the 1st and The sum of these fractions, therefore, or
4 X 3 3 ba a
2d time will (by this theorem) be
will be the required probabili-
2
ty. By the same method of reasoning,
15
the probability of its happening only
2. Suppose next, that with a single die, once in three trials; or, which is the
a person undertook to throw an ace same thing, of its failing twice in three
twice successively: in this case the pro-
3bba
bability of throwing it the first, does not trials, may be found equal to
in the least alter his chance of throwing it
the second time, as the number of faces
on the die is the same on both trials. The happening only once in four trials be re-
3. Let the probability of the event's
probability, therefore, in each will be ex- quired. In this case it must either hap-
pressed by the same fraction, so that the pen the first and fail in the three suc-
probability, before any trial is made, will, ceeding trials ; or happen the second and
3 ; 2dly,
aba
pro-
10 X 9 a +6
32
a +63
CHANCES.
7--1
=x"x=2 continu-
"
n -
n
fail in the first, third, and fourth trials;
N-
or happen the third, and fail in the first, tion, are =
Х
2 3
second, and fourth trials; or happen the ed to d terms; the general rule therefore
fourth, and fail in the first, second, and
third trials. The probability of each of will be
ad .bn-
n multiplied into n x
a 263
at b
these being -4, the required proba- n-1
a+b)
2 3
2.- x Х
X
continued to a
4 a 63
3
4
bility will be
and for the same rea-
terms.
a +614
Ex. Supposing a person with six dice
son, the probability of its happening three undertakes to throw two aces and no
times and failing only once in four trials more; or, which is the same thing, that
4 ba3
he undertakes with one die to throw an
will be
ace twice, and no more, in six trials, it is
a+b)
required to determine the probability of
4. Let the probability be required of his succeeding, a being in this case = 1,
its happening twice and failing twice in b=5, n=6, and d=2, the above expres-
four trials : here the event may be deter-
54
mined in either of six different ways : 1st, sions will become =
:
66. multiplied into
by its happening the first and second, and
5
1
failing in the third and fourth trials; 2dly, 6 x
625 X 15
2
by its happening the first and third, and
very nearly
46656 5
failing the second and fourth trials; 3dly, Hence, since there is only one chance for
by its happening the first and fourth, and his succeeding, while there are four for
failing the second and third trials; 4thly, his failing, the odds against him will be
by its happening the second and third, as four to one.
and failing the first and fourth trials ; Prob. 2. To determine the probability
5thly, by its happening the second and that an event happens a given number of
fourth, and failing the first and third times in a given number of trials; sup-
trials ; or, 6thly, by its happening the posing, as in the former problem, the
third and fourth, and failing the first and probability of its happening each time to
second trials. Each of these probabili. that of its failing to be in the ratio of a
a? 62
to b.
ties being expressed by 54, it follows
ato
Sol. It will be observed that this pro-
blem materially differs from the preced-
6 a2 b 2
that the sum of them, or 4 will ex. ing, in as much as the event in that pro
atol
blem was restrained so that it should
press the probability required.
happen neither more or less often than a
By proceeding in the same manner, blem the event is determined equally fa-
given number of times, while in this pro-
,
the probability in any other case may be vourable by its happening either as often
determined. But if the number of trials
be very great, these operations will be or oftener than a given number of times,
come exceedingly complicated, and there so that in the present case there is no
come exceedingly complicated, and there- further restriction than that it should not
fore recourse must be had to a more ge- fall short of that number.
neral method of solution.
Supposing n to be the whole number of
1. Let the probability be required of an
trials, and d the number of times in which event happening once at least in two trials.
the event is to take place, the probability time, or fails the first and happens the
If it happens the first and fails the second
of the event's happening d times succes. second time, or happens both times, the
sively, and failing the remaining n d times, event will have equally succeeded. The
ad bn-d
ad.in-d
will be
-n-d=
a b
atol atol a tol
probability in the first case is
, the
atol
But as there is the same probability of its
ba
happening any other d assigned trials and probability in the second is 2, and the
failing in the rest, it is evident that this
atol
probability ought to be repeated as often
as d things can be combined in n things, probability in the third is 2; hence the
which, by the known rules of combina
ato
dx
nha
аа
CHANCES.
.
4,
a
a tox
Х
a+b
at b5
a 63
>
&c. re-
6
2ab + aa found. Let it be supposed to have happen-
probability required will be
ato
ed only once in these times, the probability
of which, by the preceding problem, is
2. Let the probability be required of
3 abb
its happening once in three times. Pro- 3; then will the probability of its hap-
vided it has happened once at least in the a-+6)
first two trials, the event will have equally pening the fourth, after having happened
succeeded, whether it happens or fails in
3 a²6²
a2+2 ab
once in the three preceding, be
the third trial, and therefore
will
a+b)
at 6²
and therefore the whole probability will be
represent the probability in this case. But
a3+3 ab 3 a- b-
it may have failed in the first two and hap-
a4+4 a3b+6 a2b2
pened in the third trial, the probability of at 63 ato
a +64
bb a
By proceeding in the same manner, it may
which is **; adding this to the preced- be found that the probability of an event's
ato
happening twice at least in five trials, will
ing fraction we have
a2+2 abXa+6+ba a4+4 a3 6+6 a
4 a 63
be=
+
at 63
at 67
a3+3 a: 6+3 ab:
for the probability
as +5 a4 b+10 a3b2+10 a² b2
And if
at 63
atos
a
required. In like manner the proba. the probability of the event's happening
bility of its happening once at least in thrice in 4, 5, 6, &c. trials be required,
a3 +3 a b +3 a bb they may, by pursuing the same steps, be
four trials will be
+
at 63
a4 + 4 a3 b as +5 a4 b + 10 a3 b2
found=
a4 +6 a3 6+6 a2b2+4 a b3
a +674?
and 26 +6 as 6+15 at b2 +20 a3 b3
ato
a tot
the probability of its happening once at
a +6
a-t-in-On
spectively. Hence it follows, that if the
least in n times will be
In
aton
binomial a + b) be raised to nth power,
other words, since the event must happen the probability of an event's happening at
once at least, unless it fails every time, the least d times in n trials will be =
probability required (by Def. 1) will always an+nan-1 6+n. an—2 b2 (n+1-d
be expressed by the difference between
in
aton
unity and
that is, the series in the numerator must
a + b
be continued till the index of a becomes
3. Let the probability be required of an equal to d.
event's happening twice at least in three Cor. From this solution it appears that
trials. In this case it will succeed if it hap- the series
pens the first and second and fails the third
time, if it happens the first and third, and
bn +nbn-la+nam? bn–202 to d terms,
fails the second time, if it happens the
second and third, and fails the first time will express the probability of the event's
aton
or if it happens each time successively.
3 alb
not happening so often as d times in n
The first three probabilities are:
and
trials.
a +63
Ex. Supposing a person with six dice
undertakes to throw two aces or more
the fourth is -3; therefore the proba- in the first trial, what is the probability
of his succeeding? In this case a, b, ng
a3+3ab
bility required will be
If the
and d, being respectively equal to 1, 5,
a +63
6, and 2, the above expression will be.
event is to happen twice at least in four
times, the probability of its happening dur. 1+30+15X25+ 20 X 125 + 15 X 625
ing the first three times has been already
66
.
n
n-1
2
n
a3
ato
come =
CHA
CHA
or
12281
Hence the odds against his expectation will be nearly twelve to one.
46656
succeeding will be as 34375 to 12281, or
CHANCE medley, in law, is the acci.
nearly as three to one.
dental killing of a man, not altogether
We have already observed, that the without the killer's fault, though without
doctrine of chances is particularly appli- any evil intention; and is where one is
cable to the business of life annuities and doing a lawful act, and a person is killed
assurance. This depends on the chance thereby : for, if the act be unlawful, it is
of life in all its stages, which is found by felony. The difference betwixt chance-
the bills of mortality in different places. medley and manslaughter is this: if a
These bills exhibit how many persons up- person cast a stone, which happens to hit
on an average out of a certain number one, and he dies; or if a workman, in
born are left at the end of each year to throwing down rubbish from a house,
the extremity of life. From such tables after warning to take care, kill a person,
the probability of the continuance of a it is chance-medley and misadventure :
life of any proposed age is known.
but if a person throws stones on the
Example. To find the probability that highway, where people usually pass ;
an individual of a given age will live one from a house in cities and
a workman throws down rubbish
towns
year. Let A be the number in the tables
of the given age, B the
number left at the if a man whips his horse in the street, to
where people are continually passing; or
B
end of the
year ;
the is the probability make him gallop, and the horse runs over
А.
a child and kills it, it is manslaughter:
that the individual will live one year; and but if another whips the horse, it is man-
A-B
the probability that he will die in slaughter in him, and chance-medley in
A
the rider. In chance-medley the offender
that time. In Dr. Halley's tables, out of forfeits his goods, but has a pardon of
586 at the age of 22, 579 arrive at the age course.
of 23; hence the probability that an indi.
CHANCELLOR, an officer supposed
579 originally to have been a notary or scribe
vidual aged 22 will live one year
is
586' or under the emperors, and named cancella-
83
7 1
rius, because he sat behind a lattice, call-
-nearly is the pro- ed in Latin cancellus, to avoid being
586 84
crowded by the people.
bability that he will die in that time. See
MORTALITY, bills of, &c.
CHANCELLOR, Lord High, of Great
Those who would enter more at large, the highest honour of the long robe, be-
Britain, or Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, is
into this subject may be referred to the ing made so per traditionem magni sigilli,
works already mentioned, or to the article per dominum regem, and by taking the
CHANCES in the new Cyclopedia of Dr. oaths : he is the first person of the realm
Rees, a work that will be found in every next after the king and princes of the
library of general literature, and in which blood in all civil affairs; and is the chief
this subject is treated with great ability. administrator of justice next the sove-
Though we shall under the article GAM- reign, being the judge of the court of
ING refer again to the doctrine of chances, chancery. All other justices are tied to
it may not be amiss to mention a deduc- the strict rules of law in their judgment;
tion or two drawn by the writer of the but the chancellor is invested with the
;
article just referred to, as the necessary king's absolute power, to moderate the
consequences of mathematicial reasoning. written law, governing bis judgment
The first is : supposing a lottery consist- purely by the law of nature and con-
ing of 25,000 tickets, of which 20 are to science, and ordering all things according
be prizes of 10001. and upwards; a per. to equity and justice. The Lord Chan-
son to have an equal chance of one of celior not only keeps the King's great
those prizes must purchase about 870 seal; but also all patents, commissions,
tickets, which at 201. each is equal to warrants, &c. from the King, are, before
17,4001.
they are signed, perused by him ; he has
Again : suppose there are three prizes the disposition of all ecclesiastical bene-
of 20,0001. and three of 10,0001. and a fices in the gift of the crown under 20% a
person out of 25,000 tickets has purchased year in the king's books; and he is
3000 of them to his own share, in hopes speaker of the House of Lords. To him
of gaining one of each of these capital belongs the appointment of all justi-
prizes ; still the chances against such an ces of the peace throughout the kingdom,
Or
84 nearly; and
or
CHA
CHA
He is the general guardian of all infants, absence. The Chancellor of Cambridge
idiots, and lunatics; and has the general is also usually one of the prime nobility,
superintendence of all charitable uses in and in most respects the same as that in
the kingdom.
Oxford, only he does not hold his office du-
CHANCELLOR of a cathedral, an officer rante vita, but may be elected every three
that heal's lessons and lectures read in the years. Under the Chancellor there is a
church, either by himself or his vicar; to Commissary, who holds a court of record
correct and set right the reader when he for all privileged persons and scholars
reads amiss; to inspect schools; to hear under the degree of Master of Arts,
causes; apply the seal, write and dis- where all causes are tried and determined
patch the letters of the chapter ; keep by the civil and statute law, and by the
the books; take care that there be fre- custom of the university. The Vice-
quent preachings both in the church and Chancellor of Cambridge is chosen annu-
out of it; and assign the office of preach- ally by the Senate, out of two persons no-
ing to whom he pleases.
minated by the heads of the several col-
CHANCELLOR of the duchy of Lancaster, leges and halls.
an officer appointed chiefly to determine CHANCERY, the grand court of equity
controversies between the king and his te- and conscience, instituted to moderate
nants of the duchy land, and otherwise to the rigour of the other courts that
direct all the King's affairs belonging to are bound to the strict letter of the
that court.
law.
CHANCELLOR of the Exchequer, an offi- In Chancery are two courts; one ordi-
cer who presides in that court, and takes nary, being a court of common law; the
care of the interest of the crown.
other extraordinary, being a court of equi-
He is always in commission with the ty. The ordinary or common law court,
Lord Treasurer, for the letting of crown- is a court of record. Its jurisdiction is to
lands, &c. and has power, with others, to hold plea upon a scire facias, to repeal
compound for forfeitures of lands, upon and cancel the King's letters patent,
penal statutes: he has also great autho- when made against law, or upon untrue
rity in managing the royal revenues, and suggestions; and to hold plea on all per.
in matters relating to the first fruits. sonal actions, where any officer of this
CHANCELLOR of the order of the garter, court is a party; and of executions on
and other military orders, is an officer who statutes, or of recognizances in nature of
seals the commissions and mandates of statutes; and by several acts of Parlia-
the chapter and assembly of the knights, ment, of diverse other offences and causes;
keeps the register of their proceedings, but this court cannot try a cause by a
and delivers acts thereof under the seal jury, but the record is to be delivered by
of their order.
the Lord Chancellor into the King's
CHANCELLOR of an university, is he Bench, to be tried there, and judgment
who seals the diplomas, or letters of de- given thereon. And when judgment is
grees, provision, &c. given in the univer- given in this common law part of Chance-
sity. The Chancellor of Oxford is usual. ry upon demurrer, or the like, a writ of
ly one of the prime nobility, chosen by error is returnable into the King's Bench;
the students themselves in convocation. but this hath not been practised for many
He is their chief magistrate ; his office is years. From this court also proceed all
durante vita, to govern the university, pre- original writs, commissions of charitable
serve and defend its rights and privileges, uses, bankrupts, sewers, idiots, lunatics,
convoke assemblies, and do justice among and the like: and for these ends this
the members under his jurisdiction. Un- court is always open.
der the Chancellor is the Vice-Chancellor, The extraordinary court is a court of
who is chosen annually, being nominated equity, and proceeds by the rules of equi-
by the Chancellor", and elected by the uni- ty and good conscience. This equity con.
versity in convocation: he is always the sists in abating the rigour of the common
head of some college, and in holy or- law, and giving a remedy in cases where no
ders. His proper office is to execute the provision, or not sufficient provision, had
Chancellor's power, to govern the uni- been made by the ordinary course of law.
tersity according to her statutes, to see The jurisdiction of this court is of vast
that officers and students do their duty, extent. Almost all causes of weight and
that courts be duly called, &c. When he moment, first or last, have their determi-
enters upon his office, he chooses four nation here. In this court relief is given in
Pro-Vice-Chancellors out of the heads of the case of infants, married women, and
the colleges, to execute his power in his others not capable of acting for them-
:
CHA
CHA
num-
mit of.
-
GERY.
-
= 5040
gelves. All frauds for which there is no X 3 X 4. And by this method of pro-
remedy at law, are cognizable here; as ceeding, it may be made evident, that 5
also all breaches of trust, and unreason- things admit of 120 several variations or
able or unconscionable engagements. It changes; and 6 things, of 720.
will compel men to perform their agree- Thus, if it be required, in how many
ments; will remove mortgageors and obli- different ways seven persons may be
gors against penalties and forfeiture, on placed at table, the answer is 1 X 2 X 3
payment of principal, interest, and costs; X 4 X 5 X 6 X 7 = 5040. The follow-
will rectify mistakes in conveyances; will ing table will shew the several varia-
grant injunctions to stay waste; and re- tions and changes of any number of things
strain the proceedings of inferior courts, up to 12.
that they exceed not their authority and
The different va.
jurisdiction. This court will not retain a
The
How the varia- Triations each of
suit for any thing under 101, value; ex- ber of things tions are pro- the proposed
cept in cases of charity, nor for lands un- to be varied. ductd.
numbers can ad-
der 40s. per annum.
CHANCRE, a venereal ulcer. See SUR-
1.......
1 X 1=1
2......
1 X 2=2
CHANGES, in arithmetic, the varia-
3.......
2 X 3 = 6
tions or permutations of any number of
4.......
6 x 4= 24
things, with regard to their position,
5......
24 x 5= 120
order, &c. The method of finding out 6.......
120 X 6=720
the number of changes, is by a continual
7....... 720 x 7
multiplication of all the terms in a series
8....... 5040 X 8 40320
of arithmetical progressionals, whose
9...... 40320 x 91
362880
first term, and common difference, is
10....... 362880 x 10 3628800
unity, or 1; and last term the num-
11....... 3628800 X 11 39916800
ber of things proposed to be varied ; viz.
12.... 39916800 x 12=479001600
1 X2 X3 X4 X 5 X 6 X 7, &c. as will
appear from what follows:
1. If the things proposed to be va- They may be thus continued on to any
Pied are only two, they admit of a dou- assigned number. Suppose to 24, the num-
ble position, as to order of place, and no ber of letters in the alphabet, which will.
more.
admit of 620448401733239439360000 se-
Thus,
veral variations.
$1.22
=2=1 X 2.
22.15
Since on 12 bells there would be, by
2. And if three things are proposed to the table, 479001600 changes: suppose
be varied, they may be changed six seve- 10 changes to be rung in a minute, that is
ral ways, as to their order of places, and 10 X 12, or 120 strokes in a minute, it
no more.
would even then require upwards of 90
For, beginning with 1, there 21.2.3 years to ring over all the changes on the
will be.........
31.3.2 12 bells.
Next, beginning with 2, there 22.1.3 CHANGES of quantities, in algebra, the
will be............
.32.3.1 same with what is otherwise called com-
Again, beginning with 3, it 23.1.2 bination, See COMBINATION.
will be.........
..... 33.2.1 CHANNEL, in hydrography, the deep-
Which, in all, make 6, or 3 times 2; viz. est part of a river, harbour, strait, &c.
1 X2 X3 = 6.
which is most convenient for the track of
3. Suppose 4 things were supposed to shipping; also an arm of the sea running
be varied, then they admit of 24 several between an island and the main or con-
changes, as to their order of different tinent, as the British Channel.
places.
CHAOS, in natural history, a genus of
1.2.3.4 insects, belonging to the order Zoophyta.
For beginning the order-1.2.4.3 The body has no covering; no joints; no
with 1, it will be............ (1.3.2.4 external organs of sensation. There are
1.3.4.2 five species, most obtained by fusion of
Here are six different 1.4.2.3 different vegetables in water, and seen
changes...............
1.4.3.2 only by the aid of the microscope.
And for the same reason there will be CHÁPLAIN, an ecclesiastic, who offi.
6 different changes when 2 begins the ciates in a chapel. The King of Great
order, and as many when 3 and 4 begin Britain hath forty-eight chaplains in ordi-
the order; which, in all, is 24 =1X2 nary, usually eminent doctors in divinity,
VOL. II.
T
CHA
CHA
who wait four each month, preach in the CHARA, in botany, a genus of the
chapel, read the service to the family, Monoecia Monandria class and order,
and to the King in his private oratory, Natural order of Inundatæ. Naiades,
and say grace in the absence of the Jussieu. Essential character: male, ca-
clerk of the closet. Besides, there are lyx and corolla none; anther before the
twenty-four chaplains at Whitehall, fel- germ, underneath. Female, calyx four-
lows of Oxford or Cambridge, who leaved; corolla none; stigma five-cleft;
preach in their turns, and are allowed seed one. There are four species, of
thirty pounds per annum each. Accord- which C. tomentosa, brittle chara, or
ing to a statute of Henry VIII. the per- stone wort, is always flesh coloured when
sons vested with a power of retaining alive, and when dry it becomes ash-co-
chaplains, together with the number loured; stem twisted, brittle, and gritty
each is allowed to qualify, is as follows: in the mouth like coralline; low and
an archbishop, eight; a duke or bishop, creeping in marshes where there is little
six; marquis or earl, five; viscount, four; water. In summer, this plant abounds in
baron, knight of the garter, or lord chan- oblong berries, growing yellow when
cellor, three; a duchess, marchioness, ripe, having small black seeds in them.
countess, baroness, the treasurer and it is an annual, flowering from June to
comptroller of the king's house, clerk of October.
the closet, the king's secretary, dean of
CHARACTER, in a general sense, de-
the chapel, almoner and master of the
rolls, each of them two ; chief justice of represent either things or ideas; thus,
notes any mark whatever, serving to
the King's Bench, and warden of the letters are characters, types, or marks of
,
Cinque Ports, each one. All these chap- certain sounds; words, of ideas, &c.
lains may purchase a license or dispensa-
tion, and take two benefices with cure of
Characters are of infinite advantage in
souls. A chaplain must be retained by almost all sciences, for conveying in the
letters testimonial under hand and seal; most concise and expressive manner an
for it is not sufficient that he serve as author's meaning; however, such a mul-
chaplain in the family.
tiplicity of them, as we find used by dif-
CHAPLET, in architecture, a small or. ferent nations, must be allowed to be a
nament carved into round beads, pearls, very considerable obstacle to the im-
olives, and pater-nosters, as is frequently provement of knowledge ; several au-
done in baguettes.
thors have therefore attempted to esta-
CHAPPË, in heraldry, the dividing blish characters that should be univer-
an escutcheon by lines drawn from the sal, and which each nation might read in
centre of the upper edge to the angles their own language ; and, consequently,
below, into three parts, the sections on
which should be real, not nominal or ar-
,
the sides being of a different metal or co- bitrary, but expressive of things them-
lour from the rest.
selves; thus, the universal character for
CHAPTER, in ecclesiastical policy, a
a horse would be read by an Englishman
society or community of ecclesiastics be- horse, by a Frenchman cheval, by the
longing to a cathedral or collegiate church. Latins equus, by the Greeks ET TOS, &c.
It was in the eighth century that the
The first who made any attempts for
body of canons began to be called a an universal character in Europe, were
chapter. The chapter of the canons of a Bishop Wilkins and Dalgarme; Mr. Leib-
cathedral were a standing council to the nitz also turned his thoughts that way;
bishop, and during the vacancy of the and Mr. Lodwic, in the Philosophical
see, had the jurisdiction of the diocese. Transactions, gives a plan of an universal
In the earlier ages, the bishop was head character, which was to contain an enu-
of the chapter; afterwards abbots and meration of all such single sounds as are
other dignitaries, as deans, provosts, used in any language. The advantages
treasurers, &c. were preferred to this he proposed to derive from this character
distinction. The deans and chapters had were, that people would be enabled to
the privilege of choosing the bishops in pronounce truly and readily any lan-
England, but Henry VIII. got this power guage that should be pronounced in their
vested in the crown: and as the same hearing; and lastly, that this character
prince expelled the monks from the would serve as a standard to perpe-
cathedrals, and placed secular canons in tuate the bounds of every language what-
their room, those he thus regulated were soever.
called deans and chapters of the new CHARACTER is also used in several of
foundation; such are Canterbury, Win the arts, for a symbol, contrived for
chester, Ely, Carlisle, &c.
the more concise and immediate con-
CHARACTERS.
-
с
:c.
-
-
veyance of the knowledge of things. the quotient of a divided by b. Wolfius
We shall here subjoin the principal of makes the sign of division two dots; thus,
them.
12 : 4 denotes the quotient of 12 divided
CHARACTERS used in Algebra and Arith- by 4 = 3. If either the divisor or divi-
metic.
dend, or both, be composed of several
a, b, c, d, &c. the first letters of the al- letters, for example, a+bcinstead
phabet, are the characters of given quan- of writing the quotient like a fraction,
tities and z, y, æ, &c. the last letters, are a+ , Wolfius includes the compound
the characters of quantities sought. See
the article ALGEBRA.
quantities in a parenthesis; thus, (a + b)
m, n, r, s, t, &c. are characters of inde-
terminate exponents both of ratios and of Quis the character of involution: all is
powers: thus, xm, yn, z?", &c. denote un- the character of evolution.
determined powers of different kinds ; 7 or are signs of majority; thus a
m x, n y, r z, different multiples or sub- 76 expresses that a is greater than b.
multiples of the quantities x, y, -, accord-
< or are signs of minority; and
ing as m, n, r, are either whole numbers when we would denote that a is less than
or fractions.
b, we write a 2 b, or a b.
+ is the sign of the real existence of on is the character of similitude used
the quantity it stands before, and is call- by Wolfius, Leibnitz, and others : it is
ed an affirmative or positive sign. It is used in other authors for the difference
also the mark of addition, and is read between two quantities while it is un-
plus, or more ; thus a +b, or 3 + 5, im- known which is the greater of the two.
plies a is added to b, or 3 added to 5. :: is the mark of geometrical propor-
- before a single quantity is the sign tion disjunct, and is usually placed be-
of negation or negative existence, shew- tween two pair of equal ratios, as, 3:6
ing the quantity to which it is prefixed to :: 4:8, shews that 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8.
be less than nothing. But between quan- : the mark of geometrical proportion
tities it is the sign of subtraction, and is continued, implies the ratio to be still
read minus, or less; thus, a, b, or 8—4, carried on without interruption, as, 2, 4,
implies b subtracted from a, or 8 after 4 8, 16, 32, 64 - are in the same uninter-
has been subtracted.
rupted proportion.
=is the sign of equality, though Des ✓ is the character of radicality, and
Cartes and some others use this mark 0; shews, according to the index of the
thus, a = b signifies that a is equal to b. power that is set over it, or after it, that
Wolfius and some others use the mark the square, cube, or other root is ex-
for the identity of ratios.
tracted, or to be extracted ; thus, 16,
X is the sign of multiplication, shewing or ✓ 16, or ✓ (2) 16, is the square
that the quantities on each side the same root of 16, 325, the cube root of 25,
are to be multiplied by one another, as &c. This character sometimes affects
a x bis to be read a multiplied into b; several quantities, distinguished by a line
4 X 8, the product of 4 multiplied into drawn over them; thus b+d de-
8. Wolfius and others make the sign of notes the sum of the square roots of b
multiplication a dot between the two and d. When any term or terms of an
factors; thus, 5.4 signifies the product equation are wanting, they are generally
of 5 and 4. In algebra the sign is com- supplied by one or more asterisms; thus,
monly omitted, and the two quantities in the equation
put together ; thus b d expresses the
4pt9
duct of band d. When one or both of y+y+*+1}=0, the term Epy
d
p
the factors are compounded of several vanishing, is marked with an asterism, as
letters, they are distinguished by a line y- *- *p+q.
drawn over them ; thus, the factum of a
y-p
CHARACTERS used in astronomy.
+ b c into d, is wrote d X a + b-C.
Leibnitz, Wolfius, and others, distin-
Characters of the planets.
giush the compound factors by including " Saturn
h
O Sun
( Moon
them in a parenthesis ; thus (a +bc) 2 Jupiter Venus O Earth.
d.
%
- is the sign of division ; thus, a = b
Of the signs.
denotes the quantity a to be divided by op Aries
2 Leo
1 Sagittarius
b. In algebra the quotient is often ex- 8 Taurus me Virgo vs Capricornus
- Libra
pressed like a fraction ; thus, i denotes o Gemini
m Aquarius
To
co Cancer m Scorpio * Pisces.
7 Mars
Mercury
CHARACTERS.
3.
3 3
3
6
"
9
9
9
of the aspects.
b or b, character of a flat note: this is
6 or S. Conjunction ÅTrine
the contrary to the other above, that is, a
SS. Semisextile Bq. Biquintile semitone lower.
* Sextile
Vc. Quincunx
character of a natural note : when in
Q. Quintile
8 Opposition a line or series of artificial notes, marked
O Quartile
Dragon's head at the beginning b or, the natural note
Td. Tredecile
Dragon's tail.
happens to be required, it is denoted by
Of time.
this character.
A.M. ante meridiem, before the sun comes
upon the meridian.
& character of the treble cliff.
0. or N. noon.
P. M. post merediem, when the sun is past
H character of the mean cliff.
the meridian.
: bass cliff.
CHARACTERS used in the arithmetic of
2, or Å, or characters of common
infinites.
the character of an infinitesimal or two crotchets to be equal to two notes, of
duple time: signifying the measure of
Auxion ; thus, x, y, &c. express the flux- which four make a semibreve.
ions or differentials of the variable x and c¢ . characters that distinguish the
y; and two, three, or more dots denote movements of common time, the first im-
second, third, or higher fluxions. M. plying slow, the second quick, and the
Leibnitz, instead of a dot, prefixes the third very quick.
letter d to the variable quantity, in order
to avoid the confusion of dots in the dif- triple time, the measure of which is
2 3 g, 76, characters of simple
ferencing of differentials. See Calculus equal to three semibreves, or to three
DIFFERENTIALIS.
minims.
CHARACTERS in Medicine and Phar-
,
macy
ors, or , characters of mixed
R. recipe
q. s. a sufficient triple time, where the measure is equal to
ā, kā, or ana, of each
quantity
six crotchets or six quavers.
alike
B, or ss, half of any 1, or g, or us, or org characters of
.
i ,
th a pound or a thing
compound triple time.
pint
cong congius, a 13, , 1, or 12, or 12, characters
2816)
3 an ounce
gallon
of that species of triple time called the
3 a drachm
coch. cochleare, a measure of twelve times.
3 a scruple
spoonful
M. manipulus, a
CHARACTERS of the rests or pauses of
gr. grains
handful
time.
P. a pugil
P. Æ. equal quanti- q. pl. as much as
ties
you please
H2
P. P. pulvis patrum,
S. A. according to
the Jesuit's bark.
art
CHARACTERS used in music, and of mu-
sical notes, with their proportions, are as
follow
character of
8 eminim........
a large
pcrochet........... 1
O a long..........
.4 | quaver......... 11
d'a breve............2 E semiquaver......
2 € semiquaver.c... numbers, are either letters or figures.
CHARACTERS, numeral, used to express
16 ,
O a semibreve.....1 E demisemiquaverThe Arabic character, called also the
32
character of a sharp note: this cha- common one, because it is used almost
racter, at the beginning of a line or space, throughout Europe in all sorts of calcu-
denotes that all the notes in that line are lations, consists of these ten digits, 1, 2,
to be taken a semitone higher than in the 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0.
natural series; and the same affects all
the octaves above or below, though not sists of seven majuscule letters of the
The Roman numeral character con-
marked; but when prefixed to any parti- Roman alphabet, viz. I, V, X, L, C, D, M.
cular note, it shows that note alone to be The I denotes one, V five, X ten, L
taken a semitone higher than it would be fifty, C a hundred, D five hundred, and
without such character.
M a thousand.
12 12 12
Large rest
Long rest
Breve rest
Minim rest
Crotchet rest
Semibreve rest
Quaver rest
Repeat
Single bar
Repeat
Semiquaver rest
Double bar
Denisemiquaver rest
1
CHARACTERS.
The I repeated twice makes two, II ; M. S. Memoriæ sacrum, i. e, Sacred to
thrice, three, III ; four is expressed thus, the memory:
IV, as I before V or X takes an unit from CHARACTER, in law, if a person apply
the number expressed by these letters. to another for the character of a third
To express six an I is added to a V, VI; person, and a good character as to his
for seven, two, VII ; and for eight, three, solvency be given, yet if, in consequence
VIII ; nine is expressed by an I before X, of this opinion, the party asking the
thus, IX.
question suffer loss through the person's
The same remark may be made of insolvency, no action lies against him
the X before L or C, except that the who gave the character, if it were fair-
diminution is by tens; thus, XL denotes ly given. But if a man assert what he
forty, XC ninety, and LX sixty. The knows to be false, and thereby draws
C before D or M diminishes each by a hun- bis neighbour into a loss, it is actiona-
dred.
ble. But if the party giving credit also
The number five hundred is some- knew that the party credited was in
times expressed by an I before a C in- bad circumstances, an action will not lie.
verted, thus lɔ ; and instead of M, which CHARACTERS, in botany, the descrip-
signifies a thousand, an I is sometimes tion of the genera of plants, so termed
used between two C's, the one direct by Linnæus; hence the generic charac-
and the other inverted, thus Cly. The ter of any plant, and the definition of
addition of C and 9 before or after, raises the genus, are synonymous terms. The
CI) by tens, thus CCIO expresses ten term character is not extended by that
thousand, CCCIɔɔɔ a hundred thou- author to the species of plants, because
sand. The Romans also expressed any he never gives the complete description
number of thousands by a line drawn of any species; but only enumerates
over any numeral less than a thousand; those characters or circumstances in
thus, V denotes five thousand, LX sixty which it differs from all the other spe-
thousand ; so like wise M is one million, cies of the same genus. "This observa-
MM is two millions, &c.
tion sufficiently illustrates the different
The Greeks had three ways of express- methods which are observed in the
ing numbers : first every letter, according Genera and Species Plantarum. In the
to its place in the alphabet, denoted a former work, all the parts of the flow-
number, from d, one, to w, twenty-four. 2. er and fruit from which the characters
The alphabet was divided into eight of the genera are derived, are accurate-
units, a one, ß two, three, &c. into ly and completely described; in the
eight tens, i ten, x twenty, a thirty, &c. latter, such striking circumstances only
and eight hundreds, g one hundred, two of the stem, leaves, buds, roots, &c. are
3
hundred, three hundred, &c. 3. 1 stood mentioned, as sufficiently distinguish the
for cne, II (@€17) five, A (dence) ten, species in question from every other of
(Hxa7ov) a hundred, x (x nece) a thousand, that genus to wbich it belongs.
,
M (uugiu) ten thousand ; and when the In general, characters, or character-
letter II inclosed any of these, except i, istical marks, according to the idea of
1
it showed the inclosed letter to be five systematic writers, are certain external
times its value ; as (A fifty, (Al five hun- tural bodies, by means of which they
signs obvious in the appearance of na-
dred, [X| five thousand, [M] fifty thou- are distinguished from one another
sand.
These signs being collected, and express-
The Hebrew numerals consisted of ed by proper words, lay the foundation
their alphabet divided into nine units; at once for definition, distribution, and de-
thus, x one, a two, &c.: nine tens ; thus, nomination, the three grand parts of prac.
ten, twenty, &c. : nine hundreds ; thus, tical botany. The characteristic mark of
pone hundred, two hundred, &c.: and each genus is to be fixed from the fi-
7 five hundred, six hundred, 1 seven gure, situation, connection, number and
hundred, height hundred, y nine hundred. proportion of all the parts. Any part
They expressed thousands by the word of a body considered either in itself, or
75, with the other numerals prefixed to with relation to others, is found to pos-
signify the number of thousands: thus, sess all the properties just enumerated.
1958, two thousand, 1958, three thou. Characters, therefore, may be drawn
sand, &c.
from all the parts, to define the difference
CHARACTERS upon tomb-stones.
of bodies ; thus the leaf, stem, flower,
S. V. Siste viator, i, e. Stop, traveller. and its parts, in plants; the foot, wing,
I
CHA
CHA
fin, in animals; all differ in their figure, from any of the other parts, as the stem,
situation, number, and proportion, and leaf, root, buds, &c.
exhibit characters proper for distinction. Natural Character. This character in-
Experience shows that one part, or pro- cludes the two former, and collects all the
perty of a part, varies more than another; possible marks of plants. It is useful,
in constituting a method, therefore, those says Linnæus, in every method ; lays the
parts and properties are to be selected foundation of the systems; remains un-
which vary least. Thus the parts of changed, although new genera be daily
flowers in vegetables, the feet, fins, discovered ; and is capable of emenda-
beaks, in animals, are more fixed with tion by the detection of new species alone,
respect to the above mentioned proper- which afford an opportunity of excluding
ties. Again, the figure and number of such characteristical marks as are totally
these parts are more apt to vary than superfluous. He adds, that the Genera
their situation, connection, and propor- Plantarum first introduced these charac.
tion; the characters, therefore, are, if ters into the science.
possible, to be taken from these last. CHARADRIUS, or the plover, in natu.
Artificial Character.-The artificial cha- ral history, a genus of birds of the order
racter, otherwise called accidental, and, Grallæ. Generic character: bill straight,
by Linnæus, factitious, is drawn indiscrimi- and in general about the length of the
nately from different parts of the plant, head ; nostrils linear, three toes, and all
and admits of fewer or more character- placed forward. There are twenty-six
istical marks than are absolutely neces- species, of which the most interesting are
sary for distinguishing the classes, gene- the following
ra, and species. Linnæus, who particularly C. pluvialis, or the golden plover. This
applies all the characters just enumerat. species inhabits Great Britain during the
ed to the distribution of the genera, whole of the year, frequenting particular-
establishes, for a criterion of the artifi- ly the Grampian Hills and the mountains
cial character, that it can never distin- of the Hebrides. Their length is about ten
guish the genera in a natural order ; be- inches and a half. They make a shrill noise
ing calculated merely for discriminating like that of a whistle, by the imitation of
such as arrange themselves under the which they are easily decoyed within
same artificial order. To the head of reach of the gun.
artificial characters is referred by C. himantopus, or long legged plover,
Linnæus, the description of the genera, is occasionally to be found in England,
in the methods of Tournefort, Ray, Ri- though now but rarely. It is common in
vinus, Boerhaave, and most of the other Egypt, where its food consists of flies. It
systematic botanists. The classical cha- is most characteristically designated, as
racters only, in the sexual method, are the length of its legs is most extraordinary,
deemed artificial: the generical, as ex- C. hiaticula, or ringed plover, arrives
hausting the description of the parts of in England in the spring, and leaves it
fructification, its author considers as
as in autumn. During the summer these
true natural characters.
birds frequent the coast. They run with
Linnæus's idea of an artificial charac- great rapidity, and often for a considera-
ter is well expressed by Ray, when he ble time mingle short flights and rapid
says, that no more characteristical marks runnings, till at length they avoid the
of the genera are to be collected, than danger pursuing them, by retreating to
are found absolutely necessary for deter- some cleft or hole, or flying off complete-
mining the genus with certainty and ly. It is observed to use various strata-
precision
gems to attract attention from its young.
Essential Character --The essential The female builds no nest, and lays her
character discriminates one plant from eggs upon the ground.
another by means of a single mark, so C. morinellus, or the dotterel. This
striking and particular, as to distin- species abounds in various parts of Eng-
guish the plant in which it is found land, particularly in Cambridgeshire.
from every other at first sight. It serves, They are migratory, and appear often in
says Linnæus, to distinguish such genera flocks of eight or ten. They are suppos-
as arrange themselves under the same na- ed to breed in the mountains of Cumber-
tural order. The essential character of land, as they appear there in May, and
the classes and genera, by the consent are not seen there after the breeding
of all the modern systematic botanists, season. In June they become extremely
ought to be drawn from one of the seven fat in Lincolnshire and Derbyshire, and
parts of fructification; that of the species are highly esteemed for their flavour and
a
CHA
CHA
same.
delicay. They abound in Sweden, Russia, charcoal is deprived of the whole of its
and Siberia, and from their extraordinary hydrogen. The same chemists tried the
stupidity fall an easy prey to the clumsi- combustion of charcoal obtained from a
est stratagem of the fowler. See Plate IV. variety of other substances exposed to
Aves, fig 4 and 5.
the heat of a forge, as pitcoal, animal sub-
CHARCOAL is wood burnt through, stances, and various vegetable substan-
and suddenly extinguished by being cov- ces, and found the products exactly the
ered with fresh earth. It is perhaps one
Hence they conclude that char-
of the most durable substances with coal is in all cases the same, provided it
which we are acquainted, not being de- be exposed to a heat strong enough; and
composed either by the air or the water. they conclude too, that by this strong heat
It is of great use in many processes where the whole hydrogen of common charcoal
a strong heat is required : it is an an- is expelled.
tiseptic; but very dangerous as fuel in These facts enable us to conclude, that
confined places. In chemistry the terms there are two species of charcoal,
namely,
carbon and charcoal were long confound- common and prepared charcoal. The first
ed, and supposed to mean the same thing, contains three ingredients, carbon, hydro-
but the experiments by Morveau and gen, and oxygen; the second is deprived
others, have pointed out the precise dis- of a portion of its hydrogen and oxygen.
tinction See CARBON.
It consists chiefly of carbon and oxygen
When charcoal is prepared in the usual united ; but it still retains a small portion
way, by exposing wood in close vessels to of hydrogen, and is not, therefore, strict-
a red heat, it always contains a portion of ly speaking, a pure oxide of carbon,
hydrogen. For if a quantity of this char- though it approaches very nearly to such
coal be exposed to a strong heat in a re- an oxide.
tort of porcelain, iron, or coated glass, a CHARGE, in gunnery, the quantity of
great quantity of gas is obtained. The gas gunpowder and ball wherewith a gun is
which comes over first is a mixture of car- loaded for execution. The rule for charg-
bonic acid and heavy inflammable gas; ing large pieces in war are, that the piece
but the proportion of carbonic acid dimi- be first cleaned or scoured within side:
nishes, and at last it ceases to come over that the proper quantity of powder be
at all; yet the inflammable gas continues next driven in and rammed down : care
as copious as ever The evolution of these however being taken, that the powder in
gases was long ascribed by chemists to ramming be not bruised, because that
the water which charcoal usually contains, weakens its effect; that a little quantity
and which it is known to absorb from the of paper, hay, lint, or the like, be ram-
atmosphere with considerable avidity. If med over it, and that the ball or shot be
that were the case, the proportion of in- intruded. If the ball be red-hot, a tam-
flammable gas ought to diminish at the pion, or trencher of green wood is to be
same rate with the carbonic acid; the hy- driven in before it. The weight of the
drogen of the one being equally derived powder necessary for a charge is common-
from the decomposition of water with the ly in a subduple proportion to that of the
oxygen of the other. But as the evolution ball
of inflammable gas continues after that of CHARGE, in heraldry, is applied to the
carbonic acid has ceased, it is scarcely figures represented on the escutcheon, by
possible to deny, that the hydrogen which which the bearers are distinguished from
thus escapes constituted a component part one another; and it is to be observed, that
of the charcoal.
too many charges are not so honourable
If, therefore, we consider the experi- as fewer.
ments of Morveau on the combustion of CHARGED, in heraldry, a shield car-
the diamond as decisive, we must conclude rying some impress or figure, is said to
that common charcoal is composed of be charged therewith ; so also when one
three ingredients, namely, carbon, hydro- bearing, or charge, has another figure
gen, and oxygen. It is of course a triple added upon it, it is properly said to be
compound.
charged
When common charcoal is exposed for CHART, or hydrographical map, in na-
an hour, in a close crucible, to the strong- vigation, is a representation, in plano, of
est heat of a forge, it ceases to emit gas; a part, or of the whole of the water on the
and no temperature is sufficient to expel surface of the globe, and the adjacent
gas from charcoal thus treated. Desormes coast. There are various kinds of charts,
and Clement have endeavoured to demon- as Globular, Plane, Mercator's, &c.
strate, that by this treatment common CHART, globular, is a projection so call-
CHARTS.
-
ed from the conformity it bears to the of the globe, is constructed as follows:
globe itself. This projection was propos- the limit of the proposed chart is first to be
ed by Senex, in which the meridians are determined, that is, the number of degrees
inclined, the parallels equidistant and cur- of latitude and longitude which it is to con-
vilinear, and the rhomb-lines real spirals, tain, and the degree of latitude and longi.
as on the surface of the globe From this tude of its commencement. Find the me-
last property, it is evident it can be of ve- ridional parts answering to each degree of
ry little use in navigation ; as a map, how. latitude, within the intended limits of the
ever, it has its advantages.
chart, and take the difference between
each, and that corresponding to the least
Construction of Charts.
degree of latitude in the chart; and reduce
these differences to degrees, by dividing
I. Of the plane chart — The number of by 60
degrees of latitude which the chart is in. A parallel, representing that of the least
tended to contain, and the extent from latitude, is to be drawn; upon which the
east to west being fixed upon, a line is to number of degrees in the proposed diffe-
be drawn near the side or end of a sheet rence of longitude, from a scale of equal
of paper, in length equal to the whole parts, is to be laid off, and divided into de-
length of the chart from north to south; grees, and smaller portions of, if conve.
and this line is to be divided into degrees, nient, and numbered at each fifth or tenth
and numbered accordingly. From each degree. From each end of this parallel,
end of this line perpendiculars are to be a perpendicular is to be drawn, and made
drawn, and made equal to the intended equal to the difference of the meridional
extent of the chart from east to west, and parts of the extreme latitudes taken from
their extremities are to be joined by a the divided parallel; and the ends of these
straight line. If the chart is to commence meridians are to be joined by a straight
at or near the equator, and to extend only line, which will represent the other ex.
a few degrees of latitude, the divisions of treme parallel, and which is to be divided
the parallels may be equal to those of the and numbered in the same manner as the
meridian: but if the chart begins at any first drawn parallel ; the meridians are
considerable distance from the equator, it then to be divided into degrees, and num-
will conduce to accuracy, to make the bered at every fifth or tenth degree. Take
length of each degree of the parallel equal the meridional difference of latitude be-
to the co-sine of the mean latitude, the ra- tween the beginning of the chart, and the
dius being 60 minutes; or the extreme next fifth or tenth degree of latitude from
parallels may be divided according to the the divided parallel, and lay it off from the
above proportion, and in that case it will first parallel on each of the scale meri-
become a reduced chart. Meridians and dians, and join these points by a straight
parallels are there to be drawn at conve- line. In like manner the meridional differ-
nient distances.
ence of latitude answering to each succes-
A scale is now to be made of stiff paper sive interval of five or ten degrees, is to be
or pasteboard, equal in length to the ex- taken from the first drawn parallel and
tent of the chart from east to west, and laid off
, and the corresponding parallels
divided and numbered accordingly. By are to be drawn and numbered according-
this scale, the positions of those places con- ly, and the intermediate spaces are to be
tained within the limits of the chart are subdivided. If the chart is upon a large
very easily laid down, by placing the di. scale, the meridional difference of latitude
vided edge of the scale over the latitude answering to each degree, is to be laid off
of the given place; and under the given from the least parallel
.
longitude, a mark being made will repre-
If the chart is intended to be upon a
sent the position of the place on the chart. larger scale, equi-multiples of the inter-
A compass is to be inserted in any con- vals are to be taken, such as will answer
venient place of the chart, an arrow shew- to the proposed extent of the chart. A
ing the direction of the flood tide or cur- slip of strong paper is to be divided, and
rent. The times of high water at full and numbered in the same manner as the first
change are to be marked in their proper drawn parallel. Now each place within
places, expressed in Roman characters; the limits of the chart is to be laid down,
sounding and quality of the ground at bot- by placing the slip of paper, so that its ex-
tom, the leading marks to avoid dangers, treme points of division may be at the lati-
&c.
tude of the given place on each meridian;
II. Of a Mercator's chart.- A Mercator's then, under the longitude of the place a
chart, for any given portion of the surface mark is to be made, which will represent
CHARTS.
the position of that place. In like manner gascar. The edge of a scale being laid
all the places on the coast are to be laid over the two places, then, by moving
down, and connected by observations the compass as directed, the course will
made on the coast; or if no sketch had be found to be N. E. E, and the in-
been previously made, the contour of the terval between them will measure 105
coast is to be drawn agreeable to the best leagues.
charts. Meridians and parallels are to be
drawn through every fifth or tenth degree The course and distance sailed from a known
of latitude and longitude, and extended place being given, to find the ship's place
to the coast.
on the Chart.
A compass is to be inserted in some
Rule.-Lay the edge of a scale over the
convenient part of the chart, and the points
extended to the land : an anchor is to be place sailed from, parallel to the given
drawn where there is good anchoring from the scale on the chart, and lay it off
course; then take the given distance
ground, and in places where it is safe from the given place by the edge of
only to stop a tide, an anchor without a the scale, and it will give the point on
stock is to be laid down. The soundings, the chart representing the place on the
the quality of the ground, the times of
ship.
high water at full and change, &c. are
to be marked in their proper places.
Example.—The correct course of a ship
CHARTS, manner of using.—The princi- from Cape St. Maria, on the N. side of
pal use of a chart is, to find the course the entrance of the river La Plata, was
and distance between any two places N. E. by E., and the distance 238 leagues.
within its limits, and to lay down the Required the place of the ship on the
place of a ship on it, so that the position chart. The edge of the scale being laid
of the ship with respect to the intended over Cape St. Maria, in a N. E. by E. di-
port, the adjacent land, islands, &c. may laid off from Cape St. Maria by the
edge
rection, and the distance 238 leagues,
be readily perceived.
of the scale, will give the place of the
To find the latitude of a place on the Chart. ship, which will be found to be in the la-
titude 28° 15' S.
Rule.-Take the nearest distance be-
tween the given place and the nearest
parallel of latitude, which being applied to find the longitude of a place on the
Chart.
the same way on the divided meridian,
from the point of intersection of the pa-
Rule.---Take the least distance between
rallel and meridian, will give the latitude
of the proposed place.
the given place and the nearest meridian,
Example.—Required the latitude of which being laid off on the equator, or
Port Louis, in the isle of France. The divided parallel, from the point of inter-
least distance between Port Louis and the section of the parallel and meridian, will
nearest parallel, being laid the same way
give its longitude.
on the meridian, from the extremity of
Example.--Required the longitude of
that parallel, will reach to 20° 8' s., the Funchal in the island of Madeira. The
latitude required.
least distance being taken between Fun-
chal and the nearest meridian, and laid off
To find the course and distance between two from the intersection of that meridian
given places on the Chart.
with the divided parallel, will give 17° 6'
W., the longitude required.
Rule.-Lay the edge of a scale over the
given places, and take the nearest dis- To find the distance between two given places
tance between the centre of any of the
on the Chart.
compasses on the chart and the edge of
the scale ; move this extent along, so as
one point of the compass may touch the
1. When the given places are under
the same meridian.
edge of the scale, and the straight line
joining the points may be perpendicular
Rule.-Find the latitude of each ; then,
thereto; then will the other point shew the difference or sum of their latitudes,
the course; and the interval between the according as they are on the same, or on
places being applied to the scale will opposite sides of the equator, will be the
give the required distance.
distance required.
Example. -Required the course and Example.-Required the distance be-
distance from Cape St. André to Cape tween the nearest extremities of the is-
St. Sebastian, both in the island of Mada. lands of Grenada and Guadaloupe.
VOL, IL.
CHA
CHA
Latitude of southernmost ex-
place where the point of the compass
tremity of Guadaloupe 15° 52' N. rested, and the point of intersection of
Latitude of northernmost ex-
the scale and parallel, being applied to
tremity of Grenada . . . . 12° 14' N. the divided parallel, will measure 11°
24', or 684 miles.
Distance :
3° 38' 218 M. CHARTA, magna, an ancient instru-
ment, containing several privileges and
liberties granted to the church and state
2. When the given places are under by Edward the Confessor, together with
the same parallel.
others relating to the feudal laws of Wil.
Rule.-- if that parallel is the equator, liam the Conqueror, granted by Henry I.
the difference, or sum of their longitudes, all confirmed by the succeeding princes.
is the distance between them. If not, See Magna CHARTA.
take half the interval between the given
CHARTER, in law, a written instru-
places, lay it off on the meridian on each ment or evidence of things acted be-
side of the given parallel, and the inter- tween one person and another.
cepted degrees will be the distance be- CHARTER-party, is a contract under
tween the places. If the given parallel is hand and seal, executed by the freighter
near the north or south extremity of the and the master or owner of the ship, con-
chart, the following method may be used taining the terms upon which the ship is
Take an extent of a few degrees from hired to freight; the masters and owners
that part of the meridian where the given usually bind themselves, the ship, tackle,
parallel is the middle of the extent; and furniture, that the goods freighted
then the number of extents, and parts shall be delivered (dangers of the sea ex-
of an extent, contained between the cepted) well conditioned at the place of
given places, being multiplied by the the discharge; and they also covenant to
length of an extent, will give the requir- provide mariners, tackle, &c. and to
ed distance.
equip the ship complete and adequate to
Example.-Required the dissance be- the voyage. The freighter stipulates to
tween Cape Canton and Funchal, both pay the consideration-money for the
lying nearly in the same parallel. By freight, and penalties are annexed to en-
proceeding as directed above, the dis- force the reciprocal covenants. A char-
tance will be found to be 6° 44', or 404 ter-party is the same in the civil law as an
miles.
indenture at common law; and is distin-
guished from a bill of lading, inasmuch as
3. When the given places differ both the former adjusts the term of the freight,
in latitude and longitude.
and the latter ascertains the contents of
Rule. Find the difference of latitude
CHARTERS of community, were certain
between the given places, and take it privileges first obtained by violence or
from the equator or graduated parallel; purchase, and afterwards freely bestowed
then lay the edge of a scale over the by emperors, kings, and barons; where-
given places, and move or slide one point by the inhabitants of towns and cities
of the compass along the edge of the
were enfranchised, all marks of servitude
scale, until the other point just touches abolished, and these cities, &c. were
a parallel. Now, the distance between formed into corporations and bodies po-
the place where the point of the compass litic, to be governed by a council and ma-
rested, and the point of intersection of gistrates of their own nomination. The
the edge of the scale and parallel being first person who conferred these privi-
applicd to the equator, or divided paral- leges was Lewis the Gross in France,
lel, will give the distance between the about the beginning of the twelfth cen-
places in degrees and parts of a degree; tury; and his example was soon very ge-
which, multiplied by 60, will give the nerally followed. These charters con-
distance in miles.
vey a very striking representation of the
Example.-Required the distance be- wretched condition of cities previous to
tween Cape Finisterre and Porto Santo. the institution of communities, when they
Take the difference of latitude be- were subject to the judges appointed by
tween the given places, viz. 9° 54', from the superior lords of whom they held,
the graduated parallel, and move one and had scarcely any other law but their
point of the compass along the edge of will.
the scale, laid previously over these CHARTER of the forest, is that wherein
places, until the other point just touches the laws of the forest are comprised and
a parallel : now, the interval between the established. In the time of King John,
the cargo.
CHE
CHE
and that of his son, Henry III., the ri- transportation, pillory, or other infamous
gours of the feudal tenures and the for- punishment, with intent to extort from
est laws were so warmly maintained, that him any money, or other goods, shall be
they occasioned many insurrections of deemed offenders against law and the
the barons or principal feudatories; public peace; and the court before whom
which at last produced this effect, that any such offender shall be tried, shall, on
first King John, and afterwards his son, conviction, order him to be fined and im-
consented to the two famous charters of prisoned, or be put in the pillory, or pub-
English liberties, Magna Carta, and Car- licly whipped, or to be transported for se-
ta de Foresta. The latter, in particular, ven years.
was well calculated to redress many CHECK, or Check roll, a roll or book,
grievances and encroachments of the wherein is contained the names of such
crown, in the exertion of forest law. This persons as are attendants and in pay to
charter, as well as the other, was esta- the King, or other great personages, as
blished, confirmed, and settled in the their household servants.
reign of Edward I.
CHECKS, or drafts on bankers, are in-
CHARTER governments in the British colo- struments, by means of which a creditor
nies, are in the nature of civil corpora- may assign to a third person not origi-
tions, with the power of making by-laws nally party to the contract, the legal as
for their own interior regulation, not con- well as equitable interest in a debt raised
trary to the laws of England; and with by it, so as to vest in such an assignee a
such rights and authorities as are special. right of action against the original debtor.
ly given them in their several charters of These instruments are uniformly made
incorporation. The form of government payable to bearer, which constitutes a
is borrowed from that of England. They characteristic difference between them
have a governor named by the King, (or and bills of exchange; and the legislature
in some proprietary colonies by the pro- has considered them in a more favourable
prietor) who is his representative or de point of view, by exempting them from the
puty. They have courts of justice of stamp duties. They are equally nego-
their own, from whose decision an appeal tiable with bills. When given in pay-
(as some say, in the nature of a reference ment, they are considered as cash ; and,
by way of arbitration) lies to the King in it is said, may be declared upon as a bill
council in England. Their General As- of exchange, and the moment this re-
semblies, which are their House of Com- semblance begins, they are governed by
mons, together with their Council of the same principles of law as bills of ex-
State, being their Upper House, with the change. Checks payable on demand, or
concurrence of the King, or his represen- when no time of payment is expressed,
tative, the Governor, make laws suited to are payable on presentment, without any
their own emergencies. But it is parti- indulgence or days of grace, but the pre-
cularly declared, by stat. 7 and 8 William sentment should be made within a rea-
III. c. 22. that all laws, by-laws usages, sonable time after the receipt, otherwise
and customs, which shall be in practice the party upon whom the check is drawn
in any of the plantations, repugnant to will not be responsible, and the person
any law made, or to be made, in the king from whom the holder received it will be
dom of Great Britain, relative to the said discharged. Therefore, where circum-
plantations, shall be utterly void and of stances will allow
of it, it is advisable for
,
none effect.
the holder of a check to present it on the
CHEAT, in law, is one who defrauds, same day it is received.
or endeavours to defraud another of his CHECKY, in heraldry, is when the
known right, by means of some artful shield, or a part thereof, as a bordure,
device, contrary to the plain rules of com- &c. is chequered, or divided into che-
mon honesty. By the 30 Geo. II. all per- quers or squares, in the manner of a
sons who, knowingly or designedly, by chess-board.
false pretence or prétences, shall obtain CHEEK, in anatomy, that part of the
from any person money, goods, wares, face situated below the eyes, on each side.
or merchandises, with intent to cheat or See ANATOMY.
defraud any person of the same, or shall CHEEKS, among mechanics, are almost
knowingly tend or deliver any letter or all those pieces of their machines and in-
writing, with or without a name sub- struments that are Jeable, and perfectiy
scribed thereto, or signed with a fictitious alike ; as the cheeks of a mortar, which
name, threatening to accuse any person are made of strong wooden planks, of
of a crime punishable by law with death, a semicircular form, bound with thick
CHE
CHE
plates of iron, and fixed to the bed with most approved, while, on the other hand,
four bolts: these cheeks rise on each side that made in Suffolk, being usually from
the mortar, and serve to keep it at what skimmed or flitted milk, and, conse-
elevation is given it: the cheeks of a quently, deprived of all the butyrous
printing-press are its two principal pieces, part, is considered proverbially poor.
placed perpendicular and parallel to each As an article of diet, cheese cannot, on
other, and serving to sustain the three the whole, be accounted nourishing : that
sommers, &c.
which is old, crumbling, and rich, is as-
CHEEKS, in ship-building, two pieces suredly a powerful aid to digestion, and
of timber, fitted on each side of the mast, has been given with great success in cases
at the top, serving to strengthen the mast where children have ate incautiously of
there, and having holes in them, called crude fruits; but such as is dry, and of
hounds, through which the ties run to a sour taste, may be justly ranked among
hoist the yards
the minor poisons. The rennet which is
CHEESE is made from the curd formed used for turning the milk is nothing more
by mixing rennet with milk, the quality than the stomach of a young calf, or of a
a
of the cheese depending on that of the pig, in which the gastric juices are pre-
milk used on the occasion. Various pro- served, by means of a handful or two of
cesses are recommended, but to detail salt. A very small quantity of this pre-
them would be a voluminous task; we paration will suffice to many gallons of
shall, however, state, in as few words as milk and as the rennet-bag, as it is
the subject will admit, how cheese is called, may be emptied, it may be once
usually made. The milk, being previ- or twice replenished, though the liquor
ously warmed, is turned, by the mixture will not be so strong. Some dry the
of rennet, into an apparently solid mass. rennet-bag, after having been thus used,
This being cut across with a brass knife, and throw a piece in to turn the milk.
(for iron is supposed by many to give a See MILK
bad flavour) occasions the curd to sepa-
CHEIRANTHUS, in botany, a genus
rate from the whey : the latter is given of the Tetradynamia Siliquosa class and
to pigs, or is sold as a beverage, while order. Natural order of Siliquosæ Cruci-
the former is put into a press made for formes. Essential character ; germ with
the purpose, and all the whey is com- a glandulous toothlet on each side ; calyx
pletely separated, falling through holes closed, with two leaflets, gibbous at the
in the bottom of the press, while the base ; seeds flat. There are twenty-two
curd is kept in by a coarse kind of cloth, species, of which C. cheiri, common wall-
made principally for that purpose. The flower, is about a foot high, with a woody
curd must be repeatedly cut into minute stem; on walls it is seldom more than
squares, and be as often subjected to the eight inches, with very tough roots and
press. When mixed for the last time, firm stalks; the leaves short and sharp-
salt is added ; and if any colour is to be pointed; the flowers are well known,
given, a small quantity of annatto, or being one of those which have been culti-
other colouring matter, is put in ; though vated for their fragrancy time immemo-
this is sometimes done in the early stages rial in our gardens. C. incanus, stock
of the manufacture Many put in sage- gilliflower, is nearly the same height,
leaves, or mix plain and various-coloured shrubby, with spear-shaped leaves, which
curds together, according to fancy; the are frequently waved on their edges, and
goodness of the cheese will, however, al- turn downward at the extremity; the
ways depend on the richness of the milk. side branches are each terminated by a
When the cheese bas been kept a proper loose spike of flowers, each having a
time in the mould, and will bear handling, woolly calyx, and four large roundish pe-
it is taken out, and put on a shelf; care. tals indented at the end. These usually
fully turning it every day, so that it may appear in May and June. The flowers of
be dried alike ; it is next rubbed with this sort vary in their colour ; some are
green nettles, &c. and by some with salt, pale, and others of a deep red; the latter
under the opinion that these help to ripen are generally most esteemed if the seed
it. Every county has some favourite re- be well chosen, frequently three parts in
cipe for the operation, and all alike claim four of the plants will be double C. an-
the palm of pre-eminence : we may, per- nuus, annual stock gilliflower, or ten.
haps, be correct in saying, that in each week stock, is two feet high, with a
there are both excellent and execrable round, smooth stalk, dividing into many
cheeses made. Cheshire, Gloucester, branches at top. The flowers are pro-
Wiltshire, and Stilton, seem to be the duced in loose spikes at the ends of the
CHE
CHE
branches, and are placed alternately; the serjeants, who have been appointed sub-
calyx is large, ereci, and slightly cut into sequent to the passing of the 26th of
several acute parts at the top; the petals George III. are not entitled to it under
are large and heart-shaped. Of this sort twenty years' service.
there are the red, purple, white, and CHEMISTRY. All the changes that
striped ; which are great ornaments in take place in bodies, whether by the
the borders of the flower-garden in au- operation of powers not under the di-
tunn
rection of man, which are called natural
CHELIDONIUM, in botany, a genus phenomena; or of the same powers, mo-
of the Polyandria Monogynia class and dified in their direction by the exercise
order. Natural order of Rheadeæ Es- of our voluntary exertions, which con-
sential character: corolla four-petalled; stitute the processes of art,-are effected
calyx two-leaved ; silique one-celled, li- by motion. When the bodies from their
near. There are five species, of which size and distance from each other can be
C. majus, common or great celandine, is separately distinguished by our senses,
from a foot to eighteen inches in height; the effects are referred to the division of
cylindric, and a little hairy. The juice philosophical science called mechanics:
of the whole plant is saffron-coloured. but when the minuteness of the bodies
It approaches to the class Tetradynamia themselves, and of the spaces to which
in the cruciform shape of the corolla, and the individual actions are confined, are
its silique, which, however, differs essen- such that we cannot view and contem-
tially in being one-celled. It is common plate them separately, but are under the
in hedges, shady places, and unculti- necessity of inferring the nature and
vated grounds, flowering from May to July. causes of their motions from general res
This species is naturalized in the United sults or phenomena, the changes are re.
States, and its yellow proper juice is esa ferrable to chemistry.
teemed by the vulgar as efficacious in Chemistry, therefore, as a science,
curing warts.
teaches us to estimate and account for the
CHELONE, in botany, a genus of the changes produced in bodies by motions
Didynamia Angiospermia class and or- of their parts, which are too minute to
der Natural order of Personatæ. Big- affect the senses individually: as an art,
noniæ, Jussieu. Essential character : ca- its practice consists in placing or apply-
lyx five-parted; rudiment of a fifth fila- ing bodies with regard to each other in
ment between the upper stamens ; cap- such situations as are adapted to produce
sule two-celled. There are five species, those changes.
of which two, viz. C. glabra, white che- In our investigation of the results of
lone, and c. obliqua or rose coloured chemistry, we find ourselves, from the
snake head, grow naturally in most parts regular connection of the facts, enabled
of North America. These species are to foretel what will happen to certain bo-
about two feet high, with two leaves at dies in certain circumstances; and the
each joint, standing opposite without rules by which, from experience, we are
foot stalks. The flowers grow in a close capable of doing so, are called laws of
spike at the end of the stalk, and have nature, if they relate to bodies in gene-
but one petal, which is tubular, and nar- ral; but when they relate to particular
row at the bottom, something like the descriptions of bodies, we form our ex-
foxglove flower.
pressions so as to refer the effects to the
CHELSEA hospital, a noble edifice bodies themselves under the name of
which was built by Charles II. on his re- qualities or properties. The discovery
storation, and afterwards improved by of these laws and properties must in the
his successor James II. Non-commis- first instances be effected from the ob-
sioned officers and private men, who servation of natural events, and after-
have been wounded or maimed in the wards by instituting experiments for the
service, are entitled to the benefit of this express purpose of manifesting them. In
hospital. There are in and out-pension- these experiments we may either sepa-
ers belonging to the establishment, and rate compounded bodies into their simpler
the provisions of it extend to the militia parts, which is called anlaysis: or we
under the following restrictions; ser- may unite simple parts so as to form a
jeants who have served fifteen years, compound body, which is called syn-
and corporals or drummers who have thesis. And our reasoning's concerning
served twenty, may be recommended to these facts will have a correspondent de-
the bounty. Serjeants on the establish- nomination. When we describe and ex-
ment may likewise receive that allow- plain the process of analysis, by which
ance, with their pay in the militia. But general results are deduced by separat-
CHEMISTRY
ing effects from each other, the opera- them, and from thence proceeding to
tion of the mind is distinguished by the the different classes of bodies, are such
same name; but when from the general as entitle this method to a preference
results we show in what manner particu- before other arrangements, which afford
lar events are produced by combining a greater appearance of synthetical or-
bodies together, the method is distin- der.
guished by the term synthesis.
When we have simplified our notions
The synthetical method of teaching is of the causes of change which happen to
undoubtedly the most luminous and bodies under the distinction or division
clear, where the first principles or simple of chemistry, we must resolve them into
elements of our knowledge are known two, namely, heat and attraction. Daily
or admitted, as is the case in geometry. experience shews us that bodies may be
But in chemistry this method of teaching more or less heated, and also that they
cannot, from our imperfect knowledge adhere to each other. We are in truth
of the facts, be generally adopted, with- unable to proceed farther in our abstrac-
out admitting the simplicity of a variety tions. The causes of those well known
of substances concerning which there is effects have not yet been developed by
just reason to doubt.
the manifestation of any more simple
It is true, indeed, that such admissions are facts upon which they may depend. We
generally made with a previous notice or can only observe the laws according to
reservation of this uncertainty. But by the' which these powers have been found to
constant use of the supposed facts, along act, and make our classification of the
with others which are better established, phenomena; and as it is of some utility,
the mind becomes habituated to mix hy in directing our future researches, to
pothesis with facts; and the imaginary make conjectures by analogy, it may also
beauty of connected science must from be permitted to speculate upon the
time to time be destroyed by the appear- causes of these primary effects, provided
ance of new truths. The revolutions of it be done with caution, and without that
chemical science have amply shown this; bigotry which even in systems of philo-
and the numerous imperfections which sophy has so frequently established the
still remain, have left considerable lati- results of error.
tude for the arrangement of materials in Besides the effects of heat and attrac-
a system of chemistry. If the theory tion, we find that bodies are changed and
were in its commencement, a treatise on modified by light, electricity, galvanism,
chemistry would be little more than a and magnetism; the three last of which
collection of receipts for processes; and are accompanied by attraction or repul-
even in the present state of the science, sion. But as these are much less gene-
different authors of credit and respecta- rally applicable in operative chemistry
bility greatly differ in the disposal of than the powers first mentioned, and as
their subjects. Operative chemistry it seems likely that future discoveries
usually precedes the theory in the ear- may lead to some intimate relation, or
lier works. Some writers treat of com- perhaps show the identity of the cause
pound bodies, and deduce their princi- of heat, light, and the other affections of
ples or component parts in the way of matter which have here engaged our at-
analysis; while others begin with the tention, it is unnecessary to enlarge upon
habitudes or powers by which the seve- these in the present article.
ral changes are effected. But it must be The word attraction denotes the unex-
confessed, notwithstanding the magni- plained tendency which bodies have to
tude of the discoveries which have been move to each other. We observe it act-
really made, and the elevated preten- ing at a distance in the fall of bodies on
sions of a few theorists, that the practical the surface of the earth, and in the mo-
science is still in its infancy. Every one tions of the heavenly bodies, as well as in
of the phenomena is sufficiently compli- such as are affected by electricity, gal-
cated as to be referable to various topics vanism, or magnetism: and in the cohe-
of consideration; and to which of these sion which gives solidity, or, more pro-
in a general way our attention shall be perly, rigidity to bodies, as well as in
first directed, is in many cases a matter of those effects wherein the parts of differ-
indifference. It appears to us that the ent bodies unite to form new compounds,
advantages of treating the subjects in a we deduce its effects from motions or
popular way, by first attending to the actions which cannot be separately dis-
general properties and habitudes of bo- tinguished. And these differences, though
dies, and the methods of operating upon they cannot be shown to arise from one
CHEMISTRY.
and the same power, or from energies in the habitudes of bodies, the attractions
originally dissimilar, require, at least for of chemistry have been called elective
the purposes of language, to be treated attractions.
apart from each other. Chemistry seems A distinction has been made between
to have little to do with the perceptible those processes in which water is present,
attractions: it is principally confined and those in which the requisite fluidity
to the state of bodies, as it relates to is produced by strong heat. The first me-
the cohesion and the combination of their thod is called the humid way, and the
parts.
other the dry way.
Heat, or rather temperature, is a well The practice of chemistry requires in
known modification of bodies, by which most cases of solid bodies, previous to
they produce a peculiar sensation, distin- the application of heat, or of one body to
guished by the same word. Its laws have another, for the exercise of the attrac-
been very successfully investigated by tions, that some mechanical means should
our contemporaries; for which see Calo- be taken to divide their parts from each
RIC, HEAT, and COMBUSTION. The ope- other. These are, 1, chopping or cut-
rative chemist considers it as the means of ting; 2, rasping, filing, or shaving ; 3,
converting solid bodies into dense fluids, pulverizing or grinding : 4, granulation,
and dense fluids into elastic fluids, called as when shot is formed by pouring lead
gas or vapour, while compound bodies into water, or a powder of the metal is
may have their parts separated from each obtained by shaking it in a box, in the
other by this treatment.
fused state, till it congeals; 5, elutria-
When bodies of different kinds are tion, or washing, to separate the finer or
brought into contact, they produce very lighter parts of bodies from the coarser
little of the change called chemical, or larger, as when earthy matters are
while they continue in the solid state. washed from the heavier metallic ones,
Mechanical trituration will forward their or when a fine powder, such as that of
mutual action by multiplying the sur- pounded emery, is suspended by agita-
faces of contact, but still the masses con- tion in water which is decanted off, and
tinue too large to be moved amongst then set to subside while the coarser par-
each other by the peculiar attractions ticles, which settle immediately, are left
they may be capable of exerting. It has behind; 6, hammering, or forging, as in
been considered as an axiom in chemis- the making of tin foil, or leaf gold, or in
try, that bodies do not act on each other the extension of other metals, whether
unless one or both be in the fluid state ; hot or cold; 7, laminating, as when the
and though this is not strictly and uni- metals are passed between steel rollers,
versally true, yet it is requisite for almost or when wax is poured upon a wooden
every operation of chemistry that this cylinder, turned round in cold water;
condition, either of dense or of elastic and, 8, wire drawing, as when the metals
fluidity, should obtain. The facility with are drawn through an hole in a plate to
which the parts of fluids move amongst make wire, or forced through an engine,
each other, is no doubt the principal such as that employed for glazier's lead,
cause of this increased effect.
&c.
The practical part of chemistry may be
Bodies are distinguished, with regard
therefore said to consist almost entirely to heat, into fixed, volatile, and refrac-
in separating or changing the order of tory. The first can scarcely, if at all, be
the parts of bodies by heat, or of placing evaporated; the second are easily raised
bodies in such situations with regard to or driven off; and the third undergo no
each other as that, with the assistance of change.
heat, if needful, to produce fluidity, The simple application of heat is dis-
changes or separations of the same kind tinguished by various terms, according
may take place among their parts. The to the nature of the operation, or of the
actions of electricity, galvanism, and effects produced. These are, 1, roasting,
light, will probably be soon combined which consists in exposing minerals to an
among the leading resources of chemis- open fire, to drive off their volatile con-
try.
tents; 2, calcination is the exposure of a
No change could take place by this or body to strong heat, in an open vessel,
any other treatment, if the attractions of till it undergoes no farther change. This
the parts of bodies to each other were all word, which was formerly used
in a ge-
perfectly the same. It is manifest from neral way, is now confined to earths and
the facts, that the attractions between some of the salts, and is indeed seldom
some bodies is stronger than between used; 3, oxydation is the like process
others, and from this remarkable variety with metallic bodies: 4, fusion or melt-
CHEMISTRY.
:
ing, is the production of the state of It is, therefore, necessary to consider
dense fluidity: 5, cementation is a pro- them with some attention, and in a regu-
cess wherein solid bodies of different lar manner.
kinds, one or more of them being in pow- The adhesion of parts, considered to
der, are exposed to heat in a vessel near. be of the same kind, is called aggrega-
ly closed, with the intention that the more tion. Thus a number of pieces of glass
volatile parts of the one may unite with melted together form an aggregate : and
the other, or its fixed parts; 6, eliqua- the smallest parts into which an aggre-
tion is the exposure of a compound body, gate can be imagined to be divided, so
usually metallic, to heat, sufficient to
as not to change its nature, are called in-
fuse one of its ingredients, which runs integrant parts; so that the integrant
out and leaves the other solid and po- parts of glass are themselves glass. But
rous ; 7, digestion consists in keeping bo- when the body is known to be made up
dies for a considerable time immersed in of parts of different kinds or nature, and
a fluid more or less heated, in order to it is considered with regard to these, the
effect some combination between them; body is called a compound, or combi-
8, evaporation is the dissipation of a fluid nation, and the parts are called compo-
by heat; 9, concentration consists in di- nent parts, or principles. In this man-
minishing the proportion of water in any ner glass is a compound of the earth call-
solution of saline matter, either by heat- ed silex, and a salt called alkali, combin-
ing it, or by freezing the surplus water ed together at a strong heat: and we
and taking out the ice ; 10, when evapo- may imagine that if there were any
ration is performed in any apparatus of means by which glass could be reduc-
vessels, partly or quite closed, and the ed, first to its integrant parts, and the di-
vapours, after being raised by heat in one
vision could be carried farther, the parts
part or vessel, are received in another would then be no longer integrant and
sufficiently cold to condense them into glass, but would become divided into
the fluid state; this process is called dis- component parts, namely, earth and al-
,
tillation; 11, when a fluid obtained by kali. Bodies are also considered in a
distillation is again distilled, in order to wide manner by the name of mixtures,
obtain the most volatile part of the first when small aggregates of different kinds
product, this last part is said to be recti-
are united, as in a variety of minerals,
fied, and the process is called rectifica-
where the parts are frequently distin-
tion. This term has become nearly obso-
lete in scientific description, but is still guishable by the senses : and in the arts
we have sand and lime made into mortar
retained in the arts; 12, there are many by mixture, or sand, clay, and other
products of evaporation which congeal, earths, made into pottery, and hardened
,
higher than that of the atmosphere, and by a moderate fire; but these by a strong-
er heat may be made to combine into
are not, therefore, obtained in the fluid, glass, and are then no longer mixtures,
but the solid state. These usually ad-
but compounds.
here in the form of crystals to the upper
part of the apparatus; and on this account, The early chemists were led into a sup-
as well as because the operation does not position, that the bodies they were un-
in general require the same kind of ves- able to analyse were simple, and they
sel, it is distinguished by the name of su- distinguished them by the name of ele-
blimation, and the products themselves ments. It is probable that the great va-
are called sublimates, and in some in- riety of bodies around us are formed, by
stances flowers; but these two last terms combination, out of a few simple princi-
are more particularly confined to the ples, or perhaps out of one single ele-
Arts. Other terms are also used, such as ment, variously combined as to figure and
fusible, evaporable, &c. but their sense is position of parts; but it is useless and un-
manifest.
profitable to speculate on probabilities,
For the apparatus used in these and which experiment can never verify. Mo-
the other operations of chemistry, see dern chemists, very properly, consider
LABORATORY
those bodies as simple which have not
The consideration of what happens to yet been decomposed; but this is mere-
the parts of bodies, in consequence of ly with relation to the present state of
their elective attractions, constitutes the our knowledge, and for the sake of ar-
most difficult part of the science, wheth-rangement and induction. They do not
er the mind be employed in developing lose sight of the necessity of instituting
the facts, or in deducing the general experiments for their farther analysis ;
theory which may be indicated from them and the great discoveries which have
CHEMISTRY.
done honour to our own times are a proof principles exceed that proportion, the
of their diligence and sagacity.
predominating property will be that of the
We do not know of any means of as- principle which is in excess. In these
certaining by experiment, whether com- cases the principles are said to be satura-
pound bodies do enter as principles into ted when the properties are most com-
other bodies still more compounded; or pletely balanced; but in the other cases,
whether in bodies of three or more prin- the principle which is defective in quanti-
ciples, all the simple particles do dis- ty is said to be super-saturated, or over
pose themselves without any dependance saturated, and the other principle which
on the order of time, according to which is in excess is said to be under saturated :
they may have been put together. It is acids united with alkalies manifest these
probable that the former is the case, so cases very strikingly.
that we may hereafter be enabled to de- In the consideration of the phenomena
signate primary principles, or bodies not of chemical or elective attraction between
yet decomposed; secondary principles, the principles of bodies, it will be very
or bodies of two primary principles, difficult to select instances for illustra-
which nevertheless can enter into com- tion, which shall be simple either as to the
bination, or be disengaged without sepa- principles or the effects, because in al.
ration from each other; ternary princi- most every case there is a degree of com-
ples, &c. In this manner sulphur, by plexity which obtains in nature, and even
combining with oxygen and water, will where we suppose a great simplicity of
form sulphuric acid, and this acid may be principles, they may hereafter be dis-
combined with a metal, so as to form a covered to be compound. But the doc-
salt capable of giving out its acid again by trine will be understood, and fixed in
heat. 'Our systematic books are written the memory by the examples to be
according to the supposition of seconda- brouglit; in the same manner as when
ry and more complicated principles; but diagrams are used by geometricians,
the facts do not indisputably prove their though the actual figures cannot strict-
existence.
ly agree with their hypotheses or pos-
When two bodies in the solid state tulates.
which are disposed to combine are brought 1. The mutual action of two bodies ex-
into contact, the combination will begin hibits the phenomena of simple elective
at the place where they touch, and if the attraction and rejection : when two prin-
compound be of such a nature, as that its ciples are presented to each other, they
freezing point (see Caloric) is lower may either combine or reject each other.
than the common temperature of the bo- Thus water combines with and dissolves
dies, it will be fluid, and the combination gum, but rejects camphor; and alcohol
may proceed to the other parts of each combines with and dissolves camphor,
till the whole shall have united. Thus but rejects gum.
snow and salt will form a fluid brine, if It is probable that all simple bodies, if
the temperature be higher than 6° be insulated, would combine together, and
low the commencement of Fahrenheit's that the phenomenon of rejection, when
scale.
it takes place, is an effect of some of the
If a solid be united with and suspend. compound elective attractions, upon which
ed in a fluid, the former is said to be we shall presently speak.
dissolved or in solution, and the fluid is When a body is suspended to satura-
called a solvent. In this manner water tion in a solvent, no more can be taken
dissolves sugar or salt. Fluids in gene- up or supported, because the cohesive
ral dissolve greater quantities the higher attraction, or that of the parts of the
the temperature, probably from the fluid body to each other, is stronger than
state being promoted by heat.
that of the fluid to the same, and it is
Some substances unite in all propor- found that the power of the solvent is
tions, such as most acids in water ; but greater the less it is charged, until it
others have a limit; as for example, ceases at the point of saturation. Elas-
water will dissolve only one fourth of its ticity, or the energy by which bodies
weight of common salt. It is then said to are converted into gas or vapour, is like-
be saturated. But chemists use the word wise an opponent to solution or combi-
saturation in another sense. When two nation, and gives a point of saturation
principles, as for instance, an acid and an which may be varied, by preventing or
alkali, are combined, the properties of impeding the assumption of the elastic
each disappear when a due proportion state.
of each is present; but if either of the 2. When three bodies or principles are
VOL. IE,
Х
CHEMISTRY
presented to each other in succession, we the vinegar will unite.
the vinegar will unite. There is much
may conceive a variety of results, all convenience in the term, disposing attrac-
which appear to take place in nature. tion, as used to express this phenomenon,
Thus (a) they may not perceptibly unite, though it must be confessed that this
or (6) two may unite, and the third have prospective disposition, ascribed to un-
no action either upon them singly or when conscious beings, seems to produce some
in their combination; or (c) all three may confusion in the mind. It may therefore
unite from attractions exerted between be proper to notice that the case seems to
each singly upon the others, and form a belong to disposing attraction, and may
triple compound; or (d) two of them may be thus hypothetically explained. Copper
have no attraction for each other, but be- and several other metals which attract
ing both capable of combining with a oxygen from the air, become covered with
third, this last may be the instrument of a thin oxide or rust, which prevents any
union between the two, and a triple com- farther access of that fluid, and consequent-
pound will be thus formed. In this case ly it rusts no farther, unless the thin coat
the effect is said to be performed by inter- of oxide be scraped off and a new surface
mediate attraction, and the attracting bo- exposed, and if this were continued to be
dy is called a medium. Thus oil and done, all the copper would be gradually
water will not unite, but either of them oxided. Now the vinegar, by the condition
will unite with an alkali; and if this last of our case, does this, and the copper is
be united with oil, it forms soap, which gradually and totally dissolved; not, as it
can be united with water. The alkali is appears,
The alkali is appears, because the copper and oxygen
the medium ; or (e) two principles which are disposed to unite by a third power,
attract each other may neither of them be which, as it were, wails for them, but
capable of direct or ready union with a because this power removes an impedi.
third; but when the two former shall be ment which would impede their progres.
actually combined together, the compound sive union.
shall attract and combine with the third (3) The case of attraction, which has
body, and form a triple compound. This most particularly engaged the attention of
new power is called resulting attraction. chemistry, is that where two principles be-
Thus neither sulphur nor potash have ing combined are separated from each
any sensible action upon gold ; but when other by the addition of a third, which
they are fused together they combine with combines with one of them. This has,
that metal. Most of the effects of result- perhaps improperly, been called simple
ing attraction are consequences of the elective attraction, and by others precipi-
change of state of bodies, particularly to tating attraction: its principal effects or
that of Auidity; and the effects of this at- distinguishing character would, it seems,
traction and that by a medium often ex- be better designated by the terms de-
ist in the same case; or, (f) if we sup. composing attraction. Thus, if sulphuric
pose three principles to be in such cir- acid and magnesia be combined in the salt
cumstances of aggregation or tempera. called sulphate of magnesia (dissolved in
ture as to have no perceptible disposition water) and potash be added, the acid will
to unite in pairs, but that the resulting at- unite with this last, and the magnesia will
traction of a compound of two of them, be separated and fall down. It was for
if united, would then act upon the third, a long time thought that these combi-
and produce a triple combination, it may nations and separations were complete
happen that this resulting attraction, and entire; but they appear in every in-
which seems to be only in prospect, shall stance to form cases of the intermedi.
have power to complete the triple com- ate or resulting attractions, wherein the
pound; and the modification is called proportions of the soluble and insoluble
disposing attraction. Thus vinegar has parts are extremely different, and the de-
no perceptible action upon copper, but it grees of saturation often modify the re-
can dissolve the compound of copper and sults. For the body separated has al.
oxygen, called the oxide of copper: nei- ways a small proportion of the two
ther vinegar nor copper have any dispo- others, and the new compound usually
sition to take oxygen from its elastic state suspended is not binary, but triple at
in the atmosphere, so that copper and vin- least; and the proportions and effects
egar may be kept together without solu- are more or less altered by the quantity of
tion in a closed vessel : but if the air be solvent present, and the aptitude of the
admitted, the presence of the vinegar will new combinations to take the solid,
dispose the copper to take oxygen and fluid, or elastic states.
form an oxide, and with this combination Tables of separation or decomposi-
CHEMISTRY
cases.
Gion have been called tables of simple elec- sulphate of potash lime be presented, the
tive attraction. They are usually drawn up sulphuric acid being more strongly at.
to express effects in the humid way with tracted by potash than by lime, no de
moderate proportions of water at the mid- composition will ensue: but if muriate
dle atmospheric temperature ; and in the of lime be presented to the suipbate of
dry way by the operation of fire acting potash, the lime will not only attract the
upon the containing vessels to raise their sulphuric acid, but the muriatic acid
temperature. From the reasons just will attract the potash ; and the sum of
mentioned, they cannot be admitted as the divellent attractions, namely, of the
denoting invariable effects, but they are lime to the sulphuric acid, of the muri-
nevertheless useful, provided the modifi. atic acid to the potash, being greater
cations of circumstances be attended to than the sum of the original or quiescent
in our general reasoning. See ELECTIVE attractions ; namely, of the sulphuric
ATTRACTION.
acid to the potash, and of the muriatic
3. In our present discussion it was not acid to the lime; two new compounds,
practicable, from the nature of the sub- namely, sulphate of lime and muriate of
ject, to avoid presenting facts for illus- potash, will be formed. See ELECTIVE
tration, in which more than three princi- ATTRACTION.
ples were concerned; though the doc-
The most essential difference between
trines to be elucidated supposed no more the complicated cases of attraction here
than that number to be present. This described, and those treated of just be-
supposition can admit only of one combi- fore, is, that the principles in these last
nation, either of two or of three princi- are either saturated, or nearly so, when
ples; but in the complex effects of che presented to each other; and from this
mical attraction, four or more bodies may difference, and the number of principles,
be treated of as forming distinct and se. it is, that the effect of solvents, the force
parate combinations ; and these com- of cohesion and of elasticity, as well as
pounds being presented to each other, of temperature, and other circumstances,
may be affected by all the habitudes and act with more effect than in the simpler
circumstances upon which we have so
long dwelled, besides such others as
arise from their greater complexity.
Whenever the cohesive attraction ope-
These cannot be here fully treated. It rates so as to form solid aggregates,
will be sufficient at present to overlook whether by the congelation of fused bo-
those effects wherein compounds of many dies from
their solvents, the aggregates,
dies by cooling, or the deposition of bo-
principles may be formed, or in which
the intermediate, or resulting, or dis- if not disturbed by too rapid condensa-
posing attractions may operate, and re- tion, or by other causes, have the form
gard only the cases in which two binary of solids bounded by flat surfaces, meet-
compounds, being presented to each ing each other in certain definite angles.
other, do either remain unaltered, or else These solids are called crystals. The
exchange their principles so as to form property of crystallizing seems to be a
two other binary compounds. A few natural consequence of the resulting at-
years ago this was thought to compre- tractions. For if a binary compound be
hend the greatest part of the doctrine of attracted by any other principle or com-
chemical attractions ; but as practical pound, and the time and circumstances
science advances, the supposed simplicity allow the particles to turn round, it ap-
of the facts becomes less than before. pears obvious that the appulse and ad.
These phenomena, afforded by two bi. hesion will be made by such sides of the
nary compounds, bave been classed un-
bodies as are occupied by particles most
der the denomination of effects of dou- strongly attractive of each other; and
ble elective attraction. These facts may duce regularity of figure. See CRYSTAL-
this regularity of apposition must pro-
be considered with regard to the whole
CrysTAL-
force of the attractions that tend to re-
tain the original compounds, which have After this general statement of the
been called quiescent attractions, and the means and agents of chemistry, it re-
whole force of the attractions that tend to mains only for us in this general article
produce two new binary compounds, to give an outline of the different sub-
which have been called divellent attrac- stances or principles upon which the pro-
tions. If the former be the greatest, the cesses of nature and art are performed,
change will not take place; but if the and upon which the articles devoted to
Latter exceed, it will. Thus, if to the each may be consulted, ,
LIZATION.
CHEMISTRY
CHEMICAL ARRANGEMENT OF BODIES. til the confirmation and developement of
those facts shall have perfectly settled
I. Substances not yet decomposed, called their place.
çimple principles
4. Simple principles, combustible, and
in some aggregations transparent. These
1. Principles of doubtful existence.
These are (a) heat, (6) light, and the are, (a) diamond, or carbon ; (6) sul-
causes of (©) galvanic, (a) electric, and phur ; and (c) phosphorus. The two
latter of these combine readily, and burn
(e) magnetic phenomena, These ener with the oxygen of the atmosphere; the
gies cannot be confined in vessels; they latter, in various of its compounds and
are not measurable by figured extension
or by gravity; we know nothing of their bustion by the force of cohesion in the ag-
,
.
compounds; and they accompany and
are excitable in other bodies by manipu- gregate.
lation : from which, and other reasons, in every state of solid aggregation, and
5. Simple principles,combustible,opaque
they bave been thought to be modes,
properties, or occasional habitudes of peculiarly brilliant by reflection ; metals.
properties, or occasional habitudes of of these, 28 are at present known. 1.
bodies. But, on the other hand, they Gold; 2. Platina ; 3. Silver ; 4. Mercury ;
Of
possess so many distinctive characters, 5. Iridium ; 6. Osmium ; 7. Rhodium ; 8.
that a large class of philosophers ascribe Palladium ; 9. Copper ; 10. Iron ; 11.
them to certain peculiar fluids, or to one Lead ; 12. Tin ; 13. Zinc ; 14. Bismuth ;
common fluid. See ETHER.
15. Antimony; 16. Nickel ; 17. Cobalt';
2. Simple principles, which have been 18. Manganese ; 19. Arsenic ; 20. Tellu-
exhibited only in the gaseous form, un- rium; 21. Chrome; 22. Molybdena; 23.
less in combination. These are (a) oxy- Tungsten ; 24. Titanium ; 25. Uranium ;
gen, (6) hydrogen, (c) azote, or nitrogen. 26. Columbium ; 27. Tantalium ; 28. Ce-
The character here assumed for classifi- rium.
cation might seem insufficient, as being
merely relative to our present means of II. Primary compounds, or combinations
attempting to condense these bodies, if of two simple principles.
there were not some strong distinctive
circumstances belonging to them. In 1. Water ; composed of oxygen and
particular, oxygen with hydrogen forms hydrogen
water, of which an immense ocean co- 2. Ammonia ; composed of hydrogen
vers two-thirds of the surface of our and azote. And in this place we may
planet; and oxygen with nitrogen forms expect hereafter to place the other alka-
the air of that atmosphere which sur- lies and the earths.
rounds us on all sides to the height of 3. Oxides ; composed of combustible
many miles, and would, if it could be principles, particularly metals, combined
compressed to the density of common with oxygen. These are, (a) oxides of
earth, cover all the land and sea to the carbon; as plumbago, common char-
depth of at least fifteen feet : and (d) coal, carbonic oxide of azote-of sul-
the unknown base of muriatic acid phur,--of phosphorus ; and (b) of the
ought probably to be admitted in this metals.
place.
4. Acids ; combustibles, or metals
3. Simple principles, not combustible, combined with a larger portion of oxy-
These are (a) earths, distinguished by a gen than exists in their oxides. The oxy-
want of fusibility, volatility, and solubi- genated substance is called the base of
lity in water, which in most species is the acid, and there are acids with two,
almost total. There are nine at present and perhaps more, bases. Rejecting, for
known ; namely, silex, alumina, lime, the present, their modifications arising
magnesia, barytes, strontites, zircon, it from more or less of oxygen, they are
tria, glucine and (b) alkalies, which are the sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, phospho-
fusible, volatile by a red heat, and very ric, carbonic, fluoric, boracic, arsenic,
soluble in water; three are known ; pot- molybdic, chromic, tungstic, columbic,
ash, soda, and ammonia.
acetic, benzoic, moroxylic, camphoric,
The recent decomposition of the two oxalic, mellitic, tartaric, citric, sebacic,
former alkalies (see ALKALI,) and the saclactic, laccic, malico suberic, formic,
well known composition of the latter, prussic, gallic.
must with propriety exclude them from 5. Compounds of two incombustible
their present situation, but they are re- principles. These are either earths with
tained in this class of incombustibles un- earths, as in (a) pottery, which for the
:
CHEMISTRY.
most part is a mixture of aggregates ;- temperature, or lowering it to congela-
or earths with alkalies, which form (6) tion. No proof has been given of its be-
glass.
ing capable of uniting in perfect combi-
6. Compounds of a combustible and an nation with either of its component parts
incombustible principle. (a) Sulphurets beyond the point of saturation. (6) It
of lime, magnesia, barytes, strontites, pot- dissolves barytes plentifully, and stron-
ash, soda, ammonia; (6) carburet of alu- tites and lime sparingly; and it very ac-
mina; and (c) phosphurets of lime; ba- tively takes up large proportions of the
rytes; strontites.
alkalies; but from all these it may be
7. Compounds of two combustible separated without alteration by mere
principles. (a) Hydrogen with carbon; heat. (©) Its action upon carbon, sul-
carburetted hydrogen gas; supercarbu- phur, phosphorus, or the metals, is not
retted hydrogen gas, or olefiant gas. (6) sufficient to produce any sensible combi-
Hydrogen with metals ; gasiform sus- nation or decomposition, unless at a very
pension of arsenic, zinc, or iron. (c) Car- elevated temperature, such as that of ig-
bon with sulphur; carburet of sulphur. nition. (d) The oxides are scarcely af-
(d) Carbon with iron ; carburet of iron, fected by it; perhaps only when they ap-
or crude iron. (e) Sulphur with hydro- proach the state of acidity. (e) Many of
gen; sulphuretted hydrogen gas. (f) Sul- the acids unite strongly, and in all pro-
phur with phosphorus; sulphuret of phos- portions, with it, and they are all more
phorus. (9) Sulphur with most of the or less soluble. (f) The sulphurets and
metals ; sulphurets of each (1) Phos. phosphorets are suspended, and decom,
h
phorus with hydrogen ; phosphorized by- position of the water takes place by dis-
drogen gas, phosphuretted hydrogen gas. posing double affinity; part of the sul-
(i) Phosphurets of carbon. (k) Phosphu- phur taking oxygen from the water, and
rets of many of the metals. (1) Metals forming acid, which combines with the
with metals; alloys.
earth or alkali; and another part of the
combustible uniting with the hydrogen
III. Secondary compounds, or compounds of the decomposed water, and forming
of more than two simple principles.
hydrosulphuret, part of which remains in
solution, and part rises in form of gas.
Though it cannot yet be determined (3) The compounds of two or more com-
whether the binary, and other com- bustibles are not sensibly acted upon by
pounds, enumerated in the last section,
water.
may exist as distinct principles in the 2. The alkalies combine (a) with all
combinations into which they may enter, the acids, and form compounds called
it is nevertheless certain, that, either neutral salts, more or less soluble in
from this cause, or from the general pre-water; and also (6) with several of the
dominance of the attractions to which earths, and (c) of the metallic oxides;
they owe their formation, the appear- forming combinations, which, from the
ances in composition and decomposition little attention yet paid to them, have re-
are such as admit of the affirmative sup- ceived no particular denominations.
position in by far the greater number of 3. The earths also unite (a) with the
cases. This was taken for granted by acids, and form salts similar to those
the earlier chemists, and habit and con- called neutral, and also for the most
venience has continued their language to part soluble in water. Some of these
the present time.
likewise unite (6) with each other, and
The binary compounds, taken in the (c) with metallic oxides, by compound
preceding order, will indicate the follow- attraction during precipitation in the hu-
ing secondary combinations.
1. Water combines with a great num-
4. Acids are the most powerful agents
ber of bodies, and in general may be se- of combination with alkalies, earths, and
parated by evaporation, congelation, or metallic oxides, in the humid way, with
the effect of elective attraction, without which, as has been observed, they form
any change in its own composition. It salts. The earth silex is not taken up in
has been accordingly considered for a any perceptible quantity by any acid but
long time as a simple element, and is the fluoric, and this suspends it even in
even now very often disregarded in its the form of gas.
agency upon substances which it may 5. The compound of hydrogen and
hold in solution. (a) It absorbs very sulphur acts in the manner of an acid
small portions of oxygen, hydrogen, or upon the alkalies, earths, and metallic
azote, and emits them upon raising the oxides. For which, and the effect of
mid way.
CHE
CHE
acids on the compound combustibles, re- There are 24 species. They inhabit various
ference must be made to the respective trees and plants, and produce, by their
articles.
punctures, protuberances and excrescen-
It would carry us too far into the busi- ces of various shapes and sizes, in which
ness of arrangement in this place, if we are frequently enclosed the eggs and in-
were not to adopt the same proceeding sects in their several states; the larva is
of referring to the parts and products of six-footed and apterous: the pupa is dis-
VEGETABLE and ANIMAL bodies; we shall tinguished by two protuberances on the
therefore only mention five classes of thorax, which are the rudiments of fu-
the products of organized substances, ture wings. C. alni is found on the leaves
which, from their exclusive application and shoots of alder; its larva is entirely
to chemical operations, cannot be passed covered about the hinder part by viscid
without notice. These in the last re-
These in the last re- down or cotton ; this, if purposely rubbed
sults afford carbon and hydrogen, or off, is quickly reproduced by the animal,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They which secretes the white fibres from
are, (a) alcohol, or spirit, ardent; () large pores placed in a circle at some
ether; (c) oils, volatile; (d) oils, fixed; distance from the vent. These larva are
(e) bitumens.
gregarious, often appearing in such num-
CHENOLEA, in botany, a genus of bers on the shoots of the tree that the
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or- whole shoot appears covered with cotton,
der: natural order of Holoraceæ ; Atripli- which, if touched with the finger, sepa-
ces, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx rates into distinct tufts, from the animals
globular, one-leafed, five-parted; capsule being suddenly disturbed, and moving in
one-celled, containing one smooth seed, all directions. C. buxi; antennæ setace-
bifid at the tip. There is but one species, ous; wings yellowish brown. Its punc-
sviz. C. diffusa, which is a native of the tures make the leaves bend in towards
Cape of Good Hope.
each other at their extremity, forming
CHENOPODIUM, in botany, English a hollow knob, in which the larva are en-
goose foot, a genus of the Pentandria closed.
Digynia class and order: natural order of CHERRY tree, in botany. See PRU-
Holoraceæ : Atriplices, Jussieu. Essen- NUS.
tial character, calyx five-leaved, five-cor- CHESNUT tree. See FAGUS.
nered; corolla none; seed one, centicu- Next to the oak the chesnut timber is
lar, superior. There are twenty-three most coveted by carpenters and joiners.
species. The C. anthelminticum is, as It likewise makes the best stakes, pallisa-
its name imports, a medicine possessing does, vine props, hop-poles, &c. and is
the property of expelling worms; worm- also proper for mill timber and water-
oil, as it is called, is made principally of works. It is likewise fit for chests, tables,
this plant. It is native in many parts of bedsteads, columns, &c.
the United States, and Pursh says, is com- CHESS, a game played by two per-
mon in the streets of Philadelphia. sons sitting vis-a-vis, and having between
CHERLERIA, in botany, so called in them a square board, containing 64 rec-
honour of Cherler, assistant and son-in-tangular chequers, alternate white and
law to John Bauhin : a genus of the De- black: each player has the white corner
candria Trigynia class and order: natu- square at his right hand. The pieces
ral order of Caryophyllei. Essential cha- are as follows, for each party. A queen,
racter: calyx five-leaved; nectaries, five, which is always placed on her own co-
bifid, resembling petals; anthers alter- lour: thus, the white queen is on a white
nate, barren; capsule one-celled, three- square, the fourth from the corner, and
valved, three-seeded. There is but one the black queen on the black square fac-
species, viz. C. sedodides; stone crop ing the white queen. Their respective
cherleria. It is found on the mountains kings are then placed by the sides of the
of Dauphine, Switzerland, Savoy, the queens, so that each couple occupy the
Valais, Austria, Carniola, and the High- two centre squares on the lines nearest
lands of Scotland. Perennial; flowering the players. Two bishops are then plac-
in August
ed, one on the side of the king, the
CHERMES, in natural history, a genus other on the side of the queen, on squares
of insects of the order Hemiptera. of different colours. Bishops are gene-
Generic character; snout placed in the rally distinguished by a kind of mitre on
breast, with three inflected bristles; an- their tops: at the sides of the bishops
tennæ filiform, pubescent longer than the are placed the two knights, also on differ-
thorax; four wings deflected; thorax ent coloured squares: these are usually
gibbous; hind legs formed for leaping: distinguished by horses' heads, or by
3
:
CHESS.
having a piece obliquely taken off from only move forward one square at a time.
their fat round bonnets. The exterior When pawns capture, they do it oblique-
pieces are called castles or rooks, and ly, but only at one square distance: thus
are commonly made to resemble turrets; a pawn, on a white square, can take any
or may be only pawns of a larger size. pawn or piece of the adversary's that may
The pawns, eight in number, are ranged be on either of the diagonals proceeding
so as to occupy all the squares on the se- from such white square, right and left,
cond line, immediately in front of the provided such pawn or piece be on
line of pieces. Pawns are generally the square next to that on which the
pieces of turned wood, of a neat pattern, pawn stands. Pawns never recede ; all
and with spherical summits. This de- their moves are straight forward; they
scription of one party will answer for have, however, the great privilege of
both: observing that the players are de- being changed for any piece the party
signated according to the colour of their they appertain to may choose, whenever
pieces. Such as are white or yellow, are they can reach that line on which the ad-
called white, and such as are black, red, versaries' pieces were originally arranged:
green, &c. are called black.
on such occasions the successful pawn is
The king can only move one square at taken off the square, and any piece its
a time, but in any direction that may be owner may have lost is placed thereon in
open to him : he cannot, however, move its stead. As a queen is usually chosen,
to, nor remain on, a square which is com- where one has been lost, this is called
manded by any of the adversary's pieces making a queen.
or pawns. The queen moves only in right A review of the chess board will show
lines, but her range is unlimited where that every piece, as it stands on the
the board is clear: thus she can go the board, protects one pawn, while each of
whole breadth, or the whole length, or the two centre pawns has four defences.
the whole diagonal of the board. If The weakest parts of the board are
placed in the centre of the board she the pawns before the knights and bi.
could, consequently, move in any one shops.
of the eight, i. e. four rectangular, The king cannot remain in check, nor
and four diagonal directions, diverging can he remove to a square that is com-
from the square on which she might manded by any piece or pawn of the ad-
stand. The bishops always move in a versary. When he is so situated as to be
diagonal direction, each invariably adher- liable to be taken, i.e. in check, and that
ing to that colour on which he was ori- he cannot move but into a similar situa-
ginally placed; these pieces are called tion, the game is ended, by what is call
according to the colour on which they ed check-mate. When the party cannot
stand and move, without any reference move any of his pieces or pawns, and his
to their own complexions respectively. king is not in check, or, as it is called, en
Thus the white party has a black and a prise, but would be so if he moved, he
white bishep; though they are both made wins the game, under the plea of stale-
of a white substance: the same holds in mate. To effect this, when the party has
regard to the adversary's bishops. The lost his defences, is therefore an object
knights have a circular move, always of moment. Young players, when carry-
proceeding to such squares, within two ing all before them, very frequently give
distant, as may be of opposite colour to their adversaries this negative victory, by
that from which they move; counting pushing on, without attending to the con-
that square, say it be white, as one, the sequences of too closely confining the
knight passes over one square, either opponent's king:
black or white, and settles on a black When the space between the king and
square next thereto. Hence a knight either castle is clear, and that neither
can remove to or command eight squares, the king nor castle are en prise, the cas.
all in different directions from that on tle may then be brought next to the king,
which he stands. The castles only move and the king be placed on the opposite
at right angles with the board; pro- side of the castle; this is called castleing,
ceeding, if nothing should interrupt, but can only be done once in the game,
either the whole length, or the whole and before either the king or the castle
breadth, at pleasure. The pawns have have made any move. If either the king,
each the privilege of moving forward two or castle, crosses or comes upon a square
squares, at the first move of each re- that is commanded by a piece or pawn
spectively, provided no obstacle should belonging to the adversary, the castleing
present itself; but ever after they can cannot be allowed.
CHE
CHI
This operation is resorted to, either separated into two pieces; couched,
for the purpose of withdrawing the king when the point is turned towards one
from an attack directed against the square side of the escutcheon ; divided, when
on which he is placed, or against that of the branches are of several metals, or
his pawn; or it is used as the means of when metal is opposed to colour ; invert-
opening a communication between the ed, when the point is turned towards the
two castles, when all the intermediate point of the coat, and its branches to.
pieces are removed; or to strengthen the wards the chief.
defence of the centre pawns, as well as CHIEF, in heraldry, is that which takes
to carry the game into the centre of the up all the upper part of the escutcheon
adversary's board. It is to be remarked, from side to side, and represents the on-
that the centre is ever to be strongly de- naments used on a man's head.
fended, if the measures pursued by the CHILIAD, denotes a thousand of any
other party should admit. When the la- things, ranged in several divisions, each
teral game is played, that defence must of which contains that number.
be adopted which circumstances demand. CHILIAGON, in geometry, a regular
The judicious chess player never makes plane figure of a thousand sides.
an useless move, nor leaves a pawn or a CHIMÆRA, in natural history, a genus
a piece unprotected. He forms his plans of fishes of the Linnæan order Chondrop-
regularly, so as to calculate with preci- terigius, and, according to Shaw, of the
sion what would be the position of the order Cartilagenei. Generic character:
pieces after four or five moves he has in head pointed on the upper part ; mouth
contemplation may have been made. He placed beneath, with the upper lip five-
looks more to the solidity of his measures cleft; cutting teeth two in front, both
than to little ensnaring stratagems; above and below. There are two spe-
though he will not fail to appear ignorant cies, viz. C. monstrosa or borealis, and c.
of such designs as he may perceive to be callorynchus or australis. The former is
within the intention of his opponent; remarkable for the singularity of its ap-
when he knows that by an affected in- pearance; it is a native of the northern
attention, or blindness, to the device, he seas, where it inhabits the deepest re-
can make a more immediate impression, cesses, and preys on the smaller kind of
and render the whole speculation, not fishes, as well as on various sorts of the
only void, but the means of ruining its mollusca and testacea tribes. It is about
projector.
three or four feet long. Notwithstand-
The game of chess has certainly some ing the Linnæan name of monstrosa, its
affinity to the art of war; but the analo- appearance is not at all formidable, and
gy is not so strict as players generally its colours highly elegant. See Plate
suppose. We can, however, inform the II. Pisces, fig. 5. The c. australis is a
amateurs of this pleasing species of con- native of the southern seas, and its man-
test, that a work is now in the press which ner of life similar to that of the northern
cannot fail to afford a treat, as it opens a ocean.
new field for the display of skill, and CHIMARRHIS, in botany, a genus of
teems with the most ample and interest- the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
ing varieties.
der. Essential character: corolla funnel-
CHEVRON, or CHEVERON, in heral- form, with a very short tube ; capsule in-
dry, one of the honourable ordinaries of ferior, obtuse, two-celled, two-valved,
a shield, representing two rafters of an the valves bifid at the tip; seed one in
house, joined together as they ought to each cell. There is but one species,
stand; it was anciently the form of the viz.C. cymosa, a lofty tree, with a hand-
priestesses' head attire: some say it is a some head, the boughs spreading out
symbol of protection: others, of constan- horizontally. Flowers numerous, small,
cy; others, that it represents knights with white corollas, without scent; cap-
spears, &c. It contains the fifth part of sules small. The wood is white, and.
the field.
used for beams, rafters, &c. It is called
A chevron is said to be abased, when in Martinico, where it is common, bois de
its point does not approach the head of reviere.
the chief, nor reach farther than the mid- CHIMES of a clock, a kind of periodical
dle of the coat; mutilated, when it does music, produced at equal intervals of
not touch the extremes of the coat; clo- time, by means of a particular apparatus
ven, when the upper pieces are taken off, added to a clock.
so that the pieces only touch at one of CHIMNEY is that part of a house
the angles; broken, when one branch is which serves to conduct the smoke of the
CHIMNEY SWEEPING.
a
a
fires to the exterior. This will not, how- Arts, Manufactures," &c. in the Adelphi,
ever, be effected, unless the draught of requesting them to engage in it, and to
air be decidedly from the bottom to the offer premiums on the subject. In con-
top. To insure this, the fire-place should sequence of this application, the society
be rather wide than narrow in the front, offered their gold medal to the person
and gradually taper backwards, so as to who should invent the most effectual me-
proceed all the way up in rather a coni- chanical or other means for cleansing
cal form, causing the smoke to rush forth chimnies from soot, and obviating the ne-
with velocity. This is the great secret, cessity of children being employed with-
the want of which, added to angular in the flues. In a few months there were
instead of curved lines, where bends are five candidates for this premium, whose
requisite in any part of the flue, and the several inventions were put to the test of
being overtopped by adjoining buildings, experiment upon chimnies not less than
trees, banks, &c. has caused much incon- 70 feet high. One of the inventions con-
venience. Some persons are so very par- sisted of a set of brushes with pullies and
ticular in listing their doors, and in mak- weights, which were to be let down from
ing apartments completely wind-tight, the top of the chimney ; but as the ob-
that the want of draught has occasioned ject was to find an apparatus to effect the
the best constructed chimnies to smoke purpose from the inside of the house,
intolerably: a few holes made with a gim- this was deemed unfit to accomplish the
let in the sashes have remedied the de- views of the society. Another gentle-
fect. When a chimney is very foul, so man proposed the plan of throwing gra-
as to be choked in a certain degree, the vel up the chimney by means of con-
soot will generally check the draught. densed air; the machine was tried, and
Short flues are subject to repelthe smoke, deemed wholly inadequate to the pur-
because the wind from above can so ea- pose. A third apparatus consisted of
sily reach all the way down, which in elastic rods of whale-bone and cane, with
long flues it cannot do. If it could be ap- a brush at the end of the upper one,
plied to general use, the form of a tile- which was found to answer only in short
kiln should be generally adopted for that and straight chimnies. The next consist-
of the chimney.
ed of laths several feet long, which lock-
CHIMNEY sweeping. Smoke in its pas- ed into one another, and on the upper
sage through a chimney deposits a great one was fixed an elastic expanding brush,
part of the soot, with which it is loaded, which, in its ascending and contracted
upon the sides of the flue, which causes state, occupied a space of only six or
clanger from fire, and is besides apt to fall eight inches, but which was to be open-
back into the room. It is therefore fre- ed, when forced to the top of the chim-
quently necessary to have the flues clean- ney, by means of a string attached to it,
ed. To effect this, various expedients the whole length of the rods. After
have been resorted to, but that most com- many experiments before divers persons
monly adopted is the use of climbing appointed to examine its merits, this was
boys, who ascend within the chimney given up as ineffectual to the purpose re-
and sweep down the soot. The evils of quired. The only remaining apparatus
this disagreeable and unwholesome oc- was invented by Mr. George Smart, the
cupation to those engaged in it, are ge- patentee of a method of making hollow
nerally acknowledged, and of late years masts for ships: to him, after a long se-
the public attention has been directed to ries of practice, in which he has been al-
this subject, and premiums offered for most uniformly successful, the gold me-
the discovery of methods which might be dal was adjudged; he has received also,
substituted to a practice so offensive to we believe, some other premiums for his
humanity.
invention. As his method is now practis-
In the year 1802, a number of public- ed by several persons in and near the
spirited and wealthy persons in London, metropolis, we shall give a more particu-
associated for this purpose, and offered lar account of it. The principal parts of
considerable premiums to those who the machine are a brush, some rods or
might invent, and bring into practice, a hollow tubes that fasten into each other,
method of cleansing chimnies, by me- by means of brass sockets, and a cord for
chanical means, that should supersede connecting the whole together.
the necessity of climbing boys. Feeling The method of using the machine is
themselves, perhaps, inadequate to the this: having ascertained, by looking up
task of carrying their laudable intentions the chimney, what is the direction of the
into full execution, they applied to the flue, a cloth is then to be fixed before
* Society for the Encouragement of the fire-place, with the horizontal bar,
VOL. II.
Y
CHI
CHI
and the sides to be closed with two up- tain Mr. Smart's brush has in many
right bars.
The brush is introduced instances failed to remove. He has done
through the opening of the cloth, which much to obviate an evil long complained
opening is then to be buttoned, and one of; an evil that has deprived of health,
of the rods is to be passed up the cord and eventually of life, a multitude of per-
into the socket on the lower end of the sons in their youth, that might for a long
rod which supports the brush ; the other course of years have been useful to the
rods are in like manner to be brought up community, and we wish to see in his
one by one in succession, till the brush is hands the invention, so honorable to his
raised somewhat above the top of the talents, rendered still more useful by be-
chimney, observing to keep the cord ing more perfect. He has attained, with
constantly tight, and when those rods regard to making his brush ascend the
which have a screw in the socket are chimney, all that can be expected, and
brought up, they are to be placed on the instead of bringing up infants to climb
purchase ; the cord is to be put round the the fiftieth or hundredth chimney, which,
pulley and drawn very tight, and screw- on account of the direction of the flue no
ed down, by which all the rods above apparatus can be made to ascend, other
will be firmly connected together, and means may be adopted.
the whole may be regarded as one long CHIOCOCCA, in botany, a genus of
flexible rod. In pulling the machine the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
down, the edges of the brush, striking der. Natural order of Aggregatæ. Rhu-
against the top of the chimney, will cause biaceæ, Jussieu. Essential character;
it to expand, and there being a spring to corolla funnel-form, equal; berry one.
prevent its contracting again, it will bring celled, two-seeded, inferior. There are
down the soot with it. In drawing down two species. C. racemosa, climbing snow-
the machine, the person should graspberry-tree, or David's root, is a native of
with his left hand the rod immediately the West Indies; and C. barbata, a native
above that which he is separating with of the Marquesas, Society and Friendly
his right hand, to prevent the upper Islands, in the South Sea.
ones from sliding down too soon.
The
CHIONANTHUS, in botany, fringe, or
rods, as they are brought down, are to be snowdrop tree, a genus of the Diandria
laid carefully one by one in as small a Monogynia class and order. Natural or-
compass as possible, and arranged like a der of Sepiariæ. Jasmineæ, Jussieu. Es-
bundle of sticks.
sential character: corolla quadrifid, with
This machine has been found useful in the divisions extremely long; drupe with
extinguishing fires in chimnies; for that a striated nut. There are four species,
purpose a coarse cloth is to be tied of which C. Virginica, Virginia fringe-
over the brush, dipped in water, and tree, or snowdrop-tree, is common in
then passed up in the manner directed. South-Carolina, where it grows by the
Afterthree years experience, Mr. Smart's sides of rivulets, and is rarely more than
machine has been found, in a great mea- ten feet high : the leaves are as large as
sure, to answer the purposes for which it those of the laurel, but are of a much
was intended; in the course of several thinner substance : the flowers come out
thousand trials, it is ascertained that not in May, hanging in long bunches, of a
more than one or two chimnies, at most, pure white colour, whence the inhabi-
in a hundred, has resisted the passage of tants call it snowdrop-tree ; and the
the brush. It is, however, of importance flowers being cut into narrow segments,
to observe, that the invention cannot be they give it the name of fringe-tree.
deemed in a state of perfection; soot This beautiful tree is one of the Ameri-
from some coals adheres so strongly to the can plants in the highest esteem in Eu-
sides of the chimney and chimney-pot, rope, and is always eagerly sought and
that no brush will of itself bring it down, cultivated in the gardens of the curious.
so that after a considerable time it may
a
CHIROMANCY, a species of divina-
be expected that means must be found tion, drawn from the different lines and
to scrape off the soot as the climbing lineaments of a person's hand; by which
boys now generally do: we wish, there- means it is pretended the inclinations
fore, that such an addition to the appa- may be discovered.
ratus could be devised, as should remedy CHIRONIA, in botany, a genus of the
this defect. It is well known that one Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
cause of the smoking of chimnies is from Natural order of Rotaceæ. Gentianæ,
the circumstance, of the top of the chim- Jussieu. Essential character: corolla ro-
ney-pot being clogged with soot that ad- tated; pistil declinate; stamens on the
heres to the upper edge, which it is cer- tube of the corolla ; anthers finally spiral;
CHI
CHI
pericarp two-celled. There are ten spe- to others, it gave occasion to that enter
cies, mostly natives of the Cape of Good prise; and which, though founded in ca-
Hope.
price, and productive of extravagance,
CHISSEL, an instrument much used had a very considerable influence in refin-
in carpentry, masonry, joinery, sculpture, ing the manners of the European nations,
&c. and distinguished according to the during the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth,
breadth of the blade into half-inch chis- and fifteenth centuries.
sels, quarter-inch chissels, &c. They This institution naturally arose, says
have also different names, according to Dr. Robertson, from the state of society
the different uses to which they are ap- at that period. The feudal state was a
plied, as, 1. The former, used by carpen- state of perpetual war, rapine, and anar-
ters, &c. just after the work is scribed: chy; during which the weak and unarm-
it is struck with a mallet. 2. The paring- ed were exposed to perpetual insults or
chissel, which is used in paring off the injuries. The power of the sovereign
irregularities made by the former: this was too limited to prevent these wrongs;
is pressed with the workman's shoulder. and the administration of justice too
3. The skew-former cleanses acute an- feeble to redress them Against vio-
gles with the point of its narrow edge. lence and oppression there was scarcely
4. The mortice-chissel, used in cutting any protection, besides that which the
deep square holes in the wood, for mor- valour and generosity of private persons
tices: it is narrow, but thick and strong, afforded. The same spirit of enterprise
,
to endure hard blows. 5. Socket chissels, which had prompted so many gentlemen
having their shank made with a hollow to take arms in defence of the oppressed
socket at top, to receive a strong wooden pilgrims in Palestine, incited others to de-
sprig fitted into it with a shoulder. 6. clare themselves the patrons and aveng-
Ripping chissel, having a blunt edge, ers of injured innocence at home. When
with no basil, used in tearing two pieces the final reduction of the Holy Land un-
of wood asunder. And, 7. The gouge. der the dominion of infidels put an end to
CHITON, in natural history, a genus these foreign expeditions, the latter was
of Vermes Testacea. Animal inhabiting the only employment left for the activity
the shell a doris: shell consisting of se- and courage of adventurers. The objects
veral segments or valves disposed down of this institution were to check the in-
the back. There are 28 species. They solence of overgrown oppressors, to suc-
differ very much in colour, and are found cour the distressed, to rescue the helpless
on almost every coast in the ocean. c. from captivity, to protect or to avenge
tuberculatus: shell seven-valved; body women, orphans, and ecclesiastics, who
tuberculate : inhabits America: oblong- could not bear arms in their own defence,
oval, narrow, with tubercles above dis- to redress wrongs, and to remove griev-
posed in quincunx; the sides cinereous, ances. These were considered as acts
mixed with white, and marked with of the highest prowess and merit. Va-
brown undulate bands; back greenish, lour, gallantry, and religion, were blended
with a broad, deep, black band. C. cine- in this institution ; humanity, courtesy,
reus : shell eight valved, smooth, cari- justice, and honour, were its character-
nate; body reddish, with a subciliate istic qualities; the enthusiastic zeal pro-
border ; inhabits the Norwegian seas duced by religion served to give it singu-
among the roots of ulvæ ; two lines long; lar energy, and to carry it even to a
depressed and narrower before, with romantic excess: men were trained to
two longitudinal grooves down the back, knighthood by long previous discipline;
bounding the ridge in the middle; when they were admitted into the order by so.
alive both the shell and animal are reddish, lemnities no less devout than pompous;
when dried cinereous.
every person of noble birth courted the
CHIVALRY, in law, is a tenure of ser- honour; it was deemed a distinction su-
vice, whereby the tenant is bound to per- perior to royalty, and monarchs were
form some noble or military office to his found to receive it from the hands of pri-
lord; and is either regal, when held only vate gentlemen. These various circum-
of the king; or common, such as may be stances contributed to render a whimsi-
held of a common person, as well as the cal institution of substantial benefit to
king: the former is properly called ser- mankind.
jeanty, and the latter escuage.
Chivalry was employed in rescuing
CHIVALRY, in antiquity, an institution humble and faithful vassals from the op-
which, according to some writers, took pression of petty lords; their women
its rise from the crusades; but, according from sayage lust; and the hoary heads of
a
CHI
CHL
Hermits (a species of Eastern monks, inculcated the most delicate sensibility
much reverenced in the Holy Land) with respect to that point. The admira-
from rapine and outrage. In the mean tion of these qualities, together with the
time the courts of the feudal sovereigns high distinctions and prerogatives confer-
became magnificent and polite; and as ed on knighthood in every part of Eu-
the military constitution still subsisted, rope, inspired persons of noble birth, on
military merit was to be upheld; but some occasions, with a species of military
destitute of its former objects, it natural. fanaticism, and led them to extravagant
ly softened into fictitious images and enterprises. But they imprinted deeply
courtly exercises of war, in “jousts” and on their minds the principles of generosi-
“ tournaments;" where the honour of ty and lionour. These were strengthen-
the ladies supplied the place of zealed by every thing that can affect the
for the holy sepulchre ; and thus the senses or touch the heart. The wild ex-
courtesy of elegant love, but of a wild ploits of those romantic knights, who sal-
and fanatic species, as being engrafted lied forth in quest of adventures, are well
on spiritual enthusiasm, came to mix it- known, and have been treated with pro-
self with the other characters of the per ridicule. The political and perma-
knights-errant.
nent efforts of the spirit of chivalry have
Chivalry, whatever might be the era of been less observed. Perhaps, the human-
its origin, declined in England during the ity which accompanies all the operations
inglorious reigns of King
John and Henry of war, the refinements of gallantry, and
II.; but revived under Edward I. This the point of honour, the three chief
prince was one of the most accomplish- circumstances which distinguish modern
ed knights of the age in which he flour- from ancient manners, may be ascribed
ished, and both delighted and excelled in in a great measure to this whimsical in-
feats of chivalry. As a proof of this, it stitution, seemingly of little benefit to
will be sufficient to allege, that when he mankind. The sentiments which chival.
was on his return from the Holy Land, ry inspired had a wonderful influence
after his father's death, and knew that on manners and conduct, during the
his presence was ardently desired in Eng- twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fif-
land, he accepted an invitation to a tour- teenth centuries. They were so deeply
nament at Chalons in Burgundy, where he rooted, that they continued to operate
displayed his skill and valour to great ad. after the vigour and reputation of the
vantage, and gained a complete victory. institution itself began to decline.” In a
Edward III. was no less fond of chivalry, word, chivalry, which is now an object
and encouraged it both by his example of ridicule, was, at the period to which
and munificence. Having formed the de. we have above referred, a matter of the
sign of asserting his claim to the crown greatest moment, and had no little influ-
of France, he laboured to inspire his own ence on the manners of mankind, and
subjects with a bold enterprising spirit, the fate of nations.
and to entice as many valiant foreigners A respectable writer has traced, with
as possible into his service.
ingenuity and much learning, a strong
" This singular institution, says Dr. resemblance between the manners of the
Robertson, in which valour, gallantry, and age of chivalry and those of the heroic
religion, were so strangely blended, was ages delineated by Homer. See Letters
wonderfully adapted to the taste and ge- on Chivalry, &c.
nius of martial nobles; and its effects CHLORA, in botany, a genus of the
were soon visible in their manners. War Octandria Monogynia class and order.
was carried on with less ferocity, when Natural order of Rotaceæ. Gentianæ, Jus-
humanity came to be deemed the orna- sieu. Essential character: calyx eight.
ment of knighthood no less than courage. leaved; corolla one-petalled, eight cleft;
More gentle and polished manners were capsule one-celled, two-valved, many-
introduced, when courtesy was recom- seeded. Stigma four-cleft. There are
mended as the most amiable of knightly four species.
virtues Violence and oppression de
CHLORANTHUS, in botany, a genus
creased, when it was reckoned merito- of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and
rious to check and to punish them. A scru- order. Natural order of Aggregatæ. Es-
pulous adherence to truth, with the most sential character : calyx none; corolla a
religious attention to fulfil every engage. petal three-lobed by the side of the germ;
ment, became the distinguishing charac- anthers growing to the petal; drupe one-
teristic of a gentleman, because chivalry seeded. There is but one species.
was regarded as the school of honour, and CHLORIS, in botany, a genus of the
CHO
CHO
:
Polygamia Monoecia class and order. class Amphibia, where they constituted
Hermaphrodite calyx, glume two-valved, the order Nantes. This distribution was
two-flowered, awned; corolla none; sta- made under the supposition of the carti-
mina three ; styles two; seed one; male laginous fishes being furnished both with
calyx, glume one-valved: female sessile ; lungs and gills. The supposed lungs,
calyx, glume two-valved. There are however, have been since ascertained by
five species, natives of the West Indies naturalists to be only a modification of
CHLOROSIS, in medicine, a disease the gills, and it, therefore, now appears
commonly called the green-sickness. See that this cartilaginous tribe are in reality
MEDICINE
fishes, differing principally, if not en-
CHOCOLATE is made of roasted co- tirely, from other fishes, in having a car-
coa, which being first coarsely pounded tilaginous skeleton. They differ from the
in a stone mortar, is afterwards levigated generality of other fishes, in having gills
on a slab of the finest grained marble ; destitute of bony rays, or in the gills
to this a small quantity of vanilla is add- being cartilaginous, and they are defi-
ed. The mixture is heated, sometimes cient for the most part at least of obvious
with cream, and put into tin moulds of scales, those being either very deciduous,
the size in which the cakes appear. minute, or so deeply imbedded in the
Chocolate is nutritive, and not unwhole. skin, as to be scarcely visible. In many
some, provided the stomach be active, of the cartilaginous fishes there is not
and that exercise be not neglected : it the slightest appearance of scales on the
would be less objectionable if the vanilla surface of the skin. The Chondropterigii
were omitted, that being of a very heat. genera are,
ing quality, but on it the flavour chiefly
depends. Manufactured chocolate, and Acipenser Chimæra Gastrobranchus
cocoa paste, are prohibited from impor- Petromyzor Pristis Raia
tation under severe penalties. See THE-
Squalus : which see.
OBROMA.
CHOCOLATE BROOM. A plant, from
CHORD of an arch, is a right line jain-
the seeds of which a beverage resembling ing the extremes of that arch.
chocolate is made in some parts of Penn- Chord of the complement of an arch,
sylvania. See HOLCUS BICOLOR.
the chord that subtends the rest of the
CHOIR, that part of the church or ca- arch, or so much as makes up the arch a
thedral where choristers sing divine ser. semicircle.
vice: it is separated from the chancel,
It is demonstrated in geometry, that
where the communion is celebrated ; and the radius bisecting the chord also bi-
also from the nave of the church, where sects the arch, and is perpendicular to
the people are placed ; the patron is said the chord. From hence may be deduced
to be obliged to repair the choir of the these problems: 1. To make a circle
church.
pass through any three given points, not
CHOMELIA, in botany, a genus of lying in a right line. 2. To find the cen-
the Tetrandria Monogynia class and or- tre of any circle. 3. To complete a cir-
der. Calyx four-parted ; corolla salver- cle from an arch given. 4. To describe
shaped, four-parted; drupe inferior, with a circle about any triangle given.
a two-celled nut; stigmata two, thickish. CHORDS, line of, one of the lines of the
One species, found in America.
sector and plane scale. See INSTRU-
CHONDRILLA, in botany, a genus of MENTS, mathematical.
Syngenesia Polygamia Æqualis class and CHORDS, or CORDS, in music, are
order. Natural order of Compositæ
Semi- strings, by the vibration of which the
flosculosæ. Cichoraceæ, Jussieu. Essen- sensation of sound is excited, and by the
tial character ; calyx calycled: floscules divisions of which the several degrees of
in many rows; seeds muricated; pappus tune are determined.
simple, stipitated. There are three spe- The chords of musical instruments are
cies
ordinarily made of cat-gut; though some
CHONDROPTERIGIOUS, a term ap- are made of brass or iron wire, as those
aplied by the Linnæan system to an order of harpsichords, spinnets, &c. Chords of
of fishes with cartilaginous gills. Dr. gold-wire in harpsichords would yield a
Shaw, and other naturalists, have united sound almost twice as strong as those of
the Branchiostegi and Chondropterygii brass ; and those of steel a feebler sound.
under the general title of Cartilaginei
. than those of brass, as being both less
Linnæus separated the cartilaginous from heavy and less ductile.
the other fishes, and placed them in the The rules for dividing chords so as to
CHO
CHR
constitute any given interval, are as fol- of several membranes, which on account
low : to assign such part of a chord of the multitude of their blood vessels
A B as shall constitute any concord; for resemble the chorion.
example, a fifth, or any other interval, Choroides denotes the coat of the eye
with the whole chord : divide the line placed immediately under the sclerotica.
A B into as many parts as the greatest It is very full of vessels, and coloured
number of the interval has units; thus black.
the fifth being 2 : 3, the line is divided CHORUS, in dramatic poetry, one or
into
more persons present on the stage during
С
the representation, and supposed to be
A
1
B
by-standers, without any share in the ac-
1
1
tion. Tragedy in its origin was no more
three parts : of these take as many as than a single chorus, who trod the stage
the lesser number 2= A C, then is AC alone, and without any actors, singing
the part sought; that is, two lines whose dithyrambics or hymns in honour of Bac-
lengths are to each other as A B to AC, chus. Thespis, to relieve the chorus,
make a fifth. Hence, if it be required to added an actor, who rehearsed the ad-
find several different sections of the line ventures of some of their heroes; and
A B, for instance, such as shall be octave, Æschylus, finding a single person too
fifth, or third greater; reduce the given dry an entertainment, added a second,
ratios 1:2, 2:3, and 4: 5 to one funda- at the same time reducing the singing of
mental, the series becomes 30:24, 20:15, the chorus, to make more room for the
the fundamental is 30, and the sections recitation. But when once tragedy be-
sought are 24 the third greater, 20 the gan to be formed, the recitative, which
fifth, and 15 the octave.
at first was intended only as an accessory
To divide a chord A B in the most part to give the chorus a breathing time,
simple manner, so as to exhibit all the became a principal part of the tragedy.
original concords. Divide the line into At length, however, the chorus became
two equal parts at C, and subdivide the inserted and incorporated into the action :
part C D into equal parts at D, and again sometimes it was to speak, and then their
the
part C D into equal parts at E.
chief, whom they called Coryphæus, spoke
in behalf of the rest : the singing was
с
D
performed by the whole company; so that
A
1
B when the Coryphæus struck into a song,
the chorus immediately joined him.
Here AC: A B is an octave, AC:AD
The chorus sometimes also joined the
a fifth, AD: A B a fourth, AC: AE a actors in the course of the representa-
third greater ; AE: A D a third less; tion, with their plaints and lamentations
AE: É B a sixth greater; A E: A B a on account of any unhappy accidents
sixth less.
that befel them: but the proper function,
CHORD is also used in music for tlre and that for which it seemed chiefly re-
note or tone to be touched or sounded: tained, was to show the intervals of the
in this sense the fifth is said to consist of acts: while the actors were behind the
five chords or sounds.
scenes, the chorus engaged the specta-
CHORDOSTYLUM, in botany, a ge- tors; their songs usually turned on what
nus of the Cryptogamia Fungi. Fungus was exhibited, and were not to contain
tenacious; on a very long, tough, slightly any thing but what was suited to the
branched stem; head globular, somewhat subject, and had a natural connection
deciduous, bearing the seeds. There are with it'; so that the chorus concurred
five species.
CHORION, in anatomy, the exterior tion. In the modern tragedies the cho-
with the actors for advancing the ac-
membrane which invests the fætus in the rus is laid aside, and the music supplies
uterus.
its place.
CHOROGRAPHY, the art of deline-
CHORUS, in music, is when, at certain
ating or describing some particular coun-
try or province : it differs from geography, to join the singer in repeating certain cou-
a ,
as a description of a particular country
differs from that of the whole earth , and plets or verses.
;
from topography, as a description of a CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Chris-
country differs from that of a town or tians, who derive their name from the
district.
founder, Christ, so denominated from the
CHOROIDES, in anatomy, an epithet Greek word xpiw, I anoint, from the cus-
:
.
CHRISTIANITY.
tom of anointing persons in the sacerdo- tion of the earliest manuscripts, and an
tal or regal character, as a public signal appeal to the earliest versions and ancient
of their separation to important offices. fathers. So many coroborating circum-
After the death of Jesus, his disciples stances plead in favour of the Gospel,
were for some years called Nazarenes, that I must either disturb all records, or
from Nazareth, where he was brought continue to admit the authenticity of those
up. This name afterwards became the which display the duty and hopes of a
designation of a particular sect; and we Christian."
learn from a passage in the Acts of the In reasoning upon the truth of Christi-
Apostles, that about the year 42, they anity we may appeal to its internal evi-
who adopted the principles and professed dence, and combining the doctrine and
the religion which Jesus had taught, and precepts of the system, infer from them
for the sake of which he cheerfully laid the validity of the system itself. The early
down his life, were distinguished by the triumphs of this religion furnish another
name of Christians at Antioch. Hence powerful argument in its support: espe-
the system itself is called Christianity. cially if it be remembered, that in the esti-
The foundation of a Christian's faith and mation of the world it was neither hon-
practice, his ultimate, and, in truth, his ourable, profitable, nor popular. Under
,
only appeal
, must be to the facts, the every disadvantage, and struggling under
,
doctrines, and the precepts of the Scrip- the most terrible persecution, it flourish-
tures, particularly those of the New Tes- ed, and has maintained its ground for near-
tament. ,
Other formularies, other con- ly two thousand years. Another argument
fessions of faith, from whatever motives for the truth of the Christian religion ari- .
dictated, and from whatever reasons re- ses from the completion of prophecies, of
commended, should ever be regarded which some preceded Jesus, and were
with a suspicious eye ; lest, by laying accomplished in him, and others were ut-
stress upon what is human, we should tered by him, and came to pass during
overlook that which comes recommended his life; such were the treachery of Judas,
upon divine authority. The careful rea- and the cowardice and meanness of Peter:
der of the New Testament will find a or within a few years after his crucifixion;
detail of instructions given, of wonders of this kind was the memorable destruc-
performed, and of future events revealed. tion of Jeursalem. The character of Christ,
He will also be struck with a very parti- and the miracles which he wrought, are
cular account of the sufferings, death, evidences of the divinity of his mission.
resurrection, and ascension of Jesus the On these grounds, if the question be put
founder. The history containing these “Why are you a Christian ?” the answer
"
things appears to be fairly written, and to has been given by a good writer, from
carry with it as substantial proofs of its whom we shall transcribe it. “Not be-
authenticity, as any history that has cause I was born in a Christain country,
gained credit in the world. Is the Chris- and educated in Christian principles; not
tian called upon for the reason why he because I find the illustrious Bacon, Boyle,
believes in the antiquity of the writings Locke, Clarke, and Newton, among the
,
of the New Testament ? he may reply, professors and defenders of Christianity;
“For the same reason that I believe the nor merely because the system itself is so
antiquity of Virgil's poems, Cæsar's Com- admirably calculated to mend and exalt
mentaries, or Sallust's narrations : and human nature; but because the evidence
that is, the concurring testimony of all accompanying the Gospel has convinced
intervening ages. Do any ask, "Why I me of its truth. The secondary causes,
.
believe that the several books were writ- assigned by unbelievers, do not, in my
ten by the persons whose names they judgment, account for the rise, progress,
bear? I answer, For the same reason that and early triumphs of the Christian reli-
I believe the Georgics to be the produc- gion. Upon the principles of scepticism,
tion of Virgil; Jerusalem Delivered, that I perceive an effect without an adequate
of Tasso ; Paradise Lost, that of Milton; cause. I therefore stand acquitted to my
an Essay upon the Subject of Miracles, own reason, though I continue to believe
to be the work of Hume ; and a Refuta- and profess the religion of Jesus Christ.
tion of that Essay, the performance of Arguing from effects to causes, I think I
Campbell. Do any inquire, Whether the have philosophy on my side. And reduc-
sacred pages have not been greatly cor- ed to a choice of difficulties, I encounter
rupted ? I answer, They have not been not so many, in admitting the miracles
greatly corrupted; as appears by a colla- ascribed to the Saviour, as in the arbitra-
CHR
CHR
ny suppositions and conjectures of his ene. notions concerning colour were very
ry
mies.
vague Des Cartes accounted colour a
“That there once existed such a person modification of light; and he imagined
as Jesus Christ ; that he appeared in Ju- that the difference of colour proceeds
dea in the reign of Tiberius ; that he from the prevalence of the direct or rota-
taught a system of morals superior to any tory motion of the particles of light. Gri-
inculcated in the Jewish schools; that he maldi, Dechales, and many others, ima-
was crucified at Jerusalem ; and that gined that the differences of colour de-
Pontius Pilate was the Roman governor pended upon the quick or slow vibrations
by whose sentence he was condemned of a certain elastic medium, with which
and executed; are facts which no one can the universe is filled. Rohault conceived,
reasonably cali in question. The most that the different colours were made by
inveterate Deists admit them without dif- the rays of light entering the eye at dif-
ficulty: and, indeed, to dispute these facts ferent angles with respect to the optic
would be giving the lie to all history. As axis. And Dr. Hooke imagined that co-
well might we deny the existance of Cice- lour is caused by the sensation of the ob-
ro, as that of a person by the name of Je- lique or uneven pulse of light; which be-
sus Christ. And with equal proprietying capable of no more than two varieties,
might we call in question the orations of he concluded there could be no more than
the former, as the discourses of the latter. two primary colours.
We are morally certain that the one enter- Sir Isaac Newton, in the year 1666, be-
tained the Romans with his eloquence, and gan to investigate this subject; when find-
that the other enlightened the Jews withing that the coloured image of the sun,
his wisdom. But it is unnecessary to la- formed by a glass prism, was of an oblong,
bour these points, because they are gene- and not of a circular form, as, according
rally conceded. They who affect to des- to the laws of equal refraction, it ought
pise the Evangelists and Apostles profess to be, he conjectured that light is not ho-
to reverence Tacitus, Suetonius, and Pliny. mogeneal; but that it consists of rays of
And these eminent Romans bear testimo- different colours, and endued with divers
ny to several particulars which relate to degrees of refrangibility. And, from a
the person of Jesus Christ, bis influence farther prosecution of his experiments, he
as the founder of a sect, and his cruci. concluded that the different colours of bo-
fixion. From a deference to human autho- dies arise from their reflecting this or that
rity, all therefore acknowledge that the kind of rays most copiously This me-
Christian religion derived its name from thod of accounting for the different co-
Jesus Christ. And many among the Deists lours of bodies soon became generally
are so just to its merits, as to admit that adopted, and still continues to be the most
he taught better than Confucius, and prac- prevailing opinion It is hence agreed
tised better than Socrates or Plato. that the light of the sun, which to us
“To come then to the question: Why seems white and perfectly homogeneal, is
are you a Christian? I answer, Because composed of no fewer than seven differ-
the Christian religion carries with it inter- ent colours, viz. red, orange, yellow,
nal marks of its truth; because not only green, blue, purple, and violet or indigo:
without the aid, but in opposition to the that a body which appears of a red colour
civil authority, in opposon to the wit, has the property of reflecting the red rays
the argument, and violence of its enemies, more plentifully than the rest; and so of
it made its way, and gained an establish- the other colours, the orange, yellow,
ment in the world; because it exhibits the green, &c : also that a body which appears
accomplishment of some prophecies, and black, instead of reflecting, absorbs all or
presents others which have been since the most part of the rays that fall upon it;
fulfilled; and because its author displayed while, on the contrary, a body which ap.
an example, and performed works, which pears white, reflects the greater part of all
bespeak not merely a superior but a di- the rays indiscriminately, without separa-
vine character. Upon these several facts ting them one from another.
I ground my belief as a Christian. And, The foundation of a rational theory of
till the evidence on which they rest can colours being thus laid, the next inquiry
be invalidated by counter evidence, I must was, by what peculiar mechanisn, in the
retain my principles and my profession.” structure of each particular body, it was
CHROMATICS, is that part of optics fitted to reflect one kind of rays more
which explains the several properties of than another, and this is attributed by
the colours of light, and of natural bodies. Sir I. Newton to the density of these bo-
Before the time of Sir Isaac Newton, the dies. Dr. Hooke had remarked, that thin
CHROMATICS.
transparent substances, particularly soap- appears of this or that colour, just as the
water blown into bubbles, exhibited vari- rings of colours appeared different in the
ous colours, according to their thinness; experiment of the two plates, according
and yet, when they have a considerable to their distance from one another, or the
degree of thickness, they appear colour. thickness of the plate of air between them.
less. And Sir Isaac himself had observ- This theory of the colours has been il-
ed, that as he was compressing two lustrated and confirmed by various expe-
prisms hard together, in order to make riments, made by other philosophers.
their sides (which happened to be a little Mr. Delaval produced similar effects by
convex) to touch one another, in the place the infusions of flowers of different co-
of contact they were both perfectly trans- lours, and by the intimate mixture of the
parent, as if they had been but one con- metals with the substance of glass, when
tinued piece of glass : but round the point they are reduced to very fine parts; the
of contact, where the glasses were a little more dense metals imparting to the
separated from each other, rings of differ- glass the less refrangible colours, and the
ent colours appeared. And when he af- lighter ones those colours that are more
terwards, farther to elucidate this matter, easily refrangible. Dr. Priestley and Mr.
employed two convex glasses of teles. Canton also, by laying very thin leaves or
copes, pressing their convex sides upon slips of the metals upon glass, ivory,
one another, he observed several series of wood, or metal, and passing an electrical
circles or rings of such colours, different, stroke through them, found that the
and of various intensities, according to same effect was produced, viz. that they
their distance from the common central were tinged with different colours, ac-
pellucid point of contact.
cording to the distance from the point of
As the colours were thus found to vary explosion.
according to the different distances be- Mr. Delaval has given also an account
tween the glass plates, Sir Isaac conceiv- of some experiments made upon the per-
ed that they proceeded from the different manent colours of opaque subswices,
thickness of the plate of air intercepted which may prove of great importance in
between the glasses ; this plate of air be the arts of dying, &c.
ing, by the mere circumstance of thinness The changes of colour in permanently
or thickness, disposed to reflect or trans. coloured bodies, he observes, are pro-
mit the rays of this or that particular co- duced by the same laws that take place
lour. Hence, therefore, he concluded, in transparent colourless substances; and
that the colours of all natural bodies de the experiments by which they are inves-
pend on their density, or the magnitude tigated consist chiefly of various methods
of their component particles : and hence of uniting the colouring particles into
also he constructed a table, in which the larger masses, or dividing them into
thickness of a plate necessary to reflect smaller ones. Sir Isaac Newton made his
any particular colour was expressed in the experiments chiefly on transparent sub-
millionth parts of an inch.
stances; and in the few places where he
From a great variety of such experi- treats of others, he acknowledges his
ments, and
observations upon them, our want of experiments. He makes the fol-
author deduced his theory of colours. lowing remark, however, on those bo-
And hence it seems that every substance dies which reflect one kind of light and
in nature is transparent, provided it be transmit another, viz. that if these
glasses
made sufficiently thin ; as gold, the den. or liquors were so thick and massy that
sest substance we know of, when reduc. no light could get through them, he ques-
ed into thin leaves, transmits a bluish tioned whether they would not, like
green light through it. If we suppose any
other opaque bodies, appear of one and
body, therefore, as gold, for instance, to the same colour in all positions of the
be divided into a vast number of plates, eye; though he could not yet affirm it
so thin as to be almost perfectly transpa- nion of this great philosopher, that all
from experience. Indeed it was the opi-
rent; it is evident that all, or the great nion of this great philosopher, that all
est part of the rays, will pass through the coloured matter reflects the rays of light;
upper plates, and when they lose their some reflecting the more refrangible
force, will be reflected from the under rays most copiously, and others those
ones. They will then have the same num- the true and only reason of these colours.
that are less so; and that this is at once
ber of plates to pass through which they He was likewise of opinion that opaque
had penetrated before; and thus, accord bodies reflect the light from their ante-
ing to the number of those plates through rior surface, by some power of the body
which they are obliged to pass, the object
VOL. I.
evenly diffused over and external to it.
z
CHR
CHR
With respect to transparent coloured bo- frangible producing red; and that which
dies, he thus expresses himself: “A is the most refrangible violet. 6. By cor-
transparent body, which looks of any co- pounding any two of the primary, as red
lour by transmitted light, may also look and yellow, or yellow and blue, the inter-
of the same colour by reflected light; mediate colour, orange or green, may be
the light of that colour being reflected by produced. 7. The colours of bodies
the farther surface of that body, or by arise from their dispositions to reflect one
the air beyond it: and then the reflected sort of rays and to absorb the others :
* colour will be diminished, and perhaps those that reflect the least refrangible
cease, by making the body very thick, rays appearing red, and those that reflect
and pitching it on the back side to dimi- the most refrangible violet. 8. Such bo-
nish the reflection of its farther surface, dies as reflect two or more sorts of rays,
so that the light reflected from the ting- appear of various colours. 9. The white-
ing particles may predominate. In such ness of bodies arises from their disposi-
cases the colour of the reflected light will tion to reflect all the rays of light pro-
be apt to vary from that of the light miscuously. 10. The blackness of bo-
transmitted."
dies proceeds from their incapacity to
To search out the truth of these opi- reflect any of the rays of light. And.
nions, Mr. Delaval entered upon a course from their thus absorbing all the rays
of experiments with transparent colour- of light that are thrown upon them, it
ed liquors and glasses, as well as with arises, that black bodies, when exposed
opaque and semitransparent bodies. And to the sun, become hot sooner than all
from these experiments he discovered others.
several remarkable properties of the co- Sir Isaac Newton, in the course of his
louring matter; particularly, that in trans- investigations of the properties of light,
parent coloured substances it does not re- discovered that the lengths of the spaces
Hect any light: and when, by intercept- occupied in the spectrum by the seven
ing the light which was transmitted, it is primary colours exactly correspond to
hindered from passing through such sub- the lengths of chords that sound the se-
stances, they do not vary from their for- ven notes in the diatonic scale of music;
mer colour to any other, but become en- which is made evident by an experiment.
tirely black
On a paper, or other fit substance, in a
This incapacity of the colouring par- darkened room, let a ray of light be re-
ticles of transparent bodies to reflect fracted by means of a prism into a spec-
light, being deduced from very numerous trum of some size, marking upon it the
experiments, may therefore be taken as precise boundaries of the several colours:
a general law. It will appear the more and it will be found that the spaces by
extensive if it be considered that, for the which the several colours are bounded,
most part, the tinging particles of liquors, viz. the space containing the red, that
or other transparent substances, are ex- containing the orange, yellow, &c. will
tracted from opaque bodies; that the be in exact proportion to the divisions
opaque bodies owe their colours to those of a musical chord for the notes of an och
particles in like manner as the trans- tave; that is, as the intervals of these; 1;
parent substances do; and that by the S1 }; ; 16; 2. See Colours,OF-
Or-
9613' 5
loss of them they are deprived of their TICS, &c.
colours.
CHROME, a metal discovered by Vau-
Notwithstanding these and many other quelin. It exists in the state of an acid,
experiments, the theory of colour seems combined with oxide of lead, in a beauti-
not yet determined with certainty. The ful mineral named red lead, found in Si-
discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, however, beria, and with regard to which very dis-
are sufficient to justify the following cordant analyses had been given by dif-
aphorisms.
ferent chemists. Vauquelin reduced the
1. All the colours in nature arise from metallic acid which he discovered in it to
the rays of light. 2. There are seven the metallic state, and his researches have
primary colours ; namely, red, orange, been confirmed by those of Klaproth and
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Gmelin. It derives its name from the
3. Every ray of light may be separated splendid and numerous colours which it
into these seven primary colours. 4. The presents in its saline combinations. It
rays of light, in passing through the same has since been discovered in various mi-
medium, have different degrees of renerals. The native chromate of lead, or
frangibility. 5. The difference in the co- the red lead of Siberia, is generally crys-
lours of light arises from its different re- tallized in oblique tetrahedral prisms. Its
frangibility; that which is the least re- colour is a fine aurora red; its lustre
.
CHR
CHR
shining, and intermediate between ada- not meht. When fused by having been
mantine and resinous; the crystals are exposed to the intense heat necessary to
translucid; the fracture is uneven; the its reduction, it presents crystalline fila-
specific gravity 6.0269. It decrepitates ments, which rise above the metallic
before the blow-pipe, and melts into a mass, Chrome is not easily acted on by
blackish scoria. It colours borax green the acids. Even when reduced to a fine
by fusion. According to Vauquelin, it is powder, and treated with concentrated
composed of 57.10 of lead, 6.86 of oxy. boiling nitric acid, it is oxydized with
gen, and 36.04 of chromic acid. There much difficulty, and communicates to the
is found with the chromate of lead, a mi- acid only a green tinge.
neral of a green colour in minute crys- Chrome, in the state of acid, appears
tals, which Vauquelin found to be com- to be more susceptible of combination,
posed of the oxides of chrome and lead, and this acid being obtained without dif-
and which, as he conjectures, has proba,ficulty from its native combinations, its
bly originated in the decomposition of the chemical relations have been more ex-
perfect chromate, from some process by amined. Chromic acid is very soluble in
which part of its oxygen has been ab- water; the taste of the solution is sharp
stracted.
and metallic ; it is of an orang-e-red co-
Native chromate of iron has more late- lour ; by evaporation, either spontaneous
ly been found in the department of Var or with a gentle heat, it affords crystalą
in France, and likewise in Siberia. This in long slender prisms, of a ruby-red
mineral is massive, of a blackish brown colour. This acid combines with the
colour, with no great lustre, and opaque; alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides,
its fracture is uneven, and it is hard and forming neutral salts, which are named
difficult to break; its specific gravity is chromates.
4.0. It is scarcely fusible before the The combinations of this acid with me.
blow-pipe, but with borax it melts into a tallic oxides are in general possessed of
glass of a fine green colour. According very beautiful colours, and are well
to an accurate analysis of it, it consists of adapted to form the finest paints. That
63.6 of chromic acid, or perhaps rather with oxide of lead has an orange yellow,
oxide of chrome, and 36 of oxide of iron, of various shade; that with mercury, a
Chrome has been also found in smaller vermillion red; with silver, a carmine
quantities in other minerals, particularly red; with zinc and bismuth, the colours
in some gems, of which it appears to be are yellow; with copper, cobalt, and an
the colouring principle. It exists in the timony, they are dull.
emerald, in the state of green oxide, CHRONOLOGY, is that science which
and in the spinal ruby, in the state of relates to time, treats of the division of it
acid.
into certain portions, as days, months,
Vauquelin extracted the metal from years, centuries, and the application of
the red lead ore, by adding to it muriatic these portions, under various forms and
acid, which combines with the oxide of combinations, as cycles, æras, &c. to the
lead, and forms a compound that is pre- elucidation of history. What is proposed
cipitated, the chromic acid remaining in in the present article is, to point out the
solution. To abstract a little muriatic chief methods by which the several por-
acid combined with it, oxide of silver is tions of time have been computed, and
cautiously added, and the pure chromic in which they have been employed in as-
acid being decanted from the precipitate certaining the connection, and determin-
of muriate of silver, and evaporated, is ing the dates, of past transactions,
exposed to a very strong heat, excited The divisions of time which most pro-
by a forge, in a crucible of charcoal, bably first attracted the notice of man.
placed within another of porcelain. It kind, as most obvious to their senses,
is thus reduced to the metallic state. It were those marked by the revolutions of
is to this chemist that we are indebted, the heavenly bodies, days, lunar months,
principally, for a knowledge of its pro- and years : and if these had correspond-
perties.
ed so exactly to each other, that every
Chrome is of a white colour, inclining lunation had consisted uniformly of the
to grey: it is very brittle ; its fracture same number of days, and each year of a
presents a radiated appearance, needles regular number of complete lunations,
crossing in different directions with in the business of chronology would have
terstices between them. Its other physi- been attended with comparatively little
cal qualities have not been determined. difficulty. In consequence, however, of
This metal is difficult of fusion. Expos- variations in the revolutions of the earth,
ed to the heat of the blow-pipe, it does which it is not requisite here to explain,
CHRONOLOGY.
a
it has become necessary to adjust these of ten days each : the Northern Chinese
periods to each other by certain artificial had a week of fifteen days, and the Mexi-
divisions. Of these divisions,
cans one of thirteen. But the Chaldæans,
The Day claims our first notice. In and most other Oriental nations, have,
common speech, a day means that period from time immemorial, used the Jewish
of time which is included between the week of seven days, which has been
first appearance of light in the morning, adopted by the Mahommedans, and in-
and the return of darkness in the evening, troduced, with christianity, to most of
or during which the sun is visible above the civilized nations of the world. In
the horizon. But the word is used, in a the Old Testament the term week is oc-
more comprehensive sense, to denote the casionally applied to a period of seven
time of a complete revolution of the years, as well as of seven days; and to
earth round its axis. The former has this it is necessary to attend, in order to
been denominated a natural, the latter a understand the passages wherein the
civil, and sometimes a solar, day. The word is used in that sense.
beginning of the day has been variously The Month. There can be little doubt,
reckoned by different nations. The Chal- but that this division of time was at first
dæans, Syrians, Persians, and Indians, suggested by the phases, or the periodi-
reckoned the day to commence at sun- cal change in the appearances of the
rise. The Jews, also, used this method moon, and, consequently, that in ancient
for their civil, but began the sacred day computations the months were invariably
at sun-set: this latter mode was used lunar. The difficulty, however, of ad-
likewise by the Athenians, the Arabs, justing this month to the annual revolu-
the ancient Gauls, and some other Euro- tion of the earth, led, with the improve-
pean nations. The Egyptians appear to ment of astronomy, to the invention of
have had several methods of reckoning other divisions under this name. Months
their day ; probably the mode varied in are now divided into astronomical and
different parts of the country, and in the civil. The astronomical months, with
same place at different periods. The an- which chronology is concerned, are mea-
cient inhabitants of Italy computed the sured by the revolutions of the moon,
day from midnight, and in this they have and are either periodical or synodical.
been followed by the English, French, The periodical lunar month is composed
Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, and Portu- of the time which elapses between the
guese; modern astronomers, after the departure of the moon from any part of
Arabians, count the day from noon. her orbit, and her return to the same
The day was subdivided by the Jews point, which is 27 days, 7 hours, and 43
and Romans into four parts, which they minutes. The synodical lunar month is
denominated watches or vigils; the first reckoned from one conjunction of the
commenced at six in the morning, the sun with the moon to another. This pe-
second at nine, the third at twelve, and riod is not always the same, being sub-
the fourth at three in the afternoon. The ject to the variation occasioned by the
beginning of the first watch was, by the motion of the sun eastward on the eclip-
Jews, called the third hour, and so on tic: a mean lunation consists of 29 days,
in succession to the fourth watch, which 12 hours, and 44 minutes. This was the
was reckoned the twelfth hour. The lunar month mostly in use in ancient
night was divided in a similar manner. times. The civil month is that artificial
Other modes of dividing the day have space of time, by means of which the
been in use among different nations; but solar year is divided into twelve parts:
that which is now most general in civi- these months, which were first ordained
Lized countries is into 24 equal parts by Julius Cæsar, consist of thirty, or thir-
or hours. With respect to the different ty-one days each, with the exception of
inventions which have been used for mea- February, which commonly contains
suring or distinguishing the hours of the twenty-eight, and every fourth year
day, we refer to the articles CLEPSYDRA, twenty-nine, days.
CLOCK, SUN-DIAL, &c.
Years. The year may be termed the
The Week, is a division of time, of which largest natural division of time.
it may be proper to take some notice be- diurnal revolution of the earth would na-
fore we proceed to the month. Various turally lead to the division into days, and
divisions which might be included under the phases of the moon, with a little at-
this denomination have obtained in dif- tention, to that into months, so the an-
ferent countries. The earlier Greeks nual motion of the earth round the sun,
divided their month into three portions, which would be marked by the periodi
CHRONOLOGY.
cal return of certain appearances, sea- lary days was committed, the year was
sons, &c. would in due course lead to the reduced to such disorder in the time of
adoption of this larger division. At Julius Cæsar, that the winter months had
what time this took place is uncertain, fallen back to the autumn. To restore
but probably not before considerable ad- them to their proper season, Cæsar
vances had been made in astronomical formed a year of 445 days, which has
science. It was long, however, after its been styled the year of confusion. With
first adoption, before it attained to any the assistance of Sosigenes, a mathemati-
thing like an accurate form, The cian of Alexandria, he afterwards, in the
most ancient measure of the year of year B. C. 45, instituted a solar year of
which we know, consisted of twelve lu- 365 days 6 hours, which is now known
nar months, which, for the facility of under the name of the Julian year. To
computation, being all considered as adjust this year to the annual revolution
equal in length, and to contain thirty days of the earth, which is six hours and
each, amounted to 360 days. It is conjec- some minutes more than 365 days, the
tured that this gave rise to the division of length of the ordinary year, a day was
the ecliptic, which still obtains, into 360 appointed to be intercalated every fourth
equal parts or degrees.
year in the month of February : this day,
This luni-solar year probably had its from its position in the Roman calendar,
rise in Chaldæa, or Egypt; we learn, at was called bissextile, a name which has
least, from the testimony of Herodotus, also been given to the year in which the
that it was used in the latter country. intercalation takes place.
Hence, with the diffusion of science, it was The Julian year, although it approach-
carried into other regions, and very gene- es very near the truth, is not, however,
rally adopted. It was early in use among perfectly correct. The true time of the
the Indians, Chinese, the Medes, and Per- annual revolution of the sun in the eclip-
sians, and the ancient Greeks. Its measure tic is 365 days, 5 hours, and nearly 49
being, however, inaccurate, containing minutes, which falls short by a few mi.
five days and a quarter more than the lu- nutes of the time assumed in the Julian
nar, and as much less than the true solar year. How trilling soever this difference
year, and this defect becoming every year might at first appear, it amounted in a
more perceptible from the retrocession hundred and thirty-one years to a whole
of the seasons, &c. it was soon consider day: in consequence of this, the vernal
ed necessary to subject it to some revi- equinox, which Sosigenes, in the first
sion. The Thebans are supposed to have year of the Julian correction, observed to
been the first who undertook its correc- fall on the 25th of March, had gone back
tion, by making an annual addition of in A. D. 325, at the time of the council
five days to the luni-solar year. Thales of Nice, to the 21st, and in A. D. 1582,
introduced this improvement into the an- to the 11th of March. To remedy this
cient Grecian year, and it was adopted, growing defect, Pope Gregory XIII.
with some trifling variations in particular caused the calendar to undergo another
instances, into the Indian, the Chinese, correction. In A. D. 1580, he ordered
and the Jewish year.
ten days to be cut out of the month of
The Roman year, as regulated by Ro- October, so that the fourth was reckoned
mulus, and afterwards reformed by his the 15th day : and to prevent such retro-
successor Numa, was reckoned by lunar cession in future, in addition to the Ju-
months, and adjusted to the seasons by lian regulation with respect to the bissex-
a number of intercalary days. It consist- tile year, he ordained that the years
ed of ten lunar months, of which Decem- 1600, 2000, 2400, and every fourth cen-
ber was the last, and to these two whole tury in succession, should have an inter-
intercalary months were added, but not calation of a day, but that in the other
inserted in the calendar. This year be- centuries 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, &c.
gan at first in March; but the Decemviri, the day should be omitted, and those
who undertook its reformation, changed years remain common years. This re-
the order of the months into that in which gulation comes so near the truth, that the
they now stand, introduced the two in- only correction it will require will be
tercalary months, January and February, the suppression of a day and a half in five
into the calendar, and made January the thousand years.
first month of the year.
The Gregorian year, or, as it is vulgar-
Owing to the ignorance, or the care- ly called, the new style, was immediately
lessness, of the Pontifices Maximi, to adopted in Spain, Portugal, and part of
whose care the regulation of the interca. Italy. It was introduced into France in
:
CHRONOLOGY.
October of the same year, the tenth of at Olympia, in Peloponnesus. These
which month was, by an ordinance of games were instituted in honour of Ju:
Henry III. reckoned the twentieth day. piter, but at what time, or by whom, is
In Germany
it was adopted by the Catho- not known. After they had been ne.
lic states in 1583, but the Protestant glected and discontinued for some time,
states adhered to the old calendar until they were restored by Iphitus, King of
the year 1700. Denmark also adopted Elis, in the year B. C.776; and it is from
it about this period, and Sweden in this date that the olympiads are reckon-
1753. It was not used in England before ed in chronology,
1752, when, by act of parliament, the Cycles are fixed intervals of time, com-
style was changed, and the third of Sep- posed of the successive revolutions of a
tember was reckoned the fourteenth, the certain number of years. The lustra and
difference having by this time increased the olympiads may perhaps be included
to eleven days. Russia is the only coun- under this name, but the term is more
try in Europe in which the old mode of commonly appropriated to larger inter-
Teckoning is still in use.
vals, connected with the periodical re-
The want of some specific standard, turn of certain circumstances and appear-
which could be regarded as common to ances. The great use made of cycles in
all nations, has occasioned great diversity chronology requires that they be parti:
in different countries in fixing the be- cularly noticed
ginning of the year. The Chaldæans and From the defective nature of the
Egyptians reckoned their years from the Greek calendar, the olympic year, as it
autumnal equinox. The Jews also reck. has been called, was subject to consider- .
oned their civil year from this period, able variation; and, from the retroces-
but began their ecclesiastical year in the sion of the months which it occasioned,
spring Gemschid, the King of Persia, producing a gradual change of the sea-
ordered the year in that country to com- sons when the games were to be cele-
mence at the vernal equinox. In Sweden brated, led to much inconvenience.
the year formerly commenced at the Cleostrates, a mathematician of Tene-
winter solstice. The Greeks used differ- dos, endeavoured to give it a more per-
ent methods, some of the states begin- fect form, by inventing a cycle of eight
ning the year at the vernal, others at the years: this, however, being computed by
autumnal equinox, and some at the sum- lunar years, still left the calendar subject
mer solstice. The Roman year at one to great inaccuracies. To rectify these,
time began in March, but afterwards was Meton, a mathematician of great celebri-
made to commence in January. The new ty, invented-
year's day of the Church of Rome is fix- The Lunar Cycle, a period of nineteen
ed on the Sunday nearest the full moon solar years, at the end of which interval
of the vernal equinox. In England, the the sun and moon return to very nearly
year began in March until A. D. 1752, the same part of the heavens. This im
when the act of parliament which altered provement was at the time received with
the style ordained it to commence on the universal approbation; but not being
first of January
perfectly accurate, was afterwards cor-
Having thus given a short account of rected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by
the lunar and solar years, which have Calippus, whose improvements modern
been mostly in use, and an acquaintance astronomers have adopted.
with which is of most consequence in The use of this cycle was discontinued
chronology, it will be proper just to no- when the games, for the regulation of
tice some combinations of years which are which it was composed, ceased to be
mentioned in ancient history, and there celebrated. The Council of Nice, how-
fore proper to be known.
ever, wishing to establish some method
Lustra. The Romans sometimes reck for adjusting the new and full moons to
oned by lustra, a period of five years, the course of the sun, with the view of
which derived its name from a census determining the time of Easter, adopted
instituted by Servius Tullius, which was it as the best adapted to answer the pur-
to be paid by the Roman people every pose : and from its great utility, they
caused the numbers of it to be writ.
The Olympiads were, however, the ten on the calendar in golden letters,
most remarkable of these combinations. which has obtained for it the name of
They consisted of four Grecian years, the golden number. The golden number,
and derived their names from the pub- for any year is found as follows:-
The
lic games celebrated every fourth year first year of the Christian æra corresponds
fifth year.
CHRONOLOGY.
to the second of this cycle; if then to a throw the dominical letter of the follow:
given year of this æra one be added, and ing year back two letters; so that, as in
the sum be divided by 19, the quotient the present year (1808), if the dominical
will denote the number of cycles which letter at the beginning of the year be C,
have revolved since the commencement the dominical letter of the next year will
of the Christian æra, and the remainder be, not B, but A. This alteration is not
will be the golden number for the given effected by dropping a letter altogether,
year. e. g. If the golden number of the but by changing the dominical letter at
present year (1808) be required, one be- the end of February, where the interca-
ing added, the sum will be 1809; this be- lation of a day takes place. Thus, in the
ing divided by 19, will give 95 for the present year, C is the dominical letter in
quotient and 4 for the remainder, or January and February, but B is substi-
golden number sought.
tuted for it in March, and continues to
The Solar Cycle is another of these pe- mainder of the year. In consequence
be the dominical letter through the re-
riods, the inventor of which is at present of this change every fourth year, twenty-
, ,
years, at the expiration of which the sun eight years must elapse before a com-
returns to the sign and degree of the plete revolution can take place in the
ecliptic which he had occupied at the dominical letter, and it is on this circum-
conclusion of the preceding period, and stance that the period of the solar cycle
the days of the week correspond to the is founded. A table constructed to shew
same days of the month as at that time. the dominical letters for any given years
It is used to determine the Sunday, or
of one of these cycles, will answer for the
dominical, letter, which we shall briefly corresponding years in every successive
explain.
cycle. The first year of the Christian
In our present calendars the days of æra corresponds to the ninth of this cy-
the week are distinguished by the first cle: if, therefore, to any given year of
seven letters of the alphabet : A, B, C, the Christian æra nine be added, and the
C
D, E, F, G; and the rule for applying sum be divided by 28, the quotient will
these letters is, invariably, to put A for denote the number of the revolutions of
the first day of the year whatever it be, the remainder will be the year of the cy-
the cycle since the ninth year B. C. and
B the ,
the seventh. Should the first of January of the cycle will be the last, or twenty-
cle. If there be no remainder, the year
be Sunday, the dominical, or Sunday, let-
ter for that year will be A, the Monday eight. e. g. Nine being added to 1808,
letter B, &c. and as the number of the makes 1817; this sum being divided by
letters is the same as that of the days of 28, gives a quotient of 64 for the revolu-
the week, A will fall on every Sunday, Btions of the cycle, and a remainder of 25
,
on every Monday, &c. throughout the for the year of the cycle. There is ano-
year. Had the year consisted of 364 days, ther cycle in use, called
making an exact number of weeks, it is The Cycle of Indietion. It consists of
obvious that A would always have stood fifteen years, and is derived from the Ro-
for the dominical letter: the year con- mans. Learned men are not agreed as to
taining, however, one day more, it follows the origin of it, but the most probable opi-
that the dominical letter of the succeeding nion is, that the return of this period was
year will be G.
For Sunday being the appointed for the payment of some public
first day of the preceding year will be taxes or tributes. The first year of this
also the last, and the first Sunday in the cycle is made to correspond to the year
next year will fall on the seventh day, 3 B C. If therefore to any given year of
and will be marked by the seventh letter, the Christian æra 3 be added, and the sum
or G. This retrocession of the letters be divided by 15, the remainder will be
will, from the same cause, continue the year of this cycle. There is however
every year, so as to make F the domini- another mode of calculating it. This cycle
cal letter of the third, &c. If every year was established by Constantine A.D. 312;
were common, the process would conti- if therefore from the given year of the
nue regularly, and a cycle of seven years Christian æra 312 be subtracted, and the
would suffice to restore the same letters remainder be divided by 15, the year of
to the same days as before. But the in- this cycle will be obtained. In either of
tercalation of a day, every bissextile or these ways, if there be no remainder, the
fourth
year, has occasioned a variation in indiction will be 15. We subjoin an ex-
this respect. The bissextile year con- ample calculated by each of the methods
taining 366, instead of 365 days, will above specified.
CHRONOLOGY.
1808
1808 of the Christian ara as the standard of
3
312
time. Any events or æras, prior or sub-
sequent to its commencement, may easily
15) 1811(120
15)1496(99 be computed by it, and the date of them
15
135 be impressed in the memory with very
little exertion or difficulty.
31
146 It remains that we give some account of
30
135
Epochs and Æras, terms which con-
stantly recur in history, and the elucida-
11 Şthe indiction for the
11 tion of which belongs to the province of
present year.
chronology. An epoch is a certain points
generally determined by some remarka-
The Julian Period, some acquaintance ble event, from which time is reckoned;
with which is indispensable in the study and the years computed from that period
of chronology, will be easily understood are denominated an æra. The birth of
from the preceding account of the cycles. Christ is considered as an epoch-the
It is formed by the combination of the years reckoned from that event are called
three, by multiplying the numbers 28, 19, the Christian ära.
and 15, of the cycles of the sun, moon, In sacred chronology the first and most
and indiction, into each other. The total remarkable epoch is that of the creation
of years thus produced is 7980, of which of the world. As learned men could not
the Julian period consists, at the expira- agree as to the precise time when this
tion of which, and not sooner, the first took place, the folly of reckoning from it
years of each of those cycles will again as a standard soon became apparent, and
come together. This period was invented the practice was in consequence aban-
by Joseph Scaliger, as one by which all doned. Archbishop Usher, whose scrip-
æras, epochs, and computations of time, ture chronology is adopted in our Eng.
might readily be adjusted The first year lish Bibles, fixes this event in the year
of the Christian æra corresponds to the 4004 before Christ. Playfair places it in
4714th of the Julian period, and it extends 4007.
as far back as 706 years beyond the com- The universal deluge forms another
mon date of the creation 4004. The year epoch, this is placed by Usher in the year
of the Julian period, corresponding with B. C. 2349. A third sacred epoch is the
any given year before or since the com- call of Abraham, which happened, accord.
mencement of the Christian æra, maying to the same learned authority, B. C.
easily be found by the following rule. 1921. The next epoch is the departure
If the year required be of the latter of the Israelites from Egypt, which Usher
kind, add to it 4713, the number of years places B. C. 1491.
of the Julian period elapsed before the In profane history we shall first notice
Christian æra, and the sum will be the the epoch of the Argonautic expedition,
year required. If it be of the former, an event much celebrated in ancient his
subtract the year B. C. from 4714, and the tory, and of some importance in chrono.
difference will give it.
logical discussion, from being adopted by
This period has been esteemed by many Sir Isaac Newton as the foundation of his
to be of the highest importance in chro- system of chronology. The date of this
nology, as affording a common standard transaction has been placed in the year
for the adjustment of different epochs. 1225 B. C. but in this chronologers are
Modern chronologers are not however so not agreed.
warm in their admiration of it as their The destruction of Troy forms another
predecessors have been. A common remarkable epoch. Considerable uncer-
standard is unquestionably of the highest tainty prevails as to the exact time when
consequence in the comparison of dates this event as well as the preceding took
and æras, and in the general arrangement place, Playfair fixes it in the year B. C.
and division of time, and from its great 1184.
utility, and the necessity of its frequent The æra of the Olympiads we have no.
application, it is of importance that it ticed above, and it will be unnecessary to
should be as simple as possible in its na. give any farther account of it here. The
ture and construction. The Julian period epoch of the building of Rome is the next
is liable to objection on the latter score, that claims our attention. From the total
as being rather complicated in its forma- want of early records, and other necessa-
tion; and its necessity is now altogether ry documents for deciding the question,
superseded by the very general adoption the date of this event is involved in the
CHRONOLOGY.
obscurity common to many other remote The uncertainty which exists upon this
occurrences. The Roman writers them- point arises from the æra not baving been
selves, and all who have followed them used until so many centuries had elapsed,
on the subject, differ widely respecting that it was impossible to fix the date with
it. Polybius fixes it in the year B. Č. accuracy. This is, however, of very little
751. Cato, and others, one year earlier. consequence in the application of this
Terentius Varro places it in 753 B. C. æra to chronological purposes, for all are
Fabius Pictor, who is followed by Diodo- agreed as to the numerical date of every
rus Siculus, assigns it to 747 B. C Sir year, the year 1808 for instance being
Isaac Newton adopts the year 627 B. C. universally received as the year 1808 of
and Playfair, after Varro, whose computa- the Christian æra, although probably not
tion was used by the Roman Emperors the exact measure of the time which has
in their public instruments, places it in elapsed from the birth of Christ. This
the year B. C. 753. Great use is made æra was invented about the year 527 by
of this epoch in the histories of ancient Dionysius, a Roman abbot, who reckon-
Rome, and the historical student will ed the first year of it to correspond with
do well to ascertain, if possible, what opi. the 4714th of the Julian period. It may
nion the author he may be perusing be useful to give the reader a view of the
adopts, and to what year of the Christian years of the other principal æras which
æra the first year of Rome, according to correspond to the first of this : according
his author, corresponds. The dates of to Playfair, (who, it is to be observed,
the events will by this method be accu- differs in many respects from other chro-
rately ascertained as he proceeds. The nologers, but is nevertheless a most re-
Romans sometimes reckoned the year spectable authority) these are the 4008th
from the establishment of the consular year of the world, the first year of the
dignity, and afterwards from the years of 195th Olympiad, the 754th year of Rome,
the Emperors.
the 749th of the Nabonassarean æra, the
The æra of Nabonassar is another of 313th of the Seleucidæ, the 46th Julian
those standards by which the dates of year, and the 39th of the Spanish æra.
events in some histories are regulated. The æra of Dioclesian was used pretty
Nabonassar was the founder of the Ba- generally by the Christians previous to
bylonish monarchy. This æra is reckoned the invention of the Christian æra. It is
from the commencement of his reign, dated from the year A. D. 284, and
which is placed in the year B. C. 747, of probably took its rise from the persecu-
the Julian period 3967, and extends as tion under that Emperor, although its
far down as the death of Alexander. The date is computed from the first year of
Nabonassarean year consists of 12 months his reign.
of 30 days each, and five intercalary days, The Hegira, which may be called the
making in all 365 days.
Mohammedan æra, is founaed upon the
The æra of the Seleucidæ, or, as it is flight of Mohammed fror Mecca to Me-
sometimes called, the year of the con- dina, to escape the persecution of his ene-
tracts, is reckoned from the establish- mies, and is computed by his followers
ment of Seleucus, one of Alexander's from A, D, 622. The beginning of their
generals, after that conqueror's death, in year is however made to correspond with
the empire of Babylon, and is reckoned the 16th day of July. In comparing any
from the year B. C. 312. It is generally year of this æja, therefore, with the cor-
supposed to have begun in the spring. responding year of the Christian æra, it
It was used in a large district of Asia, will be necessary to bear this in mind be.
and adopted by the Jews.
fore it can be done with accuracy. The
The Spanish æra, founded on a division same may also be observed with regard
of the Roman provinces, among the Tri- to some of the other æras, the beginnings
umviri, was long in use in Spain and Af of the years of which do not exactly cor-
rica, and was adopted in the dates of the respond with that of the Julian year,
principal councils and synods held in those The Persian æra, or the æra of Yezde.
countries. It is reckoned from the first jerd, is the last we shall notice. Yezdejerd
of January B.C.38. This was afterwards was the last of the Persian monarchs who
superseded by
was subdued by the Saracens. Accord-
The Christian æra. Learned men have ing to the opinion of the most reputable
differed in opinion with respect to the modern chronologers, this æra commenc.
exact time of the birth of Christ, some ed in June A. D. 632, corresponding with
placing it four, others seven, years earlier the beginning of the eleventh year of the
than the first year of the Christian æra. Hegira, and with the first year of the
VOL. II.
Аа
CHR
CHR
reign of Yezdejerd. The years of this æra, that this town lies more easterly than
like the Nabonassarean, consists of 12 Greenwich ; and as 2 hours are in pro-
months of 30 days, with an addition of portion to 24 hours, so is 360°, the earth's
5 intercalary days at the end, making in circumference, to 30°, the longitude of
all 365 days.
St. Petersburgh, reckoned from Green-
The limits of our plan will not allow us wich. Upon the same principle it is that
to enter more minutely into the details of the clocks in a large town ought not to
this important science. For these we indicate the same time. Thus the clocks
must refer to separate treatises on the at St. Paul's, St. Clement's, St. Martin's,
subject. The abstract which is here and St. George's, Hanover Square, in
given will, however, be found sufficient London, ought to strike each four seconds
for all the general purposes of the histo- after the other; and this difference, it
rical student. We have purposely re- may be added, would nearly vanish, if
frained from giving a chronological table heard from any of the westerly stations,
of remarkable events, as such tables are on account of the time employed for the
to be procured with very little trouble. passage of sound ; and for the same reason
Various ingenious methods have been in- it would be nearly doubled in the opposite
vented of associating the name of some direction.
remarkable event with the date of its oc- From the intimate relation which sub-
currence, with the view of impressing it sists between the construction of watches
on the memory; for some account of and clocks, the similitude of the escape-
these we must refer to the article ME- ments, and the common principles upon
MORY, ARTIFICIAL.
which the compensations for heat and
CHRONOMETER, an instrument or cold are effected in each, we shall ex-
machine for measuring time. The word plain the principles of each under the
is more particularly used by workmen general article OROLOGY; and at pre-
and navigators to denote a watch or sent we shall only give an account of
portable machine, in which, by the na- the nature of the expedients adopted to
ture of the escapement and the com- produce superior accuracy in these port-
pensations for heat and cold, mean time able machines.
is or ought to be kept with sufficient The train of wheels, which constitutes
accuracy to determine the longitude at so large a part of every time-piece, must
necessarily transmit the force of the
The relation between time and longi- first mover with periodical irregularities,
tude will be fully explained hereafter : it arising from oblique actions of their teeth
will therefore be sufficient in this place upon each other; and these irregulari-
to remind the reader, that the rotation ties will be subject to other variations,
of the earth epon its axis brings the seve. arising from the greater or less degree
of
ral places upon its surface, in succession, fluidity in the oil applied to the pivots and
opposite the sun, causing day and night; elsewhere. The first mover also in a
so that the absolute instant of noon or portable machine being a spring will be
of any other determinate apparent time more rigid, and consequently act with
of the day at each plare must be earlier, greater power when cold than when hot.
at a place which lies to the eastward the balance, or vibrating measurer of
of another, with which hat place may the time, is a wheel, or equivalent piece,
be compared. From this general fact it fixed on an axis, upon which it could
follows that, allowing 24 hours for the freely turn ; but this liberty is restrained
whole rotation of the earth, and pro- by a fine spring called the pendulum
portionally for every smaller part of the spring, which is fastened to the axis,
rotation, we may determine (provided and after taking several turns round
the apparent time at two places be without touching it, the other end of the
known) what is the difference of longi- spring is fixed to the frame of the ma-
tude between them. Thus, if a chrono- chine. By this contrivance the balance
meter set to the time at Greenwich, were will, if not prevented, come to rest in one
to be carried to Petersburgh, in Russia, particular position; and, if at any time
it would indicate time two hours later disturbed, it will only vibrate each way
than the clocks at Greenwich; that is to from the line of quiescence, performing
say,
it would shew when it was noon at larger or smaller arcs according to the
Greenwich, instead of when at Peters- disturbing force. This force in a watch
burgh. The obvious conclusion would or time-keeper is communicated from the
be, that the sun arrives at the meridian train; most commonly during the time of
of Petersburgh earlier, and consequently each vibration : and the machinery or
sea
CHRONOMETER.
contrivance, by or through which the single vibration. With regard to remon-
successive impulses, or actions, are made, toires, it may be remarked that they either
is called a scapement or ESCAPEMENT, greatly shorten, or else destroy the peri-
several of which are described at the ar- odical irregularities of the train, and those
ticles referred to.
of the main-spring; but that with regard
According to the nature of the escape to the influence of oil and other causes
ment and the part of the vibrating arc of more permanent difference, their ad-
at which the impulses are applied, the vantage is not very considerable, be-
vibrations of the balance may be made cause the remedy is not applied where
to employ a longer or shorter time than the motion is quickest.
they would have employed if the balance
had been separate from the works. Thus, maintaining power be diminished by the
Whether the irregular action of the
in the common watch, these impulses remontoire or not, it is desirable that the
quicken the vibrations; and consequent. impulse on the balance, through the es-
ly an increase in the maintaining force capement, should affect the natural mea-
will make the watch go faster; as may sure of its vibrations as little as possible;
be easily tried by gently forcing the or rather that it should tend to equalise
key in the opposite direction to winding them when the arcs of vibration vary.
up.
Some attention, but not much, has been
If the balance and its spring were to paid to the equalising quality of an es-
continue unchanged in all temperatures capement, principally by making the
and under all circumstances, and if its faces of the pallets of a figure suitable to
long and short vibrations measured equal that effect; but these are now for the
times when separate from the machine, most part abandoned, and the method of
it would only be required that the escape- applying the force constitutes the dis-
ment should be so constructed as neither tinguishing feature in this part of our mo-
to accelerate nor retard them. But none dern chronometers. If a balance be set
of these conditions can be had in the or- to vibrate by the mere action of its pen-
dinary structure of watches, and in the dulum-spring, its motion will soon de-
superior time-pieces considerable difficul.
cay; but if we suppose a lever or pallet
ties are found in the attempt to obtain to proceed from its axis, and a maintain-
them.
ing power to be applied to this, it is ob-
By the natural contraction, to which all vious, that if the power meet the pallet in
bodies are subject when cooled, the di- its progress from the point of quiescence,
ameter of the balance will be less the it will shorten the time, and also the arc
lower the temperature: it will therefore of that semi-vibration; and, agaja, that if
be more easily carried by the vibrating the power follow the pallet in its pror
forces, and will then vibrate more quick- gress towards the point of quiescepce, it
ly.
will drive it home sooner, and conse-
The spring attached to the balance, quently will shorten the time of that se-
which is called the pendulum spring, will mi-vibration; and that action contrary to
likewise act with greater force when cold, these would lengthen the times. If, there-
and on this account also the vibrations fore, the action itself
, w ich may be con-
will be quicker.
sidered as an accelepting force, be not
The remedies for these causes of im- applied on both sides of the point of qui-
perfection are the following:
escence through certain arc, determin-
1. The Remontoire. As the irregulari- able from the arcumstances, the main-
ties in the transmission of force from the taining powe when it comes to be ap-
main spring are certainly increased by the plied will áter the time; and if this va-
number of wheels in the train, it was pro- ry, the time must also vary. Now the
posed, in the infancy of the art, to detach remed at present adopted is, to make
the last wheel, or that nearest the ba- the valance vibrate through a very large
lance, or time measurer, from the rest, ar, such as a semi-circle or more, and to
and to move this by a separate spring or ollow the pallet in each returning vibra-
weight: so that in this contrivance the tion by a strong power exerted through a
time measurer is acted upon by one single very small arc, as, for example, 15° or
wheel, and the rest of the train is empvy. 16° By this contrivance the balance will
ed in winding up the secondary first pover vibrate at perfect liberty, out and home,
at short intervals, such, for example, as through two semicircles, or 360°, except-
every half minute. We shall also have ing the small part during which the im-
to mention some escapements, in which pulse is given; and if the impulse vary,
the winding up is performed in every the arc of vibration will vary, and with it
CHRONOMETER.
the time, unless the spring be made of his first time piece with fluid thermome.
a certain definite length, or tapered in ters on the balance, and that he also in-
its thickness according to the experi- vented our present expansion balance of
ence which many artists in this country brass and steel, soldered or fused togeth-
possess.
er in the rim, which was afterwards in-
The escapement generally used in our troduced and brought to great perfection
best chronometers, as we shall hereafter by Arnold.
see, consists of a toothed wheel at the Machines, made upon the principles
end of the train, which is prevented from here cursorily pointed out, have measur-
running down by a detent or hook, and ed time to a wonderful degree of perfec-
of two pallets, a longer and a shorter, tion; and from the immense maritime
fixed upon the verge or axis of the ba- trade of the British empire, and the sci-
lance. These pallets are so placed, that entific disposition of many wealthy indi-
when the face of the longer pallet has viduals, the demand has been so great as
just arrived before one of the teeth of to have produced a very great number
the wheel, the shorter pallet strikes out of able workmen fully equal to their
the hook, and allows the wheel to push construction, at the same time that the
forward the longer pallet with its tooth, prices have been considerably reduc-
during which action, the hook falls again ed. Most sea commanders of any re-
into its place to catch the succeeding spectability are provided with two or
tooth. The balance therefore proceeds more of them.
in its vibration, and returns again withi- Among the other causes of irregularity
out disturbing the train; because the in time measurers, the resistance of the
short pallet does not strike out the hook air has been occasionally considered by
in its backward course, but only acts on authors. But artists seem to suppose, ei-
a slender spring, resembling those for- ther that it is a constant quantity, or that
merly used in the jacks of harpsichords. its variations are not considerable enough
In this manner the vibrations are kept to be brought into the account. The
up; and so little do the variations in very accurate performance of some chro-
the maintaining power affect the rate, nometers, and the steady going of astro-
when all the adjustments are made, that nomical clocks, seem to give weight to
if the main-spring be let down to only a this supposition; but on the other hand
Small part of its ordinary tension, these it may be remarked that though the slow
time-pieces will keep the same rate for motion of heavy pendulums vibrating
many hours together.
through small arcs in astronomical clocks,
However perfect, practically speaking, must be subject to very little resistance
the application of the maintaining power indeed from the air, yet it does not fol-
ma; be, yet if the balance and its spring low that the rapid vibrations of a balance
be suhject to vicissitudes from heat and may not be affected by this cause; and
cold, it will be in vain to expect accuracy. the extreme precision of some chronome-
There are two ways of correcting this ters will not, perhaps, be admitted as a
compound time-measurer. The first, very strong argument, when we consider
which was invented by Peter Leroy, con- that the changes from barometrical causes
sists in causing te balance to enlarge it- may have compensated each other, and
self, instead of contracting by heat; by that the most perfect machines will vary
which means the spring, when in the as much as one second per day, from
state of greater rigidityshas more work to causes which have not been yet clearly
do; and the other acts y lengthening detected, though these are probably re-
or shortening the spring, when cold or solvable into that before us. We are
heat may have given it more or less of more particularly led to these reflections
force. This was invented by arrison, by a communication from Mr. Manton, of
and depends on the well-known ct that Davies-street, who found by experiment
a short spring is stiffer than a longe, so that a chronometer, which was going up-
that by shortening his spring at the time on a gaining rate of five seconds per day,
when it was weakened by heat, and th. did increase its arc of vibration by an ad-
balance enlarged by the same cause, he ditional 50 degrees immediately upon the
gave it the stiffness requisite to compen- är being exhausted, and that being kept
sate for these alterations; and the same in acuo, its rate became 37 seconds per
contrivance produced the contrary effect day, he gain being 34 seconds upon the
in cold temperatures. As we shall more former rate. Hence it follows, that as the
fully exhibit these inventions under the difference between the highest and the
article HOROLOGY, it is only necessary lowest stations of the barometer indicate
to observe that Peter Leroy constructed a change of about one-fourteenth part in
CHR
CHR
the density of the air, the correspondent pappus margined ; receptacle naked.
change per day, in the rate, may be two There are twenty-seven species. One of
seconds and a half, or about one second these, the Chrysanthemum leucanthe-
per inch. Hence it may happen that a mum, or ox-eyed daisy, has been intro-
capital time-keeper shall indicate a more duced from Europe, and become natura-
steady rate from week to week than from lized in the United States; it has in fact
day to day.
become one of the most troublesome and
The causes of imperfection in chrono- pernicious weeds which infest our coun-
meters, which still call for farther exer- try. It covers hundreds of acres of
tions of sagacity in our artists, are 1. The ground with its white flowers, in the
spring gradually tires or falls off from its month of June.
strength, and neither the law of this vari.. CHRYSIS, golden fly, in natural history,
ation nor its remedy are known. The ef- a genus of insects of the order Hyme-
fects of this change are, that all the ad- noptera. Mouth horny, projecting; lip
justments are disturbed by it. 2. There much longer than the jaw, which is li-
is great reason to apprehend that the ex- near, membranaceous, and emarginate at
pansion-bars of brass and steel do change the tip: no tongue; feelers four, un-
in their relative powers of flexure by equal filiform; antennæ short, filiform,
their continued action on each other, of twelve articulations, the first longer;
though it is probable they settle at last. body gilt polished; abdomen arched be-
3. The wear of the acting parts is uncer- neath, with a scale on each side ; tail
tain, and will affect the time of striking generally toothed; sting pungent, near-
out the detent and the arc of impulse. 4. ly concealed; wings flat. These are ge-
No certain rules have been given, or are nerally found in the holes of old walls.
perhaps known, for making all the vi- There are more than thirty species.
brations equal in time. If we suppose
CHRYSITRIX, in botany, a genus of
the long and short vibrations to be at first the Polygamia Dioecia class and order.
adjustable, with certainty, to equal times, Natural order of Calamariæ. Cyperoidex,
not only for the extremes but for all the Jussieu. Essential character: herma-
means or intermediate arcs, it will not fol- phrodite ; glume bivalve ; corolla of nu-
low that the falling off from wear or from merous setaceous chaffs ; stamina many,
tiring, or from change in the balance, will solitary, between the chaffs; pistil one:
continue to be accompanied by the same male as in the hermaphrodite ; pistil one.
isochronism. 5. The best artists find There is but one species; viz. C. capen-
very great difficulty in adjusting a pocket sis, a perennial plant; native of the Cape
chronometer for all positions, preserving of Good Hope.
at the same time the other needful ad- CHRYSOBALANUS, in botany, a ge-
justments. See ESCAPEMENT, HOROLOGY, nus of the Icosandria Monogynia class
PENDULUM, TRAIN, and the articles thence and order. Natural order of Pomaceæ.
referred.
Rosaceæ, Jussieu. Essential character:
CHRYSALIS, in natural history, a state calyx five-cleft; petals five; style late-
of rest and seeming insensibility which ral; drupe with a five-furrowed, five-
butterflies, moths, and several other kinds valved nut. There is but one species;
of insects, must pass through before they viz. C. icaco, cocoa plumb, a shrub about
arrive at their winged or most perfect eight feet high. Native of the Caribbee
state. The first state of these animals is islands, and the neighbouring continent
in the caterpillar or reptile form; then near the sea.
they pass into the chrysalis-state, where- CHRYSOBERYLL, in mineralogy, a
in they remain, immovably fixed to one species of the flint genus. Its chief co-
spot, and surroanded with a case or co- lour is asparagus green, passing on the
vering, which is generally of a conical one side into an apple-green, mountain
figure; and, lastly, after spending the green, and greenish white; on the other
usualtime in this middle state, they throw side it passes through light olive and oil
off the external case wherein they lay green into yellowish grey, which inclines
imprisoned, and appear in their most per- to brown. It occurs but seldom crystal-
fect and winged form of butterflies, or lized, and then the crystals are small, ex-
fies. See CATERPILLAR.
ternally shining, internally splendent, and
CHRYSANTHEMUM, in botany, a ge- intermediate between the resinous and
nus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Super- vitreous. It is brittle, not easily frangi-
fua class and order. Natural order of ble ; specific gravity from 3.6 to 3.8. Be-
Compositæ Dioscoideu. Corymbiferæ, fore the blow-pipe it is infusible without
Jussieu. Calyx hemispherical, imbricat- addition : it is found in Brazil, in the
ed; the marginal scales membranaceous; sands of Ceylon, along with rubies and
CHU
CHU
.
.
sapphires: it is sometimes cut for ring CHRYSOMELA, in natural history, a
stones, and is usually set with yellow foil, genus of insects of the order Coleoptera.
but is seldom to be met with even in the Antenna moniliform ; six feelers, grow-
possession of jewellers: it is called the ing larger towards the end ; thorax mar-
Oriental chrysolith, in commerce: con- ginate; shells immarginate; body most-
stituent parts
ly oval. Of this genus there are several
Alumina
71.5
hundred species. They are separated in-
Silica.
18.0
to three distinct divisions. A lip en-
Lime
: 6.0
tire; hind legs equal. B. oblong; lip
Oxide of iron
1.5
bifid; hind thighs equal. C. oblong; lip
Loss ..
3.0
bifid, hind thighs thickened. This nu-
merous and very beautiful tribe is found
100.
every where in woods and gardens. Their
motion is slow, and some of them when
caught emit an oily liquor of a disagree-
CHRYSOCOMA, in botany, English able smell. The larvæ of this genus, and
goldy locks, a genus of the Syngenesia Po. also of the Cryptocephalus, feed on the
lygamia Æqualis class and order. Natural leaves of trees and plants.
order of Compositæ Discoidea. Corymbi- CHRYSOPHRAS, in mineralogy, a spe-
feræ, Jussieu. Essential character: cacies of the Flint genus, of an apple-green,
lyx hemispherical, imbricate; style of all degrees of intensity, passing through
scarcely longer than the florets; pappus the various shades of greenish grey. It
simple ; receptacle naked. There are is found massive in angular pieces, and
thirteen species: almost all of them na- thick plates. Internally it is dull; some
tives of the Cape of Good Hope. rare varieties are glimmering. Specific
CHRYSOGONUM, in botany, a genus gravity 3.25. Before the blow-pipe it
of the Syngenesia Polygamia Necessaria loses its colour and transparency, and is
class and order. Natural order of Com- infusible without some addition. By ana-
positæ Oppositifoliæ. Corymbiferæ, Jus- lysis it is found to contain
sieu. Essential character: calyx five-
leaved; seeds involved in a four-leaved
Silica
. . 96.16
calycle ; pappus one leafed, three-tooth-
Lime ..
0.83
ed; receptacle chaffy. There is but one
Oxide of nickel .. 1.00
species; viz. C. virginianum, a native of
Virginia.
97.99
CHRYSOLITE, in mineralogy, a spe-
cies of the flint genus ; the chief colour
of which is pistachio green, of all degrees
A trace of alumina and oxide of iron.-
of intensity: it occurs sometimes in ori- It is found with quartz, opal, chalcedony,
ginal, angular, pretty sharp-edged pieces, &c. in serpentine, in Lower Silesia. It is
which are frequently notched, and exhi- chiefly used for ring-stones; but is diffi-
bit a peculiar, rough, scaly, splintery sur- cult to cut and polish. The apple-green
face; also in rolled pieces, and crystal- variety is the most highly valued, and
lized : brittle ; easily frangible ; specific ring-stones of that colour will fetch 10,
gravity about 3.4; infusible before the or 121. It passes into horn-stone and chal
blow-pipe without addition; constituent cedony, and into a fossil which is inter-
parts according to Klaproth.
mediate between chrysophras and opal.
Silica.
. . 38.0
It loses much of its colour when kept in
Magnesia. ... 39.5
a warm and dry place, or when much ex-
Oxide of iron .. 19.0
posed to the air. Very elegant speci-
Loss ..
3.5
mens of this beautiful fossil are to be seen
in the great cathedral at Prague, where
100.0
a closet is inlaid with it.
CHRYSOPHYLLUM, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Pentandria Monogynia class
It is found principally in Upper Egypt; and order. Natural order of Dumosa.
but has been met with in Bohemia, and Sapotæ, Jussieu. Essential character:
in the isle of Bourbon. It is employed as corolla bell-shaped, ten-cleft ; segments
a precious stone in different kinds of alternate, spreading; berry ten-seeded.
jewelry, but of no very great value. There are six species; natives of the
Werner thinks that the stone described West Indies.
by the ancients under the name of yellow
CHRYSOSPLENIUM, in botany, a ge-
chrysolite answers to our topaz.
nus of the Decandria Digynia class and
CHU
CHU
order. Natural order of Succulenta. Es- law shall take knowledge of them as
sential character: calyx four or five-cleft, such, they must also have the bishop's
coloured ; corolla none; capsule two leave and consent, to be consecrated or
beaked, one-celled, many-seeded. There dedicated by him.
are two species; viz.C. alternifolium, al- CHURCH WARDENS, the guardians
ternate-leaved golden saxifrage ; and c. or keepers of the church, are persons
oppositifolium, opposite-leaved golden annually chosen in Easter week, by the
-
saxifrage. These plants are found in joint consent of the minister and parish-
moist shady places, by the sides of rivu- ioners, or according to the custom of the
lets in Lapland, Sweden, Denmark, Ger. respective places; to look after the
;
many, Switzerland, and with us, about church and church-yard, and things
Norwich and Worcestershire. The lat- thereunto belonging. They are en-
ter species is native in the United States. trusted with the care and management of
CHURCH, has different significations, the goods and personal property of the
according to the different subjects to church, which they are to order for the
which it is applied. 1. It is understood best advantage of the parishioners; but
of the collective body of christians, or all they have no interest in, or power over,
those over the face of the whole earth, the freehold of the church itself, or of
,
who profess to believe in Christ, and ac- any land or other real property belong-
knowledge him to be the Saviour of man- ing to it; these are the property of the
kind. This is what the ancient writers parson or vicar, who alone is interested
call the catholic or universal church. 2. in their loss or preservation.
.
The
Church is applied to any particular con- church wardens, therefore, may purchase
,
gregations of Christians, who at one time, goods and other articles for the use of
and in one place, associate together, and the parish; they may likewise, with the
,
concur in the participation of all the in- assent of the parishioners, sell or other-
stitutions of Jesus Christ, with their pro- wise dispose of the goods of the church ;
per pastors and ministers. Thus we read but without such consent they are not
of the church of Antioch, the church of authorised to alienate any of the proper-
Alexandria, the church of Thessalonica, ty under their care.
and the like. 3. Church denotes a par- All peers of the realm, clergymen,
ticular sect of Christians, distinguished counsellors, attorneys, clerks in court,
by particular doctrines and ceremonies. physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries,
.
In this sense we speak of the Romish are exempt from serving the office
church, the Greek church, the Reformed of church w
of church warden, as is every licenced
church, the church of England, &c. dissenting teacher, pretending to holy
The Latin or Western church compre- orders.
hends all the churches of Italy, France, CHURN, an implement for agitating
Spain, Africa, the North, and all other cream, or milk, so as to separate the
,
countries whither the Romans carried butyrous particles from the serous, and
their language. Great Britain, part of to effect the production of butter. Some
the Netherlands, of Germany, and of the churns are made upright, of a tapering
North, have been separated from hence form, and are worked by means of a pole
ever since the time of Henry VIII. and and cross: the former passing through a
constitute what we call the Reformed hole in the lid. These are pail or bell-
church, and what the Romanists call the churns. Many churns are in the form
Western Schism. The Greek or Eastern of a barrel; in some of these beaters, or
church, comprehends the churches of all projecting battens, are affixed within four
the countries anciently subject to the or five of the staves, which strike the
Greek or Eastern empire, and through cream as the barrel is moved round by
which their language was carried; that means of a winch; in others, the barrels
is, all the space extended from Greece are at rest, while a cross fly, of four
to Mesopotamia and Persia, and thence or more leaves, is turned within it:
into Egypt.
in either case, the barrel is supported on
CHURCE, the place which Christians a frame. The Indian churn has an alter-
consecrate to the worship of God. By nate motion, being worked by a vertical
the common law and general custom of pole, which is turned much the same as
the British realm, it was lawful for earls, a hand-lathe; having its lower part split,
-
barons, and others of the laity, to build the pole occasions great agitation in the
churches; but they could not erect a cream. A great variety of churns are in
spiritual body politic, to continue in suc- use: but, in general, their formation
cession, and capable of endowment, with evinces more ingenuity than practical
out the king's license; and, before the knowledge. Those moved by pedals,
CHY
CIC
and of which, as well as of the Indian CICADA, in natural history, a genus of
churn, an accurate description is given insects of the order Hemiptera. Generic
in the Agricultural Magazine for Octo- character: snout inflected; antennæ seta-
ber, 1807, merit particular attention for ceous; the four wings membranaceous
their great simplicity and many good and deflected; legs in most of the spe-
qualities.
cies formed for leaping. These insects
CHYLE. See CIYME, ASSIMILATION, live on various plants; the larva is apte-
&c.
rous; the pupa furnished with the mere
CHYME, in animal economy: in the rudiments of wings; both of them six
process of digestion, the food is subject-footed and active. The male of the per-
ed to a temperature usually above 90° of fect insect chirps like the cricket. There
Fahrenheit; it is mixed with the gastric are some hundred species noticed and
juice, a liquor secreted by the glands of described by different authors, and enu-
the stomach, and is made to undergo a merated with their characters by Gmelin.
moderate and alternate pressure, by the There are three divisions. A. antenna
contraction of the stomach itself. It is subulate, inserted in the front. B. legs not
thus converted into a soft uniform mass formed for leaping. C. antennæ filiform,
of a greyish colour, in which the previous inserted under the eyes; this class is sub-
texture or nature of the aliment can be divided into, 1. a. lip abbreviated, trun-
no longer distinguished.
cate, emarginate ; and, 2. b. lip rounded,
The chyme, as this pulpy mass into setaceous at the tip. The most common
which the food in the stomach is resolv- of the European species is c. flebeia,
ed is termed, passes by the pylorus into which has been long confounded with
the intestinal canal, where it is mixed the grashopper. It is a native of the
with the pancreatic juice and the bile, warmer parts of Europe, appearing in
and is still exposed to the same tempera- the hotter months, and continuing its
ture and alternating pressure. The thin-chirping during the greater part of the
ner parts of it are absorbed by the slen- day, generally sitting among the leaves
der tubes termed the lacteals. The li- of trees. The insects proceed from
quor thus absorbed is of a white colour ; eggs deposited by the parent in and
it passes through the glands of the me- about the roots of trees, near the ground.
sentery, and is at length conveyed by the They hatch into larva, in which state they
thoracic duct into the blood. This part continue nearly two years, cast their skins,
of the process is termed chylification, and produce the complete insect. The
and the white liquor thus formed, chyle. male cicada alone makes the chirping, the
It is an opaque milky fluid, mild to the female being entirely mute : the noise of
taste. By standing for some time, one the former proceeds from a pair of con-
part of it coagulates; another portion is cave membranes, seated on each side the
coagulated by heat.
first joint of the abdomen: the large con-
The chyle, after mixing with the cavities of the abdomen, immediately
lymph conveyed by the absorbent ves- under the two broad lamellæ in the male
sels, is received into the blood which has insect, are also faced by a thin, pellucid,
returned from the extreme vessels, and irridescent membrane, serving to increase
before it passes to the heart. All traces and to reverberate the sound, and a strong
of it are very soon lost in the blood, as it muscular apparatus is exerted for the
mixes perfectly with that fluid. It is purpose of moving the necessary organs.
probable, however, that its nature is not Among the smaller European species is
immediately completely altered. The C. spumaria, or cuckow-spit cicada, so
blood passing from the heart is convey- named from the circumstance of its
ed to the lungs, where it circulates over larva being found constantly enveloped
a very extensive surface presented to in a mass of white froth, adhering to the
the atmospheric air, with the interven- leaves and stems of vegetables. This
tion of a very thin membrane, which froth, which is popularly known by the
does not prevent their mutual action. name of cuckow-spittle, is found in the
During this circulation, the blood loses a summer, and is the production of the in-
considerable quantity of carbon, part of cluded larva, which, from the time of its
which, it is probable, is derived from the hatching from the egg deposited by the
imperfectly assimilated chyle, as this, parent insect, continues, at intervals, to
originating in part from vegetable mat- suck the juices of the stem on which it
ter, must contain carbon in larger pro- resides, and to discharge them from the
portion than even the blood itself. See vent in the form of very minute bubbles;
ASSIMILATION
and by continuing the operation, com-
:
a
CIC
CIM
pletely covers itself with a large mass in the ground, with its head at the en-
of froth, which is sometimes so over- trance, to draw in and devour whatever
charged with moisture, that a drop insects may come near or fall into it.
may be geen hanging from its under sur- These insects are remarkable for the
face.
celerity and vigour of their flight: they
CICCA, in botany, a genus of the Mo- are generally seen on the wing in the
noecia Tetrandria class and order. Es- hottest part of the day, chiefly frequent-
sential character: male, calyx four- ing dry meadows, &c. C. campestris, one
leaved; corolla none: female, calyx of the most common European species,
three-leaved ; corolla none; styles four; is a highly beautiful insect, being of a
capsule tetracoccous. There is but one bright grass green, with the wing-shells
,
species, viz. C. disticha, a native of the each marked by five small, round, white
East Indies.
spots; the head, thorax, and limbs are of
CICER, in botany, a genus of the a rich gilded cast, and the eyes black and
Diadelphia Decandria class and order. prominent; the legs are long and slen-
Natural order of Papilionaceæ or Le- der: it is common in the fields, and is
guminosa. Essential character: calyx about half an inch long:
five parted, length of the corolla ; the CICUTA, in botany, a genus of the
four upper segments incumbent on the Pentandria Digynia class and order. Na-
banner ; legume rhombed, turged, two- tural order of Umbellatæ. Essential cha-
seeded. There is but one species, viz.racter; fruit subovate, furrowed. There
C. arietinum, chich pea, which is an are three species, of which c. virosa,
annual, and a native of the South of long-leaved water hemlock, generally
Europe, the Levant, and Africa, where grows near the sides of large stagnant
it is frequently eaten, both raw and waters, or in shallow slow rivers. To.
boiled.
wards the end of autumn, the root fot
CICHORIUM, in botany, English suc- the succeeding summer is formed out of
cory, a genus of the Syngenesia Polyga- the lower part of the stalk : this is di-
mia æqualis class and order. Natural or- vided transversely into many large une-
der of Compositæ Semiflosculosæ. Cina- qual cells; so that it becomes specifi-
racephalæ, Jussieu. Essential character: cally lighter than water, and in winter,
calyx calycled; pappus slightly five- when the rivers or pools swell, is buoyed
toothed, obscurely hairy ; receptacle up. It is an inhabitant of the northern
somewhat chaffy. There are three spe- parts of Europe, and is one of the rankest
cies: the first of which, C. intybus, wild of vegetable poisons.
succory, is generally considered as a com- CIENFUEGIA, in botany, a genus of
mon weed; it is, however, cultivated as the Monadelphia Dodecandria class and
food for cattle ; C. endivia, broad-leaved order. Calyx double, the outer of twelve
succory, or common endive, is cultivated setaceous leaves ; petals five ; style fili-
in our English gardens, being one of the form ; stigma clavate; capsule three-cell-
principal ingredients in our autumn and ed, three seeds. A single species, found
winter salads. C. spinosum, prickly suc- in Senegal.
cory, grows naturally on the sea coast CIMEX, in natural history, the bug, a
in Sicily, and the islands of the Archipe- genus of insects of the order Hemiptera.
lago.
Snout inflected; antennæ longer than the
CICINDELA, in natural history, a ge. thorax; wings four, folded crosswise ; the
nus of insects of the order Coleoptera: upper ones coriaceous on the upper part;
antennæ setaceous: feelers six, filiform; back flat; thorax margined ; legs formed
the hind ones hairy: mandible prominent, for running. Of this genus more than a
armed with many teeth: eyes promi- thousand species have been enumerated
nent: thorax rounded, margined, nar- and described. The divisions are, 1 A.
rower than the head. There are about antennæ inserted before the eyes; which
60 species, in two divisions. A. lip three- is subdivided into, a, without a lip: 6. lip
toothed. B. lip rounded, pointed entire. long, subulate, annulate: c. lip short,
The cicindela is in general a very beauti- rounded ; body long, linear : d. sheath
ful genus of insects: they are found in four-jointed, the first membranaceous;
dry sandy places, and prey with the most body long and narrow. B. Antennæ in.
ravenous ferocity upon all other insects serted above the eyes. Of this very ex-
which come in their way, and which they tensive genus only the C. lectuarius, or
can overcome : the larva is soft, white, common bed bug, is apterous, or without
long, six-footed, with a brown scaly head, wings. It is said not to have been known
and lurks in a round perpendicular hole in England before the year 1670, when it
VOL II
Bb
9
CIN
CIN
was imported among timber used in re- dria Monogynia class and order. Natu-
building the city of London after the ral order of Contortæ. Rubiaceæ, Jus.
great fire in 1666. The bug is one of sieu. There are nine species. See BARK.
the best subjects for exhibiting a micro- CINCHONIN, in chemistry: it has
scopic view of the circulation of the blood. been supposed that a principle, analogous
See BUG
to animal gelatin, exists in some vegeta-
CIMICIFUGA, in botany, a genus of bles, particularly in the Peruvian bark;
the Polyandria Tetragynia class and or- this has been denominated cinchonin. In
der. Natural order of Multisiliquæ, Pa. this principle it has been supposed that
paveraceæ, Jussieu. Essential character: the febrifuge power of the bark resided,
calyx four or five-leaved ; nectary four, and some bave gone so far as to recom-
urceolate ; capsule four to seven. There mend animal glue as a substitute for
bark.
is but one species; viz. C. fætida, a na.
tive of the distant parts of Siberia; flow-
CINERARIA, in botany, a genus of
ering in July, and ripening its seed in the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua class
August. The whole plant has a strong and order. Natural order of Compositæ
virose smell, occasioning the head-ach. Discoideæ. Corymbiferæ, Jussieu. Es-
To this genus Pursh has referred Actea sential character : calyx simple, many
Racemosa, or black snake root; called leaved, equal; pappus simple ; recepta-
also rich-weed, cattle-weed, and squa-
cle naked. There are forty-one species,
root. It is one of the medicines of the most of them natives of the Cape of Good
Indians of our country.
Hope.
CIMOLITE, in mineralogy, is of a CINNA, in botany, a genus of the Mo-
light greyish white, inclining to pearl- nandria Digynia class and order. Natural
grey; but by exposure to the air it ac. order of grasses. Essential character :
quires a reddish tint. It occurs in mass, calyx glume two-valved, one-flowered ;
forming large strata; its fracture is earthy, corolla glume two-valved; seed one.
uneven, and its texture more or less There is but one species, viz. c. arundi-
C.
slaty. It is opake, of a greasy lustre, nacea, a native of Canada, and many parts
and may be scraped with a knife. It ad of the United States.
heres firmly to the tongue, stains the CINNABAR, in mineralogy, a species
fingers in some degree, and, though soft, of the genus Mercury, of which there
is very tough, and pulverized with diffi- are two sub species, viz. the dark red,
culty. The specific gravity 2.0. When and the bright red. The former occurs
exposed to the action of the blow-pipe, massive, disseminated, in blunt cornered
it becomes at first of a dark grey colour; pieces, in membranes, amorphous, dendri-
but afterwards recovers its whiteness tic, and fruticose; it occurs also crystal-
with little or no alteration : with borax it lized. The specific gravity is from 7 to
forms a light brown glass. Its component 10, and the constituent parts are
parts are,
Mercury
.. 81
Silex ..
63.00
Sulphur
. 15
Alumina ...
23.00
Iron ..
4
Oxide of iron
1.25
Water
12.00
100
.
99.25
Before the blow.pipe, it is completely
volatalized, giving a blue flame, and a
It abounds in the island of Cimola, and smoke which has the odour of sulphur.
was in great request by the ancients for Both species are found in Bohemia, Hun-
its detergent properties ; at present its gary, Transylvania, and many other parts
use is almost entirely confined to the in- of the continent; but the most important
habitants of the island. It produces the mercury mines are those of Almadin in
same effects as fuller's earth, but in a Spain, which have been worked upwards
higher degree.
of two thousand years. It is from this ore
CINCHONA, in botany, so named in that the greatest quantity of the mercury
honour of the Countess del Cinchon, lady of commerce is obtained. It is used also
of a Spanish viceroy, whose cure is said as a pigment, but not by any means equal
first to have brought the Peruvian bark to the artificial cinnabar. See the next
into reputation, a genus of the Pentan. article.
CIN
CIR
CINNABAR, in chemistry, is a sulphu- cept in the ports, the plaintiff may get
ret of mercury, and is prepared by mixing the records certified into chancery, and
one part of sulphur with seven or eight of from thence sent by mittimus to the lord
mercury, and by applying such a heat as warden to make execution,
to make them combine. The black powder The Cinque Ports, it has been observed,
which they form is then exposed to heat are not "jura æqualia,” like counties pa.
sufficient to produce inflammation ; after latine, but are parcel of the county of
which the remaining mass is sublimed in Kent, so that if a writ be brought against
close vessels. The sublimate is mercury in one for land within the Cinque Ports, and
combination with sulphur ; it is of a very he appears and pleads to it, and judg-
fine red colour, and when levigated, is in ment is given against him in the Common
common use as a pigment, under the Pleas, this judgment shall bind him, for
name of cinnabar or vermillion.
the land is not exempted out of the coun-
CINNAMON is the bark of the laurus ty, and the tenant may wave the benefit
cinnamomum, indigenous in some of the of his privilege. These five ports are
.
Eastern Islands, but an inferior kind, taken Dover, Hastings, Romney, Hythe, and
from the laurus cassia, is often sold for, or Sandwich; to which Winchelsea and Rye
mixed with it. Cinnamon is most grate- have been since added.
ful, aromatic, highly pungent, and yields CIPHER See CYPHER.
a very fine cordial. The bark is used in CIRCÆA, in botany, a genus of the
many culinary preparations, and is gene. Diandria Monogynia class and order.
rally taken from the tree by making an
Natural order of Aggregatæ. Onagræ,
incision on the under side for the whole Jussieu. Essential character: corolla two-
length of the branch, which causes the petalled; calyx two-leaved, superior ;
-
bark to curl, and to separate itself, almost seed one, two-celled There are two
voluntarily, when acted upon by the sun's species; viz. C. lutetiana, common en-
heat. That from the smaller twigs is ac. chanter's nightshade, and C alpina, moun-
counted the best : it should be thin, very tain enchanter's nightshade. Both are
brittle, and very hot to the tongue. What natives of the United States.
we use is the inner bark; the exterior rind CIRCLE, the name of various astrono-
being of no value.
mical instruments for observing right as-
CINNAMON stone, in mineralogy, a spe- censions, declinations, azimuths, altitudes,
cies of the genus Zircon, found at Colum- and likewise for the purposes of the most
bo, in the island of Ceylon. It is known in improved theodolite.
Holland under the name of kanelstein, Plate “ Circular Instrument" is a re-
which signifies cinnamon stone, probably presentation of an instrument made by
from its resemblance in colour to that spice, Mr Troughton, and of which he liberally
CINNAMON tree. See LAURUS CINNA- permitted our draughtsman to take a
MOMUM.
drawing. It is an instrument which mea-
CINQUE PORTS, five havens that lie sures both horizontal and vertical angles
on the east part of England, towards with great accuracy, and is equally
France, thus called by way of eminence, adapted for astronomical purposes and
on account of their superior importance, surveying.
as having been thought by our kings to The instrument is supported on three
merit a particular regard, for their pre- screws, two of which, x, y, are shewn in
servation against invasions. Hence they the figure; the three arms through which
have a particular policy, and are governed these pass meet in the centre, and hold a
by a keeper, with a title of the lord war. strong, vertical steel axis, truly turned,
den of the Cinque Ports, which office be. and very exactly fitted into two sockets,
longs to the constable of Dover ; and their one at the top and the other at the bot-
representatives are called Barons of the tom of a cone, A: upon this axis the up-
Cinque Ports.
per part of the instrument turns. Bis
They have various franchises, similar, the azimuth circle laying upon the three
in many respects, to those of the counties arms of the tripod, and capable of turn,
palatine, and particularly an exclusive ju- ing round on the steel axis before men,
risdiction before the mayor and jurats of tioned: it is held by a screw, s, which
the ports, their warden having the autho. moves the circle slowly round when turn-
rity of an admiral among them, and send- ed: this motion is to adjust the circle, sa
ing out writs in his own name ; and the that the plane of the verticle circle, P,
king's writs do not run there However, shall be in the meridian when the index
on a judgment in any of the king's courts, is set to zero. The circle is divided into
if the defendant hath no goods, &c. ex- degrees and every five minutes, and the
CIRCLE.
microscope subdivides them into seconds. may be conceived to be a polygon of an infi-
Another similar microscope is fixed di- nite number of sides, and the semidiame-
ametrically opposite, upon the circular ter must be equal to the perpendicular of
plate H, and turns round upon the verti- such a polygon, and the circumference of
cal axis with the rest of the instrument. the circle equal to the periphery of the
(For the constructions of these micro- polygon: therefore half the circumfer-
scopes see that article.) I, I, are two ence multiplied by half the diameter gives
hollow conical pillars, screwed on the in- the area of the circle.
dex plate to support the axis of the ver- Circles, and similar figures inscribed in
tical circle, P, by means of two bars (one them, are always as the squares of the
only of which can be seen, h,) screwed at diameters; so that they are in a duplicate
the top of the pillars, and holding at their ratio of their diameters, and consequently
outer ends tubes, which contain angular of their radii.
bearings for the pivots of the axis ; these A circle is equal to a triangle, the base
bearings, or Y's, as they are called, from of which is equal to the periphery, and
resembling that letter, can be elevated its altitude to its radius: circles therefore
or depressed by screws, e, beneath them, are in a ratio compounded of the periphe-
to bring the axis parallel to the plane of ries and the radii.
the azimuth circle. m, m, are two crook- To find the proportion of the diameter
ed hollow tubes, screwed to the upright of a circle to its circumference. Find, by
pillars, holding two microscopes, n, n; continual bisection, the sides of the in-
reading divisions diametrically opposite scribed polygon, till you arrive at a side
to each other on the vertical circle P. subtending any arch, however small; this
The vertical circle is composed of two found, find likewise the side of a similar
circles, each cut from a solid plate, and circumscribed polygon ; multiply each by
attached to two flanches on a hollow the number of the sides of the polygon,
conical axis E; they are firmly braced by which you will have the perimeter of
together by short pillars, as in the figure; each polygon. The ratio of the diameter
between the circles the telescope F is to the periphery of the circle will be
fixed, it is 30 inches long and 2 in diame greater than that of the same diame-
ter. O is a thin plate of metal, screwed ter to the perimeter of the circumscribed
to the further main pillar, I, by its lower polygon, but less than that of the in-
end, and its upper end supporting a clamp scribed polygon. The difference of the
for fixing the circle when set at any two being known, the ratio of the diame-
elevation, and a screw for moving it slow- ter to the periphery is easily had in num-
ly a small quantity after clamping. A simi- bers very nearly, though not justly true.
lar screw, for occasionally attaching the Thus Archimedes fixed the proportion at
index plate, H, to the azimuth circle, B, 7 to 22.
is seen at p. a is a small roller pushed up- Wolfius finds it as 10000000000000000
wards by a spring, I; it acts against a to 31415926535897932: and the learned
ring upon the conical axis E, and its use Mr. Machin has carried it to one hundred
is to support part of the weight of the cir- places, as follows: if the diameter of a
cle and telescope, and take the bearing circle be 1, the circumference will be
from the pivots at the end of the axis. Ř 3,14159, 26535, 89793, 23846, 26433,
is a spirit level hung to the two horns m, 83279, 50288, 41971, 69399, 37510,
m, and adjustable by a screw at its end. 58209,74944, 59230,78164,05286, 20899,
s is a telescope beneath the instrument, 86280, 34825, 34211, 70679 of the same
which is set to any distant object when parts. But the ratios generally used in
the instrument is in use, and serves to practice are that of Archimedes, and the
shew that the instrument does not change following; as 106 to 333, as 113 to 355,
its position. See OBSERVATORY and as 1702 to 5347, as 1815 to 5702, or as 1
SURVEYING.
to 3.14159
CIRCLE, in geometry, a plane figure CIRCLE, the quadrature of the, or the
comprehended by a single curve line, call. manner of making a square, whose sur-
ed its circumference, to which right lines, face is perfectly and geometrically equal
or radii, drawn from a point in the mid- to that of a circle, is a problem that bas
dle, called the centre, are equal to each employed the geometricians of all ages.
other.
Many maintain it to be impossible ;
The area of a circle is found by multi- Des Cartes, in particular, insists on it,
plying the circumference by the fourth that a right line and a circle being of dif-
part of the diameter, or halfthe circumfer- ferent natures, there can be no strict
ence by half the diameter : for every circle proportion between them: and in effect
a
CIR
CIR
we are at a loss for the just proportion Circles, of declination, on the globe,
between the diameter and circumference are, with some writers, the meridians on
of a circle.
which the declination or distance of any
Archimedes is the person who has come star from the equinoctial is measured.
nearest the truth; all the rest have made CIRCLES, horary, in dialling, are the
paralogisms. Charles V. offered a re- lines which shew the hours on dials,
ward of 100,000 crowns to the person though these be not drawn circular, but
who should solve this celebrated pro- nearly straight.
blem ; - and the States of Holland bave CIRCLES, polar, are parallel to the
proposed a reward for the same pur- equator, and at the same distance from
pose.
the poles that the tropics are from the
CIRCLE, great, of the sphere, that which equator. See ARCTIC.
having its centre in the centre of the CIRCLES of position, are circles passing
sphere, divides it into two equal hemis- through the common intersections of the
pheres; such are the equator, ecliptic, horizon and meridian, and through any
horizon, the colures, and the azimuths, degree of the ecliptic, or the centre of
&c. See EQUATOR, ECLIPTIC, &c. any star, or other point in the heavens;
CIRCLE, lesser, of the sphere, that which and are used for finding out the situation
having its centre in the axis of the sphere, or position of any star.
divides it into two unequal parts: these
CIRCLES, Druidical, a name given to
are usually denominated from the great certain ancient inclosures, formed by
circles to which they are parallel, as par- rude stones circularly arranged. These,
allels of the equator.
it is supposed, were temples, or places
CIRCLE of curvature, a circle, the cur- for solemn assemblies for councils, or
vature of which is equal to that of a cer- seats of judgment. These temples, though
tain curve at a given point.
generally circular, occasionally differ in
CIRCLE, horary, on the globe, a brazen magnitude. The most simple were com-
circle fixed on every globe with an index, posed of one circle. Stonehenge consist-
to shew how many hours, and consequent- ed of two circles and two ovals, respec-
ly how many degrees, any place is east or tively concentric. One near St. Just, in
west of another.
Cornwall, is formed of four intersecting
CIRCLE of perpetual apparition, one of circles. In magnitude these differ very
the lesser circles, parallel to the equa- much: some are formed of only 12
tor, described by any point touching stones, while others, as Stonehenge and
the northern point of the horizon, and Abury, contained, the first 140, and the
carried about with the diurnal motion : second 652, and occupied many acres of
all the stars included within this cir- ground. These different numbers, mea-
cle are always visible above the horizon. sures, and arrangements, are supposed to
circle at a like distance from the equa- teries of the Druidical religion.
Circle of perpetual occultation, another have had reference, either to the astrono-
mical divisions of the year, or some mys-
tor, on the south, containing all those teries of the Druidical religion.
stars which never appear in our hemis- CIRCUIT, in electricity, denotes the
pbere.
course of the electrical Auid from the
CIRCLES, diurnal, are immoveable cir- charged surface of an electric body to the
cles, supposed to be described by the se- opposite surface on which the discharge
veral stars and other points of the heavens, is made.
in their diurnal rotation round the earth; CIRCUIT, in law, signifies a longer
or rather, in the rotation of the earth course of proceedings than is needful to
round its axis.
recover the thing sued for; in case a per-
CIRCLES of latitude, or secondaries of the son grants a rent charge of 101. a year
ecliptic, are great circles perpendicular to out of his manor, and afterwards the
the plane of the ecliptic, passing through grantee disseises the grantor, who there-
the poles of it, and through every star upon brings an assise, and recovers the
and planet. They serve to measure the land, and 201. damages ; which being
latitude of the stars, which is an arch of paid, the grantee brings his action for
one of those circles intercepted between 101. of the rent, due during the time of
the star and the ecliptic.
the disseisin ; this is termed circuity of
CIRCLES of longitude, are several lesser action, because, as the grantor was to
circles parallel to the ecliptic, still di- receive 201. damages, and pay 101. rent,
minishing in proportion as they recede he might only have received the 101.
from it; on these the longitude of the for the damages, and the grantee
stars is reckoned.
might have retained the other 101. for
CIR
CIR
his rent, and by that means saved his most material consequence in surveying,
action.
The instrument is made of brass, and, in
Circuit also signifies the journey, or its most simple state, consists of the fol-
progress, which the judges take twice lowing parts; a brass compass box, about
every year, through the several counties five inches diameter, or more; on the
of England and Wales, to hold courts plate of the box are engraved and letter,
and administer justice, where recourse ed the principal points of the compass,
cannot be had to the King's courts at divided into four quarters of 90 degrees
Westminster; hence England is divided each, two of the quarters being figured
into six circuits, viz. The home circuit, from the south point, and terminated by
Norfolk circuit, Midland circuit, Oxford 90 degrees at the east and west, and the
circuit, Western circuit, and Northern othertwo quarters from the north point,
circuit. In Wales there are but two cir- terminating also at the east and west : on
cuits, North and South Wales. Two the circumference of the plate is fixed a
judges are assigned by the King's com- ring, divided into 360 degrees, number-
mission to every circuit
. In Scotland ed from 0 to 360 ; the observer may
there are three circuits, viz. the Southern, therefore take his angles as bearing
Western, and Northern, which are like- from the north and south towards the
wise made twice every year, viz. in east and west; or, by that which is the
spring and autumn.
most usual method, the whole circumfe.
CIRCULAR lines, in mathematics, rence of a circle of 360 degrees, com-
such straight lines as are divided from mencing from the north point: a magne.
the divisions made in the arch of the tic needle of the usual kind turns upon
limb, such as sines, tangents, secants, an iron point, fixed in the centre of the
chords, &c.
compass plate; a stop and trigger wire
CIRCULAR numbers, called also spheri- is applied to the compass box, to throw
cal ones, according to some, are such the needle off its centre when not in
whose powers terminate in the roots use, in order to preserve the fineness of
themselves. Thus, for instance, 5 and 6, the centre point: a glass and brass spring
all whose powers do end in 5 and 6, as ring covers the needle and closes the
the square of 5 is 25, the square of 6 is box: to the under side of the compass
36, &c.
box, at the N. and S. points, is connected
CIRCULATION of the blood, the natu- a bar about 15 inches long, from end to
ral motion of the blood in a living ani- end, to each end of which is fixed a per-
mal, whereby that fluid is alternately car pendicular brass sight about five inches
ried from the heart to all parts of the long'; each sight containing a long slit
body by the arteries, and returned from or perforation, and a sight line, so that
the same parts to the heart by the veins. the observer may take his line of sight,
See PHYSIOLOGY.
or observation of the line, upon the sta-
CIRCUMFERENCE, in a general tion mark, at which end of the bar he
sense, denotes the line or lines bounding pleases.
a plane figure. However, it is gene-
CIRCUMSCRIBED, in geometry, is
rally used in a more limited sense, for the said of a figure which is drawn round an-
eurve line which bounds a circle, and other figure, so that all its sides or planes
otherwise called a periphery; the boun- touch the inscribed figure.
dary of a right lined figure being ex- CIRCUMSCRIBED hyperbola, one of Sir
pressed by the term perimeter.
Isaac Newton's hyperbolas of the second
The circumference of every circle is order, that cuts its asymptotes, and con-
supposed to be divided into 360 degrees. tains the parts cut off within its own
The angle at the circumference of a cir- space.
cle is double that at the centre. For the CIRCUMSCRIBING, in geometry, de-
ratio of the circumference of a circle to notes the describing a polygonous figure
its radius, see CIRCLE.
about a circle, in such a manner that
CIRCUMFERENTOR, a mathemati- all its sides shall be tangents to the
cal instrument, used by land-surveyors circumference. Sometimes the term is
for taking angles by the magnetic used for the describing a circle about a
needle. It is an instrument (where great polygon, so that each side is a chord; but
accuracy is not desired) much used in in this case it is more usual to say the poly-
surveying, in and about woodlands, com- gon is inscribed than the circle is circum-
mons, harbours, seacoasts, in the work- scribed.
ing of coal-mines, &c. &c. where a per- CIRCUMVALLATION, or line of ciru
manent direction of the needle is of the cumvallation, in the art of war, is a trench
CIS
CIT
-
TION.
'bordered with a parapet, thrown up Draw the indefinite right line BC
quite round the besieger's camp, by way (fig. 13) at right angles to A B the
of security against any army that may diameter of the semicircle A OB, and
attempt to relieve the place, as well as draw the right lines A H, A F, AC, &c.
to prevent desertion. See FORTIFICA- then if you take A M = LH, AO =
OF, ZC=A N, &c. the points M, 0,
CIRRUS, in botany, a clasper or ten- z, &c. will form the curve AMO Ź of
dril: that fine spiral string or fibre, put the cissoid.
out from the foot-stalks, by which some CISSOID, properties of the : it follows
plants, as the ivy and vine, fasten them- from genesis that drawing the right
selves to walls, pales, or trees, for sup- lines PM, KL, perpendicular to AB,
port. It is ranked by Linnæus among the the lines A K, PN, AP, PM, as also
fulcra, or parts of plants that serve for AP, PN, AK, KL, are continual propor-
support, protection and defence. Tendrils tionals, and therefore that A K = PB,
are sometimes placed opposite to the and PN-IK. After the same manner
leaves, as in the vine; sometimes at the it appears that the cissoid AMO, bisects
side of the foot-stalk of the leaf, as in the the semicircle AO B. Sir Isaac New-
passion-flower; and sometimes, as in the ton, in his last letter to Mr. Leibnitz,
winged-pea, they are emitted from the has shewn how to find a right line equal
leaves themselves.
to one of the legs of this curve by means
CIRSOCELE, or hernia varicosa, in sur- of the hyperbola ; but suppressed the in-
gery, a preternatural distension or divari- vestigation, which, however, may be
cation of the spermatic veins in the pro- seen in his fluxions. The cissoidal space
cess of the peritoneum.
contained under the diameter AB, the
CISSAMPELOS, in botany, a genus of asymptote BC, and the curve A OZ of
the Dioecia Monadelphia class and order. the cissoid, is triple that of the generat-
Natural order of Sarmentaceæ. Menis- ing circle A OB.
pernia, Jussieu. Essential character:
CISSUS, in botany, a genus of the Te-
male, calyx four-leaved; corolla none; trandria Monogynia class and order. N2-
nectary wheel-shaped; stamina four, with tural order of Hederaceæ. Vites, Jus-
oornate filaments. Female, calyx one- sieu. Essential character : berry one-
leafed, ligulate, roundish; corolla none; seeded, surrounded by the calyx, and
styles three; berry one-seeded. There four-parted corolla. There are fifteen
are three species.
species ; natives of both Indies.
CISSOID, in geometry, a curve CISTUS, in botany, rock rose, or gum
the second order, first invented by cistus, a genus of the Polyandria Mono-
Diocles, whence it is called the cissoid of gynia class and order. Natural order of
Diocles.
Rotaceæ. Cisti, Jussieu. Essential cha-
Sir Isaac Newton, in his appendix racter: corolla five-petalled ; calyx five-
“De Æquationum Constructione lineari," leaved, with two of the leaflets smaller ;
gives the following elegant description capsule. There are sixty-six species, ali
of this curve, and at the same time shews of which are great ornaments to a gar-
how, by means of it, to find two mean den; their flowers, though of short du-
proportionals, and the roots of a cubic ration, are succeeded by fresh ones al-
equation, without any previous reduc- most every day for about two months
tion. Let A G (Plate III. Miscel. fig. successively; the flowers are the size of
12) be the diameter, and F the centre of a middling rose, but single and of various
the circle belonging to the cissoid; and colours; the plants continue their leaves
from F draw F D, F P, at right angles to all the year, they are most of them hardy
each other, and let F P be = A G'; then enough to live in the open air all the win-
if the square PED be so moved that one ter, except in very severe ones, which
side E P always passes through the point often destroy many of them; so that a
P, and the end D of the other side ED plant or two of each sort should be
slides along the right line F D, the mid- kept in pots, and sheltered, to preserve
dle point of the side E D will describe the kinds. They are natives of warm cli-
one leg G C of the cissoid; and by con-
tinuing out FD on the other side F, CITADEL, a place fortified with four,
and turning the square about by a five, or six bastions, built on a convenient
like operation, the other leg may be de- ground near a city, that it may command
scribed
it in case of a rebellion. The city there-
This curve may likewise be generated fore is not fortified on the part opposite
by points in the following manner: to the citadel, though the citadel is
.
CIT
CIT
against the city. The best form for a ci- towns, and enabled the towns to gain
tadel is a pentagon, a square being too great privileges from those sovereigns
weak, and a hexagon too big.
who most needed their assistance, as
CITATION, in ecclesiastical courts, is King John in England; and in some in-
the same with summons in civil courts. stances to become independent, as was
A person is not to be cited out of the dio- the case with the little republics of Italy,
cese where he lives, unless it be by the and the imperial cities in Germany.
archbishop, in default of the ordinary, or CITRATES, in chemistry, salts formed
where the ordinary is party to the suit, by the combination of the citric acid, and
and in cases of appeal.
alkalies and earths: thus we have the ci
CITHAREXYLUM, in botany, English trate of potash ; the citrate of soda, &c.
fiddle-wood, a genus of the Didynamia An- See Citric Acid.
giospermia class and order. Natural or- CITRIC acid, in chemistry, is found in
der of Personatæ Vitices, Jussieu. Es. the juice of lemons and limes, and is
sential character: calyx five-toothed, bell- that which gives it the sour taste. It is
form ; corolla funnel-wheel-form ; seg- mixed, however, with mucilaginous and
ments above, equal; berry two-seeded; extractive matter. Scheele found that it
seeds two-celled. There are five species; could not be obtained pure and crystal-
all natives of the West Indies.
lized by mere evaporation of the lemon
CITIES, rise of After the fall of the juice, and that even the addition of alco-
Roman Empire, the proprietors of land hol did not separate completely the fo-
lived principally on their own estates; the reign matter. The process he followed is
towns were inhabited by mechanics and to saturate the expressed juice of the
tradesmen, chiefly in the condition of lemon, by the addition of chalk. The
slaves. The people, to whom it was citric acid, combining with the lime, forms
granted as a privilege that they might an insoluble compound, which of course
give away their own daughters in mar. precipitates. This is well washed with
riage without the consent of their lord, warm water, until the water pass off co-
and that upon their death their own chil. lourless; and in this way the mucilage
dren and not their lord should succeed to and extractive matter are abstracted. The
their goods, must have previously been citrate of lime is then subjected to the
in entirely or nearly the same state of action of as much sulphuric acid, previ-
viilanage as the occupiers of land in the ously diluted, as is sufficient to saturate
country. They seem to have been much the lime of the quantity of chalk that has
on a level with the hawkers and pedlars been employed. The citric acid is disen-
of modern times.
gaged and dissolved by the water ; the
They were generally obliged to pay mixture is boiled for a few minutes, to
some tax or toll for the privilege of sell facilitate the precipitation of the sulphate
ing their goods at particular places. As of lime, and is then filtered. The filtered
this source of revenue was thought of liquor is evaporated to the consistence of
some importance by the feudal sove- syrup, and sulphate of lime separated
reigns and lords, in order to ensure its re- during the evaporation being withdrawn;
gular payment, they were induced in many and, on cooling and standing for some
instances to farm it out for a certain sum time, the citric acid is obtained in needle-
to the inhabitants of different towns, who, like crystals.
in order to enforce its payment by the Citric acid exists in a number of other
traders, were invested with the pow. fruits, from which it may be extracted,
ers and privileges still possessed by the and much, it is said, of what is at present
corporations of cities and boroughs. A found in the shops, is prepared from the
town thus became a privileged place, of juice of the lime. From Vauquelin's an-
which traders were not only the inhabi. alysis of the pulp of the tamarind, it ap-
tants, but the governors, at least in all that pears to be the chief acid constituent of
related to internal management.
that fruit; one pound of the common pre-
The turbulent feudal lords were often pared pulp of the shops containing an
incited by the riches of the burghs to at- ounce and a half, with smaller quantities
tempt to plunder their houses and ware- of malic and tartaric acids. This acid is
houses ; hence the owners naturally fear- very soluble in water. At a moderate
ed and hated the lords; the sovereigns temperature, 100 parts of water dissolve
of the different states of Europe, for 75 parts, cold being produced during the
other reasons, likewise hated and feared solution ; at 212° it dissolves twice its
the lords; this served as a bond of union weight of it. Like the other vegetable
between the sovereigns and the corporate acids, its solution undergoes spontaneous
CIT
CIV
decomposition, though not very readily. coal. It consists of 36 of acid, and 64
The more powerful acids decompose it, of oxide.
though with some difficulty. Concen. Citric acid, in its crystallized state, can
trated sulphuric acid converts it into ace- be preserved for any length of time with-
tic acid. 'Scheele remarked, that nitric out decomposition, and a grateful lemon-
acid did not convert it, as it did some of ade may be prepared from it, by dissolving
the other vegetable acids, into oxalic 30 or 40 grains in a pint of water, with the
acid; but Fourcroy and Vauquelin have addition of a little sugar; and to communi-
found, that when acted on by a large cate flavour, a little lemon peel, or powder,
quantity of nitric acid for a long time, it formed by rubbing sugar on the fresh le-
affords a small portion of oxalic, with a mon. The lemon juice may be regarded
larger portion of acetic acid.
as a specific in scurvy and there is every
Citric acid combines with the alkalies probability that the crystallized citric acid
and earths, forming salts denominated may be equally effectual.
citrates. The citrate of potass is very CITRUS, in botany, a genus of the Po-
soluble, and does not crystallize but with lyadelphia Icosandria class and order.
difficulty, and is deliquescent : its taste is Natural order of Bicornes Aurantia, Jus-
purely saline, and rather mild. It con- sieu Essential character : calyx five-
tains 55.55 of acid, and 44.45 of alkali. cleft; petals five, oblong; anthers twenty;
Citrate of soda is likewise very soluble, filaments united into various bodies; berry
requiring little more than its weight of nine-ceiled. There are five species ; of
water for its solution: it crystallizes in which we shall notice the C. aurantium,
six-sided prisms, and the crystals are orange-tree; of this there are sixty varie-
slightly efforescent. Their taste is faintly ties. 1. Seville orange, which is a band.
saline; the proportions of the solid salt some tree, and the hardiest of any, as it
,
are 60.7 of acid, and 39.3 of soda. Ci- shoots freely in this country, and yields
trate of ammonia is equally or even more fruit of excellent quality for domestic
soluble than the others, and does not crys. uses. 2. The China orange, which does
tallize but when its solution is much con- not come to perfection here, but in warm
centrated : the form of its crystals is an countries it grows in the open ground.
elongated prism. It consists of 62 of acid, 3. The forbidden-fruit tree, which resem-
and 38 of ammonia. The earthy citrates bles the common orange, but the fruit
are in general less soluble. When the so- when ripe is larger and longer than the
lution of barytes is poured into the acid, a biggest orange : besides these, there are
precipitate, soluble in the liquid by agita- the horned orange; the hermaphrodite
tion, is formed; when the whole is satu- orange; and the dwarf. C. medica, the
rated, the salt is deposited at first in the citron tree ; of this species the lemon
form of a powder, which is covered after- tree is accounted a variety; of which
wards with a kind of crystalline efflores. there are many sorts. The flowers of
cence, and which a large quantity of water all the species appear in May and June,
dissolves. It consists of 50 of acid, and and the fruit continues setting in June
50 of base. When the citric acid is and July, and ripens the year following:
saturated by lime, small crystals are CIVET, a kind of perfume, bearing the
deposited, which are very sparingly so- name of the animal whence it is taken.
luble : 100 parts contain 62.66 of acid, The animal, commonly known by the
and 37.34 of lime. When saturated by name of the civet, or civet.cat, is the vi-
magnesia, the concentrated solution does verra civetta of Linnæus.
not easily crystallize regularly, but rather The civet is an animal of a wild dispo-
assumes the state of a wbite, opaque, and sition, and lives in the usual manner of
somewhat spongy salt. The proportions others of this genus, preying on birds,
of the salt, are 66.66 of acid, and 33.34 of the smaller quadrupeds, &c. It is a na-
base.
tive of several parts of Africa and India ;
Vauquelin has likewise examined the but not of America, as some have erro-
action of citric acid on the metals. It neously asserted; though it has been
does not dissolve silver ; but it com transported from the Phillippine Islands,
bines with its oxide, and forms a salt and the coast of Guinea. This animal, as
insoluble, of a harsh and strong metallic well as the zibet, though originally na-
taste, and which, like the other salts tives of the warm climates of Africa and
of silver, is blackened by light : it is Asia, are capable of subsisting in tempe-
also decomposed by heat, sometimes leav- rate and even in cold countries, provided
ing metallic silver intermixed with char. they are defended from the injuries of
VOL. II.
Сс
CIV
CLA
the weather, and fed with succulent appoints to be used within its own domi-
nourishment. Numbers of them are kept nions, and is so called in contradistinc-
in Holland, for the sake of procuring and tion to the natural year, which is mea-
selling the perfume which they yield, sured exactly by the revolution of the
called civet, and sometimes erroneously heavenly bodies.
confounded with musk. There is a con- CIVILIAN, in general, denotes some-
siderable traffic of civet from Bassora, thing belonging to the civil law; but
Calicut, and other places, where the ani- more especially the doctors and pro-
mal that produces it is bred: though fessors thereof are called civilians; of
great part of the civet among us is fur- these we have a college or society in
nished by the Dutch, who rear a consi: London, known by the name of Doctors-
derable number of the animals. That commons.
which is obtained from Amsterdam is CLAIM, a challenge of interest in any
preferred to that which comes from the thing that is in the possession of another,
Levant or India, because the latter is ge- or at least out of a man's own; as claim
nerally less pure. That brought from by charter, by descent, &c.
Guinea would be the best, if the negroes, CLAIRAULT (ALEXIS CLAUDE,) a ce-
as well as the Indians and Levanters, did lebrated French mathematician and aca-
not adulterate it with the juices of plants, demician, was born at Paris the 13th of
or with labdanum, storax, and other bal- May, 1713. His father, a teacher of ma-
samic and odoriferous drugs. The quan- thematics at Paris, was his sole instructor,
tity supplied depends much on the quali- teaching him even the letters of the al-
ty of the nourishment, and the appetite phabet on the figures of Euclid's Ele-
of the animal, which always produces ments, by which he was able to read and
more in proportion to the goodness of its write at four years of age. By a similar
food. See VIVERRA.
stratagem it was that calculations were
CIVIL death, any thing that retrenches rendered familiar to him. At nine years
or cuts off a man from civil society, as a of age he put into his hands Guisnee's
condemnation to the hulks, perpetual Application of Algebra to Geometry ; at
banishment, condemnation to death, out- ten he studied i'Hospital's Conic Sec-
lawry, and excommunication.
tions; and between twelve and thirteen
Civil law, is that law which every par. he read a memoir to the Academy of Sci-
ticular nation, commonwealth, or city, ences, concerning four new geometrical
has established peculiarly for itself. The curves of his own invention. About the
civil law is either written or unwritten; same time he laid the first foundation of
and the written law is public or private ; his work upon curves that have a double
public, which immediately regards the curvature, which he finished in 1729, at
state of the commonwealth, as the enact- sixteen years of age. He was named Ad-
ing and execution of laws, consultations joint-Mechanician to the Academy in
about war and peace, establishment of 1731, at the age of eighteen, Associate
things relating to religion, &c.; private, in 1733, and Pensioner in 1738. During
that more immediately has respect to the his connexion with the Academy, he had
concerns of every particular person. The a great multitude of learned and ingeni-
unwritten law, is custom introduced by ous communications inserted in their me-
the tacit consent of the people only, moirs, besides several other works which
without any particular establishment. he published separately. In the year
The authority of it is great, and it is 1750, the Academy of Petersburgh pro-
equal with a written law, if it be whol. posed a prize on the subject of the lunar
ly uninterrupted, and of a long continu- motions, which Clairault obtained: and in
ance
a few years he obtained another prize on
The civil law is allowed in Great Bri- the same subject. He was during life a
tain in the two universities, for the train- most active and indefatigable man.
ing up of students, &c. in matters of fo. died in 1765, at the age of 52. His works
reign treaties between princes; marine are numerous, and his papers, inserted
affairs, civil and criminal; in the order in the memoirs of the Academy, may be
ing of martial causes; the judgment of found in the year 1727, and also for al-
ensigns and arms, rights of honour, &c. most every year till 1762 ; being upon a
Civil list, the money allotted for the variety of subjects, astronomical, mathe-
support of the King's household, and matical, optical, &c.
for defraying certain charges of govern- CLAMP in a ship, denotes a piece of
ment.
timber applied to a mast or yard, to pre-
CIVIL
Civil year, is the legal year, or annual vent the wood from bursting ; and also a
account of time, which every government thick plank lying fore and aft under the
CLA
CLA
beams of the first orlop, or second deck, bottom in the form of a thick sediment,
and is the same that the rising timbers are according to circumstances. Thus, to
to the deck.
clarify muddy cyder, the liquor is beaten
Clamp is likewise the term for a pile of up with a small quantity of fresh bul-
unburnt bricks built up for burning. lock's blood, and suffered to stand at rest
These clamps are built much after the for some hours, after which the liquor
same manner as arches are built in kilns, above is as clear as water, and almost as
viz. with a vacuity betwixt each brick's colourless, and at the bottom is a thick
breadth for the fire to ascend by; but tough cake, consisting of the coagulated
with this difference, that, instead of arch- blood which has carried down with it all
ing, they truss over, or over-span; that the opaque matter suspended in the li-
is, the end of one brick is laid about half quor. Albuminous and gelatinous sub-
way over the end of another, and so till stances act in the same manner. The
both sides meet within half a brick's effect of white of egg in this way is
length, and then a binding brick at the known to every one. It should be first
top finishes the arch.
mixed with the turbid liquor, without
CLAMP nails, such nails as are used to heat and by agitation. Afterwards, on
fasten on clamps in the building or re- applying less than a boiling heat, the al-
pairing of ships.
bumen of the egg coagulates, and carries
CLAN, a term used in Scotland to de- up with it all the opaque particles, leav-
note a number of families of the same ing the rest beautifully clear and limpid.
name, under a feudal chief, who protect- Sometimes clarification takes place in a
ed them, and, in return for that protec- very unaccountable manner. Thus, it is
tion, commanded their services as his fol- well known, that a handful of marl or
lowers, and led them to war, and on mi- clay will clarify a large cistern of muddy
litary excursions.
water, and marl is also used with advan-
CLAP net, a device for catching larks. tage in clarifying vinous liquors.
You erštice the birds with calls, and when CLARINET, in music, a wind instru-
they are within your distance, you pull a ment of the reed kind, the scale of
cord, and your net flies up and claps over which, though it includes every semitone
them.
within its extremes, is virtually defective.
CLARIFICATION, is the separation, Its lowest note is E, below F cliff, from
by chemical means, of any liquid from which it is capable, in the hands of good
substances suspended in it, and rendering solo performers, of ascending more than
it turbid. If a difference can be made be- three octaves. Its powers through this
tween clarification and filtration, it is, compass are not every where equal ;
that the latter is effected by mere me the player, therefore, has not a free
chanical means, but the former either by choice in his keys, being generally con-
heat or by certain additions, the action of fined to those of C and F, which are
which may be considered as chiefly che- the only keys in which the clarinet is
mical. The liquors subjected to clarifi- heard to advantage. The music for this
cation are almost without exception those instrument is accordingly usually written
animal or vegetable juices, in which the in those keys.
matter that renders them turbid is so CLARION, a kind of trumpet, whose
nearly of the same specific gravity with tube is narrower, and its tone acuter
the liquor itself, that mere rest will not and shriller, than that of the common
effect a separation. In these too the li- trumpet.
quid is generally rendered thicker than CLARO obscuro, or CLAIR obscure, in
usual by holding in solution much muci- painting, the art of distributing to advan-
lage, which further entangles the turbid tage the lights and shadows of a piece,
matter, and prevents it from sinking. both with regard to the easing of the eye,
Hence it is that vinous fermentation has and the effect of the whole piece. See
so powerful an effect as a clarifier, since PAINTING,
this process always implies the destruc- CLASS, an appellation given to the
tion of a portion of saccharine mucilage, most general subdivisions of any thing.
and the consequent production of a thin Thus, in the Linnæan system of natu-
limpid spirit.
ral history, the animal creation is divid-
Coagulating substances are great clari- ed into six classes, viz. MAMMALU,
fiers when mixed with any turbid liquor, Aves, AMPHIBIA,
, Pisces, INSECTA,
,
the process of coagulation entangling with VERMES.
it all matters merely suspended and not Class, in botany, denotes the primary
dissolved, and carrying them either to division of plants into large groups, each
the top in the form of a scum, or to the of which is to be subdivided, by a regu:
CLA
CLA
lar downward progression, in orders, or ral substances, nearly allied to some of
sections as they are called by Tourne- the clays, and which become plastic by
fort, genera, and species, with occasional decomposition. Clay, however, is by no
intermediate subdivisions, all subordinate means strictly a mineral species, being
to the division which stands immediately in most cases the result of the decompo-
above them. So that the classes have sition of other minerals. It seems ad.
been compared to the first layer of a visable therefore to consider the pro-
truncated pyramid, which increases gra- perty of plasticity as an essential cha-
dually as it receives the orders, genera, racter, and to exclude from the class of
and occasional intermediate subdivisions, clays all earthy bodies that are destitute
till at length it terminates in an immense of it.
base, consisting entirely of species. Ac- Mineralogists have generally arranged
cording to the definition of Linnæus, a all the plastic clays under two species,
class is founded on the agreement of the rather from the economical uses to which
several genera with each other in the they are applied, than according to their
parts of fructification, according to the external characters, composition, or geo-
principles of nature and art. It is ob- logical situation. The first species is
served, that, in the formation of classes, the white infusible porcelain clay, and
they should not be very numerous, and the second contains all the rest com-
that their boundaries should be strongly pounded together, under the general
and distinctly marked.
appellation potter's clay. We have,
CLATHRUS, in botany, a genus of however, a different arrangement in
Fungi. Essential character: roundish, Aikin's dictionary, which we shall lay be-
consisting of a reticular, windowed, hol-fore the reader.
low body; the ramifications connected Essential character: plastic by inti-
on every side. Linnæus reckons only mate mixture with water.
four species, other botanists seven and 1. Porcelain clay. Its colour is gene-
eight.
rally reddish white, also greyish and yel-
CLAVA, in natural history, a genus of lowish white; it has no lustre, no trans-
Vermes Mollusca. Body fleshy, grega- parency. It occurs either friable or com-
rious, clavate, and fixed by a round pe- pact; stains the fingers; adheres to the
duncle ; aperture single and vertical. tongue ; is soft, but meagre to the feel; is
There is but one species, viz. C. parasiti- easily broken. Specific gravity about
ca, covered with pellucid conic erect 2.3. It falls to pieces in water, and by
spines. It inhabits the Baltic, on sea kneading becomes ductile, though not in
weeds, shell fish, and floating timber. a very great degree. The Cornish por-
Like the Hydra, it possesses the power celain clay certainly originates from the
of dilating and contracting the mouth. decomposition of felspar, and contains
See Hydra.
particles of quartz, mica, and talc, from
CLAVARIA, in botany, a genus of which it is separated by eleutriation. The
Fungi; one of the lowest order in the Chinese kaolin also contains mica, and is
scale of vegetation, differing sometimes probably of the same origin as the Cor-
very little in substance from the rotten nish. The same remark may be applied
wood whence it issues. It is a smooth to the French, &c. It is, however, by no
oblong body, of one uniform substance. means certain, that all porcelain clay is
CLAVICLES, in anatomy, are two derived from felspar, as it varies consi-
bones situated transversely and a little derably in its composition and fusibility;
obliquely opposite to each other, at the all the kinds indeed are infusible at any
superior and anterior part of the thorax, temperature less than a white heat ; but
between the scapula and sternum. some, especially the Japanese, are re-
CLAUSE, signifies an article or parti- fractory in the most powerful furnaces.
cular stipulation in a contract, a charge The Cornish clay, according to Wedge-
or condition in a testament, &c.
wood, consists of 60 per cent. alumina,
Thus we say, a derogatory clause, a and 40 silex.
penal clause, saving clause, codicillary 2. Steatitic clay. Its colour is a light
clause, &c.
flesh red, passing into cream colour ; its
CLAY. Any natural earthy mixture, texture is minutely foliated; it has a
which possesses plasticity and ductility slight somewhat greasy lustre, and takes
when kneaded up with water, is in com-
with water, is in com- a polish from the nail. It stains the fin-
mon language called a clay. All mine- gers, is very friable, and has a smooth
ralogists, however, have comprehended unctuous feel. When laid on the tongue,
within the appellation, not only clays, it dissolves into a smooth pulp, without
properly so called, but a few other mine. any gritty particles. It is very plastic,
CLAY.
or 12
and has a strong argillaceous odour. It largely employed as a manure, and where
occurs in nodules, in a hard cellular horn the calcareous part does not exceed 10
а
stone, that forms large moutainous masses per
cent. it is esteemed as a mate-
near Conway, in North Wales, and origi. rial for bricks.
nates from the decomposition of indurat- 7. Clay from metallic veins. Its colour
ed steatite.
is grey, verging into bluish, greenish,
3. Clay from slate. Its colour is ash- and yellowish, or red. It has a smooth
grey, passing into ochre-yellow : its tex- unctuous feel, is very tenacious; often
ture is foliated : it has a smooth unctuous contains sulphuric acid, and certain me-
feel, and its siliceous particles are so tallic oxides, which are never observed
small, as to occasion scarcely any gritti- in other clays, such as lead, silver, anti-
ness between the teeth. It occurs in mony, copper, and bismuth. Is found in
thin beds on the tops of the softer kinds metallic veins.
of slate-rock, and from its impervious- 8. Alluvial clay. The circumstances
ness to water is always found lining the which characterize alluvial clay are the
bottoms of the peat-mosses, with which following. It contains a larger propor-
this kind of mountains is generally cover- tion of quartz sand than the preceding ;
ed, and in these situations it is of a white rounded pebbles of various kinds are
ash colour, being deprived of its iron also imbedded in it; thus showing it to
and carbon by the acid of the peat. It have been carried from its native situa-
also occurs in thicker beds at the foot of tion, and mingled in its progress with a
the mountains, but is of a darker colour, variety of extraneous bodies. At least
and less plastic.
three kinds of it may be distinguished ;
4. Clay from shale. Its colour varies viz. pipe clay, potter's clay, and chalky
from greyish blue to bluish black : its clay. Pipe clay is of a greyish or yellow-
texture is foliated : it has a smooth unc- ish white colour, an earthy fracture, and
tuous feel, takes a polish from the nail, a smooth greasy feel; it adheres pretty
is excessively tenacious and ductile, and strongly to the tongue ; is very plastic
has but a slight degree of grittiness. It and tenacious; when burnt is of a milk-
occurs abundantly in all collieries, and is white colour; is difficultly fusible, though
produced by the spontaneous decompo- much more so than porcelain clay, from
sition of the shale with which the beds of which it is further distinguished by its
coal are covered. A sandy clay, of a superior plasticity, and the sand which it
greyer colour, and more refractory na- contains. It is manufactured into tobac-
ture, is procured from the decomposition co pipes, and is the basis of the white or
of the indurated clay that forms the queen's-ware pottery. Potter's clay is
floor of the coal, and is provincially call- of a reddish, bluish, or greenish colour;
ed clunch. The Stourbridge clay, from has a somewhat fine earthy fracture, and
which crucibles, glass-house pots, &c. a soft, often greasy, feel it adheres to
are made, is of this kind.
the tongue, and is very, plastic. It
5. Clay from trap. At the foot of the burns to a hard, porous, red brick; and
softer rocks of trap-formation, such as in a higher heat runs into a dark colour-
wakke, clay-porphyry, and some varie- ed flag. When tempered with water,
ties of grunstein and hornblende rock, and mixed with sand, it is manufactured
are found in beds of clay, evidently ori- into bricks: those varieties that are
ginating from the gradual disintegration the most free from pebbles are made into
of these by the weather.
tiles and coarse red pottery. See Alu-
6. Marly clay. The colour of this is MINA.
bluish or brownish red: it occurs either Clay stone, in mineralogy, is of a
compact or foliated: it has a soft unc- greenish, bluish, or grey colour, some-
tuous feel, takes a polish by friction with times marked by brownish yellow spots
the nail, is very plastic, more or less and stripes. It occurs in mass, is opaque,
gritty, though not so much so as the com- dull, frangible, and soft. It forms large
mon alluvial clay. It burns to a brick of mountainous masses, occurring in beds
a buff or deep cream colour, and at a and veins.
high heat readily enters into fusion. It CLAYTONIA, in botany, so named in
effervesces strongly with acids, and con- honour of Mr. John Clayton, a genus of
tains from one-fourth to one-tenth of the Pentandria Monogynia class and or
carbonated lime. It originates some- der. Natural order of Succulenta. Por-
times from the decomposition of com- tulacea, Jussieu. Essential character:
pact argillaceous lime-stone ; but more calyx two-valved; corolla five-petalled ;
frequently from the softer siaty varie- stigma trifid ; capsule three valved, one-
ties usually called stone mari. It is celled, three-seeded. There are two
CLE
CLE
species, riz. C. Virginica and C. Sibirica, three next above to the last part but
and Pursh has described a new species one; the five next to the tenth hour;
found in the United States.
lastly, the twenty-three last to the first
CLEF, or CLIFF, in music, a mark set hour. For since the times increase in
at the beginning of the lines of a song, the series of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3,
which shows the tone or key in which 4, 5, &c. and the altitudes, if the nume-
the piece is to begin ; or it is a letter ration be in a retrograde order from the
marked on any line, which explains the twelfth hour, increase in the series of the
rest. It is called clef, or key, because unequal numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. the al-
hereby we know the names of all the titudes computed from the twelfth hour
other lines, and consequently the quan- will be as the squares of the times 1, 4,
tity of every degree or interval: but be- 9, 16, 25, &c. Therefore the squares of
cause every note in the octave is also the whole time, 144, comprehend all the
called a key, this letter marked is, for parts of the altitude of the vessel to be
distinction sake, denominated the signed evacuated. But a third proportional to
clef; and by this key is meant the prin- 1 and 12 is the square of 12, and conse-
cipal note of a song, in which the melody quently it is the number of equal parts in
closes. See MUSIC.
which the altitude is to be divided, to be
CLEMATIS, in botany, virgin's bower, distributed according to the series of the
a genus of the Polyandria Polygamia unequal numbers, through the equal in-
class and order. Natural order of Mul- terval of hours. There were many kinds
.
tisilique. Ranunculaceæ, Jussieu. Essen- of clepsydræ among the ancients; but
tial character: calyx none; petals four, they all had this in common, that the
sometimes five, or even six; seeds water ran generally through a narrow
having a tail. There are twenty-one passage, from one vessel to another,
species.
and in the lower was a piece of cork
CLEOME, in botany, a genus of the or lightwood, which, as the vessel
Tetradynamia Siliquosa class and order. filled, rose up by degrees, and showed
the hour.
Natural order of Putamineæ. Cappa-
rides, Jussieu. Essential character: nec-
CLERGY, a general name given to the
tareous glands three, at each sinus of body of ecclesiastics of the Christian
the calyx, except the lowest ; petals all church, in contradistinction to the laity
ascending ; silique one-celled, two-valv- The privileges and immunities which the
ed. There are twenty-three species, clergy of the primitive Christian church
all of them natives of very warm coun- enjoyed deserve our notice. In the first
tries.
place, when they travelled upon neces-
CLEONIA, in botany, a genus of the tained by their brethren of the clergy, in
sary occasions, they were to be enter-
Didynamia Gymnospermia class and or- all places, out of the public revenues of
der. Natural order of Verticillatæ. La- the church. When any bishop, or pres-
biatæ, Jussieu. Essential character: fila- byter, came to a foreign church, they
ments forked, with an anther at one of were to be complimented with the hono-
the tips; stigma four-cleft. There is but rary privilege of performing divine offi-
one species, viz. C. lusitanica, sweet- ces, and consecrating the eucharist in
scented cleonia, is an annual plant, na- the church. The great care the clergy
tive of Spain and Portugal.
had of the characters and reputations of
CLEPSYDRA, a water-clock, or in- those of their order appears from hence,
strument to measure time by the fall of a that in all accusations, especially against
certain quantity of water.
bishops, they required the testimony of
The construction of a Clepsydra. To di- two or three witnesses of good charac.
vide any cylindrical vessel into parts, to ter: nor was any heretic admitted as an
be emptied in each division of time, the evidence against a clergyman. With re-
time wherein the whole, and that where- gard to the respect paid to the clergy by
in any part is to be evacuated, being the civil government, it consisted chief
given. Suppose a cylindrical vessel, ly in exempting them from some kind
whose charge of water flows out in twelve of obligations to which others were
hours, were required to be divided into liable, and grantmg them certain privi-
parts, to be evacuated each hour. 1. As leges and immunities which others did
the part of time 1 is to the whole time not enjoy.
12, so is the same time 12 to a fourth By the ecclesiastical laws, no clergy-
proportional 144. 2. Divide the altitude man was allowed to relinquish his sta-
of the vessel into 144 equal parts: here tion without just grounds and leave;
the last will fall to the last hour; the but in some cases resignation was allow-
CLE
CLE
ed of, as in old age, sickness, or other in- the exercise of arms, and none left but
firmities.
the ecclesiastics to cultivate the sci-
The privileges of the English clergy, ences.
by the ancient statutes, are very con- CLERK of the affidavits, the officer, in
siderable: their goods are to pay no toll the court of Chancery, who files all afli-
in fairs or markets; they are exempt davits made use of in court.
from all offices but their own ; from CLERK of the assize, the person who
the king's carriages, posts, &c. from writes all things judicially done by the
appearing at sheriff's tourns, or frank- justices of assize, in their circuits.
pledges; and are not to be fined or Clerk of the bails, an officer in the
amerced according to their spiritual, but court of King's Bench, whose business it
their temporal means. A clergyman ac- is to file all bail-pieces taken in that court,
knowledging a statute, his body is not to where he always attends.
be imprisoned. If he be convicted of a CLERK of the check, an officer belong-
crime, for which the benefit of clergy is ing to the King's court, so called, be-
allowed, he shall not be burnt in the cause he has the check and controlment
hand; and he shall have the benefit of the of the yeomen of the guard, and all other
clergy in infinitum, which no layman can ordinary yeomen that belong to the
have more than once.
King, Queen, or Prince. He likewise,
The clergy, by common law, are not to by himself or deputy, sets the watch in
be burdened in the general charges of the court. There is also an officer in the
the laity; nor to be troubled nor incum- navy of the same name, belonging to the
bered, unless expressly named and King's yards.
charged by the statute ; for general CLERK of the crown, an officer in the
words do not affect them: thus, if a King's Bench, who frames, reads, and re-
hundred be sued for a robbery, the cords all indictments against offenders,
minister shall not contribute ; neither there arraigned or indicted of any pub-
shall they be assessed to the highway, to lic crime. He is likewise termed clerk of
the watch, &c.
the crown-office, in which capacity he
The revenues of the clergy were an- exhibits informations, by order of the
ciently more considerable than at pre- court, for divers offences.
sent. Ethelwolph, in 855, gave them a CLERK of the crown, in chancery, an
tythe of all goods, and a tenth of all the officer whose business it is constantly to
lands in England, free from all secular attend the Lord Chancellor, in person or
services, taxes, &c. The charter where- by deputy, to write and prepare for the
by this was granted them, was confirm- great seal special matters of state by
ed by several of his successors; and commission, both ordinary and extraordi-
William the Conqueror, finding the nary; viz. commissions of lieutenancy, of
bishop rics so rich, created them into justices of assise, oyer and terminer, goal
baronies, each barony containing thir- delivery, and of the peace; all general
teen knight's fees at least; but since the pardons, granted either at the King's
reformation the bishoprics are much im- coronation, or in parliament: the writs
poverished. The revenues of the infe- of parliament, with the names of the
rior clergy, in the general, are small, knights, citizens, and burgesses, are
a third part of the best benefices being also returned into his office. He also
anciently, by the Pope's grant, appro- makes out special pardons, and writs
priated to monasteries, upon the disso- of execution on bonds of statute-staple
lution whereof they became lay-fees. In- forfeited.
deed an addition was made, 2 Annæ,
Clerk of the declarations, he that files
the whole revenues of first-fruits and all declarations after they are ingrossed,
tenths being then granted, to raise a fund in causes depending in the court of King's
for the augmentation of the mainte- Bench.
nance of the poor clergy; pursuant to
Clerk of the deliveries, an officer of the
which a corporation was formed, to whom Tower, whose function is to take inden-
the said revenues were conveyed in trust, tures for all stores and ammunition issued
&c.
from thence.
CLERGY, benefit of. See BENEFIT. CLERK of the errors, in the court of Com-
CLERK, a word originally used to de- mon Pleas, an officer who transcribes and
note a learned man, or man of letters ; certifies into the King's Bench, the tenor
whence the term became appropriated of the record of the action on which the
to churchmen, who were from thence writ of error, made out by the cursitor, is
called clerks or clergymen; the nobili- brought there to be determined. In the
ty and gentry being usually bred up to King's Bench the clerk of the errors tran-
CLE
CLE
a
scribes and certifies the records of causes standards of those that ought to be used
by bill, in that court, into the Exchequer: all over England.
and the business of the clerk of the errors CLERK of the ordnance, an officer that
in the Exchequer is, to transcribe the re. registers all orders concerning the King's
cords certified thither out of the King's ordnance in the Tower.
Bench, and to prepare them for judgment CLERK of the outlawries, an officer of the
in the Exchequer chamber.
Common Pleas, and deputy to the Attor-
CLERK of the essoins, in the court of ney General, for making out all writs of
Common Pleas, keeps the essoin roll, or capias utlagatum, after outlawry, to which
enters essoins: he also provides parch- there must be the King's attorney's name.
ment, cuts it into rolls, marks the number CLERK of the paper-office, an officer be-
on them, delivers out all the rolls to eve- longing to the King's Bench, whose busi-
ry officer, and receives them again when ness is to make up the paper-books of spe-
written. See EssOIN.
cial pleadings in that court
CLERK of the estreats, an officer in the CLERK of the Parliament-rous, an officer
Exchequer, who every term receives the in the House of Lords, and likewise in the
estreats out of the Lord Treasurer's re- House of Commons, who records all trans-
membrancer's office, and writes them out actions in Parliament, and engrosses them
to be levied for the crown.
fairly in parchment rolls.
CLERK of the hamper, or hanaper, an CLERK of the peace, an officer belonging
officer in Chancery, whose business is to to the sessions of the peace, whose busi-
receive all money due to the King for the ness is to read indictments, inrol the pro.
seals of charters, letters patent, commis- ceedings, and draw the process; he like-
sions, and writs; also the fees due to the wise certifies into the King's Bench tran-
officers for enrolling and examining them. scripts of indictments, outlawries, attain-
CLERK of the enrolments, an officer of ders, and convictions, had before the jus-
the court of Common Pleas, that enrols tices of the peace, within the time limited
and exemplifies all fines and recoveries, by statute, under a certain penalty. This
aud returns writs of entry.
office is in the gift of the Custos Rotulorum,
CLERK of the juries, an officer of the and may be executed by deputy.
Common Pleas, who makes out the writs CLERK of the pells, an officer that be.
called habeas corpus and distringas, for longs to the Exchequer, whose business is
juries to appear either in that court, or at to enter every teller's bill into a parch-
the assises, after the pannels are return- ment roll, called pellis receptorum, and to
ed upon the venire facias. He likewise en- make another roll of payments, onlled
ters into the rolls the awarding these pellis exituum.
writs, and makes all the continuances till CLERK of the petty bag, an officer of
verdict is given
the court of Chancery, whereof there are
CLERK comptroller of the King's house three, the Master of the rolls being the
hold, an officer of the King's court, au- chief: their business is to record the re-
thorised to allow or disallow the charges turn of all inquisitions out of every shire,
of pursuivants, messengers of the green to make out patents of customers, gau-
clotb, &c. to inspect and control all de- gers, comptrollers, &c. liberates upon ex-
fects of any of the inferior officers, and to tents of statutes staple, conge d'elires for
sit in the countinghouse with the Lord bishops, summons of the nobility, clergy,
Steward and other officers of the house and burgesses to parliament, and commis-
hold, for regulating such matters. sions directed to knights, and others, of
CLERK of the King's silver, an officer of of every shire, for assessing subsidies and
the Common Pleas, to whom every fine taxes.
is brought, after it has passed the office CLERK of the pipe, an officer of the Ex-
of the custos brevium ; and who enters chequer, who, having the accounts of all
the effect of writs of covenant into a book debts due to the King delivered out of the
kept for that purpose, according to which remembrancer's office, charges them in a
all the fines of that term are recorded in great roll, folded up like a pipe. He writes
the rolls of the court.
out warrants to sheriffs, to levy the said
CLERK of the King's great wardrobe, an debts on the goods and chattels of the
officer who keeps an account of all things debtors : and if they have no goods, then
belonging to the wardrobe.
he draws them down to the treasurer's
CLERK of the market, an officer of the remembrancer, to write estreats against
King's house, to whom is given the charge their lands.
of the King's measures and weights, the CLERK of the pleas, an officer of the Ex-
CLE
CLI
a
ces, &c.
chequer, in whose office all the officers in court, or before a judge. His office is
of the court, having special privilege, likewise to estreat into the Exchequer all
ought to sue, or be sued, in any action. issues, fines, estreats, and amercements,
In this office also actions at law may be which grow due to the crown in that
prosecuted by other persons, but the court
plaintiff ought to be tenant or debtor to CLERODENDRUM, in botany, a genus
the King, or some way accountable to him. of the Didynamia Angiospermia class and
The under-clerks are attorneys in all suits. order Natural order of Personatæ. Viti -
CLERKS of the privy-seal, four officers ces, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx
that attend the Lord-privy-seal, for wri- five-cleft, bell shaped ; corolla with a fili-
ting and making out all things that are form tube and funnel shaped, five part-
sent by warrant from the signet to the ed, equal border; stamina very long, gap-
privy-seal, and to be passed the great-ing very much between the segments.
seal; and likewise to make out privy- Berry one seeded. There are eight spe-
seals, upon special occasions of his Majes- cies, natives of the East Indies, China, and
ty's affairs, as for loan of money, or the Japan.
like.
CLETHRA, in botany, a genus of the
CLERK of the rolls, an officer of the Decandria Monogynia class and order.
chancery, whose business is to make Nat. order of Bicornes. Ericæ, Jussieu.
searches after, and copies of deeds, offi- Essential character: calyx five parted ;
petals five; stigma trifid ; capsule three-
CLERK of the rules, an officer of the celled, three-valved. There are four spe-
Gourt of King's Bench, who draws up and cies, natives of North America.
enters all the rules and orders made in CLIBADIUM, in botany, a genus of the
court, and gives rules of course in divers Monoecia Pentandria class and order. Na-
writs.
tural order of Compositæ Oppositifoliæ.
CLERK of the signet, an officer continu- Corymbifera, Jussieu. Essential charac.
ally attendant upon his Majesty's princi- ter : male common calyx imbricate; Co.
pal secretary, who has the custody of the rolla of the disk five-cleft; female com-
privy signet, as well for sealing the King's mon calyx the same ; corolla of the ray
private letters, as those grants which pass female, three or four; seed an umbilicate
the King's hand by bill signed. There are drupe. There is but one species, viz C.
four of these officers, who have their diet surinamense, native of Surinam.
at the secretary's table.
CLIFFORTIA, in botany, so named in
CLERKS, six, officers in chancery, next honour of George Clifford, a merchant at
in degree below the twelve masters, Amsterdam, and a considerable botanist,
whose business is to enrol commissions, a genus of the Dioecia Polyandria class
pardons, patents, warrants, &c. which and order. Natural order of Tricoccæ.
pass the great seal : they were anciently Rosacea, Jussieu. Essential character:
clerici, and forfeited their places if they male calyx three-leaved, superior; sta-
married. They are also attorneys for mens about thirty Female calyx three-
parties in suits depending in the court of leaved, superior; corolla none; styles two;
chancery.
capsule two-celled: seed one. There are
Clerk of the supersedeas, an officer of nineteen species, all shrubs from the Cape
the Common Pleas, who makes out writs of Good Hope.
of supersedeas, forbidding the sheriff to
CLIMACTERIC, among physicians and
return the exigent upon a defendant's ap- natural historians, a critical year in a per-
pearing thereto on an outlawry.
son's life, in which he is supposed to
CLERK of the treasury, an officer belong. stand in great danger of death.
ing to the court of Common Pleas, who According to some, every seventh year
has the charge of keeping the records of is a climacteric; but others allow only
the court, makes out all records of nisi those years produced by multiplying 7,
prius, and likewise all exemplifications by the odd numbers 3, 5, 7, and 9, to be
of records being in the treasury. He has climacterical. These years, they say,
the fees due for all searches; and has un- bring with them some remarkable change
der him an under-keeper, who always with respect to health, life, or fortune;
keeps one key of the treasury door. the grand climacteric is the sixty-third
CLERK of the warrants, an officer of the year; but some, making two, add to this
Common Pleas, whose business is to enter the eighty-first: the other remarkable
all warrants of attorney for plaintiffs and climacterics are the seventh, twenty-first,
defendants in suit; and to enrol deeds of thirty-fifth, forty-ninth, and fifty-sixth.
bargain and sale, that are acknowledged The credit of climacteric years can only
VOL, II.
Dd
CLI
CLI
a
be supported by the doctrine of numbers length of the longest day, till they come
introduced by Pythagoras; though many to a parallel, under which the day is of
eminent men, both among the ancients the length of fifteen natural days, or half
and moderns, appear to have had great a month; from this parallel they proceed
faith in it.
to reckon the climates by the increase of
CLIMATE, in geography, a space half or whole months, in the artificial day,
upon the surface of the terrestrial globe, till they come to the pole itself, under
contained between two parallels, and so which the length of the day is six months.
far distant from each other, that the Those between the equator and the polar
longest day in one differs half an hour circles, are called hour climates; and
from the longest day in the other paral- those between the polar circles and the
lel. The difference of climates arises poles, monthly climates. Vulgarly, the
from the different inclination or obliquity term climate is bestowed on any country
of the sphere: the ancients took the or region differing from one another,
parallel wherein the length of the long- either in respect of the seasons, the qua-
est day is twelve hours and three quar-lity of the soil, or even the manners of
ters for the beginning of the first climate: the inhabitants, without any regard to
as to those parts that are nearer to the the length of the longest day.
equatorthan that parallel, they were not ac- CLIMAX, in rhetoric, a figure where-
counted to be in anyclimate, either because in the word or expression which ends
they may, in a loose and general sense, the first member of a period begins the
be considered as being in a right sphere, second, and so on; so that every mem-
though, strictly speaking, only the parts ber will make a distinct sentence, taking
under the equator are so; or because they its rise from the next foregoing, till the
were thought to be uninhabited by reason argument and period be beautifully fi-
of the heat, and were besides unknown. nished.
The ancients, considering the diversity CLIMBING plants, in gardening, are
there is in the rising and setting of the such plants as ascend either spirally
heavenly bodies, especially the sun, and, round supports, or by means of claspers
in consequence thereof, the difference and tendrils. They are either herbaceous
in the length of the days and nights in or woody, and which, according to their
different places, divided as much of the mode of climbing, may be denominated
earth, as was known to them, into cli- twining climbers, cirrhous climbers, and
mates; and instead of the method now parasitic climbers. The first sort includes
in use, of setting down the latitude of all such as have winding stalks, and twist
places in degrees, they contented them- about any neighbouring support, such as
selves with saying in what climate the scarlet kidney beans, hops, and some sort
place under consideration was situated. of honey-suckle. The second kind com-
According to them, therefore, what they prehends all such as ascend by means of
judged the habitable part of the northern spiral strings, issuing from the sides of
hemisphere was divided into seven cli- the stalks and branches, or from the foot-
mates, to which the like number of south-stalks of the leaves, and even from the
ern ones corresponded. A parallel is leaves themselves, twisting about any
said to pass through the middle of a cli- thing they meet with, by which their
mate, when the longest day in that paral- stalks are supported and arrive at their
lel differs a quarter of an hour from the proper height, such as most of the pea
longest day in either of the extreme pa- tribe, cucumber, vine, passion-flower,
rallels that bound the climate: this pa- and various others. And the last plants
rallel does not divide the climate into are also of the same kind, but their clasp-
two equal parts, but the part nearest to ers plant themselves as roots in the bark
the equator is larger than the other, be- of the plants on which they ascend, or in
cause the farther we go from the equator, the crevices of walls or pales, thereby
the less increase of latitude will be suf supporting themselves, and mounting to
ficient to increase the length of the long- their tops, as the ivy, virginia creeper,
est day a quarter of an hour.
radicant bignonia, and several others.
Some of the moderns reckon the dif- CLINCHING, in the sea-language, a
ferent climates by the increase of half an kind of slight caulking used at sea, in a
hour in the length of the longest day, be- prospect of foul weather, about the ports:
ginning at the equator, and going on till it consists in driving a little oakum into
they come to the polar circle towards the their seams, to prevent the water's com-
pole; they then count the climates by ing in at them.
the increase of a whole natural day, in the CLINK stone, in mineralogy, nearly
CLO
CLO
.
allied to BASALT, which see. It has re- any regulating part, most probably bad
ceived its name from the sound which it none superior to the flyer of a common
gives when struck. It occurs massive, roasting jack. Wallingford, at the begin-
and forms beds, and sometimes assumes ing of the fourteenth century, and Dondi
the columnar form; its colour is grey, at the end of the same, have each had the
with shades of green and yellow. Its honour of being supposed the first inven-
specific gravity is 2.5, and it is composed tors of clocks; the account given of Don-
of
di's clock by Petrus Paulus Vergerius (in
Silex .. .. 57.25
Vit. Princip. Carrar. tom. 16) makes it
Alumina .. 23.5
nearly similar to our church clocks; as,
Oxide of iron. 2.25
like them, it was placed on the upper part
Manganese 25
of a turret, or steeple, and spontaneously
Soda.
8.10
pointed out each of the twenty-four hours
Water
3.
in succession. There is still, however,
some doubt whether Dondi was the origi-
94.35
nal inventor.
Loss
5.65
Boethius, at the end of the fifth century,
Pacificus about the middle of the ninth,
100
and Gerbert at the end of the tenth, are
also regarded as the inventors of clocks,
but on rather doubtful authority.
CLINOPODIUM, in botany, a genus There are many documents to prove
of the Didynamia Gymnospermia class the existence of clocks, with wheels and
and order. Natural order of Verticillatæ. weights, in the middle of the fourteenth
Labiatæ, Jussieu. Essential character: century, and therefore there is more rea-
involucre many bristled, under the whorl. son for assigning this period to the inven-
There are five species.
tion than any other.
CLIO, in natural history, a genus of On comparing the various testimonies
Vermes Mollusca ; body oblong, noyant, relative to the origin of the clock, the fair-
generally sheathed, and furnished with est conclusion seems to be, that it is nei-
two dilated membranaceous arms or ther of so ancient a date as some writers
wing-like processes; tentacula three, be- suppose, nor yet among those more recent
sides two in the mouth. There are six inventions, which are placed in the last
species. The C. retuso uses its arms or two centuries, and that the first inventor
wings, which are submembranaceous, like is not certainly known
a pair of oars.
The opinion of Fer. Berthoud, who has
CLITORIA, in botany, a genus of the written more on the subject of clock-work
Diadelphia Decandria class and order. than any other man, is evidently most just,
Natural order of Papilionaceæ or Legu- which asserts that the clock is not the in-
minosea. Essential character: corolla vention of any one man, but an assemblage
inverted; standard very large, spreading, of successive inventions, each of which is
overshadowing the wings. There are worthy of a separate contriver. 1. Wheel.
five species.
work, which was known in the time of
CLITORIS. See ANATOMY.
Archimedes ; 2. the application of the
CLOCK, in horology, is a machine weight as a maintaining power ; 3. the use
which measures time with a degree of of the fly as a regulator ; 4. the ratchet
accuracy, that gives it a just preference wheel and click ; 5. the substitution of
over the clepsydra, and other methods the balance for the fly; and the escape-
anciently used for the same purpose. ment, which was necessarily introduced
See CLEPSYDRE.
at the same time; 6. the application of
The sphere of Archimedes, made two the dial and hands; and 7. the addition
hundred years before the birth of Christ, of the striking part.
is usually considered as the first attempt In the clock which was placed in a tow-
at the formation of a clock; it had, indeed, er of the palace of Charles V. in 1364,
a maintaining power, but being without by Henry de Wick, the regulating part
any kind of regulator, could only measure consisted of a balance, which vibrated
time, as a planetarium exhibits the motion backwards and forwards by an escape-
of the stars, with relative, but not with ment like that of common watches; it
positive precision
had no balance spring, but this deficien-
In 1232, a machine for measuring time cy was in some measure supplied by the
was sent by the Sultan of Egypt to the mode in which it was made to move ; its
Emperor Frederic II. but this, if it had arbor was vertical, and instead of resting
CLOCK.
on its lower point, was suspended from clock, and proved that he made one be.
above by a double cord, or cat-gut; the fore the year 1658.
twisting of this cord, caused by each vi- Galileo is supposed to have claims to
bration, tended to raise the balance, and the priority of the invention of the mode
its own weight made it descend again, of applying the pendulum to clock-work,
and at the same time turn round in the and his son Vincentio Galilei is reported
opposite direction, when the impulse of (Exper. del Acad. del Cimento) to have
the first pallet ceased to act on it. The made a pendulum clock so early as in
balance was very heavy, as weight was 1649, at Venice, suggested by his father's
necessary to make it act in the above discoveries. But it is thought that Huy-
manner; and this has caused the mode gens' method was much more masterly
of its operation to be mistaken by many, and scientific; and that the world is not
who supposed, that the cord was merely under any obligation to Galileo for the
added to prevent the great friction on invention ; for, if he really made it, the
the lower end of the arbor, which the manner of performing it was kept so se-
weight of the balance would cause. cret, that Huygens himself never heard
The introduction of the spiral spring, of it, though one of the most philosophi-
as a first mover, instead of a weight, cal characters of his time. There has
took place about the beginning of the another claimant appeared of late years
sixteenth century. Mr. Peckett, of Old for the honour of the invention, on the
Compton-street, had one of this construc- authority of Mr. Thomas Grignon, of Rus-
tion, which from an inscription on it in sel-street, Covent Garden, who produces
the Bohemian language, was made by a well authenticated writing of his fa-
Jacob Lech, of Prague, in the year ther's, to prove his having seen the in-
1525.
scription on the great clock, formerly
Clocks with the balances above des fixed in the turret of St. Paul's, Covent
cribed, imperfect as they were, gave, made by Richard Harris, of London, in
Garden, which ascertained that it was
however, some assistance to astronomy.
Tycho Brahe had four of them, but of 1641. This clock was regulated by a
such a massy construction, that a single long pendulum; and, if the above infor-
wheel in one of them which had but three mation is correct, must have been one of
wheels, contained 1200 teeth, and was the first made, as it precedes that said to
three feet in diameter. These clocks have been constructed by Vincentio Ga-
continued in use till about 1650, when lilei by eight years. Mr. Grignon senior
a new æra in the art commenced, by man of excellent character, and brought
the application of the pendulum as a re-
gulator.
to perfection the horizontal principle in
watches, and the dead beat in clocks,
Bernard, one of the professors of as- which the celebrated Tompion and Gra-
tronomy at Oxford, in the last century, ham were unable to effect. These circum-
has asserted that the Arabians used pen- stances render his testimony of consider-
dulums in astronomy long before the able weight,
above period, (as we know that Ricoli,
Huygens must, however, still be con-
Tycho Brahe, Langrenus, Vendelin, sidered as the chief introducer of the in-
Mersenne, Kircher, Hevelius, Monton, vention, which no one disputes having
and Galileo himself did,) in a detached been made by him, even though others
state ; but we do not find that any of them may be supposed to have made it like-
used it in conjunction with wheel work. wise, unknown to him. He also invented
According to professor Venturi, Sancto- a clock with a centrifugal regulator,
rius applied a pendulum to clock-work which is contrived to perform its move-
sometime before the year 1625; and ment in a curve that he has demonstrat-
Becker mentions a native of Switzerland, ed will render its gyrations isochronal,
called Juste Birge, who did the same in and which, at least, is worthy of a farther
1597 ; but these experiments, if really investigation before it be condemned to
made, never were sufficiently made pub- an oblivion that it probably does not me-
lic to benefit the world.
rit. But his discovery of the isochronism
The person to whom mankind is real- of all vibrations made by a pendulum
ly indebted for bringing this important formed to move in a cycloidal curve, is
discovery into universal notice, is the that which is the most noted, although it
celebrated Christian Huygens, of Zuy- has never yet been really applied to use.
lichen, who in his excellent treatise Mr. Huygens' method of doing so has
“De Horologio Oscillatorio,” has des- been shown clearly to be erroneous, by
cribed the construction of a pendulum Mr. Alexander Cummings, in his “ Trea-
a
CLOCK.
9
a
tise on Clock and Watch Making,” pub- pallets attached to an horizontal arbor,
lished in 1766, who has also asserted that acting at opposite sides of the upper part
the cycloidal principle would not be of of a horizontal crown wheel; the anchor
the benefit imagined, “as the inequality pallets, on the contrary, act on a vertical
of the vibrations of the pendulum moving swing wheel, and move in the plane of
in a circular arc, correct those caused by the wheel. The chief advantage of the
the alteration of its weight from the va- anchor pallets is, that they will permit
riations of atmospherical gravity, so as the escape to take place with a small
mutually to balance each other, while in angle of vibration, so as to prevent the
those moving in cycloidal curves, there maintaining power from acting on the
is no principle to counteract the varia- pallets a long time by a direct push, as
tions of gravity.” It must, however, be was the case with the crown wheel es-
noticed, that Mr. Cummings is evidently capement.
not correct in his statement, that the loss Dr. Hooke also claimed the invention
of specific gravity in the pendulum, of the anchor escapement, which he as-
caused by an increase in the weight of serted that he exhibited to the Royal So-
the atmosphere, would equally tend to ciety in a clock of his construction in
prolong its vibrations, as the increased 1666.
resistance caused to its motion by the At the same time with the anchor es-
same means, would tend to diminish capement, the mode of suspending the
them : as he has by no means proved the pendulum from a cock by a piece of watch
equality of those opposite effects. Mr. spring was introduced.
Cummings also mistakes the loss of rela- The anchor escapement causes a re-
tive gravity, for the loss of real gravity; coil in the swing wheel, from the same
the momentum of a body in motion is ge- face of the pallet striking the tooth of
nerally considered to be the same in dif- the wheel in its descent, which is after-
ferent mediums, except so far as the ad- wards impelled by the same tooth in its
ditional resistance from a denser medium ascent; this occasions the clock, in
retards it, and so far from Mr. Cum- which it is used, to go faster when the
ming's opinion in opposition to this be- maintaining power is increased, or when
ing as evident as he supposes, it is well the weight of the pendulum ball is dimi-
known that no proof has ever been ad- nished.
vanced to support it.
The advantage gained by the anchor
Many very curious and useful theo- escapement shewn above may be consi-
rems have been discovered relative to dered in reality an approximation to a de-
the pendulum, most of which originated tached escapement; a farther step was
with Huygens, among these one of the made towards this improvement about
most noted is that, “The times wherein the year 1715, by the celebrated George
pendulums of different lengths perform Graham, in the contrivance of the dead-
their vibrations, are to one another in the beat escapement, which is principally
same proportion with the square roots of distinguished from the anchor escape-
the lengths of the pendulums."
ment by having no recoil. This is ef-
fected by increasing the depth of the
The length of a pendulum vibrating. pallets in the line towards the centre of
the swing wheel, and so forming the
Inches.
teeth of that wheel, that the pallet in ac-
in a second is
S 39.125 Halley.
239.207 Newton.
tion, in its descent, does not touch the
teeth at all, but lies between them, and
in } a second is 9.801 Newton.
.
the tooth that impels it only comes in
contact with its inclined plane at the in-
And from these data, and the above stant previous to its ascent, when the op-
theorem, the lengths of pendulums to vi- posite pallet becomes free. To avoid the
brate any other required time may be wearing out of the parts most in action,
determined.
and the influence of friction, the best
The next improvement of consequence clocks of this construction have swing
on clocks after the pendulum, was the es- wheels of hardened steel, with pallets of
capement performed with anchor pallets, ruby or agate.
which Berthoud states to have been the The detached escapement completed
invention of Clement, a London clock the improvement of this part of clock-
maker, in the year 1680. The escape- work. Its object is to make the pendu-
ment used by Huygens, and still continu- lum perform the greatest part of each vi-
ed in many chamber clocks and all the bration entirely free from contact, or con-
wooden clocks, is that made by two flat nection, with any part of the train. To
CLOCK.
NOMETER
effect this, a catch, or locking piece, re- is but a very recent invention : but the
strains all the motion of the swing wheel, writer of this article having met with one
till the instant when the pallet is to be by accident, which was made upwards of
impelled by it, when it raises the catch, thirty years ago, thinks it but justice,
sets the wheel free, and is driven for both to the public, and the ingenious ar-
ward by its impulse; immediately after tist who directed its construction, to op-
which, the catch again falls into its place. pose this opinion. This pendulum is in
A great variety of escapements have possession of Mr. Patoureaux, watch and
been contrived on this principle by vari- clock-maker, 15, Wardour Street. It was
ous ingenious men; those in which springs made by Mr. William Brown, a clock-
are used in the locking pieces instead of maker well known to the trade, who has
pivots, invented by Arnold, seem now been dead upwards of five years, and
most preferred.
who formerly resided near the Seven Di-
The detached escapement was applied als. His brother, a jeweller, residing in
first to chronometers, or time-pieces, but 15, Coventry Court, Haymarket, was his
is now used for astronomical clocks, executor, and sold the pendulum to Mr.
From the best accounts, Julien Le Roy Barrett, clock-maker, of Compton Street,
invented the first about 1748; since that some years ago, from whence Mr. Pa-
time, Grignon, Mudge, Cummins, Nichol- toureaux bought it. Mr. Brown, the jew.
son, and Arnold, have contrived various eller, informed the writer that this pen-
escapements of this kind in England ; and dulum had been made by his brother up-
Peter Le Roy, Sully, Du Tertre, De Be. wards of thirty years ago, just after he
thune, Le Paute, Arnaut, Robin, Berhad served his time to Mr. Chandler, then
thoud, &c. on the continent. See CHRO- of King Street, Seven Dials, (whom he
afterwards succeeded in his business ;)
In the year 1715, Mr. George Graham, and that it was made by direction of Mr.
before mentioned, made a most material Chandler, who, as far as he knew, was
improvement in pendulums, by affixing an the inventor of it: and in corroboration
apparatus which tended to raise the cen- of this assertion, Mr. Hampson, working
tre of gravity of the whole, as much as clock-maker, 22, Greek Street, Soho, de.
the lengthening of the rod by heat tended clares, that he made several pendulums
to depress it: this he performed by sub- of the same construction for Mr. Brown,
stituting a glass cylinder, containing mer. upwards of seven years ago. This tubu-
cury, for the pendulum ball He after- lar pendulum, which at present we must
wards suggested the idea of using the attribute to the ingenuity of Mr. Chand-
opposite expansions of different metals, as ler, is composed of two tubes and a
a compensation for the effects of varia. rod of iron, and two tubes of brass. The
tion of temperature of the air in pendu- iron rod is about a quarter of an inch in
lums, which was directly afterwards diameter, and is suspended by a spring in
adopted by Harrison, at that time an ob- the common manner : it is inclosed by
scure carpenter in the village of Barton, the first brass tube, to which it is con-
Lincolnshire, who surprised the world nected at bottom : an iron tube, sup-
with the invention of the gridiron pendu- ported by the top of the brass tube, then
lum on this principle.
descends a little below it, and supports
In Harrison's pendulum five bars of by its lower extremity the second brass
steel and four of brass were so arranged, tube, which rises a little above the for.
that they produced two expansions of mer tubes, and from the top of it the se-
brass upwards, and three of steel down- cond iron tube descends below all about
wards, so proportioned to each other, two inches into the substance of the
that the ascending expansions fully com- pendulum bob, which is very large and
pensated those in the contrary direction. heavy: the bottom of this last tube con-
This pendulum has been since its inven- tains a nut, into which a screw (having
tion generally used, where very accurate a milled head beneath that sustains the
measurement of time was necessary. A bob,) passes from below, and raises or
further description of it, of Elliot's pen- lowers the bob, as required for the ad-
dulum, (which was the next made on justment of the rate of going of the
this plan, and differs little from it) and clock. We may date the invention of
of the others here mentioned, will be in- the tubular pendulum from the fore-
serted under the article PENDULUM. going information, about the year 1775,
It has been supposed by several, that though it may yet be found to be of
the tubular pendulum, (which is also a a still earlier period. The foreman of
modification of Harrison's compensation) Mr. Villaumy, clock-maker to the Prince
CLOCK
:
of Wales, Pall Mall, declares, that he those shakes and irregular motions in
remembers a tubular pendulum to have their expansions which the others experi.
been made by Mr. Finney, a well-ence : on the other hand, as the outside
known clock-maker of Liverpool, up- tube alone in them comes in contact
wards of forty years ago, and that it is with the air through which it passes in
now in the possession of Mr. De Membry, its vibrations, the inner tubes can receive
of Richmond, but time will not permit much less of its influence as to tempera-
the farther investigation of this point at ture, which arises from this motion, and
present.
which Cummings has shewn to be of
The last modification of the longitu• considerable consequence. In Trough-
dinal compensation made public is that of ton's pendulum the great difference of
Mr Troughton, mathematical instrument the masses of matter between the ascend-
maker; it differs from Chandler's tubular ing and descending parts must be ano-
pendulum, in having but two tubes of ther source of error, as the small wires
brass, which afford the ascending com- of which the latter consist indubitably
pensations, while the descending ones are will much sooner experience the influence
performed by five wires of steel. The of a change of temperature in the air,
order of brass and steel is the same as in than the more bulky substance of the
Chandler's pendulum ; but all the steel tubes. In this latter respect Chandler's
wires pass downwards through the inter- tubular pendulum seems superior to
nal brass tube. The last pair of wires Troughton's, all its parts being much
connect the whole with the bobby a more nearly of the same magnitude.
short cylindrical piece of brass, to which More accurate comparative trials be-
the bob is suspended by its centre. tween these gridiron and tubular com-
Mr. Troughton made this pendulum pensating pendulums, than any which
in July, 1874, and published the first have yet been made, seem, however, ne-
account of it in December same year, cessary to determine the superiority of
in Nicholson's Philosophical Journal: we either; and the preference which many
believe he knew nothing of the priority of are now inclined to give the tubular con-
Chandler's tubular pendulum to his, struction seems more to arise from the
and that in thinking and declaring him- greater neatness of its appearance, than
self the first inventor of tubular pendu- from any sufficient experience of its higher
lums, he only fell into an error common merit.
to many other ingenious men on similar That it may be superior is very possi-
occasions ; and this error is the more ble; we only aver that this has not been
excusable, as at the time Chandler made yet proved. But if equal apertures were
his pendulum, there were no periodical made at both sides of tubular pendu-
works in existence which professedly re- lums, through all the tubes, it would ob-
corded the improvements of arts and ma- viate the chief objection to them, by ad.
nufactures, and artists were in general mitting the air to act on all their parts
more careful to conceal their discoveries at once.
than to acquire reputation by making them In the year 1803, the Society for the
public.
Encouragement of Arts gave a premium
Before concluding the enumeration of of 20 guineas to Mr. Massey, of Hornley,
various sorts of pendulums, one suggest. in Staffordshire, for a new striking part
ed by Mr. Troughton should be noticed, of a clock; the principal difference in
which seems worthy of trial. He pro- which from the common movement was,
poses that its rod should be made of that a pendulum about nine inches long,
baked potter's earth, of the same compo- and which therefore vibrated pretty nearly
sition of Wedgewood's thermometer, and half seconds, was used to regulate the
furnished with a metallic cap, by which it interval of time between the strokes, in-
should be sustained by the knife-edge stead of the common fly wheel. The
suspension, which the celebrated Ber- other parts of the mechanism were also
thoud affirms has less friction than the of a simpler construction than those of
spring suspension,
the striking parts of the clocks in com-
The chief advantages which tubular mon use.
pendulums have over those of the gridi- Mr. Prior, of Nessfield, in Yorkshire,
ron construction are, that they admit of also obtained a premium from the above-
being much lighter above the bob with mentioned society in the same year, of
equal strength; that they experience 30 guineas, for another contrivance for
less resistance from the air in their vibra- the striking part of a clock: of which the
tions; and that they are less liable to advantage consisted in the simplicity of
CLOCK.
its structure, and the precision of its per- Orbs.” And besides this, the pendulum
formance, and which therefore possess. was not applied as a regulator of clocks
ed considerable merit as a piece of me- for nearly a century afterwards.
chanism ; but neither of those inventions A few clocks have been constructed
being of any service to the great object of with a view directly contrary to those
horological machinery, namely, the pre- described, in which simplicity of parts
cise and accurate measurement of time, was as much studied as great variety
we have thought a farther description of of movements were in the others. Of
them needless here.
the clocks of this simple structure none
Clocks being considered in this point have as yet exceeded that contrived by
of view, as they doubtlessly should be, the celebrated Doctor Franklin : it shows
no great estimation can be attached at the hours, minutes, and seconds, and
present to those clocks on the continent yet consists of but three wheels, and
which were formerly so famous, whose two pinions. The lowest wheel contains
chief object seems to have been to set a 160 teeth, and goes round once in four
number of puppets in motion at stated hours; it carries the hand on its axle,
times. Of these the clocks of Stras- which points out both the hours and
burg and of Lyons were the most noted. the minutes, as will be described ; and
In the former a cock claps bis wings, it turns a pallet above it of ten leaves,
and proclaims the hour; and puppets, on the same axis with which is a wheel
intended to represent an angel, the Virgin, of 120 teeth, that gives motion to a
and the Holy Spirit, appear : the angel pallet of eight leaves. The second hand
opens a door, and salutes the virgin, is annexed to the same axis with this
and the Holy Spirit descends on her. In latter pallet, as also the swing wheel, 1
the clock of Lyons two horsemen en. which carries 30 teeth, that gives mo-
counter, and beat the hour on each tion to the pallets of an anchor escape-
other; a door opens and there appears ment, and to its pendulum that vibrates
on the theatre the image of the Virgin, seconds. The dial of this clock is of a
with that of Jesus Christ in her arms; singular formation. The external circle
the Magi, with their retinue, marching on it contains 240 divisions, numbered
in order, and presenting their gifts; from 1 to 60, in four successive notations.
two trumpeters sounding all the while, This circle shews the minutes : within
to proclaim the procession. Clocks with it the hours are arranged in four con-
chimes are of the same nature with centric circles, or in a volute of four
those described.
revolutions, along four radii, which form
In nearly the same rank with the fore- right angles with each other. By this
going must be classed the clocks made arrangement, while the point of the
to register the motions of the heavenly hand shews the minute, its side exhi-
bodies: they can be only considered as bits the hour; or, more strictly speaking,
objects of curiosity, since in point of shews that the hour is one of three; but
utility, in noting the position of the so that it will hardly ever happen that
heavenly bodies, the common nautical al- any doubt will remain of which it may be,
manacs are so superior, as to render it as there are four hours difference be-
in some degree ridiculous to compare tween the figures next to each other on
them together. The clock of the royal the same radial line. A small circle is
palace at Hampton Court is one of the placed above the great one, and divided
most noted of those which have move- into 60 parts for the seconds. This clock
ments of this nature; but other consider. was wound up by a line going over a
ations render this clock an object of great pulley and ratchet, on the axis of the
interest. According to Dr. Derham, it is great wheel, by which the weight was
the oldest English clock extant, having drawn up in the same manner as in the
been constructed in the year 1540, in common wooden clocks. Many of these
the reign of Henry VIII. It shews the clocks have been made, which are found
time of the day, and the motion of the to measure time exceedingly well.
sun and of the moon through all the de. The small imperfection in this clock,
grees of the zodiac, together with the of its leaving the uncertainty mentioned
day of the month, the moon's southing, as to which of three hours it denotes,
and other matters. These motions are though so easily corrected by the judg-
the more deserving attention, as at the ment, has given rise to some ingenious
time the clock was made, Copernicus, contrivances to obviate it.
then living, had not published his book That of Mr. Ferguson is best known,
« On the Revolutions of the Celestial in which the hours were engraved on the
CLOCK
a
face of the lower great-wheel; the with a dead beat escapement, and is in
seconds on that of the upper or swing- tended for a regulator
wheel; and the minutes were shewn in The description of the parts of an
a fixed dial outside all, through holes eight day clock, moved by weights, in-
cut in which certain small portions of serted a little farther on, with refer-
the other two moveable dials were ex- ence to the annexed plate, may serve,
hibited; the minute-hand was attached with a little addition, to give an idea
to the axle of the second great wheel, of the mechanism of a clock moved by
which contained 120 teeth, as well as the a main spring:
first great wheel; the swing wheel had The spring by which a clock is moved,
90 teeth, the axis of the second great consists of a long flat plate of steel coiled
wheel carries a pinion of 10 leaves, and up in a spiral form ; it is inclosed in a
that of the swing wheel a pinion of 6 cylindrical box, to which its external ex-
leaves But this clock had several im- tremity is attached, while its internal end
perfections, from which Dr. Franklin's is connected to a fixed axis, round
clock is free. The smallness of the teeth which the spring-box revolves. As the
of the swing wheel caused the pendulum strength of the spring is greater the
to describe smaller arcs than it should more it is coiled up by the turning round
do; the weight of the flattering, on the box, its action would be unequal in
which the seconds were engraved, load. impelling the work of the clock; and to
ed the axis of the swing wheel, so as remedy this inconvenience the fusee
to cause much friction in this part, wheel has been contrived. The fusee
which should be as free from it as
consists of a conical barrel, round which
possible, and there was a considerable an belical groove is cut, that receives a
difficulty in adjusting the hour plate chain or caigut, previously wound
so as to correspond with the minute round the spring box, by which, as it
hand.
is turned round, it coils up the spring;
Another very ingenious contrivance for the groove receives the chain first near
the base of the cone, and as the barrel
clock, on Dr. Franklin's principle, in the revolves, gradually brings it nearer the
,
possession of Mr. Patoureaux, clock axis ; by this means the stronger the
maker, Wardour-street, to which the spring is coiled up, the shorter is the
tubular pendulum, on Chandler's plan, and as it gradually uncoiis and becomes
lever by which it acts on the work ;
before mentioned, is annexed. To the
axis of the great wheel of this clock weaker, on the contrary the lever of ac-
tion becomes longer.
two concentric plates are annexed, the
external one of which has a groove cut
If instead of the barrel, in figure 2,
through it, along the line of a volute of on which the caigut from the weight is
through it, along the line of a volute of coiled, the fusee wheel described be
four revolutions. This groove forms a
trough, in which a metal ball is placed, supposed to be substituted, and the
part of which is seen through its ex- spiral spring, and its barrel and chain
cavations. As the plate and groove turn
to be added, a good idea will be ob.
round, the ball rolls along the volute, of the work may be the same as in the
tained of a spring-clock; as all the rest
still approaching nearer the centre as it
proceeds; and when at last it arrives
figure.
at the centre it falls into another trough, chambers, in places where weight-moved
Spring-clocks are generally used in
by which it is again conveyed to the ex- clocks would take up too much room.
ternal part of the volute; the hours are They are often so constructed that their
engraved between the revolutions of the frames do not hide any part of the
volute; and the minutes are marked on
an external fixed circle, to which an in. work, and are then inclosed with glass
dex, annexed to the volute plate, points. be seen; as they are designed for orna-
covers, so that all their movements may
We have not been able to discover who
is the author of this ingenious invention. ment as well as use, very elegant and
It is certainly a superior method to Fer- expensive decorations are frequently
added to them.
guson's. The moveable dial being in it
The invention of moving time-pieces
,
where of course its weight is of least con: by springs first gave rise to portable
sequence; and the adjustment for the time-pieces, or watches, for which see
hours and minutes being performed in it the articles CunoxOMETER and Horo-
at the same time. This clock is formed
Spring clocks are sometimes called
VOL. II.
LOGY
CLOCK.
portable clocks, but improperly, for no loss of time in winding up, Huygens was
pendulum clocks can be made so as to be in reality the person with whom the idea
portable : for this purpose the balance originated; for he contrived a method, by
;
wheel and its spring must be substituted which the weight of his clock should
for the pendulum, and it is this point that continue to act on the train while it was
makes the grand distinction between drawing up; the weight in his clock hav-
clocks and watches, or chronometers ; ing been made to draw up in a similar
the properties of the balance spring, as a manner to that used in the common
l'egulating power, will be found in the ar- wooden clocks, instead of being wound
ticles before mentioned.
up as in our metallic clocks, Patou-
Clocks for astronomical purposes, in reaux's clock has this contrivance.
which extraordinary nicety in the exact The following description of an eight
measurement of time is necessary, have day clock, with reference to the plate,
(besides the compensation pendulums, will, it is hoped, sufficiently shew its
detached escapements with jewelled pal- construction, and the plate will, it is
lets, and other improvements before presumed, assist in elucidating the va-
mentioned), a contrivance added to con- rious parts of clocks, and improvements
tinue their movement, while the weight before described.
is winding up, which was first used in Plate Clock-work, is a representation
spring-moved chronometers. For this of an ordinary eight-day clock, with re-
purpose, a second larger ratchet wheel peating, striking mechanism.
,
is added on the same arbor with that Fig. 1, Clock-work, is an elevation of
which admits the clock to be wound up, the clock sideways, shewing the pendu-
but with teeth pointing the contrary lum and going part; the striking move-
way; a strong spring, usually the great- ments are omitted in this figure, to avoid
est portion of a circle, connects this confusion ; fig. 2, is a projection of the
large ratchet wheel with the great wheel wheel-work of both going and striking
of the clock, which is on the same axis part: and fig. 3, is the dial-work, or me-
with it; one end of this spring being chanism immediately under the dial,
attached to the great wheel, and the (which is removed), and is that part
other end to the large ratchet; and a which puts the striking train in motion
catch proceeds from the inner face of the every hour. A clock of this kind con-
back plate to the teeth of this ratchet, tains two independent trains of wheel-
which prevents its moving back when work, each with its separate first mover;
the clock is winding up, and serves as a one is constantly going, to indicate the
support for the reaction of the maintain- time by the hands on the dial-plate ; the
ing spring. When the clock is left to the other is put in motion every hour, and
operation of the weight, the small ratchet strikes a bell, to tell the hour at a dis-
turns round the large one, and contracts tance. a. figures 1 and 2, is the barrel
or coils up the spring till it has strength of the going part; it has a catgut band 6
sufficient to impel the great wheel and wound round it, suspending the weight
train; and when the action of the weight which keeps the clock going ; 96 is a
is suspended, as in winding up, the wheel, (called the first or great wheel),
spring, freed from the contracting power of that number of teeth upon the end of
of the weight, expands itself and forces the barrel, turning a pinion of eight
round the great wheel; its action in the leaves on an arbor which carries the mi-
contrary direction on the great ratchet nute-hand. 64 is a wheel of 64 teeth on
being prevented by the catch before the same arbor, (called the centre wheel),
mentioned Le Roy is generally sup- turning the wheel 60 by a pinion of eight
posed to have invented this improvement leaves on its arbor; this last wheel gives
for his chronometers; but as he has motion to the pinion of eight, on the ar-
proved that the fusee is unnecessary bor of the swing wheel 30, of 30 teeth ;
when a detached escapement is used, d, h, are the pallets of the escapement
the same purpose might be answered, in fixed on an arbor e, fig. 1, going through
a much simpler manner, in those time. the back plate of the clock’s frame, and
pieces which are moved by springs, by carrying a long lever f; this lever has a
; a
turning round the arbor to which the in- small pin projecting from its lower end,
ternal end of the main-spring is attached, going into an oblong hole, made in the
in order to wind it up, instead of turning rod B of the pendulum. The pendulum
round the spring-box in the customary consists of an inflexible metallic rod, sus-
pended by a very slender piece of steel
Though Le Roy was the first who con- spring, D, from a brass bar, E, screwed
trived the spring impeller, to prevent to the frame of the clock, having a
a
manner.
CLOCK.
weight or bob at its lower end, in the 3: on the end of the arbor of the centre
present case 39.125 inches from the sus- wheel 64 a tube is fitted, so as to go
pension D; when this pendulum is mov- round with it by friction ; this carries
ed from the perpendicular line in either the minute hand, but if the clock should
direction, and suffered to fall back again, require correction, the hand may be
it swings nearly as much beyond the per- slipped round without moving the
pendicular on the contrary side, and then wheels : this tube has a pinion of 40
returns ; this it will continue to do for teeth on its lower end, indicated by a
some time, and each of these vibrations dotted circle; this turns another wheel
will be performed in one second of time, 40, of 40 teeth, which has a pinion of six
when the pendulum is of the above teeth on its arbor, turning a wheel 72, of
length. This is the measurer of the time; 72 teeth ; the two wheels 40 will both
and the office of the clock is only to indi- turn in an hour; and 72 in 12 hours : the
cate the number of vibrations it has arbor of this wheel has the hour-band,
made, and give it a small impulse each and is a tube going over the arbor of the
time to keep it going, as the resistance of minute-hand, so that the two hands are
the air and elasticity of the spring D concentric. The barrel a is fitted to an
would otherwise in a few hours cause it arbor coming through the plate of the
to stop. By the action of the weight ap- clock, and is filed square, to put on a key
plied to the cord b, (which is called the to wind up the weight; the great wheel
maintaining power), the wheels are all 96 is not fixed fast to the arbor, but has
turned round, and if the pallets dh were a click on it, which takes the teeth of a
removed, the swing wheel 30 would re- ratchet wheel cut upon the barrel; so
volve with great velocity in the direction that the barrel may be turned in the di-
from 30 to d, until the weight reached rection to wind up the weight without the
the ground; the teeth of these pallets wheel; but by the descent of the weight,
are so made, that one of them always en- the wheels will be turned by the click.
gages the wheel, and prevents it turning Having now described the going part
more than half a tooth at time. In the of the clock, it remains to describe the me-
drawing, the pallet d has the nearest chanism by which the hours are struck.
tooth of the wheel resting on it, and the 78, fig. 2, is a great wheel of 78 teeth, with
pendulum is on the side k of the perpen- a barrel and click the same as 96; it
dicular: when it returns it moves the turns a pinion of eight; 64 is a wheel on
pallet d, so as to allow the tooth of the the same arbor, turning a pinion of eighton
wheel to slip off'; but in the mean time the arbor of the wheel o of 48, this turns
the pallet h has interposed its point in the another pinion of eight, and wheel p of
way of the tooth next it, and stops the 48, which turns a pinion of six, on the
wheel till the next vibration or second; same arbor with a thin vane of metal,
the distance between the two pallets dh which is called the fly, and, by the resis-
is so adjusted, that only half a tooth of tance of the air to its motion, regulates
the wheel escapes at each vibration; and the velocity of the wheels. The wheel
as the wheel has 30 teeth, it will revolve, 64 has eight pins projecting from it; these
once in 60 vibrations of one second each, raise the tail n of the hammer, as they
or one minute ; consequently a hand on revolve ; the hammer is returned vio-
the arbor of this wheel will indicate se- lently when the pins leave its tail, by a
conds on the dial-plate F, a circle divid. spring m pressing on the end of a pin put
ed into 60, the pinion of eight on its ar- through its arbor, and strikes the bell,
bor is turned by a wheel of 60, which (the hammer and bell are behind the
consequently will turn once in seven plate, and therefore unseen,) I is a short
turns and a half of the other, or in seven spring, which the other end of the pin
minutes 30 seconds, or one-eighth of an through the arbor touches, just before
hour; its pinion of eight is moved by a the hammer strikes the bell; its use is to
wheel of 64, or eight times itself, which lift the hammer off the bell the instant it
will turn in one-eighth part of the time; has struck, that it may not stop the
this will be an hour ; the arbor of this sound. The eighth pin in the wheel 64
wheel therefore carries the minute hand must pass by the hammer tail 78 times
of the clock. The great wheel of 96, be- in striking the 12 hours, 1+2+3+4
ing 12 times the number of the pinion + 5+ 6+ 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 +11+
eight, will turn once in 12 hours, and the 12 = 78, and as its pinion has eight
barrel a with it. The gut goes round 16 leaves, each leaf of the pinion answers to a
times, so that the clock will go eighit pin in the wheel 64; now as the great
days. The hour-hand of the clock is wheel has 78 teeth, it will turn once in
turned by the wheel-works shewn in fig. 12 hours, the same as the other great
a
CLOCK.
wheel 96. In the wheel 64 eight of its we have said before, turns once in an
teeth correspond to one of the pins for hour, and consequently at the expiration
the bammer, and as the pinion of the of every hour the pin in it takes the end
wheel o has eight teeth, it (wheel o) will i, and moves it towards the spring near
turn once for each stroke of the hammer, it ; this depresses the end ko until it falls
By the remaining wheels, one, o, multiply- in the circle of the motion of the pin in
ing six, and the other, P, eight times, the the wheel p, fig. 2, at the same time the
fly will turn 6 x 8 = 48 times for one short tail depresses one end of the hawk's
turn of o = one stroke of the hammer. bill, and raises the other g', so as to clear
Fig. 3 is also mechanism relating to the the teeth of the racks, immediately the
striking part: r is a small pinion of one spring w throws the rack back, until the
tooth, called the gathering pallet, on the end of its tail i touches that part of the
arbor of wheel o, and consequently turns snail which is nearest it; when the rack
once for each stroke of the hammer; 3 is falls back, the pin in it is moved clear of
a segment of a large wheel which it turns, the gathering pallet r, and the wheels set
(called the rack); t is an arm attached at liberty; the maintaining power puts
to the rack, whose end rests against a them in motion ; but in a very short time
spiral plate V, called the snail; this is before the hammer bas struck, the pin in
fixed on the tubular arbor before describ- the wheel p falls against the end of k and
ed of the hour hand and wheel 72, and stops the whole : this operation happens
turns round with it once in 12 hours. a few minutes before the clock strikes,
The plate is divided into 12 equal angles, and this noise of the wheels turning is
30 degrees each, and as it turns, each of called the warning; when the hour is ex-
these answers to an hour; the circular pired, the wheel 40 has turned so far as
arcs forming the circumference of the to allow the end of i to slip over its pin,
snail are struck from the centre of the as in the figure ; the small spring press-
arbor between each division with a diffe- ing against it raises the end k so as to be
rent radius, decreasing a certain quantity within the circle of the pin in the wheel
each time in the order of the hours. The p, fig. 2: every obstacle is now removed,
circular part of the rack s is cut into and the wheels run on the pinion; the
teeth, each of which is of such a length, wheel 64 raises the hammer r, and it
that every step upon the snail shall an strikes on the bell, the gathering pallet
swer to one of them ; w is a spring press- takes up the rack, a tooth at each turn,
ing against the tail of the rack, and act. the hawk's bill g retaining it until the
ing to throw the arm of the rack against pin in the rack comes under the gather-
the snail ; g is a click called the hawk's ing pallet r, and stops the motion of the
bill, taking into the teeth of the rack, whole machine, till the pin in the wheel
and holding it up in opposition to the 40 at the next hour takes the warning
spring w; ik is a three-armed detent, piece i k, and repeats the operation we
called the warning piece, the arm k is have now described. As the gathering
bent at its end, and passes through a pallet turns once for each blow of the
hole in the front plate of the clock, so as hammer, and its tooth gathers up one
to catch a pin placed in one of the arms tooth of the rack at each turn, it is evi-
of the wheel p, fig. 2, and which de. dent the number of teeth the rack is al-
scribes the dotted circle in fig. 3, the lowed to fall back limits the number of
other arm i stands so as to fall in the strokes the hammer will make. This is
way of a pin in the wheel 40. In the done by the rack's tail t resting on the
present position of the figure, the wheels snail; each step of the snail answers to
of the striking train are in motion, and one tooth of the rack, and one stroke of
would continue turning until the gather- the hammer; at each hour a fresh step
ing pallet r, which turns once at each of the snail is turned to the tail of the
stroke of the hammer, by its tooth lifts rack, and by this means the number of
the rack sin opposition to the spring w, strokes is made to increase one at each
one tooth each turn, and the hawk's bill time from one to twelve.
g * retains the rack, until a pin in the end
CLOCK-work, in the limited meaning of
of the rack is brought in the way of the the word used by artists, denotes only
lever of the gathering pallet r, and stops the machinery employed in the striking
the wheels from turning any further : it is part of a clock ; that used for giving mo-
in this position with the rack wound up, tion to the hands being called watch-
till its pin arrests the tail r, that we shall
work. In its more extensive sense, it is
begin to describe the operation of the generally understood to mean any combi-
striking of the clock. The wheel 40, as nation of wheel-work, for any purpose,
CLO
CLU
whose parts do not much exceed in size rows, but is in many parts cultivated for
those of a common clock.
the supply of manufactories. The heads
CLOSE, in heraldry. When any bird is of the teazles are inserted into grooves in
drawn in a coat of arms with its wings long battens, so as to appear, and to act
close down about it, i. e. not displayed) like brushes; these brushes extend the
and in a standing posture, they blazon it whole breadth of the cloth, and are set all
by this word close; but if it be flying, around a cylinder, which brushes the
they call it volant.
cloth by its rotatory motion, rendering
CLOSE hauled, in marine language, the its surface beautifully glossy and smooth.
arrangement of a ship's sails when she The appearance is, however, greatly im-
endeavour's to make progress in the near- proved by pressing. The coarser kinds
est direction possible towards that point of cloth undergo little finishing. Linens
of the compass from which the wind are made of bleached fiax; they are
blows; in this manner of sailing the keel chiefly manufactured in Ireland and Scot-
of square rigged vessels commonly makes land, both which countries derive essen-
an angle of six points with the line of the tial advantages from their manufactures,
wind, but cutters, luggers, and other especially as they produce the raw ma-
fore and aft rigged vessels, will sail much terial. Cotton must be imported in its
nearer.
raw state ; a circumstance which gives
CLOSE quarters, strong barriers of employ to many thousands of our poor.
wood stretching across a merchant ship, Though the muslins, calicoes, &c. are ge-
in several places; they are used as a nerally made from the thread formed by
place of retreat when a ship is boarded machinery. Hemp makes SAIL-CLOTH,
by her adversary, and are therefore fit- CANVAS, &c. which see. The manufacto-
ted with loop-holes, through which to ries for woollens and linens in the United
fire the small arms. An English merchant Kingdoms, are supposed to give bread to
ship of 16 guns, properly fitted with close near a million of persons. The importa-
quarters, has defeated the united efforts tion of foreign cloths is therefore very
of three French privateers who boarded wisely prohibited. For further particu -
her.
lars, see WEAVING.
CLOTH, a woven fabric composed of CLOUD, a visible aggregate of minute
wool, flax, cotton, or hemp, either sepa- drops of water, suspended in the atmos-
rate or mixed. Woollen cloths consist phere. It is concluded, from numerous
chiefly of broad cloths, kerseymeres, observations, that the particles of which
flannels, shalloons, serges, baizes, &c. : a cloud consists, are always more or less
the two former are the most valuable, electrified. The hypothesis, which as-
and will be chiefly noticed. The wool sumes the existence of vesicular vapour,
should be of the best quality, and in the and makes the particles of clouds to be
best state of preparation before it is sent hollow spheres, which unite and descend
to the loom. Formerly Spanish wool in rain when ruptured, however sanction-
bore a very high price with us, but of ed by the authority of several eminent
late years we have, by obtaining some of philosophers, does not seem necessary to
the sheep of that country, established a the science of meteorology in its present
breed which is found to yield a finer state; it being evident that the buoyan-
sample than even the pure Marino. The cy of the particles is not more perfect
justly celebrated Dr. Parry, of Bath, has than it ought to be, if we regard them as
sedulously attended to this point, and has mere drops of water. In fact, they al-
produced fleeces which, in regard to ways descend, and the water is elevated
fineness and length of staple, are obvious- again only by being converted into invi-
ly superior, being as six to five when sible vapour. See METEOROLOGY.
compared with the Spanish. Hence our CLUE, in marine language, is the
woollens have latterly been less indebted lower corners of square sails; but the
to importation, and we may fairly expect aftmost only of stay-sails, &c.; the other
to see our flocks become doubly valu- lower corner being called the tack.
able. The cloths are woven in a common CLUES of a hammock, the combination
loom, and the superfluous nap is taken of small lines by which it is suspended.
off by a very ingenious contrivance called CLUPEA, the herring, in natural histo-
the shearer, not unlike the blade of a ry, a genus of fishes of the order Abdo-
scythe, which with a regular motion, minales. Generic character: head com-
given by various machinery, completely pressed; mouth compressed and inter-
levels the surface, and fits it for the last nally rough ; jaws unequal; tongue short
process: this is done by the teazel, a and rough: with inverted teeth ; side-
kind of thistle, which grows in hedge plates of the upper mandible serrated
CLUPEA.
gill-membrane eight-rayed; gills setace- found retreats of the ocean, and amidst
ous internally ; abdomen sharp and gene- its soft and muddy bottoms, near those
rally serrated; body compressed, elon- very shores, in their approach to which
gated, and covered with moderate scales; they are first seen in spring. The food
ventral fins often nine-rayed; tail-forked. of the herring consists chiefly of sea-in-
There are fifteen species, according to sects and worms, and itself becomes food,
Gmelin, and according to Shaw, nineteen; not only, as before intimated, to various
of which the most deserving of notice birds, who follow their track with unceas-
are C. harengus, or the common herring. ing vigilance and voracity, but to innu-
This fish does not appear to have been merable fishes also : of these the whale
known by the Greeks and Romans, or at is its most formidable enemy, and thins
least to have attracted from them any its columns with the most destructive and
particular attention. In modern times it consuming havock.
constitutes an important article of com- The C. pilchardus, or the pilchard.
merce, and the herring fishery has for This is somewhat smaller than the last ;
ages been considered as an important its scales also are larger; and its body is
field for national industry, and a source thicker, rounder, and more oily. It
of national wealth. Even in the twelfth abounds in the summer months on the
century the Dutch were much occupied coast of Cornwall, and in the port of St.
in taking herrings, and preserved a sort Ives nearly two hundred and fifty mil-
of monopoly on this subject for several lions were once inclosed by a single
ages.
The art of pickling them was draught. The supply of this fish being
discovered in Flanders. The Dutch are very frequently far superior to any regu-
uncommonly partial to the pickled her- lar demand, it has in some cases been em-
ring, and on the arrival of the first ves- ployed merely as manure, for which it is
sel in port, laden with this article, resort found admirably applicable.
to it with all the ardour of impatience and C. alosa, or shad. This is considerably
competition. This first vessel also is enti- like the pilchard; but is larger and thin-
tled to a considerable premium. The ner ; distinguishable particularly by the
term herring is derived from a German scales upon its belly, which form a sharp
word, meaning an army, and well expres- keel along it. It is found in the Medi-
ses the immense multitude of this fish, terranean and in the Baltic, and ascends
which, after wintering within the arctic rivers periodically to deposit its spawn,
seas, where insect food abounds fully to which it always does in the deepest
the extent of their immense demands, parts. The longer it continues in fresh
direct their course in spring towards the water, the fatter it becomes; it feeds
south. In April they are generally seen principally on insects and young fish, and
off the isles of Shetland, and their pro- can live but a few moments after being
gress is marked by the flocks of birds taken from the water. It is little valued
which accompany them, and prey upon for the table, being coarse and tasteless.
them. There are, in general, several It is found in the rivers of England, and
columns of this mighty host, extending principally in the Severn.
about five miles in length and three in C. sprattus, or sprat, resembles the her-
breadth, and reflecting, by their advance ring, and might easily be taken for its
to the very surface of the water, that young. There are, however, decided
pearly lustre and lively variety of colour differences. During the winter months
which, in clear weather, give to the spec- sprats are caught in abundance in the
tacle extraordinary interest. From the Thames, and are a very valuable resource
Isles of Shetland they divide to the eas- for the poor inhabitants of the metropo-
tern and western shores of Great Britain ; lis. In some places they are pickled
in the former case passing through the with great advantage, in others they are
English Channel, after visiting every gulf cured like the herring, and are scarcely
and creek within its limits; in the latter, less relished.
visiting the coast of Ireland, and furnish- C. encrasicolus, or anchovy. This was
ing the inhabitants with a cheap and valu- well known to the ancients, who prepar-
able article of subsistence. Some natu- ed from it a sauce in high estimation. Its
ralists, however, have doubted of the ex- bones are soluble in boiling water, which
tensive migrations ascribed to the her- renders it of great convenience in condi-
ring, and consider the time allotted for mental preparations.
its accomplishment as totally inadequate CLUSIA, in botany; so called in me-
for this purpose. They suppose them in mory of Carolus Clusius, an eminent
winter to shelter themselves in the pro- French botanist : a genus of the Poly-
CNI
COA
a
gamia Monoecia class and order. Natu- der. Natural order of Compositæ Capita-
ral order of Guttifera, Jussieu. Essen- tæ. Cinarocephalæ, Jussieu. Essential
tial character: male, calyx four or six- character: calyx ovate, imbricate with
leaved ; leaflets opposite, imbricate ; co- branch-thorny scales, guarded with brac-
rolla four or six-petalled stamina nume- tes; corollets equal. There are nine spe-
rous : female, calyx and corolla as in the cies.
males; nectary formed by the coalition COACH, a convenient carriage suspend-
of the anthers, including the germ ; cap- ed on four or more springs, and moving
sule five-celled, five-valved, stuffed with on four wheels, originally intended for
pulp. There are six species. These the conveyance of persons in the upper
are trees abounding in a tenacious, gluti- circles of society, but now become so
nous juice. C. rosea, rose-coloured bal- common as to stand in our streets plying
sam-tree, is from twenty to thirty feet in for fares. The first coach ever seen in
height, a native of the Bahama Islands, England was introduced by the Earl of
St. Domingo, and other American islands, Arundel from the continent, in the year
between the Tropics, on rocks, and often 1581 ; since that time their numbers have
on the trunks and limbs of trees, occa- been gradually increasing, insomuch that
sioned by birds scattering or voiding the every family of easy fortune keeps its
seeds, which being glutinous like those carriage; while no less than 1100 hack-
of misletoe, take root in the same man- ney coaches are registered within the
ner; but the roots, not finding sufficient bills of mortality. See Coaches, hackney.
nutriment, spread on the surface of the Such coaches as are the property of pri-
tree till they find a decayed hole or other vate persons, or are kept for hire, pay a
lodgment, where there is some portion high duty, and produce a total of several
of soil ; the fertility of this being exhaust- hundreds of thousands to the Exchequer.
ed, a root is discharged from the hole The fashions, with regard to form and
till it reaches the ground, though at forty ornament of coaches and other carriages
feet distance; here again it fixes itself, for pleasure, are perpetually changing,
and becomes a larger tree.
and many varieties are occasionally pre-
CLUYTIA, in botany, in memory of sented. The principal kinds now in use
Augerius Clutius, professor of botany at are, the close coach ; the landau, which
Leyden, a genus of the Dioecia Gynan- can lower its roof and part of its sides,
dria class and order. Natural order of like the head of a phaeton; the ba-
Tricoccæ. Euphorbiæ, Jussieu. Essen- rouche, or open summer carriage, made
tial character: calyx five-leaved ; co- on the lightest construction; the chariot,
rolla five-petalled ; female, styles three; which is intended only for two or three
capsule three-celled; seed one. There persons; the landaulet, or chariot whose
are ten species, all natives of hot cli- head enfolds back; the phaeton and cara-
mates.
van, which have only a head and no win-
CLYPEOLA, in botany, a genus of the dows, with a leather apron rising from
Tetradynamia Siliculosa class and order. the foot-board to the waist : all of these
Natural order of Siliquosa. Cruciferæ, run upon four wheels. Of the two-
Jussieu. Essential character: silicle emar- wheeled vehicles, we have the curricle,
ginate, or biculate, compressed, Aat, de- drawn by two horses, each bearing on a
ciduous. There are three species. These narrow saddle the end of a sliding bar
are low plants that have little beauty, or yoke, that upholds a central pole.
and are preserved chiefly in botanic These cannot be considered as very safe
gardens.
machines, but are admirably calculated
CLYSTER is a liquid remedy to be in- for ease of draught; and their bodies be-
jected chiefly at the anus into the larger ing upon four pliant springs, must gene-
intestines.
rally have a very easy motion. The gig,
CNEORUM, in botany, a genus of the chaise, or whiskey, has but one horse,
Triandria Monogynia class and order. Na- which moves between a pair of shafts,
tural order of Tricoccæ. Terebintacea, borne nearly horizontal by means of a
Jussieu. Estential character: calyx three- leather sling passing over the saddle
toothed; petals three, equal; berry tricoc- tree; when another horse precedes, so
cous. There is but one species; viz. C. tri- as to drive one before the other, the ma-
coccum, willow-wail, or spunge olive; chine is called a tandem ; a pun npon that
native of the South of France, Italy, and word, which in Latin signifies “at length."
,
Spain, in hot, dry, barren, and rocky soils. Those chaises which do no not go upon
CNICUS, in botany, a genus of the Syn- springs, and are in other respects calcu-
genesia Polygamia Äqualis class and or-lated for the use of the poorer classes,
COA
COA
pay less duty, but must bear the words The rate for a mile and a quarter, or
taxed cart” in some conspicuous part, less, is 1s. from that to two, 1s. 6d. and.
and in letters of not less than an inch in for each additional half mile entered up-
depth: their cost must also be under on, 6d.
121. Our stage coaches, which travel to In reckoning by time, three quarters
every part of the kingdom, are, beyond of an hour, or less, is 1s. between that and
compare, superior to those of any other an hour 1s. 6d. one hour and twenty mi-
nation, both for speed of travelling and nutes 2s. and for each additional twenty
accommodation. The legislature has minutes entered upon, 6d. For a day of
wisely restricted the numbers of inside twelve hours, 14s. 6d. and 6d. for each
and of outside passengers. On the whole twenty minutes over.
they perform their journies at the rate of A coachman refusing to go, or exact-
5 miles in the hour during summer, ing more than his fare, forfeits from 10s.
and about 43 during the winter season. to 31. By misbehaviour or impudence
Taken on an average, the rates are from he incurs the same penalty, and subjects
4 d. to 6d. per mile for inside passengers; his license to be revoked, and himself to
though in cases of competition they have be committed to the house of correction.
gone so low as 2d. The mail-coaches, Persons refusing to pay the fare, or de-
which carry the letters to and from the facing the coach, may be compelled by
General Post-Office, are of a very strong a justice to make satisfaction. The
build, and usually run 8, or even 9 miles penalties may be recovered before the
within the hour; they are limited as to aldermen of the city, and justices of the
the time in which each stage is to be per- peace, as well as before the commission-
formed; and the guard makes remarks as ers. 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 24, 26, and 32, Geo.
to the condition of the cattle, the per- III.
formance of their duty, the accidental Coaches, stage: every person keeping
delays and deviations, upon a printed any public stage-coach shall pay, annual-
way-bill delivered with the bags at the ly, 5s. for a license; and keeping any
post-office; he notes every matter relat- such public stage without a license, he
ing to time, according to his time-piece, shall forfeit for every time such carriage
which is always adjusted before he takes is used 101. No person licensed shall, by
leave. The mail-coaches are restricted virtue of one license, keep more than one
to four inside and two outside passen- carriage, on penalty of 101. Every li-
gers, besides the coachman and the censed stage-coach shall pay 2 d. for eve-
guard, both of whom wear the king's ry mile it travels. Every person licensed
livery ; and the royal arms are borne shall paint, on the outside pannel of each
upon the centre pannels of the coach. door, his christian and surname, with the
All the mail-coaches pass in review at name of place from whence he sets out,
Buckingham-House, and St. James's, on and to which he is going, on pain of 107.
his Majesty's birth-day; the guards and should he discontinue such carriage, he
drivers dressed in their new uniforms, shall give seven days previous notice, and
and the horses decked with ribbons. have such notice indorsed upon his li-
Every mail-coach, so soon as it arrives in cense, and from thenceforth shall be no
town, is sent to the Overseer and Con- longer chargeable.
tractor at Mill-Bank, Westminster, where Drivers of stage-coaches are not to ad-
it is strictly examined, the screws tight- mit more than one outside passenger on
ened, axles greased, and every precau- the box, and four on the roof of the
tion taken to guard against accident. coach, on the penalty of 5s. for each pas-
Coaches, hackney : commissioners are senger at every turnpike-gate.
appointed to license and regulate them: COADUNATÆ, in botany; the 52d or-
the proprietor of each coach to pay 10s. der of plants in Linnæus' "Fragments of
per week. Each coach is to be number- a Natural Method," so named from the
ed on both sides, the altering of which general appearance of the seed-vessels,
incurs a penalty of 51. The same penal- which are numerous, and being slightly
ty is incurred by driving or letting attached below, form altogether a single
to hire a coach without a license, fruit in the shape of a sphere or cone,
Mourning-coaches and hearses are with- the parts of which are easily separated
in the act. The horses in hackney-coach- from one another.
es must be fourteen hands high. Coach- COAGULATION, is the property of
men compellable to go in the day ten certain liquids becoming solid without
miles ; after dark but two miles and a evaporation, and without their assuming
half on turnpike-roads; to have check- a crystalline form. The hardening of the
strings, under the penalty of 51.
white of an egg, by mere heat, is an ex-
COAL.
ample of this kind: the characteristic beds of coal are separated by layers of
properties of the substance are complete stone, which are nearly of the same na-
ly changed. In their first state it is solu- ture in all coal mines. Those which
ble in water; but coagulated, water, nei- form the side and the top of a stratum of
ther hot nor cold, has any power over it. coal are a sort of friable slate, containing
See ALBUMEN.
more or less of bitumen, while the bot-
COAL, in mineralogy, a most impor- tom is generally more compacted and
tant genus of mineral inflammables, in mixed with micaceous sand. It is remark-
which is included the carbonaceous, and able that this slaty kind of stone, which
carbono bituminous fossils. In the excel- so generally accompanies the coal, should
lent dictionary by Messrs. A. and C. Ai- frequently contain the impressions of
kin, this genus is divided into the families plants, and particularly ferns, some of
of brown coal, black coal, and mineral which are met with in the finest state of
carbon. The first, or brown coal, is im- préservation.
perfectly bituminous, of a brown colour In Scotland, the mines of Carron, of
and vegetable texture : of this there are Edinburgh, and of Glasgow, are chiefly
four species. The second, or black coal, distinguished for their produce. There
is perfectly bituminous, of a black co- are three beds of coal at Carron, the first
lour, and contains three species, of which of which is about 40 fathoms below the
one is the slate coal, which is soft and ea- surface, the second 50, and the third 55.
sily frangible : specific gravity 1.2 to 1.24: Only two beds are worked at Edinburgh,
it contains from 57 to 64 of carbon, and and one of them is remarkable for its situ-
from 33 to 43 of bitumen, being a mix- ation, the opening of the mine being
ture of maltha and asphalt, and from 3 to hardly forty fathoms from the sea, and
6 of earth and oxide of iron. Most of our only three fathoms above high water
common coals belong to this species, and mark. The mines of Glasgow stretch
from the different phenomena which they from the north-east to the south-west,
exhibit during combustion, a great num- and occupy a considerable space of
ber of varieties are known in the market. ground. Here are several beds of coal,
The canal coal is of this family. See Am- placed on each other, and continued
PELITES. The third sort, or mineral car- nearly from the surface of the ground
bon, is destitute of bitumen, and consists to the depth of three hundred feet;
of charcoal with various proportions of but of these beds there are only two or
earth and iron. There are three species, three that are worth the trouble of work-
of which one is plumbago, or black-lead. ing:
See BLACK-LEAD.
The principal mines of this useful mi-
Coal, of all the substances which natu- neral in England are those of Newcastle
ralists have arranged in the class of in- and Whitehaven. The town of Newcas-
flammables, is by far the most service- tle absolutely stands on beds of coals,
able to mankind. Nature has dealt it to which extend to a considerable distance
us with an unsparing hand, and has pro- round the place. There are seven or
vided mines of this mineral which seem eight beds of this mineral, one above the
to defy the power of man to exhaust. other, and all inclined in a south-east di-
England and France, where the different rection; the lowest is a hundred fathoms
branches of manufacture are carried to a from the surface of the earth. But the
greater extent and perfection than in the mines near Whitehaven will afford the
other countries of Europe, are, at the best idea of these wonderful places. We
same time, the most abundantly provid- learn that these coal mines are perhaps
ed with mines of coal, as if nature was de- the most extraordinary of any in the
termined to second the exertions of an known world. The principal entrance
industrious people by giving them the for men and horses is by an opening at
best possible assistance. Caal is always the bottom of a hill, through a long pas-
found in masses, sometimes in a heap, sage hewn in the rock, which, by a steep
most frequently in beds; but rarely in descent, leads down to the lowest vein of
veins. The beds are disposed within the coal. The greatest part of this descent
earth with different degrees of inclina- is through spacious galleries, which con-
tion, and in almost every possible direc- tinually intersect each other; all the
tion. These beds of coal are supposed coal being cut away, except large pillars,
by most naturalists to be a deposit form- which, in deep parts of the mine are
ed by the waters of the ocean, which three yards high, and twelve square at
once covered our continent. They are the base The mines are sunk to the
never found single, but generally dispos- depth of a hundred and thirty fathoms,
ed in strata one above another. The and are extended under the sea to places
VOL. II.
Ff
COAL.
a
where, above them, the water is of suffi- much as possible the collieries from being
cient depth for ships of large burthen. filled with these pernicious damps, it has
These are the deepest coal mines that been found necessary to search for those
have hitherto been wrought, and per- crevices in the coal whence they issue, and
haps the miners have not in any other then confine them within a narrow space,
part of the globe penetrated to so great a from which they are afterwards conducted
depth below the surface of the sea; the through long tubes into the open air, where,
very deep mines in Hungary, Peru, and being set on fire, they consume in perpe-
elsewhere, being situated in mountain- tual flames, as they continually arise out of
ous countries, where the surface of the the earth. The late Mr. Spedding, who
earth is elevated to a great height above was the great engineer of those works,
the level of the ocean. There are here having observed that the fulminating damp
three strata of coal, which lie at a consi. could only be kindled by flame, and was
derable distance, one above another; the not liable to be set on fire by red hot iron,
communication between each is preserv- nor by the sparks produced by the colli-
ed by pits. The vein is not always regu- sion of fint and steel, invented a machine,
larly continued in the same inclined plane, in which, while a steel wheel is turned
but is sometimes interrupted by hard round with a very rapid motion, flints are
rocks, and in those places the earth seems applied to it, and by the abundance of
to have sunk downwards from the sur- fiery sparks emitted,the miners are enabled
face, while the part adjoining hath retain to carry on their work in places where the
ed its ancient situation. These breaks flame of a lamp or candle would occasion
the miners call dykes, and when they dreadful explosions. Without some inven-
meet with one of them, they first ob- tion of this sort, the working of these
serve whether the direction of the strata mines would long ago have been impracti.
is higher or lower than in the part where cable, so greatly are they annoyed by these
they have been working. If, to employ inflammable damps. Fewer mines, how.
their own terms, it is cast down, they ever, have been ruined by fire than by
sink a pit to it with little trouble ; but inundations; and here that noble piece of
should it, on the contrary, be cast up to mechanism the steam-engine displays its
any considerable height, they are fre- beneficial effects When the four engines
quently obliged to carry a long level belonging to this colliery are all at work,
through the rock, with much expense and they discharge 1228 gallons of water every
difficulty, till they again arrive at the vein minute at thirteen strokes; and, after the
of coal.
same rate, 1,768,320 gallons every twenty-
In these deep and extensive works, four hours.
the greatest care is requisite to keep The road from the Whitehaven coal-
them continually ventilated with perpe- mines to the water side is mostly on a
tual currents of fresh air, to expel the gentle descent, and provided with an iron
damps and other noxious exhalations, railway : this, by removing much of the
and supply the miners with a sufficiency friction, exceedingly facilitates the carri-
of that vital Auid. In the deserted works, age of the coals to the shipping, which
large quantities of these damps are fre are laid alongside of the quay to receive
quently collected, and often remain for them. When the waggons are loaded,
a long time without doing any mischief; they run without any assistance on the
but when, by some accident, they are set railway till they arrive at the quay, where
on fire, they produce dreadful and de. the bottom striking out, the waggon dis-
structive explosions, and burst out of the charges its contents into a large flue, or,
pits with great impetuosity, like the fiery as the workmen term it, a hurry, through
eruptions from burning mountains. The which it rattles into the hold of the vessel
coal in these mines hath several times with a noise like thunder. A man is
been set on fire by the fulminating damp, placed in each waggon to guide it, who
and continued burning many months, until checks its progress, if necessary, by
large streams of water were conducted pressing down one of the wheels with a
into the mines, and suffered to fill those piece of wood provided for the purpose.
parts where the coal was on fire. Several When the waggons are unloaded, they are
collieries have been entirely destroyed by carried round by a turn-frame, and drawn
such fires : of these there are instances back to the pits by a single horse along
near Newcastle, and in other parts of Eng another road. The coal trade is supposed
land, and in the shire of Fife in Scotland; to maintain nearly 15,000 mariners, and to
in some of which places the fire has conti- employ about 2000 coal-heavers, who are
nued burning for ages. To prevent as allowed a fixed sum on clearing each ship,
COA
COA
according to her tonnage. These are sup- ever it may be, is nearly the same over
posed to be the hardest working men in the all the earth, since the beds of coal al.
kingdom : they often earn six, seven, or ways exhibit nearly the same phenomena
eight shillings in the day; of which at least in their structure and accidental cir-
one-third, or perhaps one half, is spent in cumstances 5. That these beds have
porter. By a late act coals are permitted not been deposited by any violent revo-
to be landed at Paddington, in the parishlution; but, on the contrary, in the most
of Mary-le-bone, not, nowever, exceeding tranquil manner ; since the organized
a specified quantity within the year. These bodies that are found in them are often
coals come by the canals from the inland entire, and the leaves of vegetables im-
counties, generally in large masses, and pressed in the slate which covers the
free from coal-dust. A patent has been coals are hardly ever bruised or other-
granted within these few years for the wise deranged.
formation of coal-dust into balls, which COASTING, that part of navigation
are compacted by the admixture of soft where the places assigned are not far dis-
clay, tanner's bark, and various other tant, so that a ship may sail in sight of
materials, all of which tend to swell the land, or within soundings between them.
mass, and form a tolerable fuel : it brings In this there is only required a good
much rubbish to an excellent use. A pa- knowledge of the land, the use of the
tent was also granted about twenty years compass and lead, or sounding line.
back to Lord Dundonald, for making tar COASTING pilot, one who, by experi-
from coal. This tar has been found to ence, has become sufficiently acquainted
answer many useful purposes, being an with the nature of any particular coast
admirable coating for wood or other work to conduct a ship or fleet from one part
exposed to the weather ; but, on account of it to another.
of its being peculiarly subtile, must be COAT of arms, in heraldry, a surcoat
carefully kept away from articles of pro- reaching to the waist, open at the sides,
vision, to which it communicates a most and ornamented with armorial bearings,
unpleasant, bituminous flavour. The cin- worn by the ancient knights in times of
ders and ashes from coal are in much war, or at tournaments, over their ar-
estimation as a manure for particular mour, being the principal characteristic
soils, and are highly obnoxious to worms. by which they were distinguished from
They are likewise employed in the mak- one another, the face being covered with
ing of bricks.
the helmet. During the period of five
There are different opinions among centuries after the conquest, the varia-
geologists respecting the origin of coal. tion in the mode of exhibiting coat-armour
Some suppose this combustible substance was very trivial.
to be produced by the decomposition of The Norman in the field, being closely
the soft parts of the immense quantity of invested in armour which exactly fitted
organized bodies, of which we find almost his shape, threw over it an ornamented
every where the solid remains. But un- surcoat without sleeves, at first loose ;
fortunately this conjecture, which ap. but during the successive reigns of the
pears so natural, is liable to several strong three first Edwards, it was confined to
objections. One is the presence of vege- the body in narrow folds. After that the
tables scarcely decomposed, which are mixed armour (composed of mail and
often met with in the middle of beds of plates) became common, and the steel
coal. The others, the want of direct ex. boddice was gilt and otherwise orna-
periments to prove that organized bodies mented. This armour did not, however,
give out bitumen during their decompo. long continue in fashion, but was suc-
sition. Without stopping to discuss these ceeded by tabards of arms larger than
points, we shall merely give the general the original surcoat, and made of the
conclusions of naturalists, as they are richest silk stuffs, sumptuously embroi.
mentioned by Brogniart. 1. That coal dered, which afterwards became the
was formed, either at the same time, or dress worn by the nobility and gentry, till
after the existence of organized bodies. the commencement of the sixteenth cen-
2. That this mineral when first formed was tury: since that time they have been con
liquid, and of a great degree of purity. tinued only as the state dress of the offi-
3. That the cause which produces this cers of arms.
deposit is several times renewed in the COATs, in a ship, are pieces of tarred
same place, and nearly under the same canvas put about the masts at the part-
circumstances. 4. That the cause, what ners to keep out water. They are also
a
COB
COB
used at the rudder's head, and about the to the flame of the blow-pipe, it gives
pumps at the decks, that no water may an arsenical odour and smoke, but with
go down there.
out melting : to borax it gives a blue
COATING, in chemistry, is used prin- colour, and is reduced to a metallic
pally for the purpose of defending cer- globule. The native oxide of cobalt oc-
tain vessels from the immediate action of curs in a powdery form, or of various
fire; thus, glass retorts, and the inside degrees of induration, but always dull,
of some furnaces, are coated with various and earthy in its fracture, soft, and easily
compositions.
broken It is also of different colours,
COATING, in electricity, means the from the intermixture of oxide of iron, and
covering of electric bodies with conduct- perhaps other metallic oxides; whence
ors, or the latter with the former, or, even species have been formed and dis-
lastly, electrics with other electrics. tinguished by the names of black cobalt
Electrics are coated with conductors ochre, brown cobalt ochre, and yellow co-
for the purpose of communicating to, balt ochre. Of these the black appears
or removing from their surfaces, the to be the oxide of cobalt in its purest
electric fluid in an easy and expeditious state. They all give a blue colour to
manner; otherwise an electric body, glass, or to borax, when fused with it by
on account of its non-conducting pro- the blow-pipe Sometimes also they ex-
perty, cannot be electrified or deprived hale an arsenical odour. The last species
of the electric fluid, without touching is that in which cobalt is mineralized by
almost every point of its surface with an arsenic acid, the principal variety of
electrified or other body. This coating which has been named peach-bloom co-
generally consists of tin-foil, sheet-lead, balt ore. This name it derives from its
gilt paper, gold-leaf, silver leaf, or other colour, which is a beautiful red, simi-
metallic body, either in the form of a thin lar to that of the peach blossom, passing,
extended lamina, or in small grains, such however, into other shades of red, and
as brass filings and leaden shot. The from decomposition into other colours.
coating may be fastened to the surface of The ores of cobalt are easily distinguished
the electric by means of paste, glue, wax, from all others, by their property of com-
or other adhesive matter.
municating to borax or to glass, when
COBALT, in chemistry, a metal, when fused with them, a deep blue colour, and
pure, of a white colour, inclining to bluish by their solution in nitro-muriatic acid,
or steel grey: At the common tempera- being a sympathetic ink, lines traced
ture its specific gravity is more than 8.5. with it on paper not being visible when
It is attracted by the magnetic needle, cold, but becoming visible on exposure
and is itself capable of polarity. For to a moderate heat.
fusion it requires nearly the same intensi. On a large scale, cobalt is extracted
ty of heat as cast iron. In a state of oxide, from its ores only in the state of an ox-
it tinges the saline vitreous fluxes of a ide, without being reduced to the metal-
deep blue colour It is soluble in nitro- lic form, not only as this reduction is
muriatic acid, and the diluted solution difficult, but also as the metal is not appli-
forms a blue sympathetic ink. Cobalt ed to any use. The ore is roasted, by which
occurs in nature alloyed with other me. the sulphur and arsenic are expelled, and
tals, and mineralized by oxygen, and any fusible metal mixed with it is melted
by arsenic acid. The white cobalt ore out. The cobalt remains in the state of
is an alloy of cobalt and arsenic, with an impure oxide, named zaffre The
a little sulphur, and in some specimens zaffre of commerce is always mixed with
a little iron, the two latter being pro- silicious earth; hence, if exposed to a
bably accidental. One variety, analyzed strong heat, it vitrifies : a glass of a dark
by Klaproth, gave 44 of cobalt, 55,5 of blue colour is thus formed, named smalt,
arsenic, and 0.5 of sulphur. Its colour is which is used on account of its colour in
tin-white, liable, however, to tarnish, and various arts. It is from the zaffre of
thus to assume a grey or reddish tinge: commerce that the chemist obtains co-
its lustre is weakly shining and metallic. balt: to obtain it pure, however, is ex-
The grey cobalt ore, as it has been tremely difficult. The common process
named, is an alloy of cobalt with arsenic is, to mix the zaffre with three times its
and iron; sometimes, also, as has been weight of black flux, a small quantity of
affirmed, with small portions of nickel oil, and a little sea salt, and expose the
and bismuth. Its colour is light grey, mixture in a crucible to a strong white
but very liable to tarnish; its lustre heat for some hours. A metallic button
weakly shining and metallic. Exposed is thus obtained, on cooling, at the bot-
COB
СОС
föm of the crucible; but the cobalt pro- is performed by striking him a certain
cured is generally alloyed with arsenic number of blows on the breech, with a
and nickel, and sometimes with other flat piece of wood called the cobbing-
metals, particularly iron.
board.
A number of the acids oxydize cobalt, COBITIS, the loche, in natural history, a
and combine with its oxyde. The con- genus of fishes of the order Abdominales.
centrated sulphuric acid scarcely acts on it Generic character: eyes in the upper
in the cold, but when boiled on the metal, part of the head; mouth in the greater
sulphurous acid gas is disengaged, and a number of species bearded ; body almost
saline matter is obtained, which, when equally thick thoughout, and covered with
lixiviated, forms a solution of sulphate of easily deciduous and small scales; tail
cobalt. Nitric acid is decomposed by rounded; air bladder bard or osseous.
cobalt, and the metal is oxydized and There are five species, of which we shall
dissolved. The solution is of a red colour, notice :-C. barbatula, or bearded loche.
and by gentle evaporation affords minute This is an inhabitant of the streams of
prismatic crystals of the same colour, Europe and Asia, and lives upon worms
which are deliquescent and decomposed and insects, which it finds on the gravel
by heat. Muriatic acid does not act on at the bottom of the water, from which
cobalt, but with the assistance of heat; it rarely ascends near the surface. It is
a small portion of the metal is then dis- extremely prolific, and most bighly valued
solved The solution of muriate of co- for the table in several places in Europe,
balt affords a celebrated sympathetic ink where it is cultivated with extreme atten-
When much diluted, if letters are traced tion. It dies almost immediately on be.
with it on paper, and allowed to dry, ing taken from the water. To preserve
they are invisible; but when the paper the exquisite flavour of it, it is consi-
is exposed to a moderate heat, they ap- dered by the dealers in this fish as of
pear of a lively green: they disappear great importance frequently to shake the
again when cold, and the experiment may vessel of water in which it is placed. C.
be repeated for any number of times, ta- fossilis, or yellow-brown loche. This in-
king care only to avoid too strong a heat, habits the stagnant and muddy waters of
by which they are rendered permanent. the midland parts of Europe, and in win-
The cause of this phenomenon has been ter completely shelters itself in mud. It is
ascribed to the muriate of cobalt fixed restless before storms, quitting its retreat,
upon the paper attracting, when cold, and ranging about in various directions
moisture from the atmosphere, by which near the surface. When preserved in a
it is, as it were, dissolved and rendered vessel of water, with some earth at the
invisible : when heated, this moisture is bottom, it invariably indicates the ap-
evaporated, and the green colour of the proach of storms by peculiar agitation,
salt appears. This explanation appears and is on this account not unfrequently
to be confirmed by the fact, that the kept to answer the purpose of a ba.
characters are rendered visible by con- rometer.
fining the paper in a vessel with quick COCCINELLA, in natural history, a
lime, or sulphuric acid, either of which genus of insects of the order Coleoptera.
attracts humidity powerfully. The green Generic character: antennæ subclavated
colour cannot, however, be ascribed en- and truncated; feelers with semi-cordat-
tirely to the concentration, but is owing to ed tip: body hemispheric, with the abdo-
the temperature ; for the solution itself men flat beneath. This genus is easily
becomes green when moderately heated distinguished by its hemispheric form,
in a close phial, and loses this green co- having the upper parts convex, and the
lour as it cools ; nor is it easy to explain lower fat. The insects of this genus are
how the temperature does produce this known by the name of lady-birds. C.
change of colour
septempunctata, or seven spotted lady.
Cobalt combines with many of the me- bird, is seen in every garden and field in
tals. Its alloys are generally brittle, and the summer. It proceeds from a larva
none of them has been applied to any of a lengthened oval shape, with a shar-
use; nor have they been much examined. pened tail, of a black colour, varied
The principal, or, indeed, almost the with red and white specks, and of a
sole use of cobalt, is in communicating a rough surface; it resides on various
blue colour to glass, enamel, and por- plants; and changes to a short, blackish,
celain.
oval chrysalis, spotted with red, whicla
COBBING, in sea language, a punish- gives birth to its beautiful inmate in
ment sometimes inflicted on a sailor: it the months of May and June. There
COC
COC
are, according to Gmelin, nearly 200 spe. houses: the male is very active; the fe.
cies, distinguished, 1. into those whose male has a body nearly globular, and is
shells are red or yellow, with black dots: slow, inactive, and fixed to different parts
2. shells red, with yellow dots: 3. shells of plants. The most important species
red or yellow, spotted with white : 4. is the coccus cacti, or cochineal coccus,
shells yellow, spotted with red. They all celebrated for the beauty of the colour it
feed, both in their larva and complete yields when properly prepared. It is a
state, on the aphides or plant-lice, and native of South America, and feeds on
are very serviceable in purifying vege- the cactus opuntia. The female or offi-
tables of the myriads with which they are cinal cochineal insect, in its full grown or
often infested.
torpid state, swells or grows to such a
COCCOCYPSELUM, in botany, a ge- size, in proportion to that of its first or
nus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class creeping state, that the legs, antenna,
and order. Natural order of Stellatæ. and proboscis are so small, with respect
Rubiacea, Jussieu. Essential character: to the rest of the animal, as hardly to be
calyx four-parted, superior; corolla fun- discovered, except była good eye, or with
nel-form ; berry inflated, two-celled, the assistance of a glass ; so that on a ge-
many-seeded. There is but one species; neral view it bears as great a resemblance
viz. C. repens, a native of Jamaica. to a seed or berry as to an animal.
COCCOLITE, in mineralogy, a species When the female cochineal insect is
of the flint genus; of a green colour; oc- arrived at its full size, it fixes to the sur-
curs in large, coarse, and small granular face of the leaf, and envelopes itself in a
distinct concretions; it is hard, scratches white cottony matter, which it is suppos-
glass, and gives sparks with steel; spe- ed to spin or draw through its proboscis,
cific gravity 3.3; it is infusible without in a continued double filament, it being
addition; with carbonate of soda it melts observed, that two filaments are fre-
into an olive-green, vesicular, slaggy quently seen proceeding from the tip of
glass; and, with borax, into a pale-yellow, the proboscis in the full grown insect.
semi-transparent glass; its constituent The male is a small and rather slender
parts are,
dipterous fly, about the size of a flea,
with jointed antennæ, and large white
Silica.
.. 42
wings in proportion to the body, which
Alumina.
. 15 is of a red colour, with two long filaments
Calcareous earth . 13 proceeding from the tail. It is an active,
Oxide of iron
8
lively animal, and is dispersed in small
Manganese
14 numbers among the females, in the pro-
Water.
3
portion of one male to 150 females.
When the female has discharged all its
95
eggs, it becomes a mere husk, and dies :
so that great care is taken to kill the in-
sects before that time, to prevent the
COCCOLOBA, in botany, a genus of young from escaping, and thus disap-
the Octandria Trigynia class and order. pointing the proprietor of the beautiful
Natural order of Holoraceæ. Polygoneæ, colour. The insects, when picked or
Jussieu. Essential character: calyx five- brushed off the plants, are killed by the
parted, coloured; corolla none; berry fumes of heated vinegar, or by smoke,
calycine, one-seeded: drupe. There are and then dried, in which state they are
fourteen species.
imported into Europe. It is said, the
COCCULUS indicus, the name of a poi. Spanish government is annually more en-
sonous berry, supposed to be used by riched by the profit of the cochineal
brewers in their malt liquors; particular- trade, than by the produce of all its gold
ly in porter, to give it an intoxicating qua- mines. Cochineal is used in the large
lity. But as the use of it is forbidden by scale by dyers, and it is the fine colour so
the laws of the land, it would be unfair much esteemed in painting, known by
to impute the practice of it to any re- the name of carmine : when properly
spectable house.
mixed with hair-powder, it is what ladies
COCCUS, in natural history, a genus of use as rouge.
insects of the order Hemiptera. Generic C. ilicis, or kermes, is a species adher-
character: snout pectoral; abdomen ing, in its advanced or pregnant state, to
bristled behind; wings two, upright in the shoots of the quercus coccifera, un-
the males: females wingless. There are der the form of smooth reddish-brown
about fifty species; extremely fertile and grains or balls, of the size of small peas.
troublesome in hot-houses and green- The tree or shrub grows plentifully in
.
.
.
.
COC
COD
MY.
many parts of France, Spain, Greece, and and spread in all directions; some run.
the islands of the Archipelago. The coc- ning to a great depth, while others creep
ci are found adhering in groups of five, almost parallel to the surface. The trees
six, or more, together, or pretty near grow to a great height; their stems are
each other. Woollen cloth dyed with composed of strong fibres, like net-work,
kermes was called scarlet in grain; the which lie in several laminas over each
animal having been popularly considered other, out of which come the branches,
as a grain.
or rather leaves, which grow 12 or 14
A very small species of this genus is of- feet long. The flowers come out round
ten seen, in its torpid state, on the sur- the top of the trunk of the tree in large
face of different kinds of apples, particu- clusters: they are inclosed in a sheath,
larly on the golden pippen. It is not and the nuts afterwards are formed in
more than the tenth of an inch in length, large clusters, ten or twelve together.
and is of a long oval shape, gradually de The fruit is properly a drupe ; the skin is
creasing to a point at one end. It contains thin and very tough, the substance under
thirty or forty oval white eggs envelop- this investing the shell is extremely fi-
ed in a silky matter.
brous; the shell is of a bony substance;
COCHLEA, in anatomy, the third part the kernel adheres all round the inner
of the labyrinth of the ear. See ANATO- wall of the shell, and the cavity is filled
with a milky liquor. Besides the liquor
COCHLEARIA, in botany, a genus of in the fruit, there is a sort of wine
,
the Tetradynamia Siliculosa class and or- drawn from the tree called toddy, and
der. Natural order of Siliquosæ, or Cru- from which is obtained a spirit called ar-
ciferæ, Jussieu. Essential character: si- rack.
licle emarginate, turgid, scabrous; valves The coat of the tree is composed of
gibbous, obtuse. There are eight spe- strong fibres, which are made into sail-
cies.
cloth, cordage, &c. The trunk of the
COCKET, is a seal belonging to the tree is used in all kinds of building :
King's Custom-house, or rather a scroll and the leaves are wrought into mats,
of parchment sealed and delivered by the baskets, and many other things, for which
officers of the customs to merchants, as osiers are employed in Europe: they
a warrant that their merchandizes are serve also as coverings to their houses.
customed. It is also used for the office, COD. See GADUS.
where goods, transported, were first en- CODE, a collection of the laws and con-
tered and paid their custom, and had a stitutions of the Roman Emperors, made
cocket or certificate of discharge. by order of Justinian.
COCKPIT, in a man of war, a place on The code is comprised in twelve books,
the lower floor, or deck, abaft the main- and makes the second part of the civil,
capstain, lying between the platform and or Roman law. There were several
the steward's room, where are partitions other codes before the time of Justinian,
for the purser, surgeon, and his mates. all of them collections or abridgments of
COCKSWAIN, or Coxson, an officer the Roman laws. The most ancient code,
on board a man of war, who has the care or digest, was styled “Jus Papirianum,
of the barge and all things belonging to from the first compiler, Papirius, who
it, and must be also ready with his flourished about the time of the Regifu-
crew to man the boat on all occasions : gium.
he sits at the stern of the boat and CODE military, rules and regulations for
steers.
the good order and discipline of an army.
COCOS, in botany, a genus of the Mo- Of this description are the articles of
noecia Hexandria class and order. Natu- war.
ral order of Palms. Essential character: CODIA, in botany, a genus of the Oc.
male calyx three-parted; corolla three- tandria Digynia class and order. Essen-
petalled stamens six; female calyx five- tial character: calyx four-leaved ; petals
parted; corolla three-petalled: stigmas four ; common receptacle involucred.
:
three ; drupe coriaceous. There are There is but one species, viz. C. monta-
five species, of which C. nucifera, cocoa- na, a shrub, found in New Caledonia.
nut-tree, is common almost every where CODICIL, a schedule, or supplement
within the tropics, and is cultivated in to a will, or other writing. It is used as
both Indies; it is found in a wild state in an addition to a testament, when any
the Maldives and Ladrones, also in the thing is omitted which the testator
islands of the South Seas. The roots are would add, explain, alter, or retract;
slender, simple, and flexible : they arise and is of the same nature as a testament,
separately from the bottom of the trunk, except that it is without an heir, or exc.
ССЕ
COF
cutor. So that a codicilis a less solemn COFFEA, in botany, in French caffe,
will, of one that dies either testate or in- so named from Cafta in Africa, where it
testate, without the appointment of an grows abundantly; a genus of the Pen-
heir ; testate, when he that hath made tandria Monogynia class and order. Na-
his codicil hath either before or after- tural order of Stellatæ. Rubiaceæ Jus-
wards made his testament, on which that sieu. Essential character: corolla salver-
codicil depends, or to which it refers : shaped; stamens upon the tube ; berry
intestate, when one leaves behind him inferior, two-seeded; seeds arilled. There
only a codicil without a testament, are ten species, of which c. arabica,
wherein he gives legacies only to be Eastern Coffee-tree, is seldom more than
paid by the heir at law, and not by any eighteen feet high in its native country,
heir instituted by will or testament. A or more than twelve in Europe. The
codicil, as well as a will, may be either main stem grows upright, and is covered
written, or nuncupative. Some authors with a light brown bark ; branches hori-
call a testament a great will; and a codi- zontal, opposite, brachiate at every joint ;
cil a little one. But there is this further leaves opposite when fully grown, they
difference between a codicil and a testa- are nearly five inches long, and an inch
ment, that a codicil cannot contain the and half broad in the middle, ovate lan-
institution of an heir; and that in a codi- ceolate. They generally continue three
cil, a man is not obliged to observe strict- years. The flowers are produced in
ly all the formalities prescribed by law clusters at the base of the leaves, sitting
for solemn testaments.
close to the branches; they are of a pure
CODON, in botany, a genus of the De- white, with a very grateful odour, but
candria Monogynia class and order. of short duration, they are succeeded by
,
Essential character: calyx ten-parted, berries which are well known, as well as
permanent ; leaflets alternately shorter ; the use of them. This species of coffee
corolla bell shaped, ten cleft"; nectary is greatly superior to the C. occidentalis,
ten-celled, composed of ten scales; Western coffee-tree, which rarely ex-
pericarpium two-celled, containing seve- ceeds six feet in height; the corolla is
ral seeds. There is but one species, viz. white and sweet scented; it is a native of
C. royeni.
Domingo, about Cape Francois, where it
CECUM, in anatomy, the first of the flowers in December. As the coffee tree
,
three large intestines, called intestina is an evergreen, it makes a beautiful
appearance at every season in the stove,
and particularly when in flower, and also
COEFFICIENTS, in algebra, such when the berries are red, which is gene-
numbers, or given quantities, as are put rally in the winter ; as they continue
before letters, or unknown quantities, a long time in that state, there is scarcely
into which letters they are supposed any plant that deserves a place more than
to be multiplied : thus, in 3 a, or b x, or this.
C * * ; 3 is the coefficient of 3 a, b of 6 , COFFER, in fortification, a hollow
and c of cx x. When no number is lodgment athwart a dry moat, from six
prefixed, unit is supposed to be the co- to seven feet deep, and from sixteen to
efficient ; thus 1 is the coefficient of a or eighteen broad, the upper part being
of b.
made of pieces of timber, raised two feet
CELESTIAL globe. See GLGBE,
above the level of that moat, which little
CELIAC artery, that artery, which is- elevation has hurdles, laden with earth,
sues from the aorta, just below the dia for its covering, and serves as a parapet
with embrasures.
phragm. See ANATOMY.
Celiac passion, in medicine, a kind of
COFFERER of the King's household,
Aux, or diarrhea, wherein the aliments, under the Comptroller, who, in the
a principal officer in the court, next
either wholly changed, or only in part, compting-house, and elsewhere at other
pass off by stool.
times, has a special charge and over-
CEMETERY, or CEMETERY, a place sight of other officers of the house,
set apart or consecrated for the burial for their good demeanor and charge of
of the dead. Antiently none were bu- their offices, to all which he pays their
ried in churches or church-yards : it wages.
was even unlawful to inter in cities; in- COFFIN, the case in which a dead
stead of which they had cæmeteries body is interred; usually made of elm,
without the walls. These were held in or oak. It consists of a bottom, two
great veneration among the primitive ends, and two sides; the latter being
christians,
sawed half through, at right angles with
classa.
COF
COH
their length, so as to give a pliancy to the many, about 30 years back, prohibited
boards; whereby the shoulder bend is coffins, and caused quick lime to be im-
made to suit the corpse : the lid is after-mediately used. Strange to say, such
ward screwed down. Coffins are some- was the offence given to his supersti-
times plain, but generally are covered tious and bigotted subjects, that this re-
with black serge, &c. and ornamented gulation, in itself wise, and intended for
with white, or yellow escutcheons and their safety, was the cause of very serious
handles. It is necessary, that, whatever discontents, and, to prevent insurrection,
cloth is used, not only in lining and co- was shortly after repealed.
vering the coffin, but in the shroud, &c.
COGNIZANCE, in law, has divers sig-
it should be of woollen : this is done for nifications : sometimes it is an acknow-
the benefit of our manufacturers. Per- ledgment of a fine, or confession of some-
sons of property are sometimes cased in thing done ; sometimes the hearing of a
lead, well soldered, and afterwards put matter judicially, as to take cognizance
into richly ornamented coffins, for the of a cause, and sometimes a particular
purpose of laying in state, or for being jurisdiction, as cognizance of pleas is an
deposited in vaults. We have, among other authority to call a cause or plea out of
ingenious inventions, patent coffins, another court, which no person can do
which effectually preclude the depreda- but the King, except he can shew a
tions of that abominable crew, that obtain charter for it. This cognizance is a pri-
a livelihood by robbing cemeteries. The vilege granted to a city or town, to
security of this contrivance arises chiefly hold plea of all contracts, &c. within
from making the coffin so very strong, as the liberty; and if any one is implead-
to resist the instruments usually employed for such matters in the Courts
ed by what are termed “Resurrection- at Westminster, the Mayor, &c. of
men," and by making the lid to fit on such franchise may demand cognizance
with spring plugs, fitting into hitched of the plea, and that it be determined
sockets; so that being once closed, they before them.
never can be severed, except by break-
ing the coffin to pieces. It is to be la- vestigation to which any person or ac-
In a military sense, it implies the in-
mented that such practices are consider- tion is liable. During the suspension of
ed to be at all necessary under the plea civil authority, every offence comes
of the bodies being subjects for dissec- under military cognizance, is subject to
tion, and considerably aiding to anatomia military law, and may be proceeded
cal and pathological research. Were all
who suffer under the sentence of the its regulation. The strongest instance
law to be devoted to that purpose, many of military cognizance is a drum head
good effects might arise, and the ob-
court martial.
noxious resource, now referred to, be
discontinued. Our ancestors generally
COHESION, one of the species of at-
used stone coffins. The nations of Asia, traction, denoting that force by which the
Africa, and America, as well as the parts of bodies stick together.
Turks in general, do not use any case for This power was first considered by Sir
the interment of their dead. It is, how- Isaac Newton as one of the properties
ever, to be remembered, that the shroud essential to all matter, and the cause of all
used by the Musselmans, both in Eu- that variety observed in the texture of
rope and throughout Asia, is called different terrestrial bodies. He did not,
“ Kauffin;" whence we may be led to however, absolutely determine that the
conjecture that to have been the origin power of cohesion was an immaterial one,
of our designation.
but that it might possibly arise, as well as
Coffins are by no means to be recom- that of gravitation, from the action of
mended; they cause a long continuance another. His doctrine of cohesion is thus
of that fermentation which is the parent expressed: “The particles of all hard
of putrefaction, aiding the retention of homogeneous bodies, which touch one
infectious diseases for many months, and another, cohere with a great force; to
debarring the access of the surrounding account for which, some philosophers
soil, whereby the noxious particles would have recourse to a kind of hooked atoms,
be absorbed and neutralized. Every coffin which in effect is nothing else but to
ought to be filled up with quick lime, beg the thing in question. Others ima-
whence the putrefaction would be accele- gine that the particles of bodies are con-
rated, and the danger of infection be, at nected by rest, i. e. in effect by nothing
least, lessened. The Emperor of Ger. at all; and others by conspiring motions,
VOL. II.
GS
COHESION
i. e. by a relative rest among themselves. that at twice the distance it acts 16 times
For myself, it rather appears to me that more weakly, &c.
the particles of bodies cohere by an attrac- To determine the force of cohesion,
tive force, whereby they tend mutually to- in a variety of different substances, many
ward each other; which force, in the experiments have been made, and parti-
very point of contact, is very great: at cularly by professor Muschenbroek. The
little distances is less, and at farther dis- adhesion of polished planes, about two
tances is quite insensible.”
inches in diameter, heated in boiling
But, whatever the cause of cohesion water, and smeared with grease, requi-
may be, its effects are evident and cer- red the following weights to separate
tain. The different degrees of it consti- them :
tute bodies of different forms and proper-
ties. Thus, Newton observes, the parti-
Cold Grease. Hot Grease.
cles of fluids which do not cohere too
Ib.
lb.
strongly, and are small enough to render Planes of Glass 130...300
them susceptible of those agitations which
Brass..... 150.... 800
keep liquors in a fluid state, are most
Copper .... 200.... 850
easily separated and rarified into vapour,
Marble. .225.... 600
and make what the chemists call volatile
Silver
150.... 250
bodies; being rarefied with an easy heat,
Iron. . 300.... 950
and again condensed with a moderate
cold. Those that have grosser particles, But when the brass planes were made
and so are less susceptible of agitation, to adhere by other sorts of matter, the
or cohere by a stronger attraction, are results were as in the following table :
not separable without a greater degree of
heat ; and some of them not without de-
oz.
composition
With Water
12
Modern chemists have agreed to con-
Oil ...
18
sider the attraction of cohesion as the in-
Venice Turpentine ... 24
strument of aggregation, or the union of
Tallow Candle
800
similar compounds, and are careful not
Rosin ..
850
to confound it with the elective attrac-
Pitch.
1400
tions, though there may, in strictness, be
no difference between them. See CHE- In estimating the absolute cohesion of
solid pieces of bodies, he applied weights,
This kind of attraction is evinced by to separate them according to their
a variety of familiar experiments; as, by length : his pieces of wood were long
the union of two contiguous drops of square parallelopipedons, each side of
mercury; by the mutual approach of two which was 26 of an inch, and they were
pieces of cork floating near each other in drawn asunder by the following weights:
a basin of water; by the adhesion of two
leaden balls, whose surfaces are scraped
lb.
and joined together with a gentle twist,
Fir ...
600
which is so considerable, that if the sur- Elm.
950
faces are about a quarter of an inch in Alder
1000
diameter, they will not be separated by
Linden tree
1000
a weight of 10016.; by the ascent of oil Oak ..
1150
or water between two glass planes, so as
Beech
1250
to form the hyperbolic curve, when they
Ash
1250
are made to touch on one side and kept
separate at a small distance on the other; He tried also wires of metal, 1-10th of
by the depression of mercury, and by the a Rhinland inch in diameter : the metals
rise of water in capillary tubes, and on and weights are as follow:
the sides of glass vessels; also in sugar,
sponge, and all porous substances. And
16.
where this cohesive attraction ends, a Of Lead ..
291
power of repulsion begins.
Tin ...
401
It is uncertain in what proportion this Copper.
2992
force decreases as the distance increases:
Yellow brass
. 360
Desaguliers conjectures, from some phe-
Silver
370
nomena, that it decreases as the biqua-
Iron
450
dratic or 4th power of the distance, so
Gold..
300
MISTRY.
.
.
.
.
COI
COI
Oz
.
a
.
.
He then tried the relative cohesion, or acceptable to every man, and will there
the force with which bodies resist an ac fore be received and held by the seller of
tion applied to them in a direction per. any commodity until he shall meet with
pendicular to their length. For this pur- another individual, who he knows will
pose he fixed pieces of wood by one end again take it for the article he wants.
into a square hole in a metal plate, and In the island of Madagascar, it is said,
hung weights towards the other end till that the exchangeable value of goods is
they broke at the hole: the weights and reckoned in hatchets, bullocks, and slaves;
distances from the hole are exhibited in these commodities being universally ven-
the following table :
dible, and for that reason every where re-
ceived. Smith affirms, that nails answer
Distance. Weight. the same purpose in some parts of Great
inc
Britain. These, and other instances, may
Pine
9. 361 serve to shew how a preferable medium
Fir.
9
40
of exchange becoines adopted ; and it
Beech
7
561 will without difficu ty be seen, that the
Elm
9
44 scarcest and least destructible metals
Oak
8?
48 must have at length become the univer-
Alder
94
48
sal substitutes : for their value does not
depend on their figure; they may be sub-
See his « Elem. Nat. Philos."
divided and joined again without loss;
COIF, the badge of a sergeant at law, the labour of conveying them from place
they receive no injury by keeping; and
who is called serjeant of the coif, from to place forms a less part of their value
the lawn-coif they wear under their caps than of any other article.
when they are created serjeants,
The first monies were mere quantities of
COIL, in naval affairs, the manner in metals ascertained by weight, as the names
which all ropes are disposed aboard ships, of most species still indicate The inter-
for the conveniency of stowage. Coiling ference of government was found neces-
is a sort of serpentine winding the ropes, sary to assure the weight, and more par-
by which they occupy a small space, and ticularly the fineness of determinate por-
are not liable to be entangled among one tions of metal; and this has given rise to
another in working the sails. The small an opinion, that a part of the value of
ropes are frequently coiled by hand, and coin must depend on the edict of the state
hung up to prevent them from being en- which issues it. Whether statesmen them.
tangled among one another, in traversing, selves have in reality thought this to be
contracting, or extending sails.
the case is little to the purpose; but it is
COIN. Among the impediments to certain that they have from time to time
commerce, the greatest undoubtedly is yielded to the temptation of diminishing
the charge of conveyance from place to the quantity of precious metal issued on-
place. This is the great obstacle which der a given denomination, either by openly
limits the exchange of commodities from deducting from the weight, or secretly
one extremity of the world to the other. debasing the coin. Transactions of this
Whenever the charges of carriage arise kind must have operated to the loss of all
to such an amount as to equal the effec- the creditors in the state; but they have
tual return in any remote market, the never deceived the sellers, who have al-
motive for conveying merchandise to that ways regulated their prices by their
place ceases. If goods were always ex- knowledge of the real quantities of the
changed for goods, it is clear that the metal, and not by the denomination or
conveyance, under the uncertainty of dis- the supposed weight or fineness it might
posal, would take place to a very small denote. The imaginary coin, or money
distance indeed ; and the labour required of account, to be found in the mercan-
to discover the persons willing to ex- tile books of almost every commercial na-
change would greatly enhance the charge. tion, must have arisen partly from this
It would require a volume to enumerate cause.
and describe the expedients, moral as well
This diminution has taken place
as mechanical, by which these difficulties throughout Europe. With us the pound
are in part subdued, and still more to de. of money, which about the year 1087 con-
duce their origin and general effects. One tained a pound weight of silver, has
of the chief of these expedients consists in continued at less than one-third (or 20)
the use of some article of merchandise, as of that quantity ever since the reign of
the medium of exchange which shall be Elizabeth. Our neighbours, however,have
a
COIN.
universally exceeded us in this respect. part of the circulation, while the cheaper
Thus the pound Flemish is less than pieces would either be melted down, or
eleven shillings, the French livre is ten diminished if their rated value were too
pence, and the Italian lire is less than high, and they would be fabricated by
20.
individuals if it were too low, in defiance
The Chinese still use fine silver, which of every public regulation which might
they actually cut and weigh at every sin- be adopted. If we therefore admit, from
gle payment. They are said to have for- considerations of this nature, that no go-
merly possessed silver coin; but whether vernment does in reality possess the
they were urged to their present prac- means of fixing a ratio between two arti-
tice by the uncertain variation in its value cles of commerce, intended to be applied
caused by their rulers, or by the difficul- as the tickets of transfer, or the medi-
ty of otherwise resisting the artifices of ums of exchange, we shall be naturally
coiners, we know not.
led to the adoption of one of the metals
The metals used for coinage are gold, only, as the representative sign, while
silver, and copper. According to the the two others are applied merely as in-
exchangeable value of gold, half a grain struments of accommodation, for the con-
of this metal would purchase as much venient subdivision of value.
bread as a man could eat at one meal. With regard to the question of pre-
This small piece of gold, if as thin as pa- ference in these three metals, experi-
per, would not measure the tenth part of ence has shewn that society is disposed
an inch in breadth, and would therefore to assume the dearest; namely, gold.
be perfectly inconvenient for use. It has, With a single standard of value the fluc-
in fact, been found that the gold coin of tuations of the market price of the metal,
the weight of 32 grains (or the quarter when compared with commodities, will
guinea) was too small to be conveniently be nearly imperceptible, because they
used. The same observations will apply confound themselves with the rise and
to the smaller subdivisions of the shilling fall in the prices of all other articles to
of silver; whence, upon the whole, it ap- which the standard is thus applied. If a
pears that coins of all the three metals cheaper metal were to be adopted by
are required to facilitate our commerce the state, and gold were left to circulate
of buying and selling.
at election of individuals, the changes of
Gold, silver, and copper, like every price in this metal of high value would
other product of human industry, depend operate so as to produce an uncertainty
for their value principally on the labour in the amount of large sums, and greatly
employed in producing and bringing disturb the general transactions of com-
them to market, and in a considerable merce. Merchants would therefore con-
degree on the actual demand. As these sider the gold coin as mere bullion, and
articles are not employed merely in the the community would in a great measure
fabrication of coins, the demand will be deprived of its use as a coin; as actu-
vary in each according to circumstances, ally is the case in Holland and other
which admit of no permanent ratio of ex- countries, where silver is the legal me-
change between them. If the state were dium. A more defective scheme was
to coin certain pieces of known weight proposed in France in a report presented
and fineness out of each of these metals, by Prieur, from a committee of the
and determine that a certain number of Council of Five Hundred, of which a
the silver pieces, for example, should in very full abstract is given in the Moni-
all cases be equivalent to one piece of teurs of 6 and 7 Floreal, in the year vi.
the gold, it would naturally follow, sup. Nos. 216, 217. It is, that silver coin
posing the individual to pay nothing for should be unchangeable in weight and
the coinage, that a debt might be dis- denomination of value ; but that the
charged with more facility to the debtor, price of gold (also coined) should be
and consequently loss to the creditor, in settled every six months by a declara-
the cheapest of these two metals, when- tion from the national treasury, deduced
ever by the fluctuation of the market from the medium price of that metal
either of them should come to represent during the preceding half year. It was
a larger portion of the other than the rejected by the Council of Ancients. It
edict of the government had determined. appears most eligible, that gold in
This consequence of fixing the relative pieces of determinate weight and fine.
value of coins would shew itself in a va- ness should constitute the effective coin
Tiety of ways, which need not be enume- of the state, or legal tender of payment;
rated; because it is certain that the that silver and copper should be formed
dearer metal would occupy the greater into money for the purpose of repre.
COIN.
senting fractions of the smallest gold pieces apparently in the worn state, or
coin; and that the creditor or seller otherwise he may exercise his industry
should have the option to refuse all pay- in speedily reducing the new coin to
ments in these last metals of any sum ex- that state, for the sake of the precious
ceeding the smallest unity of the gold metal he may thus acquire.
coin.
If, on the contrary, the legislature
By this distribution, though the coins should forbid the currency of pieces
of silver and copper would, in strictness, worn beyond a certain small or moderate
be subject to some fuctuations arising loss, the consequence will be, that all
from the state of the market with regard such pieces will return to the mint to
to those metals, yet the difference would be coined; and the charge of coinage
be disregarded in the discharge of ac- may become so heavy as to absorb a con-
counts, because it would never amount siderable part of the value of the whole
to a sum of any importance. The only circulating medium in the course of a
inconvenience which offers itself under few years.
such an arrangement is, that these sub- To diminish this last inconvenience as
ordinate coins would also be melted and much as possible, it becomes necessary
sold when the metal was dear, and they to attend to the nature of the metal, as
would be fabricated, if the metal ever well
as the figure of the piece. Whether
happened to be so cheap as to afford an the Dutch ducat, of fine gold, or the Eng-
adequate motive of profit to the illegal lish guinea, of 22 carats, may, under
coiner. The state, on its deliberations like circumstances, be most disposed to
on this subject, might determine that lose by wear, has not, we believe, been
the coins of silver and copper should determined; but it seems to be general-
pass either for more or for less than the ly understood, that our standard gold, in
medium market price of the metal, or watch cases and other trinkets, is less
for that value precisely. It is evident durable than the coarser and harder gold
that the first of these dispositions would allowed to be wrought in France and
afford coin which would continually Geneva. If this be true, it should seem,
vanish into the melting-pot, and is there that there exists no motive for raising
fore altogether unadvisable. The me- the standard of our gold; and perhaps
dium rate of intrinsic value would pro- the same argument may apply still more
duce a similar effect, whenever the mar- to our silver; and the advantage, if any,
ket price was low. Whence it follows, in lowering the standard without di-
that the metal contained in such auxiliary minishing the intrinsic value, has not yet
money ought to be of less value than the been shewn, with sufficient evidence to
gold it represents; and to prevent the justify the offence against established
introduction of a similar coinage from use and public prejudice, which such a
private manufacturers, it would be neces- proceeding might afford. Admitting the
sary that the difference between the observations to be conclusive against al-
value of the metal and that represented tering the standard, it would follow, that
by the coin should be somewhat less than the greater durability of coin must be
the cost of workmanship. Under these sought for in its figure.
circumstances the public would be sup- Let us imagine a coin to possess the
plied with an useful implement or ticket figure of an equilateral triangle ; let it
of exchange, which would operate as a be thin, in order that it may present a
pledge of value, very nearly to the large surface ; let its edges have the fi-
amount of its denomination, and would gure of a saw, and its faces that of a file.
be afforded cheaper from the extensive Under these conditions, we should fabri-
manufactories of government, than it cate one of the worst or least durable
could possibly be made by private work coins that could be chosen : for the an-
gles would be easily broken and worn,
Coin, like every other utensil or tool, and the edges and faces would mutually
is subject to wear, and will, in process of operate an each other, with a degree of
time, be more or less deprived of its dis- rapidity which, it may be concluded,
tinctive figure, and rendered less valua- would very soon take away all the sharp
ble by the loss of weight. When new, prominences, and greatly diminish the
it is the real pledge of measure it pre- weight; on the other hand, let us sup-
tends to be ; but, if it be suffered to cir- pose the least possible surface, and we
culate after its weight is considerably shall obtain the spherical figure. The
diminished, it may become a desirable pagoda and fanam of India are the only
object to the coiner to fabricate new coins, which we recollect, that approach
а
men.
COIN.
towards this figure. Against this, it ap- the coinage in any great proportion,
pears an objection, that if it be nearly we shall disregard it in this present rough
perfect, the impressions descriptive of statement. With this liberty, we may
its purity and denomination must be in- proceed to remark, 1st. That as most
dented, and will not therefore sufficient- o' the old pieces disappeared during the
ly limit its apparent magnitude ; and if middle term of time, the number of nine-
they be prominent, it will no longer be a teen, or say twenty millions, must nearly
sphere, but a figure presenting sharp represent the whole of our gold money.
angular parts, with small bearings very 2d That the national loss by wear in the
liable to destruction. What then is the first period, when the gold was old and
figure that shall partake so much of the smooth, reckoned at one half per cent.
plane, as to present surfaces of broad on the sum recoined, was 37081. per ann. ;
contact or bearing, and afford the quan- and in the latter period 89431. per ann.
tity of angular prominence? It is evident- And, 3d. That the whole national stock
ly the cylinder : and this is the figure of gold coin, under the regulations and
most generally adopted for money. The figure of the last period, wear's out, it is
edge of the cylinder affords the smallest reckoned, every eleven years. This ac-
bearing ; it therefore must be very short count of the coinage is to be found in the
and flat, in order that the weight of the “Report of the Lord's committee of Se-
piece may be disposed to rest on the crecy," printed April 28, 1797.
base, and not the edge.
Hence we may observe, that neither
If the whole surface of a piece of metal kind of mark alone is suited for a coin in-
were covered with figures or impressions, tended to possess durability, and at the
it would immediately be seen whether same time to be difficult either to imitate
any part had been abraded by accident or or diminish. A combination of both me-
design. If the impressions were concave, thods is necessary If a coin be struck
they might easily be renewed by the with indentations, or parts depressed be-
punch or the graver; but if they were neath the common surface, and in these
in relief, it would be almost impossible, there be prominent objects or designs not
when once worn or obliterated. For this more elevated than that surface; the ge-
reason the preference, in coinage, has neral advantage, with regard to wear,
mostly been given to figures in relief.
will approach towards that of the plain
It is, however, a very serious inconve- surface itself; and the impression will
nience, that when the distinctive marks be at least as difficult to imitate, if not
are thus rendered prominent, the face of more so than that of a design raised to-
the coin no longer sustains the pressure tally above the common surface. Few
and wear of the piece ; but the marks coins bave been made of this figure. The
themselves are made to support the whole. Chinese coin, of mixed copper, called the
Thus, in our gold money, particularly of cash, is the most remarkable, and per-
the last coinage, the edge is a saw, and haps the only one of extensive circulation,
the numerous minute prominences of the The late copper coinage of pieces of one
face constitute a file ; the operations of and two pennies are of this kind.
both which are felt in the rapid destruc-
To sum up the foregoing conclusions
tion of the piece.
in a few words, we may remark that, 1.
To place this in a more striking lightThe state is unable (from the natural
it may be observed, that the amount of impracticability of things) to appoint
gold coined between the years 1762 and two distinct articles of commerce as the
1772, both inclusive, was 8,157,2331. 15s. circulating mediums of exchange. 2. The
6d.; and between 1782 and 1792, both measure of value, or legal tender, ought
inclusive, was 19,675,6661. 14s. 6d.; and to consist in the metal which bears the
between 1773 and 1777, both inclusive, highest price, namely, gold. 3. Coins of
was 19,591,8331. 1s. During the middle silver and copper are required for smaller
period, last mentioned, the great coinage fractions than the actual subdivisions of
of gold took place. We are aware that the gold coin, but should be optional in
other causes may have occasioned a de- the receipt of any larger sums. 4. These
mand for coin, besides the mere wear of last mentioned coins ought to represent a
the old pieces, and that the increase of value in gold equal to their own quantity
commerce and manufactures has in fact of metal, at the highest (or perhaps me-
produced such a demand; but as this dium) market price, added to the charge
last event (distinguishable by its gradual of fabrication. 5. No sufficient reason
progress) does not appear, from the num; has yet been given to shew that the stand.
bers in the account, to have influenced ard of gold coin should be changed to
a
COIN.
render it more durable. 6. The best neither altogether hollow, or altogether
figure of coin is a short cylinder, or flat in relief, but by combination of both forms,
round plate. And, 7. The distinctive so as to leave a flat bearing face on each
marks or impressions should be made side.
Sir ISAAC NEWTON'S TABLE of the Value of foreign Coins.
Assay. Weight. Value.
SILVER.
dwts
w 1
11
1
Stan.
dw. gr.
d.
17 12 54.
14 43.11
17 105 53.83
17 9 35.87
.
w1
1!
17 12 54.
19 14 60.39
11 4 34.31
.
w, 12
W.
.
b. 43 20 22 66.15
18 1 52.91
6.3 20 21 65.59
18 52.28
20 8 62.46
6 181 20.08
20 6 62.21
17 14 43.07
b. 3
20 18 65.02
18 0
52.53
17 22: 55.48
61 18 8
55.27
18 8 54,53
The piastre, or piece of 8 reaus, now 10 reaus
New Seville piece of eight
Mexico piece of eight
Pillar piece of eight
Peru piece of eight of uncertain alloy
Old ecu of France of 60 sols, Turnois
New ecu of France 100 sols, 2dwt. w. by law
Crusado of Portugal of 400 reas, now 480 reas
Patacks, or patagons of 500 reas, now 600 reas
Ducaton of Flanders of 60 sols, or patars
Patagon, or cross dollar of 48 patars
Ducaton of Holland of 63 styvers
Patagon, leg doilar, or rix dollar of 50 styvers
The three guilder piece of 60 styvers
Guilder Aorin of 20 styvers
The ten skelling piece of Zealand of 60 styvers
Lyon dollar of Holland of 42 styvers
Ducatoon of Collogn.
Rixdollar, or patagon of Cologn
Rixdollar, or patagon of Bishop of Liege
Rixdollar of Mentz
Rixdollar of Frankfort
Rixdollar of the Elect. Palatine, before 1620
Rixdollar of Nuremburg
Rixdollar of Lunemburg
Rixdollar of Hanover
Double gulden of the Elect. Hanover .
Double gulden, or piece of two-thirds
Half gulden, or piece of one-third ..
Guiden of Zell, or piece of 16 gutz grosh
Guiden of Hildesheim of 24 manen grosb, now 26
Rixdollar of Madgburgh ...
Gulden, or guelder
Old rixdollar of the Elect. Brandenburgh
Old gulden of 24 manen grosh, now 26
Guiden, or piece of two-thirds
Half gulden, or piece of one-third
Guiden of the Elect. Saxony of two-thirds
Old bank dollar of Hamburgh
Old rixdollar of Lubec..
The 4 mark piece of Denmark
The 8 mark piece of Sweden
The 4 mark piece of Sweden
The 2 mark piece of Sweden
Old dollar of Dantzic
Old rixdollar of Thorn, near Dantzic
Rixdollars of Sigismund III. and Uladislaus IV. kings of
ia wagonmoyon ogon
w.13
.
.
18 5
18 10
18 11
18 12
18 18
8 10
4 5
11 2
11 22
18 12
11 14
18 13
12 4
w.43
403
55.55
54.65
55.03
56.29
6.17
28.14
173
14.07
27.07
30.21
10
54.27
44
28.67
9
55.17
43
30.41
43 11 3 27.81
43
5.13
13.09
11 3
28.12
18 9 54.92
81 18 16
55.54
21 11 13 32.45
Stan. 20 0 62.00
13 12 30.92
Poland
6 19
102 18 9 54.27
12 18 8153.85
10 18 9 54,04
9绍绍纪n88
.
.
.
2.58
COIN.
-
Assay. Weight. Value.
SILVER.
dwts. dw. gr.
d.
Rixdollar of the late Emperor Leopold
103 18 9 54.27
Rixdollar of the late Emperor Ferdinand III
103 18 9 54.27
Rixdollar of Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria
103 18 5 53.78
Rixdollar of Basil ..
73
18 181
56.24
Rixdollar of Zune
13
18 1
52.65
Old ducat of Venice, stamped “Ducatus Venetus”
233
14 15 40.50
The half ducat
233
7 73 20.25
The new ducat, stamped 124, of 61. 4s. de picoli
18 2
The half thereof
9 1
The crusado croisat, or St. Mark, stamped 140, of 7 livres
de Picoli
20 6
The half and quarter crusado, in proportion
Another coin of Venice
W.46
17 10 42.08
The piece of 2 jules.
b. 6 3 15 11.05
Ducat de Banes of Naples of 100 grains
1ro. 3 14 04 40.43
The half ducat
7 0 20.21
The tarin, or fifth part of a ducat
3 2 192 8.09
The carlin, or tenth part
1 93
4.04
Escude ecu, or crown of Rome, of 10 julios
20 141
Teston of 3 julios.
1 5 213 18.32
Ducat of Florence and Leghorn of 102 julios
b. 8 203 64.62
Julios of Rome ..
25
Piastre ecu, or crown of Ferdinand II. Duke of Tuscany w. 1 17 12 54.
Piastre ecu, or crown of Cosmus III
1 16 18
51.69
Croisat of Genoa of 73 lires . .
6. 7 24 15
78.74
Ecu d'argent of 7 lires, 12 sols
Piastre ecu, or crown of Milan
17 21
Philip of Milan of 7 lires
20 20
Livre of Savoy of 20 sols ...
3 22
The 10 sols piece
1 23
162 7 10 24.07
Goud gulden, or florin d'or of 28 styvers
75 12 19 26.26
Another
48 11 0 26.72
Another
48 12 0 29.15
w co co con
A roupee
0 03
Assay. | Weight Value.
TABLE OF GOLD COINS UNWOBN.
ca, grdw. gr. S. d.
Old Lewis d'or, the half and quarter in proportion w.0 O} 4 8 16 9.3
New Lewis d'or, the half and quarter in proportion 0 1! 5 53 20 0.6
Old Spanish double doubloon
003
17 8 67 1.4
New Spanish double pistole, half in proportion
8 16 33 6.7
New Seville double pistole, half and quarter in pro-
portion ...
8 161
The double moeda of Portugal, new coined
0 02 6 22
26 10.4
Ditto, as they come to England
0 0
6 217 26 9.9
The moeda
0 01 3 11 13 5.1
Half moeda.
001 1 17! 6 8.5
Hungary ducat
b. 1 2 2 5 9 3.6
Ducats of Holland and of Bishop of Bamburgh
1 2 2 53 9 3.2
Double ducat of the Duke of Hanover
1 2
4 103
18 4.8
Ducat of the Duke of Hanover
1 2
9 2.7
Ducats of Brandenburgh, Sweden, and Denmark
1 2
9 3.2
Ducat of Poland.
1 2 2 5 9 2.1
Ducat of Transylvania
1 13
2 43 8 11.6
Sequin, Chequin, or Zeachein, of Venice
1 31
2 53
9 5.7
Old Italian pistole
w.0 01 4 63 16 7.6
Double pistole of Pope Urban, 1634
8 143
Half pistole of Innocent II. 1685
2 4
.
2 5 7
2 51
COI
COI
S.
Assay. Weight. Value.
TABLE OF GOLD COINS UNWORN.
ca. gr.dw. gr. d.
Double pistole of Placentia ..
8 10
Double pistole of Genoa, 1621
8 16
Double pistole of Milan
8 133
Single pistole of Milan
4 67
Single pistole of Savoy.
4 83
Double ducat of Castile, Genoa, Portugal, Florence,
Hungary, and Venice.
6. 1 2! 4 11
18 17.7
Single ducats of the same places
1 2 2 5 9 3.8
Double ducats of several forms, in Germany
11 4 11 18 4.
Single ditto
1 1
2 54 9 2.
Double ducat of Genoa
1 2
4 11 18 6.5
Single ducat of Genoa, Besançon, and Zurich
1 2
2 53
9 32
Pistoles of Rome, Milan, Venice, Florence, Savoy,
Genoa, Orange, Trevon, Besançon
004 4 6 16 6.7
Ducat of Barbary, with Arabic letters
2 13 2 164 9 3.5
70.
son.
Coin, laws relating to. Counterfeiting A reward of 401. is given for convict-
the king's money, or bringing false mo- ing a counterfeiter of the gold or silver
ney into the realm counterfeit to the coin; and 101, for a counterfeiter of the
;
money of England, clipping, washing, copper coin.
,
rounding, filing, impairing, diminishing, COINING, the art of making money,
falsifying, scaling, lightening, edging, which has hitherto been performed by
colouring, gilding, making, mending, or
the hammer or the mill. The first ope-
having in one's possession, any pun- rations are the mixing and melting of
cheon, counter puncheon, matrix, stamp, the metal, because there is no species
dye, pattern, mould, edger, or cutting of coin of pure gold or silver, but re-
engine: all these incur the penalty of quires a quantity of alloy. See Alloy.
ALLOY
high treason. And if any person shall For gold coin the alloy is a mixture of
counterfeit any such kind of gold or sil- silver and copper, as silver alone would
ver, as are not the proper coin of the make the coin too pale, and the copper
realm, but current therein by the king's alone would give it too high a colour.
consent, he shall be guilty of high trea- The alloy is used for the purpose of ren-
dering the coins harder, and less liable
If any person shall tender in pay- to wear, or to be diminished by art.
ment any counterfeit coin, he shall, for When the gold and silver are complete-
the first offence, be imprisoned six ly melted and mixed, they are cast into
months; for the second offence two long, flat bars, nearly of the thickness of
years; and for the third offence shall the coin to be cast. In coining by the mill,
be guilty of felony without benefit of which has been the only method in use
clergy.
for the last 250 years, the bars are taken
Blanching copper or other base metal, out of the moulds, and scraped, brushed,
or buying or selling the same; and re- flattened in a mill, and brought to the
ceiving or paying money at a lower rate proper thickness of the species to be
than its denomination doth import; and coined. The plates thus reduced as
also the offence of counterfeiting copper nearly as possible to the proper thick-
half-pence and farthings; incur the pe- ness, are cut into round pieces, called.
nalty of felony, but within clergy. Coun- blanks, or planchets, with an instrument
terfeiting coin not the proper coin of fastened to the lower end of an arbor,
this realm, not permitted to be current whose upper end is formed into a screw,
therein, is misprision of treason. A per- which being turned by an iron handle,
son buying or selling, or having in his turns the arbor, and lets the steel, well
possession, clippings or filings, shall for- sharpened in form of a punch-cutter, fall
feit 5001. and be branded in the cheek on the plates; and thus a piece is punch-
with the letter R. And any person hav- ed out. The pieces are now to be
ing in his possession a coining-press, or brought to the standard weight by filing
casting bars or ingots of silver in imita- or rasping, and what remains of the
tion of Spanish bars or ingots, shall for- plate between the circles is melted
feit 5001.
again. The pieces are next weighed in
VOL. II.
Hh
COK
COL
a
an accurate balance, and those that prove bitumen, or asphaltum it may contain, so
too light are re-melted; but those that that when applied to certain purposes,
are too heavy are filed to the standard it may not communicate a bad flavour or
weight. When the blanks are adjusted, bad qualities. - Coke is made in very
they are carried to the blanching-house, large ovens, principally from the refuse
where the blanks are brought to their or brush-coal, with which some pits
proper colour. They are next milled, abound ; the coal in them being extreme-
by means of a machine which consists of ly brittle, and rarely coming away in
two plates of steel in form of rulers, on large pieces. The ovens have vents and
which the edging is engraved, half on the mouths that are occasionally stopped, in
one and half on the other. Being thus part, for the purpose of regulating the
edged, the impression is given them by heat, which in no case should be such
the mill, which is so contrived that the as to consume, but merely to char. The
metal receives at once an impression on ovens being closed, at a proper time,
each side, and becomes money as soon the fire is gradually extinguished, and
as it has been examined and weighed. the coke is compacted into large masses,
The process for coining medals is nearly requiring to be broken before they can
the same with that of money : there is, be taken out. In this state it will burn
however, this difference, that money with a clear and steady heat, free from
from the smallness of the relievo re- fumes, and consequently without occa-
ceives its impression at once, whereas sioning malt (which is usually dried with
medals require several strokes. The coke, where coal pits are at hand) to
figures of the coining-mill have been so partake of a bituminous or smoky flavour.
frequently given, that it seemed to us Good coke should be light, rather little,
needless to insert them here, especially and more close than cellular; that which
as a new method of coining has been in- is of a deep ash colour is in general pre-
troduced by Messrs. Bolton and Watt, ferable : when black, or at all glossy, it
which is shortly to be the only mode used is a certain sign of the want of due pre-
in this country. For this purpose build- paration : it ought to be equally char-
ings are erecting on Tower-Hill. This red, and in large lumps, from the size of
machinery, invented by these able me- a quartern loaf to a bushel: the small
chanicians, has been long used in the refuse is not profitable, and often is too
manufacture of copper money ; it works much burnt.
the screw-presses for cutting out the COLCHICUM, in botany, meadow saf-
circular pieces of copper, and coins fron, a genus of the Hexandria Trigynia
both the edges and faces of the money class and order. Natural order of Spatha-
at the same time, with such superior ex- ceæ. Junci, Jussieu.
cez. Junci, Jussieu. Essential charac-
cellence and cheapness of workmanship ter: spathe ; corolla six-parted, with a
as will prevent clandestine imitation. rooted tube ; capsule three, connected,
By this machinery, four boys are capable inflated. There are three species. One
of striking 30,000 pieces of money in an of them, viz. C. autumnale, has been sup-
hour; and the machine acts at the posed by Mr. Want to be the base of the
same time as a register, and keeps an un- Eau medicinale d'Hussor.
erring account of the number of pieces COLD. When we leave a room at
struck.
the temperature of 60°, and go into the
COINING, in the tin-works, is the air in a frosty day at the temperature of
weighing and stamping the blocks of 30°, we say it is cold; or when the hand
tin with a lion rampant, performed by 100° for a few minutes, and then sudden-
is held in water at the temperature of
the king's officer ; the duty for every ly plunged into water at the tempera-
hundred weight being four shillings.
ture of 40°, the latter is said to be cold.
COIX, in botany, a genus of the Mo- This, however, is merely an expression
noecia Triandria class and order. Na- of the sensation excited in the body,
tural order of grasses. Essential charac- which depends solely on the abstraction
ter: males in remote spikes ; calyx glume of its heat. This may be proved by the
two-flowered awnless ; corolla glume following experiment. If three quanti-
awnless; female, calyx glume two-flow- ties of water are taken, the first at the
ered; corolla glume awnless : style two temperature of 30°, the second at the
parted; seeds covered by the calyx ossi- temperature of 50°, and the third at the
fied. There are three species.
temperature of 98°. Immerse the right
COKE, a preparation of fossil coal, hand into the water at the temperature
whereby it is deprived of the naptha, of 98°, and the left into the water at the
a
COLD.
temperature of 30°. Let them both re- been advanced by M. Prevost, which
main for a minute, and then suddenly goes a considerable way to reconcile the
plunge both hands into the water at the apparent contradiction of the doctrine of
intermediate temperature of 50°, to the the unity of heat and cold.
right hand it will feel cold, and to the It is singular that the reflexion of cold
left warm : thus different sensations are should have been accidentally discover-
produced by the same body at the same ed, and decidedly announced about the
time, and at the same temperature. But year 1667, by the members of the Flo-
this depends entirely on the previous rentine Academy del Cimento, without
state of the hands, and on the absorption any further prosecution of so curious a
or abstraction of the caloric. The right, fact. The experiment is the following:
which was placed in the water at the a mass of ice of about 500lb. was set some
temperature of 98°, absorbed caloric, be- distance before a concave glass mirror,
cause the temperature of the water is and the bulb of a spirit thermometer put
above that of the body. This excites in the focus, to try whether cold would
the sensation of heat: but when the be reflected. Immediately the spirit of
same hand is placed in the water at the the thermometer began to sink, and fell
temperature of 509, it is deprived of ca- several degrees. To prove that this was
loric, because the surrounding medium is not merely owing to the contiguity of the
far below its temperature, and thus the ice, the surface of the mirror was cover-
sensation of cold is produced. But from ed with a cloth, to prevent the reflexion,
the left, placed in the water at 30°, ca- and the thermometer again rose. No
loric is abstracted, which gives the sen- further inference is drawn from this ex-
sation of cold, and the same hand placed periment, and the author of it seemed
in the water at 50°, receives caloric, and even to doubt of the reality of the re-
this entering the body, excites the sensa- flexion, and to be disposed to impute it
tion of heat. Thus the term cold is ex- to some other unknown cause. This ex-
pressive of the relative temperature of periment was repeated in a much more
two bodies. There have, however, been accurate way by M. Pictet. The appara-
persons who would account for the phe- tus which he used was the same as that
nomena of cold by the existence of before described, as employed for the
frigorific particles, supposed to be float- reflection of heat; that is, two tin mir-
ing in the air, and by mixing with liquid rors placed directly opposite each other
bodies convert them to solids, and there at some distance, in the focus of one of
are facts which seem to support this doc- which was placed the bulb of a very sen-
trine.
sible thermometer, and in the other, the
Nothing appears at first sight more di- vessel intended to produce the heat or
rectly contradictory to the common opi- cold. In this instance, this latter was a
nion of cold being only relative, and only mattress full of snow: the mirrors were
a negative term implying the abstrac- separated to the distance of 103 feet.
tion of heat, than the facts which shew At the instant the mattress was placed in
the apparent radiation, absorption, and one focus, the thermometer in the oppo-
reflexion of cold; the evidence of which site focus began to sink, and descended
stands on the same ground as the corres- several degrees. When stationary, ni-
ponding motions of heat, namely, on the trous acid was poured on the snow,
rise or fall of the thermometer. If the which produced a cold of much greater
rise of the liquor on the scale of a ther- intensity, and the thermometer in conse-
mometer, whose bulb is placed in the quence immediately descended several
focus of a mirror, be considered as a degrees lower. When taken out of the
proof of the propulsion of certain calorific focus, it again rose to the common tem-
rays from a distant heated surface, and perature.
their subsequent reflexion according to Mr. Leslie also found, not only the
the laws of catoptrics, the sinking of the same effect in this experiment, but that
same thermometer liquor under similar the action of a cold-radiating surface upon
circumstances of position, when the sur- the tin reflector produced exactly the
face which before was sensibly hotter same proportional effect upon the differ-
than the atmosphere is now sensibly ential thermometer as the hot radiating
colder, would seem from a parity of rea- surface, only in the opposite direction of
soning to indicate the propulsion and re- the scale. The differential thermome-
flexion of frigorific rays. Nor can we ter, which is always at zero when both
,
consider this question as at all determin- bulbs are equally heated, is beautifully
ed, though an ingenious hypothesis has calculated to shew this striking experi-
COLD.
made upon
ment. Thus, if the difference of tempe- When any of these substances are te
rature between the heat-radiating sub- be employed as freezing mixtures, the
stance and the atmosphere be 60 de- salts should be used fresh crystallized,
grees, and if this raises the thermometer and reduced to fine powder : and it will
45 degrees, the same difference between perhaps be found most convenient to ob-
the cold-radiating substance and the atmo- serve the proportions which are set down
sphere will sink the thermometer 45 de- in the table. Suppose it is wanted to
grees, and so in proportion; so that a produce a degree of artificial cold equal
cold of 16 degrees will sink the ther- to-50°, which is the temperature pro-
mometer 12 degrees; for 60: 45 :: 16: duced from 32° by the seventh freezing
12.
mixture. The substances employed,
Great degrees of cold are produced namely, the muriate of lime and the
by mixing together those substances snow, must be previously cooled down
which dissolve rapidly. The reason of to the temperature of 3žº, or any de-
this will appear, by recollecting what has gree below it. This may be done by
been said of the absorption of caloric placing them separately in the third
when a solid body is converted into a freezing mixture, the sulphate of soda,
fluid. Mixtures to produce artificial cold, and diluted sulphuric acid, which re-
are generally made of the neutral salts duces the temperature from 50° to 3º;
dissolved in water; of diluted acids and or in the fourth freezing mixture of
some of the neutral salts; and of snow or snow and common salt, which reduces
pounded ice with some of these salts. the temperature from 32° to 0°. The
A great number of experiments were materials thus cooled down, are then to
this subject by Mr. Walker; be mixed together as quickly as possi-
also by Professor Lowitz, of Peters- ble, when, if the experiment succeed,
burgh; by Fourcroy and Vauquelin; and the temperature will fall from 32° to -
by Guyton. The following table exhi- 50°, as in the seventh freezing mixture.
bits the results of some of these experi- The vessels which are employed for
ments.
these processes should be very thin,
and made of the best conductors of
Table of freezing mixtures. heat. Vessels of tin plate answer the
purpose, and when acids are to be used,
Mixtures.
Thermom, sinks. they may be lined with wax, which
will secure them sufficiently against
Parts.
1. Muriate of am-
their action. They should be of no
monia
5
larger dimensions than just to contain
from 50° to 10°.
Nitre.
57
the materials.
Water
16
COLDENIA, in botany, so called in
honour of C. Colden, a curious botanist
2. Muriate of am.
of North America; a genus of the Te-
monia
5
.. 5 from 50° to 3
5) ° °.
trandria Tetragynia class and order. Na-
tural order; Asperifoliæ. Borragineæ,
Sulphate of soda 8
Jussieu. Essential character: calyx four-
Water ........16
leaved; corolla funnel formed; styles
3. Sulphate of soda 5
four; seeds two, two.celled. There is
Diluted sulphu-
from 50° to 0°.
ric acid ...
but a single species, viz. C. procumbens,
4S
an annual plant, whose branches trail on
4. Snow
1 1
froin 52° to 0°. the ground, they extend nearly a foot
Common salt .. 1
from the root, and divide into many
smaller branches. It is a native of the
ed ice .....
2
East Indies, but has been cultivated here
Common salt .. 1
15
for half a century.
6. Potash
42
from 32° to -51°
COLEOPTERA, in natural history, an
3
order of insects, which includes all those
7. Muriate of lime 3
from 32° to -50°.
whose wings are guarded by a pair of
23
strong, horny, exterior cases or cover-
8. Muriate of lime 2
Snow .....
ings, under which the wings are folded
from 0° to -66º.
13
up when at rest. In common language
9. Muriate of lime from—400 to—-730. these insects are called beetles, though,
32
i°
in reality, that term is now restricted to
10. Diluted sulphu-
the Scarabæus genus. The wing-sheaths,
ric acid...... 10 from-68ºto-91º. or horny coverings, are sometimes called
Snow...
8
coleoptera, but more generally elytra.
Nitre .........
5. Snow or pound 2 from 0° to—5º.
Snow .......
co
Snow ........
COL
COL
This is a very extensive order, divided trils small, placed at the base and nearly
into four classes.
hidden by the feathers; tongue jagged at
A. antenna clavate, thicker towards the tip: tail long and wedged; toes di-
the tip: in this class there are three sub- vided throughout. There are four spe-
divisions; viz.
cies, three of which are found in Africa,
and the fourth in the Philippine islands.
a. Club lamellate ; three genera.
But little is known of their manners and
habits.
Lucanus Scarabæus Synodendron.
COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a sort
b. Club perfoliate; seven genera.
of chain put generally round the neck of
slaves that had ran away, after they were
Byrrhus Dermestes Hydrophilus
Melyris Silpha
taken, with an inscription round it, inti-
Tetratoma
mating their being deserters, and requir-
Tritoma.
ing their being restored to their proper
c. Club solid or inflated ; seven genera.
owners, &c.
Anthrenus Bostrichus Coccinella COLLAR, in a more modern sense, an
Curculio Hister Nitidula ornament consisting of a chain of gold,
Pausus,
enamelled, frequently set with cyphers
or other devices, with the badge of the
B. antennæ moniliform; of which there order hanging at the bottom, wore by the
are twelve genera ; viz.
knights of several military orders over
their shoulders, on the mantle, and its
Attelabus Brentus Cassida
figure drawn round their armories.
Chrysomela Erodius Horia
Thus, the collar of the order of the
Meloe Mordella Opatrum
garter, consists of SS, with roses
Staphylinus Tenebrio Zygia.
enamelled red, with a garter enamelled
blue, and the George at the bottom.
C. antennæ filiform; of these there are
nineteen genera.
COLLATERAL, in genealogy, those
relations which proceed from the same
Alurnus Apalus Bruchus
stock, but not in the same line of as-
Buprestis Calopus Cantharus cendants or descendants, but being, as
Carabus Cryptocephalus Cucujus it were, aside of each other. Thus
Elater Gyrinus Hispa uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces, and cou-
Lampyris Lytta
Manticora sins, are collaterals, or in the same colla-
Necydalus Notoxus Pimelia teral line : those in a higher degree, and
Ptinus.
nearer the common root, represent a
kind of paternity with regard to those
D. antenna setaceous; of which there more remote.
are eight genera.
COLLATERAL, in a legal sense, is taken
Cerambyx Cucindela Dytiscus for any thing that hangeth by the side of
Forficula Leptura Rhinomacer
another, whereto it relates ; as a collate-
Serropalpus Zonitis.
ral assurance is that instrument which is
made over and above the deed itself, for
COLE-SEED. See BRASSICA.
the performance of covenants, between
COLE-WORT, in gardening, a species man and man; thus called as being exter-
of brassica. See BRASSICA.
nal, and without the nature and essence
COLIC, in medicine, a severe pain in of the covenant.
the lower venter, so called, because the COLLATION, in the common law, the
disorder was formerly supposed to be giving or bestowing of a benefice on a
a
seated in the colon.
clergyman by a bishop, who has it in his
COLISEUM, or COLISÆUM, in ancient own gift, or patronage. This differs
,
architecture, an oval amphitheatre at from presentation, in that the latter is
Rome, built by Vespasian, wherein were properly the act of a patron, offering the
statues set up, representing all the pro- clerk to the bishop, to be instituted into
vinces of the empire: in the middle of a benefice, whereas the former is the act
which stood that of Rome, holding a gold- of the bishop himself. The collator can
en apple in her hand.
never confer a benefice on himself. An
COLIUS, the coly, in natural history, a ciently, the right of presentation to all
genus of birds of the order Passeres. churches was in the bishop; and now, if
Generic character : bill convex above, the patron neglects to present to the
straight under, short and thick; the up- church, his right returns to the bishop
per mandible curved downwards; nos- by collation. If the bishop neglects to
COL
COL
cence.
exercise his right of collation in six most of them fixed and known by preced-
months, the archbishop may confer. If ing holy days, and the rest appointed at
he neglect it for other six months, it falls the judge's pleasure.
to the crown.
COLLEGE of Physicians, a corporation
COLLECTOR, in electricity, is a small of physicians in London, whose number,
appendage to the prime conductor of the by charter, is not to exceed eighty. The
electrical machine, generally consisting chief of them are called fellows, and the
of pointed wires, affixed to that end of next candidates, who fill up the places of
the prime conductor which stands con- fellows as they become vacant by death,
tiguous to the glass globe, or cylinder, or otherwise. Next to these are the
or other electric of the machine. Its honorary fellows, and lastly, the licenti-
office is to receive the electricity, whe- ates, that is, such as being found capable
ther positive or negative, from the ex
upon
examination are allowed to prac-
cited'electric, much more readily than tise physic.
the blunt end of the prime conductor
This college has several great privileges
would be able to receive it without that granted by charter and acts of parliament
appendage.
No man can practise physic in, or within
COLLEGE, a particular corporation, seven miles of London, without license of
company, or society of men, having cer- the College, under the penalty of 51. Also,
tain privileges founded by the King's li-
persons practising physic in other parts of
England are to have letters testimonial
Colleges in the Universities are general- from the president and three elects, unless
ly lay corporations, although the members they be graduate physicians of Oxford or
of the college may be all ecclesiastical. Cambridge. Every member of the College
And in the government thereof, the is authorized to practise surgery in Lon-
King's courts cannot interfere, where a don, or elsewhere; and that they may be
visitor is specially appointed.
able at all times to attend their patients,
The two Universities, in exclusion of they are freed from all parish offices,
the King's courts, enjoy the sole juris-
dition over all civil actions and suits, ex- four censors, and twelve electors. The
The College is governed by a president,
cept where the right of freehold is con-
censors have, by charter, power to survey,
cerned ; and also in criminal offences or
misdemeanours under the degree of trea- govern, and arrest all
physicians, or others,
son, felony, or maim. Their proceedings of London ; to fine, amerce, and imprison
practising physic in or within seven miles
are in a summary way, according to the them at discretion to search apothecaries'
practice of the civil law. But they have shops, &c. in and about London; to see if
no jurisdiction, unless the plaintiff or de their drugs, &c. be wholesome, and the
fendant be a scholar or servant of the
university, and resident in it at the time. scribed by the College in their dispensa-
compositions according to the form pre-
An appeal lies from the Chancellor's ries; and to burn, or otherwise destroy,
court to the congregation, thence to the those that are defective or decayed, and
,
not fit for use. They are judges of record,
gates.
COLLEGE of Civilians, commonly called their practice but by judicial powers;
and not liable to action for what they do in
Doctors' Commons, founded by Dr. Har-
vey, Dean of the Arches, for the profess- lege of Physicians. By law, if any person,
vey, Dean of the Arches, for the profess subject nevertheless to appeal to the Col-
ors of the civil law residing in the city not expressly allowed to practise, take
of London. The judges of the arches,
admiralty, and prerogative court, with upon him the cure of any disease, and the
,
several other eminent civilians, common-
patient die under his hand, it is deemed
ly reside here. To this College belong felony in the practiser.
thirty-four proctors, who make them- COLLEGE Royal of Physicians, is also a
selves parties for their clients, manage corporation of physicians in Edinburgh,
their causes, give licenses for marriages, erected by King Charles II. granting them,
&c. In the Common Hall of Doctors' Com- by patent under the great seal, an ample
mons are held several courts, under the jurisdiction within this city and liberties,
jurisdiction of the civil law, particularly commanding the courts of justice to assist
the High Court of Admiralty, the Court them in the execution of their orders.
of Delegates, the Arches Court of Can- These have the sole faculty of professing
terbury, and the Prerogative Court of physic here, and hold conferences once a
Canterbury, whose terms for sitting are month for the improvement of medicine.
much like those at Westminster, every This College consists of a president, two
one of them holding several court days; censors, a secretary, and the ordinary so-
COL
COL
ciety of fellows, who, upon St. Andrew's the Earl of Derby, in the reign of King
day, if it falls on a Thursday, if not, on the Henry VII. was given them by the Duke
first Thursday after, elect seven counsel- of Norfolk, in the reign of Queen Mary,
lors, who chuse the president and the which house is now rebuilt. This College
other officers for the ensuing year. By is subordinate to the Earl Marshal of Eng-
their charter, the president and censors land. They are assistants to him in his
have power to convene before them all court of chivalry, usually held in the com-
persons that presume to practise physic mon hall of the College, where they sit in
within the city of Edinburgh, or the liber- their rich coats of his Majesty's arms.
ties thereof, without the license of the Col- COLLEGE of Heralds in Scotland. The
lege; and to fine them in five pounds principal person in the Scottish Court of
sterling. They are also impowered to vi- Honour, is Lyon King at Arms, who has
sit apothecaries' shops, and examine six heralds and six pursuivants, and a
apothecaries themselves; with several great number of messengers at arms un-
other rights and privileges.
der him, who, together, make up the
COLLEGE Sion, or the College of the College of Heralds. The Lyon is oblig-
London clergy, was formerly a religious ed to hold two peremptory courts in the
house, next to a spittal, or hospital, and year, at Edinburgh, on the 6th of May
now it is a composition of both, viz, a col- and the 6th of November, and to call
lege for the clergy of London, who were officers of arms and their cautioners be-
incorporated in 1631, at the request of Dr. fore him upon complaints; and if found
White, under the name of the president culpable upon trial, to deprive and fine
and fellows of Sion College; and an hospi- them and their cautioners. Lyon and
tal for ten poor men, the first within the his brethren, the heralds, have power to
gates of the house, and the latter without visit the arms of noblemen and gentle-
This College consists of a president, two men, and to distinguish them with dif-
deans, and four assistants, who are annu- ferences, to register them in their books,
ally chosen from among the rectors and
as also to inhibit such to bear arms, as by
vicars in London, subject to the visitation the law of arms ought not to bear them,
of the bishop. They have one of the under the pain of escheating to the King
finest libraries in England, built and stock - the thing whereon the arms are found,
ed by Mr. Simpson, chiefly for the clergy and of a hundred marks Scots to Lyon
of the city, without excluding other stu- and his brethren; or of imprisonment
dents on certain terms; they have also a during Lyon's pleasure. The College of
hall with chambers for the students, gener- Heralds are the judges of the malversa-
ally filled with the ministers of the neigh. tion of messengers, whose business is to
bouring parishes.
execute summonses and letters of dili-
COLLEGE, Gresham, or COLLEGE of gence for civil debt, real or personal.
Philosophy, a College founded by Sir Tho.
COLLEGE of Cardinals, sometimes call-
mas Gresham, who built the Royal Ex. ed the Sacred College, a body composed
change, a moiety of the revenue whereof of the three orders of Cardinals.
he gave in trust to the Mayor and Com-
COLLET1A, in botany, a genus of the
monalty of London, and their successors
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
for ever, and the other moiety to the Com- Corolla campanulate, furnished with five-
pany of Mercers; the first, to find four scale-like folds ; calyx none; fruit three-
able persons to read in the College divini. grained. One species, found in the Bra-
ty, astronomy, music, and geometry; and
zils.
the last, three or more able men to read
COLLIERS, vessels employed to carry
rhetoric, civil law, and physic; a lecture coals from one port to another, principal-
upon each subject is to be read in term. ly from the northern parts of England to
time, every day, except Sundays, in Latin, the capital, and more southern parts, and
,
in the forenoon, and the same in English to be an excellent nursery for seamen.
foreign markets. Their trade is known
in the afternoon; only the music lecture
is to be read alone in English.
COLLINSONIA, in botany, a genus of
COLLEGE of Heralds, or COLLEGE of Leaves ovate, glabrous; stem glabrous.
the Diandria Monogynia class and order.
,
fice, a corporation founded by charter of Two species, found in North America,
,
King Richard III. who granted them se-
COLLYRIUM, in pharmacy, a topical
veral privileges, as to be free from subsi. remedy for disorders of the eyes.
dies, tolls, offices, &c. They had a second COLOGNE earth, a substance used in
charter from King Edward VI.; and a painting, much approaching to amber
house built near Doctors' Commons by its structure,and of a deep brown. It has
COL
COL
generally been esteemed a genuine earth, wise might have done, though even this
but has been discovered to contain a may be doubted; but most certainly the
great deal of vegetable matter, and, in- inhabitants of the colony have bought
deed, is a very singular substance. It is dearer, and sold cheaper, than they other-
dug in Germany and France; the quan- wise would. The prosperity of the colo-
tities consumed in painting in London are ny therefore has been impeded; their
brought from Cologne, where it is found progress towards opulence has been less
very plentifully; but our own kingdom rapid than it would have been under other
is not without it, it being found near circumstances; and the mother country
Birmingham, and on the Mendip-hills, in has always had a poorer and smaller mar-
Somersetshire; but what has been yet ket for her commodities than she other-
found there is not so pure or fine as that wise would have had. The profits per
imported from Cologne.
cent. have been perhaps greater, but
COLON, the second of the three large the whole amount of profit derived from
intestines, called intestina crassa. See the colony trade has most certainly been
ANATOMY.
less.
Colon, in grammar, a point or charac-
ter marked thus (.), shewing the preced-
COLORIFIC earths, in mineralogy, a
ing sentence to be perfect or entire ; class or tribe of earths, in the arrangement
only that some remark, farther illustra- of Kirwan, described by him as strongly
tion, or other matter connected there. staining the fingers. Of these he enume-
with, is subjoined. See POINTING, PERIOD, rates four families, viz. red, yellow, black,
and
COMMA, &c.
green; the red is the reddle. Of dark
COLONEL, in military matters, the cochineal red colour, or intermediate be-
commander in chief of a regiment, whe- tween brick and blood red, having neither
ther horse, foot, or dragoons.
lustre nor transparency; fracture, earthy,
COLONEL, lieutenant, the second officer sometimes conchoidal; fragments, 1; hard-
in a regiment, who is at the head of the ness, 4; sp. gr. inconsiderable; adhering
captains, and commands in the absence pretty strongly to the tongue; feeling
of the colonel.
rough ; assuming a polish from the nail ;
COLONNADE, a range of insulated strongly staining the fingers ; falling imme
columns. See ARCHITECTURE.
diately into powder in water, and
not be.
COLONY. A colony is a settlement coming ductile; not effervescing, nor easi-
formed by the inhabitants of any nation ly dissolving in acids. When heated to
in some part of the world, unoccupied redness, crackling and growing black; at
by any other civilized nation. The mo-
159º the specimen melted into a dark gree-
tives for forming them have been vari- nish yellow frothy enamel. It differs from
red ochres only by containing more argil.
In colonies there is generally abund. The red colour proceeds from oxygena-
ance of good land; hence the necessaries tion, and the absence of acid. The more
of life are usually to be had in plenty, air of water is expelled by heat, the brown-
by any one who will take the trouble ne- er it grows. The yellow is of an ochre
cessary to produce them; and, conse- yellow colour; as to lustre, externally
quently, population usually has a ten- it often hath some gloss, but internally
dency to increase with great rapidity. none; it is not transparent; fracture
The inhabitants of some parts of the earthy, often inclining to the conchoidal
United States are said to have doubled no specific gravity; fragments, inconsi-
in fifteen years, at the time those coun- derable ; adheres strongly to the tongue;
tries were colonies of Great Britain. feels smooth, or somewhat greasy; takes
The policy of the mother countries a high polish from the nail ; strongly stains
with regard to colonies has usually been the fingers ; in water it immediately falls
intended to make the colonists buy the to pieces with some hissing ; and after-
goods of the mother country as dear as wards to powder, without diffusing itself
possible, and sell their own productions through it ; does not effervesce with acids,
as cheaply as possible. Hence the trade nor is easily soluble in them; heated to
of colonies usually has been confined, redness it crackles, hardens, and acquires
by strict commercial laws, wholly to the a red colour, and gives a reddish streak.
mother country.
At 156°, Mr. Kirwan melted a specimen
The consequence of these regulations into a liver-brown porous porcelain mass.
has probably been, that in the colonial This yellow earth differs from ochres on.
trade the merchants and manufacturers ly in containing a greater proportion of
have sold their goods dearer, and bought argil; the yellow colour proceeds from
colonial produce cheaper than they other the calx of iron, highly oxygenated, and
a
ous.
COL
COL
a
probably containing both water and acid. cer to counterbalance its weight, and ren
Those earths which contain a large pro- der it steady on its pedestal.
portion of iron have rather an orange co- On occasion of the damage which the
lour. According to the analysis of M. city of Rhodes sustained by the above-
Sage of Paris, who has the merit of pre- mentioned earthquake, the inhabitants
serving to his countrymen the immense sent ambassadors to all the princes and
gains acquired by the Dutch from convert- states of Greek origin, in order to solicit
ing this yellow earth into what is there assistance for repairing it; and they ob-
called “ English red,” it contains 50 per tained large sums, particularly from the
cent. argil, 40 oxide of iron, 10 of water, kings of Egypt, Macedon, Syria, Pontus,
acidulated by sulphuric acid. The 3d fami- and Bithynia, which amounted to a sum
ly, or black; black chalk is of a greyish five times exceeding the damages which
black colour ; fracture imperfectly curved they had suffered. But instead of setting
slaty; fragments partly fat, partly long up the Colossus again, for which purpose
splintery; adheres slightly to the tongue, the greatest part of it was given, they
feels smooth, assumes a polish from a pretended that the oracle of Delphes
knife; gives a black streak, and marks had forbidden it, and converted the mo-
black ; in water does not readily moulder, ney to other uses. Accordingly the Co-
but if taken out cracks in a short time; lossus lay neglected on the ground for
does not effervesce with acids, nor easily the space of 894 years, at the expiration
dissolve in them; heated to redness, it of which period, or about the year of
crackles and becomes reddish grey, and our Lord 653, or 672, Moawyas, the 6th
contains somewhat vitriolic. The 4th fami. caliph or emperor of the Saracens, made
ly, green earth, is of a greyish green co- himself master of Rhodes, and afterwards
lour; found generally in lumps in the ca- sold their statue, reduced to fragments,
vities of other stones, or externally invest. to a Jewish merchant, who loaded 900
ing them; fracture, earthy, sometimes camels with the metal, so that, allowing
uneven, sometimes verging to the conchoi. 800 pounds weight for each load, the
dal; sp. gr. 2.637, sometimes feels smooth, brass of the Colossus, after the diminution
does not assume a polish from the knife, which it had sustained by rust, and proba-
nor adhere to the tongue, nor stain the bly by theft, amounted to 720 thousand
fingers, nor mark while dry, and when wet pounds weight. The basis that support-
buſ lightly, in water, it often crumbles ed it was of a triangular figure : its ex-
after standing about half an hour; does tremities were sustained by sixty pillars
not effervesce with acids, nor is easily of marble. There was a winding stair-
soluble in them; heated to redness, it
case to go up to the top of it; from
crackles and becomes of a dark reddish whence one might discover Syria, and
cream colour; at 147°, a specimen was
the ships that went to Egypt, in a great
melted into a black compact glass, re looking-glass that was hung about the
sembling that of basalt; which shews it neck of the statue. This enormous sta-
to consist of silex, argil, iron not much
tue was not the only one that attracted
oxygenated, and oxide of nickel, from attention in the city of Rhodes. Pliny
which the green colour is derived, besides reckons 100 other colossuses not so large,
which rose majestically in its different
water.
quarters.
COLOSSUS, a statue of enormous or COLOUR means that property of bo-
gigantic size. The most eminent of this dies which affects the sight" only; thus
kind was the colossus of Rhodes, one of the grass in the fields has a green colour,
the wonders of the world, a brazen statue blood has a red colour, the sky generally
of Apollo, so high, that ships passed with appears of a blue colour, and so forth;
full sails betwixt its legs. It was the work. nor can those colours be distinguished by
manship of Chares, a disciple of Lysippus, any of our other senses besides the sight.
who spent twelve years in making it: it The variety of colours, as they are pre-
was at length overthrown by an earth- sented to us by the substances that sur-
quake, B. C. 224, after having stood about round us, is immense, and from them
sixty-six years. Its height was a hundred arises the admirable beauty of the works
and five feet : there were few people who of nature in the animal, in the vegetable,
could encompass its thumb, which is said and in the mineral kingdom, or, more
to have been a fathom in circumference, properly speaking, in the universe. The
and its fingers were larger than most sta- science which examines and explains the
tues. It was hollow, and in its cavities various properties of the colours of light
were large stones employed by the artifi. and of natural bodies, and which forms a
VOL. II.
I
a
:
COLOUR
principal branch of optics, has been pro- tenney, and sanguine; and also by pre-
perly denominated chromatics. See cious stones and planets; the armorial
CHROMATICS.
colours are blazoned in different terms,
Colour, in heraldry, the heraldic co- according to the rank and dignity of the
lours are nine, and were anciently ex- person whose arms are described, as fol-
pressed by the word tincture; viz. or, ar- lows;
gent, azure, gules, sable, vert, purpure,
Colours.
For commoners by
tinctures.
For peers by pre-
cious stones.
For emperors, kings,
and princes, by
planets.
.
Yellow
White
Blue.
Red
Black
Green
Purple
Orange
Dark red ..
Or
Argent
Azure
Gules
Sable ...
Vert
Purpure
Tenney
Sanguine
Topaz
Pearl
Sapphire
Ruby
Diamond
Emerald
Amethist
Jacinth
Sardonix
Sol.
Luna.
Jupiter.
Mars.
Saturn.
Venus.
Mercury.
Dragon's head.
Dragon's tail
.
.
Or and argent are metals ; and it is an Thus the acetite of alumina, or printers'
invariable rule in heraldry not to put co- red liquor, when pure, is almost colour-
lour upon colour, or metal on metal; that less, and only becomes red by the pro-
is, if the field be of a colour, the charge cess of dyeing, as will be explained here-
or bearing must be of a metal.
after. The acetite of iron, or iron-liquor,
COLOUR, in law, is a probable or plau- in like manner, when used of a determi-
sible plea, though in reality false at bot. nate strength, is called black colour, and
tom, and only calculated to draw the trial when weaker, purple colour, though the
of the cause from the jury to the judge; cloth impregnated with these solutions
and therefore colour ought to be matter of becomes black or purple only as being
law, or doubtful to the jury.
raised like the other in the dye-copper.
In pleading, it is a rule that no man be 1. The colours produced by means of
allowed to plead specially such a plea as these earthy or metallic solutions (which,
amounts only to the general issue; but in in the language of science, are called mor-
such case be shall be driven to plead the dants) form the most valuable and impor-
general issue in terms by which the whole tant series, whether considered with re-
question is referred to a jury. But if a gard to the almost infinite variety of
defendant in an assize, or action of tres- shades, or to their solidity and durability.
pass, be desirous to refer the validity of These colours, from the mode in which
his title to the court rather than to the they are produced, (the mordant being
jury, he may state his title specially, and first applied to the cloth, and the colour
at the same time give colour to the plain- afterwards raised by dyeing) are called
tiff; or suppose him to have an appear. dyed colours. 2. Sometimes the mordant
ance or colour of title, had indeed in point is previously mixed with a solution of co-
of law, but of which the jury are not com. louring matter, and in that state applied to
petent judges.
the cloth, so as to paint or stain it at one
COLOUR, in calico-printing. The term operation, and without the process of
colour in calico-printing is applied not only dyeing. Thus another class of colours is
to those vegetable, animal, and mineral so- produced, many of them possessing great
lutions, which impart their own colour to brilliancy indeed, but much inferior to the
the cloth on which they are applied; but former in durability. The colours called
also improperly to those earthy or metallic chemical by calico-printers belong chiefly
solutions, which, possessing little or no to this class. 3. In the third and last
tingent properties themselves, yet retain or class we may place all those where the
fix
the qualities (colours) of other substan. colouring matter is simply held in solu-
ces when afterwards applied to the cloth. tion by an acid or alkali, and in this state
COLOURS.
applied to the cloth without the interven- namely, red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
tion of any mordant. To one or other indigo, and violet. See CHROMATICS.
of the foregoing classes may be referred The mechanical use of colours is more
all the colours used in calico-printing, immediately under our present considera-
with the exception, however, of those sys- tion. These are either what are called
tems of colours which have been pro- body or transparent : the former applies
duced by calico-printers in this country, to such as have a certain substance, being
within a short period, by processes and like very thin paste, and coating the ob-
upon principles which have hitherto not ject to which they are applied: these are
been made known. See CALICO-PRINT- again divided into oil and water colours.
ING.
Transparent colours are made either of
Colour of the clouds is thus accounted expressed juices, corrected by inspissa-
for by Sir Isaac Newton. Concluding, tion, or of the finer particles of earths,
from a series of experiments, that the gums, &c. highly prepared by levigation,
transparent parts of bodies, according to washing, &c.
their several sizes, reflect rays of one co- Oil colours are made by mixing the co-
lour and transmit those of another, he louring substances with prepared oils;
hence observes, that when vapours are that is, such as dry readily, and are at the
first raised, they are divided into parts same time so fine and transparent as not
too small to cause any reflection at their to injure the brilliancy or clearness of
surfaces, and therefore do not hinder the the colour. Nut-oil is on this account
transparency of the air; but when they highly esteemed ; but in a recent publi.
begin to coalesce, in order to form drops cation (the seventh number of the Agri-
of rain, and constitute globules of all in- cultural Magazine) we are informed, that
termediate sizes, these globules are capa- sun-flower oil possesses qualities of great
ble of reflecting some colours, and trans- moment to the painter, and to various
mitting others, and thus form clouds of other artists. The colouring matter must
various colours, according to their sizes. be minutely mixed with the oil, so that it
Mr. Melville controverts this doctrine, in may work perfectly free and smooth.
its application to the red colour of the Body colours for the limner's use should
morning and evening clouds. “Why,
“Why," be prepared of the purest materials, and
he says, “should the particles of the be triturated in a mortar, and on a slab
clouds become at that particular time, with water, until such time as the mixture
and never at any other, of such a magni- is completely smooth, and leaves no rough-
tude as to separate these colours ? And ness when rubbed between the thumb and
why are they rarely, if ever, seen tinc- fore-finger: not, however, without making
tured with blue and green, as well as red, allowance for some particular substances,
orange, or yellow? Is it not more credi- especially minerals, which, however weli
ble, that the separation of rays is made in they may have been prepared, will occa-
passing through the horizontal atmo- sion a roughness to the touch. Body co-
sphere, and that the clouds only reflect lours are usually sold in bottles, ready
and transmit the sun's light, as any half- mixed to their proper consistence, and
transparent colourless body would do sometimes in cakes, with a small portion
For since the atmosphere reflects a greater of gum Arabic dissolved in the water.
quantity of blue and violet rays than of the Oil colours are most frequently sold in
rest, the sun's light transmitted through it kegs, and ready ground, but requiring an
ought to incline towards yellow, orange, or addition of oil before they can be work-
red; especially when it passes through a ed: these are generally for the use of
long tract of air: and thus it is found, that house painters, &c. : those for the more
the sun's horizontal light is tinctured with delicate purposes are usually kept in
a deep orange, and even red; and the co. bladders.
lour becomes still deeper after sun-set." Transparent colours should be so clear,
Hence he concludes that the clouds, ac- when mixed with abundance of water, as
cording to their different altitudes, may to communicate a strong tint, without in
assume all the variety of colours at sun- the smallest degree plastering or conceal-
rising and setting, by barely reflecting ing the paper, &c.: hence their designa-
the sun's incident light as they receive it. tion. The best of every kind are made
COLOURS. This very important article from either vegetable or animal substan-
includes a variety of matters of peculiar ces; minerals being extremely difficult to
interest to various professions, and re- prepare, equally so to work with water,
quiring no inconsiderable portion of study. and many of them very subject to change.
We have only seven natural colours, We shall give a concise account of the
COLOURS.
a
materials in general use; observing, that Yellow ochre, or Roman ochre, an earth
there are an immense number of com- coloured by oxide of iron. It is dull, but
pound colours, sold under various names, stands well.
that may be made from the following list Massicot is oxide of lead--very dull,
of simples:
but stands.
Dutch pink is chalk coloured with
REDS
French berries. The colour is beautiful,
but soon flies.
Carmine, or the extract of cochineal. Gamboge is a gum very acrid, but high-
Excellent.
ly useful. It stands well, mixes freely,
Florentine lake, made from refuse cochi- and gives a rich gloss; but it does not
neal, with a small addition of Brazil wood, answer with oil.
precipitated by adding a solution of tin. Gall-stones are calculi, or stones taken
Does not stand.
from the gall-bladders of animals. See
Madder lake, the same as the foregoing, CALCULI. This colour may be obtained
but sometimes with the addition of extract from the gall itself. It is superb, but apt
of madder. Stands.
to fly.
Rose lake, or rose pink, made of chalk Turmeric and saffron yield a pleasing
tinctured with extract of Brazil wood. colour, as does annatto, but very volatile.
Does not stand.
Vermillion is a bright scarlet, made from
BROWNS.
livigated cinnabar. Very apt to turn
black.
The finest we have is taken from a small
Red-lead, or minium, levigated, also bag found in the entrails of the cock-
turns black.
chaffer.
Indian red, an ochre brought from Asia, Bistre is the extract of soot from burnt
forms a beautiful bright brick red. Works wood. It stands admirably, and is a very
a
freely and stands well.
useful as well as clear colour. It is much
Venetian red is a coarser substance, usu- used for sketches, to which it gives a
ally employed with size, or oil, to imitate warm appearance.
mahogany
Cologne earth, a deep brown, very use-
Light red. This is yellow ochre heated ful, made from an ochre said to be from
until it changes. Stands well, and is Cologne, but often spurious.
much used.
Raw umber, a light-brown ochre that
Red chalk is generally cut into slips, and stands well.
used as a crayon. It must be very well Burnt umber, the former calcined, thence
ground, when it works and stands well, acquiring a much richer tint, that stands
either with oil or water.
admirably, and is much in use.
Burnt terra sienna is raw sienna calcin- Asphaltum is a bituminous substance,
ed till it becomes a fine mellow red. It is which being dissolved in turpentine, gives
in high estimation for its richness, smooth- a rich deep brown, not unlike that of tar :
ness, and stability.
it is used for finishing and for glazing pic-
Orange is usually a compound colour, tures.
but may be made from red orpiment, and Brown pink is made of chalk, coloured
from an infusion of turmeric in spirits of with fustic, and heightened by fixed alka-
wine, with a solution of tin.
line salts, which render it extremely vola-
tile.
YELLOWS.
Tobacco juice makes a very rich colour,
which, mixed with alum, will stand well:
Indian yellow, made from chalk impreg- it is peculiarly warm and transparent.
nated with urine, whereby it in process
of time acquires a very strong colour.
BLACKS.
It is offensive to the smell, and soon
fades.
Indian ink is supposed to be made from
King's yellow is a strong poison; the the gall of the cuttle-fish, but by many
basis being yellow orpiment, ground very is said to be nothing more than a pecu-
fine. The colour is very rich, but does liar kind of charcoal, or the soot collected
not stand.
from burning a species of the acacia. In
Naples yellow comes from that country : fact, we only know, that it should be
is prepared from lead and antimony. It black, smooth, and glossy when broken;
turns black, especially if in contact with and that it makes remarkably fine black;
iron.
some, indeed, have a brownish tint.
COLOURS.
a
What is made in England is coarse, rough, Pure carbonate of lime stands perfectly
gritty; and generally has a bluish cast. well, and is much used: it is by some
Lamp black is the soot of oil, collected called Spanish white, and is nearly the
by means of inverted vessels placed over same as the pigments produced from egg
the flames; it is incomparably smooth, shells, or oyster shells, calcined.
and stands well; but is not very deep. Calcined hartshorn is an excellent
Ivory black is made of ivory, bones, white.
&c. exposed to great heat in a well luted
crucible. It is a very deep, but a cold The above catalogue of colours is in-
colour.
tended for the service of those who ap-
Blue black is made from vine stalks ply them with the brush, as in oil-paint-
prepared as above: its colour is deep, ing, and in limning. The colours used by
but with a bluish cast.
dyers are very different, and are chiefly
pastil, woad, and indigo, for blues ; co-
BLUES.
chineal, carthamus, gum-lac, archil, log-
wood, madder, &c. for red; weld, savory,
Indigo is the extract from a plant of quercitron, fenu-greek, &c. for yellows;
that name: it is a cold, but permanent walnut bark, or rind, alder bark, sandal
colour: it is not miscible with water, but wood, sumach, and soot, are used for
gives way to the sulphuric acid.
browns, or, as they are technically called,
Prussian blue is made with two parts of fawn-colours; for black, galls, copperas,
purified potash well mixed with one of &c. ; greens are generally compounds
dried bullock's blood levigated: these are made from blue and yellow; purples
calcined in a covered crucibie, with a mode- from blue and red; orange colour from
rate fire, until they cease to emit fumes. red and yellow; and many shades are
Blue verditer is made by absorbing the made by the mixture of red and black,
copper dissolved in aqua fortis, by aid of black and blue, &c.; yellow and red also
wbitening
give an olive colour. See DYEING.
Smalt is pounded zaffre, made from the COLOURS diatonic, or musical scale of.
ore of zinc.
In the course of Sir Isaac Newton's ex-
Brice is levigated smalt, and rather periments on the properties of light, he
lighter.
discovered the remarkable fact, that the
All the above colours are very durable. spectrum of the sun's image, formed by
refracted light, let into a darkened room, is
PURPLE.
longitudinally divided by the points sepa-
rating the different colours ; viz. violet,
The Crocus-martis gives a simple pur- indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
ple, which colour may also be obtained red, into spaces which are respectively
from logwood, with a solution of tin.
equal to jis: 12, 129 15:30
and
169
parts of the double length of the spec-
GREENS.
trum; as, suppose the spectrum to be
360 parts in length, then 80 40
Verdigris is an incrustation of copper
720, 720 7209
27, and 45 will represent
by the corrosion of acids: it is highly the length of each colour respectively, and
,
poisonous; but gives a beautiful green
colour, with a very slight bluish tinge: adding these succesively in the reverse
when boiled with vinegar, in an earthen order, to 368, we have 405, 432, 480
720 720 7209
vessel, it gives a highly transparent co-
540, 600 640, and 20, which, in their
727 720) 720 720)
lour, fit for washing brass, &c. ; but this lowest terms, are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
)
is very apt to fade.
and 1, and appear to be the diatonic ratios
Sap-green is the concreted juice of the answering to the octave, minor seventh,
-
buckthorn berry: it is a dull green, and
is much in use, though apt to fade.
major sixth, fifth, minor fourth, minor
third, major second, and key note.
From the experiments of Henry
WHITES
Broughton, jun. Esq., “ Philosophical
Transactions, 1796,” it appears, that not
Flake-white is an oxide of lead, formed only by refraction, but by inflection, de.
by corrosion of that metal with vegetable flection, and reflection, the rays of light
acids.
may be separated on a chart or screen :
White-lead is the same as the above, but and he mentions numerous experiments,
coarser; it is not so good as flake white, wherein the limits of the several colours
often turning black.
on the spectrum were carefully marked
1
3
60
60
48
720
;
COL
COL
a
1
1
16
with the point of a needle, after which tion, more or less deeply coloured, is ob-
the papers thus marked were put away, tained ; and, by repeating the macera-
and a fresh paper substituted for other ex- tion with water sufficiently, nothing at
periments: the measurement or compari- length remains but the mere ligneous fi-
son of the lengths of the intervals occu. bre. Sometimes, however, the colour-
pied by each colour on the different papers ing matter is not soluble in water: it is
being purposely deferred, until the whole then frequently soluble in alcohol; and
course of experiments was completed, in in a few substances, is even best dissoly-
order to prevent any preconceived opi. ed by oils essential or expressed
nions from operating, in making the ex- When the colouring matter is in solu-
periments: the results are represented tion, it may be attracted from the solvent
as agreeing, in the spaces, 1, 1, 1, by other substances with which it enters
3, and is occupied by the vio. into combination : and this, in some mea-
)
12' 15' 87
let, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, sure, gives it a more appropriate charac-
and red colours, being the very same, as
ter. There are some substances even
to arrangement, as those by refraction which appear in general to exert strong
above-mentioned.
affinities to colouring matter, particular-
Colour of office, signifies some unjustly alumina and some of the metallic ox-
action done under countenance of an of. ides. If alumina be diffused or boiled in
fice, and is opposed to virtute officii, which
a coloured vegetable infusion, it often
implies a man's doing a right and just bines with it, and leaves the water of the
happens, that the colouring matter com-
thing in the execution of his office.
Colours, in the military art, include infusion perfectly colourless. Or if alum
the banners, flags, ensigns, &c. of all be dissolved in a coloured infusion, and it
kinds, borne in the army or fleet. See be decomposed by the addition of an al-
Ensign, FLAG, PENDENT, and STANDARD. kali, the alumina in the moment of its
ENSIGN
COLOURING, in painting, one of the precipitation attracts the colouring mat-
great component and essential parts of ter, forms a coloured precipitate, and, if
painting, is the art of giving to every ob- the due proportions have been observed,
ject in a picture its true and proper hue, the liquid will remain colourless. In like
,
.
as it appears under all the various circum- manner, if a coloured infusion be boiled
stances or combinations of light, middle with a metallic oxide, it often happens
tint, and shadow; and of so blending and that the colouring matter is attracted by
contrasting the colours, as to make each
the oxide. Thus Berthollet obtained
appear with the greatest advantage and combinations by this process of the co-
beauty, at the same time that it contri- louring matter of logwood, and other dye-
butes to the richness, the brilliancy, and stuffs, with oxide of copper and oxide of
the harmony of the whole. It likewise tin. Or if certain metallic salts be dis-
possesses powers which, when judicious solved in the infusion, and be then de-
ly applied, render it highly conducive to composed by an alkali, the oxide in pre-
the character and expression of the sub- cipitating equally attracts the colouring
matter. It is from similar affinities to the
ject represented. See PAINTING.
colouring matter that it is often attracted
posed, that a peculiar proximate princi- bylinen, cotton, silk, or wool, from its
a
ple exists in vegetables, in which their of these are not sufficiently powerful,
solutions; and even where the affinities
colour frequently resides, and which has
hence received the name of colouring ing it, or the combination may be render-
they may be rendered capable of attract-
matter.
The colouring matter of vegetables is ed more permanent by their being im-
scarcely ever found insulated, but is mix pregnated with another substance, which
ed or combined with other principles. In has towards it a still stronger attraction.
this state it exists in the leaves and
See DYEING.
flowers, in the bark and in the wood of
COLPODA, in natural history, a genus
the stem and roots. It is extracted, and of the Vermes Infusoria : worm, invisible
obtained more pure, by the action of those to the naked eye, very simple, pellucid,
agents which are capable of dissolving it. flatsinuate. There are seven species, of
In many cases, water, cold or warm, is which C. lamella, in water, resembles a
sufficient for this purpose. If logwood, "long narrow pellucid membrane, narrow-
brazil wood, madder, weld, or querci- er and obtuse behind, curved towards the
tron bark, for example, be macerated in top, with a ridge or fold going through
water, the matter on which the colour the middle: it moves to and fro on its
depends is dissolved; a transparent solu- edge, and not on the flat side.
COLUBER.
COLUBER, in natural history, a genus body above cinerous (or reddish) with a
of serpents distinguished by having plates black flexuous zig-zag stripe down the
on the belly, and scales on the under back, and belly purplish. Coluber berus,
parts of the tail. The species of this ge- abdominal scuta 146, subcaudal scales 39.
nus are numerous. Linnæus describes, Linnæus. This is the common English
upon the testimony of various writers, viper, and which is not only frequent in
above ninety; and that number even has this country, but appears to be generally
been considerably augmented by natura- diffused over the rest of Europe, and
lists 'since his time. The species differ some parts of Asia. If the varieties, de-
greatly in size and habit; some, as the scribed by Gmelin, are of the same spe-
vipers, having the head large, flattish, and cies, it extends also as far as India.
semi-cordated, with the body and tail of Though the viper varies considerably
a moderate length, or rather short; while in colour, from a pale cinerous or yellow-
others, as the greater part of the harm- ish ferruginous, to deep or dull brown,
less serpents, have small heads, with the the varieties agree in being marked with
body and tail much longer in proportion. a continued series of confluent rhomboid
In some, exclusive of the usual scales un- blackish spots, extending from the head
der the tail, are a few scuta or undivided to the tail. The general length of the
lamellæ, either at the beginning or to- viper is from eighteen inches to two feet,
wards the tip of the tail.
and it is affirmed by some writers to grow
Linnæus considered the number of ab- even to the length of three feet. The
dominal plates and scales under the tail, fangs of the viper, like those of other
as a characteristic distinction of the diffe- poisonous serpents, are situated on each
rent species of this genus; such, howe- side the fore part of the upper jaw, and
ver, is the inconsistency of this criterion, are generally two in number, with a few
that, in describing the same species, smaller ones situated behind. The poi-
scarcely two writers agree. Characters son, as usual, lies in a receptacle at the
taken from the number of those plates base of the fangs, and being perforated,
and scales in the serpent tribe, like those when the animal bites, the compression
from the number of rays in the fins of of those receptacles forces out a drop of
fishes, are not to be relied upon. The the poisonous fuid, which passing
colours are liable to some variation; but through the aperture of the fangs is im-
the peculiar form and disposition of the mediately instilled into the wound. The
spots, lines, and other markings, afford, tongue is forked, and being soft and flex-
in general, a character by which the dif- ible is susceptible of great extension : it
ferent species may be distinguished. may be, perhaps, superfluous to add, that
C. vipera. Somewhat ferruginous, spot- this tongue is altogether incapable of in-
ted with brown; beneath whitish ; tail flicting any wound, or injecting poison,
short and mucronated. Abdominal scuta as some ancient writers credulously af-
118, subcaudal scales 22. Linnæus. This firm; it may assist the animal in the cap-
is the common viper of Egypt; it is im- ture of its insect prey. The French na-
ported in considerable quantities every turalists are inclined to believe it is ing
year to Venice, for the use of the apothe. tended by nature to supply some defect
caries. Its size is somewhat smaller than of transpiration in the skin. Hitherto the
that of the common viper; the head not viper has been considered the most poi-
so flat on the top, but very protuberant sonous of the European serpents, and
on each side ; snout very obtuse. The many instances are recorded of the fatal
body is thick towards the middle, and effects resulting from its bite. That the
somewhat quadrangular, but thin and bite of this serpent is always productive
cylindric towards the head and tail, which of pain and temporary inflammation in
last is short, slender, conical, and termi- the parts bitten, is very evident; some-
nated by a slightly incurved horny point times also the symptoms may become
or tip. The scales on the upper parts alarming, or, in a few instances, through
are oval and carinated. Hasselquist de- neglect or injudicious treatment of the
scribes this species as being about two wound, may even prove fatal; but upon
spans in length, exclusive of the tail, the whole, the bite of this creature does
which measures only an inch. This is not appear pregnant with all those dan-
supposed by some to be the asp, by the gers which the terrors and prejudices of
bite of which the celebrated Cleopatra the vulgar lead them to suppose. In Eng-
determined rather to die than submit to land the bite of the viper is rarely attend
be carried captive to Rome, to grace the ed with fatal consequences.
Fontana
triumph of Augustus
seems to doubt whether any well attested
C. berus. On the head a bilobate spot; instance can be adduced of the viper hav.
COL
COL
ing killed any person by its bite, even in compass, all those conveniences which,
the warm climate of Italy. The testimo- in tracts far from human habitation, they
nies of authors, both as to the nature of can collect only from a considerable dis-
the poison itself, and its effects on the tance, and with extreme difficulty. From
animal frame, are, however, confessedly this accommodation by man, however,
at variance.
there is perpetual danger of their recur-
The viper, though so much dreaded on ring to their former state of freedom, in
account of its bite, has been very highly which, though their means of subsistence
esteemed both by the ancients and mo- are more scanty, they are less subject to
derns as a restorative and strengthening alarms. The wild pigeon breeds only
diet. The ancients used the flesh of this twice in a year, but its prolific tenden-
snake in leprous and other cases. The cies increase in proportion to its degree
Greek physician Craterus, cured, as Por- of domestication; and when that is com-
phyrius relates, a miserable slave, whose plete, it will lay even every month, but
skin in a strange manner fell off from his scarcely ever more than two eggs, con-
bones, by advising him to feed on vipers' taining, generally, a male and female
Aesh in the manner of fish. Galen says, bird. The flesh of this bird, is highly
that those afflicted with elephantiasis are valued for the table. Its dung is con-
wonderfully relieved by eating vipers' sidered, for some species of land, as a
flesh dressed like eels, and relates very most admirable manure, and it is of con-
remarkable cures of this disease perform- siderable service also in tanning skins for
ed by means of viper wine. In France shoe leather. In Egypt, a pigeon house
and Italy, the broth, jelly, and flesh of is considered as an indispensable part of
vipers are in much esteem as a restora- every complete farming establishment,
tive medicine. In England we have to and in the capital of Persia, there are re-
instance the well known circumstance of ported to be 3000 of these buildings, the
Sir Kenelm Digby, who caused his wife, privilege of keeping which is denied to
Lady Venetia, to feed on capons fatted Christians in that country. An effica-
with vipers to recover her from a con- cious inducement for pigeons to remain
sumption.
in any particular spot is furnished by a
The viper abounds most in dry, stony, mixed heap of loam, rubbish, and salt.
and chalky countries, or in the low her. Incubation is performed among these
bage or underwood in thickets. It casts birds alternately by the male and
female ;
its skin twice in the year, namely, in and the young are fed from the mouths
Spring and autumn, and is said to attain of the old parents, who are said, for this
its full size at the age of six or seven purpose, by contracting some particular
years, but is capable of engendering muscles, to draw up the provisions which
when two or three years old.
they have swallowed. Pigeons have been
COLUMBA, the pigeon, in natural his occasionally used for the conveyance of
tory, a genus of birds of the order of letters, in cases in which intercourse be-
Passeres. Generic character : bill weak, tween the parties was extremely diffi-
straight, descending towards the tip; cult; the bird is to be taken from the
nostrils oblong, and half covered with a places to which the intelligence is to be
soft tumid membrane ; tongue entire ; sent, and when liberated will return to its
legs short, and generally red; toes divid- destination with great rapidity, with the
ed to their origin. Latham enumerates no interesting billet under its wing. There
less than 66 species, and Gmelin men- are few or no cases, however, which now
tions even 82, besides considerable varie compel recourse to so operose and doubt.
ties. We shall confine our notices to the ful an expedient.
few which follow.
C. domestica, or the common pigeon. are found in almost all parts of Europe.
C. palumbus, or the ring dove. These
Of these birds vast flocks arrive in Eng. They depart from England, however, to-
land every year from the northern cli- wards the close of the year, and are ab-
mates, to which they return on the ad sent till the spring. They build large
vance of spring: Many, however, re- and ill-compacted nests in the tops of
main in the wild and mountainous dis- trees, and avoid the habitations of men.
tricts of this island during the whole year, They are one of the largest species of the
and breed in the clefts of rocks, or the
ruins of human habitations, or in the de- than seventeen inches. See Aves, Plate
pigeon, their length being rather more
cayed parts of trees. From this wild
IV. fig. 6.
state they are easily induced to inhabit
the dove-house, which is the first stage of
C. turtur, or the turtle dove. These
domestication, and near which they find, arrive in England later than any other
in vast abundance, and within a small migrating pidgeon, and depart earlier.
COL
COL
During their short stay in this country acid is of a dark brownish grey colour;
they are to be seen, not unfrequently in its lustre is vitreous, inclining to metal-
Kent, in flocks of about fifteen or twen- lic: its fracture imperfectly lamellated :
ty, and commit no small depredations on it is moderately hard and very brittle :
the
pea fields of that county, peas being its particles are not attracted by the mag-
their most favourite food. They build net : its specific gravity is 5.9. From
generally in the woods, and on the high- this mineral Mr. Hatchet extracted the
est trees. The sounds of the male are peculiar matter which may be named
particularly soft and impressive, and his columbic acid. The columbic acid is of
assiduity to please the companion of a pure white colour, and not extremely
his joys and cares has induced the heavy; it has scarcely any taste, nor does
poets of every age to exhibit him as a it appear to be soluble in boiling water,
model of pure, constant, and delicate but, when placed on litmus paper, mixed
attachment. See Aves, Plate IV. fig. 7. with distilled water, soon renders the
C. migratoria, or the American migra- paper red.
tory pigeon. These birds pass the sum- From the acid solutions of columbic
mer in the northern parts of North Ame- acid, the alkalies throw it down in the
rica, and on the approach of winter move form of a white flocculent precipitate.
towards the southern. They build in Prussiate of potash changes the colour
trees, and feed principally upon acorns, to an olive-green, and a precipitate of
and mast of every description. They the same colour is gradually form-
are also extremely fond of rice and corn. ed. Tincture of galls produces a deep
They pass in their periodical migrations orange-coloured precipitate, especial.
in flocks, stated to extend in length two ly when there is not too great an
miles, and a quarter of a mile in width ; excess of acid present. Zinc, immers-
occasionally alighting in the course of ed in the solution, gives rise to a
their journey, and covering the foliage white precipitate. The fixed alkalies
of considerable woods. During what is combine readily both in the humid and
called their flight time, the common in the dry way with columbic acid,
people of the country easily kuock them forming with it salts called columbates,
from their roosts, and find them a very When fused with it, a compound is form-
nourishing and pleasant, as well as cheap ed, which is soluble in water; and if the
article of food. In Louisiana, it is a com- alkali be in the state of carbonate, the
mon entertainment in an evening, in carbonic acid is disengaged during the
which ladies frequently participate, to fusion with effervescence. When a so-
enter the woods frequented by these lution of potash is boiled on it, a quantity
birds, and burn a small quantity of sul- is dissolved; the solution, which has a
phur under the trees on which they are considerable excess of alkali, affords, by
lodged. Stupefied by this application, gentle evaporation, a white salt in shin-
they almost immediately quit their hold, ing scales, having a disagreeable acrid fla-
and drop lifeless to the ground, whence vour, not soluble very readily in cold
they are picked up in quantities. water, but, when dissolved, the solution
C. anas inhabits old turrets, and rocky is permanent. Nitric acid added to it
banks of Europe and Siberia. fig. 2. precipitates the columbic acid. Prussiate
of potash and tincture of galls produced
COLUMBIC acid.} See ColumBIUM.
COLUMBIUM
no change ; but when with either of
COLUMBIUM, in mineralogy and them a few drops of muriatic acid were
chemistry. Mr. Hatchet, in examining added, precipitates, similar to those pro-
some minerals in the British Museum, duced by these re-agents in the acid so-
observed one which attracted his atten- lutions, appeared an olive green with the
tion, from its resemblance to chromate one, and an orange-coloured precipitate
of iron. On analysing it, he found it to be with the other. Hydro-sulphuret of am-
composed of a metallic acid, united with monia produced a reddish brown precipi-
oxide of iron; and this acid, by farther tate.
experiments, was found to differ in its This substance is possessed of proper-
properties from every other. Mr. Hatchet ties different from any of the known me-
did not succeed in reducing it to the me- tals or metallic oxides or acids; for al-
tallic state. To the metal, however, though in some qualities it approaches
which he supposed to be its basis, he to titanium, tungsten, or to molybdena,
gave the name of Columbium, as the ore it differs from them, and from all the
affording it was the produce of America. others, particularly in the precipitates
The mineral which afforded this metallic it affords with prussiate of potash and
VOL. II.
Kk
a
COL
COL
tincture of galls, in not combining with by their membranaceous, inflated pod;
ammonia, and in being insoluble, and un- natives of hot climates.
alterable with regard to colour by nitric COLYMBUS, the diver, in natural his-
acid.
tory, a genus of birds of the order An-
COLUMELLA, in botany, a genus of seres.
Generic character : bill toothless,
the Syngenesia Superflua class and or- subulate, straight, and pointed; throat
der: receptacle naked, cellular; seeds toothed; nostrils linear; legs fettered.
crowned with a toothed margin; calyx The guillemot and the diver are included
cylindrical, imbricate; florets of the ray by Gmelin under one genus, while Latham
undivided. One species, found at the considers each as furnishing a genus by
Cape.
itself. We shall adopt the system of the
COLUMN, a round pillar, made to sup- former, and notice, in what follows, the
port and adorn a building, and composed most important species of these two
of a base, a shaft, and a capital.
a
classes, under one head.
Columus are different in the different
C. troile, or foolish guillemot. These
orders of architecture, and may be con- birds are, in summer, surprisingly abun.
sidered with regard to their maiter, con- dant on the coasts of England, and fur-
struction, form, disposition, and use. See nish to the sportsman an invaluable sup-
ARCHITECTURE.
ply of experience in the art of shooting
COLUMNEA, in botany, a genus of the flying. Whatever numbers may be de-
Didynamia Angiospermia class and order. stroyed, the rest only quit their stand to
Natural order of Personatæ. Scrophula- take a circular flight, which brings them
riæ, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx back to the spot whence the gun alarmed
five-parted ; corolla ringent ; upper-lip them, and which the death of their com-
1
three-parted, the middle part vaulted, panions cannot induce them finally to
emarginate ; gibbous above at the base; leave. Their flesh is eaten by the Kam-
anthers connected ; capsule two-celled; schatkans, though extremely ill-flavour-
seeds nestling. There are six species, ed, and their skins are valued by those
all natives of hot countries, and most of people as a highly ornamental dress. The
them of the West Indies.
eggs are said to be extremely delicate,
COLUMNIFERÆ, in botany, the name and it is remarkable that no two are
of the thirty-seventh order in Linnæus's spotted or streaked alike.
"Fragments of a Natural Method,” con- C. glacialis, or the Northern diver, is
sisting of plants whose stamina and pistil the largest of the genus, and weighs so
have the appearance of a pillar in the cen- much as sixteen pounds, measuring three
tre of a flower: an instance of this order feet six inches in length. This is found
is the genus BIXA, which see.
in various places in the North of Europe,
COLURES, in astronomy and geogra- but scarcely ever even so far south as
phy, two great circles, supposed to inter. England, unless in winters extremely ri-
sect each other at right angles in the gorous. It is rarely seen on land, being
poles of the world, and to pass through almost perpetually on the ocean, where it
the solstitial and equinoctial points of the dives with extreme vigour in pursuit of
ecliptic. That which passes through the various fishes, and with such dexterity as
two equinoctial points is called the equi- rarely fails of success. It can fly with
noctial colure, and determines the equi- rapidity, and to a great distance. In Ice-
noxes; and the other which passes through land it is often found, and, while breed-
the poles of the ecliptic is called the sol. ing, frequents the lakes and rivers of that
stitial colure, because it determines the island. The inhabitants of the banks of
solstices.
the Oby prepare the skin of this bird
COLUTEA, in hotany, a genus of the without injuring the feathers, and ren-
a
Diadelphia Decandria class and order. der it convertible into compact, durable,
Natural order of Papilionaceæ or Legumi- and ornamental parts of dress, as caps,
nosa. Essential character : calyx five- or even mantles, which are proofs
cleft ; legume inflated, gaping on the up- against moisture, and afford extraordinary
per suture at the base. There are nine warmth.
species. Most of the Coluteas are shrubs, C. immer, or the imber, resembles the
with pinnate leaves, and stipules distinct last in habits and manners. It is found
from the petiole; peduncles sometimes in the lakes of Canada, and in those of
two-flowered, but more frequently many. Switzerland, as well as in almost all the
flowered in spikes, both axillary and ter. northern parts of Europe. It will swim
minating. They are easily distinguished under water to the distance of a hun-
COM
COM
dred paces, and is caught by land or in teeth, each piece is fixed into a tool
the water with extreme difficulty. By a called a claw. The maker sits on a tri-
hooked line, however, baited with its fa- angular sort of a stool to his work, and
vourite fish, it has often been drawn up under him is placed the claw that holds
from a considerable depth, and thus ex- the horn, ivory, &c. that is to be formed
hibited to many observers a singular va- into a comb. The teeth are cut with a
riety from the sportsman's usual prac- fine saw, or rather a pair of saws, and
tice.
they are finished with a file. A coarser
COMA, or COMA-VIGIL, a preternatu- file, called a rasp, is used to reduce the
ral propensity to sleep, when nevertheless horn, &c. to a proper thickness; and
the patient does not sleep, or if he does, when they are completely made, they
awakes immediately without any relief. are polished with charcoal and water, and
See MEDICINE.
receive their last finish with powder of
Coma, in botany, a collection of floral rotten stone. The process used for
leaves, which, in the crown imperial, la- making ivory combs is nearly the same
vender, sage, cow-wheat, and some other as that already described, except that the
plants, terminate the flower-stem, and ivory is first sawed into thin slices. The
form an appearance like a tuft of hair. best ivory comes from the island of Cey-
COMA Berenices, Berenice's hair, in as- lon, and Achen, in the East Indies ; as it
tronomy, a constellation of the Northern possesses the property of never turning
hemisphere, composed of stars near the yellow, it is consequently much dearer
Lion's Tail. See ASTRONOMY.
than any other kind.
COMARUM, in botany, a genus of the Tortoise-shell combs are much es-
Icosandria Polygamia class and order. teemed ; and there are methods of stain-
Natural order of Senticosa. Rosaceæ, ing horn, so as to imitate it, of which the
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx ten- following is one : the horn to be dyed is
cieft; petals five, smaller than the calyx; first to be pressed into a flat form, and
receptacle of the seeds ovate, spongy, then done over with a paste, made of two
permanent. There is but one species; parts of quick-lime and one of litharge,
viz. C. palustre, marsh-cinquefoil, a na- brought ito a proper consistence with
tive of most parts of Europe, in boggy soap-ley. This paste must be put over
ground
all the parts of the horn, except such as
COMB, an instrument made of horn, are proper to be left transparent, to give
ivory, tortoise-shell, box, or holly-wood, it a nearer resemblance to tortoise-shell
.
&c. and useful for separating and adjust- The horn must remain in this state till
ing the hair, &c.
the paste be quite dry, when it is to be
Comb making. Combs are not only brushed off. it requires taste and judg-
COMB
made for the purpose of cleansing the ment so to dispose the paste, as to form
- hair, but for ornament: they are some- a variety of transparent parts of different
times set with brilliant stones, pearls, and magnitudes and figures, to look like na-
even diamonds; some again are studded ture. Some parts should also be semi-
with cut steel; these are of different transparent, wbich may be effected by
shapes, and are used to fasten up the hair mixing whiting with a part of the paste.
when ladies dress without caps. Combs By this means spots of a reddish brown
may, of course, be had of all prices, from will be produced, so as greatly to in-
the value of a few pence to almost any crease the beauty of the work. Horn
sum. They are generally made of the thus dyed is manufactured into combs,
horns of bullocks or of elephants, and and these are frequently sold for real
sea-horses teeth, and some are made of tortoise-shell.
tortoise-shell and ivory, others of box or COMBAT, in law, or single combat,
holly-wood. The horns of bullocks are denotes a formal trial between two cham-
thus prepared for this manufactory: the pions of some doubtful cause or quarrel,
tips are sawn off'; they are then held by the sword or batoons. This form of
in the flame of a wood fire; this is called proceeding was anciently very frequent,
roasting, by which they become nearly particularly among the barbarous nations
as soft as leather. While in that state in their original settlements; and obtain-
they are slit open on one side, and press- ed, not only in criminal, but also in civil
ed in a machine between two iron plates; causes; being built on a presumption,
they are then plunged into a trough of that God would never grant the victory
water, from which they come out hard but to him who had the best right. It
and Alat; they are then sawn into lengths, was originally permitted, in order to de.
according to the size wanted. To cut the termine points respecting the reputation
COM
COM
-
NUMBERS.
I
1
of individuals, but afterwards became If four quantities are to be combined,
much more extensive. The accuser first we shall find the numbers of combina -
swore to the truth of his accusation; the tions to proceed as pyramidal triangular
accused gave him the lie: upon which numbers of the second order, 1, 5, 15,
each threw down a gage, or pledge of 35, &c. whose side differs from the num-
battle, and the parties were committed ber of quantities by the exponent minus
prisoners to the day of combat. See an unit. Wherefore, if the number of
.
CHAMPION
quantities beq, the side will be q- 3,
COMBINATION, in mathematics, is
9 -
3
the variation or alteration of any number and the number of combinations
1
, like,
See PYRAMIDAL
in all the different manners possible. ke: 92,9-1,9+0.
It
4
is shewn, in the Memoirs of the French
Academy, that two square pieces, each Hence is easily deduced a general
divided diagonally into two colours, may rule of determining the number of com-
be combined 64 different ways, so as to binations in any case whatsoever. Sup-
form so many different kinds of chequer- pose, for example, the number of quan-
work; which appears surprizing enough, tities to be combined q, and the expo-
when one considers that two letters or nent of combination n; the number of
figures can only be combined twice. See
combinations will be
q-n+1,9-n+2,
CHANGES.
ダー +1,2
9
1
2
COMBINATION, doctrine of. Prob. 1.
Any number of quantities being given, 9=+3,9–1+4, &c. till the number
,
n
together with the number in each com-
4
bination, to find the number of combina- to be added be equal to n. Take q=6 6
tions. One quantity admits of no combi and n = 4, the number of combinations
nation; two, a and b, only of one combi- will be
6 –4 +16—4+26-4+3
nation; of three quantities, abc, there are
2
3
three combinations, viz. ab, a c, bc; of 6 -4+ 4 6-3 6-2 6-16 + 0
+0
four quantities, there are six combina- 4
1 2 3 4
tions, viz. ab, ac, a d, b c, b d, cd; of five 3 4 5 6
quantities, there are ten combinations,
=15.
1234
viz. a b, a c, b c, a d, bd, cd, a e, be, ce,
de. Hence it appears that the numbers ble combinations of the given quantities,
If it be required to know all the possi-
of combinations proceed as 1, 3, 6, 10; beginning with the combinations of the
that is, they are triangular numbers, several two's, then proceeding to three's,
whose sides differ by unity from the
number of given quantities. If this then &c. we must add 9–19+0,1—29-1
1 2
2
be supposed q, the side of the number of
combinations will be q— 1, and so the 9+0,9–39–29-19
+0,&c.
c
3
1, 9+0.
2
9
3 4
Whence the number of all the possible
2
See TRIANGULAR NUMBERS.
combinations will be 17+12
99-
99-1
If three quantities are to be combined,
1 2
and the number in each combination bé 9—2799-19-29—3
three, there will be only one combina-
1 2 3 4
2
tion, abc; if a fourth be added, four 9-29-39-4
combinations will be found, a b c, a b d,
which is the sum of
3 4
b c d, ac d; if a fifth be added, the com- the unciæ of the binomial raised to the
binations will be ten, viz.ab c, ab d, b c d, power q, and abridged of the exponent
a c d, a be, b de, bce, a ce, a de; if a of the power increased by unity 9 + 1.
sixth, the combinations will be twenty, Wherefore, since these unciæ come out
&c. The numbers, therefore, of combi- 1+1 by being raised to the power q;
nations proceed as 1, 4, 10, 20, &c. that and since 1 + 1 is equal to 2, 29-9-1
is, they are the first pyramidal triangular will be the number of all the possible
numbers, whose side differs by two units combinations. For example, if the num-
from the number of given quantities. ber of quantities be 5, the number of pos.
Hence, if the number of given quantities sible combinations will be 25 — 6= 32
the side will be a--2, and so the -6= 26.
number of combinations 9 —2, 9-1 ,
Prob. 2. Any number of quantities be-
1
2
9 +0.
ing given, to find the number of all the
9+.
changes which these quantities, combined
3
-
number of combinations ???
99-1
+
3
1
5
be
2,
COM
COM
-
in all the manners possible, can under- (2425_-24) = (24 — 1)
(2425—24) = (24 — 1) = 32009658644
go. Let there be two quantities a and b, 406818986777955348250600 divided by
.
their variations will be two; consequent- 23 = 139172428888725299942512849340
ly, as each of them may be combined 2200. In so many various methods may
with itself, to these there must be added the 24 letters of the alphabet be varied
two variations more. Therefore the num- and combined among themselves.
ber of the whole will be 2+2= 4. If COMBINATION, in chemistry, is the inti-
there were three quantities, and the ex- mate union of two bodies, by chemical
ponent of the variation 2, the combina- attraction, into one substance, so that
tions will be 3, and the changes 3; to neither of them can be recognized, nor
wit, ab, a c, b c, and ba, ca, cb; to can they be separated from each other by
which if we add the three combinations any mechanical force. Of this principle
of each quantity with itself a a, bb, cc, are the following instances. Salt will
we shall have the number of changes unite with water, from which it cannot
3+3+3=9.
be separated again but by chemical agen-
In like manner, it is evident, if the cy. Sulphur and lime may by heat be
given quantities were 4, and the exponent united and form a compound, the pro-
2, that the number of combinations will perties of which are totally dissimilar to
be 6, and the number of changes like- those of either the substances used. In
wise 6, and the number of combinations both cases an affinity has been exerted
of each quantity with itself 4; and there. between the substances, and they have
fore the number of changes 16; if with combined. Combination is to be distin-
the same exponent the given quantities guished from mixture, in which dissimi-
were 5, the number of changes would be lar particles are blended together, with-
25; and in general, if the number of the out being united by attraction, in which
quantities were n, the number of changes no new qualities are acquired, in which
would be n.
the difference of parts is easily discover-
Suppose the quantities 3, and the ex- ed, and these parts are capable of being
ponent of variation 3, the number of separated by mechanical means. It is
changes is found 27 = 33, viz. a a a, a ab, distinguished from aggregation, which is
a ba, b a a, a a c, a ca, c a a, a b b, bab, merely the union of particles of the saine
bb a, a b c, b a c, b c a, a c b, c a b, cba, kind of matter, forming an aggregate,
acc, ca c,cc a, 66 b, bbc, c b b, bcb, uniform in composition, but possessing all
bcc, cbc, cc b, ccc. In like man- the properties of the particles of which
ner it will appear, if the quantities were it is composed.
4, and the exponent 3, that the number COMBINATION, in military science. One
of changes would be 64 = 43; and in ought to regard combination as forming
:
general, if the number of quantities was= a part of military science. A general who
n, and the exponent 3, the number of has an enterprize in contemplation,
changes would be nu.
should, before he risks the execution of
By proceeding in this manner it it, combine well in his mind all the ideas
will be found, if the number of quantities that can lead to its success; and he
be n, and the exponent n, that the num-
ought not always to rely on his own solu-
ber of changes would be nn. Where- tion of the case. But when his ideas on
fore, if all the antecedents be added, should lay them before the general offi-
the subject are pretty well fixed, he
where the exponent is less, the number
of all the possible changes will be found cers, who are under his orders or com-
nn + n-i + nn- + nn=3+nn-4, &c. mand, for their opinion and concur-
+
till the number subtracted from n leaves
1, because the beginning is from single to do unlawful acts are punishable before
COMBINATIONS, in law. Combinations
quantities taken once.
the unlawful acts are executed; this is to
Since, then, the number of all possible prevent the consequences of combination
changes is in a geometrical progression, and conspiracies, &c.
the first or smallest term of which is nl, COMBRETUM, in botany, a gemus of
the largest nn, and the denominator n; the Octandria Monogynia class and or
it will be equal (nnti — n) = (n-1). der. Natural order of Calycanthemæ.
Suppose n =4, the number of all possi-Onagræ, Jussieu. Essential character :
ble variations will be (4.5-4)=(1-4)= calyx four or five toothed, bell-shaped,
1020
340.
superior; corolla four or five-petalled,
3
inserted into the calyx; stamina very
Suppose again n=24, the number long; seed one, four or five-angled, the
of all the possible variations will be angles membranaceous. There are four
rence.
-
-
COMBUSTION.
a
species. This genus is very imperfectly burning bodies and ascend to a sphere a.
known, and being a very fine one, de- bove, was modified by Beccher and Stahl,
serves the attention of the cultivators of by the supposition of a general principle,
exotic plants.
assumed to exist in all combustible bodies,
COMBUSTION. The temperature of and denominated phlogiston ; capable of
bodies may be raised by various means, passing in combination from one body to
which are generally such as produce an another, or of flying off with a violent
agitation among the particles. The sun's agitation, in which the heat was imagined
light, and also the chemical or mechani- to consist. As this theory was establish-
cal actions of bodies upon each other, if ed upon the observation of a number of
sufficiently intense or rapid, produce striking chemical facts, it was for a long
this effect. One of the most generally time universally received. Various modi-
.
known methods of producing a high fications were, however, proposed by
temperature consists in striking or rub- different chemists, as discoveries came
bing bodies together; and there is no ac, to be made; particularly with regard to
tion more familiar to us, for this pur- the agency and combination of air in bo-
pose, than the striking of a flint against a dies, and afterwards those of the exis-
piece of steel. Whenever an elevated tence of oxygen, and the laws by which
temperature is thus produced in a body heat, or the cause of temperature, is go-
communicating with the open air, it is verned. These advances led to the re-
observable that, according to the nature jection of phlogiston altogether ;
of the body itself, the heat is either con- change of theory, which was more rapid-
ducted away, and nothing farther hap- ly effected by the patronage, exertions,
pens, or else it continues and even in- and scientific labour's of Lavoisier; who
creases so as to spread by communica- devoted the influence of an elevated situa-
tion through every part of the body, and tion, the extent of bis fortune, and the
produce a change in its nature. Thus, if powers of an uncommonly clear and
one corner or extremity of a thin piece comprehensive intellect, to this object.
of stone or glass be made red hot, it will It is to be regretted that, with claims
soon become cold again, and no farther so well founded and so great, this philoso-
effect will follow ; but if the corner of a pher should have sought for more; but it
piece of paper or wood be heated in like is certainly true that he himself gave sup-
manner, it will not, in common circum- port to the powerful cry of that party,
stances, become cold again without al- which has proclaimed him the author of
teration, but the heat will be communi- the modern theory of combustion; where-
cated to the whole mass, and will con- as, if they had continued to do justice to
tinue until the body shall have undergone Rey, Hooke, Mayow, Hales, Bayen,
a remarkable change. This phenomenon Priestley, and others, there would have
is called combustion or burning ; the bo- been little of absolute facts left for La-
dies which are liable to it are called com- voisier to claim in the way of original dis-
bustible; and after they have undergone covery; though it would be difficult to
this process they are said to have been find adequate terms to express the obli-
burned.
and on
gation under which the scientific world
There are scarcely any chemical is placed with regard to him, for his am.
changes by which heat is produced, suffi. ple and accurate repetition of experimen-
cient to exhibit the appearance of light, tal investigations, and the very luminous
unless oxygen be in the act of entering and able manner in which he has digest-
into combination with a combustible body, ed and stated the whole mass of facts,
One of the earliest observations respect- and applied them to theoretical results.
ing ordinary combustion must have been, Combustion, as understood by modern
that it cannot take place without com- chemists, is the rapid combination of oxy-
mon air, and that it is extinguished by gen with a body, which is attended with ina
shutting out the air. It is now well crease of temperature and the emission of
known, that the air acts only by means light. The burned body is therefore an
of its oxygen, wbich unites with and oxygenated compound. Thus we may
changes the combustible body.
form a notion of combustion by burning
The earlier doctrines respecting heat a piece of iron wire. If the diameter of
and fire are scarcely entitled to notice; the wire be very small, such, for ex-
and certainly must not occupy our pages, ample, as half the thickness of a hair,
It will be sufficient for us to remark and it be made up into a tuft like wool,
that the hypothesis of an element called it may be lighted by a candle, and will
fire, which was supposed to escape from burn like other more readily combusti-
COMBUSTION.
ble bodies until it has received a cer- themselves; but it is not so easy to specii-
tain portion of oxygen, after which the late upon the principles of motion among
combustion will cease. If the same iron a system of particles, as it is to assert the
had been exposed to the atmosphere with combination and disengagement of a
out additional heat, it would also have chemical element, though this assertion
attracted oxygen, but in a longer time; does not remove the difficulty, but only
and though the result might have been places it a step farther off.
the same, we should not have called If we admit that the particles of a
this slow process by the name of com- body do not touch each other; as ap-
bustion.
pears to be established from the differ-
Though the modern theory of combus- ent degrees of inertia and of weight, as
tion is simplified by rejecting phlogiston, well as from the expansions and contrac-
and rendered more accurate by compre- tions occasioned by change of tempera-
hending facts formerly unknown, yet it ture, and other causes ; and if we like-
must not be disguised, that it is inade- wise consider the particles as attracting
quate to account for the great and most each other,-it appears to follow, by ana-
striking fact, namely, the increase of logy, from what we know of the rest of
temperature, otherwise than by hypo- the universe, that they must be kept asun-
thesis. Heat, or elevation of tempera- der by motion. From this inference we
ture, seems, in the opinions of all philoso. shall be led to consider natural massés
phers, to consist in the agitation of the as distinct systems of revolving particles;
particles of some thing, whether we sup- comparable with those nebulæ which oc-
pose that thing to be the body itself, or a cupy the celestial spaces, and of which
peculiar element called caloric. Accord- the parts are, no doubt, governed by
ing to those philosophers who assert cometary and planetary revolutions. It
the existence of this last principle, the is much to be regretted, that the mathe-
combination of oxygen and the combusti- matical consideration of this subject by
ble body does emit or give out caloric, Mr. Buée, in a work announced in
either because there is less room for it in Nicholson's Journal, vol.ii. p. 234, quarto
the new compound, of which the capa- series, has not yet been laid before the
city is changed, according to Dr. Irvine's public.
doctrine; or because a portion of caloric, The ordinary appearances of bodies in
which was before latent or combined in a state of combustion may be explained
one or both of the component parts, is, in a general way by attending to the state
according to Black, given out in conse- of the bodies which undergo it. If the
quence of the resulting attraction of the parts of an ignited body, such as that
new compound for it being less than be- of a piece of charcoal, become oxygena-
fore. They who are disposed to see this ted, previous to, or at, the very instant
subject treated at length, may consult of their separation from the mass, there
the system of the ingenious Fourcroy, will be no appearance of light bat at the
where they will find the modern caloric surface of the burning body; but if smali
affording the same general services to parts of the body be separated from the
chemical hypothesis, as were formerly general mass, during the very process of
obtained from its predecessor phlogis- combustion, and before it is completed,
ton.
as happens mechanically when the par-
Notwithstanding the truly valuable and ticles of iron are torn off by the action
numerous discoveries of facts by Black, of a dry grindstone, or chemically when
Irvine, Crawford, and other modern philo- the particles of fat rise in vapour from
sophers, we are far from being in posses- the wick of a lighted candle, a burning
sion of proof that elevation of tempera- mass will be seen, variable in its figure,
ture is universally occasioned by diminu- which, in the latter case, is called Aame.
tion of capacity, or the extrication of And that this explanation accounts for
latent heat. But, as we are upon the the flame of burning bodies, is manifest-
whole more habituated to consider bodies ed from the little difference between the
themselves, than their properties in the two phenomena here mentioned, and the
abstract, a preference has been given to still 'less difference between the results,
the method of ascribing events to pecu- namely flame, which are produced by
liar additional substances, rather than to projecting the dust of rosin, or a stream
motions or modifications of the bodies in of hydrogen, through the Hame of a
which they may take place. Many emi- candle.
nent philosophers have, nevertheless, con- According to the theory which sup-
sidered heat as a motion in the particles poses caloric to be an independent sub-
COM
COM
stance, combustion must be a rapid union some slight cause, such as the fire of a
of oxygen with a combustible body; and pipe, or a taper, or a candle, seems to
the heat has been supposed to be given have began it
. 4. The persons were ge-
out from the oxygen during a condensa- nerally much addicted to the use of spi-
tion of this last, which, it is imagined, ritous liquors, were very fat; in most in-
takes place universally in this process. stances women; and old. 5. The extre-
This, however, has not been proved. mities, such as the legs, hands, or crani-
Dr. Thomson, considering caloric and um, escaped the fire. 6. Water, instead
light as distinct substances, has adduced of extinguishing the fire, gave it more ac-
many facts and observations, to prove tivity, as happens when fat is burned. 7.
that as caloric abounds in oxygen, so The residue was oily and fetid ashes, vith
light is a component part of every com- a greasy soot, of a very penetrating and
bustible. And thence, according to his disgreeable smell.
doctrine, while
the base of oxygen
The theory of the author may be con-
combines with the base of the combusti- sidered as hypothetical, until maturer ob-
ble, the caloric of the one and the light servations shall throw more light on the
of the other unite in the form of fire, subject. The principal fact is, that char-
From this theory he shows, why in the coal and oil, or fat, are known in some in-
transitions of oxygen from one combusti- stances to take fire spontaneously, and
ble base to another, the act of combustion he supposes the carbon of the alcohol to
does not take place; namely, because the be deposited in the fat parts of the hu-
caloric of the oxygen has no light pre- man system, and to produce this effect.
sented to it to combine with. The whole
COMEDY, a dramatic poem, represent-
doctrine, though undoubtedly requiring ing some event in common life, which is
further developement and proof, is intitled supposed to take place among private in-
to the greatest attention of chemists. See dividuals. Its object is to ridicule the vi-
CALORIC, CAPACITY, CHEMISTRY,
ces and follies of mankind.
HEAT.
The unities of action, time and place,
COMBUSTION of living individuals of the the division of the acts, the introduction
human species. Citizen Lair, in 1797, com- of episodes, the intertexture of the scenes,
municated to the Philomathic Society at are common to both tragedy and comedy.
Paris, a memoir on the spontaneous com-
But in other essentials they differ: the
bustion of human individuals, of which in- one inspires terror and pity; the other
stances are related in the Copenhagen excites gaiety and mirth. The characters
Acts for 1692; the Annual Register, 1763 in tragedy are, kings, princes, tyrants,
and 1775; the Philosophical Transac- heroes; those in comedy are ridiculous
tions, 1744; the observations of Le Cat, people of quality, cits, valets, gossips,
1729 and 1749; and the Journal de Me- &c. The style also of the latter has its
dicine for 1779 and 1783 : and to these peculiar characteristics; it should be
he has added some others related by per- simple, lively, familiar, and replete with
sons living at Caen, and on the testimony sallies of wit, satire, and genuine humour.
of a surgeon of the same town, who at-
As almost all the rules of dramatic poe-
tested the circumstances of an event of try are constructed with a view to
this description by a verbal process.
strengthen the resemblance of fiction to
Difficulties would no doubt be offered reality, they ought in comedy to be most
from reasoning against these facts; but minutely attended to; because, as the
the writer remarks, that human testimo- scenes it represents bear a nearer affinity
ny is not to be rejected, unless the pro-
to real life, any defect in the resemblance
bability that the facts must be impossible is more readily discovered. Hence the
shall be greater than that arising from the necessity of truth in the delineation of
concurrence of evidence : and he adds, character, of simplicity in the texture of
that the narratives, though varying so
the intrigue, of spirit and consistency in
widely as to time and place, do very re- the dialogue, and of genuine nature in
markably agree in their tenor. The cir- the sentiments. Hence, too, that grand
cumstances are, that (1) the combustion requisite, the art of concealing art, in ma-
has usually destroyed the person by re- naging the progressive intricacy of the
ducing the body to a mass of pulverulent plot, which constitutes the illusion of
fatty matter, resembling ashes. 2. There theatrical representations. The intrigue
were no signs of combustion in surround- of comedy does not consist in the con-
ing bodies by which it could be occasion-struction of a fable barely probable, but
ed, as these were little if at all injured; in a natural series of familiar events, de-
though (3.) the combustion did not seem veloped in the most clear and impressive
to be so perfectly spontaneous, but that way. It may be of use, therefore, to trace
COMEDY
the rise and progress of comedy, with its banquet; if, indeed, the Athenian sati.
various revolutions, in order to examine rist, and the Aristophanes of the banquet,
the principles on which those rules are are one and the same person, which may
founded, and to point out their various at least be fairly doubted.
applications.
Such was the state of comedy at Athens
On the waggon of Thespis, comedy was when her two great tragic poets acquired
a mere tissue of ribaldry, uttered to the the glory of rendering virtue interesting,
passing inultitude by vintagers, with their and crime odious, by the most affecting
faces stained with wine-lees. After the and terrible pictures. How singular, that
example of the Sicilian poets Epicharmus the same people should delight in exhi.
and Phormis, Crates gave it a more regu- bitions so opposite and contrasted! the
lar form, and raised it to a more appro- heroes of Sophocles and Euripides were
priate stage. Comedy then took for its no more, but the sage calumniated by
model the tragedy invented by Æschy- Aristophanes was still living. The Athe-
lus, or rather both were founded on the nians could applaud with enthusiasm the
poems of Homer. This epoch is, pro- great men of former days, while at the
perly speaking, the origin of comedy same time they could behold with satis-
among the Greeks; they divided it into faction their wisest philosopher exposed
the old, the middle, and the new. The to contempt and ridicule.
Athenian comedians at first produced sa-
tires in action, that is to say, they repre- that the poets had eluded, in what was
The government, too late, perceived
sented characters known and named, called middle comedy, the law which for-
whose follies and vices they imitated. bad the mention of names; they enact-
This was the old comedy.
ed another which banished from the stage
To repress this licence, the laws for- all personal imitation, and restricted co.
bad the mention of names. Neither the
malignity of the poets, however, nor that medy to the general representation of
manners. This was the æra of new co-
of the spectators, lost any thing by this medy: it ceased to be a direct satire,
interdict. The resemblance of masks, and assumed the legitimate and classical
dress, and gesture, designated public form which it has since preserved. Me.
characters so well, that they were recog- nander shone in this department, a poet
nized at sight. Thus, in the middle co-
medy, the poet having no longer to dread as elegant and natural as Aristophaneg
was the reverse. We cannot but deeply
the reproach of personality, was embold-
ened in his satirical attacks; at the same read the eulogies which Plutarch, in
ened in his satirical attacks; at the same regret the loss of his works, when we
time he was doubly sure of applause, for
while feeding the malice of his audience common with all the ancients, has pro-
nounced on them.
by the blackness of his portraits, he af-
forded their vanity the gratification of
But it is easier to copy what is gross
guessing his originals. It was in these and low, than what is refined and noble ;
two species that Aristophanes so often hence the first Latin poets chose Aristo
triumphed, to the shame of the Athe- phanes for their model. Of this number
nians.
was Plautus, who, notwithstanding, does
Satirical comedy presented at first not resemble him. Terence, who came
view many appearances of advantage. after Plautus, imitated Menander with-
There are vices against which the institu- out equalling him ; Cæsar used to call
tions of a state provide no punishment. him a demi-Menander, and reproached
Self interestedness, or incapacity, in the him with his want of the vis comica, by
administration of public affairs, ingrati- which is meant those master-strokes
tude, infidelity, breach of promise, the which fathom character; which dive
tacit and artful usurpation of the merit of into the inmost recesses of the soul, and
another-all these escape the severity of expose its hidden vices to public derision
law. Satirical comedy assigned to them and shame.
a punishment the more terrible, as it was Plautus excels in gaiety, strength, and
inflicted in a public theatre. There the variety : Terence in truth, delicacy, and
guilty were arraigned and the people sat elegance ; the one has the advantage of
in judgment. It was doubtless to main- imagination unrestrained by the rules of
tain so salutary a species of terror, that art over talents subjected to all those
the first satirical poets were not only to- rules; the other has the merit of uniting
lerated, but even hired by the magistracy, sprightliness with decency, politeness
as censors of the republic. Even Plato with pleasantry, and exactness with ease;
was led away by this apparent advantage the one amuses by the matter, the other
when he admitted Aristophanes into his by the style, and we wish Plautus had
VOL. II.
LI
COMEDY
a
the refinement of Terence, and Terence all rules. Yet with these faults, added to
the humour of Plautus.
a fondness for puerile conceits, and far
The modifications of comedy in its first fetched equivoques, Lope de Vega has
stages, and the varieties observable in it attained to the first rank among modern
at the present day, all originate in the poets. He unites the happiest discrimi-
predominating character of each particu- nation of character to a strength of in-
lar people, and in their respective forms vention, which even Corneille could ad-
of government. Thus, in a democratical mire. He took from Lope the character
state, the administration of government, of his Menteur, and he declares he
and the conduct of the leading men, be- would have given two of his best pieces
ing the chief objects of animadversion to have imagined it.
and censure, the Athenian people, ever The Italian comedy is strongly indica-
discontented and restless, delighted in tive of the disposition of the people.
theatrical satires, which exposed not only Points of honour, amours, revenge for
,
the vices of individuals, but the concerns falsehood in affairs of gallantry, furnish
of government, the prevarications of ora- abundance of perilous intrigues for lo-
tors, the faults of generals, and even their vers, and of endless play for the coque-
own facility to be duped and corrupted. tries of valets and waiting women.
The
Hence their applause at the political sa- rage of pantomime and caricature is con-
tires of Aristophanes. This licence was spicuous in all the comedies of the Ita-
repressed as the government grew less lians, and they indulge it at the expense
popular, as may be seen in the later co- of their better judgment. Their plots
medies of that author, and in what ves- are devoid of ingenuity, sense, and wit.
tige remains of those of Menander. In There is hardly one among the immense
these the state was always respected, and collections of their pieces, which a man
private intrigues were substituted for of taste would bear to read to the end.
public cabals.
Indeed the Italians at last began to be
The Romans under the consuls, as sensible of this, and Florence set the ex-
jealous of liberty as the Athenians, but ample of substituting for these miserable
more jealous of the dignity of their go- farces the best comedies of Moliere
vernment, never suffered the republic to translated into Italian. Other states fol-
be exposed to the shafts of poetic ridi- lowed the example, and in all probability
cule: hence their first comic authors ven- the French comedy will soon become ge-
tured upon personal, but never upon po- neral in Italy.
litical satire.
A nation, formerly counted the first in
The low popular comedy was always politeness and refinement, when every
freely tolerated, and the comedy of Gre- individual made it a duty to conform his
cian manners, called Palliata, enjoyed sentiments and ideas to the manners of
equal indulgence; but when the nobles society, when prejudices were princi-
of Rome were introduced on the stage, ples, and usages laws; this nation could
as in the pieces called Prætextæ and afford few originals, its characters were
Togatæ, the action was more restrain- softened by deference, and its vices pal-
ed, and ridicule was banished. This liated by good-breeding. The French
style, as Seneca observes, holds a middle comedy has, however, served to improve
rank between comedy and tragedy. But the English stage, as much as the differ-
as luxury gradually softened the man- ence of manners would allow. Moliere
ners of Rome, comedy lost its keenness is certainly a just model of comic excel-
and severity, and the Romans having im- lence; he possesses that philosophic
bibed the vices of the Greeks, Terence, penetration which seizes extremes as
to pourtray them, had only to copy Me- well as their intermediate degrees, and
nander.
that power of contrast which gives force
The same influence of public taste and to his painting, which the delicacy of his
political institutions has determined the pencil might otherwise have lost.
character of comedy in every nation in In a country like ours, where every in-
Europe, since the revival of letters. A dividual glories in his privilege of think-
nation which once affected a proud so- ing for himself, originals must always
lemnity of manners, and a romantic pride abound. Hence the English comedy ex-
of sentiment, formed the model of its cels all others in strength of character,
drama or intrigues full of incident, and on and in the true expression of nature : it
characters replete with hyperbole. Such is simple, consistent, and philosophical.
is the Spanish theatre ; their dramatic au- The genius of Shakspeare has been con-
e
thors display a forced exaggeration, and sidered by some as most happy in come-
8 freedom of imagination which violates dy; the truth is, that in every depart-
COM
COM
sent age.
ment of the drama he is supreme. Clouds Sentimental comedy is perhaps more
and misis may at times obscure him, but useful to morals than even tragedy, as it
he is stil the sun of the poetic hemis- excites a deeper interest, because the
phere, and all other luminaries before examples it holds forth affect us more
his splendour must dwindle to the mag- nearly. But as the style of comedy can
nitude of stars.
neither be sustained by the grandeur of
The plays of his contemporary, Jon-objects, nor animated by the strength of
son, though antiquated and obsolete, incident and situation, as it should be at
contain sallies of the finest satire, and the same time familiar and interesting,
strokes of genuine comic humour. Those there are two different extremes to be
of Fletcher and Massinger, and of other avoided-of being cold, and of being ro-
poets of that age, had the merit of con- mantic. Simple nature is the true mid-
tributing to the advancement of our dra- dle path, and it is the highest effort of
ma, and laid the foundation of its present art to be at the same time artful and na-
excellence.
tural.
After a dark period of puritanical
A style of comedy superior to these is
fanaticism, the English comedy revived that which unites characteristic with inci-
in the reign of Charles II. ; but the stage dental comedy. Here the characters are
was but too faithful a mirror of his licen- involved by the foibles of the mind and
tious court. The comedies of Dryden the vices of the heart in the most humi-
are tinged with this alloy ; indeed, in liating cross purposes, which expose
other respects they add little honour them to the laughter and contempt of
to the name of that poet. Those of Ot- the audience. A happier specimen of
way are too obscene to be acted, or this style could not be found than in the
even read. The comic muse of Con- School for Scandal.
greve has been equally blamed for licen- Such are the three kinds of comedy:
tiousness and for exuberance of wit. The There are others, which we have pur,
latter reproach may perhaps justly apply posely omitted to enumerate. First,
to the best comic productions of the pre- that obscene comedy, which is no longer
suffered on the stage but by a sort of
Comedy has been divided into three prescription, and which cannot excite a
kinds, according to the ends which it smile without raising a blush ; secondly,
proposes. By pourtraying vice, it ren- that drama of false sentiment, the off
ders it contemptible, as tragedy renders spring of the German school, which once
crime odious: this is characteristic come threatened to destroy our taste for ge-
dy. When men are represented as the nuine comedy, but which has now hap-
sport of fortune, it is called incidental pily passed into oblivion; and, lastly, that
comedy. When the domestic virtues comedy of low fun and pantomime trick,
are drawn in amiable colours, and in the feeble resource of minds without
situations where misfortune renders them genius, talent, or taste, which it is the
interesting, it may be termed sentimental disgrace of the British stage of the pre-
comedy.
sent day to bring forward, and the re,
The first of these is the most useful to proach of the British public to tolerate
manners, and at the same time the strong- and encourage.
est, the most difficult, and of course the
COMET. See ASTRONOMY.
rarest. It traces vice to its source; it at- COMETARIUM, a curious machine,
tacks it in its principle; it presents the exhibiting an idea of the revolution of a
mirror to mankind, and makes them comet about the sun. It is contrived in
blush at their own image. Hence it sup- such a manner, as by elliptical wheels to
poses in its author a consummate know- shew the unequal motion of a comet in
ledge of human nature, a prompt and ac- every part of its orbit. The comet is re-
curate discernment, and a vigour of fancy presented by a small brass ball, carried
which seizes at once what penetration by a wire, in an elliptic groove, about the
could not comprehend in detail
.
sun in one of its foci, and the years of its
Incidental comedy is perhaps the most period are shewn by an index moving
successful and popular, as it keeps the with an equable motion over a graduated
attention continually awake by lively and silver circle.
Unexpected changes, and as it furnishes COMETES, in botany, a genus of
a source of amusement and mirth, when the Tetrandria Monogynia class and or-
the sallies of wit might fail in their effect der. Natural order of Tricoccæ. Es
by too frequent recurrence, if not reliev- sential character: involucre four-leav.
ed by such aid
ed, three-flowered: calyx four-leaved;
:
COM
COM
ny, &c.
apsule tricoccous. One species, viz. sured or divided by some other number,
C. alterniflora, an annual, and a native of without any remander : such are 12 and
Suratte.
18, as being measured by 6 or 3.
COMMA, among grammarians, a point
COMMERCE, the exchange of the na-
or character marked thus (, ), serving to tural or artificial productions of a country,
denote a short stop, and to divide the for those of another, either by barter or by
members of a period.
COMMANDANT, in the army, is representative signs of their value: the
most general representative of the value of
that person who has the command of other commodities being coin or bullion,
a garrison, fort, castle, regiment, compa- the profits of commerce are frequently es-
timated by the quantity of money it brings
COMMANDER, in the navy, an officer into a country; but a very beneficial fo-
who
has the command of a ship of war un- reign trade may be carried on without any
der 20 guns, a sloop of war, armed ship, balance being payable in money, or the
or bomb-vessel. He is entitled Master balance may be absorbed by payments on
and Commander, and ranks with a Major other accounts. The commerce of Great
of the army
COMMANDER in Chief, is the chief Britain has long been in a very flourish-
Admiral in any port, or on any staing state, and has become of unparalleled
tion, appointed to hold the command extent, but the quantity of coin and bul-
over all other admirals within that juris- lion in the country has not increased in
any considerable degree.
diction.
COMMELINA, in botany, so called in is usually distinguished into two kinds,
Commerce, in a general point of view,
bonour of John and Casper Commelins, the commerce of import and of export ;
two famous Dutch botanists, a genus of but there is little reason for this distinc-
the Triandria Monogynia class and order. tion, for whatever a nation imports, it
Natural order of Ensatæ. Junci, Jussieu. must have paid an equivalent for to the
nectaries three, cross-shaped, pedicelled. country of which it is purchased, and
consequently the two branches are inti-
There are twelve species, natives of warm mately dependant, and could not exist
climates.
separately for any considerable period.
COMMENDAM, in the ecclesiastical
The value obtained in foreign markets,
law, the trust or administration of the for the goods or manufactures which a
revenues of a benefice, given either to a nation exports, repays the labour of pro-
layman to hold, by way of depositum, curing or manufacturing them, with a
for six months, in order to repairs, &c. profit to the master manufacturer and to
or to an ecclesiastic, or beneficed person, the exporting merchant; and this value
to perform the pastoral duties thereof, being invested in foreign produce, which
till once the benefice is provided with a on importation affords a further profit to
regular incumbent.
the merchant, it is evident that the trans-
Commendams were formerly a very lau- action while it supports individuals, makes
dable institution : for when an elective be- a real addition to the wealth of the coun-
nefice became vacant, for which the ordi- try, by the greater value of the returns
nary could not, for some reason, immedi- imported beyond that of the goods ex-
ately provide, the care of it was recom- ported. Commerce, therefore, while it
mended to some man of merit, who took is the means of procuring a mutual inter-
upon him the direction of it, till the vacan- change of conveniencies between distant
cy was filled up, but enjoyed none of the countries, and of extending knowledge
profits
and civilization over every part of the
At length it became a maxim among globe, contributes essentially to the
the canonists, that a clerk might hold two strength and influence of the countries
benefices, the one titular, and the other in by which it is encouraged.
commendam : yet still, the commendam Superficial views on subjects of politi-
was to continue only till other provisions cal economy have inclined princes and
were made; and afterwards they began to statesmen to the opinions, that wealth
be given for a determinate time.
consisted principally in gold and silver,
COMMENSURABLE, among geome. and that those metals could be brought
tricians, an appellation given to such quan- into a country which had no mines only
tities as are measured by one and the same by the balance of trade, or by exporting
to a greater value than it imported; com-
COMMENSURABLE numbers, whetherin. merce has therefore experienced public
tegers or fractions, are such as can be mea. encouragement, and agreeable to the
common measure.
COMMERCE.
principles on which its value has been The inhabitants of Italy who fled to
estimated, the principal regulations have the islands of the Adriatic, and founded
consisted in restraints upon importation, the city of Venice, were led by their
and encouragements to exportation. The situation to the pursuit of commerce,
duties and restrictions imposed by one which they carried on with success, and
country, either with the view of encou- in no very great length of time became
raging its trade and manufactures, or almost the sole carriers of the East Indian
for the purpose of rendering commerce merchandize brought to Alexandria,
a source of public revenue, have, how- which their vessels distributed to all
ever, only created similar returns from parts of Europe. The example of Venice
other states, and the commerce of Eu- led to the cultivation of commerce at
rope has become a complicated system Genoa, Florence, Pisa, and other cities
of high duties, drawbacks, prohibitions, of Italy, which for several centuries were
and bounties, attended with much unne- the only places in Europe that carried on
cessary expense, and holding out conti- any considerable foreign trade. The in-
nual temptations to fraud and evasion. security of property during the unsettled
The impolicy and injustice of many of state of Europe which succeeded the
the existing restraints has been shewn by destruction of the western empire, caus-
Dr. Adam Smith and others, and the pre- ed an almost general suspension of com-
valence of just sentiments of the reci- mercial intercourse, till the time of Char-
procal advantages of freedom of trade lemagne, whose extensive empire facili-
will render future commercial arrange- tated correspondence between different
ments more liberal and beneficial.
parts of Europe which had before little
Commercial intercourse was one of the connection, while the establishment of
earliest effects of the progress of civili- Christianity in Germany contributed to
zation, but it was not till the gradual im- the increase of cities and towns in the
provement of navigation had lessened north of Europe, and introduced an ac-
the dangers of long voyages, that distant quaintance with the productions of more
nations were enabled to exchange their southern climates.
surplus produce, and to enjoy the conve-
The encouragement given to manufac-
niencies and luxuries of foreign climes. tures in Flanders, and their consequent
The Egyptians, at a very early period, improvement, drew the merchants of other
opened a trade with the western coast countries to the fairs and markets esta-
of the continent of India; but the Pheni- blished at Bruges, Courtray, and many
cians and the Carthaginians carried com- other towns, which thus became of consi.
merce to a much greater extent, the derable importance, while a taste for the
trading voyages of the latter extending productions of the East was spreading
not only to all the coasts of Spain and through almost every part of Europe, ac-
Gaul, but even to Britain. The commerce quired in Palestine during the crusades,
of the Greeks was confined to the ports and contributing very materially to the en-
of the Mediterranean, till the foundation couragement of foreign trade. The pro-
of Alexandria, which soon acquired the ductions of India were however obtained
greater part of the trade with India, and at great risk and expense, till the improve
became for a time the first commercial ment of navagation by the invention of the
city in the world. The extent of the mariner's compass, and the subsequent
Roman empire, and the spirit of its gov- discovery of a passage to India by the
ernment, gave facility and security to Cape of Good Hope. This was soon fol-
commercial transactions, and rendered lowed by the still more important discove.
Rome the metropolis of the commercial ry of the West Indies, and the continent
world, till the fourth century, when the of America, events which filled Europe
seat of empire was removed to Constan- with astonishment, and opened a vast field
tinople, which was thus made the empo- for speculative and commercial enterprize.
rium of commerce. Here it continued Spain and Portugal attempted to monopo.
to flourish, even when the devastations lize the benefits of the discovery of Ameri.
of the Goths and Vandals had annihilated ca, but their injudicious policy has ren-
commercial intercourse in almost every dered them little more than the channels
other part of Europe, and a conside- through which the profits of this trade
rable trade with India was kept up, al- have been conveyed to more industrious
though after the conquest of Egypt by states.
the Arabians it could only be carried on The establishment of English colonies
by a very tedious and difficult channel of in North America, the improvement of ma.
conveyance.
nufactures in Flanders, Holland, France,
a
COMMERCE
and England, the encouragement of navi- not till the middle of this century that the
gation, the institution of public banks, and English began to extend their commer-
the more general practice of insurance, fa- cial voyages to the Baltic; nor till the
voured the extension of commerce, soppli- middle of the subsequent century that
ed it with new materials, and rendered it they sailed to the Mediterranean.
more secure. It has been protected in all The improvement of the woollen manu-
the states of Europe, by numerous laws facture greatly increased the value of the
and edicts, it has been encouraged by exports, as France had not then engaged
bounties and privileges, and commercial in this manufacture, and Holland bad not
treaties have been formed between differ- carried it to any considerable extent; so
ent nations, for removing impediments and that England enjoyed almost a monopoly
facilitating a mutually beneficial inter- of that manufacture, for the supply of the
course. The commerce of Europe has north and west parts of Europe, before
thus expanded in a degree of which form the year 1640; Spain and Portugal being
er times could have no idea, and while it then almost entirely supplied from this
has multiplied the luxuries and refine- country with light draperies, as well for
ments of society, it has contributed essen- their home consumption, as for that of
tially to the advancement of naval power, their extensive colonies, from whence, in
and been rendered by most states a fruit- return, we then received sugar, tobacco,
ful source of public revenue.
drugs, and other commodities with which
COMMERCE of Great Britain. The un- we are now supplied by our own colo-
manufactured commodities exported by nies In 1672 the Parliament repealed
England, for many centuries before the the duties payable by aliens on the ex-
woollen manufacture bad made any pro- portation of the native commodities and
gress, were sufficient to procure the few manufactures of England, putting them
foreign articles then in request, and also in this respect on a level with English
to bring a yearly balance of cash, by subjects. This salutary principle was
which some other branches of foreign further extended in 1700, by removing
trade were carried on to a small extent, the duties on every kind of woollen goods,
and a beginning was made to the ac- and on all kinds of corn, grain, and meal,
quirement of commercial capital. The exported. Many subsequent events, as
foreign trade of this country was, however, the establishment of the credit of the
in its infancy, almost wholly in the hands Bank, the union with Scotland, the consoli.
of foreigners, who settled in London, and dation of the two East India Companies,
a few other ports, for the purpose of car- and the rapid improvement of the North
rying on commerce with their respective American colonies, contributed materially
countries; many of these merchants were to the advancement of the commerce of
Jews, whose profits must have been very Great Britain ; and Mr. Erasmus Philips,
considerable, to induce them to submit in his “State of the Nation in respect to
to the impositions to which they were her Commerce, &c." makes the balance
frequently exposed. By degrees some of England's trade, one year with another,
of the inhabitants of London, and of the to have been in our favour, on an average
ports lying opposite to France and Flan- or medium, 2,881,3571.from 1702 to 1712."
ders, began to build ships of their own, This appears to have been somewhat be-
and to enter into competition with the alien yond the truth, but it is certain that fo-
merchants.
reign trade was then gradually increas-
In the reign of Edward III, the exports ing, and it was greatly promoted by an
of England consisted chiefly of wool, skins, act passed in 1722, for extending the
hides, leather, butter, tin, and lead, of principle which had been adopted with
which wool was by far the most conside: respect to woollen goods, by permitting
rable, the quantity amounting to about the exportation, duty free, of all mer
30,000 sacks of 26 stone each in a year. chandize, the produce of Great Britain,
From a record in the Exchequer it ap- (except a few particular articles) and the
pears, that in 1354 the exports of Eng. importation, duty free, of the materials
land amounted to 294,1841 17s. 2d. the for dyeing, essential to several manufac.
imports to 38,9701. 3s. 6d. money of that tures.
time. This is a great balance, consider- From this period, the encouragement
ing that it arose almost wholly from the given to the fisheries in different parts,
exportation of wool and other raw mate the increased cultivation of the West In-
rials, but it is not very probable that the dia islands, and the immense acquisitions
excess of the exports was usually so of territory in the East Indies, have com
great as in this particular year. It was bined with the increasing wealth and po-
COMMERCE.
pulation of Great Britain, to extend its evinces its present magnitude ; but its to
commercial transactions in all directions, tal amount, as well as that of its several
and greatiy to augment their former mag- branches, will be more particularly shewn
nitude The great increase of the national from the Custom-house accounts of the
expenditure has caused most articles of value of the commodities exported and
foreign produce to be burthened with a imported. These accounts being formed
variety of heavy duties, and subjected according to rates established in the year
commerce to numerous restrictions and 1696, which in most instances are greatly
impediments, yet under these disadvan. below the present value of the articles,
tages, it has of late years increased in an certainly give an adequate idea of the
unparalleled degree, and in the year end. magnitude of the commerce of Great
ing 5th January, 1807, produced a net re- Britain ; but this very circumstance ren-
venue to government from the duties of ders them in a comparative view the
customs amounting to 7774,0491. 4s. 9d. more indisputable evidence of its in.
This large contribution from foreign trade crease.
Total official Value of the Imports and Exports of Great Britain, in the Year 1805,
.
Denmark and Norway
Russia
Sweden.
Poland
Prussia
Germany
Holland
Flanders
France
Portugal and Madeira
Spain and Canaries
Streights and Gibraltar
Italy
Malta
Turkey
Ireland
Isle of Man
Guernsey, Jersey, &c.
Greenland
Imports.
L1,071,579
2,527,078.
269,161
429,450..
1,790,781
319,444
726,264
3,070
469,820.
936,500
9:6,165 .
42,919
393,517
9,304.
103,590
3,010,609
21,697
81,241
261,086
Esports.
L5,172,066
1,646,475
159,597
80,500
5,520,072
2,180,784
418,801
23,343
551
1,495,814
111,380
183,823
507,535
127,514
135,410
3,758,973
62,431
198,324
952
.
.
.
Total of Europe
America, and West Indies
Asia
New Holland
Africa.
Sierra Leone
13,383,275
9,615,161.
6,072,160.
153 ..
105,976 ..
867
... 21,784,345
12,163,917
1,638,600
30,643
980,789
10,660
.
Total
L29,177,592
L36,608,954
The commerce of Great Britain with of import. The returns from this coun-
the countries surrounding the Baltic has try are British manufactures of various
always been deemed of much importance, kinds, East India goods, and West India
as being the principal means of procuring produce.
the stores necessary for the maintenance The trade with Germany experienced a
of its navy. The capital employed in this great augmentation about the year 1794,
branch of trade must be much greater when it became the channel through
than formerly, from the increased price of which Holland, France, and other parts
hemp, iron, masts, and timber of all of the Continent, obtained the goods,
kinds, pitch, tar, and the other articles which, in times of peace, they had usually
COMMERCE.
a
imported direct from Great Britain. The supply of the islands of Sicily and Mala
port of Hamburgh for a time possessed ta.
the principal share of the trade of Europe, The exports to the coast of Africa
but the unusual flow of business in this must experience a considerable diminu-
direction encouraged a spirit of adven- tion, from the abolition of the slave trade,
ture and speculation, which in 1799 pro- till a more reputable species of traffic is
duced great embarrassment, involving cultivated with the inhabitants of that
not only the merchants of Hamburgh, extensive continent, who will be induc-
but also some of the most considerable ed to furnish a greater quantity of their
houses in Bremen, Frankfort, Amsterdam, native commodities, in order to procure
and London. The trade with Germany, the cheap manufactures and luxuries to
however, continued of great importance, which they have been accustomed.
till the influence of France obliged them The East India trade has always been
to break off their intercourse with this deemed very lucrative, but from the risks
country.
of such a distant voyage, the necessity of
The trade with Holland and Flanders, a large capital, and other circumstances,
one of the most ancient branches of the most of the states of Europe have deem
commerce of this country, has not in- ed it expedient to vest this trade in the
creased in proportion with the trade to hands of an exclusive company. From
other parts: it is, however, still conside- about the year 1750 the mercantile con-
rable in time of peace. The total value cerns of the English East India Company
of the exports to Holland in 1792 was have become blended with the revenues
1,516,4491., in 1802 they amounted to derived from the territorial possessions
4,957,9971.
which they have acquired in India, and
France, enjoying great natural advan- which have been augmented to an im-
tages, and having for a long time many these revenues, as well as the fortunes
mense extent, as the nett amount of
colonial possessions, bad not occasion to
receive much merchandize from this acquired by their officers and servants,
country. The frequent hostilities be. be remitted to Great Britain. The im-
The frequent hostilities be. are invested in merchandise, in order to
tween the two countries has likewise pre- ports of the Company have therefore in-
vented the formation of permanent com- creased very considerably, and in the
mercial connections, but some intercourse
of this kind always subsisted even in time year 1797, Mr. Irving, the inspector ge-
neral of imports and exports, gave his
of war, particularly with the ports of car opinion, that, including the private trade
Ca-
lais, Bourdeaux, Havre, and Rouen, till of individuals, carried on through the
the reign of Buonaparte, who resorted to medium of the Company, and the pro-
a new mode of warfare, by prohibiting all ceeds of the territorial revenues, Great
intercourse whatever with Great Britain, Britain derived an actual profit from the
even through the intervention of neutral East India trade of about 2,300,0001. per
vessels.
The commerce with Spain and Portu- from the East Indies are, from China,
annum. The principal articles imported
gal has not of late years been of great ex- teas, nankeen cloths, and raw silk; from
tent; the export to the latter country, Bengal, piece goods of various kinds, raw
however, consisting almost wholly of Bri- silk, pepper, saltpetre, spices, drugs, su.
tish produce and manufactures, has ge. gar, coffee, &c. The total value of all
nerally been considered a valuable branch the goods sold at the Company's sales, in
of foreign trade, and measures have been the year ending 1st March, 1806, was
frequently adopted for its preservation. 8,781,4421. .
In 1801, when Portugal was threatened The West India trade, in the year
with invasion, the wines of that country 1787, employed about 130,000 tons of
were allowed to be imported and ware shipping; and in the year 1804, above
housed, on bond being given for pay- 180,000 tons, navigated by 14,000 sea-
ment of the duty when taken out for
consumption. The removal of the go- lue of the imports had increased nine
In 14 years, ending 1804, the va-
vernment to the Brazils, and subjuga- millions sterling, and the revenue deriv-
tion of the country by the French, must ed from them had increased about three
cause a great revolution in this branch of and a half millions, including the con-
trade.
.
quered colonies; but exclusive of these,
The Mediterranean trade suffered the imports from the West Indies were
great interruption from the war which about a fourth of the whole imports of
began in 1793; and in the war of 1803, Great Britain. This branch of trade is
it was reduced to little more than the however subject to great fluctuations, of
men.
COM
COM
a
which a remarkable instance has occur-blishment of the independence of the
red since the year 1792. The destruc- American States, however, experience
tion of St. Domingo, the most productive has proved that we derive a much great.
sugar colony in the world, gave a new as- er benefit from that country than hereto-
pect to British West Indian affairs. A fore, as we now take from them no more
yearly quantity of above 110,000 hogs- than it is our interest to take, while from
heads being thus suddenly taken out of having but little capital, and much em-
the market, the prices rose to an unusual ployment at home, it must be many years
height. The confusion which took place before they can attempt to rival us in any
in Guadaloupe soon after, and the ope- considerable branch of foreign trade. The
rations of the War in the West Indies, exports to America consist almost wholly
diminished the supply, and raised the of British manufactures, the officialvalue
price of produce still further. This of of which in the year 1800 was 6,885,5077.:
course became a great inducement to in- the imports are, tobacco, rice, corn, and
crease the cultivation of the British is- other unmanufactured produce. A very
lands, and of those recently conquered, considerable trade is also carried on be-
while about the same time, the introduc- tween the United States and the British
tion of the Bourbon cane enabled even West India islands, which is considered
the bad lands of the old islands to pro- as almost essential to the support of the
duce plentiful crops of sugar. From latter. The trade with the remaining
these causes the quantity of sugar has British possessions in North America, is
been constantly and rapidly increasing not of great extent; the principal branch-
since 1792; the blank occasioned in that es of it are the fur trade of Canada, Hud-
year has been filled up, and a great sur- son's Bay, and the Newfoundland fish-
plus has been added to the ordinary pro- ery.
duce of former periods. The produce of The total amount of the exports and
the Spanish islands during the same pe- imports sufficiently proves, that the mer-
riod has increased rapidly. These cir- cantile shipping of Great Britain must be
cumstances caused a sudden decline in greatly increased beyond what was em-
the price of sugar, which became unu- ployed in former periods. The total num-
sually low in 1807, and, combined with ber of vessels that entered inwards and
the interruption of the export trade to cleared out, with their tonnage, and the
the continent of Europe, reduced the number of men and boys usually employ-
West India merchants and planters to ed in navigating the same, as shewn in
great difficulties.
the following statement for three years
The American war was regarded by ending the 5th January, 1807, will fur-
many persons as involving, in a great nish a correct idea of the extent of ship-
measure, the ruin of the foreign com- ping employed in the commerce of Great
merce of Great Britain. Since the esta. Britain.
INWARDS.
OUTWARDS.
1804.....
1805.....
1806.....
Ships.
14.779
15,931
15,911
Tons.
Men.
2,002,686 | 113,723
2,186,173 121,899
2,095,568 | 120,342
Ships. Tons. Men.
15,224 2,051,135 | 124,255
15,540 2,101,030 | 125,332
15,710 I 2,054,472 | 124,189
By the act imposing a duty on all sea leafed, bearing the corolla ; petals five;
assurances, as well as by the act for es- nectary five-parted; capsule five-celled,
tablishing the convoy duty, the extent echinate. One species, a native of Ota-
and value of the foreign trade of this heite and the other Society Isles.
country has been more clearly ascertain- COMMISSARY, in the ecclesiastical
ed than heretofore, and it appears that the law, an officer of the Bishop, who exer-
capital employed in commerce cannot be cises spiritual jurisdiction in places of a
less than 80,000,0001. The annual profit diocese so far from the episcopal see, that
derived from it has been variously esti- the chancellor cannot call the people to
mated, but according to the best authori- the bishop's principal consistory court,
ty, it appeared in the year 1797 to be without giving them too much inconveni-
about 10,500,0001. per annum.
ency.
COMMERSONIA, in botany, so called COMMISSARY general of the musters, an
in memory of M. Commerson, the French officer appointed to muster the army, as
traveller, a genus of the Pentandria Pen- often as the general thinks proper, in or-
tagynia. Essential character:
calyx one- der to know the strength of each regi-
VOL. II.
Mm
COM
COM
ment and company, to receive and in- other for felony, to cause him to be
spect the muster-rolls, and to keep an ex-- brought as soon as possible before some
act state of the strength of the army. justice of peace, that he may be commit-
COMMISSARY general of stores, an officer ted or bailed by him. The privy-council,
in the artillery, who has the charge of all or any two of them, or a Secretary of
the stores, for which he is accountable to State, may lawfully commit persons for
the office of ordnance.
treason, and for other offences against the
COMMISSARY general of provisions, an state. All felons shall be committed to
officer who has the inspection of the the common gaol, and not elsewhere. 5
bread and provisions of the army. Hen. IV. c. 10. But vagrants and other
COMMISSION, in common law, the criminals, offenders, and persons charg-
warrant or letters-patent which all per- ed with small offences, may, for such
sons exercising jurisdiction have, to em- offences, or for want of sureties, be com-
power them to hear or determine anymitted either to the common gaol or
cause or suit : as the commission of the house of correction, as the justices in
judges, &c. Most of the great officers their judgment shall think proper. 6 G.
judicial and ministerial of the realm, are c. 19. All persons who are apprehend-
made also by commission; by means of ed for offences not bailable, and those
commission, oaths, cognizance of fines, who neglect to offer bail for offences
answers in chancery, &c. are taken; wit- which are bailable, must be committed ;
nesses examined, offices found, &c.
and wheresoever a justice of peace is em-
COMMISSION of bankruptcy, is the com- powered to bind a person over, or to
mission that issues from the Lord Chan-cause him to do a certain thing, he may
cellor, on a person's becoming a bank, commit him, if in his presence he shall
rupt within any of the statutes, directed refuse to be so bound, or do such a
to certain commissioners appointed to thing. A commitment must be in writ-
examine into it, and to secure the bank- ing, either in the name of the king, and
rupt's lands and effects, for the satisfac- only tested by the person who makes it;
tion of his creditors.
or it may be made by such person in his
COMMISSIONERS, Lords, of the Admiral- own name, expressing his office or au-
ty, are five or seven persons appointed by thority, and must be directed to the gaol-
the crown for executing the office of er or keeper of the prison. The com-
Lord High Admiral, to whose jurisdiction mitment should contain the name and
all maritime affairs are entrusted. See surname of the party committed, if known;
ADMIRALTY COURT.
if not known, it may be sufficient to de.
COMMISSIONERS of the Navy, officers scribe the person by bis age, &c. and to
appointed to superintend the affairs of add, that he refuses to tell his name.
the marine, under the direction of the ought to contain the cause, as for treason
Lords of the Admiralty. Their duty is or felony, or suspicion thereof; and also
more immediately concerned in the build the special nature of the felony, briefly,
ing and repairing ships: they have also as for felony, for the death of such an one,
the appointment of certain officers.
or for burglary, in breaking the house
COMMITMENT, in law, the sending of such an one. All commitments ground-
of a person charged with some crime ed on acts of parliament ought to be con-
to prison, by warrant or order. A com- formable to the method prescribed by
mitment may be made by the King and them. And where a statute appoints im-
council, by the judges of the law, the prisonment, but does not limit the time,
justices of peace, or other magistrate, in such case the prisoner must remain at
who have authority by the laws and the discretion of the court. If the gaol-
statutes of the realm so to do. Everyer shall refuse to receive a felon,
commitment should be made by warrant or take any thing for receiving him, he
under the hand and seal of the party shall be punished for the same by the
committing, and the cause of commit- justices of gaol delivery. But no per-
ment is to be expressed in the warrant son can justify the detaining a prisoner in
The terms of it must also require the custody, out of the common gaol, unless
criminal to be kept in custody till dis- there be some particular reason for so
charged according to due course of doing; as if the party should be so
law, &c. Wheresoever a constable or dangerously ill, that it would apparently
person may justify the arresting another hazard his life to send him to gaol, or
for a felony, or treason, he may justify that there be evident danger of a rescue
the sending him or bringing him to the from rebels, or the like. The sheriff or
common gaol. But it is most advisable, gaoler shall certify the commitment to
for any private person who arrests an- the next gaol delivery.
COM
COM
a
COMMITMENT discharged. A person likewise be said to be the common birth-
legally committed for a crime, certainly right that the subject has for the safeguard
appearing to have been done by some per- and defence not only of his goods, lands,
son or other, cannot be lawfully discharg- and revenues, but of his wife, children,
ed but by the king, till he be acquitted life, fame, &c. Our common law, it is
upon his trial, or have an ignoramus said, after the heptarchy, was collected
found by the grand jury, or none shall together into a body by divers of our an.
prosecute him, on a proclamation for that cient kings, who commanded that it
purpose by the justices of gaol delivery. should be observed through the king-
COMMITTEE of Parliament, a certain dom; and it was therefore called common
number of members appointed by the law, because it was common to the whole
House for the examination of a bill, mak- nation, and before only affected certain
ing report of an inquiry, process of the parts thereof, being anciently called the
house, &c. When a Parliament is called, sole-right, that is the right of the peo-
and the speaker and members have taken ple.
the oaths, there are committees appointed The common law of England is, pro-
to sit on certain days, viz. the commit- perly, the common customs of this king-
tee of privileges and elections, of re- dom; which, by length of time, have ob-
ligion, of trade, &c. which are standing tained the force of laws. The goodness
committees. Sometimes the whole House of a custom depends upon its having been
resolves itself into a committee, on which used time out of mind, or, in the solem-
occasion each person has a right to speak nity of our legal phrase, time whereof
and reply as often as he pleases, which is the memory of man runneth not to the
not the case when a house is not in a contrary. This gives it its weight and au.
committee.
thority, and of this nature are the maxims.
COMMODORE, in maritime affairs, an and customs which compose the common
officer of the British navy, commissioned law, or lex non scripta, of this kingdom.
by the Lords of the Admiralty, or by an ad- This unwritten, or common law, is
miral, to command a squadron of men of properly distinguished into three kinds :
war in chief ; during which time he bears 1. General customs, which are the uni.
the rank of brigadier-general in the army, versal rule of the whole kingdom, and
and is distinguished from the inferior form the common law in its stricter and
ships of his squadron by a broad red more useful signification. 2. Particular
flag, or pendant, tapering towards the customs, which for the most part affect
outer end, and sometimes forked. The only the inhabitants of particular dis.
title Commodore is given by courtesy to tricts. 3. Certain particular laws, which
the senior captain, where three or more by custom are adopted and used by some
ships of war are cruizing in com- particular courts of pretty general and
pany. The word also is used to denote extensive jurisdiction.
the convoy ship in a fleet of merchant- COMMON place book, among the learn-
men; who carries a light in his top to ed, denotes a register of what things oc-
conduct the rest, and keep them to- cur worthy to be noted in the course of a
gether.
man's study, so disposed as, that among
COMMON, is a right of privilege which a number of subjects, any one may be
one or more persons claim to take or easily found. Several persons have their
use, in some part or portion of that, which several methods of ordering them; but
another man's lands, waters, woods, &c. that wbich is best recommended is Mr.
naturally produce; without having an ab- Locke's method, which he has published
solute property in such lands, woods, in a letter to Mr. Toisnard, determined
waters, &c.
thereto by the great conveniency and ad-
COMMON law, that body of rules re- vantage he had found from it in twenty
ceived as law in England, before any sta- years experience. The substance of this
tute was enacted in parliament to alter method is as follows:
the same.
The first page of the book, or, for more
The common law is grounded upon the room, the two first pages fronting each
general customs of the realm, including other, are to serve for a kind of index to
the law of nature, the law of God, and the whole, and contain references to every
the principles and maxims of law, it is place or matter therein; in the commodi-
also founded on reason, as said to be the ous contrivance of this, so as it may ad-
perfection of reason acquired by long mit of a sufficient variety of materials,
study, observation, and experience, and without confusion, all the secret of the
refined by the learned in all ages. It may method consists. The manner of it, as
COM
COM
e
0
2
а
0
l
a
e
0
u
a
e
0
u
laid down by Mr Locke, will be conceiv. servient lines that the head may stand out
ed from the following specimen, wherein and shew itself; this done, I enter the
what is to be done in the book for all the page where it is wrote, viz. 2, in the space
letters of the alphabet is here shewn in Be: from which time the class Be be-
the first four.
comes wholly in possession of the second
and third pages, which are consigned to
letters of this characteristic.
Note. If the head be a monosyllable
beginning with a vowel, the vowel is at
A
i
the same time both the initial letter and
the characteristic vowel ; thus the word
Art is to be wrote in A a. Mr. Locke
omits three letters of the alphabet in his
index, viz. K, Y, and W, which are sup-
e 2.3.
plied by C, I, and U, equivalent to them:
B
i
and as for Q, since it is always followed
by an u, he puts it in the first place of Z:
and so has no Z u, which is a character-
a
istic that very rarely occurs. By thus
making the last of the index its
regu-
larity is preserved, without diminishing
С
¿
its extent. Others choose to retain the
class Zu, and assign a place for Q u be-
low the index.
If any imagine these hundred classes
are not sufficient to comprehend all
kinds of subjects without confusion, he
D
may follow the same method, and yet
2
augment the number to 500, by taking in
one more characteristic to them.
But the inventor assures us that in all
his collections, for a long series of years,
The index of the common place book he never found any deficiency in the in-
being thus formed, it is ready for the tak- dex as above laid down.
ing down any thing therein.
COMMON Pleas is one of the King's
In order to this, consider to what head courts now held constantly in Westmin-
the thing you would enter is most na- ster Hall, but in former times was movea-
turally referred, and under which one ble. All civil causes, as well real as per-
would be led to look for such a thing; sonal, are, or were formerly, tried in this
in this head or word regard is to be had court, according to the strict law of the
to the initial letter, and the first vowel land. In personal and mixed actions it
that follows it; which are the characteris- has a concurrent jurisdiction with the
tic letters whereon all the use of the in- King's Bench, but has no cognizance of
dex depends.
pleas of the crown. The actions belong-
Suppose, e. g. I would enter down a ing to the Court of Common Pleas come
passage that refers to the head beauty; thither by original, as arrests and out-
B, I consider, is the initial letter, and e lawries ; or by privilege or attachment
the first vowel; then looking upon the for or against privileged persons; or out
index for the partition B, and therein of inferior courts, not of record, by pone,
the line e (which is the place for all recordari, accedas ad curiam, writ of
words whose initial is B, and the first false judgment, &c. The chief judge of
vowel e; as beauty, beneficence, bread, this Court is called Lord Chief Justice of
bleeding, blemishes, &c.) and finding no the Common Pleas, who is assisted by
numbers already wrote to direct me to three other judges: the other officers
any page of the book where words of of the court are the custos brevium, who
that characteristic have been entered, I is the chief clerk; three prothonotaries
turn forward to the first blank page I and their secondaries; the clerk of the
find, which in a fresh book, as this is sup- warrants, clerk of the essoins, fourteen
posed to be, will be page 2, and here filazers, four exigentors, a clerk of the
write what I have occasion for on the juries, the chirographer, the clerk of the
head beauty; beginning the head in the King's silver, clerk of the treasury, clerk
margin, and indenting all the other sub- of the seal, clerk of the outlawries, clerk
COM
COM
c. ii.
of the inrolment of fines and recoveries, ty-one years of age : no judge, sheriff, or
and clerk of the errors.
ecclesiastical person, to sit in the House
Common prayer is the liturgy in the for county, city, or borough.
Church of England. Clergymen are The House of Commons, in Fortes-
to use the public form of prayers pre- cue's time, who wrote during the reign
scribed by the Book of Common Prayer; of Henry VI. consisted of upwards of 300
and refusing to do so, or using any other members : in Sir Edward Coke's time
public prayers, are punishable by 1 Eliz. their number amounted to 493. At the
time of the union with Scotland, in 1707,
Common, in grammar, denotes the gen- there were 513 members for England
der of nouns, which are equally applica- and Wales, to which 45 representatives
ble to both sexes: thus parens, a parent, for Scotland were added; so that the
is of the common gender.
whole number of members amounted to
COMMon, in geometry, is applied to an 558. In consequence of the union with
angle, line, or the like, which belongs Ireland in 1801, 100 members were
equally to two figures.
added for that country; and the whole
COMMON divisor, a quantity or number House of Commons now consists of 658
which exactly divides two or more other members.
quantities or numbers, without leaving COMMONS, Doctors. See COLLEGE of
any remainder.
Civilians.
COMMON measure, is such a number as COMMUNIBUS locis, a Latin term
exactly measures two or more numbers frequently used by philosophical writers,
without a remainder.
implying some medium or common rela-
COMMON, greatest, measure, of two or tion between several places. Thus Dr.
more numbers, is the greatest number Keil supposes the ocean to be one quar-
that can measure them;
as 4 is the great- ter of a mile deep communibus locis, that is
est common measure of 8 and 12. at a medium, or taking one place with
another.
COMMONS, in a general sense, con- COMMUNIBUS annis has the same mean-
of
kingdom, as have not seats in the House ing with regard to time, that communibus
locis has with regard to places.
of Lords; every one of whom has a voice
COMMUNICATION of motion, the act
in parliament, either personally, or by whereby a body at rest is put into motion
his representatives. In a free state, says by a moving body; or, it is the accelera-
judge Blackstone, every man who is sap- tion of motion in a body already moving
posed a free agent, ought to be in some
See MECHANICS.
measure his own governor; and, therefore, COMMUTATION, in law, the change
a branch, at least, of the legislative power of a penalty or punishment from a greater
should reside in the whole body of the to a less; as when death is commuted for
people. In so large a state as ours, it is banishment, &c.
therefore wisely contrived, that the peo- COMOCLADIA, in botany, a genus
ple should do that by their representa- of the Triandria Monogynia class and
tives, which it is impracticable to per order. Natural order of Terebintaceæ,
form in person ; representatives chosen
by a number of minute and separate dis. three-parted ;
Jussieu. Essential character: calyx
corolla three-parted ;
tricts, wherein all the voters are, or easi- drupe oblong, with a two-lobed nucleus.
ly may be, distinguished.
There are three species, natives of the
COMMONS, in parliament, are the lower West-Indies.
house, consisting of knights elected by COMPANY, in commerce, an associa-
the counties, and of citizens and bur- tion formed for carrying on some branch
gesses by the cities and borough towns. of trade which requires a greater capital
In these elections, anciently, all the peo- than private traders can usually command,
ple had votes; but in the 8th and 10th of or which is liable to engagements to
King Henry VI. for avoiding tumults, which individual responsibility is deem-
laws were enacted, that none should yote ed inadequate. In the infancy of com-
for knights but such as were freeholders, merce, almost every branch of foreign
did reside in the county, and had forty trade was carried on by a particular com-
shillings yearly revenue ; equivalent to pany, which generally possessed exclu-
near 201. a year of our present money : sive privileges; and such institutions
the persons elected for counties to be were then necessary and beneficial ; but
milites notabiles, at least esquires, or gen- in modern times, when individuals have
tlemen fit for knight-hood; native Eng- accumulated larger capitals, and the im-
lishmen, at least naturalized; and twen- provement of navigation facilitated com-
a
a
COM
COM
mercial intercourse with all parts of the wards of two hundred projected compa-
world, and the general practice of insu- nies ended in the loss and dissappoint-
rance reduced the risk of foreign voyages ment of their respective subscribers. The
to a regular addition to the cost of com- recollection of this circumstance prevent-
modities, there are very few branches of ed for many years any similar attempts,
foreign trade which cannot be more ad- till the frequency of subscriptions for
vantageously carried on by individuals, making canals, shewed the facility of
or private co-partnerships, than by pub- raising large sums in this manner for any
lic companies.
public undertakings, and led to the for-
When companies do not trade upon a mation of joint-stock companies to other
common stock, but are obliged to admit purposes. In the course of the year 1807,
any person properly qualified upon pay- proposals were circulated for establish-
ing a certain fine, and agreeing to submit ing six new insurance companies; seven
to the regulations of the company, each subscription breweries; four public dis-
member trading upon his own stock, and tilleries ; five genuine wine companies ;
at his own risk, they are called regulated two vinegar manufactories; a corn, flour,
companies. When they trade upon a and provision company; a united public
joint stock, each member sharing in the dairy; a new medical laboratory for the
common profit or loss in proportion to sale of genuine medicines, three coal
his share in this stock, they are called companies ; a cloathing company; a lin-
joint stock companies. The regulated en company; a united woollen companys
companies for foreign trade, which at a paper company; two or three copper
present subsist in Great Britain, are companies; a national light and heat com-
the African Company, the Turkey, pany; two new banks; two commission
or Levant Company, the Russia Com- sale companies; and a company for pur-
pany, and the Eastland Company ; chasing canal shares, and lending money
they have, however, little more than a for completing canals. On the Attorney
nominal existence, as any person may General proceeding against one or two of
freely trade to these parts without being these intended companies, most of the
a member of any company, on paying a others were abandoned.
very small additional duty. The princi- COMPANY, East India, was established
pal joint stock companies for foreign by a charter from Queen Elizabeth, dated
trade, are the East India Company, and 31st December, 1600, which, though not
the Hudson's Bay Company; the South confirmed by act of parliament, was then
Sea Company has long given up its com- considered as conferring an absolute ex-
mercial undertakings, and the Sierra clusive privilege. Under this authority,
Leone Company has not yet acquired the members of the Company traded for
much importance. There is, however, about twelve years, on their separate ca-
a multitude of joint-stock companies es- pitals, which, in 1613, they united into a
tablished, some with exclusive privi- joint-stock. In the reign of James I. the
leges, but in general without any such Company obtained a new charter, and en-
advantage, for carrying on the banking larged their capital to 1,500,0001. ; their
business, for the different kinds of insu- profits at this time were not very great;
rance, for granting and purchasing an- and in the year 1655, Cromwell dissolved
nuities, for making docks, navigable the Company and laid open the trade, but
canals, tunnels, roads, or rail-ways, and the mischief which followed obliged him
for working mines.
to re-establish it about three years after.
The utility of joint-stock companies for New charters were granted to the Com-
many of these purposes, and the success pany in 1661, 1669, and 1676, confirming
which some of them have experienced, all their former privileges; but as these
has frequently produced a disposition for privileges were derived merely from
the multiplication of such establishments, royal charters, without the sanction of
and an opinion that they might be extend- parliament, their exclusive right began
ed to almost every branch of trade and to be questioned, and individuals fre-
manufactures. The rage for forming pub- quently endeavoured to participate in a
.
lic companies was, in 1720, carried to a commerce which had become very ad-
degree of infatuation, which led thou- vantageous. These private adventurers
sands to subscribe to projects the most increasing in number, the Company in
useless or impracticable, and gave rise to 1683, found means to obtain another
such a spirit of speculation and stock-job- charter, by which all former charters
bing, as rendered necessary the interfe- were confirmed, and they were empow-
rence of parliament. In consequence of ered to seize the ships and merchandize
the act then passed, 6 Geo. I. c. 18, up- of individual traders, to maintain military
COMPANY
forces, and to establish a court of judica- extensive political authority which the
ture. They were soon after involved in Company now possess, and which com-
war with the Mogul, and other embarrass- prehends dominions of greater extent
ments, which were attempted to be rec- than three times the area of the united
tified by the oft tried expedient of a new kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland.
charter, and being thus armed with new On an average of 16 years preceding
powers, they endeavoured to exclude ef- 1757, at which time the Company deriv-
fectually all individuals from inte rfering ed little assistance from territorial reve-
in the trade. In 1693, the charter of the nues, the annual sales of their imports
Company became void, from default in amounted to about 2,055,0001. ; and for
payment of the tax imposed on their the same period their exported goods
stock, but it was renewed upon condition and stores amounted annually at their
of being determinable upon three years prime cost, to 238,0001.; the bullion ex-
notice.
ported to 690,0001. ; and they paid in dis-
The Company having sustained great charge of bills of exchange 190,0001.
losses during the war with France, and During the succeeding ten years the
fallen into disrepute, a proposal was made sales of imports became increased to
in 1698, by Mr. Samuel Shepherd, and a 2,150,0001. annually on the average, the
number of other merchants, to advance quantity of bullion exported was reduced
for the public service 2,000,0001. at 8 per to about 120,0001. per annum, but the
cent, interest, provided the sole exclu- exports in goods and stores, and the mo-
sive trade to India was settled on them; ney raised by bills of exchange were in-
the proposal was accepted, and a new creased in a greater ratio compared with
company established by authority of par- the returns from abroad. From 1767 to
liament, and incorporated by charter un- 1777 the export of goods was 490,0001. ;
der the title of the English Company in bullion about 110,0001. ; the sums rais-
trading to the East Indies. The conten- ed by bills 458,0001. per annum, and by
tions and emulation between the old and the aid afforded from the revenues, the
new Companies was so great, that it be- investments were increased so as to pro-
came necessary, even for the sake of pub- duce about 3,300,0001. per annum; the af-
lic tranquillity, to unite them: this was fairs of the Company during this period
partly effected in 1702, and in 1708 the were however far from being in a flou-
two Companies were, by act of parlia- rishing situation; they were under the ne-
ment, perfectly consolidated, under their cessity of reducing their dividend, and
present title of the United Company of of applying to parliament for assistance ;
Merchants of England trading to the but these difficulties being removed, the
East Indies. On the extension of the dividend, in 1778, was raised again to 8
term of their exclusive trade to three per cent.
years notice after Lady Day 1726, they In the seven years ending with 1784,
lent to government the further sum of the average sales of the imports of the
1,200,0001
. without receiving any addi- Company, notwithstanding the expensive
tional interest, and as it was necessary to war in which they were engaged, fell off
raise this sum by the sale of new stock, in the proportion only of about 200,0001.
the capital of the company thus became annually; the export in bullion was for
3,200,0001.
that period very trifling, but the goods
In 1712 the term of the company's ex- and stores exported were increased to
clusive trade
was extended to three years about half a million. The termination of
notice after Lady Day 1733; which by a the war left the Company's affairs both at
subsequent agreement was prolonged to home and abroad in great derangement,
1766; and again, to three years notice and the discussions which followed pro-
after Lady Day 1780, with a provision, duced a general conviction that some new
that if their exclusive privileges should arrangement was necessary for the future
be then determined, by the re-payment government of their extensive territorial
of all sums which they hadlent to govern- acquisitions. The principal measure
ment, with all arrears of interest, the adopted was the establishment of a board
Company should still remain a corpora- of control, composed of a certain number
a
tion for ever, and enjoy the East India of commissioners appointed by the king,
trade in common with all other subjects. and removeable at his pleasure. This
The interference of the Company, board was authorised to check, superin-
about the year 1750, in the contentions tend, and control, the civil and military
between some of the native princes, led government and revenues of the Compa-
,
to the acquirement of considerable ter- ny, and to inspect the dispatches trans-
ritories, and laid the foundation of the mitted by the Directors to the different
a
COMPANY.
presidencies. The appointment of the considerable relief to government, by con-
Governor-general, President, or Counsel- solidating a variety of debts and arrears
lor in the diferent presidencies was made of interest, and making a general provision
subject to the approbation and recal of for them, which the expectation of gain
his Majesty; and a tribunal was created from the commercial undertakings of the
for the trial of Indian delinquents. Some Company induced the proprietors readily
further regulations were adopted in 1786, to accept. These debts and deficiencies
the chief of which were, bestowing on formed the first capital of the Company,
the Governor-general of India, the high which amounted to 9,177,9671. 158. 4d. in-
prerogative of deciding in opposition to cluding half a million raised towards the
the sense of the majority of the council ; current services of the year. In 1715 their
and uniting the offices of Commander in capital was increased to 10,000,0001. and
Chief and Governor General in the same in 1719 to 11,746,8441. 8s. 100.; but as all
person. The Company were empower- the sums thus subscribed into South Sea
ed to increase their capital, by creating Stock consisted of public debts, which
800,0001. new stock, for which they ob- were thus transferred from the individual
tained 1,240,0001. at the rate of 155 per proprietors of them to the Company, it
cent.; and in 1789 they were authorised became necessary for the Company to
to add a million to their capital, which borrow money on bonds, to enable them
was effected at the rate of 174 per cent. to undertake their ostensible object of
and preference was given to such per- trade to South America.
sons as were stockholders at the time of
In 1720, the Company engaged in one of
subscription. Their annual dividend at the most memorable projects ever attempt.
this time was 8 per cent. and continued ed in Great Britain. It was founded upon
at this rate till 1793, when, in pursuance
an agreement with government, autho-
of an agreement with government for the rizing the Company to take in, either by
renewal of their charter, another million subscription or purchase, all the public
was added to their capital, which thus be- debts, at such prices as they could agree
came 6,000,0001. and the dividend was
upon with the respective proprietors; and
raised to 103 per cent.
they were empowered to raise the money
By the agreement in 1793, the term of which would be necessary for making
their exclusive trade was
continued, under these purchases, either by calls upon their
various regulations, for 20 years from the members, by annuities, bonds, or bills, or
1st of March, 1794, with the former pro- by opening subscriptions for new stock. It
viso, that if, after the expiration of that is difficult to conceive how the Company
term, their right to the sole trade shall could expect to derive such permanent
cease, in consequence of three years pre- advantages from this transaction as would
vious notice being given by parliament, and support any considerable increase of their
the repayment of such sums as may be dividend; yet the expectation of great
then due from the public, they shall con- profits was so general, as to exite the most
tinue a corporation notwithstanding, with extensive, though the most extravagant,
power to carry on a free trade in common infatuation that was ever known in money
with other persons.
transactions in this country. South Sea
The Company is under the management Stock was soon sold at double the sum
of twenty-four directors, elected by the that had been paid in upon it, and in the
proprietors of the Company's stock, who course of a short time reached the enor-
hold 10001, or upwards. Such proprietors mous price of 1000 per cent. The rapidi-
are likewise entitled to vote on all occa-
ty of its fall, however, exceeded that by
sions, in the quarterly and special general which it rose ; for, before the end of the
courts of the Company.
year, the difference of price was more than
COMPANY, South Sea. The scheme for 800 per cent. in the course of only three
satisfying the national deficiencies by the weeks, by which thousands of persons suf-
establishment of this Company was ar-
fered very severe losses, and many were
ranged and brought forward in 1711 by entirely ruined.
Mr. Harley, then Chancellor of the Ex. The only branches of trade in which
chequer, and the opinion of its efficacy the Company ever engaged were, in sup-
for retrieving the languishing state of plying the Spanish colonies in America
public credit was so great, that upon his with negroes, and the Greenland whale-
being created Earl of Oxford, this service fishery. In both these undertakings the
was particularly mentioned in the patent Company were considerable losers ; in
as one of the chief reasons for advancing consequence of which, in 1748, they gave
him to that honour. It certainly afforded up the contract with Spain, and from that
COM
COM
period have not carried on any branch of and subjected them to depredations. In
commerce whatever ; their whole business 1794 the colony was attacked and taken
being confined to transferring and paying by the French, who destroyed every des-
the dividends on the public funds, known cription of property belonging to the
by the title of South Sea Stock, Old and Company, by which they sustained a loss
New South Sea Annuities, and South Sea of about 52,0001. In 1798, however, the
Annuities of 1751.
colony had so far recovered as to contain
The Company is under the management about 1200 inhabitants : the heads of fami-
of three governors and twenty-one direc- lies were about 300; of whom about one
tors. The whole expense of managing the half were supported by their farms, many
concern in the year ending the 5th of Ja- were mechanics, about 15 were retail
nuary, 1807, was 10,7271., of which 36921. shopkeepers, 20 or 25 followed the busi-
was paid to the sub and deputy governors ness of fishing, 10 or 15 traded in small
and directors, and 4,7351. to 36 officers vessels of their own, 4 were employed as
and clerks employed by them. The sum schoolmasters, 12 or 15 as seamen, and
annually paid by the public to the South about 20 as labourers under the Company:
Sea Company is 14,7131, 10s.6d, and about from 3 to 400 native labourers worked in
701. for fees and allowances to the cashier. the settlement for hire, chiefly on the
Company, Hudson's Bay, was establish- farms, which were increasing rapidly.
Further difficulties and losses have been
eb in 1670, by charter, granted by Charles
II. to his cousin Prince Rupert, and seven- experienced, from an insurrection of the
teen other persons of distinction, who were
Nova Scotians in 1800, and an attack of
incorporated for carrying on an exclusive some of the neighbouring tribes in 1801,
trade to all parts of Hudson's Bay, and in- effectual means of defence, and a great
but the colony is now possessed of more
,
The establishment excited the jealousy of impediment to its progress has been
the French, who in 1686 seized on all their done away by the abolition of the slave
trade.
forts or factories, except that at Port Nel-
son; they were, however, retaken in 1693; COMPANY, Dutch East India. This once
but they have been annoyed by the same celebrated establishment was formed by
power at several subsequent periods: and the union of a number of separate compa-
in 1782 a French squadron, under La Pé- nies in 1602: it carried on for many years
rouse, destroyed the settlements, forts, a very flourishing trade, which has since
merchandise, &c. of the company, to the declined very rapidly, particularly from
supposed value of about 500,0001, sterling, about the year 1770, and in 1799 it was
but without retaining possession of the entirely suspended. The Dutch have like-
place.
wise had West India Companies, a Levant
The Company's charter not being con- Company, Companies for the Baltic sea,
firmed by parliament, they have no right the whale fishery, &c.
in law to an exclusive trade; but the nature COMPANY, French East India, was esta-
of the trade is such, that private adventu- blished in 1664, but never became of much
rers cannot engage in it in competition importance. In 1769 the trade was laid
with them. The Company is under the open. A new Company was established
direction of a governor, deputy governor, in 1785, but was abolished in 1790. The
and a committee of seven members: their other commercial Companies of France
capital stock is said not to exceed 110,0001. were principally a West India Company,
which is in the hands of a very small num- a St. Domingo Company, the Senegal
ber of proprietors.
Company, the Mississippi Company, the
COMPANY, Sierra Leone, was instituted Company of the West, and the Bastion
in the year 1791, with a capital of about Company.
230,0001. The general object of the sub- COMPANY, Danish East India, and also
scribers was the introduction of civilization the Swedish East Company, still possess
into Africa, for effecting which end they a share in the commerce of the East,
proposed to establish a secure factory at although it is not very considerable.
Sierra Leone, with the view to a new trade
COMPANY, in military affairs, a small
in produce, chiefly with the interior of the body of foot, commanded by a captain,
country; but the reception into the settle- who has under him a lieutenant and en-
ment of near 1200 blacks from Nova Sco- sign.
tia, in March, 1792, produced much em- The number of centinels, or private
barrassment, which was increased in 1793 soldiers in a company, may be from 50
by the war, which interrupted their trade, to 80; and a battalion consists of thir-
VOL. II.
Nn
COM
COM
teen such companies, one of which is al- connection with veterinary science, and
ways grenadiers, and posted on the with that highly interesting pursuit, na-
right; next them stand the eldest compa- tural history. It would be an affront to
ny, and on the left the second company; our readers to enlarge upon its utility in
the youngest one being always posted in the former point of view; but we may
the centre.
be allowed to observe on the latter sub-
Companies not incorporated into regi. ject, that anatomical structure forms the
ments are called irregulars, or indepen- only sure basis of a natural classification
dent companies,
of the animal kingdom ; and that any ar-
COMPANY of ships, a fleet of merchant- rangement not founded on this ground-
men, who make a charter-party among work will lead us into the most gross and
themselves, the principal conditions palpable errors.
whereof usually are, that certain vessels Lastly, this study opens to the mind a
shall be acknowledged admiral, vice-ad- great source of interest and satisfaction,
miral, and rear admiral ; that such and in exhibiting such numerous and unde-
such signals shall be observed; that niable proofs of the exertion of contri-
those which bear no guns shall pay so vance and design in the animal struc-
much per cent of their cargo; and in ture: in displaying those modifications
case they be attacked, that what damages of particular parts and organs, by which
are sustained shall be reimbursed by the they are adapted to the peculiar circum-
company in general. In the Medi. stances of the animal, and become sub-
terranean such companies are called servient to its wants, its necessities, or
Conserves.
its enjoyments.
COMPARATIVE anatomy, is the sci- the above-mentioned circumstances is
The importance of the subject from
ence which examines the structure of
now so fully recognised, that it begins
the body in animals. It includes, in its with justice to be considered as an essen-
most extensive sense, a view of the cor- tial part of a regular medical education.
poreal organization of all classes of the Public lectures have been delivered on it
animal kingdom.
for some years in Germany and France ;
This science, which is very aptly and lately the example has been follow-
denominated comparative anatomy, af- ed in this metropolis.
fords the most essential aid in elucidat- Hitherto there has been rather a defi-
a
ing the structure of the human body, ciency of good works on this science,
and in explaining the doctrines of phy- and particularly of elementary books.
siology
Blasius has given a collection of the writ-
The want of any organ in certain ings of several authors on the anatomy of
classes of animals, or its existence under particular animals, in one volume 4to.,
different modifications of form, structure, entitled “ Anatomia animalium figuris
&c. cannot fail to suggest most interest- variis illustrata," Amstel. 1681 ; which
ing conclusions concerning the office of may still be consulted with advantage,
the same part in the human subject. particularly on account of the plates.
Thus our physiological reasonings, which Cuvier's “Leçons d'Anatomie comparée"
must necessarily be partial and incom- in five large 8vo volumes, form a very
plete, when deduced from the structure valuable and useful repository of facts in
of a single animal or class, are extended comparative anatomy ; but the subject is
and corrected by this general compara- treated at such length, and with so many
tive survey, and may, therefore, be relied uninteresting details, that the book is by
on with the greater confidence. We are no means adapted for the use of students.
indebted to such investigations for the dis- The only compendious and scientific
covery of the circulation and of the lym- view of the subject which we can recom-
phatic system; for the elucidation of the mend to beginners, is the short system
functions of digestion and generation : published by Blumenbach of Gottingen,
indeed, there is no branch of anatomy and translated from the German by Mr.
or physiology which has not received Lawrence, who has accompanied it with
most material benefit from the same numerous additional notes.
source. Hence Haller has very just- The necessity of confining this arti-
ly observed, that “physiology has been cle within a given number of pages
more illustrated by comparative anato- renders it impossible for us to give a
my, than by the dissection of the human general view of the subject : we shall,
body."
therefore, select such parts as are
The study of comparative anatomy is either particularly interesting in them-
moreover of the greatestimportance in its selves, or such as become important from
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
elucidating the structure or functions of instances. The brain is contained in a
the human body.
cranium : there is a great sympathetic
It is necessary for us to make a few nerve; five senses; two moveable eyes;
remarks on the classification of the ani- and three semicircular canals in the
mal kingdom ; as the terms employed in ear. The circulation is performed by
the following article differ occasionally one muscular ventricle at least. There
from those of the Linnæan system, which are lymphatic as well as blood vessels.
has been hitherto chiefly used in this The jaws being placed horizontally, the
country; and, independently of this cir. mouth is opened by their moving from
cumstance, such of our readers as have above downwards, or from before back,
not particularly attended to the study of wards. There is a continuous alimentary
natural history, may derive assistance and canal, extending from the mouth to the
information from a short sketch and ex. anus, which is always placed behind the
planation of the arrangement of animals pelvis ; peritoneum ; liver, spleen, and
according to their anatomical structure, pancreas; two kidneys, and renal cap-
with an enumeration of the chief genera sules; and two testicles.
in each order.
The vertebral animals are subdivided
That the Linnæan system is exposed to into the warm and cold blooded.
numerous and well-grounded objections, Warm blooded vertebral animals have
and that in many instances it disregards two ventricles in the heart, and a double
anatomical structure, which should form circulation; and breathe by means of
the basis of a natural classification, will lungs. The cranium is completely filled
be readily allowed by the most sanguine by the brain. The eyes are closed by eye.
admirers of its illustrious author. Yet lids. The tympanum of the ear is hollow-
it must be remembered, that the general ed out of the cranium, and the labyrinth
adoption of this method renders it desira. is excavated in the bone. Besides the
ble to deviate from it in as few instances semicircular canals, the ear has a coch-
as possible; since the introduction of new lea. The nostrils communicate with the
orders and names must necessarily create fauces, and allow the passage of air into
difficulty and confusion in the study of the lungs. The trunk is constantly fur-
the science. The French zoologists, nished with ribs.
whose successful labours in the advance- In cold blooded vertebral animals, the
ment of natural history must be acknow. brain never entirely fills the cranium.
ledged with every due tribute of respect, The eyes seldom possess moveable eye-
have carried the rage of innovation too lids. When the tympanum exists, it is
far, in the universal rejection of the Lin- on a level with the surface of the head.
næan method, and the unnecessary mul- There is no cochlea. The different parts
tiplication of new orders and genera. The of the ear are connected but loosely to
defects or errors of any system could not the cranium.
cause so much perplexity and inconve- The division of warm blooded ani-
nience, as the want of a generally receive mals contains two classes ; Mammalia
ed standard, and the unlimited licence, and Birds.
in which every individual indulges, of The mammalia are viviparous, and
fabricating new classifications and ar- suckle their young, from which circum-
rangements. To judge by some recent stance the name is derived. They have an
works, we should be led to suppose, that uterus with two cornua ; and the male
the merit of a systematic arrangement of has a penis.
animals does not consist in the simplicity
or intelligibility of the system ; but is in
There are two occipital condyles, con-
proportion to the number of newly-creat- necting the head to the atlas : never less
ed terms.
than six, nor more than nine cervical ver-
Animals may be distributed into two tebræ : a very complicated brain ; four
grand divisions : those which have a ver- ossicula auditus, and a spiral cochlea.
tebral column, and red blood : and those The skin covered with hair. A muscu-
which have no vertebræ, and are white lar diaphragm separates the chest and
blooded.
abdomen. There is an epiglottis. The
In the former division there is always lower jaw only moves. The fluid in the
an interior skeleton; the chief support of lacteals is white, and passes through
which is the column of vertebræ ; a spinal several conglobate glands. There is an
marrow contained in the vertebral canal ; omentum.
never more than four members, of which Blumenbach establishes the following
one or both pairs are wanting in some orders in this class :
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
:
I. Bimanum, Two handed.
7. Jaculus, jerboa.
8. Castor, beaver,
Genus 1. Homo.
9. Hystrix, porcupine.
II. Quadrumana, four handed animals; VI. Fere, predaceous and carnivorous
having a separate thumb, capable of be- animals. Very strong and large pointed
ing opposed to the other fingers, both in canine teeth : molares forming pointed
their upper and lower extremities. Teeth prominences ; short and simple alimen-
like those of man, except that the cuspi- tary canal, and consequently slender
dati are generally longer.
belly.
1. Simiæ, apes, monkeys, baboons. 1. Erinaceus, hedge-hog.
2. Lemur, macauco.
2. Sorex, shrew.
3. Talpa, mole.
III. Bradypoda, slow-moving animals. 4. Meles, badger.
5. Ursus, bear.
1. Bradypus, sloth.
6. Didelphis, opossum, kanguroo.
2. Myrmecophaga, ant-eater.
7. Viverra, weasels, ferret, polecat,
3. Manis, scaly-lizard, or pangolin.
civet.
4. Dasypus or Tatu, armadillo.
8. Mustela, skunk, stoat, &c.
9. Canis, dog, wolf, jackal, fox,
This order forms two in the arrange-
hyena.
ment of Cuvier. 1st. Tardigrada; which 10. Felis, cat, lion, tiger, leopard,
includes the sloths. There are no inci-
lynx, panther, &c.
sors in either jaw, there is a complicated 11. Lutra, otter.
stomach, but no rumination. 2dly. Eden- 12. Phoca, seal or sea-calf.
tata, toothless animals. Some of these
have no teeth ; others want the incisores The five first genera of this order, form
and cuspidati. The tongue is long, slen- the plantigrada of Cuvier; animals which
der, and projectile, for seizing the in- rest the whole of the foot on the ground.
sects on which the animals feed; body They are less carnivorous than the others;
covered with hard substances. The arma- have a longer intestinal canal, and no
dillo, manis, ant-eater, and ornithorhyn- cæcum.
cus, or duck-billed animal, belong to The sixth genus forms the Pedimana
this order.
of the same zoologist; as they possess a
separate thumb on the hind extremities
IV. Cheiroptera, having the fingers elon- only. They have a pouch in the abdo-
gated for the expansion of a membrane, men, containing the mammæ, and holding
which acts as a wing.
the young in their early state. One spe-
cies, the kanguroo, (didelphis gigantea)
Vespertilio, bat.
must however be excepted. That is
placed among the rodentia, and does not
V. Glires. Rodentia of Cuvier-gnaw. possess the separate thumb.
ing animals. Have two long and very The order carnivora of Cuvier, will in-
large incisor teeth in each jaw, by which clude from the seventh to the eleventh
they cut and gnaw hard bodies, chiefly genus : both inclusive. These have a
vegetables ; there is a large interval be- bone in the penis. The seal belongs to
hind these teeth, unoccupied by cuspi. this amphibia.
dati; long intestines, and generally a large In the three following orders the toes
cæcum. The hind legs, being longer are so incased in horny coverings, that
than the front extremities, give to these they can only serve to support the body
animals a leaping mode of progression. in standing or progression. As these ani-
The disproportion is sometimes so great, mals all feed on vegetables, the intestines
that the front legs are not used in walk- are very long, and the belly consequently
ing. A bone in the penis.
large.
1. Sciurus, squirrel.
VII. Solidungula (solipeda, Cuvier,) a
2. Glis, dormouse (Myoxus, Linn.) single toe on each foot, with an undivided
3. Mus, mouse and rat.
hoof; a small and simple stomach, but
4. Marmota, marmot.
large intestines, and particularly an enor.
5. Cavia, guinea-pig.
mous cæcum ; incisors in both jaws; mam.
6. Lepus, bare and rabbit.
mæ in the groin, as in the pecora,
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1. Equus, horse and ass.
1. Monodon, narwhal, sea-unicorn.
2. Balæna, proper whales.
VIII. Pecora or Bisulca (ruminantia of 3. Physeter.
Cuvier,) a divided hoof. No incisores in
4. Delphinus, dolphin, porpoise.
the upper jaw, where their place is sup-
plied by a callous prominence; stomach
Cuvier distributes the class mammalia
consisting of four cavities; rumination of into three grand divisions :
the food; long intestines. Their fat be-
comes hard and brittle when cold. The
1. Those which have claws or nails
mammæ are placed between the posterior
(mammiféres a ongles :) includ-
extremities. The penis of the male bas
ing the following orders: bima-
no bone.
na, quadrumana, cheiroptera,
plantigrada, carnivora, pedima-
1. Camelus, camel, dromedary, lama.
na, rodentia, edentata, tardi-
2. Capra, sheep, goat.
grada.
3. Antilope, antelope, chamois.
4. Bos, ox, buffalo.
2. Those which have hoofs (mam-
5. Giraffa, giraffe or camelopard.
mif. a ongles) including the pa-
6. Cervus, elk, deer-kind.
chydermata, ruminantia, and so-
7. Moschus, musk.
lipeda.
IX. Bellua, animals of an unshapely
3. Those which have extremities
form, and a tough and thick hide; whence
adapted for swimming (mammif,
they have been called by Cuvier, pachy.
a pieds en nageoire.) Amphibia
dermata (from Taxus thick, and deguar
and cetacea.
skin.) They have more than two toes ;
incisors in both jaws, and in some cases and oviduct ; a single occipital condyle ;
Birds are oviparous: have a single ovary
enormous tusks; mammæ extend under
the belly, where they are numerous.
very numerous cervical vertebræ ; a very
large sternum ; and anterior extremities
1. Sus, pig kind, pecari, babiroussa.
adapted for flying, the posterior only being
used for walking
2. Tapir.
3. Elephas.
They have three eyelids; no external
4. Rhinoceros.
ear; a bone in the tongue; a cochlea coni-
5. Hippopotamus.
cal, but not spiral; a single ossiculum au-
6. Trichecus, morse or walrus, ma- ditus ; body covered with feathers. The
nati or sea-cow.
lungs are attached to the surface of the
chest, and penetrated by the air, which
The last genus of this order, together goes all over the body ; no diaphragm ;
with the phoca (seals) constitutes the there is a larynx at each end of the tra-
Amphibia of Cuvier. These animals have chea; no ep glottis : the jaws are covered
short members adapted for swimming.
with a horny substance, and are both
moveable; there are no lips, gums, nor
X. Cetacea, whales, living entirely in the teeth; the chyle is transparent; no me-
sea, and formed like fishes; breathe by an
senteric glands, nor omentum ; no blad-
opening at the top of the head, called the der of urine, the ureters terminating in a
blowing hole; through which they throw bag through which the eggs and fæces
out the water, which enters their mouth come, viz. the cloaca; the pancreas and
with the food; smooth skin covering a liver have both several ducts entering the
thick layer of oily fat; no external ear; intestine; spleen in the centre of the me-
a complicated stomach ; multilobular kid sentery.
Deys; larynx of a pyramidal shape, open- This class cannot be distributed into or-
ing towards the blowing hole; testes with- ders so clearly distinguished by anatomical
in the abdomen; mamme at the sides of characters as the preceding one. Blumen-
the vulva; bones of the anterior extremity bach divides them into two leading divi-
concealed and united by the skin, so as to sions.
form a kind of fin; no posterior extremi-
ties; teeth which retain their prey, but do (A) TERRESTRIAL BIRDS.
not masticate, and instead of which there
are sometimes layers of a horny sub- Order I. Accipitres. Birds of prey, with
stance called whalebone.
strong hooked bills, and large curved ta-
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
Ions, a membranous stomach, and short 2. Casuarius, cassowary or emu.
cæca.
(B) AQUATIC BIRDS,
1. Vultur, vultures.
2. Falco, falcon, eagle, hawk, kite. Order I. Gralle, waders, frequenting
3. Strix, owl.
marshes and streams; long naked legs;
4. Lanius, shrike or butcher bird. long neck; cylindrical bill of different
lengths.
II. Levirostres, light-billed birds, hav.
ing a large hollow bill.
1. Ardea, crane, stork, heron, bit-
tern.
1. Psittacus, parrot kind.
2. Scolopax, woodcock, snipe, cure
2. Ramphastos, toucan.
lew.
3. Buceros, rhinoceros bird
3. Tringa, lapwing, rufts, and reeves.
4. Charadrius, plover.
III. Picæ, this and the two following or. 5. Fulica, coot.
ders are not clearly characterised.
6. Rallus, rail.
7. Phenicopterus, flamingo.
1. Picus, woodpecker.
8. Tantalus, ibis, &c.
2. Jynx, wryneck.
3. Sitta, nuthatch.
II. Anseres, swimming birds; web.
4. Alcedo, king's-fisher.
footed; bill broad and flat, covered by a
5. Trochilus, humming bird, &c. &c. somewhat soft substance, on which large
nerves are distributed.
IV. Coraces.
1. Corvus, crow, raven, jackdaw,
1. Colymbus, diver.
2. Larus, gull.
magpie, jay, &c.
2. Coracias, roller.
3. Procellaria, petrel.
3. Paradisea, birds of paradise.
4. Diomedea, albatross,
4. Cuculus, cuckoo, &c. &c.
5. Pelecanus, pelican, cormorant.
6. Anas, swan, duck, goose.
V. Passeres, small singing-birds.
7. Mergus, goosander.
8. Alca, auk, puffin.
1. Alauda, lark.
9. Aptenodytes, penguin.
2. Sturnus, starling.
3. Turdus, thrusb, black-bird.
The two classes of cold blooded ver-
4. Emberiza, bunting.
tebral animals are, the Amphibia, and
5. Fringilla, finches, canary-bird, lin. Fishes.
net, sparrow
The former, differing considerably
6. Motacilla, nightingale, redbreast, from each other, have very few common
wren.
characters; for in different instances they
7. Hirundo, swallows, martins, &c. walk, fly, swim, and crawl. There is no
8. Caprimulgus, goatsucker, &c.
external ear, nor cochlea; the brain is
always very small; the lungs are in the
VI. Gallina, gallinaceous birds, mostly same cavity with the other viscera, and
domesticated. They possess a large crop, have very large air-cells; no epiglottis,
strong muscular gizzards, short legs. omentum, nor mesentric glands; two ova-
ries and oviducts; cloaca, through which
1. Columba, pigeons.
the fæces and urine are expelled, and in
2. Tetrao, grous, quail, partridge. which the organs of generation terminate ;
3. Numida, guinea-fowl.
neither hair, feathers, nor mammæ; skin
4. Meleagris, turkey.
either naked, or covered with scales; both
5. Pavo, peacock.
jaws are moveable; there is an urinary
6. Otis, bustard
bladder.
VII. Struthiones, struthinous birds. The Order I. Reptilia, having four feet,
largest of the class : possess extremely quadrupeda ovipara.)
small wings, and are therefore incapable
of Aight; but run very swiïtly.
1. Testudo, tortoise, turtle.
2. Rana, frog, toad.
1. Struthio, ostrich.
3. Lacerta, lizards, crocodile, cha-
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
ana, &c.
meleon, newt, salamander, igu. 1. Muræna, eel-kind.
2. Gymnotus, electrical eel,
3. Anarrhichas, sea-wolf.
II. Serpentia. No external members; 4. Xiphias, sword-fish.
body of an elongated form, and viscera
5. Ammodites, launce.
of a similar shape; they are oviparous;
6. Ophidium.
7. Stromateus.
but the egg is sometimes hatched in the
oviduct; both jaws moveable.
8. Trichiurus.
1. Crotalus, rattlesnake.
II. Thoracici; ventral fins directly un.
2. Boa. Immense serpents of India der the thoracic.
and Africa.
3. Coluber, viper.
1. Echeneis, sucking fish.
4. Anguis, blindworm.
2. Coryphæna, dorado.
5. Amphisbæna.
3. Zeus, dory.
6. Cæcilia.
4. Pleuronectes, flounder, plaice,
dab, holibut, sole, turbot.
5. Chætodon.
Fishes. Breathe by means of branchiæ
6. Sparus.
or gills; and have no trachea, nor larynx;
7. Perca, perch.
organs of motion consisting of fins; nose
8. Scomber, mackarel, bonito, tunny.
unconnected with the organs of respira-
9. Mullus, mullet, &c. &c.
tion; ear entirely inclosed in the head,
the tympanum, &c. being absent; both
III. Abdominales ; ventral fins behind
jaws moveable; the place of the pancreas the thoracic ; chiefly inhabit fresh water.
supplied by the pyloric cæca; an urinary
bladder; two ovaries; heart consisting of
1. Cobitis, loach.
a single auricle and ventricle. They may
2. Silurus.
be distributed into two leading divisions :
3. Salmo, salmon, trout, smelt.
the cartilaginous, whose skeleton consists
4. Esox, pike.
of cartilage; the bony, where it is formed
of a more firm substance.
5. Clupea, herring, sprat, shad.
6. Cyprinus, carp, tench, gold-fish,
minow, &c. &c.
(A) CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
Order I. Chondropterygü ; having no the thoracic.
IV. Jugulares ; ventral fins in front of
gill-cover; an uterus, with two oviducts.
1. Gadus, haddock, cod, whiting,
1. Petromyzon, lamprey.
ling
2. Gastrobranchus.
2. Uranoscopus, star-gazer.
3. Raia, skate, torpedo, stingray.
3. Blennius, blenny.
4. Squalus, shark, saw-fish.
4. Callionymus, dragonet.
5. Lophius, sea-devil, frog-fish.
5. Trachinus, weaver.
6. Balistes, file-fish.
7. Chimæra.
The animals, which have no vertebral
column, do not possess so many common
IT. Branchiostegi; having a gill-cover. characters as the vertebral classes; their
hard parts, when they have any, are gene-
1. Accipenser, sturgeon, beluga. rally placed on the surface of the body; the
2. Ostracion, trunk-fish.
centre of the nervous system, instead of
3. Tetrodon.
being inclosed in a bony case, lies in the
4. Diodon, porcupine-fish.
same cavity with the viscera; the cesoph-
5. Cyclopterus, lumpsucker. agus is generally surrounded by a nervous
6. Centriscus.
chord coming from the brain ; their respi-
7. Syngnathus, pipe-fish.
ration is not carried on by lungs, and they
8. Pegasus.
have no voice; their jaws move in various
directions; they have no urinary secre-
(B) BONY FISHES, DIVIDED ACCORD- tion.
ING TO THE SITUATION OF THEIR The invertebral animals were distribut-
FINS.
ed by Linnæus into two clases; insects and
worms (vermes). The anatomical struc-
Order I. Apodes; no ventral fins. ture of these animals was very imperfect-
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
ly known, when the Swedish naturalist According as the shell of the testace-
first promulgated his arrangement. But ous mollusca consists of a single convo-
the labours of subsequent zoologists, and luted tube, or of two or more separate
particularly those of Cuvier, have suc- pieces, they are called cochleæ bivalves,
ceeded in establishing such striking and multivalves, &c.
important differences in their formation,
Crustacea possess a hard external co-
that a subdivision of the Linnæan classes
became indispensably necessary. The bers; a long nervous chord, beset with
vering, and numerous articulated mem-
insects of Linnæus are divided into crus-
tacea and insecta : and the vermes of the ganglia; compound eyes; antennæ and
same author form three classes ; viz. Mol- palpi like those of insects; a heart and
lusca, Vermes, and Zoophyta.
circulating vessels, and gills; teeth in
the cavity of the stomach.
The Mullusca derive their name from
the soft fleshy nature of their body. This 1. Cancer, crab, lobster, crayfish,
class includes those pulpy animals, which
shrimp.
may either be destitute of an external
2. Monoculus.
covering, when they are called mollusca
nuda, as the slug; or may be inclosed
in one or more shells, as the snail, oyster, antennæ. Those which fly are subject to
Insects have articulated members and
&c. when they are termed testacea.
what is called a metamorphosis ; they
The animals of this class have no ar-
ticulated members; they have blood-ves- pass through certain intermediate states
of existence, before they assume the last,
sels, and a true circulation; they respire
by means of gills; they have a distinct or perfect form. From the egg proceeds
brain, giving origin to nerves; and a the chrysalis, nympha, or aurelia, from
the larva, or caterpillar: this changes to
spinal marrow
which the perfect insect is produced ;
1. Sepia, cuttlefish.
nervous system consisting of a chord be.
set with ganglia; no heart nor blood-
2. Argonauta.
vessels; respiration carried on by means
3. Nautilus.
of trachea.
4. Limax, slug
5. Aplysia.
6. Doris.
Order I. Coleoptera ; having a bollow,
7. Clio.
horny case, under which the wings are
8. Patella, limpet.
folded.
9. Helix, snail.
10. Haliotis, Venus's ear.
1. Scarabæus, beetles.
11. Murex, caltrop, or rockshell.
2. Lucanus, stag-beetle.
12. Strombus, screw.
3. Dermestes.
13. Buccinum, whelk.
4. Coccinella, lady-bird.
14. Ascidia.
5. Curculio, weevil.
15. Thalia.
6. Lampyris, glow-worm.
16. Ostrea, oyster.
7. Meloe, Spanish-fly.
17. Solen, razorshell.
8. Staphylinus.
18. Cardium, cockle.
9. Forficula, earwig.
19. Mytilus, muscle, &c. &c.
II. Hemiptera; four wings, either
Cuvier classes the numerous genera of stretched straight out, or resting across
this order under the three following divi. each other.
sions: 1. Cephalopoda, (from nemann
the head, and 785 the foot) which have
1. Blatta, cockroach.
their organs of motion placed round the
2. Gryllus, locust, grasshopper.
3. Fulgora, lantern-fly.
head; 2. Gasteropoda, (from yasing the 4. Cimex, bug, &c.
belly, and 785), such as crawl on the
belly; and 3. Acephala, (from a priva- III. Lepidoptera ; soft hairy body, and
tive, and repair), which have no head, four expanded wings.
The three first genera belong to the first
division; the ten succeeding ones come 1. Papilio, butterfly.
under the second; and the remainder ex- 2. Sphinx,
emplify the last order.
3. Phalana,
1
Žmoths.
s
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
IV. Neuroptera ; four reticulated wings. 5. Nais.
6 Planaria.
1. Libellula, dragon-fly.
7. Lumbricus, earthworm, &c.
2. Ephemera, &c.
The Zoophytes have neither brain nor
V. Hymenoptera ; generally possessing nerves; no heart, nor, perhaps, blood-ves-
a sting
sels; no articulated members.
Order I Echinodermatu ; covered by a
hard and tough coriaceous skin.
1. Vespa, wasp, hornet.
2. Aspis, bee.
3. Formica, ant.
4. Termes, white ant.
5. Ichneumon, &c.
1. Echinus, sea hedge-hog.
2 Asterias, star-fish, &c.
VI. Diptera; two wings.
11. Soft or Gelatinous Zoophytes.
1. Estrus, gad-fly.
1. Medusa, sea-blubber, sea net-
2. Musca, common flies.
tles.
3. Culex, gnat, mosquito.
2. Actinia, sea-anemone,
4. Hippobosca, horse-leech, &c.
3. Hydra, fresh water polype.
VII. Aptera; no wings.
III. Infusoria, the animalcules of infu-
sions.
1. Podura, springtail.
2. Pediculus, louse.
1. Vorticella, wheel-animal.
3. Pulex, flea, chigger.
2. Brachionus.
4. Acarus, tick, mite.
3 Vibrio, eel of vinegar.
5. Aranea, spiders.
4. Volvox.
6. Scorpio, scorpion, &c.
5. Monas.
The vermes may be divided into IV. Inhabitants of corals, corallines,
two orders ; the intestinal, which inha- sponges, &c.
bit the bodies of other animals; and the
external.
COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY.
The former are not of such a compli-
cated organization as the latter; so that It has been asserted, that the bones in
they are sometimes arranged among the some instances have not their ordinary
zoophytes. The external worms have a white colour Thus the amedabad tinch,
nervous chord possessing ganglia, an (fringilla amandava,) and the golden
elongated body composed of rings, and pheasant, have been said to possess
having no distinct head; there are no yellow bones; but this is not true. In the
members ; circulating vessels, but no garpike (esox belone) the bones are
heart; no nerves have been discovered green; and in some varieties of the com-
in the intestinal worms.
mon fowl in the East Indies they are
black; but this colour is said by Mr Hun-
Order I. Intestini.
ter to reside in the periosteum.
The opinion of Aristotle, that the bones
1. Gordius, guinea-worm.
of the lion had no marrow, is totally un-
2. Ascaris, thread-worm, round-founded.
worm.
The bones of the cranium are much
3. Tricocephalus.
more completely Ossified at the time of
4. Fasciola, fluke.
birth, in the mammalia, than in man. In
5. Tænia, tape. worm,
the former the fontanells are hardly dis-
6. Hydatis, hydatid.
cernible. When we compare the pelvis,
and the whole mechanism of parturition
II, Externi.
in the woman, with those of the female
quadruped, the cause of this difference
1. Aphrodite, sea-mouse.
appears; we then discover, why the yield-
2. Sipunculus.
ing and overlapping of the large
3. Hirudo, leech.
bones of the cranium, which is chiefly
4. Nereis.
effected by the fontanells, is only requir.
VOL. II.
оо
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
ed to facilitate the birth of the human ed, at least for the greatest part, under
fetus
the following peculiarities; which serve
The skeleton remains constantly carti- to distinguish their skeletons from those
laginous in some animals; such as the of birds.
skate, shark, sturgeon, and all those fish-
es, which, from this circumstance, have
The skeletons of Those of birds are
been denominated cartilaginous.
The mammalia possess : distinguished by :
bones of birds are almost universally
hollow; but their cavities, which never
1. A skull with 1. A skull which
contain marrow, are filled with air. This genuine sutures, at bas not real sutures,
organization unites the advantages of least with very few at least in the adult.
strength and lightness.
exceptions ; as per-
Crustaceous animals, (crab, lobster, haps the elephant,
&c.) have a skeleton which surrounds and the duck-billed
and contains their soft parts, and which animal, (ornitho-
serves at the same time the purposes of rhyncus).
a skin. When it has attained its per-
fect consistence, it grows no more: but
2. Jaws furnish- 2. A bill without
teeth.
as the soft parts still increase, the shelled with teeth.
separates, and is detached, being suc- Except the ant-
ceeded by a larger one. This new co- eaters, the manis,
vering is partly formed before the other the balæna (whale).
separates : it is at first soft, sensible, and
vascular ; but it speedily acquires a hard
3. An upper jaw,
3. An upper jaw,
does
consistence by the increased deposition of which
not which does move.
calcareous matter.
move.
There are some
Some of the mollusca have hard parts
exceptions, viz. the
in the interior of their body. The com-
rhinoceros bird.
mon cuttlefish (sepia officinalis) has a
white, firm, and calcareous mass, of an
4. An os inter- 4. No os inter-
oval form, and slightly convex on its two maxillare.
maxillare.
surfaces, commonly known by the name
of the cuttlefish-bone, contained in the
5. Two occipital 5. A single occi
substance of its body. It has no connec. condyles.
pital condyle.
tion with any soft part, whence it ap-
pears completely as a foreign body: no
6. Seven cervical 6. More than se-
vessel nor nerve can be perceived to en-
vertebræ.
ven cervical verte-
ter it; nor does it receive the attach- Except the three- bræ,
ment of any tendon. In the calmar (se-toed sloth, and some
pia lolgo), this body resembles horn in cetacea.
its appearance ; it is transparent, hard,
and brittle. Its form resembles that of
7. Moveable dor 7. Motionless dor-
a leaf, except that it is larger; and some sal vertebræ. sal vertebræ.
times that of a sword-blade. These parts
must grow like shells, by the simple ad- 8. A pelvis closed
dition of successive layers.
in front.
anteriorly.
In the vertebral animals, the bony Except the ant- Except the os
parts of the body are composed of a ge eaters; which have trich.
latinous substance, united to phosphate of it open : and the
lime. But in the lower orders of ani- cetacea, which have
mals, the hard parts are composed none.
chiefly or entirely of carbonate of lime.
This is the case with the shells of all the
9. True clavicles
9. Clavicles con-
testacea.
in a few genera stantly; and almost
only.
as universally the
SKELETON OF MAMMALIA.
forklike bone.
8. A pelvis open
The form of the different mammalia, The structure of the cranium presents
particularly the four-footed ones, varies a very remarkable singularity in the
considerably ; and their skeletons must elephant. Its two tables are separated
be marked by corresponding differen- from each other to a considerable extent,
ces. Yet these varieties may be includ by numerous bony processes ; between
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
which are formed a vast number of cells, vertebral column. The angle, formed
communicating with the throat by means by the two lines mentioned by Dauben-
of the eustachian tube, and filled with air ton, is only of three degrees.
instead of the bloody or medullary sub- Quadrupeds, which go on all-four's,
stance, which occupies the diplöe of ani- have the occipital foramen and condyles
males. The use of this structure in in- situated farther back, in proportion as
creasing the surface for attachment of the face is elongated. That opening, in-
those large muscles, which belong to the stead of being nearly parallel to the hori-
lower jaw, proboscis and neck; and in zon, forms a considrable angle with it;
augmenting the mechanical power of which, measured, according to Dauben-
these muscles, by removing their attach- ton, is of 90 degrees in the horse The
ments to a greater distance from the cen- weight of the head in these animals, is
tre of motion, has been very ingeniously not therefore sustained by the spine; but
explained by Camper. (@uvres, tom. 2). by a ligament of immense strength, which
These advantages are attained by the is either entirely deficient, or so weak as
cellular structure, which we have just to have its existence disputed in the hu-
described, without augmenting the weight man subject. This ligamentum muchæ,
of the head, and this precaution is parti- or cervical ligament, arises from the
cularly necessary in the present instance, spines of the dorsal and cervical verte-
as the head is on other accounts more bræ, (which are remarkably long for that
heavy and massy in this than in any other purpose) and is fixed to the middle and
animal. The air cells of birds, in gene- posterior part of the occipital bone. It
ral, and particularly those which pervade is of great size and strength in all qua-
the cranium in the ostrich, eagle, and drupeds, but most particularly in the ele-
owl, present examples of a similar for- phant; where the vast weight of the
mation, attended with the same uses; viz. head, so much increased by the enor-
those of increasing the bulk and strength mous size of the tusks, sufficiently ac-
of the bone, and diminishing its weight. counts for its increased magnitude. It is
A comparison of the human cranium, bony in the mole, probably on account of
with that of animals, will lead us to some
the use which the animal makes of its
interesting conclusions. Daubenton fix- head, in disengaging and throwing up
ed on the situation of the foramen the earth
magnum occipitale, as a point of compa- Animals of the genus Simia and Lemur
rison. He draws two lines, which inter- hold a middle rank between man, who is
sect each other in the profile of the scull: constantly erect, and quadrupeds, whose
one passes from the posterior margin of body is supported by four extremities.
the great foramen, (which, in almost all Their structure is by no means calculat-
mammalia, is also the superior one,) ed like that of man, for the constant
through the lower edge of the orbit; maintenance of the erect posture ; but
the other takes the direction of the they can support it with greater facility,
opening itself, beginning at its posterior and for a longer time than other animals.
edge, and touching the articular surface Hence, in the orang-outang, the occipital
,
of the condyles. He determines, accord- foramen is only twice as far from the
ing to the angle formed by the junction jaws as from the back of the head; so
of these two lines, the similarity or diver- that Daubenton's angle is only of 37º.
sity of the form of crania.
It is somewhat larger in the other species
This angle is, however, but an imper- of Simiæ, and measures 47° in the lemur.
fect criterion; for its variations are in- The general form of the cranium is
cluded betweed 80° and 90° in almost all most materially influenced by the direc-
quadrupeds, which differ very essentially tion, and the various degrees of promi-
in other points. And small variations nence of the facial bones.
occur in the individuals of one and the To determine this with greater preci-
same genus.
sion, Camper instituted the facial line ;
The variations in the situations of the the application of which is most minutely
occipital foramen are important, when explained in his posthumous work,“ On
viewed in connection with the ordinary the natural Differenees of the Features,
position of the animal's body. In man, &c.” Like Daubenton, he draws on the
who is designed to hold his body erect, profile of the cranium two straight lines,
this opening is nearly equi-distant from which intersect each other: but in dif-
:
the anterior and posterior extremities ferent directions from those of the French
of the scull. The head therefore is sup- anatomist. An horizontal line passes
ported in a state of equilibrium on the through the external auditory passage,
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
and the bottom of the cavity of the nose : which has been already described. This
this is intersected by a more perpendicu- angle is most open, or approaches most
lar one, proceeding from the convexity nearly to a right angle, in the human sub-
of the forehead to the most prominent ject; it becomes constantly more acute,
point of the upper jaw, or of the inter- as we descend in the scale from man;
maxillary bone The latter is the proper and in several birds, reptiles, and fishes,
facial line; and the angle, which it forms it is lost altogether, as the cranium and
with the horizontal line, determines, ac- face are completely on a level. The idea
cording to Camper, the differences of the of stupidity is associated, even by the
crania of animals, as well as the national vulgar, with the elongation of the snout;
physiognomy of the various races of man- hence the crane and snipe have become
kind.
proverbial. On the contrary, when the
The two organs which occupy most of facial line is elevated by any cause which
the face, are those of smelling and tasting does not increase the capacity of the cra-
(including those of mastication, &c.) In nium, as in the elephant and owl, by the
proportion as these parts are more deve cells which separate the two tables, the
loped, the size of the face, compared to animal acquires a particular air of intelli-
that of the cranium, is augmented. On gence, and gains the credit of qualities
the contrary, when the brain is large, the which he does not in reality possess.
volume of the cranium is increased in Hence the latter animal has been select-
proportion to that of the face. A large ed as the emblem of the goddess of wisdom.
cranium and small face indicate therefore Theinvaluable remains ofGrecian art shew
a large brain, with inconsiderable organs that the ancients were well acquainted
of smelling, tasting, masticating, &c.; with these circumstances; they were
while a small cranium, with a large face, aware that an elevated facial line formed
shew that these proportions are revers- one of the grand characters of beauty,
ed.
and indicated a noble and generous na-
The nature and character of each anie ture. Hence they have extended the
mal must depend considerably on the. facial angle to 90 degrees in the represen-
relative energy of its different functions. tation of men, on whom they wished to
The brain is the common centre of the bestow an august character. And in the
nervous system. All our perceptions are representations of their gods and heroes,
conveyed to this part, as a sensorium they have even carried it beyond a right
commune : and this is the organ by angle, and made it 100°.
which the mind combines and compares It must, however, be allowed, that the
these perceptions, and draws inferences facial angle is of chief importance in its
from them; by which, in short, it reflects application to the cranium of the human
and thinks. We shall find that animals subject, and of the quadrumana; as vari-
partake in a greater degree of this latter ous circumstances affect the conclusions
faculty, or at least approach more nearly which would result from employing it in
to it, in proportion as the mass of medul. other classes of mammalia. Thus in the
lary substance, forming their brain, ex- carnivorous, and some of the ruminating
ceeds that which constitutes the rest of animals; in the pig, and particularly in
the nervous system; or, in other words, the elephant, the great size of the frontal
in proportion as the organ of the mind sinuses produces an undue elevation of
exceeds those of the senses. Since then the facial line. In many of the rodentia,
the relative proportions of the cranium as the hare, &c. the nose occupies so
and face indicate also those of the brain large a space, that the cranium is thrown
and the two principal external organs, we quite back, and presents no point on a
shall not be surprised to find that they front view, from which this line can be
point out to us, in great measure, the drawn.
general character of animals; the degree The following are the angles formed by
of instinct and docility which they pos- drawing a line along the floor of the nos-
sess. Man combines by far the largest trils, and intersecting it by another, which
cranium with the smallest face; and ani- touches the anterior margin of the upper
mals deviate from these relations, in pro. alveoli, and the convexity of the cranium,
portion as they increase in stupidity and (whether the latter point be concealed by
ferocity
the face or no ;)
One of the most simple methods
(though sometimes indeed insufficient) European infant
. 90°
of expressing the relative proportions of
adult
these parts, is by means of the facial line
. 70
-
85
Adult negro
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
.
Orang-outang
..670
that the line of junction of the cranium
Long-tailed monkies
.. 65
and face is the shortest side of the trian.
Baboons
40 to 30 gle; and the anterior one the longest.
Pole-cat.
31 These proportions become still more con-
Pug dog
.. 35 siderable in other mammalia
Mastiff; the line passing along
The upper jaw-bones of other mam-
the outer surface of the
41
malia do not, as in man, touch each other
skull ...
S under the nose, and contain all the upper
Ditto ; inner ditto
30 teeth ; but they are separated by a pecu.
Leopard ; inner surface .. 28 liar, single, or double intermaxillary bone,
Hare.
.. 30 which is in a manner locked between the
Ram
30 former, and holds the incisor teeth of
Horse.
. 23 such animals as are provided with these
Porpoise
25 teeth. It exists also in the pecora, wbich
have no incisor teeth in the upper jaw ;
In the third and fourth tables of Cu- as well as in such genera as have no in-
vier's "Tableau Elementaire de l'Histoire cisor teeth at all; viz. the duck-billed ani-
Naturelle," the crania of several mam- mal and the armadillo. It is even found
malia are represented in profile, so as to in those mammalia which are wholly des-
afford a sufficient general notion of the titute of teeth ; as the ant-eater and the
varieties in the facial angle. A similar proper whales. It is joined to the neigh-
comparative view, in one plate, is given bouring bones by sutures, which run ex-
by White, in his account of the “Regu- teriorly by the side of the nose and snout,
lar Gradation,” &c. from the work of Cam- and which pass, towards the palate, close
to the foramina incisiva Its form and
per.
A vertical section of the head, in the orders and genera of mammalia. It is
magnitude vary surprisingly in several
longitudinal direction,shews us more com- small in many feræ ; as also in the walrus.
pletely the relative proportions of the cra- In the glires it is remarkably large, on ac-
nium and face. In the European, the area count of the immense size of their incisor
of the section of the cranium is four times
teeth.
as large as that of the face; the lower jaw
not being included. The proportion of
In human crania, at least those of the
the face is somewhat larger in the ne-
fætus and young children, there is a small
gro: and it increases again in the orang- transverse slit near the foramen incisi-
outang. The area of the craniuin is about vum, of which Fallopius gave the follow-
double that of the face in the monkeys; ing accurate account in the year 1561:
in the baboons, and in most of the carni- “I find this division to be rather a slit
vorous mammalia, the two parts are
than a suture, since it does not separate
nearly equal. The face exceeds the cra-
one bone from the other, nor does it ap-
nium in most of the other classes. Among pear exteriorly, nor join two bones,
the rodentia, the hare and marmot bave which is the office of sutures.” “Obs.
it one third larger; in the porcupine and Anat."
the ruminantia, the area of the face is “Hence I was much surprised to find
about double that of the cranium ; nearly Vicq D'Azyr, in 1780, discover in this
triple in the hippopotamus; and almost point an unexpected resemblance be-
four times as large in the horse. In rep- tween the cranium of the human subject
tiles and fishes, the cranium forms a very and of quadrupeds.” Mem. de l'Acad.
inconsiderable portion of the section of des Sc. 1780.
the head, although it is considerably lar- In the celebrated dispute of the six-
ger than the brain which it contains.
teenth century, whether Galen's osteology
The outline of the face, when viewed in was derived from the skeleton of man or
such a section as we have just mentioned, the ape, Ingrassias argued for the latter
forms in the human subject a triangle; the side of the question, from Galen's having
longest side of which is the line of junc- ascribed an intermaxillary bone to the
tion between the cranium and face. This human subject. And the same author, in
extends obliquely, backwards and down- his classical “ Commentarii in Galeni Li-
wards, from the root of the nose towards brum de Ossibus," Panorm, 1603, fol. par-
the foramen occipitale. The front of the ticularly points out the parts, "where Ga-
face, or the anterior line of the triangle, len, led astray by the dissection of apes,
is the shortest of the three. The face is deviates from the true construction of
so much elongated, even in the simiæ, the human body."
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
in mammalia, which have horns, these neration, a tubercle arises from this pro-
parts grow on particular processes of cer- cess, and takes the form of the future ant-
.
tain bones of the cranium. In the one. ler, being still covered by a prolongation
horned rhinoceros, they adhere to a rough of the skin. The structure of the part
and slightly elevated surface of the vast at this time is soft and cartilaginous; it
nasal bone. The front horn of the two- is immediately invested by a true perios-
horned species has a similar attachment; teum, containing large and numerous ves-
the posterior rests on the os frontis, as sels, which penetrate the cartilage in
those of the borned pecora do. Two every direction, and by the gradual depo-
kinds of structure are observed in the sition of ossific matter convert it into a
latter: there are either proper horns, as perfect bone
in the genera of the ox, goat, and ante- The vessels pass through openings in
lope; or bony productions, as in the ge- the projecting bony circle at the base of
nus cervus, which includes animals of the the an ler: the formation of this part, pro-
deer kind: these are also called horns in ceeding in the same ratio with that of the
English, or sometimes antlers ; in French, rest, these openings are contracted, and
bois de cerf In the former, the external the vessels are thereby pressed until a
table of the frontal bones is elongated complete obstruction ensues. The skin
into a process, which contains a continue and periosteum then perish, become dry,
ation of the frontal sinuses, except in and fall off; the surface of the antler re-
the antelope. Its external vascular sur- maining uncovered. At the stated period
face secretes the horn, which covers this it falls off, to be again produced, always
process like a sheath. In the stag kind increasing in size.
(in the male only in most genera,) the The skeleton of quadrupeds deviates
frontal bone forms a short flattened pro- more from that of man, in the form of the
minence, from which the proper antler lower jaw bone, than in any other part.
immediately shoots forth It is renewed This difference consists chiefly in the want
every year, and is covered, during the of a prominent chin; that peculiar charac-
time of its growth, with a hairy and very teristic of the human countenance, which
vascular skin
exists in every race of mankind, and is
Castration, or any essential injury of the found in no other instance whatever. Man
organs of generation, impedes the growth, has also the shortest lower jaw in compa-
alters the form, or interrupts the renewal rison with the cranium; the elephant, per-
of the horns.
haps, approaching the nearest to him in
The word horn, which is frequently ap- this character. The same bone is further
plied in English to the antlers of the deer distinguished by the peculiar form and
kind, as well as to the real horns of other direction of its condyle. The articulation
genera, would lead to a very erroneous of these processes varies according to the
notion on this subject. The antler is a structure of the masticating organs. They
real bone ; it is formed in the same man- are both situated in the same straight
ner, and consists of the same elements horizontal line in the feræ ; their form is
as other bones; its structure is also the cylindrical ; and they are completely
same.
locked in an elongated glenoid cavity,
It adheres to the frontal bone by its ba- whose margins are so extended before
sis; and the substance of the two parts and behind the condyle, that all rotatory
being consolidated together, no distinction motions are rendered impossible, and
can be traced, when the antler is com- hinge-like movements only allowed. This
pletely organized. But the skin of the structure is most strikingly exemplified
forehead terminates at its basis, which is in the badger, where the cylindrical con-
marked by an irregular projecting bony dyles are so closely embraced by the mar-
circle; and there is neither skin nor peri- gins of the articular cavity, that the lower
osteum on the rest of it. The time of its jaw (at least in the adult animal) is still
remaining on the head is one year : as the retained in its situation, after the soft
period of its fall approaches, a reddish parts have been entirely removed by
mark of separation is observed between maceration. In many herbivorous ani-
the process of the frontal bone and the mals (in the most extensive sense of the
antler. This becomes more and more term) these condyles are really rounded
distinctly marked, until the connection is eminences; viz. in the elephant and bea-
entirely destroyed.
Their surface is Hattened in the
The skin of the forehead extends over pecora, which have also the lower jaw
the process of the frontal bone when the narrower than the upper, so that the two
antler has fallen : at the period of its rege- sets of teeth do not meet together when
ver
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
the mouth is shut, but are brought into mouth, has its texture loosened into a
contact by the free lateral motion which kind of fringe, composed of long and
takes place in rumination.
slender fibres of the horny substance,
As the motions of the lower jaw must which therefore covers the whole sur-
be materially influenced by the form of face of the jaw. This structure pro-
its condyles, and by the manner in which bably serves the animal in retaining and
those processes are connected to the ar. confining the mollusca, which constitute
ticular cavity of the temporal bone, we its food.
shall find, as might have been expected, The teeth of the ornithorhynchus para-
a close relation between these circum- doxus and hystrix deviate very consider-
stances, and the kind of food by which an ably from those of other mammalia. In
animal is nourished. Thus, the lower the former animal there is one on each
jaw of the carnivora can only move up- side of the two jaws: it is oblong, flat-
wards and downwards, and is completely tened on its surface, and consists of a
incapable of that horizontal motion which horny substance adhering to the gum.
constitutes genuine mastication. Hence There are likewise two horny processes
these animals cut and tear their food in on the back of the tongue : these point
a rude and coarse manner, and swallow forwards, and are supposed by Mr. Home
it in large portions, which are afterwards to prevent the food from passing into
reduced by the solvent properties of the the fauces before it has been sufficient-
gastric juice. Such mammalia, on the lymasticated. In the ornithorhynchus
contrary, as live on vegetables, have, in hystrix there are six transverse rows of
addition to this motion, a power of mov- pointed horny processes at the back
ing the lower jaw backwards and for- of the palate, and about twenty similar
wards, and to either side, so as to pro- horny teeth on the corresponding part
duce a grinding effect, which is necessa- of the tongue.
ry for bruising and triturating grass, and The teeth of the human subject seem
for pulverising and comminuting grains. to be designed for the single purpose of
In all these, therefore, the form of the mastication, and hence an erroneous con-
condyle, and of its articular cavity, allows clusion might be drawn, that they serve
of free motion in almost every direction. the same office in other animals. Many
The teeth may be compared, in the for- exceptions must, however, be made to
mer case, to scissars; in the latter, to the this general rule. Some mammalia, which
stones of a mill.
have teeth for the office of mastication,
have others, which can only be consider-
THE TEETH.
ed as weapons of offence and defence ;
viz. the tusks of the elephant, hippopo-
The jaws of the mammalia, with a very tamus, walrus, and manati
. The large
few exceptions, contain teeth. The and long canine teeth of the carnivora, as
proper whales (balana,) the pangolin the lion, tiger, dog, cat, &c. not only
(manis,) and the American ant-eaters, are serve as natural weapons to the animal,
the only genera entirely destitute of but enable it to seize and hold its prey,
these organs
and assist in the rude laceration which
Animals of the genus balena (the pro- the food undergoes previous to degluti-
per whales) have, instead of teeth, the tion. The seal, the porpoise, and other
peculiar substance called whalebone, co- cetacea, as the cachalot, have all the
vering the palatine surface of the upper teeth of one and the same form, and that
jaw: this resembles in its composition obviously not calculated for mastication.
hair, horn, and such matters.
They can only assist in securing the
The lower surface of the upper jaw which forms the animal's food.
forms two inclined planes, which may be As the number and arrangement of the
compared to the roof of a house reversed; teeth was made by Linnæus the basis of
but the two surfaces are concave. Both his classification of animals, it may be
these are covered with plates of the whale- worth while to mention, that this anato-
bone, placed across the jaws, and des- mist gives the name of primores to the
cending vertically into the mouth. They front, or incisor teeth ; and of laniarii to
are parallel to each other, and exist to the canine or cuspidati. The term of
the number of two or three hundred on tusks is applied to such teeth as extend
each of the surfaces. They are connect- out of the cavity of the mouth.
ed to the bone by the intervention of a Certain classes of the teeth are entire-
white ligamentous substance, from which ly wanting in some orders, classes, and ge-
they grow; but their opposite edge, nera of quadrupeds; and in other in-
which is turned towards the cayity of the stances, the different descriptions of teeth,
prey
a
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
particularly the canine and molares, are popotamus Hence, as the bone wears
separated by considerable intervals. down much faster than this harder co-
.
There is no animal in which these parts vering, the end of the tooth always con-
are of such equal height and such uniform stitutes a sharp cutting edge, which ren-
arrangement as in man.
ders it very deserving of the name of an
All the three kinds of teeth are found incisor tooth.
in the quadrumana, the carnivora, the This partial covering of enamel refutes,
pachydermata (excepting the two-horned as Blake has observed (“Essay on the
rhinoceros and elephant,) the horse, and Structure, &c. of the Teeth," p. 212,) the
those ruminating animals which have no opinion, that the enamel is formed b the
horns.
process of crystallization.
Cuvier states, that the teeth of an The incisor teeth of these animals are
animal, whose bones are found in a fos- used in cutting and gnawing the harder
sil state, resemble those of man, in be- vegetable substances, for which their
ing arranged in a continued and unbrok- above-mentioned sharp edge renders
en series.
them particularly well adapted. Hence
In the simiæ, carnivora, and all such as Cuvier has arranged these animals in a
have canines longer than the other teeth, particular order, by the name of rodentia,
there is at least one vacancy in each jaw, or the gnawers.
As this employment
for lodging the cuspidatus of the opposite subjects the teeth to immense friction
jaw. There is a vacancy behind each and mechanical attrition, they wear away
canine in the bear.
very rapidly, and would soon be con-
The horned ruminating animals not on- sumed, if they did not possess a power
ly want entirely the upper incisors, but of growth, by which this loss is recom-
they are also destitute of cuspidati, except penced.
the stag, which has rudiments of these These teeth, which are very deeply
teeth ; and the musk (moschus moschi- imbedded in the jaw, are hollow internal-
fer) where they are very long, and cur- ly, just like a human tooth which is not
ved in the upper jaw.
yet completely formed. Their cavity is
Between the incisors and grinders of filled with a vascular pulp, similar to that
the horse, a very large vacancy is left, on which the bone of a tooth is formed ;
in the middle of which a small canine this makes a constant addition of new
tooth, termed the tusk, is found in the substance on the interior of the tooth,
male animal; but very rarely in the fe- which advances to supply the part worn
male.
down. The covering of enamel extends
The elephant has grinders and two over that part of the tooth which is con-
tusks in the upper jaw; but the former tained in the jaw, as we might naturally
only in the lower. The immense tusks expect : for this must be protruded at
belong properly to the male animal; as some future period to supply the loss of
they are so small in the female, generally the anterior portion. Although these
speaking, as not to pass the margin of teeth are very deeply implanted in the
the lip. (Corse in Phil. Trans. 1799, part maxillary bones, they can hardly be said
2. p. 208.)
to possess a fang or root; for the form
The sloths have grinding and canine of the part is the same throughout; the
teeth, without incisors. The dolphin and covering of enamel is likewise continu-
porpoise have small conical teeth, all of ed: and that part, which at one period is
one size and shape, arranged in a contin- contained in the jaw, and would form the
ued line throughout the alveolar margin fang, is afterwards protruded to consti-
of both jaws. The cachalot (physeter tute the body of the tooth.
macrocephalus) has these in the lower The constant growth of these teeth
jaw only. The teeth of the seal are all of therefore proceeds in the same manner,
one form, viz. that of the canine kind : and is effected on the same principles as
conical and pointed.
the original formation of any tooth ; and
The narwhal has no other teeth than can by no means furnish an argument for
the two long tusks implanted in its os in- the existence of vessels in the substance
termaxillare ; of which one is so frequent- of the part.
ly wanting
We cannot help being struck with the
The structure of the incisor teeth, in great size of these teeth, compared with
the rodentia, deserves attention on se- the others of the same animal, or even
veral accounts. They are covered by with the bulk of the animal. Their
enamel only on their anterior or convex length in the lower jaw nearly equals
surface, and the same circumstance holds that of the jaw itself, although a small
good with respect to the tusks of the hip- proportion only of this length appears
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
through the gum. They represent the doubt that it possesses originally two of
segment of a circle ; and are contained in these; one in either jaw bone : and that
a canal of the bone, which descends un- which is wanting must have been lost by
der the sockets of the grinders, and then some accidental circumstance, as we
mounts up, in some instances, to the root can easily suppose, (“Shaw's Zoology,"
of the coronoid process: hence, although vol. ii. p. 473.) These tusks often equal
their anterior cutting edge is in the front in length that of the animal's body ;
of the mouth, the posterior extremity is which may be 18 feet or more: yet they
behind all the grinding teeth. No ani- are always slender.
minal exhibits this structure better than In many baboons, and most particular-
the rat. The beaver also affords a good ly in the larger predacious mammalia,
specimen of it on a larger scale. It has the canine teeth are of a terrific size ; in
been drawn in this animal by Bluke, the latter animals, the whole profile of
(“ Essay on the structure, &c. of the the anterior part of the cranium, forms a
teeth.") The tooth does not extend so far continuous line with these teeth ; which
in the upper jaw ; it is there implanted in is very visible in the tiger. The canine
the intermaxillary bone, and terminates tusks of the babiroussa, which are very
over the first grinder.
long, and recurved so as nearly to de.
The observations which have been scribe a complete circle, present the
made respecting the constant growth of most curious structure. Their utility to
the incisor teeth of the glires, will apply the animal appears quite obscure, when
also to the tusks of the elephant. These their length, direction, and smallness are
are hollow internally, through the greater considered.
part of their length, and the cavity con-
The distribution of the enamel and
tains a vascular pulp, which makes con- bony substance varies in the teeth of
stant additions of successive layers, as different animals, and even in the
the tusk is worn down. One of the ele- different orders of teeth in the same
phants at Exeter Change is said to have animal,
nearly bled to death from a fracture of All the teeth of the carnivora, and the
the tusk, and consequent laceration of the incisors of the ruminating animals, have
vessels of the pulp. The tusks of the the crown only covered with enamel, as
hippopotamus, and probably all other in the human subject. The immense fos-
teeth of this description, grow in the same sil grinders of the animal incognitum, or
Farther and more accurate ob- mammoth, have a similar distribution of
servation may bereafter shew, that the this substance.
same mode of growth obtains also in the grinders of graminivorous quadru.
other classes of teeth, when they are ex- peds, and the incisors also of the horse,
posed to great friction. Something simi- have processes of enamel, descending
lar may certainly be observed in the grin- into the substance of the tooth. These
ders of the horse. The tooth is not finish. organs have also in the last mentioned.
ed when it cuts the gum: the lower part animals a third component part, differing
of its body is completed, while the upper in appearance from both the others, but re-
part is worn away in mastication; and sembling the bone more than the enamel.
the proper fang is not added till long Blake has distinguished this by the name
after. Hence we can never get one of of crusta petrosa; and Cuvier calls it ce-
these teeth in a perfect state, for if the ment.
part out of the gum is complete, the The physiological explanation of this
rest of the body is imperfect; and difference in structure is a very easy
there are no fangs : on the contrary, and clear one. The food of the carnivora
when the fangs are formed, much of the requires very little comminution before
body has been worn away in mastica- it enters the stomach : hence the form of
tion. Blake also asserts, that this struc- their grinding teeth is by no means cal-
ture is found in the grinders of the beaver, culated for grinding: and as the articula-
(p. 99.)
tion of the jaw admits no lateral motion,
The narwhal is particularly distinguish- the molares, of which the lower are over-
ed by its long and spiral tusk. The ani- lapped by the upper, can only act like the
mal is found so constantly with only one incisors of other animals. The food of
tusk, that it has been called in common graminivorous quadrupeds are subject to
language, the sca-unicorn ; and Linnæus à long process of mastication, before it is
has even given it a similar appellation, exposed to the action of the stomach.
that of monodon. Yet there can be no The teeth of the animals suffer great at.
VOL. II.
a
Рp
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
trition during this time, and would be sist of an irregular layer of crusta petrosa:
worn down very rapidily but for the this is succeeded by a waying line of ena-
enamel, which is intermixed with their mel, within which is the proper bone of
substance. As this part is harder than the tooth. But the substance of the lat-
the other constituents of the teeth, it re- ter is penetrated by two productions of
sists the attrition longer, and presents the enamel, in the interior of each of which is
appearance of prominent ridges on the crusta petrosa.
worn surface, by which the grinding of The crusta petrosa which fills these in-
the food is much facilitated.
ternal productions of enamel, is some-
The distinction of the three substances times not completely deposited before the
is seen better in the tooth of the elephant tooth cuts the gum: bence cavities are
than in any animal. The best method of left in the centre of the tooth, which be-
displaying it is by making a longitudinal come filled with a dark substance com-
vertical section, and polishing the cut sur- posed of the animal's food, and other fo-
face. The crusta petrosa will then be dis- reign matters. This seldom happens to
tinguished by a greater yellowness and any considerable extent in the grinders of
opacity in its colour; and by an uniformi- the horse. In the cow and sheep these
ty in its appearance, as no laminæ or fibres cavities are constantly filled with the dark
can be distinguished.
adventitious matter; the crusta petrosa be-
The pulp of a grinding tooth of a gra- ing confined to the exterior surface of the
minivorous quadruped is divided into tooth, and not existing even there so plen-
certain conical processes, which are unit- tifully as in the horse.
ed at their bases. These vary from two The lower grinders of the horse differ
to six in the horse and cow. On these the very much in their formation from those
bone of the tooth is formed, as on the sin- of the upper jaw. Ossification commen-
gle pulp of the human subject, but it is ces in these by four or five points, which
here divided into as many separate shells increase into as many small shells; yet
as there are processes of the pulp: all of they unite without any processes of the
them however inclosed in a common cap- capsule passing down between, to form in-
sule. The ossification commences, as internal productions of the enamel. That
all teeth, on the points of the pulp, and substance is however de posited in a very
extends towards the basis : when it has convoluted manner on the bone of the
arrived there, the shells unite together; tooth, so that the same end is attained, as
and they also join at their outer margins. if productions of the cortex striatus had
Between the processes of the pulp other existed in the centre of the part. The
productions descend from the capsule in crusta petrosa fills up the irregularities
a contrary direction; and deposit on the of this waving line of enamel. An
surface of the shells enamel distinguisha- horizontal section of such a tooth pre-
bie by its crystalline appearance, and sents the three substances arranged
hence denominated by Blake cortex stria- within each other : the crusta petrosa is
When these membranous produc- external ; then comes the enamel, which
tions have formed their portions of ena- includes nothing but the proper bone of
mel, they secrete the crusta petrosa with- the tooth.
in the cavities left between these produc- The incisors of the horse have a pro-
tions of enamel. The outer surface of duction of enamel in their centre; but
the bone of the tooth is covered by the cavity which this forms, containing
enamel, which may be compared to no crusta petrosa, is merely filled by the
that which invests the crown of the hu- particles of food, &c. As these processes
man tooth, except that it is deposited in of enamel descend only to a certain ex-
an irregular waving line, in order to ren- tent in the tooth, they disappear at last
der the surface better calculated for from the constant wear of the part in mas-
grinding : and the inequalities of this sur- tication. This is improperly called the
face of enamel are filled up by crusta per filling up of the teeth; and hence a cri-
trosa. The exterior enamel, and crusta terion arises of the horse's age.
petrosa, (which may be so named, by way The grinding teeth of the elephant con-
of distinguishing them from the processes tain the most complete intermixture of
within the tooth), are formed by the sur- the three substances, and have a greater
face of the capsule.
proportion of crusta petrosa than those of
If then we make a transverse section any other animal. The pulp forms a
of a grinding tooth of the horse or cow, number of broad flat processes, lying
the exterior surface will be found to con- parallel to each other, and placed trans-
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
versely between the inner and outer lami- descending on the posterior surface of
næ of the alveoli. The bone of the tooth each denticus, forms a continued line
is formed on these in separate shells, through the who tooth. Crusta petrosa
commencing at their loose extremities, intervenes between the ascending and
and extending towards the basis, where descending portions of the enamel.
they are connected together. The capsule As the surface of the tooth is worn
sends an equal number of membranous down in mastication, the processes of
productions; which first cover the bony enamel, resisting by their superior hard-
shells with enamel, and then invests them ness, form prominent ridges on the
with crusta petrosa: which latter sub- grinding surface, which must adapt it ex-
stance unites and consolidates the differ- cellently for bruising and comminuting
ent portions. The bony shells vary in any hard substance.
number from four to twenty-three, ac- The grinding bases, when worn suffi.
cording to the size of the tooth, and the ciently to expose the enamel, present a
age of the animal; they have been de- very different appearance in the Asiatic
scribed under the term of denticuli, and and African elephants. The processes of
have been represented as separate teeth enamel in the former species represent
in the first instance. It must however flattened ovals, placed across the tooth.
be remembered that they are formed on In the latter they form a series of lozen-
processes of one single pulp.
ges, which touch each other in the mid-
When the crusta petrosa is completely dle of the tooth.
deposited, the different denticuli are con- It does not appear that crusta petrosa
solidated together. The bony shells are is an essential part in the grinders of
united at their base to the neighbouring graminivorous animals. For those of the
ones; the investments of enamel are rhinoceros do not possess it, although the
joined in like manner: and the intervals enamel descends into their substance,
are filled with the third substance, which and forms a cavity, which is filled with
really deserves the name bestowed on it the food, &c.
by Cuvier, of cement. The pulp is then Home and Blake likewise state, that it
elongated, for the purpose of forming the does not exist in the hippopotamus, where
roots or fangs of the tooth. From the there are internal productions of enamel :
peculiar mode of dentition of this animal, but Mr. Macartney, the learned and in.
which will be explained in a subsequent genious lecturer on comparative anatomy
note, the front portion of the tooth has at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, has found
cut the gum, and is employed in mastica. it in small quantity on the exterior sur-
tion, before the back part is completely face of the tooth, near its root.
formed, even before some of the posterior The want of satisfactory observations
denticuli have been consolidated. The prevents us from saying much on the
back of the tooth does not appear in the change of the teeth, particularly in wild
mouth until the anterior part has been animals. Some erroneous opinions of for-
worn down even to the fang.
mer times, as, for instance, that the do-
A horizontal section of the elephant's mesticated pig changes its teeth, and that
tooth presents a series of narrow bands the wild animal does not, hardly require an
of bone of the tooth, surrounded by cor- express contradiction in the present day.
responding portions of enamel. Between There is no animal of the class Mammalia,
these are portions of crusta petrosa; and where the first appearance and subse-
the whole circumference of the section is quent removal of the deciduous teeth take
composed of a thick layer of the same place at so late a period of life as in man.
substance.
The permanent teeth are generally form-
A vertical section in the longitudinal ed in cavities near the roots of the tem-
direction exhibits the processes of bone, porary ones; and they succeed to the va-
upon the different denticuli, running up cancies left by the discharge of the lat-
from the fangs: a vertical layer of ena- ter. A different mode of succession ob.
mel is placed before, and another be. tains, however, in some instances. The
hind each of these. If the tooth is not yet adult molares of the human subject are
worn by mastication, the two layers of formed in the back of the two jaws,
enamel are continuous at the part where from which situation they advance suc-
the bone terminates in a point; and the cessively towards the front, in proportion
front layer of one denticulus is continu as the maxillary bones are lengthened in
ous with the back layer of the succeeding that direction. A similar, but much more
one, at the root of the tooth; so that the remarkable species of succession is ob-
enamel, ascending on the anterior, and served in the grinders of the elephant,
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
where it was ascertained by the labours A similar kind of succession, but to
of Mr. Corse, who has explained and a less extent, bas been ascertained by
illustrated the subject in a series of beau- Mr. Home, in the teeth of the sus Æthie
tiful engravings. See Observations on opicus.“ Observations on the Structure,
the different Species of Asiatic Elephants, of the Teeth of graminivorous Quadru-
and their Mode of Dentition,” Phil Trans. peds; particularly those of the Elephant
1799, Part IL
and sus Ethiopicus,” Phil. Trans. 1799,
We never see more than one grinder, Part II.
and part of another, through the gum The researches of the same gentleman
in this animal. The anterior one is gra- have also proved it to exist in the wild
dually worn away by mastication : its boar to a certain degree; and have ren-
fangs and alveoli are then absorbed ; the dered it probable, that it occurred like-
posterior tooth coming forwards to sup-wise in the animal incognitum (mam-
ply its place. As this goes through the moth). “ Observations on the Structure
same stages as the preceding grinder, a and Mode of Growth of the Wild Boar
third tooth, which was contained in the and animal Incognitum.” Phil. Trans.
back of the jaw, appears through the 1801, Part II.
gum, and advances, in proportion as the It is remarkable, that the number of
destruction and absorption of the other cervical vertebræ in the mammalia should
proceed. The same process is repeated be constantly seven, although the animals
at least eight times; and each new grin- of this class differ so much in the length
der is larger than that which came before of the neck. A single exception occurs
it. The first, or milk grinder, is compos in the three-toed sloth, which has nine.
ed of four transverse plates or denticuli, The lumbar vertebræ vary much in
and cuts the gum soon after birth. The number ; the elephant has three, the cam-
2d, which has eight or nine plates, has el seven, the horse six, and the ass five.
completely appeared at the age of two Mules have generally six. The os coc-
years. The 3d, formed of twelve or cygis is prolonged so as to form the tail
thirteen, at six years. From the 4th to of quadrupeds.
the 8th grinder the number of plates va- The cavity of the pelvis is so narrow in
ries from fifteen to twenty-three, which the mole, that it cannot hold the parts of
is the largest hitherto ascertained. The generation, and the neighbouring viscera,
exact age at which each of these is com. which lie, therefore, externally to the ossa
pleted, has not yet been made out. But pubis.
it appears, that every new one takes at In the kangaroo, and in other marsu-
least a year more for its formation than pial animals, the anterior margin of the
its predecessor
ossa pubis is furnished with a peculiar
From the gradual manner in which the pair of small bones for supporting the
tooth advances, it is manifest, that a small abdominal pouch of the female.
portion of it only can penetrate the gum Cetaceous animals, having no hind feet,
at once. A grinder, consisting of twelve have, consequently, no pelvis : but there
or fourteen plates, has two or three of is a pair of small bones at the lower part
these through the gum, whilst the others of the belly, which may be compared to
are imbedded in the jaw. The formation the ossa pubis.
of the tooth is complete, therefore, first, In a very few mammalia, as some bats
at its anterior part, which is employed in and armadillos, there is a pair of ribs less
mastication, while the back part is very than in man; but in most of the class
incomplete; as the succeeding laminæ ad- these bones are more numerous. The
vance through the gum, their formation horse has 18, the elephant 19, and the
is successively perfected But the pos- two-toed sloth 23 pairs. The sternum is
terior layers of the tooth are not employ- generally cylindrical and jointed.
ed in mastication, until the anterior ones
have been worn down to the very fang, BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.
which begins to be absorbed One of
these grinders can never, therefore, be We may assert as a general observa.
procured in a perfect state: for if its an- tion, that the four component parts of the
terior part has not been at all worn, the upper extremity, viz. the shoulder, arm,
back is not completely formed, and the fore-arm, and hand, can be clearly shewn
fangs in particular are wanting ; while the to exist in the anterior extremities of all
structure of the back of the tooth is not mammalia ; however dissimilar they may
completed, until the anterior portion has appear to each other on a superficial in-
disappeared.
spection, and however widely they may
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
a
:
seem to deviate from the human struc- squirrel and beaver, who use their front
ture.
extremities for the purpose of holding
Whenever an animal of one class re- objects, rather than for that of supporting
sembles those of a different order in the the body in the mole, who employs
form and use of any part, we may be as- them for digging, &c. &c. Many other
sured that this resemblance is only in ex- animals have in its place an analagous
ternals, and that it does not affect the small bone, merely connected to the mus-
number and arrangement of the bones. cles, and called, by Vicq d'Azyr, os clavi.
Thus the bat has a kind of wings; but an culare, to distinguish it from the more
attentive examination will prove, that perfect clavicle. This is the case with
these are really hands, with the phalanges most of the feræ, and some glires. It does
of the fingers elongated. The dolpbin, not exist, on the contrary, in such as use
porpoise, and other cetacea, seem to pos- their fore-feet merely for the purpose of
sess fins, consisting of a single piece. But progression ; since these limbs must be
we find under the integuments of the fin- brought more forwards on the chest, that
like members, all the bones of an ante. they may support that part, by being
rior extremity, flattened in their form, placed perpendicularly under it. In the
and hardly susceptible of any motion genera, which hold an intermediate rank
on each other. We can recognise very between these; which do not enjoy such
clearly the scapula, humerus, bones of an extensive utility of the fore-feet as the
the fore-arm, and a hand consisting of first division of animals; and are not so
five fingers; the same parts, in short, limited in their employment as the se-
which form the anterior extremity of cond, the clavicular bones, or imperfect
other mammalia. See Tyson's “ Anato- clavicles, exist.
my of a Porpoise," fig. 10 and 11: also In ruminating animals, and in the
Blasii “ Anatomia Animalium," tab. 51, borse, the metacarpus consists of a sin-
fig. 3, 4.
gle bone, called the cannon bone, which
The fore-feet of the sea-otter, seal, wal- is very long when compared with that of
rus, and manati, form the connecting man. The humerus becomes shorter, in
link between the anterior extremities of proportion as the metacarpus is elongat-
other mammalia, and the pectoral fins ed so that in animals which have a can-
of the whale kind. The bones are so non bone, the os humeri hardly extends
covered and connected by integuments, beyond the trunk. Hence the mistakes
as to constitute a part adapted for which are made in common language, by
the purposes of swimming : but they calling the carpus of the borse his fore-
are much more developed than in the knee, &c.
latter animals, and have free motion on The radius forms the chief bone of the
each other.
fore-arm in the mammalia, generally
The cold blooded quadrupeds bear speaking; the ulna is a small slender
great analogy in the four component parts, bone, terminating short of the wrist in a
and in the general structure of their ante. point, and often consolidated with the ra-
rior extremities, to the warm-blooded dius, as in the horse and ruminating ani-
ones. See Caldesi's “Observations on the mals. A few genera, which have great
Turtle," tab. 3, fig. 1, 4, 5.
and free use of their anterior extremity,
The bones of the wing of birds have a have the power of pronation and supina-
considerable and unexpected resemblance tion. But this power diminishes, as the
to those of the fore-feet of the mamma- fore-feet are used more for the purpose of
lia. And the fin-like anterior member of supporting the body in standing, and in
the penguin contains, within the integu- progression. In this case, indeed, the ex-
ments, the same bones as the wings of tremity may be said to be constantly in the
other birds.
prone position, as the back of the carpus
The clavicle supports the anterior ex- and toes is turned forwards.
tremity, and maintains the shoulder at its The lower end of the ulna is larger than
proper distance from the front of the that of the radius in the elephant; but
trunk. It exists, therefore, in all such this circumstance occurs in no other in-
animals as make much use of these mem- stance.
bers, whether for the purpose of climb. The radius and ulna exist in the seal,
ing, digging, swimming, or flying. It has, manati, and whales, but in a flattened
indeed, been supposed to be confined to form.
Linnæus's order Primates (in which he Several genera of mammalia possess a
includes man, the quadrumanous ani- hand; but it is much less complete, and
mals, and bats.) It will be found in the consequently less useful than that of the
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
human subject, which well deserves the side with a slight groove at the place of
name bestowed on it by Aristotle, of the the original separation. There is there
organ of all organs. The great superiori- fore but one metacarpal bone in the adult
ty of that most perfect instrument, the hu- for the two toes. The structure of the
man hand, arises from the size and metatarsus is the same.
strength of the thumb, which can be The single finger or fore-toe of the
brought into a state of opposition to the horse, is composed of the usual three
fingers, and is hence of the greatest use phalanges; the first, which is articulat-
in grasping spherical bodies, in taking up ed to the cannon, is called the pas-
any object in the hand, in giving us a firm tern; the 2d is the coronet; and the
hold on whatever we seize; in short, in 3d the os basis or coffin bone ; on
a thousand offices, which occur every which the hoof rests. There are also
moment of our lives, and which either two sesamoid bones at the back of the
could not be accomplished at all, if the pastern joint ; and an additional part
thumb were absent, or would require the called the shuttle-bone connected to the
concurrence of both hands, instead of be- coffin.
ing done by one only. Hence it has been In those animals, which have five
justly described by Albinus as a second toes, as the carnivora, &c. that which lies
hand,“ manus parva majori adjutrix,"de on the radial side of the extremity, and
sceleto, p. 465.
is therefore analogous to the thumb, is
All the simiæ possess hands : but even parallel with the others; and the animal
in those, which may be most justly stiled consequently has not the power of
anthropomorphous, the thumb is small, grasping any object. The last phalanx
short, and weak; and the other fingers in these supports the nail of the animal ;
elongated and slender. In others, as and sends a process into its cavity.
some of the cercopitheci, there is no These parts are so connected that the
thumb, or at least it is concealed under nail is naturally turned upwards, and not
the integuments; but these animais bave towards the ground ; so that its point
a kind of fore paw, which is of some use is not injured in the motions of the
in seizing and carrying their food to the animal. The phalanx must be bent in
mouth, in climbing, &c. like that of the order to point the nail forwards or down-
squirrel. The genus lemur has also a wards,
separate thumb. Other animals, which The order of rodentia have generally
have fingers sufficiently long and movea- five toes : that which corresponds to the
ble for seizing and grasping objects, are thumb being the shortest.
obliged, by the want of a separate thumb, The elephant has five complete toes;
to hold them by means of the two fore- but they are almost concealed by the
paws; as the squirrel, rat, opossum, &c. thick skin.
Those, which are moreover obliged to The pig has four toes; two larger
rest their body on the fore-feet, as the ones, which touch the ground; and
dog and cat, can only hold objects by two smaller behind these, which do
fixing them between the paw and the not reach so far. There is also a bone,
ground. Lastly, such as have the fin- which seems to be the rudiment of a
gers united by the integuments, or en- thumb.
closed in hoofs, lose all power of prehen- The phalanges of the cetacea are flat-
sion,
tened; not moveable, and joined together
The metacarpus is elongated in those in the fin.
animals, where the toe only touches the
ground in standing or walking; and con- BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY.
stitutes the part, which is commonly calle
ed the fore-leg; as the carpus is termed The length of the femur depends
the knee.
on that of the metatarsus; and it bears
The number of metacarpal bones is the an inverse ratio to the length of that
same with that of the fingers or fore-toes; part.
except in the ruminating animals. Even Hence it is very short in the horse,
in these there are two distinct metacar- cow, &c. where the same mistakes are
pal bones, lying close together before commonly committed in naming the parts
birth: the opposed surfaces first become as in the anterior extremity.
thinner, then are perforated by several The proportions of the thigh and leg
openings, and at last disappear; so that vary in different animals. The latter part
the adult animal has a single cannon exceeds the former in the human sub-
bone, possessing a common medullary ject; and the same remark may be made
cavity, internally, and marked on the out. respecting the arm and fore-arm. These
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
arm.
parts are nearly of the same length in the same fact is stated of the bear itself,
orang-outang. Some persons have af- properly so called, by the Parisian dis-
firmed that the negro forms a connecting sectors.
link between the European and the
In other animals the body is sup-
orang.outang in these respects. (White ported upon the phalanges of the toes, as
on the regular Gradation in Man and in the dog and cat; in the horse and ru-
Animals, &c.) In some other simiæ the minating animals no part touches the
leg and fore-arm exceed the thigh and ground but the last phalanx. Here the
In other animals, although there elongation of the metatarsus removes the
are some varieties, the leg is generally os calcis to such a distance from the toe,
longer than the thigh.
that it is placed midway between the
The fibula is consolidated to the tibia trunk and hoof.
at its lower end in the mole and rat. It
only exists as a small styloid bone in the
SKELETON OF BIRDS.
horse, and becomes anchylosed to the
tibia in an old animal.
The skull, which in the adult has no
The structure of the metatarsus in the sutures, is articulated to the spine by a
ruminating animals, and the horse, is the single rounded condyle. This structure
same with that of the metacarpus. gives the head a great freedom of motion,
The tarsus of the horse is composed of particularly in the horizontal direction.
six bones; and is the part known in It enables the bird to place its bill be-
common language by the name of the tween the wings when asleep; a situa-
hock.
tion in which none of the mammalia can
Animals of the genus simia and lemur, place the snout.
instead of having a great toe placed pa- The lower jaw is articulated to the cra-
rallel with the others, are furnished with nium by means of a square bone on each
a real thumb: i. e, a part capable of be- side, called os quadratum. The superior
ing opposed to the other toes. Hence mandible, which is completely immove.
these animals can neither be called biped able in mammalia, has, with a few excep-
nor quadruped, but are really quadruma- tions, more or less motion in birds. It
nous or fourhanded. They are not des- either constitutes a particular bone, dis-
tined to go either on two or four extre- tinct from the rest of the cranium, to
mities, but to live in trees, since their which it is articulated, as in the psitta-
four prehensile members enable them to ci (birds of the parrot kind ;) or it is
climb with the greatest facility. So that connected into one piece with the cra-
Cuvier has denominated them“ les grim- nium, by means of yielding and elastic
peurs par excellence." (Leçons d'Anat. bony plates; as is the case with birds in
Comp vol. i. p. 493.) The prehensile general. It is quite immoveable in a ve-
tail of several species is a further assis- ry few instances, as the tetrao urogallus
tance in this way of life. The opossum, (cock of the woods) and the rhinoceros
and others of the genus didelphis, have a bird.
similar structure with the quadrumana ; The jaws are entirely destitute of teeth.
and it answers the same purpose. Here The bill may be considered, in some de-
however there is a separate thumb on gree, as supply ng the place of teeth ; yet
the posterior extremity only, whence Cu- as none of these animals masticate their
vier calls them pedimanes.
food, but swallow it whole, the bill can
Man is the only animal in which the only be compared to the incisors of such
whole surface of the foot rests on the animals as use them for seizing and pro-
ground: and this circumstance arises curing their food.
from the erect stature, which belongs It consists of a horny fibrous matter,
exclusively to him. In the quadrumana, similar to that of the nail, or of proper
in the bear, hedgehog, and shrew, horns; and is moulded to the shape of
(which are called by Cuvier planti- the bones which constitute the two man-
grades,) the os calcis does not touch the dibles, being formed by a soft vascular
ground.
substance, covering these bones. Its
The heel of a species of bear belong- form and structure are as intimately con-
ing to this country, viz. the badger (ur- nected with the habits and general cha-
sus meles) is covered with a long fur, racter of the animal, as those of the teeth
which proves that this part cannot rest are in the mammalia. Hence an enume.
on the ground; although the structure ration of its different figures and consis-
both of the bones and muscles of the tence belongs properly to the department
lower extremity of this animal approach of natural history, where it forms the
es considerably to that of man. The foundation of classific distinctions.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
The accipitres, or rapacious birds, have the clavicles, and the front of the scapu-
it very hard, hooked at the end, and læ, just where these bones join each
furnished with a process on either side ; other, and are articulated with the hu-
calculated, therefore, in all respects, merus. Hence it serves to keep the
.
for seizing and lacerating their prey. wings apart in the rapid motions of fly-
Those of the parrot kind have it also ing:
hard, for bruising the firmer vegeta- As a general observation, it may be
ble fruits; and the wood-pecker, nut- stated that the fork is strong and elastic ;
hatch, &c. for penetrating the bark of and its branches wide, arched, and car-
trees.
ried forwards upon the body, in propor-
Those birds, which take a softer kind tion as the bird possesses strength and
of food, and which require a sense of rapidity of flight and accordingly the
a
;
feeling in the part, for distinguishing struthious birds (ostrich and cassowary,)
their food in mud, water, &c. have it which are incapable of this mode of pro-
approaching to the softness of skin. gression, have the fork very imperfectly
.
Such are the duck, snipe, woodcock, formed. The two branches are very
&c.
short, and never united in the African
In several classes, particularly the ac- ostrich, but are anchylosed with the sca-
cipitres and gallinæ, the base of the bill pula and clavicle. The cassowary has
is covered with a soft skin, called the merely two little processes from the side
cire, of unknown use.
The cervical vertebræ of birds are ve- of the branches of the fork. In the New
of the clavicle, which are the rudiments
ry numerous, and have a very free motion Holland ostrich there are two very small
on each other. This great mobility of thin bones, which are attached to the an-
the neck enables the animal to touch terior edge of the dorsal end of the cla-
every point of its body with the bill; vicles by ligament; they are directed up-
and thus supplies the want of the prehen- wards towards the neck, where they are
sile faculty of the anterior extremity. fastened to each other by means of a liga-
The sternum is prolonged below into a ment, and have no connection whatever
vertical process (crista) for the attach- with the sternum.
ment of the strong pectoral muscles,
which are the chief agents in the act
The bones of the wing may be com-
of Aying. In the male wild swan (anas pared, on the whole, to those of the up-
cygnas) and in some species of the genus per extremity in man: and consist of an
os humeri ; two bones of the fore-arm ;
ardea, as the crane, this part forms a pe-
culiar cavity for the reception of a consi- two of the carpus; two, which are gene-
derable portion of the trachea. The rally consolidated together, of the meta-
crista is entirely wanting in the ostrich carpus; one bone of the thumb, and two
and cassowary; where the sternum pre-
fingers.
sents, on its anterior or under surface, an The stork, and some others of the gral-
uniform convexity, and this peculiarity læ, which sleep standing on one foot,
of structure is accounted for by observ- possess a curious mechanism for preserv.
ing that these birds have not the power ing the leg in a state of extension, with-
of flying
out any, or at least with little, muscular
The wings are connected to the trunk effort. There arises from the fore-part
by means of three remarkable bones. of the head of the metatarsal bone a
The clavicles, which are always strong, round eminence, which passes up be-
constitute 'straight cylindrical bones arti- tween the projections of the pulley, on
culated to the sides of the front of the the anterior part of the end of the tibia.
sternum, and extending straight forwards. This eminence affords a sufficient de.
Their anterior extremities are connected gree of resistance to the flexion of the
to the sternum, by means of a bone pe- leg, to counteract the effect of the os-
culiar to birds, viz. the fork-like bone, cillations of the body, and would prove
or, as it is more commonly termed, the an insurmountable obstruction to the mo-
merrythought. (Furcula, in French, la tion of the joint, if there were not a sock-
lunette or fourchette.) The scapula, et, within the upper part of the pulley of
which is flattened in form, but elongated, the tibia, to receive it when the leg is in
extends backwards from the front of the the bent position. The lower edge of
clavicle, parallel to the spine. The point the socket is prominent and sharp, and
of the fork-like bone is joined to the most presents a sort of barrier to the admission
prominent part of the keel of the ster- of the eminence, that requires a volun-
num; and the extremities of its two tary muscular exertion of the bird to
branches are tied to the humeral ends of overcome, which being accomplished,
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
it slips in with some force, like the end abdominal sternum, which is quite differ
of a dislocated bone.
ent from the thoracic sternum, and ex.
tends from the ensiform cartilage to the
SKELETON OF THE AMPHIBIA. pubis, apparently for the purpose of sup-
porting the abdominal viscera.
Turtles and tortoises have no teeth : The serpents have an upper jaw, un-
but their jaws are covered with a horny sub- connected with the rest of the skull, and
stance somewhat resembling the horse's more or less moveable of itself.
hoof in the mode of its connection with the We find in their teeth the important
bone. The cavity containing the brain is and clearly defined difference, which dis-
extremely small in comparison with the tinguishes the poisonous species of ser-
size of the skull. This circumstance is still pents from the much more numerous in-
more remarkable in the crocodile, where, noxious tribes.
in an individual measuring 13 or 14 feet, The latter have in the upper jaw, four
this cavity will hardly admit the thumbmaxillary bones, beset with small teeth,
The vast muscles of the jaw fill up the which form two rows, separated by a
sides of the cranium.
considerable interval from each other.
The body of the turtle and tortoise is One of these is placed along the front
provided with two broad and flattened edge of the jaw; the other is found more
bony shells, to which the trunk of their internally, and is situated longitudinally
skeleton is consolidated.
on either side of the palate.
Frogs and toads have no teeth. In no The external row is wanting in the poi.
other animal are the jaws of such immense sonous species; wbich have, in their stead,
size, in comparison with the extremely much larger tubular fangs, connected
small cavity of the cranium, as in the cro. with the poison bladder, and constituting,
codile. The anterior part of the upper in reality, bony excretory ducts, which
jaw, consists of a large intermaxillary convey the venom into the wound inflicted
bone; and the lateral portions of the lower by the bite of the animal.
maxilla are formed of several pieces join- It appears, in general, that the number
ed together. The lower jaw is articulated of vertebræ in red-blooded animals, is in
in a peculiar manner in these animals : it an inverse proportion with the size and
has an articular cavity, in which a condyle strength of their external organs of mo-
of the upper jaw is received.
tion. Serpents, therefore, which entirely
The condyle resembles, in some mea- want these organs, have the most nu.
sure, the pulley at the inferior extremity merous vertebræ; sometimes more than
of the humerus (the trochlea, or rotula of 300.
Albinus ;) this, at least, is the case in the It may be observed in confirmation of
skull of the alligator.
this remark, that the number of vertebræ
The old error, of supposing that the is very great in fishes of an elongated
upper jaw of the crocodile is moveable, form; viz. in the eel, which has above one
and the lower, on the contrary, incapable hundred. The porpoise, which has no
of motion, which has been adopted even organs of motion which deserve mention-
by such anatomists as Vesalius and Co- ing, has between sixty and seventy.
lumbus, has perhaps arisen from this pe-
Birds which have such vast power of
culiar mode of articulation. An examina. locomotion by means of their wings,
tion of the cranium shows, that if the have very few vertebræ, if we consider
lower jaw remains unmoved, the whole the anchylosed ones as forming a single
remainder of the skull may be carried piece. And the frog, with its immense
backwards and forwards by means of this hind extremities, bas a very short spine,
joint. And such a motion is proportion- consisting of still fewer pieces.
ally easier in the present instance, than in We should naturally conclude, from ob-
any other animal, both on account of the serving the great diversity in the general
very great relative size of the lower jaw, form of fishes, that the structure of their
as well as from its anomalous mode of ar- skeleton must be equally various. They
ticulation. There is, however, no motion agree together, however, on the whole, in
of the upper jaw-bone only, upon the having a spine, which extends from the
bones of the cranium, similar to that cranium to the tail.fin ; and in having the
which occurs in most birds, serpents, and other fins, particularly those of the thorax
fishes.
and abdomen, articulated with peculiar
The most surprising singularity in the bones, destined to that purpose. They
skeleton of the crocodile consists in an have in general many more bones uncon-
VOL. II.
Qq
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
nected with the rest of the skeleton, than marmot, are provided with cheek pouch-
the animals of the preceding classes. es, in which the former who live on trees,
The cranium in several cartilaginous place small quantities of food as a re-
fishes, (in the skate for instance) has a serve: the latter employ these bags to
very simple structure, consisting chiefly convey their winter provision to their bur-
of one large piece. In the bony fishes, rows.
on the contrary, its component parts are The peculiar glandular and moveable
very numerous; amounting to eighty in bag, (bursa faucium) which is placed
the head of the perch. Most of the behind the palate, bas hitherto been only
latter have a more or less moveable un- observed in the camels of the old world :
der-jaw.
and it probably serves to lubricate the
Great variety in the structure of the throat of these animals in their abode
teeth is observed in this class. Some ge- in the dry sandy deserts which they in-
nera, as the sturgeon, are toothless. Their habit.
jaws, which are distinct from the cranium, The esophagus of quadrupeds is dis-
form a moveable part, capable of being tinguished from that of the human sub-
thrust forwards from the mouth, and again ject by possessing two rows of muscu-
retracted.
lar fibres, which pursue a spiral course,
Those fishes which possess teeth, differ and decussate each other. In those car-
very much in the form, number, and posi- nivorous animals which swallow vora-
tion of these organs. Some species of spa- ciously, as the wolf, it is very large ; on
rus, (as the S probato-cephalus) have front the contrary, in many of the larger her-
teeth almost like those of man ; they are bivora, and particularly in such as ru-
provided with fangs, which are contained minate, its coats are proportionally stron-
in alveoli. In many genera of fishes, the ger.
teeth are formed by processes of the jaw. No mammalia possess an uvula, except
bones covered with a crust of enamel. In man and the simia.
most of the sharks, the mouth is furnished In some herbivora the stomach has an
with very numerous teeth, for the supply of uniform appearance externally; but it is
such as may be lost. The white shark has divided into two portions internally, ei-
more than two hundred, lying on each ther by a remarkable difference in the
other in rows, almost like the leaves of an two balves of its internal coat, as in the
artichoke. Those only which form the horse, or by a valvular elongation of this
front row have a perpendicular direction, membrane, as in several animals of the
and are completely uncovered. Those of mouse-kind. This is also the case in the
the subsequent rows are, on the contrary, hare and rabbit, where also the food in
smaller: have their points turned back the two halves of the stomach differs
wards, and are covered with a kind of very much in appearance, particularly if
gum. These come through the cover the animal has been fed about two hours
ing substance, and pass forward when any before death.
teeth of the front row are lost. It will In these animals the left half of the sto-
be understood from this description that mach is covered with cuticle, while the
the teeth in question cannot have any other portion has the usual villous and se.
fangs.
creting surface. The left portion of the ca-
The saw-fish only (squalus pristis) has vity may be regarded as a reservoir, from
teeth implanted in the bone on both sides which the food is transmitted to the true
of the sword-shaped organ, with which its digestive organ; and the different states
head is armed.
in which the food is found in the two
In some fishes the palate, in others the parts of the cavity justify this supposi-
bone of the tongue (as in the frog-fish,) in tion. Hence these stomachs form a
others (as in several of the ray-kind,) the connecting link between those of rumi-
aperture of the mouth forms a continuous nating animals on one side, and those
surface of tooth.
which have the whole surface villous on
the other.
MOUTH, ESOPHAGUS, AND STOMACH, On the whole internal surface of the
horse's stomach there are found in vast
We have already shown the most im- abundance, particularly in spring, the lar-
portant circumstances relating to the væ of two species of estrus ; viz. the es-
mouth. Many species of the genus si. trus equi (which Linnæus called cestrus
mia, as well as the hamster, (marmota bovis, and the c. hæmorrhoidalis, the
cricetus) and some similar species of the true history of which has been eluci-
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
dated, for the first time in modern days, The food of carnivorous animals ap-
by that excellent veterinary surgeon Mr. proaching in its constitutent elements
Bracy Clark, in the “Transactions of the more nearly to those of the animal than
Linnæan Society.” vol. 3.
that of the herbivorous tribes, is more
These animals, which are called botts, easily reduced into the state which is re-
attach themselves to every part of the quired for the nourishment of the body,
stomach, but are in general most nume in the former than in the latter case.
rous about the pylorus ; and are some-
Hence arises a leading distinction be-
times, but much less frequently, found in tween the stomachs of these classes. In
the intestines. They hang most common the latter animals, the esophagus opens
ly in clusters, being fixed by the small considerably to the right of the great ex-
end to the inner membrane of the sto tremity, so as to leave a large cul de sac
mach, where they adhere by means of on the left side of the stomach ; and the
two small hooks or tentacula. When re-
small intestine commences near the car-
moved from the stomach, they will attach dia, leaving a similar blind bag on the
themselves to any loose membrane, and right. The food must be detained for a
even to the skin of the hand; for this pur- long time in such a stomach, as the pas-
pose they draw back their hooks almost sage from the csophagus to the pylorus
entirely within the skin, till the two is indirect and highly unfavorable to
points of these hooks come close to each speedy transmission. 'Animals of the
other ; they then present them to the mouse kind, and the rodentia, show this
membrane, and keeping them parallel till structure very well; it is very remarka-
it is pierced through, they expand them ble in the mus quercinus, (Cuvier, “ Le-
in a lateral direction; and afterwards, by çons,” &c. tom. 5. pl. 36. fig: 11). In
bringing the points downwards, or to the carnivora, the stomach, which is of a
wards themselves, they include a suffi. cylindrical form, has no cul de sacs; the
cient piece of the membrane with each oesophagus opens at its anterior extremi.
hook, and thus remain firmly fixed, for ty, and the intestine commences from the
any length of time, without any further posterior ; so that every thing favours a
exertion of the animal. They attain their quick passage of the food Animals
full growth about the latter end of May, of the weasel kind, which are very truly
and are coming from the horse from this carnivorous, exhibit this structure the
time to the latter end of June. On drop- most completely. The seal also exem-
ping to the ground, they soon change to plifies it, and the lion. (Cuvier, pl. 36.
the crysalis, and in six or seven weeks the fig. 7.)
fly appears. This bott is larger and whit- The most complicated and artificial
er than that of the æstrus hæmorrhoidalis, arrangement, both with respect to struc-
which has a reddish cast; but in its structure and mechanism, is found in the
ture, and situation in the animal, resem- well-known four stomachs of the rumi-
bles the former. It is found, however, nating animals with divided hoofs; of
to hang about the rectum, previously to this we shall take, as examples, the cow
quitting it, which the large horse-bott and sheep.
never does.
The first stomach, or paunch, (rumen,
penula, magnus ventor, ingluvies, is by
Veterinary practitioners do not seem to far the largest in the adult animal ; not
have decided hitherto, whether these so however in the recently born calf or
animals are prejudicial to the horse ; nor lamb. It is divided externally into two
even whether they may not be actually saccular appendices at its extremity,
beneficial. Their almost universal exis- and it is slightly separated into four
tence at a certain season, even in ani-
mals perfectly healthy, shows that they is beset with innumerable flattened papil-
parts on the inside. Its internal coat
produce no marked ill effect : yet the læ.
holes which they leave, where they were
attached to the stomach, could hardly be mach, honeycomb bag, bonnet, or king's
This is followed by the second sto.
made without causing some injurious ir. hood, (reticulum, ollula), which may be
ritation.
regarded as a globular appendage of
For the mode in which these botts gain the paunch ; but is distinguished from
admission into the stomach, as also for a the latter part by the elegant arrange-
most interesting general account of their ment of its internal coat, which forms
history and structure, see Estrus, which polygonal and acute-angled cells, or su.
was furnished by Mr. Clark, and from perficial cavities.
which the preceding account is bor- The third stomach, which is the small-
Towed.
est, is called the manyplus, which is a
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
corruption of manyplies (echinus, con- full. It has been expressly stated of some
clave, centipellio, omasum): it is distin- men, who have had the power of ruminat-
guished from the two former, both by its ing, (instances of which are not very rare),
form, which has been compared to that of that it was quite voluntary with them.
a hedgehog when rolled up, and by its in- Blumenbach knew two men, who rumi-
ternal structure. Its cavity is much con- nated their vegetable food : both assured
tracted by numerous and broad duplica- him that they had a real enjoyment in do-
tures of the internal coat, which lie ing this, which has also been observed of
,
lengthwise, vary in breadth in a regular others; and one of them had the power
alternate order, and amount to about 40 of doing it, or leaving it alone, according
in the sheep, 100 in the cow.
to circumstances.
The fourth, or the red, (abomasum, fa- The final purpose of rumination, as ap-
liscus, ventriculus intestinalis,) is next in plicable to all the animals in which it
size to the paunch, of an elongated, pyri- takes place, and the chief utility of this
form shape, with an internal villous coat wonderfully complicated function in the
like that of the human stomach, with animal economy, are still completely un-
large longitudinal ruga.
known. What has been already suggest-
The three first stomachs are connected ed on these points is completely unsatis-
with each other, and with a groove-like factory. The old dream of Aristotle and
continuation of the esophagus, in a very Galen, that rumination supplies the place
remarkable way. The latter tube enters of incisor teeth, the materials of which
just where the paunch, the second and
are applied, in these animals, to the
third stomachs, approach each other ; it is formation of horns, scarcely deserves
then continued with the groove, which mention. Perrault and ot|
Perrault and others supposed
ends in the third stomach. This groove that it contributed to the security of these
is therefore open to the first stomachs, animals, which generally eat much and
which lie to its right and left. But the are timid, by showing the necessity of
thick prominent lips which form the mar. their remaining long employed in chew-
gin of the groove, admit of being drawn ing in an open pasture. But the Indian
together so as to form a complete canal : buffalo ruminates, although it does not
which then constitutes a direct continua- fly even from a lion, but rather attacks,
tion of the esophagus into the third sto- and often vanquishes that animal :
mach.
and the wild goat dwells in Alpine coun-
The functions of this very singular tries, which are inaccessible to beasts of
part will vary, according as we consider
prey.
it in the state of a groove, or of a closed The peculiar structure of the stomach
canal. In the first case, the grass, &c. is in the camel and lama, which enables
passed, after a very slight degree of mas- these animals to take at one time a suffi-
tication, into the paunch, as into a reser- cient quantity of water to last them for
voir. Thence it goes in small portions two, three, or more days, and thereby
into the second stomach, from which, renders them adapted to inhabit the dry
after a further maceration, it is propelled, and sandy deserts, which constitute their
by a kind of antiperistaltic motion, into natural abode, is highly worthy of atten-
the æsophagus, and thus returns into the tion. The fluid which they drink is de-
mouth. It is here ruminated, and again posited in numerous cells, formed in the
swallowed, when the groove is shut, and substance of their first and second sto-
the morsel of food, after this second mas- machs, by strong bands of muscular
tication, is thereby conducted directly fibres crossing each other at right angles.
into the third stomach. During the It should seem that the animal has the
short time which it probably stays in power of closing these cells by the con-
this situation between the folds of the traction of those fibres which form the
internal coat, it is still further prepar- mouths of the cavities, or of expelling the
ed for digestion, which process is com-contained fluid by putting the other por-
pleted in the fourth or true digestive tions of fibres in action.
stomach.
This cellular structure is found in two
The phenomena of rumination suppose parts of the first stomach ; and it occu-
a power of voluntary motion in the part. pies the whole of the second. It was
And indeed the influence of the will in found in a dead camel, that these cavities
the whole function is incontestible. It is would hold two gallons of fluid ; but they
not confined to any particular time, since were probably more capacious during
the animal can delay it according to cir- life, as the animal in question always
cumstances, when the paunch is quite drank six or seven gallons of water every
a
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
other day, and took more in the interme- cular as that of the gallinaceous fowls,
diate time Mr. Bruce states, in his travels, and contains, like that of granivorous
that he procured four gallons from one birds, small stones and gravel, which are
which he slaughtered in Upper Egypt. probably swallowed for the same purpose
“Shaw's Abridgment of Bruce's Travels." as in those birds.
Ed. 3. p. 371
As all the food which the animal takes ESOPHAGUS AND STOMACH OF BIRDS.
passes into the first stomach, the water
of the cells in that part becomes turbid; The esophagus is of immense size in
but it remains perfectly pure in the se- many carnivorous birds; considerably
cond, where it resides in the greatest larger indeed than the intestinal canal.
quantity; which circumstance accounts The capaciousness of this tube enables it
for travellers being able to drink it on an to hold for a time the entire fish and large
emergency. The muscular bands, which bones which these birds swallow, and
form the groove described in the ac- which cannot be contained in the sto-
count of the ruminating stomach, are par- mach; and to facilitate the discharge by
ticularly strong; and by drawing the vomiting the indigestible remains of the
third stomach to the æsophagus, convey food, which form balls of hair, feathers,
the ruminated food through the second and bony matter.
without polluting the water in its cells.
Hence the food that has been macerated the sternum into the crop (ingluvies,
The æsophagus expands just before
in the paanch must be sent back to the prolobus, le jabot), which is furnished
mouth directly from that cavity, without with numerous mucous or salivary glands,
passing into the second stomach, as it disposed in many cases in regular rows.
does in the cow. See “ Observations on In such birds as nourish their young from
the camel's stomach respecting the water the crop, the glands swell remarkably at
which it contains,” &c. by E. Home, esq. that time, and secrete a greater quantity
Philos Trans. 1806.
of fluid. This part is found in land-
The structure of these parts in the birds only, but not in all of these; it exists
lama, according to the account which in all the gallinæ, and in some birds of
Cuvier has given of them, from the
prey
examination of a fetus, does not seem
to differ essentially from that of the There is another glandular and secre-
camel.
tory organ, much more common than the
There is a peculiar glandular body crop, belonging, indeed, most probably
at the upper orifice of the beaver's to the whole class. This is the bulbus
stomach, about the size of a florin, full glandulosus (echinus, infundibulum, pro-
of cavities that secrete mucus. It re- ventriculus, corpus tubulosum), which is
sembles, on the whole, the bulbus glan- situated before the entrance of the æso-
dulosus of birds, and assists in the phagus into the proper stomach, and
digestion and animalization of the dry whose form and structure vary consider-
food which this curious animal takes, con- ably in the different genera and species.
sisting chiefly of the bark and chips of In the ostrich, for example, its magni-
trees, &c.
tude and form give it the appearance of
According to Cuvier, there is a gland a second stomach. In some other birds,
as large as the head of a man, situated be as the psittaci, ardez (crane, stork, &c.)
tween the coats of the stomach in the its appearance is different from that of
manati (trichechus manatus borealis). the proper stomach, but its size is larger;
It is placed near the æsophagus, and while, on the contrary, in gallinaceous
discharges, on pressure, a fluid like that fowls it is much smaller.
of the pancreas, by numerous small open-
This bulbus glandulosus consists of a
ings.
Mr. Home is of opinion that a glandu- vast congeries of glands. The esopha-
lar structure exists in the stomach of the gus, of which it is a dilatation, has a
vast number of glandular bodies inter-
sea-otter near the pylorus. Philos. Trans.
1796, pl
. 2. And Mr. Macartney has disposed between its tunics, and entirely
covered an arrangement of glandular bo- the “ Zone of gastric glands” of Mr. Ma-
surrounding the tube, so as to constitute
dies in the dormouse, round the æsopha- cartney. These bodies have a hollow
gus just before its termination, similar in internally, and they open into the ca-
situation and appearance to the gastric vity of the bulbus by numerous very plain
glands of birds.
apertures. The fluid secreted by them
The stomach of the pangolin (manis passes into the gizzard and mixes with
pentadactyla) is almost as thick and mus- the food.
a
a
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
A deviation from the natural struc- adapted to the callous and insensible na- .
ture, which is completely unparalleled, ture of the coats of the stomach ; Spallan-
occurs in the stomach of the cuckoo. zani rejected all supposition of design or
The gizzard of the bird is covered, object, and thought that the stones were
internally, with an abundance of short, swallowed from mere stupidity. There
bristly, and spiral hairs, lying close toge- seems not much sagacity to be discover-
ther.
ed in this opinion, when we consider
The structure of the stomach differs that these stones are so essential to the
most widely in the different orders and due digestion of the corn, that birds
genera of this class. It appears merely grow lean without them, although they
as a thin membranous bag, in several of may be most copiously supplied with
those which feed on flesh and insects, food. This paradoxical opinion has,
when compared with the thick mus- however, been already refuted by J.
cular globes of the granivorous genera. Hunter, and G. Fordyce. Blumenbach
But there are in both many interme- thinks that the stones kill the grain,
diate links between these extremes, and and deprive it of its vitality, which
at the same time considerable analogies otherwise resists the action of the diges-
in the structures, which are apparent- tive powers. Thus it has been found that
ly the most opposite. This is particular- if the oats and barley, given to horses, be
ly observable in the course of the muscu- previously heated, the animal only re-
lar fibres, and in the callous structure and quires half the quantity, and thrives
appearance of the internal coat; in which equally well.
points, many of what are called membra-
Reptiles and birds have their nostrils
nous stomachs, have a great resemblance terminated by two longitudinal slits on
to those of the gallinæ.
the palate; they have no velum palati,
Both parts, but particularly the mus- nor epiglottis.
cular, are very strong in the gizzard The oesophagus of the serpent kind is
(ventriculus bulbosus) of granivorous of immense magnitude ; for these reptiles
birds. We find here, instead of a mus- swallow animals larger than themselves,
cular coat, four immensely thick and which are retained for a considerable
powerful muscles, viz. a large hemis- time in the tube, and descend into the
pherical pair at the sides (laterales), and stomach by degrees, where they are
two smaller ones (intermedii) at the two slowly subjected to the action of the gas-
ends of the cavity. All the four are dis- tric juice. The whole process sometimes
tinguished, both by the unparalleled firm- occupies many days, or even weeks.
ness of their texture, and by their pecu- There is hardly any distinction between
liar colour, from all the other muscles of esophagus and stomach.
the body.
From the peculiar formation of the
The internal callous coat must be con- nose of fishes, and from their respir-
sidered as a true epidermis; since, like ing by means of gills, their fauces have
that part, it becomes gradually thicker no connection with any nasal cavity, or
from pressure and rubbing. It forms glottis.
folds and depressions towards the cavity The æsophagus is of great width in
of the stomach ; and these irregularities fishes ; and is distinguished with difficul-
are adapted to each other on the oppos- ty in many cases from the stomach.
ed surfaces. The cavity of this curious These animals swallow their food whole,
stomach is comparatively small; its without subjecting it to any mastication;
lower orifice is placed very near the and if the stomach will not hold the
upper. Every part of the organ is, whole, a part remains in the æsophagus,
indeed, calculated for producing very until that which has descended lower is
powerful trituration; and this is still digested. The alimentary canal is gene-
further promoted by the well-known in- rally very short; sometimes extending
stinctive practice of granivorous birds, of straight from the mouth to the anus with
swallowing small hard stones with their very little dilatation, as in the lamprey
food.
(petromyzon marinus).
The end and use of swallowing these The crustacea, and some insects, are
stones have been very differently ex- furnished with organs of mastication of
plained. Cæsalpinus considered it ra- similar structure. Their mouth is form-
ther as a medicine than as a common assis- ed of two or more pairs of jaws placed
tance to digestion ; Boerhaave, as an ab- laterally. These move from without in-
sorbent for the acid of the stomach ; wards, and vice versâ ; whereas those of
Redi, as a substitute for teeth ; accord- red blooded animals move from above
ing to Whytt, it is a mechanical irritation downwards, and back again. The parts
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
ra.
which are termed the lips of insects are and slug have a single jaw, semilunar in its
two bodies, of which one is placed above. form, and denticulated. The tritonia has
or in front of the jaws, and the other be- two jaws, which act like the blades of a
low or behind them. The palpi or feel- pair of scissars. The other mollusca
ers are articulated to the jaws. All in- possess no organs of this kind, but have,
sects, which have jaws, possess the power in some instances, a sort of proboscis;
of masticating hard animal and vegetable as the buccinum, murex, voluta, doris,
substances; for these parts are of a firm scyllæa, &c.
horny texture, and in many cases are very In the worms, properly so called, there
large, when compared with the size of are sometimes hard parts, forming a kind
the animal.
of jaws or teeth ; thus, in the nereis, the
The locusts (grylli), the dragon-fly mouth possesses several calcareous pieces.
(libellula), the beetles, and particularly The aphrodite (sea-mouse) has a probos-
the lucanus cervus, or stag-beetle, and cis, furnished with four teeth, which it
the staphylinus maxillosus, are examples can extend and retract at pleasure. With-
in which the jaws are very large and in the mouth of the leech are three semi-
manifest, and often possess denticulated circular projecting bodies, with a sharp
edges. All the genera of the following denticulated edge : by this apparatus the
orders have jaws; viz. the coleoptera, animal inflicts its wound of the well
orthoptera, neuroptera, and hymenopte- known peculiar form in the skin.
The insects of the remaining orders The teeth of the echinus (sea-hedge-
derive their nourishment chiefly from li- hog) are of a very singular arrangement;
quids ; which they get either from ani- a round opening is left in the shell for the
mal or vegetable substances by means of entrance of the food ; a bony structure,
a spiral and tubular tongue, or a soft pro- on which five teeth are placed, fills up
boscis, as in the lepidoptera; with a broad this aperture; and as these parts are
opening, admitting of extension and moved by numerous muscles, they form
retraction (the hemiptera); or a horny a very complete organ of mastication.
pointed tube, containing sharp bristly
The stomach of the vermes, is in gene-
bodies internally (the diptera and ap- ral, a membranous bag, but in some cases
tera.)
its structure is more complicated. The
The stomach of the bee is a transparent helix stagnalis and the onchidia have
membranous bag, in which the nectar of gizzards. The aplysia has three strong
the flowers is elaborated and converted muscular stomachs, provided with pyra-
into honey. The animal vomits it up from midal bony processes. The latter struc-
this reservoir, and deposits it in the hive. tures, together with those of the lobster
The stomach of the crab and lobster is and crab, present a new analogy, as Cu-
a very singular organ. It is formed on a
vier has observed, between the mem-
bony apparatus, in short a species of branes of the intestines and the integu-
skeleton, and does not therefore collapse ments of the body. This is particularly
when empty. To certain parts of this strengthened by the annual shedding of
bony structure, round the pylorus, the the lobster's teeth, when its crustaceous
teeth are affixed. Their
substance is ex covering falls off.
tremely hard, and their margin is serra-
The bulla lignaria has a very powerful
ted or denticulated; as they surround the stomach, containing three hard calcareous
tube, near the pylorus, nothing can pass shells, by which the animal is enabled to
that opening without being perfectly bruise and masticate the other testacea on
comminuted. These bones and teeth are
which it feeds.
moved by peculiar muscles.
In those mollusca, which possess jaws,
ON THE INTESTINAL CANAL.
these parts are fixed in the flesh of the
animal, as there is no head to which they The intestinal canal (which is the most
can be articulated. They are two in num- common part in the whole nimal king-
ber in the cuttle-fish, are composed of a dom after the stomach) is distinguished in
horny substance, and resemble exactly the mammalia by two peculiarities, which
the bill of a parrot. They are placed in depend on the mode of nutrition. It is
the centre of the lower part of the body, comparatively shorter in carnivorous ani-
and are surrounded by the tentacula,mals, and there is also in these less dif-
which enable the animal to attach itself to ference, to external appearance, between
any objects. By means of these parts, the the small and the large intestine than in
shell-fish, which are taken for food, are the herbivora. Yet these rules are not
completely triturated. The common snail without their exceptions ; for the seal has
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
ry canal.
very long, and the sloth very short, intes- the various cavities of a complicated sto
tines; the badger, which is not a proper mach. The intestines are very long;
.
carnivorous animal, and several true her- 27 times the length of the body in the
bivora, as, for instance, the rell-mouse ram. Hence the large intestines are not
(glis esculentus) have no distinction be. dilated or cellular, nor is there a cæcum.
tween the large and small intestine, &c. The solipeda have not such a length of
In considering the proportionate canal, nor is their stomach complicated;
lengths of the intestinal canal, and the but the large intestines are enormous, and
relation which these bear to the kind of dilated into sacculi; and the cæcum is of
food on which the animal subsists, many a vast size, equal, indeed, to the stomach.
circumstances must be taken into the ac- The rodentia, which live on vegetables,
count besides the mere measure of the have a very large cæcum, and a canal 12
intestine. Valvular projections of the in-
or 16 times as long as the body. In the
ternal membrane; dilatations of particular rat, which can take animal, as well as ve-
parts of the canal ; and a large general getable food, the canal is shorter than in
diameter, compensate for shortness of the the other rodentia.
intestine ; and vice versa. The structure
There are some exceptions to the
of the stomach must also be considered, rule which we have just mentioned, res-
as, whether it is formed of more than one pecting the length of the canal in carni-
cavity; whether the æsophagus and in- vorous and herbivorous animals. The
testine communicate with it in such a seal, which takes animal food, has very
manner as to favour a speedy transmission long intestines; the sea-otter resembles
of the food, or whether there are cul de it in this respect, and differs therein most
sacs which retain the aliment for a long remarkably from the common otter,
time in the cavity. The formation of the which resembles other carnivorous ani-
jaws and teeth, and the more or less per- mals in the shortness of its intestinal
fect trituration and comminution which tube. The length of canal in the former
the food experiences in the mouth, must is twelve times that of the animal, and
likewise be viewed in connection with only three times and a quarter in the lat-
the length and structure of the alimenta- ter. (Home, in the Philos. Trans. 1799,
part 2.) Whales have likewise a longer
The whole length of the canal is great- canal than other canivorous mammalia ;
er in the mammalia than in the other their stomach is complicated, and the in-
classes. It diminishes successively, as we
testine has longitudinal folds. It seems,
trace it in birds, reptiles, and fishes, be therefore, that a considerable length of
ing shorter than the body in some of the intestinal canal is found in all mammalia
latter animals, which is never the case in which live much in the water, although
the three first classes.
they are carnivorous.
In omnivorous animals the length of
The plantigrade animals, which have
the canal holds a middle rank between carnivorous teeth, but feed equally well
those which feed on flesh and such as on vegetables, have a long canal ; but it
take vegetable food ; thus, in the rat, its is very narrow, and possesses no cæcum,
proportion to the body is as 8 to 1in nor distinction of large intestine.
the pig 13 to 1; in man 6 or 7 to 1. The
A species of bat (vespertilio noctula)
diminution in length, in the latter case, nal of any mammalia; it is only twice the
seems to have the shortest intestinal ca-
is compensated by other circumstances,
viz. the numerous valvulæ conniventes, length of the animal's body. On the
and the preparation which the food un contrary, the roussette (vesp. vampyrus,
dergoes by the art of cookery.
Linn. v. caninus, Blum.) which lives en-
In carnivorous animals, every circum- tirely on vegetables, has it seven times
stance concurs to accelerate the
passage
as long
of the alimentary matter It receives no
In a few instances, as the beaver and
mastication; it is retained for a very sloth, the rectum and uretha have a com-
short time in the stomach; the intestine mon termination, which may be compar-
has no folds or valves; it is small in di- ed to the cloaca of birds,
This resem-
ameter; and the whole canal, when com- blance is the most striking in the orni-
pared to the body, is extremely short, thorhynchus.
being 3 or 5 to 1. In general there is A remarkable difference is observed
no cæcum.
in the length of the canal between the
The ruminating animals present the wild and domesticated breeds of the
opposite structure. The food undergoes same species. In the wild boar the intes-
a double mastication, and passes through tines are to the body as nine to one; in
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
the tame animal these proportions are polype (hydra). It appears to be exca.
as thirteen to one ; in the domestic cat, vated in the substance of the body, and
five to one; in the wild cat, three to has a single opening situated in the cen-
one; in the bull, twenty-two to one; in tre of the space surrounded by the ten.
the buffalo, twelve to one. They are, tacula. The nutritive matter soaks im.
on the contrary, longer in the wild than mediately into the body, and imparts its
,
in the tame rabbit; the proportions in colour to the animal
the former being eleven, and in the lat- The large masses of gelatine, called
ter nine to one.
meduse, which resemble in form mush-
The proportion of the intestinal canal rooms, and are found floating in the sea,
to the length of the body in birds, is as have a somewhat similar structure А.
two, three, four, or five, to one. It is stomach is hollowed out in the pedicle ;
not always longest and largest in the gra- and vessels, commencing from its cavity,
minivorous species, as many piscivorous convey the nutritious fluid over the body.
birds have it equally long.
Sometimes the stomach has a simple
It is hardly twice the length of the opening; in other cases there are branch-
body in many reptiles; and not so much ing tentacula on which canals commence
in the frog, although it is nine times as by open orifices; these unite together to
long as the space between the mouth and form larger tubes, and the successi e
the anus in the tadpole.
union of these vessels forms at last four
The alimentary canal of some fishes is trunks, which open into the stomach and
continued straight from the mouth to the convey the food into that cavity. This
anus, and does not, therefore, equal the very singular structure constitutes a re-
.
length of the body. The lamprey, skate, markable analogy to the roots of trees;
and shark are thus circumstanced.
and Cuvier has formed a new genus,
Most birds have two cæca, which are under an appellation derived from this
longer in the gallinæ than in the carnivo- comparison, viz. the rhizostoma, from
rous tribes. The rectum ends in a part pisna root, and sopece a mouth.
'
called the cloaca, which is a large mem- The star-fish (asterias) has a membra.
branous bag, containing also the termina- nous cavity in the centre of its body,
tion of the ureters, that of the oviduct, communicating externally by a single
the vasa deferentia, and of a membranous opening; two canals extend from this
bag of unknown use, called bursa fabricii
. into each of the branches, or as they are
This also holds the penis where there is sometimes called the fingers of the ani-
one.
mal, where they subdivide and form nu-
merous blind processes.
ALIMENTARY CANAL OF THE LOWER
The tape-worm (tænia) has a small
canal running on each side of its body;
The simple globular hydatid, which is the two tubes are joined together by
frequently found in the different viscera transverse productions at each joint.
both of man and quadrupeds, has been
The ascaris lumbricoides (round-worm)
supposed by some to be an animal con-
has a simple canal running from one ex-
sisting entirely of a stomach. Doubts,
tremity of the body to the other,
however, have lately been raised whether
The leech (hirudo sanguisuga, or me-
or no this be really an animal. Even if it dicinalis) has a short æsophagus and a
were allowed that these bags are animals, very large stomach, divided by nume-
it does not follow that their cavity is a
rous membranous septa, which are per-
stomach; and the attachment of the forated in the centre.
forated in the centre. It has been ge-
young to the sides would rather justify nerally supposed that this animal has no
us in considering it as the organ of
anus; but Cuvier says that it possesses
gene
ration.
a very small one. (Leçons d'Anat. Comp.
The hydatid, which is more frequently tom. 4. p. 141.) Dumenil, on the contrary,
found in animals, which possesses a head denies its existence (Zoologie Analy-
and mouth like the tænia, enabling it to tique, p. 298.)
attach itself to parts, and which can be
The common earth-worm (lumbricus
seen to move when placed in warm water, terrestris) has a long canal, divided by
is generally allowed to possess an inde several partitions,
pendent vitality. But whether the bag The aphrodite aculeata has an intestine
of water, which forms its body, be a running according to the length of the
stomach, is certainly doubtful.
body, and sending off on each side seve.
The most simple form of an alimentary ral blind processes, which enlarge at
cavity exists in the common fresh water their termination.
VOL. II.
ORDERS.
Rr
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
In the proper mollusca, besides the sto- The liver of mammalia is in general di-
mach, which has been already noticed, vided into more numerous lobes; and the
there is an intestine, seldom of considera- divisions are carried deeper into its sub-
ble length, making some turns in its stance, than in the human subject This
course ;' it passes in all the acephalous is particularly the case in the carnivora,
mollusca through the heart.
where the divisions of the lobes extend
The intestinal canal of insects varies very through the whole mass. But the utility,
much in the different genera and species which Monro has assigned to this struc-
It may be stated on the whole, that a long ture, viz. that of its allowing the parts to
and complicated intestinal tube denotes yield and glide on each other in the rapid
that the insect feeds on vegetables; while motions of the animal, carries very little
the contrary characters indicate animal plausibility with it “Essay on Compara-
food.
tive Anatomy,' p. 11
Great difference is found in some in. In many animals of this class, as the
stances, between the larva and the perfect - horse, the ruminantia, the pachydermata,
,
insect. The voracious larvæ of beetles and whales, the liver is not more divided
(scarabæi) and butterflies, have intestines than in man.
ten times as large as the winged insects The ductus choledochus forms a pouch
which are produced from them.
between the coats of the intestine, for re-
In the dragon-fly (libellula), which is ceiving the pancreatic duct, in the cat
very carnivorous, the intestine is not long- and elephant.
er than the body. There is a small but All the quadrumana, carnivora, and
muscular stomach.
edentata, have a gall-bladder
The orthoptera (which class contains Many rodentia, particularly among the
the locusts, &c. well known for their de- rats, want it. The tardigrada; the ele-
structive powers) have a long and com- phant, rbinoceros, and pecari among the
plicated alimentary apparatus. They have pachydermata; the genus cervus and ca-
first a membranous stomach. This is melus among the ruminating animals;
succeeded by another cavity covered in the solipeda ; the trichechus and porpoise
ternally with scales or teeth, and possess- also want this part. It does not exist
ing a very thick muscular coat; in short, in the ostrich and parrot; but is found
a true gizzard. Round the end of this in all the reptiles. Cuvier thinks that it
the cæcal processes are attached. There belong's particularly to carnivorous ani.
is, lastly, an intestinal canal, differing in mals; that it is connected with their babit
leng b and diameter.
of long fasting ; and serves as a reservoir
The alimentary canal runs straight for the bile
along the body in the crustacea, and is All the mammalia, which want it, ex.
uniform in its dimensions, excepting the cept the porpoise, are vegetable eaters :
stomach.
and most reptiles, which universally pos-
sess it, live on animal food.
ON THE LIVER, SPLEEN, AND OMEN- The liver of birds is divided into two
equal lobes. The hepatic duct opens se-
parately from the cystic; and its termina.
The spleen and omentum seem to be tion is generally, but not always, pre-
less constantly found in the animal ceded by one or more pancreatic ducts,
kingdom than the liver, and to be in a and followed by that of the cystic duct.
manner subservient to the latter viscus ; The fundus of the gall-bladder receives
which, on the contrary, exists in every branches from the hepatic duct, (" ductus
class and order of animals that is pro- hepaticystici'); but that tube sometimes
vided with a heart and circulating sys- unites with the cystic, as in the duck.
tem
Some fishes, which are almost desti.
It deserves to be remarked here, as a tute of fat in the rest of their body, have
peculiarity of the liver of some four-foot- an abundance of oil in the liver, as for
ed mammalia, which live in or about the instance, the skate and cod.
sea, namely, the polar bear and some seals, The spleen gradually diminishes in
that it seems to possess some poisonous size from the mammalia to fishes. In the
or noxious qualities when employed for porpoise there are several small spleens,
food. Heemskerk's companions expe- supplied from the arteries of the first sto-
rienced this, in the former instance, at mach. It is always attached to the first,
Nova Zemlia; and Lord Anson's squad. when there are several stomachs.
ron, in the latter, on the coast of Pa- In birds it is always near the bulbus
tagonia,
glandulosus, but does not lie constantly
TUM.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.
very close to the stomach in reptiles, as subject it to contain important changes,
it is found in the mesentery of the frog; and of the absorbent system.
neither is it very uniformly situated in
fishes.
In the crustacea the liver is large, and
consists of blind tubes, opening into the A perfect circulating system, to whichi
commencement of the intestine It forms on the one hand fluids are brought by
the soft high flavoured substance of the the absorbents to be converted into blood;
crab and lobster.
and from which, on the other side, vari.
A liver exists in all the mollusca, and ous juices are separated in glands, and
is very large; but this class has no gall- viscera of a glandular structure, appears
bladder. The liver is supplied with to belong universally and exclusively to
blood from the aorta, and there is conse- red-blooded animals. A pericardium ex-
quently no vena portarum.
ists in all these animals. Parts of such
It is a completely mistaken notion, that tain vessels connected with it, are found
a system, particularly a heart, and cer-
the black fluid of the cuttle-fish is its bile in some g nera of the white blooded
The ink-bag is indeed found between the
classes.
two lobes of the liver in the sepia octo-
pus; and in front of them in the calmar; bious animals of this class, and the ceta-
It has been supposed, that the amphi.
but in the common cuttle-fish (« sepia
officinalis"), it is at a considerable dis- cea, have an open foramen ovale, like that
tance from this organ.
of the fatus, in their septum auricula-
The real bile is poured, as usual, into rum. And the necessity of such an open-
the alimentary canal.
ing has been inferred from their way of
The structure of the pancreas in the life; since they often pass a considerable
mammalia, in birds, and in reptiles, is time under water without breathing. This
the same, on the whole, as in the human supposition has been fully refuted by the
subject, its form and size, its colour and repeated dissection of adult animals of
consistence, and its division into lobules, this kind; which has shewn that an ex-
exhibit some slight and unimportant varia. ception from the general rule very rarely
tions.
The termination of its duct or ducts is
In several genera and species of web.
distinct in birds from that of the D. cho. footed mammalia, and cetacea (that is,
ledochus. In the mammalia they generally in the common and sea-otters, in the dol.
open together, or there is a branch termi phin, &c.) particular vessels have been
nating in the D. choledochus, and another observed to be considerably and con.
opening into the intestine, as in the dog stantly enlarged and tortuous. This struc.
and elephant, or they may be quite dis- ture has been principally remarked in the
tinct, as in the hare, porcupine, and mar. inferior vena cava; where there can be
mot. They may be separate or distinct in no doubt that it serves, while the animal
different individuals of the same species, is under water, to receive a part of the
as in the monkeys.
returning blood, and to retain it until
The skate and shark have a pancreas respiration can be again performed, and
similar to that of the three first classes of the lesser circulation be thereby again put
red-blooded animals. In other fishes the in action.
situation of this organ is occupied by nu- There are some remarkable circum-
merous small tubes, called the cæcal ap- stances in the distribution of particular
pendices, or pyloric cæca ; which afford a arteries in certain animals of this class.
copious secretion, analogous, no doubt, to We may notice, as the most singular of
the pancreatic liquor. The internal sur- these, the rete mirabile, formed by the
face of these tubes becomes very red on internal carotid at its entrance into the
injection, and possesses a glandular and cranium, in several ruminating biscula,
secreting appearance. Their number va- and carnivorous animals : and that divi
ries from one to several hundreds.
sion of the arterial trunks of the extre.
The description of the organs, which mities, which has been observed by Mr.
are concerned in assimilating the food, Carlisle in the slow.moving animals, viz.
and in converting it into chyle, will be the sloths, and lemur tardigradus. The
naturally followed by that of the blood. arteries of the arm and thigh, in these
vessels, which carry it to all parts of the cases, divide, as they leave the trunk,
body, of the organs of respiration, which into numerous parallel branches, which
Occurs.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
are united again towards the elbow and lation is so far independent of that which
knee.
goes through the lungs, that it can proceed
All birds possess a very remarkable while the animal is under water, and there-
peculiarity in the structure of the heart by prevented from respiring, although the
The right ventricle, instead of having a latter is impeded In warm blooded ani.
membranous valve (such as are found in mals, on the contrary, no blood can enter
both ventricles of mammalia, and also in the aorta, which has not previously passed.
the left of birds,) is provided with a strong, through the lungs into the left ventricle ;
tense, and nearly triangular muscle. This and hence an obstruction of respiration
singular structure assists in driving the most immediately influences the greater
blood with greater force from the right circulation.
side of the heart into the lungs : since The heart in this class of animals is exa
the expansion of the latter organs by re- tremely small in proportion to the body.
spiration, which facilitates the transmis- Its structure is very simple, as it consists
sion of the carbonated blood in mamma- of a single auricie and ventricle, which
lia, does not take place in birds, on ac- correspond with the right side of the heart
count of the connection which their langs in warm-blooded animals. The ventricle
have with the numerous air-cells, which gives rise to a single arterial trunk, (which
will be afterwards described.
is expanded in most fishes into a kind of
Frogs, lizards, and serpents, have a bulb as it leaves the beart,) going straight
simple heart, consisting of a single ven- forwards to the branchiæ, or organs of re-
tricle and auricle.
spiration. The blood passes from these
The structure of this part is very dif- into a large artery, analogous to the
ferent in the turtle, and has given rise to aorta, which goes along the spine and
more controversy than that of any order supplies the body of the animal It is
of animals. Their heart possesses two then returned by the venæ cavæ into the
auricles, which are separated by a com- auricle.
plete septum, like those of warm blooded It appears that insects possess neither
animals, and receive their blood in the blood vessels nor absorbents. Cuvier has
.
same manner as in those animals, viz the examined, by means of the microscope, all
two venæ cavæ terminate in the right au- those organs in this class, which in red-
ricle, the pulmonary veins in the left. blooded animals are most vascular, with-
Each pours its blood into the corres. out discovering the least appearance of a
ponding ventricle, of which cavities there blood vessel, although extremely minute
are two : thus the structure of the heart ramifications of the tracheæ are obvious in
hitherto resemblies that of mammalia. every part And Lyonet has traced and
The characteristic peculiarities which delineated in the caterpillar, parts infi-
distinguish the heart of these animals, con- nitely smaller than the chief blood vessels
sist in two circumstances: first, both the must be, if any such existed. “Anatomie
ventricles communicate together; there is de la Chenille," &c.
a muscular, and as it were tubular valve, Yet insects, both in their perfect, and
going from the left to the right cavity, by in their larva state, have a membranous
means of which the former opens into the tube running along the back, in which al-
.
latter. Secondly, the large arterial trunks ternate dilatations and contractions may
arise all together from the right ventricle be discerned. From this circumstance
only, (no vessel coming from the left.) it has been supposed to be the heart; but
The aorta, forming three grand trunks, is it is closed at both ends, and no vessels
situated towards the right side and the can be perceived to originate from it,
upper part; the pulmonary artery comes It is obvious from these data, that the
as it were from a particular dilatation, functions of nutrition and secretion must
which is not situated in the middle of the be performed, in the animals which we are
basis of the heart, but lower; (it must be now considering, in a very different man-
understood, that we apply these terms ner from that which obtains in the more
according to the horizontal position of the perfect classes Cuvier expresses the
animal)
mode, in which he supposes growth and
We can now comprehend how this won- nutrition to be effected, by the term "im-
derful and anomalous structure, by which bibition." And he explains from this cir-
all the blood is propelled from the right cumstance, the peculiar kind of respiration
ventricle only, is accommodated to the pe- which insects enjoy. Since the nutritive
culiar way of life of the animal, which sub- fluids have not been exposed to the atmo-
jects it frequently to remaining for a long sphere, before they arrive at the parts for
time under water. For the greater circu- whose nourishment they are destined, this
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
exposure is effected in the parts them- ous on the intestines and mesentery of
selves by means of the air-vessels, which the turtle, in which animal there are no
ramify most minutely over the whole body. absorbent glands.
" En un mot, le sang ne pouvant aller The lymphatics of fishes have neither
chercher l'air, c'est l'air, qui va chercher glands nor valves.
le sang
The heart of the crustacea, according to
ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.
Cuvier, has no auricle ; and it is what he
calls an aortic heart. For it expels the The incessant continuation of the great
blood into the arteries of the body; and chemical process, by which oxygen is ex-
this fluid passes through the gills previ- changed for hydrogen and carbon, is es-
ously to its reaching the heart again. The sentially necessary to the well being of
different parts of the system are here the greater part of animals. Yet the or-
found under a mode of connection exactly gans and mechanism, by which this won-
the reverse of what we observe in fishes; derful function is carried on, vary very
where the blood is sent into the gills, and considerably. In the mammalia after
passes subsequently into the aorta. The birth; in birds when they have left the
circulating organ in that class is therefore egg; and in amphibia when complete-
a pulmonary heart.
ly formed, the chief organ of this func-
According to Cuvier, the cuttle-fish tion is the lungs : in fish it is perform-
has three hearts
, neither of which pos. tracheæ ; in the vermes, in analogous,
ed in the gills; in most insects in their
sesses an auricle. Two of these organs but at the same time very different
are placed at the root of the two bran-
chiæ : they receive the blood from the
parts.
body, (the vena cava dividing into two tute one of the most singular structures
The respiratory organs of birds consti-
branches, one for each lateral heart) in the animal economy, on account of se-
and propel it into the branchiæ. The veral peculiarities which they possess ;
returning veins open into the middle but more particularly in consequence of
heart: from which the aorta proceeds.
The other mollusca have a simple cells, which are expanded over the whole
their connection with the numerous air-
heart, consisting of one auricle and ven- body.
tricle. The vena cava assumes the office
The lungs themselves are compara-
of an artery, and carries the returning tively small, flattened, and adhering above
blood to the gills; whence it passes to
to the chest, where they seem to be
the auricle; and is subsequently, es placed in the intervals of the ribs; they
pelled into the aorta. Here, therefore, are only covered by the pleura on their
as in the crustacea, the heart is a pulmon under surface, so that they are in fact on
nary one.
the outside of the cavity of the chest, if
The vermes of Cuvier have circulat- we consider that cavity as being defined
ing vessels, in which contraction and di- by the pleura : a great part of the tho-
latation are perceptible, without any rax, as well as the abdomen, is occupied
heart. They can be seen very plainly in by the membranous air-cells, into which
the lumbricus marinus. The leech, naias, the lungs open by considerable apertures.
nereis, aphrodite, &c. are further exam- Those of the thorax are divided, at least
ples of the same structure. This anato- in the larger birds, by membranous trans-
mist is of opinion that the mollusca, crus- verse septa, into smaller portions; each
tacea, and vermes, possess no absorbing of which, as well as the abdominal cells,
vessels; and he thinks that the veins ab- has a particular opening of communica-
sorb, as he finds them to have communi- tion with the air-cells of the lungs, and
cation with the general cavity of the bo- consequently with the trachea. The
dy, particularly in the cuttle-fish. Hence membranes of these cells, in the larger
the above mentioned classes will hold an birds, are provided here and there with
intermediate rank between the vertebral considerable fasciculi of muscular fibres,
animals, which possess both blood vessels which have been regarded as a substitute
and absorbents, and the insects which for the diaphragm, which is wanting in
have neither.
this class of animals. They also serve
very principally, as we may ascertain by
ABSORBING SYSTEM.
examining large birds in a living state, to
drive back again into the lungs, the air
The chyle of birds is transparent: and which they receive in inspiration; whence
there are no mesenteric glands in these the repletion and depletion of the thora-
animals.
cic cells must alternate with those of the
The lacteals are uncommonly numer- abdominal cavities,
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
a
Besides these cells, a considerable por- large, but the texture is uniform through-
tion of the skeleton is formed into recep- out.
tacles for air in most birds, (for there In the tadpole, and the young of such
are indeed exceptions and considerable lizards as bring forth in water, there are
variations in the different genera and spe- two organs, which somewhat resemble
cies.) This structure is particularly mark- the gills of a fish (appendices fimbriatæ,
ed in the larger cylindrical bones, as the Swammerdam.) These serve for the
scapula, clavicle, and femur. It is also purposes of respiration while the animal
found in most of the broad and multangu- lives in the water. They are connected
lar bones of the trunk, as the sternum, to the sides of the neck, and hang loose
ossa innominata, dorsal vertebræ, &c. from the animal ; they are not permanent,
All these are destitute of marrow in the but are gradually withdrawn into the
adult bird, at least in their middle ; so chest, (within a few days, in the reptiles
that the cylindrical bones form large of this country,) where their remains may
tubes, which are only interrupted to- still be perceived for some time near to
wards the extremities by a sort of trans- the true lungs. Instead of the branchial
verse bony fibres: the broad bones are opening, by which fishes again discharge
filled with a reticulated bony texture, the water which they have taken in at
the cells of which are empty. They have the mouth, some tadpoles have for this
considerable apertures, (most easily purpose a canal on the left side of the
shewn in those extremities of the cylin- head near the eye, which must be dis-
drical bones which are turned towards tinguished from the small tube on the
the sternum) communicating with the lower lip, by which they attach them-
lungs by small air-cells; which facts may selves to aquatic plants.
be shewn by various experiments on liv-
Instead of lungs, fishes are furnished
ing and dead birds.
with gills or branchiæ ; which are placed
These receptacles of air probably serve behind the head, on both sides, and have
the purpose of lightening the body of a moveable gill cover (operculum bran-
the bird, in order to facilitate its motions. chiale,) which is wanting in the order of
This effect is produced in most birds to pisces chondropterygii only. By means
assist their flight; in some aquatic spe- of these organs, which are connected
cies, for the purpose of swimming; in with the throat, the animal receives its
the ostrich and some others, for running: oxygen from the air contained in the wa-
Hence we find the largest and most nu- ter ; as those animals which breathe, de-
merous bony cells in birds which have rive it immediately from the atmosphere.
the highest and most rapid flight, as the They afterwards discharge the water
eagle, &c. And hence also the bones of through the branchial openings (apertu-
the bird which has just left the egg, are ræ branchiales); and therefore they are
filled with a bloody marrow, which is ab- distinguished from animals of the three
sorbed soon after birth, entirely in preceding classes by this circumstance ;
some, in others, particularly among the viz. that they do not respire by the same
aquatic species, at least for the greater way that they inspire.
part.
We have already shewn in speaking of
Besides the uses which have been al- the organs of circulation, how the gills
ready pointed out, these receptacles of receive the venous blood by means of
air diminish the necessity of breathing the branchial artery, and how this
frequently, in the rapid and long con- blood is sent into the aorta after its
tinued motions of several birds, and in conversion into the arterial state. The
the great vocal exertions of the singing distribution of these vessels on the
birds.
folds and divisions of the gills consti-
The lungs of amphibia are distinguish- tutes one of the most delicate and mi-
ed from those of warm-blooded animals, nute pieces of structure in the animal
both by a great superiority in point of economy.
size, as well as by a greater looseness of Each of the gills consists in most
texture, arising from the great size of fishes of four divisions, resting on the
their air-vesicles. In frogs, lizards, and same number of arched portions of
serpents, the lungs consists of a cavity, bone or cartilage, connected to the
whose sides are cellular. The poste- os hyoides. Generally there is only a
rior part of the organ either forms a single opening for the discharge of the
mere membranous bag, or else the water ; but in many cases, particularly
cells are larger there than elsewhere. among the cartilaginous fishes, there are
In the turtle the vesicles are very several
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
for oxygen.
Many animals of this order possess a cations are distributed on the alimentary
single or double swimming bladder; canal.
which has been found in different in- There is great variety in the number
stances to contain azote, hydrogen and and situation of the external openings, by
oxygen. It has not been hitherto deter- which insects receive their air.
mined, whether it be subservient to any In most instances the stigmata are plac-
other functions, besides that well known ed on both sides of the body. The at-
one from which its name is derived. In mospheric air enters by an opening at the
the mean time, like the air receptacles end of the abdomen in several aquatic
of birds, it may be considered, without larvæ, and even perfect insects. A very
impropriety, in the present division of the remarkable change in this respect takes
work.
place in several animals of this class dur-
It is placed in the abdomen, and close-ing their metamorphosis. Thus in the
ly attached to the spine. It communi- larva of the common gnats (culex pi-
cates generally with the æsophagus, and piens,) the air enters by an opening on
sometimes with the stomach, by a canal the abdomen: while in the nympha of the
(ductus pneumaticus,) containing in some same animal, it gains admission by two
instances, as the carp, valves which seem apertures on the head.
to allow the passage of air from the blad- In the class of vermes, which compre-
der, but not to admit its entrance from hends such very different animals, the
without.
structure of the respiratory organs is pro-
That white-blooded animals indispensa. portionally various. Some orders, as
bly require a species of respiration, would those which inhabit corals, the proper
have been inferred by analogy from the zoophytes, and perhaps the intestinal
wonderful apparatus of gills or tracheæ, worms, appear to be entirely destitute of
which have been discovered in most or- these organs : so that if any vital func-
ders of both classes of these beings. But tion, analogous to respiration, is carried
in many cases direct proof has been ob- on in these animals, it must be effected
tained on this point: experiment has ac- by methods which yet remain to be dis-
tually proved the exchange of carbon covered.
Those vermes, however, which are
White-blooded animals are moreover furnished with proper organs of respira-
distinguished from those which have red tion, have the same variety in their struc-
blood, by this circumstance; that none of ture, which was remarked in insects.
the former, as far as we hitherto know, Some, as the cuttle-fish, oyster, &c. have
,
.
take in air through the mouth.
a species of gills, varying in structure in
Many aquatic insects, as the genus can- different instances.
different instances. But the greatest
cer, have a species of gills near the attach- number have air-vessels, or tracheæ.
ment of their legs. The others, and par- Several of the testaceous vermes have
ticularly the land-insects, which consti- both kinds of respiratory organs. In
tute, as is well known, by far the greatest some of the inhabitants of bivalve shells,
number of this class of animals, are fur- as the genus venus, the air-vessels lie be-
nished with air-vessels, or tracheæ, which tween the membranes of a simple or
ramify over most of their body. These double tubular canal, found at the ante-
tracheæ are much larger and more nume- rior part of the animal, and capable of
rous in the larva state of such insects as voluntary extension and retraction. It
undergo a metamorphosis, (in which state serves also for other purposes, as lay-
also the process of nutrition is carried on ing the eggs. The margins of its
to the greatest extent) than after the last, mouth are beset with the openings of
or, as it is called, the perfect change has the tracheæ.
taken place.
In the terrestrial gasteropodous mol-
A large air-tube (trachea) lies under lusca, of which we may instance the
the skin on each side of the body of lar- snail and slug, there is a cavity in the
væ, and opens externally by nine aper neck receiving air by a small aperture,
tures (stigmata): it produces on the in- which can be opened or shut at the will
side the same number of trunks of air- of the animal. The pulmonary vessels
vessels (branchiæ,) which are distribut- ramify on the sides of the cavity.
ed over the body in innumerable ramifi-
cations.
Both the trachea and branchia are of
a shining silvery colour; and their princi- Aristotle has correctly observed, that
pal membrane consists of spiral fibres. those animals only which possess lungs,
The most numerous and minute ramifi. consequently the three first classes of the
ORGAN OF THE VOICE.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
animal kingdom possess a true voice. ings between the os hyoides and thyroid
Several genera and species even of these cartilage.
are either entirely dumb, as the anteater, Some of the cercopitheci, as the C. Se-
the manis, the cetacea, the genus testudo, niculos, and beelzebub, have the middle
several lizards, and serpents; or they and anterior part of the os hyoides
lose their voice in certain parts of the formed into a spherical bony cavity, by
earth, as the dog in some countries of which the animals are enabled to pro-
America, and quails and frogs in several duce those terrific and penetrating tones
parts of Siberia.
which can be heard at vast distances, and
Most mammalia have the following cir- have gained them the name of the howl-
cumstances in common: their rima glot- ing apes.
tidis is provided with an epiglottis, which The most striking peculiarity in the
in most instances has a peculiar muscle, vocal organs of birds, and which be-
arising from the os hyoides, and not longs to all birds, with a very few excep-
found in the human subject : the mar- tions, consists in their possessing what
gins of this rima are formed by the dou- is commonly called a double larynx,
ble ligamenta glottidis (ligamenta thy- but which might be more properly de-
reoarytænoidea); between which the scribed as a larynx, divided into two
ventriculi laryngis are formed. The parts, placed at the upper and lower
epiglottis does not exist in most of the ends of the trachea. They have also two
bat kind : and in some mouse-like ani- rimæ glottidis.
mals, as the rell-mouse (glis esculentus), The superior, or proper rima glottidis,
it is hardly discernible. The superior is placed at the upper end of the tra-
ligamenta glottidis, as well as the ventri- chea; but is not furnished with an epi.
culi laryngis, are wanting in some bisulca, glottis. The apparent want of this or-
as the ox and sheep.
gan is compensated in several cases by
Some species of mammalia have a pe- the conical papillæ placed at both sides
culiar and characteristic voice; or at of the rima.
least certain tones, which are formed by The apparatus which is chiefly con-
additional organs.
Of this kind are cer- cerned in forming the voice of birds is
tain tense membranes in some animals; found in the inferior, or bronchial larynx.
and in others peculiar cavities, opening This contains a second rima glottidis,
into the larynx, and sometimes appear- formed by tense membranes, which may
ing as continuations of the ventriculi la. be compared in several cases, particular-
ryngis.
ly among the aquatic birds, to the reed at
The neighing of the horse, for ex- the mouth of musical instruments. It is
ample, is effected by a delicate and furnished externally with certain pairs of
nearly falciform membrane, which is at- muscles, varying in number in the diffe-
tached by its middle to the thyroid car- rent orders and genera; and with a kind
tilage, and has its extremities running of thyroid gland. The course and pro-
along the external margins of the rima portionate length of the trachea, and
glottidis.
particularly the structure of the inferior
The peculiar sound uttered by the ass larynx, vary very considerably in the
is produced by means of a similar mem different species, and even in the two
brane, under which there is an excava- sexes, especially among the aquatic birds.
tion in the thyroid cartilage. There are Thus, for example, the tame or dumb
moreover two large membranous sacs swan (anas olor) has a straight trachea ;
opening into the larynx.
whilst in the male of the wild, or whist-
The mule does not neigh like the mare ling swan (cygnus), this tube makes a
by which it was conceived, but brays like large convolution, which is contained in
the ass which begot it. It possesses the hollow of the sternum. In the spoon-
exactly the same larynx as the latter, bill (Platalea leucorodia,) as also in the
without any of the peculiar vocal organs Phasianus motmot, and others, similar
of the mother; a fact which, like many windings of the trachea are found, not en-
others, cannot be at all reconciled with closed in the sternum. The males of
the supposed pre-existence of previous- the two genera anas and mergus have at
ly formed germs in the ovarium of the their inferior or bronchial larynx a bony
mother.
cavity, which contributes to strengthen
Several apes and baboons, as also the their voice.
rein-deer, have on the front of the neck A very little comparison of the me-
large single or double laryngeal sacs, of chanism of wind musical instruments
various forms and divisions, communicat- with the organs of the voice in birds will
ing with the larynx by one or two open- shew how nearly they are allied to each
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
other; and it may be observed, that the which have warm blood, has a much more
sound produced by some of the larger complicated structure, and a far greater
birds is exactly similar to the notes that relative magnitude: all animals are how-
proceed from a clarionet or hautboy in ever exceeded in both these points by the
the hands of an untutored musician. The human subject, which, according to the
inferior glottis exactly corresponds to the ingenious observation of the learned Söm-
reed, and produces the tone or simple merring, possesses by far the largest brain
sound. The superior larynx gives it ut- in proportion to the size of the nerves
terance, as the holes of the instrument; which arise from it.
but the strength and body of the note de. The vast superiority of man over all
pend upon the extent and capacity of the other animals in the faculties of the mind,
trachea, and the hardness and elasticity which may be truly considered as a gene-
of its parts. The convolution and bony ric distinction of the human subject, led
cells of the windpipe, therefore, may be physiologists, at a very early period, to
compared with the turns of a French seek for some corresponding difference
horn, and the divisions of a bassoon; and in the brains of man and animals. They
they produce the proper effects of these naturally investigated the subject, in the
parts in the voices of those birds in first instance, by comparing the propor-
which they are found.
tion which the mass of the brain bear's
to the whole body; and the result of this
BRAIN AND NERVES, AND ORGANS OF comparison in the more common and do-
SENSE.
mestic animals was so satisfactory, that
they prosecuted the inquiry no further,
The parts subservient to the animal but laid down the general proposition,
functions, which, constituting the leading which has been universally received since
character of animals, have derived their the time of Aristotle, that man has the
name from that circumstance, afford to largest brain in proportion to his body.
our observation a more clear and mani. Some more modern physiologists, bow-
fest gradation, from the most simple to ever, in following up this comparative
the most compound structure, than any view in a greater number of animals,
others in the animal economy.
discovered several exceptions to the
In some of the most simple animals of general position. They found that the
the class vermes, particularly among what proportion of the brain to the body in
are called zoophytes, little or no dis- some birds, exceeds that of man ; and
tinction of similar parts (or structures) that several mammalia (some quadru-
can be discerned, and we are unable to mana, and some animals of the mouse
recognize any thing as a particular ner- kind) equal the human subject in this
vous system, or even as a part of such a respect.
system. The power of sensation and volun- As these latter observations entirely
tary motion which these possess, as well overturned the conclusion which had been
as any other order or class of the animal before generally admitted,Sömmerring has
kingdom, proves that the nervous matter furnished us with another point of compa-
must be uniformly spread throughout rison, that has hitherto held good in every
their homogeneous substance. The al- instance : viz. that of the ratio, which the
most transparent polypes (hydra,) which mass of the brain bears to the nerves
are often found with a body of an inch arising from it.
in length, and arms or tentacula of a Let us divide the brain into two parts;
proportionate size, appear to consist, that which is immediately connected with
when surveyed in the best light by the the sensorial extremities of the nerves,
strongest magnifying powers, of nothing which receives their impressions, and
but a granular structure connected into is therefore devoted to the purposes of
a definite form by a gelatinous substance. 'animal existence. The second division
In many other vermes, and in insects, will include the rest of the brain, which
particular nerves can be distinguished, may be considered as connecting the
arising in general from a chord running functions of the nerves with the facul-
the whole length of the body, and called ties of the mind. In proportion then as
the spinal marrow, the superior extremity any animal possesses a larger share of
of which part, slightly enlarged, consti- the latter and more noble part; that is,
tutes the brain. The latter organ, how- in proportion as the organ of reflection
ever, in both classes of cold and red- exceeds that of the external senses, may
blooded animals, and still more in those we expect to find the powers of the
VOL. II.
Ss
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
32
1
Canary bird
14
25
.
.
360
.
.
1
.
• 792
.
mind more vigorous and more clearly de-
Chaffinch
veloped. In this point of view man is
Redbreast
decidedly pre-eminent : here he excels
Blackbird
all other animals that have hitherto been
68
investigated.
All the simiæ, says Sömmerring, are
Cock
placed far behind man in this respect.
Duck
257
Although the brain in some instances,
Goose
particularly among the smaller kinds,
Tortoise
which have prehensile tails, is larger in
27
Turtle
proportion to their body than that of the
5688
human subject; yet a very large share of Coluber natrix.
762
that brain is required for the immense Frog
172
nerves, which supply their organs of sense
Shark
and mastication. Let us remove that
2496
Pike
portion of the brain, and a very small
1305
quantity will remain.
Carp
567
The researches of the same author on
animals in general have led him to con-
Many mammalia possess a bony tentori-
clude, that the quantity of brain, over
um cerebelli.
It is difficult to give a
and above that which is necessary for a physiological explanation of the use of
mere animal existence; that part, in short, this bony tentorium. The opinion which
which is devoted to the faculties of the has been generally adopted by anatomists,
mind, bears a direct ratio to the docility that the structure in question belongs to
of the animal, to the rank which it would such animals only as jump far, or run
hold in a comparative scale of mental with great velocity, and that it serves the
powers.
purpose of protecting the cerebellum
The largest brain, which Sommerring from the pressure of the cerebrum in
has found in a horse, weighed lib. 4oz. these quick motions, is obviously unsatis-
and the smallest, which he has seen in an factory. It exists in the bear, which is
adult man, was 215. 52oz. Yet the nerves not distinguished for its activity; while
arising from the former brain were at several animals which excel in jumping
least ten times larger than those of the or springing do not possess it; viz. the
latter.
wild goat, (capra ibex.) Cheselden as-
Generally speaking, small animals have cribes it to predaceous animals only,
a larger brain in proportion to their body (" Anat. of the Bones,” cap. 8 ;) but it
than larger ones. The pachydermata have exists in several others.
it very small; and in red blooded animals, We have given these remarks on the
its size is very trifling when compared generally assigned use of the bony tento-
with the body
rium, because a similar mechanical ex.
planation has been assigned of the falx,
It forms in man from z toz of the and the tentorium of the human subject
viz. that the former protects the hemi-
body.
spheres from mutual pressure when the
In some simiæ
person lies with his head resting on one
the Mole
side ; and that the latter provides against
36
Bear
the compression of the cerebellum by the
265
superincumbent cerebrum. These ex-
Dog
planations are assigned in the present
Cat.
day by anatomists of such distinguished
Hare
228
reputation as Sömmerring and Cuvier
Rat
(" de Corporis Humani Fabricâ," vol. 4,
Mouse
p. 27. “Leçons d'Anat. compar.” tom.
23
2, p. 178.) If the futility of this piece
Elephant
500
of physiology were not sufficiently proved,
Pig 46--672 by considering that the cranium is accu-
Horse
rately filled, and that there is conse.
ច
40
Dolphin
quently no room for its contents to fall
from one side to the other, it must im-
Eagle
200
mediately be rendered manifest by Mr.
Sparrow
Carlisle's case; in which the fals was
.
22
1
.
.
1
161
94
I
1
76
1
.
.
1
451
1
•
50
102
.
1
25
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
p. 24.)
entirely absent, and the two hemispheres ed as an organ of taste; but must be
united throughout in one mass, without merely subservient to the ingestion and
any perceptible inconvenience during the deglutition of the food. Again, in several
patient's life. (“Transactions of a So. animals, particularly among insects, an
ciety for the Improvement of Medical acute sense of smell seems to exist, al-
and Chirurgical Knowledge," vol. ii. p. though no part can be pointed out in
212.) We have met with four instances the head which analogy would justify
in which the anterior half of the falx us in describing as a nose.
was deficient. This production of the However universally animals may pos-
dura mater commenced in a narrow form sess that feeling which makes them
about the middle of the sagittal suture; sensible to the impressions of warmth
and gradually expanding, had acquired and cold, very few possess, like the
the usual breadth at its termination in the human subject, organs exclusively ap-
tentorium. The two hemispheres ad- propriated to the sense of touch, and ex-
hered by the pia mater covering their pressly constructed for the purpose of
opposed plane surfaces, but were form-feeling, examining, and exploring the
ed naturally in other respects. A want qualities of external objects.
of the falx has also been recorded by This sense appears, according to our
Garengeot, (“ Splanchnologie,” tom. ii. present state of knowledge, to exist only
in three classes of the animal kingdom ;
The brain of the mammalia wants the viz, in most of the mammalia, in a few
digital cavity of the lateral ventricle, and birds, and probably in insects.
in general the acervulus of the pineal The structure of the organ of touch is
gland. Its anterior lobes are elongated the most perfect, and similar to that of
into a process called the mamillary, give the human subject in the quadrumana.
ing rise to the olfactory nerves. In birds, The ends of their fingers, particularly of
reptiles, and fishes, there is a successive the posterior extremities, are covered with
and gradual change towards a more as soft and delicately organized a skin as
simple structure ; the brain in these that which belongs to the corresponding
classes consisting merely of tubercular parts in man.
eminences. In the lower orders the Several of the digitata are probably pro-
brain seems to be really wanting. A vided with this sense ; the organization
nervous chord runs along the body, and of the under surface of the front toes of
possesses ganglia at different distances, the racoon (ursus lotor), and the use
from which the nerves arise. In insects which the animal makes of those parts,
and vermes the upper ganglion of the ner- prove this assertion.
vous chord, which represents the brain, It is not so clear that we are author-
is placed near the mouth, or oesophagus, ised in considering the snout of the mole
and very generally surrounds that tube and pig, not to mention the tongue of the
by a kind of collar.
solidungula and bisulca, or the snout of
these and other animals, as true organs
ORGANS OF SENSE.
of touch, according to the explanation
above laid down,
Few subjects in comparative anatomy Much less can we suppose the long
and physiology have given rise to more bristly hairs, which constitute the whiskers
various and contradictory opinions, than of the cat-kind, and other mammalia, to
of sense in some classes of ani- be organs of touch, in the sense we are
mals. Much misunderstanding on this now considering, although they may be
point has clearly arisen from the incon- serviceable, when they come in contact
siderate and unconditional application of with any object, in warning, and making
inferences drawn from the human sub- the animal attentive. Bats have been
ject to animals. Thus it has been sup- supposed to possess a peculiar power of
posed, that those which possess a tongue perceiving external objects without com-
must have it for the purpose of tasting, ing actually into contact with them. In
and that the sense of smell must be their rapid and irregular flight amidst
wanting where we are unable to ascer- various surrounding bodies, they never
tain the existence of a nose. Observa- fly against them; yet it does not seem
tion and reflection will soon convince that the senses of hearing, seeing, or
us, that the tongue, in many cases (in smelling, serve them on these occasions;
. the ant-eaters among the mammalia, and for they avoid any obstacles with equal
almost universally in birds), cannot from certainty when the ear, eye, and nose are
its substance and mechanism be consider- closed. Hence naturalists have ascribed
the organs
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
a sixth sense to these animals. It is pro. its being darted out of the mouth for
bably analogous to that of touch. The some inches: it is used for the purpose
nerves of the wing are large and nume- of catching insects, and is horny and
rous, and distributed in a minute plexus barbed at its extremity. In the frog and
between the integuments. The impulse chameleon the tongue is also the organ
of the air against this part may possibly be by which the prey is seized. In the for-
so modified by the objects near which the mer animal it is long, soft, and covered
animal passes, as to indicate their situa- with a glutinous slime. In the quiescent
tion and nature.
state it lies from before backwards in the
In geese and ducks the bill is covered mouth, from which it is darted at the
with a very sensible skin, supplied with prey, consisting of insects, which become
an abundance of nerves from all the three entangled by the viscid fluid. The tongue
branches of the fifth pair. This appara- of the chameleon displays a very curious
tus enables them to feel about for their mechanism. It is contained in a sheath
food in mud, where they can neither see at the lower part of the mouth; and has
nor smell it. None of the amphibia or its extremity covered with a glutinous se-
fishes seem to possess the sense of touch, cretion. It admits of being projected to
according to the acceptation stated a- the length of six inches, and is used in
bove.
this manner by the animal in catching its
All the observations and investigations food, which consists of flies, &c. It is
of the structure of the antennae, those darted from the mouth with wonderful
peculiar organs which exist universally celerity and precision, and the viscous se-
in the more perfect insects, and of the cretion on its extremity entangles the
use which these animals generally apply small animals which constitute the food
them to, lead us inevitably to the con- of the chameleon.
clusion that they really are proper or-
gans of touch, by which the animal ex-
ORGAN OF SMELLING.
amines and explores surrounding ob-
jects. Such organs are particularly ne- Two remarkable instances of anomalous
cessary to insects, on account of the in- structure in parts connected with the nose
sensibility of their external coat, which is occur in the proboscis of the elephant,
generally of a horny consistence, and al- and the blowing holes of the cetacea.
so from their eyes being destitute in most The former organ consists of two canals,
instances of the power of motion,
separated from each other by an inter-
vening partition. Innumerable muscular
TONGUE.
fasciculi, running in two directions, occu-
py the space between these and the in-
Most of the herbivorous mammalia, par- teguments. There are fibres of a trans-
ticularly among the bisulca, have their verse course, passing like radii from the
tongue covered with a firm and thick cuti- canals to the integuments, and others,
cular coat, which forms numberless point which run in a more longitudinal direc-
ed papilla directed backwards. These tion, but have their extremities turned
must assist, according to their consistence inwards. The former extend the trunk,
and direction, at least in the animals of without causing any contraction of the
this country, in tearing up the grass. canals; the latter bend or contract it;
Animals of the cat kind have their tongue and both tend to bestow on it that won-
covered with sharp and strong prickles, derful mobility, which it possesses in eve-
which must enable the animal to take a ry direction.
firm hold. Similar pointed processes are The more longitudinal fibres are divi-
found in some other animals; as in the ded at short intervals by tendinous inter-
bat kind and the opossum.
sections, which enable the animal to bend
There seems to be no doubt that in all any part of the organ, and to give it any
the mammalia, which we have now con- requisite degree of curvature. The same
sidered, the tongue is an organ of taste, structure will confer a power of bending
at least towards its anterior part.
different parts of the trunk in opposite di-
The toothless animals, on the contrary, rections ; indeed there is no kind of cur-
as the ant-eater and manis, which swallow vature which may not be produced by
their aliment whole, have a worm-like these longitudinal fibres. These fascicu-
tongue, which is obviously capable of li occupy the external surface of the or-
no other use than that of taking their food. gan. The transverse fibres are not all
The tongue of the woodpecker has a arranged like radii round the canals; but
very singular structure, which admits of some pass across from right to left, and
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
must therefore affect the diameter of those ly to the Mammalia, has in some cases
tubes by their action. The whole of one turn more than in man.
these muscular fasciculi are surrounded Whales have an organ of hearing, but
and connected together by a white, uni- the parts are very small.
form, adipous substance. The transverse
Birds have no external ear; only a
ones are not more than a line in thick. single ossiculum auditus; and a short,
ness. If the number of these which ap- obtuse, hollow, bony process, instead of
pears on a transverse section be ascer- cochlea.
tained, and if those portions of the longi. Reptiles have membranous semicircu-
tudinal fasciculi, which pass from one lar canals and vestibulum ; generally a
tendon to another, be reckoned as sepa single ossiculum auditus, resembling that
rate muscles (for they must have of birds; and in some instances, a tym-
a separate power of action) the whole panum and membrana tympani level with
trunk will contain about thirty or forty the surface of the body.
thousand muscles, which will account
Fishes have a membranous vestibulum
satisfactorily for the wonderful variety of and canals; but no external organs.
motions which this admirable organ can
execute, and for the great power which it
THE EYE.
is capable of exerting.
The blowing hole of the whales serves
as well for respiration as for the rejection
A sensibility to the impressions of
of the water which enters with the food. light is common to all those animals,
which in a natural state are exposed to
In consequence of its situation at the top this element: it appears at least very
of the head, it is easily elevated beyond evidently to exist in some of the most sim-
the surface of the sea, while the mouth
is usually entirely under water.
ple zoophytes, as the armed polypes (hy-
The opening in the bones of the head dra :) but the power of perceiving the
and is furnished with a valve opening their reception. Nature has bestowed on
is divided into two by a partition of bone; images of external objects is confined
to
outwards. On the outside of this open; some species, even of red-blooded ani-
ing are two membranous bags, lined mals, a kind of rudiment of eyes, which
with a continuation of the integuments, have not the power of perceiving light;
and opening externally. The water,
which the animal wishes to discharge, is model for the bodily structure of such
as if in compliance with some general
thrown into the fauces, as if it were to be animals. This circumstance at least has
swallowed; but its descent into the sto- been asserted of the blind rat (marmota
mach is prevented by the contraction of
the circular fibres of the æsophagus. It typhlus) among mammalia ; and of the
therefore elevates the valve placed at the myxine glutinosa among fishes,
entrance of the blowing-holes, and dis- the eye-ball, in the former animal, is co-
The conjunctiva covering the front of
tends the membranous bag, from which vered with hair, so that the eye, which is
it is forcibly expelled by surrounding exceedingly small, seems to be complete-
muscular fibres.
ly useless.
This apparatus occupies the situation,
which in other mammalia is filled by the proportion to their size : this is very re-
Large animals have small eye-balls in
nose; which organ, together with the si- markably the case with the whales. Those
nuses of the head, the olfactory nerve, which are much under ground have the
&c. is entirely wanting in these animals.
globe also very small; as the mole and
shrew : in the former of these instances
ORGAN OT HEARING.
its existence has been altogether deni-
ed; and it is not in fact larger than a pin's
Some Mammalia have not an external head.
ear; particularly such as live in the wa- The eyes of man and the simiæ are di-
ter, or under ground.
rected forwards : in the latter animals
Most quadrupeds have a peculiar hemi- indeed they are placed nearer to each
spherical bony cavity, communicating other than in the human subject. The
with the tympanum, and seeming to hold lemur tarsius has them more closely ap-
the place of mastoid cells.
proximated than any other animal. All
The ornithorhynchus, whose structure other Mammalia have these organs se-
is in every respect so anomalous, has on- parated by a considerable interval, and
ly two ossicula auditus.
directed laterally. The same circum-
The cochlea, which belongs exclusive. stance obtains in birds, with the excep-
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
tion of the owl, who looks straight for- pears as a large folded process of the
wards. They are placed laterally in all choroid, coming through the retina at
reptiles. Their situation varies much in the back of the eye, and running in the
fishes: they look upwards in the uranos- substance of the vitreous humour towards
copus: they are both on the same side the crystalline lens, which it does not
of the body in the pleuronectes; but in quite reach.
general their direction is lateral.
The third eyelid, or membrana nicti.
The form of the globe varies according tans of birds, is a thin semi-transparent
to the medium in which the organ is to fold of the conjunctiva; which, in the
be exerted. In man and the mammalia, state of rest, lies in the inner corner of
it deviates very little from the spherical the eye, with its loose edge nearly verti-
figure. In fishes it is flattened on its an- cal, but can be drawn out so as to cover
terior part; in birds it is remarkably the whole front of the globe. By this,
convex in front, the cornea being some- according to Cuvier, the eagle is enabled
times absolutely hemispherical. The to look at the sun.
convexity of the crystalline is in an in- It is capable of being expanded over
verse ratio to that of the cornea. Thus the globe of the eye by the combined ac-
in fishes it is nearly spherical, and pro- tion of two very singular muscles, which
jects through the iris, so as to leave little are attached towards the back of the scle-
or no room for aqueous humour: the rotica. One of these, which is called
cetacea, and those quadrupeds and birds from its shape the quadratus, arises from
which are much under water, have this the upper and back part of the scleroti.
part of the same form. The aqueous ca; its fibres descend in a parallel course
humour being of the same density with towards the optic nerve, and terminate in
the medium in which these animals are a semicircular margin, formed by a ten-
placed, would have no power of refract- don of a very singular construction; for
ing rays of light which come through it has no insertion, but constitutes a cy-
that medium: its place is supplied by an lindrical canal. The second muscle,
increased sphericity of the lens. In which is called the pyramidalis, arises
birds these circumstances are reversed: from the lower and back part of the scle-
they inhabit generally a somewhat ele- rotica towards the nose. It gives rise to
vated region of the atmosphere, and the a long tendinous chord, which runs
rays which pass through this thin medi- through the canal of the quadratus, as in
um, are refracted by the aqueous hu- a pulley. Having thus arrived at the ex-
mour which exists in great abundance. terior part of the eyeball, it runs in a cel-
Man, and the mammalia, which live on lular sheath of the sclerotica along the un-
the surface of the earth, hold a middle der part of the eye, to the lower portion
place between these two extremes. of the loose edge of the membrana nic-
The inner surface of the choroid coat, titans, in which it is inserted.
which in man is black throughout, is co- By the united action of these two mus-
loured very beautifully on the temporal cles, the third eyelid will be drawn to-
side of the eye in most quadrupeds, and wards the outer angle of the eye, so as to
this part is called the tapetum.
cover the front of the globe; and its own
The pigmentum nigrum is entirely elasticity will restore it to its former si-
deficient in the eye of the white rabbit, tuation.
white ferret, &c. as well as in the va-
riety of the human race called the al- their structure, are found in insects: one
Two kinds of eyes, very dissimilar in
bino.
sort is small and simple, (stemmata ;) the
The quadrumana alone possess the others, which are large, seem to consist
foramen centrale of the retina, besides of an aggregation of smaller eyes; for
their general convexity is divided into an
Most mammalia possess a membrana immense number of small hexagonal con-
nictitans, or third eyelid, behind which vex surfaces, which may be considered as
the eyeball can be drawn, when offended so many distinct corneæ. The first kind
by any extraneous matter.
is found in different numbers in most of
Birds are distinguished by having a the aptera, as also in the larvæ of many
bony ring, composed of numerous Aat winged insects. When these undergo
and over-lapping thin plates, in the sub- the last or complete metamorphosis, and
stance of the sclerotica, at its anterior receive their wings, they gain at the
part.
same time the large compound eyes.
Another great peculiarity consists in Several genera of winged insects and ap-
the marsupium or pecten, which ap- tera (as the larger species of monoculi,)
man.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
edrous eyes.
MUSCLES.
have stemmata besides their compound the feet, the more securely will the line of
eyes.
gravity rest within that surface. The feet
The internal structure has hitherto of man are much broader than those of
been investigated only in the large poly- any animal, and admit of being separated
The back of the cornea more widely from each other. The sources
(which is the part divided in front into of the latter prerogative reside in the su-
the hexagonal surfaces, called in French, perior breadth of the human pelvis, and in
facettes) is covered with a dark pigment: the length and obliquity of the neck of
behind this are numerous white bodies, the femur, which, by throwing the body
of an hexagonal prismatic shape, and of the bone outwards, disengage it from
equal in number to that of the facettes the hip-joint.
of the cornea. A second coloured mem- The whole tarsus, metatarsus, and toes,
brane covers these, and appears to receive rest on the ground in the human subject,
the expansion of the optic nerve.
but not in other animals. The simiæ, and
Further investigation is, however, re- the bear, have the end of the os calcis
quired, in order to shew how these eyes raised from the surface ; while, on the
enable the insect to see; and to deter- contrary, it projects in man, and its promi-
mine the distinction between two such nent portion has a most important share
very different organs.
in supporting the back of the foot. The
exterior margin of the foot rests chiefly
on the ground in the simiæ; which cir-
cumstance leaves them a freer use of
The nature and objects of the present their thumb and long toes in seizing the
work render it impossible for us to en- branches of trees, &c.; and renders the
ter into the details of comparative myo- organ so much the less adapted to sup-
logy; we shall therefore restrain our re- port the body on level ground.
marks to one or two subjects.
The plantaris muscle, instead of termi-
The differences which we discern in nating in the os calcis, expands into the
the muscles of the lower extremity, be- plantar fascia in the simiæ; and in other
tween man and the other mammalia, quadrupeds it holds the place of the flexor
arise out of that characteristic feature brevis or perforatus digitorum pedis, pass-
which so strikingly distinguishes man ing over the os calcis in such a direction
from all other animals, viz. his erect sta- that its tendon would be compressed, and
ture. The most minute investigation of its action impeded, if the heel rested on
this subject will shew us that the erect the ground.
position belongs to man only; and there- The extensors of the ankle joint, and
by confirms the elegant observation of chiefly those which form the calf of the
the Roman poet :
leg, are very small in the mammalia, even
in the genus simiæ. The peculiar mode of
Pronaque cum spectent animalia cetera progression of the human subject suffi.
terram,
ciently accounts for their vastly superior
Os homini sublime dedit; cælumque tueri magnitude in man. By elevating the os
Jussit; et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus. calcis they raise the whole body in the
act of progression; and, by extending the
In order to enable any animal to pre- leg on the foot, they counteract that ten.
serve the erect position, the following dency which the weight of the body has to
conditions are required. 1st. That the bend the leg in standing.
parts of the body should be so disposed
The thigh is placed in the same line with
as to admit of being maintained with the trunk in man; it always forms an angle
ease in a state of equilibrium. 2dly. That with the spine in animals, and this is often
the muscles should have sufficient
even an acute one.
power
The extensors of the
to correct the deviations from this state. knee are much stronger in the human sub-
3dly, That the centre of gravity of the ject than in other mammalia, as their dou-
whole body should fall within the space ble effect of extending the leg on the thigh,
occupied by the feet; and lastly, That and of bringing the thigh forwards on the
the feet themselves should have a broad leg, forms a very essential part in the
surface, resting firmly on the ground, and human mode of progression.
should admit of being in a manner fixed
The flexors of the knee are, on the
to the earth. All these circumstances contrary, stronger in animals, and are in-
are united in the necessary degree in serted so much lower down in the tibia
man only.
(even in the simiæ) than in the human
The broader the surface included by subject, that the support of the body on
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
the hind legs must be very insecure, as sition. For they rest on the thighs as well
the thigh and leg form an angle, instead of as on the feet, and this can only be done
continuing in a straight line.
where the fore part of the body is small,
The gluteus maximus, which is the as in the simiæ, the squirrel, &c.; in other
largest muscle of the human body, is so cases, the animal is obliged also to sup-
small and insignificant in animals, that it port itself by the fore feet, as in the dog,
may almost be said not to exist. This cat, &c. The large and strong tail in
muscle, which forms the great bulk of the some instances forms as it were a third
human buttock, extends the pelvis on the foot, and thereby increases the surface
thighs in standing; and, assisted by the for supporting the body, as in the kan-
other two glutei, maintains that part in a guroo and the jerboa.
state of equilibrium on the lower extremi- Various gradations may be observed
ty which rests on the ground, while the in the mammalia, connecting man to
other is carried forwards in progression. those animals which are strictly quadru-
The true office of these important mus- peds. The simiæ, which are by no means
cles does not therefore consist, as it is calculated for the erect position, are not,
usually represented, in the common ana- on the other hand, destined like the proper
tomical works, in moving the thigh on the quadrupeds to go on all-fours. They live
pelvis, but in that of fixing the pelvis on in trees, where their front and hind ex-
the thighs, and of maintaining it in the tremities are both employed in climbing,
&c.
erect position.
Such then are the supports, by which
The true quadrupeds have the front of
the trunk of the human body is firmly the trunk supported by the anterior ex-
maintained in the erect position. The pro- tremities, which are consequently much
perties of the trunk, which contribute to larger and stronger than in man; as the
the same end, do not so immediately be. hind feet of the same animals yield in
long to this article; but may be slightly these respects to those of the human
mentioned, to complete the view of the subject. The chest is in a manner sus-
subject. The breadth of the human pelvis pended between the scapulæ and the
affords a firm basis on which all the supe-
serrati magni muscles, which support it
rior parts rest securely; the same part is in this position, are consequently of great
so narrow, in other animals, that the trunk bulk and strength. When viewed toge-
represents an inverted pyramid, and there ther, they represent a kind of girth sur-
must consequently be great difficulty in rounding
the chest.
maintaining it in a state of equilibrium, if
The chief agents in flying are the
it were possible for the animal to assume mities of the bird, and which constitute
muscles, which move the anterior extre-
the erect position. In those instances what in common language is termed the
where the pelvis is broader, the other con- breast of the animal.
ditions of the upright stature are absent:
the bear, however, forms an exception to arising chiefly from their enormous ster-
Birds possess three pectoral muscles,
this observation, and consequenty admits
of being taught to stand and walk erect, num, and acting on the head of the hu-
although the
posture is manifestly incon- weighs of itself more than all the other
merus. The first, or great pectoral,
venient and irksome to the
animal.
muscles of the bird together. The keel
The perpendicular position of the verte- of the sternum, the fork, and the last
bral column under the centre of the basis ribs, give origin to it; and it is inserted
cranii, and the direction of the eyes and in a rough projecting line of the humerus.
mouth forwards, would be as inconvenient By depressing that bone, it produces the
to man, if he went on all-fours, as they are strong and violent motions of the wing,
well adapted to his erect stature. In the which carry the body forwards in flying,
former case he would not be able to look The middle pectoral lies under this, and
before him; and the great weight of the sends its tendon over the junction of the
head, with the comparative weakness of fork, with the clavicle and scapula, as in a
the extensor muscles, and the want of li- pulley, to be inserted in the upper part of
gamentum nuchæ, would render the ele. the humerus, which bone it elevates. By
vation of that organ almost impossible.
this contrivance of the pulley, the eleva-
When quadrupeds endeavour to sup- tor of the wing is placed at the under
port themselves on the hind extremities; surface of the body. The third, or lesser
as, for instance, for the purpose of seiz- pectoral muscle, has the same effect with
ing any objects with the fore feet, they the great pectoral, in depressing the
rather sit down than assume the erect po- wing:
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
One of the flexor tendons of the toes of kidneys are extremely numerous, and
birds, (produced from a muscle which send branches to the ureter without
comes from the pubis) runs in front of the forming a pelvis. Mr Hunter states
knee; and all these tendons go behind the that it belongs to all the whales. (Phi-
heel: hence the flexion of the knee and los. Transact. 1807, pt. 2.") The otter
heel produces mechanically a bent state has the same structure ; but its small kid-
of the toes, which may be seen in the neys are not so numerous as in the ani-
dead bird; and it is by means of this struc- mals above-mentioned. (“Home, of the
ture that the bird is supported, when sea-otter, (lutra marina,) Philos. Trans.
roosting, without any muscular action. 1796, pt. 2") It is remarkable that the
This circumstance of the flexion of the brown bear (ursus arctos,) which lives on
toes accompanying that of the other joints land, should have this structure as well
of the lower extremity of birds, was long as the white polar bear (ursus mariti-
ago observed by Borelli, and attributed mus), which, inhabiting the coasts and
by him to the connection which the flex. floating ice of the northern regions,
ors of the toes have with the upper parts spends much of its time in the water.
of the limb, by which they are mechani- Mr. Hunter concludes, that it is because
cally stretched when the knee is bent nature wishes to preserve an uniformity
This explanation has been controverted in the structure of similar animals. But
by Vicq d’Azyr, and others, who have the badger, (ursus meles), which is a
referred the effect to the irritability of very similar animal, has the uni-lobu-
the muscles. The opinion of Borelli ap- lar kidney. The number of small
pears, notwithstanding, to be well found- kidneys in the bear is 50 or 60, and
ed; for not only the tendon of the ac- it appears that each consists of two pa-
cessory flexor passing round the knee, pillæ.
but the course of the flexor tendons over The kidneys of birds form a double
the heel, and along the metatarsus, must row of distinct, but connected glandular
necessarily cause the contraction of the bodies, placed on both sides of the lum-
toes when either of these joints is bent; bar vertebræ, in cavities of the ossa in-
and if the phenomenon was not produced nominata. The urinary bladder does not
on mechanic principles, it would be im- exist in this whole class, and the ureters
possible for birds to exhibit it during open into the cloaca.
sleep, which they do, or to prove the ef- Animals of the genus testudo and rana
fect on the limb of a dead bird, than have a large bladder in the situation of
svhich nothing is more easy. The utility the urinary receptacle of other animals.
of this contrivance is great in all birds, This is double in many of the frogs pro-
but particularly so in the rapacious tribe, perly so called. These bags are repre-
which, by this means, grasp their prey sented both by Blumenbach and Cuvier
in the very act of pouncing on it; and as urinary bladders; but Townson has
it is still more necessary to those birds already shewn, that in the frog and toad
svhich perch or roost during their sleep, they have no connection with the ure-
as they could not otherwise preserve ters, which open at the back of the
their position, when all their voluntary rectum, while those receptacles termi-
powers are suspended.
nate on the front of the intestine.
(“ Tracts and Observations, p. 66. fig.
URINARY ORGANS.
3.) The writer of this article has ob-
served the same structure in a male and
The structure of the kidney in the female tortoise.
mammalia displays two very opposite
varieties, which may be called the simple
ORGANS OF GENERATION.
and the conglomerated kidneys. In the
former there is a single papilla, which The nature of generation, which is the
is surrounded by an exterior crust of greatest mystery in the economy of liv-
cortical substance. This is the case in ing bodies, is still involved in impenetra-
all the feræ, and in many rodentia. The ble obscurity. The creation of a living
other kind of kidney consists of an ag- body, that is, its formation by the union
gregation of small kidneys, connected by of particles suddenly brought together,
cellular substance. It appears that this bas not hitherto been proved by any di-
form of the gland is found in all those rect observation. The comparison of this
mammalia which either live in or fre- process to that of crystallization is found
quent the water. I have observed it in ed in a false analogy : crystals are formed
the seal and porpoise, where the small of similar particles attracting each other
VOL. IT
Tt
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
indifferently, and agglutinated by their contributes to the developement of the
surfaces, which determine the order of germ, is not yet settled by physiologists.
their arrangement: living bodies, on the Some, forming their opinions from the
contrary, consist of numerous fibres or human subject and the mammalia, where
laminæ of heterogenous composition, and the germs are imperceptible before fe-
various figures, each of which has its pe- cundation, suppose that these are creat-
culiar situation in relation to the other ed by the mixture of the male fluid with
fibres and laminæ. Moreover, from the that which they suppose to exist in the
instant in which a living body can be said female ; or that they pre-exist in the male
to exist, however small it may be, it semen, and that the female only furnishes
possesses all its parts; it does not grow them with an abode. Others consult the
by the addition of any new lamina, but analogy of the other classes of animals
by the uniform or irregular developement and of plants. In several instances, par-
of parts which existed before any sensi- ticularly in the frog, the germ may be
ble growth
clearly recognised in the ovum, before
The only circumstance common to all fecundation: its pre-existence may be
generation, and consequently, the only concluded in other cases, from the man-
essential part of the process, is, that ner in which it is connected to the ovum
every living body is attached at first to when it first becomes visible; for it is
a larger body of the same species with agreed on all sides, that the ovum exists
itself. It constitutes a part of this larger in the female before fecundation, since
body, and derives nourishment for a cer- virgin hens lay eggs, &c. From such
tain time from its juices. The subsequent considerations these physiologists con-
separation constitutes birth : and may be clude, that the germ pre-exists in all fe-
the simple result of the life of the larger males, and that the fecundating liquor
body, and of the consequent develope- is a stimulus which bestows on it an in-
ment of the smaller, without the addition dependent life, by awakening it, in a
of any occasional action.
manner, from the species of lethargy in
Thus the essence of generation con- which it would otherwise have constantly
sists in the appearance of a small organ- remained.
ised body in or upon some part of a larg- The origin of the germs, and the mode
er one; from which it is separated at a of their existence in the female, whether
certain period, in order to assume an in- they are formed anew by the action of
dependent existence.
life, or are pre-existent, and inclosed
All the processes and organs, which within each other; or whether they are
co-operate in the business of generation disseminated, and require a concourse of
in certain classes, are only accessory to circumstances to bring them into a situa-
this primary function.
tion favourable for their developement,
When the function is thus reduced to
are questions which, in the present state
its most simple state, it constitutes the of our knowledge it is utterly impossible
gemmiparous, or generation by shoots. for us to decide. These points have for a
In this way the buds of trees are develop- long time been agitated by physiologists;
ed into branches, from which other trees but the discussion seems now to be aban-
may be formed. The polypes (hydra) doned by universal consent.
and the sea-anemones (actinia) multiply The combination of the sexes, and the
in this manner; some worms are propa- mode of fecundation, are subject to great
gated by a division of their body, and variety. In some instances they are
must therefore be arranged in the same united in the same individual, and the
division. This mode of generation re- animal impregnates itself. The acepha-
quires no distinction of sex, no copula- lous mollusca and the echinus exemplify
tion, nor any particular organ.
this structure. In others, although the
Other modes of generation are accom- sexes are united in each individual, an
plished in appropriate organs: the germs act of copulation is required, in which
appear in a definite situation in the body, they both fecundate and are fecundated.
and the assistance of certain operations This is the case with the gasteropodous
is required for their further develope- mollusca, and several worms. In the re-
ment. These operations constitute fecun- mainder of the animal kingdom the sexes
dation, and suppose the existence of belong to different individuals,
sexual parts: which may either be sepa- The fecundating liquor is always ap-
rate or united in the same individual. plied upon or about the germs. In many
The office of the male sex is that of cases the ova are laid before they are
furnishing the fecundating or seminal touched by the semen; as in some fishes
Nuid ; but the manner in which that of the bony division, and the cephalopo-
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
dous mollusca. Here, therefore, impreg- ther, until the contained germ be de:
nation is effected out of the body; as it is veloped and hatched. These are false
also in the frog and toad. But in the lat- viviparous animals, or ovo-viviparous,
ter instances the male embraces the fe- The viper and some fishes afford instan-
male, and discharges his semen in pro- ces of this process.
portion as she voids the eggs. In most Mammalia alone are truly viviparous
animals the seminal liquor is introduced animals. Their germ possesses no pro-
into the body of the female, and the ova vision of nourishment, but grows by what
are fecundated before they are discharg. it derives from the juices of the mother.
ed. This is the case in the mammalia, For this purpose it is attached to the in-
birds, most reptiles, and some fishes; in ternal surface of the uterus, and some-
the hermaphrodite gasteropodous mol- times by accident to other parts, by a
lusca, in the crustacea, and insects. The kind of root or infinite ramification of
act by which this is accomplished, is vessels called a placenta. It is not,
termed copulation.
therefore, completely separated from the
In all the last mentioned orders ova mother by its coverings. It does not,
may be discharged without previous co- come into the world until it can enjoy an
pulation, as in the preceding ones. But independent organic existence. The
they receive no further developement; mammalia cannot, therefore, be said to
nor can they be fecundated when thus possess an ovum in the sense which we
voided.
have assigned to that term.
The effect of a single copulation va- From the above view of the subject,
ries in its degree; it usually fecundates generation may be said to consist of four
one generation only ; but sometimes, as functions, differing in their importance,
in poultry, several eggs are fecundated; and in the number of animals to which
still, however, they only form one gene- they belong.
ration.
1st. The production of the germ, which
In a very few instances one act of co- is a constant circumstance; 2dly, fecun-
pulation fecundates several generations, dation, which belongs only to the sexual
which can propagate their species with- generation ; 3dly, copulation, which is
out the aid of the male. In the plant- confined to those sexual generations, in
louse (aphis) this has been repeated which fecundation is accomplished with-
eight times; and in some monoculi twelve in the body.
or fifteen times
Lastly, uterogestation, which belongs
When the germ is detached from the exclusively to viviparous generation.
ovary, its mode of existence may be more The testes, and sometimes the vesicu-
or less complete. In most animals it is læ seminales and prostate vary most re-
connected, by means of vessels, to an or- markably in their magnitude in such ani-
ganised mass, the absorption of which mals as have a regular rutting season.
nourishes and developes it until the pe- They are very diminutive at other peri-
riod of its birth. It derives nothing, ods of the year, but swell at that par-
therefore, from the body of the mother, ticular time to a comparatively vast mag-
from which it is separated by coverings nitude. This change is particularly ob-
varying in number and solidity. The servable in the testes of the mole, spar-
germ, together with its mass of nourish- row, and frog.
ment, and the surrounding membranes, We may mention here, in a cursory
constitutes an egg or ovum; and the ani- and general manner, the peculiar organs
mals which produce their young in this possessed by the males of some species,
state, are denominated oviparous. for the purpose of holding the female
In most of these the germ contained in during the act of copulation. Of this
the egg is not developed until that part kind are, the spur on the hind-feet of
has quitted the body of the mother, or the male ornithorhynchus; the rough
has been laid ; whether it be necessary black tubercle formed in the spring sea-
that it should be afterwards fecundated, son on the thumb of the common frog;
as in many fishes, or require only the ap- the two members, formed of bones arti-
plication of artificial heat for its incuba- culated to each other, near the genitals
tion, as in birds; or that the natural heat of the male torpedo and other cartilagi-
of the climate is sufficient, as in reptiles, nous fishes; the forceps on the abdomen
insects, &c. These are strictly oviparous of the male dragon-fly, &c.
animals.
A scrotum belongs to the mammalia on-
The ovum, after being fecundated, and ly; and is not found in all these. The
detached from the ovarium, remains in aquatic genera, those which live under
some animals within the body of the mo- ground, and others, want it.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
"The testes remain constantly in the ab- In some species of the cat kind the
domen in the ornithorhynchus, the ele- glans is covered with retroverted papillæ,
phant, the amphibious mammalia, and which, as these animals have no vesicu-
the cetacea. Some animals have the læ seminales, may enable the male to
.
power of protruding them from the ab. hold the female longer in his embraces.
domen, and retracting them again into Lastly, it deserves to be mentioned,
the cavity; as the bats, mole, hedge- that in some mammalia, the male penis,
hog, and shrew, besides several of the while unerected, is turned backwards ;
rodentia. They are thrust out of the ca- so that the urine is voided in the male in
vity, particularly at the rutting season. the same direction as in the female. The
The tunica vaginalis exists constantly hare, lion, and camel, afford instances of
in the mammalia. As the horizontal po. this structure. But the statement which
sition of the body obviates the danger of has been so often repeated since the
hernia, the cavity of this membrane time of Aristotle, that these retromin-
communicates by means of a narrow ca- gentia copulate backwards, is erroneous.
nal with the abdomen, in such animals as
have the testes remaining constantly in
BIRDS,
the scrotum.
In some species, where the act of copu- The testes, which lie near the kidnies,
lation requires a longer portion of time, and the ductus deferentes, are the only
as in the dog, badger, &c. the corpus male organs which are constantly found
spongiosum of the glans, and of the pos- in the whole class.
terior part of the penis, swells during In a very few instances, as in the cock,
the act much more considerably than the the last mentioned canals terminate in a
rest of the organ, and thus the male and dilated part, which has been considered
female are held together during a suffi- analogous to the vesiculæ seminales. In-
cient space of time for the discharge of stead of a penis, most birds have in the
the seminal fiuid.
cloaca two small papillæ, on which the
Several species of mammalia, both seminal ducts terminate. This is the
among those which possess no vesiculæ case in the cock, turkey, and pigeon.
seminales, and thereby require a longer Some few species have a simple penis
time for completing the act of copulation, of considerable length, which is ordina-
and in such as are not distinguished by rily concealed and retracted within the
this peculiarity, possess a peculiar bone cloaca ; but remains visible externally for
in the penis, generally of a cylindrical some time after copulation. It forms a
form, but sometimes grooved. This is long worm-shaped tube in the drake, and
the case with some of the simiæ, most of constitutes a groove in the ostrich, which
the bat-kind, the hamster and several is visible when the animal discharges its
others of the mouse-kind, the dog, bear, urine.
badger, weasel, seal, walrus, &c.
In most of the mammalia the urethra
AMPHIBIA,
runs on to the end of the glans, and forms
a common passage for the urine, pros. The kidney, testes, and epididymis,
tatic liquor, and semen. In some few lie close together in the testudines; but
species, the passage which conducts the each of the three organs may be distin-
two former fluids, is distinct from that of guished by its peculiar colour and struc-
the seminal liquor. The bifid fork-like ture on the first view. They appear to
glans of the opossum has three opening's, have no vesiculæ seminales; none at least
one at the point of bifurcation for trans- could be discovered in a testudo græca,
mitting the urine; and two for the semi- which was lately dissected. The penis
nal fluid at the two extremities of the on the contrary is very large : and re-
glans. The short urethra of the ornitho- tracted within the cloaca in its ordinary
rhynchus paradoxus opens directly into state. Instead of an urethra, this part
the cloaca, and the large penis of the ani- contains a groove, whose margins ap-
mal serves merely to conduct the semi- proach to each other, when the part is
nal fluid. It divides into two parts at its erected, so as to form a closed canal. The
extremity, and each of these is furnished glans terminates in an obtuse hook-like
with sharp papillæ, which are perforated point, somewhat resembling the end of
for the passage of the semen A similar the elephant's trunk.
structure obtains in the ornithorhynchus Serpents have long slender testicles;
hystrix, where the penis divides into four no vesiculæ seminales; but a double pe-
,
glands.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
a
nis, each of which has a bifid point cov- particularly in the first class. These bo-
ered with sharp papilla.
dies were formerly called the female tes
ticles; but the term ovary is much pre-
FISHES.
ferable, as it denotes the function which
The male organs of generation possess the parts perform in the animal econo-
very different structures in the different my. For, if the office of these bodies be
orders of this class. We shall take two at all dubious, when their structure is
species as examples; the torpedo for the considered in man and most of the mam-
cartilaginous, and the carp for the bony malia, their organization is so evident in
fishes.
the other classes, that no doubt can be
In the former instance there are mani- entertained respecting their physiology.
fest testicles, consisting partly of innu. It is manifest in all these, that the ovaria
merable glandular and granular bodies, serve for the growth and preservation of
and partly of a substance like the soft roe the germs or ova, which exist in these
of bony fishes. We find also vasa defer- bodies, completely formed, before the
entia, and a vesicula seminalis, which act of copulation. Analogy leads us to
opens into the rectum by means of a conclude that these bodies have the sa.ne
small papilla.
office in the mammalia ; and thus our ex-
The soft roe supplies the place of testes planation and illustration of this most in-
in the carp, and most other bony fishes. teresting part of physiology, are entirely
It forms two elongated flat viscera of
derived from researches in compara,
white colour, and irregular tuberculated tive anatomy.
.
surface, placed at the sides of the intes-
Of all the external female sexual or
tines and swimming bladder, so that the gans in the mammalia, the clitoris is
left encloses the rectum in a kind of found the most universally and invariably.
groove. Through the middle of each soft It exists even the whales, and probably
l'oe passes a ductus deferens, which
opens
is wanting in no other instance than
behind into a kind of vesicula seminalis,
the ornithorhynchus. As its general
and this terminates in the cloaca.
structure much resembles that of the
male penis, it contains a small bone in
several species, as the marmota citillus,
FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION.
the racoon, lioness, and sea-otter.
An ovarium is the most essential and A true hymen, or one at least, which in
universal of all the female parts of gene- form and situation resembles that of the
ration. In addition to this, those ani- human subject, has been observed in no
mals which breathe by means of lungs, as other animal.
well as some fishes, and several white- The structure and form of the uterus
blooded animals, have alsooviducts, vary very considerably in the mammalia.
(Fallopian tubes, &c.) or canals leading In no instance does it possess that thick-
from the ovarium to the uterus: and last- ness, nor has its parenchyma that density
ly, those, at least, which are impregna- nor toughness, which are observed in the
ted by a real copulation, possess a va- human female. Of those which I have dis-
gina, or canal connecting the uterus to sected, the simia sylvanus had compara-
the external organs of generation. tively the firmest uterus. The two-toed
In birds all the parts which we have ant-eater came the next in order in this
just mentioned are single. Some cartila- respect. But in the greater number of
ginous fishes have two oviducts; begin- mammalia, this organ is thin in its coats,
ning, however, by a common opening, resembling an intestine in appearance,
and terminating in a simple uterus. The and provided with a true muscular cover-
human female, as well as that of many ing.
other mammalia, has two ovaria, with an The variations in the form of the unim-
oviduct belonging to each; a simple ute- pregnated uterus may be reduced to the
rus and vagina. The females of this class, following heads :
in several other instances, possess an 1. The simple uterus without horns,
uterus bicornis: and in some cases the (uterus simplex,) which is generally of a
generative organs are double throughout; pyramidal or oval figure. This is exem-
that is, there are two uteri, and, at least plified in those animals, where we have
for some extent, a double vagina. stated that it possesses thick coats. Its
Ovaria are found in the females of all circumference in some simiæ presents a
animals where the male possesses testi- more triangular form than in the wo-
cles: but their structure is in general man: and towards the upper part, in the
more simple than that of the latter
glands, neighbourhood of the Fallopian tubes,
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
there is an obscure division into two of the ovum from the ovarium, are entire-
blind sacs, (as in the gibbon, or long. ly different in these animals, from those
armed ape): this distinction is more which take place in the other mammalia.
strongly expressed in the lori, (lemur Neither has the precise period, at which
tardigradus,) so as to form a manifest ap- the fætus enters the false belly, been
proach to the uterus bicornis.
hitherto shewn.
2. A simple uterus with straight or The following statement of the sub-
convoluted horns (uterus bicornis.) ject, as far as it is at present known, is
They are straight in the bitch, in the bats derived from Mr. Home's paper. (Phil.
of this country, in the sea-otter, seal, Trans. 1795.)
&c.; somewhat convoluted in the ceta- The uterus and lateral canals, in their
cea, mare, and hedge-hog, and still more pregnant state, are distended with a very
tortuous in the bisulca.
adhesive jelly of a bluish white colour;
3. A double uterus, having the appear which also fills the oval enlargements of
ance of two horns, which open separate- the Fallopian tubes.
into the vagina : this is seen in the hare “In the cavity of the uterus," says Mr.
and rabbit, (uterus duplex.)
Home, “I detected a substance which
4. A double uterus, with extraordinary appeared organized; it was enveloped in
lateral convolutions, is met with in the the gelatinous matter, and so small as to
opossom and kanguroo, (uterus anfrac- make it difficult to form a judgment re-
tuosus.
specting it; but when compared with the
These various forms undergo different fætus after it becomes attached to the
changes in the pregnant state.
nipple, it so exactly resembled the back-
The alteration in the simple uterus is, bone with the posterior part of the skull,
on the whole, analogous to that which that it is readily recognized to be the
occurs in the human female:
same parts in an earlier stage of their for-
The pregnant uterus bicornis suffers a mation.”
different change in those animals which This substance has been represented
bear only one at a time, from that which in a plate ; but the engraving does not,
it undergoes in the multipara. The fætus in our opinion, possess the slightest
of the mare is confined in its situation to similitude to the parts mentioned by Mr.
the proper uterus. In the cow it extends Home.
at the same time into one of the horns, The size of the fætus at the time it
which is enlarged for its reception. In leaves the uterus is not yet ascertained.
those, on the contrary, which bring forth The smallest, which has been hitherto
many young at once, as also in the found in the false belly, weighed twenty-
double uterus of the hare and rabbit, one grains; and was less than an inch in
both cornua are divided by contracted length. In another instance it was “thir-
portions into a number of pouches cor- ty-one grains in weight from a mother of
responding to that of the young ; and fifty-six pounds. In this instance the
where those horns are straight in the un- nipple was so short a way in the mouth,
impregnated state, as in the bitch, they that it readily dropped out, we must
become convoluted.
therefore conclude that it had been very
The uterus of the opossum and kangu- recently attached to it.
roo suffers the least change from its usual “The fætus at this period had no navel
appearance in the impregnated state. string, nor any remains of there ever
For these strange animals bring their having been one ; it could not be said to
young into the world so disproportion- be perfectly formed, but those parts
ately small, that they appear like early which fit it to lay hold of the nipple
abortions.
were more so than the rest of the body.
The passage of the fætus, in the opos- The mouth was a round hole, just
sum tribe and the kanguroo, from the enough to receive the point of the nip-
cavity of the uterus into the false belly, ple; the two fore-paws, when compared
where it adheres by its mouth to the nip- to the rest of the body, were large and
ple, presents one of the most singular and strong, the little claws extremely distinct;
interesting phenomena in the whole cir- while the hind-legs, which are afterwards
cle of comparative anatomy. Physiolo. to be so very large, were both shorter and
gists have not yet ascertained, whether smaller than the fore ones.”
the embryo possesses, at any period, a “ The mode in which the young kan-
comection with the uterus similar to guroo passes from the uterus into the
that which is observed in the other mam- false belly, has been matter of much spe-
malia: but it appears very probable, that culation, and it has even been supposed
the processes, which follow the passage that there was an internal communica
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
FISHES.
tion between these cavities; but after the are double, and have two openings into
most diligent search, I think I may ven- the cloaca.
ture to assert that there is no such pas- The frogs of this country have a large
sage. This idea took its rise from there uterus, divided by an internal partition
being no visible opening between the into two cavities, from which two long
uterus and vagina in the unimpregnated convoluted oviducts arise, and terminate
state ; but such an opening being very ap- by open orifices at the sides of the heart.
parent, both during pregnancy and after The ovaria lie under the liver, so that it.
parturition, overturns this hypothesis; for is difficult to conceive how the ova get
we cannot suppose that the fætus, when into the above mentioned openings. The
it has reached the vagina, can pass out in uterus opens into the cloaca.
any other way than through the external The toads have not the large uterus;
part.” This passage will be facilitated but their oviducts terminate by a com-
'
by the power which the animal possesses mon tube in the cloaca.
of drawing down the false belly to the The lizards of this country have on the
vulva, which has naturally a considerable whole a similar structure to that of the
projection.
last mentioned animals. Their oviducts
The female organs of generation of are larger, but shorter, and the ovaria
birds consist of an ovarium, and an ovi- contain fewer ova.
duct, which opens into the cloaca Its Female serpents have double external
aperture is placed towards the left of openings of the genitals for the recep-
that organ. The tube itself is convolut- tion of the double organs of the male.
ed, somewhat like an intestine. Its inner The oviducts are long and much convo.
coat is furnished with numerous papillæ. luted. The ovaria resemble rows of beads
Its diameter is the most considerable at composed of yellow vesicles.
the cloaca, from which it gradually dimi-
nishes. It opens towards the abdomen
by an expanded orifice, called the in-
fundibulum ; which is analogous to
We shall take the torpedo and the
the fimbriated orifice of the Fallopian sions of the class, as we did in speaking
carp
tube
of the male organs.
The ovarium, resembling in its appear-
In the former fish there are two uteri,
ance a bunch of grapes, lies under the
liver, and contains in a young laying hen communicating with the cloaca by means
about five hundred yolks, varying in size one infundibulum, which receives the ova
of a common vagina. The oviducts form
from a pin's head to their perfect mag-
nitude: the largest always occupy the These are very large in comparison with
as they successively arrive at maturity.
external circumference of the part. Each
yolk is inclosed in a membrane (calyx) its passage through the oviduct, acquires
those of the bony fishes. The yolk, in
which is joined to the ovarium by means its albumen, and shell.
of a short stalk or pedicle (petiolus.) A
The latter is of
white shining line forms on the calyx a horny consistence, and is known by
when the yolk has attained its complete the name of the sea-mouse. In has an
-
magnitude. The membrane bursting in elongated quadrangular figure, and its
this part, the contained yolk escapes, and the skate, while they form horny plaited
this part, the contained yolk escapes, and four corners are curved and pointed in
is taken up by the infundibulum in a man-
eminences in the sharks. The secretion
ner which we cannot easily conceive. It of the albumen, and the formation of the
then passes along the oviduct, and ac-
quires in its passage the white and shell. shell, are performed by the papillous in-
ternal surface of the duct; and chiefly
The calyx, on the contrary, remains con-
nected to the ovarium; but it contracts by two glandular swellings which appear
and diminishes in size, so that in old towards its anterior extremity in the
hens, which have done laying, the whole summer months, while the eggs are be-
internal organs of generation nearly dising laid.
The structure is much more simple in
appear.
the carp, and probably also in the other
oviparous bony fishes. The two roes OC-
AMPHIBIA.
cupy the same position as the soft roe of
the male does. They are placed at the
The tortoise has a manifest clitoris side of the intestines, liver, and swimming
lying in the cloaca. The oviduct and bladder, as far as the anus. They consist
ovarium have on the whole much analogy of a delicate membrane inclosing the ova,
with those of birds; but all these parts which are all of one size, and extremely
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
pumerous (more than 200,000 in the carp); impregnated uterus, and having a corresa
and terminate by a common opening be. ponding number of flocculent fasciculi of
hind the anus.
blood vessels (carunculæ) which grow
The immense number of ova contained from the external surface of the chorion
in the ovaria of fishes, accounts to us sa- impla ted in them. Thus the uterine and
tisfactorily for the astonishing multitudes fetal portions of the placenta are manifest-
in which some species are formed. In a ly distinct from each other, and are easily
perch weighing one pound two ounces, separable as the fætus advances to matu-
there were 69,216 ova in the ovarium ; in rity. The latter only are discharged with
a mackarel of one pound three ounces, the after birth, while the former, or the
129,200; in a carp of eighteen inches, Pe. cotyledons, gradually disappear from the
til found 342,144 ; and in a sturgeon of surface of the uterus after it has parted
one hundred and sixty pounds, there was with its contents. The number and form
the enormous number of 1,467,500. of these excrescences vary in the different
genera and species. In the sheep and cow
EMBRYO OF THE MAMMALIA. they sometimes amount to a hundred. In
the former animal and the goat they are,
The mode of connexion of the pregnant as the name implies, concave eminences;
uterus with the membranes of the ovum, while on the contrary, in the cow, deer, &c.
and thereby with the embryo itself, display their surface is rounded or convex.
three chief differences in the various mam- The trunks of the veins which pass from
malia.
the placenta or carunculæ, and of the ar-
Either the whole external surface of the teries which proceed towards these parts,
ovum adheres to the cavity of the uterus, are united in the umbilical chord, which is
or the connection is effected by means of longer in the human embryo than in any
a simple placenta, or by more numerous other animal.
small placenta (cotyledons).
In the foal, as in the child, the chord
The first kind of structure is observed in possesses a single umbilical vein ; whilst
the sow, and is still more manifest in the most other quadrupeds have two, which
mare. In the latter case, the external unite, however, into a common trunk near
membrane of the ovum, the chorion, may the body of the fætus, or just within it.
be said to form a bag-like placenta. Nu- The amnion, or innermost of the two
merous and large branches of the umbilical membranes of the ovum, hich belongs to
vessels ramify through it, particularly in the pregnant woman, as well as the
the latter half of the period of pregnancy; mammalia, is distinguished in some of the
and its external surface is covered with latter, as for instance in the cow, by its
innumerable flocculent papillæ, which numerous blood-vessels; while, on the con-
connect it to the inside of the uterus. trary, in the human subject it possesses
In those animals of this class, where the no discernable vascular ramification,
embryo is nourished by means of a pla- Between the chorion and amnion there
centa, remarkable varieties occur in the is a part found in most pregnant quadru-
several species; sometimes in the form and peds, and even in the cetacea, which does
successive changes of the part; sometimes not belong to the human ovum, viz. the
in the structure of the organ as being more allantois or urinary membrane. The lat-
simple or complicated.
ter name is derived from the connection
In most of the digitated mammalia, as which this part has, by means of the ura-
well as in the quadrumana, the piacenta chus, with the urinary bladder of the
has a roundish form; yet it consists some- fætus: whence the watery fluid which it
times of two halves lying near together; contains has been regarded as the urine
and in the dog, cat, martin, &c. it resem- of the animal. The term allantois
bles a helt (cingulum or zona). Its form has arisen from the sausage like form
in the pole-cat holds the middle between which the part possesses in the bisulca
these two structures, as there are two and the pig; although this shape is not
round masses joined by an intervening found in several other genera and spe
narrower portion.
cies; thus in the hare, rabbit, guinea-pig,
The placenta of the bisulca is divided &c. it resembles a small flask; and it is
into numerous cotyledons, the structure of oval in the pole.cat. It covers the whole
which is very interesting as it elucidates internal surface of the chorion in the
the whole physiology of this organ. The solidangula, and therefore incloses the
parts designated by this appellation are foal with its amnion. It contains, most
centain fleshy excrescences (glandulae frequently in these animals (although,
uterina) produced from the surface of the not rarely in the cow), larger or smallee
Plate IV.
Kneass Sc?
Fig. 2. Camelopardalis giraffe : camelopard_Fig. 2. Camehus bactrianus Bactrian camel.
Fig.3. Camelus dromedarius: dromedary-Fig.4. Capra agagrus : iber.
MAMMALIA,
Plate V.
Hneass Sc.
Fig. 1. Camis familiaris : shepherds dog. Fig. 2. Australasian dog. Fig. 3. Pomeranian dog.
Fig. 4. Siberian dog. Fig. 5. Iceland dog. Fig. 6. Great Barbet, or water dog.
MAMMALIA.
Plate D.
Water
Kneass Sc.
Fig. 1. Canis hyæna: striped Hyana. Fig. 2. C. lupus . Wolf. Fig.3.C. aureus : Jackal.
Fig. 4. C. vulpes : Fox. Fig. 5. Capra aegagrus : Chamois goat. Fig. 6. Syrian goat.
AVES.
Plate IV
3
kness
Fig. 1. Ardea virgo: Mamidian Grane. Fig. 2. Columba anas: stock pigeon, Fig. 3. Ceriloa
samno : mocking creeper. Fig. 4. Charadrius oedionemus : Great Plover, Fig. 5.c.phwialis,
golden over. Fig. 6. Columba pahanbus: Ring dove. Fig. 7. C. turtur: hurile dove.
Rowntrees Beer Engine
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BIOGRAPHY
600
500
400
300
200
100
Thucydides
Herodotus
Demosthenes
Polybius
Sallust
Anacreon
Xenophon
Aristarchus
Liv
Theocritus
Plautus
Ovid
Men of Learning
Thales
Eucha
Terence
Aristophanes
I'mdar
Plate
Sophocles
Hippocrates
Socrates
Virg?
Aristolle
Ennus
Horace
Pythagoras
Epicurus
Lucretus
Reno Stoicus
Cahulhus
Aralus
Mithridates
Cyrus
Taicles
Philopamen
Cicero
Miltiades
Agesilaus
Philip
Alcibiades
Alacander
Donysius
Epaminondas
Роттеу
J.Cæsar
Solon
Themistocles
Agis
Calo Censor
Statesmen.
Cimon
Burruus
T.Gmclaus
Bruhuis
CamThis
Augushus
Scipio 11
Hannibal
Sylla
Marius
Mempermus
Cralinis
Philmon
Cahulhus
Menander
Alemus
Hipponese
Theoquis
Bacchyhdes
Jom Chius
Callunachus
Philetas
Afrantus.
Propertius
Micander C.
Gratius
Pamams
Hyginus
Luchus Laberius
Brunnus
Tibulhis
Terence
Ludus
Artists & Poets.
Slavichorus
Sophocles
Calhstratus
Athenion
Simonides
Parrhastus
LAndronicus
Phadas
Zvirpus
Accuus
600
500
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LIFE BOAT &C.
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ENTOMOLOGY
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Kneass Sc.
Fig.1. Acarus autumnalis. harvest bug – Fig. 2. A siro : cheese mite - Fig. 3. Aphis ulmi _Apis
mellifica.
: common bee - Fig.3. quem_Fig.6. drone - Fig.7. Aranea diadema: garden spider_Fig.8.
A.larantula : tarantula spider - Fig. 9. Buprestis gigantea_Fig. 10. Byrrhus mus æorum - Fig. 17
Cerambyx coriarius.
PISCES.
Plate 11
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Fig. 2. Balistes maculatus: spotted file-tish Fig. 2. Blenmins vivipardus viviparous blenny...
Fig. 3. Bodiams pentacanthus:five spined bodian Fig.4.Callionymus lyra: gammous dragonet
Fig. 5. Chimæra borealis. northern chimara.
TROUGHTON'S Portable Circular Instruments,
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