Nº. º: º sº º §§ : ñº § - º º: º § § § § É É º §º ºš ś †: § É ~ #; º §sº º: § § : É º º § § §: & º § *::::::::: º º ºº:: º ; §: - º §§ º :# §: º * Fºº §§ Fº º ºś ºt º º: º º-ºº: sº - º - § gº §: #º §§ - § §: - - *: § § º ---- º - - º - º gº ºr ºc - --- º º-3 º º.º. §º gº *ººd ~ §: §§ ########################################## §§º £º º *::::::::::::::::::::::#; ºi." Rºº §º t? º - ;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: º º- ºãº - --- Tº º w º - sº ºr gº º º ºº ºl º º º: - - #: ſº sº rºº: º: º: †ºš #: § º º § º - - § * § o §: º &º ::::::::::::::::::: jº §º: É ::::::::::::: tº: :::::::::: §§ &: §§ º: ; - §§ #: § É § - º º: ºšº º: : *: º: ; º º º ry º º º; Ciaº &sº - #º º º †: Sº º º: ::::::::: É §§ º : §§ § º Fº : º §: º É º ; : : # º º º - § É: § º bºº - - § º ::::::: : --- §§ º º § : § § § - º § § # §: ºś § º § ; -- ------ ºº:: d ºº:: º º * ſº ; - º - [. - - § #: ºjº §º º º sº r - ſº º º - - - º : i ; §; º º§§§ §:#º ğ ɧ3; º § - º º § : º É : * ; : º º º § - tºº ºść º s: º - º ºś # ------ § §: ºº:: § § º - - º - --- - ºkº ºrºgº § §º sº cº-º &º ºš -- ::::::::::::::::::::: §§§ § §§ º --- tºº. §§ º § Gº º º ź º § § § §: § - Nº. º º §§ ; ; § : ; § : § : sº º i s : º º § º º: **º º º: º £º ºrº-ºxº Eº º º §§ - § ºš tºº º V- wº º: -- *. §§ sºrºrºgº cº-º-º-º-º-º-º: º ; ź. §§ Rºß : § #º Fº - - º º - §§ º º § - : º [. § º sº § -ºº-ºº º; ; §§ º jºº #: º: - - §§§ºś §§§ º - Kº: - c §§º: §§ § º - sº sº tº §: º - * --------- º - § # § gº sº §§§ ſº § ; §§§ º §º º : tº Tº - º Sºś - gºś - - º l ś: § º #: § #º - º - §: &º - § ºr "{{}º tºº tºº c rºº - §§ ** *-*- : - º º: #º Fº - - §§ w Fº - - º # º ºrºtºrº º §§ º º: § § § º º *::::::::::::::::: § Rºß **** º tºº º: rºfºrd §§§ : § § - : º § § jºš § § § §: §: # §§ § - § §§§ §§ §: § §§ § 5. §§ - ğº $ºw. º º §§ ź. º #: § iš: § - § sº : §§ # - º § 、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、） ¿ ************§§-·¿ ſae§§-|-~·-∞ºvae«.*¿¿.*;：§§§§m. ··§§§§§-º.• ----~！ ！！ ！！tae（ſººſ§§§§§§§§ ·----§§§§en|×ț¢}！-----•∞ſºs;§§§）;·:、。、、、、、、、、。 、、。¿±√（√≥-§§§¿ ·*****·№ae，****¿:·-ſae•£§§§§·¿¿. ſae！¿?Ř®şț¢;-§§¶√°√≠√∞sºț¢șaeſaerº�§§ș*************&&，&*，±±;##########ffff;。· *ſº， ſae#！***！*®***…ſae§§-----ş••·::::：::::：::-Źſ، -… *№、、ae≡≡≡ſaesae∞· ģ𧧧§§§§§¿?----¿?！§$（'#$$$$$##############};$$$$¢ £§§§§§§§§:ſſae¿-， ≡∞،，，…，waeſº，-2，…，|－·----，，，，，£|×- *∞∞∞∞∞∞∞ſae|--- - ſae！∞ gaeae§©®ae ș*******， §§ ſae∞ Fy：:-º§§§§§§§§§ \！- - ~ ſae ¿|- ∞ ·|-·¿&&·§§§§§§ ¿！§§|-ſaeae§§№g§§§::::::::：::：:：::::::$$ №.*，\\№ſae:Ķ;&#ț¢¿a.--§§§ §§§），----§§§§§§§§§§§3;:。§§§§§（…№ſſae;§§§§·- ∞ --…*… -º ，--¿………….wae， s）; Bae§§~;:№ſae ſae·ºsae*****§3§§*-**********sae， |×∞ſae：-、！！！！§§ $ſ.ae ----- §§·ſaeae ،·ſaeg* ··§§§· ·|-，_，-►|-§§ſae· ·§§§§§§§§ſaeaeſae:-&&&&*）'）;！∞∞∞∞∞∞ſaei，§§--~---¿ĶÅ <！?！！?·§§§§§§§■ ae-- ſae·gae，§§！ --·§§§§$$$$Faeg---...---- ∞--Ř®£§§§§§§§、。ſae§¶√∞№wº¿: -#######::：:…·§§§::·،ru§§§§§§§§§§§·§§§§§§§§§§§§§。 ----:$2-∞-≤≤）.----~----*ſaeaeaeſaeaeae:§§§§§§§！§§::：:：：:::::::：::：::ſae-#:#;&#:;;，,，。、、、、、、、、、、 Ģ####################Ķī£§:№ž;$$$$$$$$$$ſaeaeEx.：.……. |--№aeaeae:¿șğË¿Ë#ĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĖĖĘĚĖ##### ķ**-§§§ſae ，§§§§:ſſae，-----ſae§:#ffff;#§§¿?§§-saeae§§§¿§§ĶĒĶĒ#######ĞĒĒĒĒĒ§§ §:、、、。、。、、、。- ----§§§§· ●·ſaeaeſaeg-¿Ē############################Ëț¢ ;***** --* -·*-§，-∞ √≠ √æ√≠ --}，ſae•-----ſaeae*№º！！!№ae,№g::::::：::::：:::：::::: ###-----:， ！≤-ae ×ț¢Â‚‹‹››§§§§£§§ĢĒĒĒĒĒĖĖĘĘ: * ：-¿?-• ·№ł，ºxae· |-№wſ;~∞ſ！！！§§§§§§§§§¿---- ¡¿$$$$Ķ;§.--|--¿*·-§！，№， №∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞ 、、、。- ----- -· -----ſā，··…→∞|- · ģğ≡§§§§§·ķēģʧ§§§§§ ·Rae、&（...）،·----- -ſaeſae-：v - -§§|- §§ſae§§§§§§§•¿· .·-·£§§§§- ſae- ;&###žįſ:№ſ。§§¿;*º.¿?******·！·-■■■■-· ·ſaeſ?;&#ț¢;&##¿· ſae~-----Ëſae· -* &&&&&}}ſwae， -§§§§§¿• §§§§- -§§∞∞∞-. --！---ſae§§§± §§§§§§§§u·…，-，* …-§§§§ §§§§§§§§§§§§ſae §§§§§§§§§§∞y +*-- -- *------|×----£&g: - -≡ſaeſaeae:*#######gaeae u&=~&-…-…- .-.-.-.-№ſº，|-;**^®|----·§§§:ſſae*-§§§§§ſå· -ſaeſae;ſaeſae#:######-v-，*gaeae::：:::：:：}}}#########&&！§§§§§§§§§ §§· -·Raeſ· -ș:*****|-|--·*§§©®°¶ ≡≡##…،→|ק§ł:·§*gº·≡ ·¿#####- -z::!§§§*， *******----########## ±-:，:∞· ·----·£<;--∞∞∞ae·،:ſ:：::::::$:$:$ #№§§§§§§§ſaeae¿¿.*- - ---- |-，§$$$$$$$$-，§§#####¿¿∞****. ，¿:№ №ſae£§§§· ∞∞∞§§§******≡، -¿§©®~~ ***， •••::::: ſaeſſae: --§§§§§§ 1- ~§§·№----•§§§§§§§ - ·§§·----~----±√≠√∞· *-----��·**** §§§:ſſ:&&&&&############ ¿?№ſ §§ ********ĶĒĢĒĖĘĚ3? ae -ſiºſae №x，Țae ~~***** ſae №taeae ≤≥± §}}→∞∞∞ſae، ∞∞##################################### • ●-3· ··*****…！， ：:38§: -¿?#####№-Rae！ §§§§§§،） §§-¿ſae№ſº----- ----ſſſſſſſſſ →·-şºr,rrţi►wae****-·ſae- ·ą，-，*！<！--··*:）*****w*- ！----§，¿№， №8….…saeae---------§§§§§§§§§§§§§§∞- ș&y&&### ***ſaeſº，，，，，，，،------…¿№tº-，####&#&& ĢĒĢ！ ~~~~g§§§Ēģ。，ſae·- -----·|--§§§§§§ #######Ëſ§§§§§#####· -ſaeae∞--- -------*…*…*…- .-.•§§§§§§§----ºlae§Ëģ$$✉ ₪########§§· ſºſ，-----………… --·*----··---···≡:-§§§¿|-±·№sae·{™}***********·-- -§§≡≡·∞Raeſ· și2，3，*****，*，*\，---- ---- ----*-§§0· ſaeſyº§§£;:?!§§§§§§|-- …ºſ， ſaeſſae-§§§:3ĒĒĒĒĖĘ ≡≡ſ§§§§§§§§ſiſ§. ·…·-·ſy w§§§§§§§،$:$#####·§§ §§§§§-：¿¿.**）§;№tae:m.±ğ########！ };-·--gae]-¿:§§§§§- *ſºſ·~--~|--~ ·Åſ-，·∞·**ºſae ¿È-ſae----~--~******·№yae§§§§§$:::：:::：:: §§§§）， ae- haeae-§@₪*****·Ē，§§§§§ ~-***************** ******}|-§§§§§§§-----， ， №t：~ §！œę，§§§§§ĘĚ ?№*****|×?:§§§- -£·*§§:: ---------ſaeaeaeae:ſae§§§©®£、、、。、、。！！！！！！！！！！！-§§§#::§§§§§§--ſ ،|- ·。、、、。¿?-：……-…：…، ·ſae|-·*----§§§§ș§§،------~ §§~§¶√∞&&šř，----&&&&&&Ä，。、、、、、、、----·§§§-gae-a----0§§taevae^********-*|-§§::::::№， №8re -·· ------ ，·∞-----·--******·！§§§§ ，§§·----§·· -§→ä，-،º-， -，ſaeg§§§§§§§ ±;rtſ;{{#¡-ſpº, •·≡≡Ģ -·№tes:- wae--§§§§§§-¿?，×∞£+4， +* §§§§§§-¿·：·…------------。 ſººſ：ſºrº， №rſ-----~3×）Åſ-， §§§######§§§§§|-###$£§§§§§§§§§ �� §§§***** ----ſae · · -¿aeae:- ſae-！§§§§§§§§§ſae---- ****************^» §§§§§§§§§§§§§،#𠧧§§§ſae№s：Ķī£§§§§§§¿ |- ::::*****·§§§- -i è ·ſ.§§§），5‰e- ！ |-·&ș*-№ſſºſ&±√∞ ¿Šķ--¿&&#&ae**********º§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§:ſſaegaeaeae:X ſaeĶī£،ſaei·Ģ，----w：）~· §§§§§§§±，±，±,±）,și 2，…，：:-ſººs *{&\**- - *ț¢ §§ ****ſae. *∞ķ№ſſae;§§ §:·!！!！¿¿.ſaeſae§§§§§§§§§ ¿§§§≡∞∞∞·Y.∞ſae·|-¿§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Ģº-，§§§0¿¿.*·|-ſae，----·ſae~，，…**！！！！× ºſ）§§§§§§§******######§§§§§§¿ſae§@₪ſae###########€ £: §¶√≠≤≥$$$$$£§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§，，，，，，，… ¿，§§¿§wę，ſºț¢§§§§@₪§§·§§§§§¿ķī£ī£§！¿?ſae ###############################################################################ğË- *（####|-§§§¿§§§§§§§§¶√∞∞∞∞∞- ，，，，，，，，ſae§§§:№ſſae≤ſae·¿§§ §§§§§§§§ -- ;：§§§ §§§§§§§§∞ £įkš∞∞∞∞ �∞ √°√∞ ！∞ſae· £§§§§§§§§§§ ·،ºtvººgae##############ʧ§§ }|－（~~~~º ~º： ， ：ſ！！！&&§¶√∞∞∞∞*aeſ，，---- ###ſae·ſaeſae•！§§§§§ſ！§§§ §§），！··~ … --，--№ |-∞∞∞¿ſº§§§§§§§،¿…·→ · · -*º---- §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ſaeſsae? ！！！·· nae±（√∂√≠√≠√§¶√≠√≠√∞ √∞ä:::::：：:};};，&&&&&&&&&&&&aeaeae:ſaeaeaeae- ，،§§§§§§§§¿∞∞∞¿× ſaeaeaeae;¿！·¿ae§§§•，，ç≡§§§§-¿ae §§§ſae§¶√≠√¶√∞-§§§§§Ēģ#####·§ſººſ· №ſae№ț¢§.！*、• §§|✉ ₪ ſaegael §3;: ~ºr·|-*******·ſae！， --★ → ∞¿¿ ！… *ae ：-→· --s·tºŠ -ºğŘ--º，，tae ·§，|-- ·-、、、。、、。ſae·|-∞∞∞praeg*、、。∞ √∞ §§§§Łº，…，=，i，·-*…！!！！！！！*** ！！！！！！！！~ægrº 、、·ſae§§§§§5≡ g§§ſae:·：- ·praewºț*¿ſae;！ §§§§8**ae¿§§~~ ſaeg§§§§~§§§§§§§·· |--§§ :。£§！~§§§§::§:ſſae-§§ſaeĶyſ:· §§§§&yſv.-≡ ≈≠≤≥§§ ¿§§ſae|×，-----~§§§§§§§§· sae № （）*-：¿?· -- №ž¿??！！！ſ.· - ------ §§§§¿ſae ∞∞∞ ſh;§¶√∞'， § 3， ºvº:§§§§§§§§§§ ！！！！！r.∞∞∞w ：¿*** 、「」、。。、「」、。§§ ¿§;ț¢;·≡§§§）ſkº-º！“§@₪ ¿gaeae;ſ ≡ tº….： ∞…•■ #############§§§§！…aeſae§§§§£ $$$$$$∞∞∞ſae§§§ -№ſº，§§Rae’，∞∞∞§§§§§§º： ſae，，¿∞ √∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞ae， §¶√°√∞ √#####;\;&#ffff;&#########·-· ·، ، ، ،|×Ķī£§§§$%&&&&&&&· ·§;&#ffffff;&#$$$$$$·|-·|-·ſºwy：：，ſaeaeae， caeſ！！！!！！！！！！·●·ſae ſae.··-：：:::：----**** ·§Ë§§§§§§§№aeg、、、、、、、、•！§§§§§§§●ſaeae··§§§§ §§§§§§§§§•-·~-§§§- uº----ſae ،§§§)，-§§§§§§§§¶√∞ √° √ſaeaeaeae§§§§&…，،º， ºtº， ſae， §！§§~py§§•（*）?（?：ſaeſae∞----∞∞∞*******ſae;|-Fèt، ſae№ ºffſ， ae***********ț㧧§§§§§-§§§ſaer¿∞∞∞- £§§§§sºr:se·§§§§§§¿¿§§ſaeae§: *#:;;;;;;;;;;;&##Mae&&-§¶√∞∞∞∞∞∞£®©iſ¿**®º'，§§§ §§№s∞:'，º ºwº， 8 ✉ |-§§§№ae,Ē，5§5 ！-…ae¿））、。ſaeae:-§§§§§ 、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、¿、、。-· ！ ae §§ §§§≡≡ cosa.cc 7° 36, 8 * * * * * * *:::::: * * * * * *. 4 * , 3 #, # * * i º & ** tºº...; :::::::::::: * , ºr ſº iſ . . . ss ºf::::::: * * * ! {.{ * * * * * * * tº. + 8 + 4 * * * * \ , w A Sketch of Universal History Vol. II. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY A Sketch of Universal History I N T H R E E V O L U M ES VOL. II. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY BY . GEORGE THOMAS STOKES, D.D. PROFESSOR OF EccLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN LONDON : * \ C. w DEACON & Co. 1887 All Rights Reserved, | l 2, S87 LoNDON : C. W. DEAcon AND Co., DUKE STREET, ADELPHI, W.C. i siº F R E F A C E. THE present volume of “Universal History” is from the pen of Professor Stokes. It deals with the Middle Ages and terminates at the Fall of Constantinople, A.D. 1453, which by general consent is held to form a convenient line of demarcation between the dark ages and the brighter era on which mankind then entered. The commencement -óf this period is less easy to fix, but the division of the Roman Empire into East and West at the death of Theodosius the Great, A.D. 395, was undoubtedly the earliest step towards the shaping of Mediaeval Europe, and the story therefore begins at that point. In accordance with the general plan of this work, the history of all the peoples who can be said to have had a history is narrated in parallel accounts, special attention being directed to the nations and institutions, which by their influence and importance gave to these times their chief characteristics. When we recall the fact that these Ages witnessed the birth and development of the great Papal power, the origin and conquests of Mahometanism, the rise and decay of Feudalism, the invention of gunpowder, of the viii PREFACE, printing-press, of the mariner's compass, and the com- mencement of those adventures in navigation which soon afterwards culminated in the discovery of a new world, enough will have been said to show the absorbing interest which this period awakens. The materials for the construction of this history exist fortunately in abundance in the shape of con- temporaneous authorities, and the name of the author is a sufficient guarantee that those authorities have been freely consulted and at first hand. A list of the works in question is furnished for the convenience of the scholar who may himself wish to examine the original sources of information. CHARING CRoss CHAMBERS, LoNDoN, W.C. -> MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. TABLE OF CONTENTS. FIRST PERIOD. PAGE. FROM THE DEATH OF THEoDosi Us THE GREAT (A.D. 395) TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (A.D. 814)... tº tº º e ſº ſº gº º ſº gº tº G ... I 8. I.—WESTERN EMPIRE (A.D. 395-476) * * * ... I 8. II.-EASTERN EMPIRE (A.D. 395-457) ºf e ... 25. III.--WESTERN EMPIRE. IN DISRUPTION (A.D. 476– 687). IN RECONSTRUCTION (A.D. 687–814) ... 32. A.—ITALY ... 36 I. The Gothic and Lombardic Kingdoms 36 2. The Exarchate of Ravenna and the Papacy ... . . . tº º º tº tº gº . . . 4I B.—FRANCE tº tº º tº * - e. ©, 4 & . . . 44- C.—SPANISH PENINSULA ... •,• . … … 55 D.—The British Islands tº e E $ tº e . . . . 57 I. England ... # e º * * * * 8 º' . . . 57 2. Ireland and Scotland ... tº gº is ... 62 IV.-PARALLEL HISTORY OF THE EAST (A.D. 450–800) 64. A.—BYZANTINE EMPIRE ... 4 º º * @ s ... 64 B.—ARABIA AND MAHOMETANISM tº $ tº . . . 73 X MEDIAE VAL HISTORY. SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (A.D. 814) To PAGE THE FIRST CRUSADE (A.D. Io96) tº º º ..., 76 A.—CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE tº º e • * * ... 76 B.—FRANCE tº Q tº º º tº tº e ſº º e tº ... 83 C.—ITALY ... ſº tº º & º º a tº a • * * ... 89 I. The Papacy E tº º ... . . . . . . 91 2. Southern Italy and Sicil is tº ºr . . . 93 3. Venice ... • * * • * * s º º . . . 93 D.—ENGLAND tº º e tº º ºs tº º º & ſº e . . . 95 E.—IRELAND • W s & e - tº º ſe tº # e. ... IOO F.—Scotlan D º ºg tº ... ... * * * ... IO2 G.—SPANISH PENINSULA ... * - a tº º º ... IO3 H.—RUSSIA º ºg e tº gº º • * e e & © ... IO5 I.—SCANDINAVIA ... º º º vº º a ... . ... Io9 I. Denmark ... e tº º ... tº º tº ... Io& 2. Sweden ... & © º tº de & * G e ... IO9 3. Norway ... * * * e tº º tº e & ... IOQ J.—ByzANTINE EMPIRE ... … tº e Q ... I I I K.—SARACEN OR MAHOMETAN EMPIRE ... I 18 L.—CENTRAL ASIA * * * * & tº ſº tº ... I22 M.—INDIA ... tº a º ºr º º tº g e • ‘º e ... I24 N.—CHINA ... is tº º & © tº ºn e º a º e ... I26 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi THIRD PERIOD. PAGE FROM THE FIRST CRUSADE (A.D. Io96) To THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE (A.D. 1453) ... I 29 A.—GERMANY gº º tº tº e º tº º º tº º º ... I29 B.—FRANCE tº e & tº e & tº e ºs tº it & ... I43 C.—ENGLAND & © & e º 'º gº tº e ... . . . . I57 D.—Scotlan D tº º ſº tº g s ºn tº tº tº º º . I 74 E.—IRELAND tº gº tº tº º º tº e ºs gº º º ... I78 F.—ITALY ... tº ºn tº & © tº * * * tº º º ... I 81 I. Northern Italy ... 4, I8I 2. Southern Italy, including the Papai See and the Kingdom of Naples ... 187 G.—RUSSIA AND POLAND tº º º ... . . . . I90 I. Russia ... dº º 'º tº º tº * * * ... I9C 2. Poland ... & & © tº e ºs tº e sº ... I 93 H.—SPAIN ... * * * § 9 tº * * * tº º º ... I 95 I.—SCANDINAVIA ... tº e g * * * tº º ſº ... I98 I. Denmark ... tº º te * * * tº º tº ... I98 2. Norway and Sweden ... tº º ... I'99 J.—BYZANTINE EMPIRE ... e tº º tº gº tº . . . 201 I. The Seljouk Turks tº º ºs tº tº º . . . 202 2. The Crusades and the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople © tº º tº º ſº --. 204 3. The Mongol Invasion and the Rise of the Ottoman Empire .. e tº º ... 205 4. Fall of Constantinople .. it is ſº ... 207 K.—SARACEN OR MAHOMETAN EMPIRE ... 2 II L.—CHINA ... tº º tº © tº $ tº º tº & © tº . . . 2 I4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEs * - gº tº & tº tº e º ... 217 INDEx * º * * * * g tº it. tº º ſº * @ 9 * * * tº a º 233 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY ~~ -º- THE SYNOPSIS MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. —º- —w- THE SYNOPSIS. FIRST PERIOD.—FROM THE DEATH OF THEODosius THE GREAT to the Death of CHARLEMAGNe. (A.D. 395 to 814.) WESTERN EMPIRE. EASTERN EMPIRE. I.—Theodosius to Romulus Augustulus (A.D. 395–476). I.-Arcadius to the Council of Chalcedon and Rise of the Monophysite II.-Odoacer to the Rise of the Carolingian Dynasty under Pippin Controversy (A.D. 395–451). (A.D. 476—687). II.-Council of Chalcedon to the taking of Alexandria by the Arabs Destruction of the Western Empire & Rise of the Independent Nations. (A.D. 451–640). A. B. º D. E. III.-Loss of Egypt to the Close of the Iconoclastic Controversy and Gaul. Italy. Spain. Britain. Africa. Final Separation from the West (A.D. 640—842). III.-Restoration of the Western Empire under the Carolingians to A the Death of Charlemagne (A.D. 687–814). - & B. A. ITALY. B. C. : D. BYzANTINE EMPIRE. ARABIA. (1) The Gothic (2) The Exar- ANCE. PAN S {} History prior to Mahomet, and Lombardic chate of Ra- FRANCE riº, * - (2) Mahometanism to the Rise Kingdoms. venna and the k A M - e of the Caliphate of Bagdad Papacy. (A.D. 750). SECOND PERIOD.—FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE FIRST CRUSADE. (A.D. 814 to Io96.) THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN (A.D. 814 to 843). Kingdoms formed out of Charlemagne's Empire. Germany. FRANCE. ITALY. Ludwig to Henry IV. Charles the Bald to Philip I, , {} †: i. º §º. .D. 840—IIo6. .D. 840—I IOS. 2 e Italian Dynasty, A.D. 888–962. A.D. 84 - A.D. 84 (3) The German Dynasty, A.D., 962–1106. ENGLAND. IRELAND. SCOTLAND. THE PAPACY. NAPLEs. Venice. Ecgberht to the Norman | Invasion of the Danes | Union of Picts and Scots | A.D. 8oo—I too. A.D. 827–II54. A.D. 523–1096. the to to Marriage of Henry I. Invasion of *y * MEDIAEWAL HISTORY. —-4A- —v IT is very hard to fix dates for the beginning and the end of the Middle Ages. We have selected, for the purpose of this sketch, the death of Theodosius , the Great, A.D. 395, as the beginning of this period. The mighty Roman Empire was then permanently bisected, a step which finally led to its dissolution. The Western half perished within a century, on the death of the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, A.D. 476. The Eastern half continued till the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, A.D. I453, whereupon the dispersion of Greek scholars, which followed, introduced that new life to the West which has produced modern history. Our narrative will, therefore, deal with the period between A.D. 395 and I453, embracing 1,058 years. We shall divide this into three great periods— f I. THEodosius To CHARLEMAGNE, A.D. 395–814. II. CHARLEMAGNE TO THE FIRST CRUSADE, A.D.814–1096. III. THE FIRST CRUSADE TO THE FALL OF Con- STANTINOPLE, A.D. Io96–1453. B I8 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE DEATH OF THEODosius THE GREAT (A.D. 395) TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (A.D. 814). I.—WESTERN EMPIRE. A.D. 395-476. AUTHoRITIES.–Gibbon; Milman's Latin Christianity; Clinton's Fasti; Hodgkin's Invaders of Italy; and Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography. EMPERORS, POPEs. Honorius 395–423 Siricius 385—398 Valentinian III. 424–455 Anastasius 399–402 Maximus 455 (March || Innocent I. 402–417 * to July) Zosimus 417–418 Avitus 455 (March) e to 456 Bonifacius 418–422 Majorian 457 (April) to Coelestinus I. 422—432 46I (August) Sixtus III. 432—44O Severus 461–464 Leo I. 440—46I (Vacant) 464–466 Hilarius 461–468 Anthemius 467–472 tº gº (July) Simplicius 468–183 Olybrius 472– Glycerius 473–474 Nepos 474–475 Romulus August- 475—476 ulus westERN HISTORY. I9 The history of the Western Empire during this period is a tale of continuous decay. The earlier portion of it. however, differed widely from the later. Honorius was the son of the Great Theodosius, but contrasted very strongly with him, being as cowardly and incapable as Thedosius was brave and vigorous. He imitated his father in his treatment of Paganism. He continued the same course of repression, terminating in A.D. 399 with a decree for the destruction of all the Pagan temples. He also finally prohibited gladiatorial games after the death of S. Telemachus, an Asiatic monk, who lost his life A.D. 404 in an attempt to separate the combatants in the amphitheatre at Rome. The empire hastened, however, to destruction under him, notwithstanding the heroic efforts of his father-in-law, Stilicho, from A.D. 395 till his foul murder by Honorius in 408. During that period Stilicho defeated Alaric and the Goths several times, expelling them from Italy at the battle of Pollentia, Easter Day, A.D. 403. He also defeated Radagaſsus, another barbarian invader, with a vast host of Suevians, Burgundians, Vandals and Celts at the battle of Florence, A.D. 4O6. After the death of Stilicho the empire became disorganised. Alaric invaded Italy year after year, and finally captured and sacked Rome, A.D. 4IO, while Honorius cowered behind the ramparts of Ravenna, to which place he had transferred the imperial residence. The fall of Rome struck the imagination of the fifth 2O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. r century with more force than any other event. The lamentations of St. Jerome over it, in his letters and commentaries, afford a measure of its appalling char- acter. It seemed to him to herald the immediate end of the world. Usurpers, too, sprung up in every quarter. Alaric proclaimed Attalus emperor in Rome, A.D. 409 ; Maximus was proclaimed in Spain the same year; Constantine in Britain, A.D. 407; Jovinus in Gaul, A.D. 412 ; Heraclian in Africa, A.D. 413. Of these usurpers the most interesting to English students is, of course, Constantine, whose action in leading the legions from Britain to Gaul, in order to vindicate his own pretensions to the empire, led finally to the abandonment of Britain by the Romans. Honorius in 410 had already addressed a letter to the cities of Britain bidding them provide for their own defence. Britain, indeed, was a troublesome colony for Rome; since it was not only plagued by Scots, Picts and Saxons, but was also a seedplot of conspirators and aspirants to the throne. St. Jerome fitly calls it “a province fertile in usurpers.” Honorius made an attempt to restore the ruin of Gaul by instituting a parliament in faint outline. The Theodosian code has preserved for us an edict addressed to the seven provinces of Gaul, A.D. 418, calling a legislative assembly composed of the magistrates, representatives and bishops of sixty cities. [Guizot, “History of Civilisation,” lect. ii., gives the words of this edict.] Honorius died in August, 423, and was succeeded by his nephew, Valentinian. WESTERN HISTORY. 2I Valentinian III. was the son of Placidia, who was the daughter of Theodosius I. and sister of Honorius the late emperor. He ascended the throne when six years of age and reigned thirty years—A.D. 424–455, during the greater part of which time—A.D. 424–450– the Western Empire was managed by his mother, Placidia. Two great generals defended the West— Boniface and Aetius. Boniface fought against the Vandals under Genseric, in Africa. After the death, of Boniface, in 432, Genseric established the Vandal kingdom of North Africa, where as Arians he and his son, Hunneric, waged a fierce persecution against the Catholic or Orthodox party on political as well as religious grounds. The Vandals captured Carthage in 439, and became a great naval power. They invaded Italy in 455 soon after Valentinian's death, and sacked Rome June 15–29, though Genseric's wrath against the city was mitigated by the intercession of Pope Leo I. This capture of Rome resulted in the loss of some of the most venerable art-treasures of antiquity. The statues of gods and heroes, the curious roof of the Capitol, composed of gilt bronze, the golden table and the seven-branched candlestick of the Jews were all seized by the Vandals. Aetius, A.D. 433-454, defended the empire against Attila and the Huns, who were invading it from the East, and with the help of the Visigoths, defeated them at the battle of Châlons, A.D. 451. Attila attacked Italy in 452—an invasion which 22 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. led to the foundation of Venice—but made peace with the Romans, through the intercession of Pope Leo I., at a conference held somewhere near the modern Peschiera. Attila died the next year; his name will how- ever come before us again in connection with the history of the Eastern Empire. The Empire now ſell rapidly to pieces. Valentinian III. murdered his champion Aetius in 453, violated the wife of the Senator Petronius Maximus in 454, and was himself murdered by the adherents of Maximus as he was viewing his troops in the field of Mars, March 16th, 455. Thus ended the Theodosian dynasty in the West. The period from 455–476 is occupied by a rapid succession of sovereigns who were the mere tools of Ricimer, a barbarian general trained under Aetius. Ricimer might be called the Roman king-maker. He practically ruled the Western Empire from 456 till, his death, August 18th, 472. He married the daughter of the Emperor Anthemius, rebelled against him, captured Rome, murdered Anthemius, and then died a few days afterwards. Romulus Augustulus, son of the patrician Orestes, was the last emperor of the West, A.D. 475–476. He reigned only a few months. THE PAPACY. —The list of popes as given above demands a brief notice, for the See of Rome waxed ever greater as the Western Empire fell into decay. Its ecclesiastical legislation, too, afforded a training school for the barbarians who were invading the empire, which WESTERN HISTORY, 23 nothing else could have supplied. Damasus was pope from A.D. 367-384. He was a great bishop, with literary and artistic tastes. Many of his buildings and inscriptions are coming to light every year in the Roman excavations. His principal artist was a very able man, by name Furius Dionysius Filocalus. His inscriptions and engravings formed an epoch in Christian art and are now known as the Damasine character [see Brownlow and Northcote, Roma Sotterranea, vol. I., p. 174]. Siricius was the first pope of our period. He is celebrated in history for issuing the first genuine papal decretal, and thus laying the founda- tion of that canon law which exercised such an immense influence on the Middle Ages. This fact illustrates the genius of the Papacy. The East enacted creeds, the West discipline. The subject of this decretal was the af2.4% 'ceibacy of the clergy, which Siricius decreed as the law for the West. He began the struggle against the marriage of the clergy, A.D. 385. It was not finished till the time of Hildebrand (Gregory VII.), Io'74. Innocent I. was a great statesman-prelate. “Upon the mind of Innocent,” says Milman, “appears first distinctly to have dawned the vast conception of Rome's universal ecclesiastical Supremacy, dim as yet and shadowy, yet full and comprehensive in its outline.” His epistles show that he claimed or exercised a very wide and minute jurisdiction over the churches of Gaul, Spain, Illyricum and Africa. Coelestinus I. is famous in Western history as the 24 MEDIAE VAL HISTORY. pope who sent the first missionary from Rome to these islands in the person of Palladius, A.D. 431, the first bishop of the Scots or Irish believing in Christ, who was succeeded in 432 by St. Patrick. Leo I. was the greatest of all the popes of this period. His latest biographer has described him thus:—“There was wanted a man who could make the See of St. Peter take the place of the tottering imperial power; there was wanted a man capable above all things of disciplining and consolidating western Christendom. And Leo was the man for the post; lofty and severe in life and aims, rigid and stern in insisting on the rules of ecclesiastical discipline; gifted with an indomitable energy, courage and perseverance; inspired with an unhesitating acceptance and an admirable grasp of the dogmatic faith of the church ; possessed with an overmastering sense of the indefeasible authority of the Church of Rome, Leo is the true founder of the mediaeval papacy.”—[Art. Leo I. in “Dict. Christ. Biog. Ed. Smith and Wace.”] Leo ruled the Church of Rome for twenty-one years from 440–461. His dogmatic epistle dictated the form which the orthodox faith took at the Council of Chalcedon, A.D. 45I,” and when he died the * This celebrated document, which had a wide influence on the world's history, will be found in a handy shape in Hefele's “Councils,” Clark's translation, t. iii., p. 225. EASTERN HISTORY, 25 power of the papacy was secured in the place of the imperial authority which was then ready to vanish away. The greatest and most celebrated writers of this period were connected with the Church. We may, , however, for convenience sake, make the old division of Secular and ecclesiastical. We only name the most prominent in both divisions, viz., Secular—Martianus Capella and Macrobrius, celebrated grammarians; Servius, a commentator on Virgil; Sidonius Apollinaris, a poet ; Idatius, a chronicler; Ecclesiastical—Augustine, Ambrose, Jerome, Salvianus, Pelagius, Cassian, Vincent of Lerins, and Hilary of Arles, the supposed author of the Athanasian Creed. II.-EASTERN EMPIRE. A.D. 395-457. AUTHORITIES.–Gibbon; Clinton's Fasti; Finlay's History of Greece; Le Beau's Histoire du Bas-Empire. EMPERORs. Arcadius e e dº tº * G. tº e tº º 395–408. Theodosius II. . . tº ºt * @ . . 408–450. Marcian and Pulcheria.. tº ge . . 450–457. Arcadius, son of Theodosius I., ascended the throne A.D. 395, at the age of eighteen, receiving as his share 26 g MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, the Eastern Empire with Constantinople as his capital. His reign was marked by a continual struggle against the Goths, under Alaric, from outside the empire, and against another portion of them under Tribigild, who had settled in Phrygia. Alaric, during the reign of Theodosius the Great, devoted his attention chiefly to the East. During the reign of Arcadius he principally attacked Italy and the West, where Stilicho opposed him, as already told. In 399 the Goths, however, who were settled in Asia Minor, rose in revolt under Tribi- gild and Gaïnas, and made themselves masters of Con- stantinople, A.D.4oo, but were massacred or expelled from that city December 23rd of the same year. Gaïnas attempted to escape across the Danube, but was seized and slain by Uldin, King of the Huns. [Gibbon, c. 32, describes this first capture of Constantinople by the barbarians.] The reign of Arcadius is also famous for the struggles of the emperor and his wife, Eudoxia, with the celebrated Patriarch of Constantinople John Chrysostom. Civil and ecclesiastical affairs were so intimately bound up in the history of the Eastern Empire that they can never be viewed apart. Chrysostom was the most eloquent of preachers. The emperor used him to gain better terms when hard pressed by the Goths. Chrysostom denounced, however, the Empress Eudoxia, comparing her to Jezebel and Herodias, and provoked in addition the wrath of Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria. By their joint endeavours he was con- demned and sent into exile, where he died September EASTERN HISTORY. 27 14th, 407, at Comana, in Pontus, where also the well- known Henry Martyn died in the beginning of this century. Chrysostom's departure from Constantinople was marked by a terrible conflagration, in which the cathedral, senate house and adjacent buildings were Consumed, June 5th, 4O4. The personal appearance and magnificence of the Eastern emperors at this date are depicted in Chysos- tom's sermons, which are full of the most interesting details of the social life of this period. They can be consulted in English in the Oxford Library of the Fathers. It will be easily seen how changed Roman manners had become when the emperor, as Chrysostom tellsus, always wore a diadem or crown of gold, and was clad in robes of purple silk, embroidered with figures of golden dragons. His throne was of heavy gold. The arms and trappings of his attendants and horses were of gold. The bosses in the midst of the shields borne by the guards represented the human eye. Snow-white mules drew the imperial chariot, which was of pure and Solid gold. Luxury like that tempted the barbarians who were prowling all round the empire and enervated the possessors thereof. It was the result, however, of the Oriental system introduced by Diocletian. Arcadius died May Ist, 408, leaving to a son, Theodosius II., aged seven years, an empire torn by ecclesiastical and civil faction, and threatened by 28 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. implacable foes. The earlieryears of the infant monarch were protected by the Praetorian prefect, Anthemius, who delivered the empire from an invasion of the Huns under Uldin. To him succeeded the emperor's sister, Pulcheria, who practically ruled the empire from the year A.D. 4I4 to her own death, in 453, just as another lady of the same family, Placidia, was ruling in the West during the same period. The reign of Theodosius II. was marked (1) by his Persian and barbarian wars; (2) by ecclesiastical struggles; (3) by his legislative efforts. We shall take them in this order. (1) Theodosius sent an ambassador to the Court of Persia, Maruthas, bishop of Mesopotamia. He violated the law of nations by using his position to attack the religion of Persia, whereupon a persecution of the Christians arose, which resulted in a war between Theodosius and the king of Persia, Bahram, or Varanes V., A.D. 420–422. But Theodosius had to meet a much more formidable enemy in Attila, the leader of the Huns, that Turanian race which has perpetuated itself in modern times under the names of the Finns, the Hungarians and the Turks. Attila ascended the throne in A.D. 433. He concluded the peace of Margus with Theodosius in the same year. In 441, Genseric, the Vandal king of North Africa, stirred him up to invade the Eastern Empire. Then commenced a series of invasions which justly entitle Attila to the name of the “Scourge or flail of God,” the title by EASTERN HISTORY. 29 -— which he is known in Christian legend. He pursued the imperial forces to the very walls of Constantinople, and concluded a treaty most humiliating to Theodosius, A.D. 446. This treaty trebled the tribute previously paid by the Romans to the Huns. In 448, Theodosius disgraced himself by plotting the assassination of Attila, an action which the latter magnanimously forgave as soon as he discovered it. Attila's wars in the West belong to the previous section. (2) The reign of Theodosius was marked by the rise of two heresies or schisms, which fatally divided Eastern Christendom and prepared the way for Mahometan conquest. The struggle between Arcadius and Eudoxia on the one hand, and Chrysostom on the other had been followed by a reaction in favour of Chrysostom. In 427, the See of Constantinople was vacant by the death of the Patriarch Sisinnius. Theo- dosius looked to Antioch for a new bishop, because Chrysostom had been trained there. Nestorius, a monk and orator, of Antioch, was made Patriarch of Con- stantinople. He soon gave rise to the Nestorian heresy which was condemned by the third general council of Ephesus, A.D. 431. His great opponent was Cyril, Patri- arch of Alexandria, proving that the old rivalry between Constantinople and Alexandria was still as bitter as in Chrysostom's time. Action and re-action are the laws of religious as of political life. The Nestorian heresy divided Christ into two persons, one a human person, the 3O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. other a divine. The followers of Cyril pushed the opposite view to another extreme. They asserted the unity of Christ's person so far as to deny his dual nature, human and divine. They taught that unity of person, involved unity of nature, and apparently denied the reality of his incarnation. At least these are the views attributed to the Eutychian or Monophysite party which was condemned at the fourth general council of Chal- cedon, A.D. 451. These heresies weakened the empire politically. The Christians of Mesopotamia and Persia adopted Nestorianism, which still exists there under the name of the Church of the Chaldaeans. They have been largely instrumental in diffusing Christianity, civilisa- tion, and the Syrian tongue as far as China on the one hand and India on the other, a circumstance which will come again under our notice in the history of China during the second period. [See Renan’s “Histoire des Langues Semitiques.”] The Egyptians, on the other hand, adopted the Monophysite tenets which seemed to them identical with the teaching of their great cham- pion, St. Cyril of Alexandria, a view still held by the Coptic Church. Both parties were hostile to the views of the Church of Constantinople, which strove to steer a middle course. The Nestorians sympathised therefore politically with the Persians in their long contests with the Empire, while the Egyptian Copts hated the views of Constantinople so much that they betrayed Egypt into Mahometan hands. But this belongs to a later period. - It is now important simply to remember that the Council EASTERN HISTORY. 3 I of Chalcedon, A.D. 451, largely helped on the decay of the Eastern Empire. (3) Theodosius II. is celebrated for his formation of the Roman, or the Theodosian code, as it is usually called. He collected all the legislation of past ages and embodied it in one code, which was declared the only legal authority for the Empire, from January Ist, 439. This compilation has had immense influence on Modern Europe. It, together with Justinian's later and larger code, has formed the basis of the laws of all Continental states; has largely influenced our own ; and practically reigns in the “Code Napoleon.” It consists of sixteen books, divided into Titles with appropriate rubrics or headings. The first five books relate to what is called Żus Privatum; the sixth, seventh and eighth to the constitution and administration; the ninth to the criminal law; the tenth and eleventh to the public revenue; books twelve to fifteen treat of towns and corporations; while the sixteenth treats of ecclesiastical matters. The best edition is that of J. Gothofredus, originally published in 1665, and then edited by Ritter, Leipzig, 1736–45. It is a wonderful storehouse of Roman customs, life and history. It is almost impossible in the case of the Eastern Empire to divide between secular and ecclesiastical authors, as their domains were so inter-, mingled. Among historians there were Socrates, 32 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Sozomen, Zosimus (Pagan), Priscus, Dioscorus of Alexandria, whose Coptic history of the Council of Chalcedon has lately been discovered in Egypt and published in the “Revue Egyptologique.” Among theological writers Chrysostom, Cyril, Nestorius, Marius Mercator, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, Epi- phanius, Nilus of Egypt. The letters of some of these, e.g., those of Nilus or Cyril, afford the liveliest and most chatty pictures of these remote but interesting ages. III.—WESTERN EMPIRE. IN DISRUPTION, A.D. 476–687. IN RECONSTRUCTION, A.D. 687–814. Kings of Kings of A.D. Popes. A.D. Lombardy. Italy. Odoacer, the 476–493||Felix III. 483—492 Herulian *. Gelasius I. |492—496 Theodoric, 493–526||Anastasius II.496–498 the Ostrogoth Symmachus 498–514 Laurentius 498–505 (antipope) Hormisdas 514—523 John I. 523—526 WESTERN HISTORY. 33 WESTERN EMPIRE—continued. Kings of ~ | Kings of Italy. A.D. Pöpes. A.D. | Lombardy. A.D. Athalaric 526—534] Felix IV. --> Boniface II. 53o ] Theodatus [534—536|[Dioscorus 53O j (antipope) Vitiges 536—54o|John II. 532—535 Theodebald 54o [Agapetus I. 153 5—536 Araric 54I ||Silverius 536—537 Totila 54I—552||Vigilius 537—555 Teias 552—553|Pelagius I. [555—56o Exarchs °* | Ad John III. [560—573|Alboin 568—572 Ravenna. τ* Benedict I. [574—578|Cleophis 572—574 Narses 554—568 Eelagius II. [578—59ol[Rule by 574—584 Longinus 569—584 Dukes Smaragdus [584—587|Gregory I. [59o—6o4'| Autharis 584—59o Romanus [587—598|Sabinianus 6o4—6o6|Agilulf 59o—616 Callinicus [598—6o3|Boniface III. coo-oo; Smaragdus |6o3—6Io|[Boniface IV.|6o8—6I 5 \ (restored) 34. MEDIÆVAL HISTORY. I WESTERN EMPIRE—continued. Exarchs of i Κings of Ravenna. A.D. Popes. A.D Lombardy. A.D. John 6Io—615 Deusdedit 61 5—6I8|Theodelinda [616—626 βά) and Eleutherius [615—6I9|Boniface V. 16I9—625| Adelwald Isaac 6I9—643|Honorius I. 1625—638|Arivald 626—638 Calliopas 643—65o|Severinus [638—64o|[Rotharis 638—654 Olympius [650—652|John IV. 64o—642 Calliopas 652—687|Theodorus I. 642—649 (restored) Martim I. 649—655 *Eugenius I. [654—657|Rodoald 654—659 Vitalian 657—672|Aribert 659—662 Adeodatus [672—676|Gondibert 1662—663 Donus 676—678|Grimoald [663—672 Agatho 678—68I cari; 672—68o 2lIl Leo II. 682—683] Pertharit Benedict II. 1683—685|Cunibert andl68o—6gI Pertharit Conon 685—687 John Platon 687—7o2|Paschal 687—692 (antipope) * Elected during the lifetime of Martin I., who was in exile. !] íY WESTERN HISTORY. 35 WESTERN EMPIRE-continued. - - | -- - - --------- Exarchs of Kings of Ravenna. A.D. Popes. A.D. Lºy. A.D. Theodorus 687 Sergius I. 687—7or|Cunibert 691–7OI (alone) Theophylact|702–710||John VI. 701—705|Luitprand 701 John VII. 705–707||Aribert II. 702–712 Sisimnius 708 John 710–713|Constantine 708–715||Ansprand 712–713 Rizocopus I. Scholasticus 7.3–7.5Gregory II. 715–731|Luitprand 713–743 Paul, the 725–727|Gregory III. 731–741 Patrician | Zacharias 741–742|Hildebrand 743 Eutychius, , 727–752|Stephen II. 742 ||Rachis 744 the Eunuch Stephen III. 743–757||Astolphus 750–756 Conquest by Lombards Paul I. 757—767|Desiderius 756—774 Constantine 767—768 * II, Philip 768 |Stephen IV. 768–772 Hadrian I. 772–795 | Leo III. 795–816, 36 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. A.—ITALY. AUTHoRITIES.–Gibbon; Milman; and Hodgkin’s Invadc1s of Italy. The history of Italy during this period, from the destruction of the Western Empire till its restoration under Charlemagne, falls under two great heads. (I.) The Gothic followed by the Lombardic Kingdom. (2.) The Exarchate of Ravenna, which acknowledged the rule of the Eastern emperors and subsequently became the Papal Dominions. The Papal Dominions in the West, and the Turkish Empire in the East, embodied and represented till our own time the last remnants of the Roman Empire. 1. The Gothic and Lombardic Kingdoms. The first barbarian king of Italy was Odoacer the Herulian, 476–493. He was originally a robber-chieftain in Pannonia and Noricum, provinces corresponding to the modern Austria. He turned to Italy, however, as a wider field for his ambition, seeking before he left Noricum the blessing of St. Severinus, the Apostle of Austria, whose life by Eugippius (lately reprinted by Pertz) is a valuable contemporary record of the state of society in the neighbourhood of the Danube. His ITALIAN HISTORY. 37 interview with Odoacer is famous. Severinus dwelt in a lowly hut, the door of which would not admit the gigantic barbarian, who was, therefore, obliged to stoop. Severinus discerned in that attitude a symptom of his future greatness. “Pursue,” said he, “your design; proceed to Italy. You will soon cast away the coarse garment of skins, and your wealth will be adequate to the liberality of your mind.” Odoacer entered the imperial guard at Rome; rose to eminence; dethroned Augustulus; and ruled Italy with the help of a mixed multitude of barbarians, to whom he assigned one-third of Italy as their portion. Upon his accession he Solicited the title of Patrician from the Eastern Emperor, Zeno, and established his residence at Ravenna, which indeed, all through the Fifth and succeeding centuries displaced Rome as the imperial residence. Odoacer ruled Italy wisely and vigorously, but never assumed complete independence, merely calling himself king, not emperor. At home, he re- established the consulate, and thus strove to reconcile the Romans to his rule. Abroad, he extended his sway beyond Italy to Dalmatia and Noricum. In 489, he came into conflict with Theodoric, King of the East Goths, who invaded Italy in that year; and after a lengthened struggle Odoacer was defeated and killed, March 5th, 493. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, was born near Vienna, A.D. 455. He came of a warrior race, his 38 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. father and uncles having defeated the Huns and secured the independence of their tribe. He succeeded to the throne of Italy in 493, and ruled successfully till his death—a period of thirty-three years. Theodoric restored to Italy a prosperity such as it had not known for a long time. Agriculture and commerce flourished, and Italy became one of the most prosperous countries of that age, while his rule extended itself over the Visigoths of Spain and France. Theodoric specially turned his attention to the encouragement of agricul- ture. Rome in ancient times depended on Egypt for corn. The supply, however, from that source was now diverted to Constantinople. She then looked to Northern Africa, but the Vandals becoming possessed of that land, Theodoric was obliged to devote his attention to the home supply. Theodoric was an Arian, as were most of the barbarian nations— they having been originally converted by the zeal of Arian missionaries, like Ulfilas, the apostle of the Goths. He left, however, a noble example of toleration. He never imitated the example of the Eastern emperors, who suffered no divergence from the State religion. His later years were clouded by suspicions if not by conspiracies. On the suspicion of plotting to destroy the Gothic kingdom, he executed two famous ministers who had served him faithfully, Symmachus and his son-in-law, Boëthius, the last of the great Roman writers. The latter produced during his imprisonment his “Consolation of Philosophy,” a famous work, popular ITALIAN HISTORY. 39 *— all through the Middle Ages, and described by Gibbon “as a golden volume, not unworthy the leisure of Plato Or Tully.” Theodoric visited Rome, A.D. 500, to settle disputes among the rival candidates for the Papal see. He died in 526. A large fish was one day served for dinner. Theodoric fancied he saw the bloody head of Symmachus on the dish, took to his bed, and died three days afterwards. He was buried at Ravenna, where his tomb is still to be seen. After the death of Theodoric, the Gothic kingdom rapidly declined. The campaigns of the famous Belisarius, who conquered first the Vandals in Africa, and then the Goths of Italy, A.D. 534–548, and then those of the eunuch Narses, consummated the Gothic ruin, notwithstanding the brave efforts of their kings Totila, 54I-552, and Teias, their last Sovereign, A.D. 553. Italy as a province now owned once again the authority of the emperor; and Narses issued edicts from Ravenna which were respected throughout the entire country. This conquest was but of short duration. In 567, Alboin, king of the Lombards, or Langobardi—a nation which in the time of Tacitus inhabited Prussia—invaded Italy and established his dominion over a great part of that country. During the next two hundred years Italy was divided between the Lombards, who ruled the greater portion of it, and the Exarchs of Ravenna, who governed the territory which afterwards beca States of the Church. 4O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. The rule of the Lombards was, on the whole, bene- ficial to Italy. During the two centuries over which it lasted, Italy enjoyed a milder and more equitable government than any other of the kingdoms which had risen out of the ruins of the West. The Lombards were originally Arians, but by the exertions of Pope Gregory the Great, A.D. 599, working upon Agilulf their king through his wife Theodelinda, they embraced the Catholic faith, a change which conciliated in some degree the feelings of the conquered people, though the conquering Lombards long continued to be abhorred by the descendants of the ancient Romans. After the con- quest of Charlemagne, the inhabitants of the Lombard cities devoted themselves to commerce with success; and their name has ever since been associated with those portions of cities devoted to that purpose. The laws of the Lombards form a most valuable compilation of Teutonic customs. They were collected and published in Latin, about A.D. 643, by King Rotharis, and revised and enlarged by subsequent princes. In the last century they were printed by Muratori, in his great work “Scriptores Rerum Italicarum,” t. I., part ii., p. 1-181, and they now form one of the most valuable Barbarian codes extant. The last king of the Lombards, Desiderius, was captured in Pavia by Charlemagne, A.D. 774, after a siege of that city which lasted for fifteen months. ITALIAN HISTORY, 4I 2. The Exarchate of Ravenna and the Papacy. The history of the Exarchate and the Papacy runs parallel with that of the Lombards, and is closely connected with it. The Exarchs ruled with full authority—civil, military and ecclesiastical—the whole of Italy and Sicily not subject to the Lombards, i.e.—the territory afterwards comprised in the States of the Church, together with the provinces of Naples and Venice. The Popes were making rapid progress towards the dominion they afterwards attained. Gregory the Great, A.D. 6oo, Gregory II. and Gregory III., A.D. 715–741, raised higher pretensions and used bolder language than any of their predecessors. The Icono- clastic Controversy in which the two latter Popes distinguished themselves, contributed, as we shall see in the history of the Eastern Empire, to the final disruption of the West from the East and the establishment of Papal sovereignty. Still, during the whole of this period, the Exarchs of Ravenna claimed and exercised a delegated superiority over the Bishops of Rome. Thus, when a Papal election was held, it had to be ratified by the Exarch, whose consent was sought in the most servile manner. The forms for entreating that consent, and for invoking the aid of the Arch- bishops of Ravenna and the leading court officials, are 42 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. still extant, and can be seen in Smith’s “ Dictionary Of Christian Biography,” t. III., p. 650. The most powerful and celebrated of the Exarchs was the eunuch Narses, One of those able generals whose career casts a fitful glory upon the decline of the Empire. He ruled Italy for Justinian I., under whom Ravenna was embellished with the Church of St. Vitalis, which ranks with that of St. Sophia in Constantinople, and constitutes an epoch in ecclesiastical architecture. To Justinian, also, is attributed the erection of those round towers at Ravenna, which three hundred years later were copied in these islands, and especially in Ireland. Ravenna, indeed, in consequence of the residence therein of the emperors and kings of the fifth century, and afterwards of the Exarchs, is now one of the most interesting cities of Europe for the historian and the archaeologist. The most notable among the popes were Gelasius, A.D. 492, who published the earliest Western liturgy now extant, called the Gelasian Sacramentary, and Gregory I., or the Great, A.D. 590–604, celebrated as a preacher, writer, musician and organiser. He revised the Sacramentary of Gelasius ; published a work which is the basis of the Roman Missal and the English Book of Common Prayer; despatched St. Augustine to convert England; introduced the Gregorian chant; defended Rome against the Lombards, with whom he formed treaties on his own authority; pro- tested against the assumption of the title of Universal § ITALIAN HISTORY. 43 Bishop by the Patriarch ºf Constantinople—an act which he described as “a sign of the coming of Anti- christ; ” and by his talents and energy laid the foundation of that temporal power which was finally attained two centuries later. Other notable popes were Martin I., A.D. 649, who struggled against the Emperor Constans II. and the Monothelites; the two Gregories, II. and III., A.D. 715–741, leaders in the Iconoclastic Controversy; Stephen III., to whom Pippin, King of the Franks, granted the Exarchate of Ravenna in 756, thus establishing the Temporal Dominion of the Papacy; and Hadrian I. and Leo. III., who confirmed the dominion of the Franks and the Carolingian dynasty over Italy. In connection with the history of the Papacy we may notice the life of Dionysius Exiguus, a Scythian monk, who lived at Rome under the Emperors Justin and Justinian, and published the first work on Canon Law. In the year 527, he fixed the epoch now called the Christian era, dating it, as we know, four years too late. The Dionysian era was adopted in Italy soon after its invention, in France a century later, and in this country in the eighth or ninth century. It was ordained at the Synod of Chelsea, A.D. 816, that all bishops should in future date their acts from the Incarnation. 44 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, B.—FRANCE, AUTHORITIES.–Gibbon; Milman's Latin Christianity; Hallam's Middle Ages; The Benedictine Histories, Gallia Christiana and Histoire Litteraire de la France, besides those quoted in the text. Hefele's Councils (Clark's trans- lation) presents a handy view of the ecclesiastical and social state of France. KINGS OF FRANKS (Merovingians). Clovis, A.D. 481—511 His kingdom divided between his four sons— Theodoric (Metz) ... 511–534 Clodomir (Orleans) 5II–524 Childebert (Paris) .. 511–558 Clotaire I. (Soissons) 511–56I In 558, Clotaire I. became sole king of the Franks on the death of his only surviving brother, Childebert. On his own death in 561, his kingdom was divided among his four sons as follows:— Sons of Clotaire I., under whom a threefold division of France was subsequently made, A.D. 567, into Austrasia, capital Rheims; Neustria, capital Soissons; Burgundy, capital Orleans. Charibert I. (Paris).. tº as 561–567 Sigebert I. (Metz) .. º ºg 561—567 Chilperic I. (Soissons) e tº 561–584 Guntram (Orleans) . . tº e 561–593 Grandsons of Clotaire I. Clotaire II. (Neustria) tº º tº tº 584—628, Childebert II. (Austrasia and Burgundy) 575—596 FRENCH HISTORY. *. 45 On the death of Childebert II. Austrasia and Burgundy were divided between his sons— Theodebert II. (Austrasia).. 596–61 I Theodoric II. (Burgundy) .. 596—613 But united to Neustria under Clotaire II., A.D. 613, till his death in 628. By this union the long series of internecine wars between the Merovingian princes was ended. Clotaire II. was succeeded by— Dagobert I. . . * † * * tº º 628–637 Sigebert II. (Austrasia) .. ... 637—654 Clovis II. (Neustria) .. tº e • * 637—656 Childeric II. (Austrasia) tº gº e tº 656–673 Dagobert II. (Austrasia) tº º tº º 673–678 Theodoric III. (Thierri) gº tº © tº 673–691 Clovis III. tº ſº tº gº tº º tº ſº. 691—695 Pippin (Mayor of the Palace) * † 687—714 Childebert III. . . & º º ... 695–711 - Dagobert III. . . tº ſº tº gº e g 7II—715 Chilperic II. . . tº e © tº tº wº 715–72O / Clotaire IV. (Austrasia) • * : * * 7I7—719 Theodoric IV. . . e tº tº º tº º 720–737 Charles Martel (Mayor of the Palace) 715–741 Childeric III. . . tº ſº © e gº º 743–75I End of Merovingian Dynasty. CAROLINGIANs. Pippin . . . . . . gº º tº e 751—768 Carloman Charles the Great (Charlemagne) | 768–771 Charles the Great (Charlemagne) alone 771–814 46 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. The history of France, or Gaul as it was then called, during this period is a very sad one. The Mero- vingian kings (so called from Merovius, a Latinized form of Merwig or Merewings, the name of the founder of the race in the early part of the fifth century) ruled from 481 (Clovis) to 751 (Childeric), and their sway was . marked almost universally with every form of vice and incapacity. The rise of this dynasty coincides, how- ever, with the origin of Modern France, and as such deserves special attention. Clovis (in the Chroniclers Cludoecus, Clodoveus, Chlodovechus; Modern French, Louis; Modern German, Ludwig) was the son of Chil- deric, one of the kings of the Salian Franks, who reigned at Tournai from 458 to 481. Clovis was born in 466, succeeded to the throne in 481, and conquered Syagrius, the last Roman ruler in Gaul, in 486. Clovis then became ruler of Roman Gaul, and changed his capital from Tournai to Soissons. In 492, he married the Burgundian Princess Clotilda, who was a Christian and a Catholic, though of an Arian family. She exer- cised her influence, and succeeded in converting her husband from Paganism, in 496; when he was baptized at Rheims by Remigius, the local bishop. This step was taken as the result of a vow made in the crisis of a great battle between the Franks and the Alamanni at Tolbiac, twenty-four miles from Cologne; when Clovis, finding the tide of battle going against him, invoked the aid of Christ, upon which victory declared on his side. Clovis now became the champion FRENCH HISTORY. 47 of the Catholic party against the other barbarian sovereigns of Western Europe, who were all Arians. He waged war successfully, A.D. 500, against the Burgundians and Visigoths, and established the French monarchy as the dominant power in Gaul. He also came into conflict with Theodoric, the Gothic king of Italy, but with less success. He made Paris his capital in 507. In 508, the Emperor Anastasius recognised his authority and conferred upon him the consular dignity. From that time he was called Consul and Augustus, the traditions of Roman authority and dignities being still vivid in Gaul. He died in 511, and was buried at Paris, in the Church of St. Geneviève, founded by himself and his wife, Clotilda. He left four sons, Theodoric the eldest (illegitimate), Chlodomir, Childe- bert and Lothar or Clotaire. [The great authority on the history of Clovis is the “Historia F rancorum" of St. Gregory of Tours.] The history of the Merovingian dynasty during the next century and a half, was one long, dreary story of blood, vice and cruelty. Towards the close of the sixth century, the mission of St. Columbanus into Gaul brings the Merovingian princes into contact with these islands. Columbanus belonged to the ancient Celtic Church, which had survived the Roman dominion. He was born in Ireland, in 543, educated at St. Comgall's Monastery of Bangor, in the County Down, whence he proceeded about A.D. 585 to Burgundy, where he took 48 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. up his abode in a deserted part of the Vosges district . undcr the protection of King Guntram. Through his earnest preaching and stern discipline he came into conflict with all classes, including the priesthood. g He specially roused the hostility of Theodoric II., and his grandmother Brunehault, by his testimony against their immoralities and crimes. He afterwards remove to Switzerland, where he laid the foundation o christianity and civilization, and established the mon- astery of St. Gall, which long continued to be a centre of Celtic learning as it still is of Celtic manuscripts. He withdrew finally into Northern Italy, where he evan- gelised the people and founded the celebrated Monastery of Bobbio, whose manuscripts are now in the Ambrosian library at Milan. The life of Columbanus, written by -- one of his monks, Jonas, throws much interesting light on the social life of France under the Merovingian kings. . The writings of Columbanus prove the wide culture which existed in the Celtic Church prior to the mission of St. Augustine. His Latin poems in various metres are worth inspection, on account of their intricate con- struction and strange conceits. The Merovingian sovereigns seem, indeed, to have cultivated intimate relations with the British Islands. Thus, on the death of Sigebert of Austrasia, in 654, Grimoald, the mayor of the palace, sent Sigebert's son, Dagobert II., into exile to the Monastery of Slane, in the County Meath. There the king spent eighteen years, but was recalled to his throne through the instrumentality of Wilfrid, FRENCH HISTORY. 49 Archbishop of York, about the year 674. He was murdered in 678. It is a curious fact that the history of this sovereign (Dagobert II.) was quite unknown to all historians till the Bollandist Henschenius discovered an account of his existence and career about the middle of the seventeenth century, and published it in a learned treatise on the “Chronology of the Early Merovingian and other French kings,” which the student who wishes to investigate more profoundly this troubled epoch, will do well to consult [cf. Bollandi, “Thesaurus Antiquitatis,” t. I., for this treatise, or the Contemporary Review, January, 1883, p. 79, for a popular account of it]. The Merovingian line came to an end in the person of Childeric III., A.D. 751, who was deposed by Pippin II., Mayor of the palace, and consigned to a monastery. The rise of the Mayors of the palace deserves notice. During the seventh century the Merovingian sovereigns were mere puppets, especially after Dagobert I.,628–637. All power became concentrated in the hands of their Mayors, who corresponded to the Patricians among the Romans. Both officials were commanders-in-chief of the national forces, and thus had the power of the sword. The founder of the Carolingian dynasty was Pippin Heristal, at first Mayor and then Duke of Aus- trasia, A.D. 687—714. On his death he was succeeded by his son Charles Martel (the hammer), who estab- lished himself as the real sovereign by his valour. His most famous action was the defeat of the Saracens D 5O - MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. between Tours and Poictiers, in October, 732—a battle which saved Western Europe from Mahometan con- quest, and which thus forms one of the turning points in the world's history. Charles Martel, too, was summoned to his help by the Pope, Gregory III., in 739, against the Lombards, and thus began French intervention in Italy which soon bore important fruits. Charles died on October 21st, 741, having divided his dominions between his sons, Carloman who obtained Austrasia, and Pippin II. who obtained Neustria and Burgundy. Carloman reigned for five or six years and then retired into a monastery. He was, during his reign, the bosom friend of St. Boniface, the English Apostle of Central Germany, and is celebrated in church history as the first sovereign who convoked a German national council, whose decrees shed a vivid light on the social state of those times. Pippin II. con- solidated the whole Empire under his rule, entered into active alliance with the Pope against the Lom- bards, and twice saved Rome from their attacks. Pippin II, died in 768, and was succeeded by his two sons, Charles the Great and Carloman. Carloman died in 771, leaving Charlemagne sole king of the Franks. Charlemagne soon proved himself a great warrior. He finally conquered the Lombards in 774, and thus added Italy to his dominions. He confirmed the donation of the Exarchate of Ravenna made by his father to the Pope ; engaged in war with FRENCH HISTORY. .5I the Saxons, Avars and Saracens; and was finally crowned Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III., on Christmas Day, A.D. 800—a title which the emperors of the East recognised in 812. During the first thirty years of his reign Charlemagne spent his time principally in waging war. His most persistent attacks were made on the Saxons, whom he was deter- mined to convert to Christianity. Almost every year from 772 to 804 an expedition was despatched against them. Large numbers were nominally converted ; but these expeditions and the cruelties which accompanied them were amply avenged upon Christendom. The Saxon fugitives escaped into Scandinavia and roused their Pagan kinsmen to action. They were led by Witikind; the chief of the Pagan Saxons, who was son- in-law of Sigefroi, King of Denmark. From this period we date the incursions of the Northmen—Normans or Danes—against whom Charles was obliged to prepare a fleet in 810. The latter portion of his life, A.D. Soo-814, was devoted to the consolidation and improvement of his dominions in various directions; thus Charles devoted himself to (a) theology; (b) education and art; and (c) legislation. • (a) As to theology he surpassed our own Henry VIII. or James I. He dared to differ even from a General Council and the Pope. The Second Council of Nice, A.D. 787, condemned the Iconoclasts and established the worship of images as the doctrine of the Catholic 52 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Church. The Pope was represented in that synod, and Consented to its decrees, which he forwarded to Charle- magne, in a Latin translation, for publication in his dominions. Charlemagne at once rejected them, and having summoned a mixed council of bishops and temporal lords, which met at Frankfort, A.D. 794, con- demned the ' Nicene decrees. He also issued the celebrated Caroline Books (Libri Carolini), which were written by the great English scholar, Alcuin, who assisted at this council. Charlemagne presided over this assembly, where he also condemned the Adoptionist heresy, a revival of the earlier Nestorian tenets; and passed on his own authority various canons dealing with Church discipline. He gave large privileges to the clergy, but only on condition that they duly recog- nised his imperial Supremacy. Charlemagne, again, by his decrees at this council, laid the foundation of the final schism between the Eastern and Western Churches, by inserting in the Nicene creed the clause concerning the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Son (the Filioque clause), a change previously made by King Recared in Spain, but not yet accepted by the Pope. (b) In education and art Charles was a wise and lavish patron, though himself illiterate, never having been able to learn the art of writing. He established . schools throughout his dominions, and anticipated by a thousand years that system of compulsory education now adopted in England. Thus, in a capitulary of 802. FRENCH HISTORY. - 53 he lays down the principle that “Everyone shall send his son to learn letters, and the child shall remain at school with all diligence until he become well instructed in learning.” [Pertz, “Leges Germaniae,” I., Io'7.] He collected learned men from every quarter, and made - his court the centre to which scholars naturally resorted, a tradition which lasted beyond his time. He brought back from Rome, in 787, masters to teach grammar and arithmetic; induced Alcuin to leave York, and made him a kind of patron of European letters—a striking instance of which we find in one of Alcuin's letters, still extant, addressed by him, A.D. 794, to Colcu the senior lecturer of the school of Clonmacnois, in Ireland. This letter gives a most interesting picture of the wide and wise liberality of Charles and the trust reposed by him in the English scholar, who is thus enabled to relieve the wants and advance the studies of the poor but learned scholars of Ireland. [This letter will be found in Ussher's “Sylloge,” opp. t. iv., p. 466, Ed. Elrington.] The whole subject of the educational efforts of Charlemagne has been handled in a very interesting manner by Mr. J. B. Mullinger, in his “Schools of Charles the Great,” where their relations to our modern University system are also discussed. Charles was also a patron of art. He was distinguished, like Justinian, for his architectural operations, a specimen of which still remains in the Cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, which he built after the model of the Church of St. Vitalis, at Ravenna. He thus introduced Byzantine and Oriental architecture to 54 - MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. w Western Europe. His architects, chief of whom seems to have been his biographer, Einhardus or Eginhard, made considerable use of round towers, such as already existed at Ravenna, and may thus have been the real authors of that species of architecture, which, as seen in the British Islands, has provoked so much specula- tion. The oldest architectural plan in the world is preserved in the library of St. Gall. It is one made by Charlemagne's architects for the great church at that place, and it embraces round towers in its design, as does also the cathedral of Aix, erected by the emperor himself. (c) Legislation. Charlemagne was the great legis- lator of the Middle Ages. The Merovingian kings had often issued capitularies, which have been collected by Baluze and Pertz, but they were only few and unim- portant when compared with the work of Charles, compiled principally within the last fourteen years of his life. His public capitularies are reckoned by Guizot at sixty in number, embracing 1,150 distinct capitula or laws, which are thus classed—80 moral, 273 political, 130 penal, I to civil, 85 religious, 309 canonical, 73 domestic and 90 occasional. All these were passed in the General Assemblies, composed of laymen and clerics, held every year, of which the Synod of Frank- fort was a specimen. [See the article “Capitulary” in Smith’s “Dictionary of Christian Antiquities,” t. I., p.285.] Charles, in his ecclesiasticallegislation, specially insisted on the subordination of inferiors to superiors, * SPANISH HISTORY. * 55 of the clergy to the bishops, of the bishops to the metropolitans, and of the metropolitans to the temporal sovereign. He exalted the power of metropolitans who were dependent on himself. A few years after his death. the False Decretals, the foundation of Mediaeval Canon Law, depreciated metropolitans in order to render the clergy dependent on the Pope. Charles thus laid the foundation of the Gallican as opposed to the Ultra- montane school of thought. C.—SPANISH PENINSULA. The history of Spain during this first period is the history of the Visigothic monarchy, which, for a time, in- cluded Southern Gaul and originally located its capital in Toulouse. On December 31st, 406, the Vandals, Alans and Suevi crossed the Rhine to invade Gaul. In 409, they entered Spain, where the Vandals seized Baetica, the Alans Lusitania (Portugal), and the Suevi Galicia, Leon and Castile. The Visigoths invaded Spain in 414 under Ataulphus, husband of Placidia, sister of the Emperor Honorius. They expelled the Vandals, in 427, and established a race of monarchs who reigned till the invasion of the Saracens. They were seated at first in Toulouse, and then, after 511, at Seville. The most celebrated of these sovereigns were Ataulphus, the founder, assassinated at Barcelona 4.15 ; Wallia, 4I6– 418 ; Theodoric I., son of the Great Alaric, 418–451, 56 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. who, after expelling the Vandals, retired into Africa and died on the field of Chalons fighting against Attila, where he turned the fortune of war in favour of the Romans; Euric, 466–484, who extinguished Roman rule in Spain; Alaric, 484–507; Amalaric, 5II-53I, who first established his capital at Seville; and Recared I., 586–601, who reclaimed the Spaniards from the Arianism which the Goths professed, and restored the Catholic faith as previously taught under the Romans. The re-union of Spain with the Church of Rome, which thus followed, was another triumph for Gregory the Great. The seventh century was marked by the first attacks of the Saracens, which began during the reign of Wamba, who was elected king in 673. The Saracens, commanded by the Emirs Musa and Tarik, landed at Gibraltar and , conquered the country in 7II. They slew Roderick, the Gothic King, driving the remnant of the Goths into the mountains of Asturias, where under Pelayo, 718–737, the foundations of a kingdom were laid which was destined one day to expel its conquerors. The Saracens established two kingdoms, Cordova and Grenada, in which learning and civilisation soon advanced to a high pitch. They made several attempts to extend their dominions beyond the Pyrenees, but were defeated by Charles Martel, who at the battle of Tours, 732, freed Northern Europe from the fear of Saracen conquest. BRITISH HISTORY. 57 D.—THE BRITISH ISLANDs. I. England. Authorities.—Bede, among the ancients. Green, Freeman and Stubbs have superseded all others among the moderns. The close of the fourth century saw the Roman power rapidly waning in England. Theodosius the Elder, in 367, repelled the continuous invasions of the Scots of Ireland, the Northern Picts and the Saxons; but the Empire was so rapidly losing power at its ex- tremities that, in the first quarter of the fifth century, the Romans left England to take care of itself, A.D. 4Io, and the Emperor Honorius bade the British cities provide for their own defence. At that time Christianity seems to have been universally diffused throughout Britain. The history of the island becomes now invol- ved in great darkness. The island was practically cut off from Rome and Southern Gaul by the invasions of the Barbarians, and the one contemporary British historian, Gildas, has left us only a short narrative in his treatise “On the Destruction of the Britons.” The Britons did not succumb at once to the attacks of their foes. They organised themselves on the Roman model under dukes, and bravely resisted; they appealed to the Romans for help, which was occasionally granted; till 58 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. at last, in despair, Duke Vortigern summoned the Jutes to their aid, under Hengist and Horsa, A.D. 449. The Jutes were a branch of the nation usually called Saxons, but which more properly falls under the three divisions of the Jutes who came first and settled in Kent, the Saxons who came in 477 under Aelle and his three sons, Cymen, Wlencing and Cissa, and the Angles or Engles who followed in 480, and so far assimilated the others as to give their name to the island. It will be un- necessary here to go into the details of the conquests, for that has been already done by Mr. Green in his “Making of England.” The broad results of these invasions were that the Romanised Celtic inhabitants of Britain were all driven to the west coast, from Scotland down to Cornwall, while the invaders estab- lished the following kingdoms : (1) The Jutish Kingdom of Kent (Hengist and Horsa), about 465. / (2) South Saxon Kingdom (Sussex), A.D. 477. (3) West Saxony (Wessex), A.D. 495. (4) East Saxony (Essex, comprising London and Colchester), A.D. 500. (5) East Anglia (East Engle, Norfolk and Suffolk), 455–5I9. - - r BRITISH HISTORY. 59 (6) Devia (York), A.D. 500. (7) Bernicia, A.D. 547. (8) Mercia (West Engle), 584. These were the eight principal kingdoms founded during the century and a half of Saxon conquest, though there were also a number of smaller kingdoms estab- lished for a time, which were gradually absorbed by the larger. The progress of Saxon conquest was not wholly uninterrupted. Thus, King Arthur, around whose name SO-much legend centres, defeated Cerdic and the West Saxons by the rings of Badbury, in Dorset, A.D. 520. Still victory, on the whole, was on the Saxon side, and during the troubled centuries tended more and more to establish as supreme that kingdom which seemed, at first sight, least likely to hold that position. The king- dom of Wessex, ruled by Cerdic and Cynric, furnished the root of the present royal line of England. The West Saxons occupied, after 520, the present Hampshire, but gradually extended themselves. In 552, the battle of Wimbledon made Surrey subject to them. In 571, Ceawlin extended his rule beyond the Thames to Buckingham, whence he soon seized Bath and Gloucester, and, breaking the Celtic line at the Severn estuary, touched the sea. Still the signs of the future greatness of Wessex were not at once manifest. During, the seventh century, Northumbria, formed by the union of Bernicia and Devia, was the most powerful kingdom. 6o - MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. During the eighth century, Mercia seemed destined to be the ruling power. King Offa, 757-796, was its most distinguished king. Offa and Charles the Great came into contact, and Alcuin, in his epistle to Colcu, already noted, refers to a quarrel which had arisen between them, so that all commerce between England and France was for the time suspended. But Ecgberht or Egbert, 802–837, trained in the court of Charlemagne, made the West Saxon kingdom supreme over all, and by the conquest of Mercia and Northumbria, became monarch of the whole country in 829. He was the first who had the right to call himself king of the English. The name England did not come into use till a century later. We have thus given a rapid sketch of the development of England, but in so doing, have not mentioned the great event which changed the course of its history. The Celts of Britain were Christians, but refused to teach Christianity to the pagan Saxons. This is the great charge which Bede, the historian of the Saxon conquest, brings against the Celts. Prior to 590, the attention of the greatest of the early popes, Gregory I. was called to Britain, which had been almost forgotten at Rome. While yet a deacon, he had noticed British captives exposed in the slave market at Rome. Bede (ii., 1.) tells us how their appearance excited his pity and a desire to bring them to a knowledge of Christianity. In 597, he sent St. Augustine as a mis- BRITISH HISTORY. 61 sionary into Britain. He was received by Æthelberht, king of Kent, in the capital of whose kingdom, Canterbury, he established the primatial see. Augus- tine and his successor found the Celtic church very hostile; so much so, that he complains that their bishops would not even eat or sleep beneath the roof where he was entertained. The strife between the two parties continued during the seventh century. The northern and central portions of Britain, which had been evangelised from Ireland, adhered to the Celtic rite, the southern portion to the Roman party. The Roman party, however, continually advanced, while the Celts retired; till at the Synod of Whitby, A.D. 664, the triumph of the Roman party was secured, and religious unity attained for England. The Celts, however, in Wales, Ireland and Scot- land continued for centuries to retain their own peculiarities. In 669, the Greek Theodore was named primate. He marked out the English dioceses, and promoted learning in the English church, the results of which we see in Bede's History and his other works. During the eighth century, the English church showed its vitality by sending missionaries to convert the pagans of Central Germany, chief of whom was St. Boniface, 718–753; thus showing itself equal to the task of assimilating and converting the new mass of paganism, which was soon to fling itself upon our shores in the invasion of the Danes. That invasion began, indeed, in the last decade of the eighth century, 62 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. but more properly belongs to the next period of our history. 2. Ireland and Scotland. AUTHoRITIES.—Todd's St. Patrick; Skene's Celtic Scotland; Lanigan's History of Ireland; Adamnan's Life of St. Columba (edited by Bishop Reeves); O'Donovan's Annals of the Four Masters. During the first four centuries of the Christian era Ireland was known under the name of Hibernia, Ierne and Scotia, while its inhabitants were called Scots, the name Scotland and Scot not having been applied as at present till the eleventh or twelfth century. The Romans never conquered it, though Agricola in the first century received a fugitive Irish prince and contemplated its Conquest. Its peculiarities were, however, well known to the Roman geographers. Thus Solinus, in the third century, mentions its mild climate, its perpetual wars, and its freedom from noxious animals—a freedom ascribed by Mediaeval writers to the miraculous power of St. Patrick. That great missionary landed in Ireland about 431, and converted great numbers of the inhabi- tants. Ireland at that time, and for nearly a thousand years afterwards, was divided into five kingdoms, Meath, the supreme one, Ulster, Leinster, Munster and Connaught; between which the wars were simply end- IRISH AND SCOTCH HISTORY... 63 less. Christianity made rapid progress in Ireland, and during the sixth and succeeding centuries the Irish Church sent numerous missionaries in every direction, the most celebrated. of whom were Columba, 521-597, the apostle of the Picts in Northern Scotland, and Columbanus, 543–615, the apostle of Burgundy. Columba's monastery at Iona was the cradle of Scottish Christianity. His life, by Adamnan one of his immediate successors, presents one of the most truthful pictures we possess of the social life of the sixth and seventh centuries in those islands. The seventh and eighth centuries present no feature of general interest so far as Ireland is concerned. In Scotland, (Alba or Albania as it was then called), we trace during the period between 500 and '800 the upgrowth of the dynasty which afterwards became its ruling family. About the year 500, an Irish colony settled in the present Argyleshire, and founded a Christian kingdom called Dalriada. They were headed by a prince named Fergus MacErc. That colony gradually grew in power, absorbing one tribe after another till the time of Kineth MacAlpin, the thirty-fourth king of Dalriada, A.D. 838. He sub-, dued the Picts of the North, and thus became the king of the whole of modern Scotland. The kingdom continued in the direct line of this dynasty till the death of Malcolm IV. in 1285. The best known Western authors of this period were Boethius, Junilius, Jornandes (Jordanis), Gildas, º 64 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, . Columbanus, Pope Gregory I., Isidore of Seville, Gregory of Tours, Cassiodorus, Adamnan, Bede, Alcuin, and Paul the Deacon, the historian of the Lombards. Pertz's great collection embodies all the contemporary annalists. IV.—PARALLEL HISTORY OF THE EAST. A.D. 450–800. A.—BYZANTINE EMPIRE. AUTHORITIES.–Gibbon; Le Beau's Histoire du Bas-Empire; and Finlay's History of Greece. The controversies of the first half of the fifth century established schisms, which weakened the Eastern division of the empire during this period. The East and West were now practically separated. After the fall of the Western Empire, the emperor at Con- stantinople claimed a nominal authority over the West, which was acknowledged till the coronation of Charle- magne; but practically his sovereignty was only the shadow of a namesave within the Exarchate of Ravenna. The names and dates of the Eastern Emperors during this period were— BYZANT IN E HISTORY. 65 Leo I. . . • & • . . . . * * 457-474 | Leo II. . . tº e e e tº e tº - } 474–49.I Zeno, e & • * º º - Anastasius I. . . • * * * * - - 491–518 Justin I... . . . • - " - . tº - 518–527 Justinian I. . . . * * tº e e - 527–565 Justin II. tº tº tº a tº tº © & 565—578 Tiberius I. e G e - tº º Q & 578—582 Maurice .. tº º o tº • * * - 582–602 Phocas. . . & º • * ~ * * tº - 602–61O Heraclius ſº tº .. tº & Q & 6Io—641 Constantine III. & ºt © tº tº º 641–642 Constans II. . . e tº tº º * @ 642–668 Constantine IV. (Pogonatus).. • Q 668–685 Justinian II. . . tº º tº º tº a 685–694 Leontius I. tº º © tº Q º tº º 694—697 Tiberius II. . . & q' tº º tº ſº 697–704 Justinian II. (restored) tº e O tº 704–7II Philippicus . . . . . e e • * 7II—713 Anastasius II. . . . . . tº º * - 7I3—717 Leo III. (the Isaurian) . . . • * 717–741 Constantine V. (Copronymus) • * 74I—775 Leo IV. . . tº º e tº tº gº º - 775–78o Irene and Constantine VI. (Porphyro- genitus) e - • * ~ e g * --> 780—802 The close of the fifth century was marked by per. petual struggles between the opposing parties—the Catholic and the Monophysite—in the Eastern Church, which raged with special ferocity in Egypt, tending ever more and more to separate that important dependency from the Empire of Constantinople. The position of E 66 MEDIAEvaL HISTORY. Egypt rendered it important to the empire, while its corn supplies intensified that importance. If they were stopped the mob of Constantinople were threatened with hunger, a fact which gave the ship-masters and the corn merchants of Alexandria a political and ecclesiastical weight which perpetually crops up in the original documents of that period. The turbulent spirit which prevailed at all times at Alexandria and the cruelty of its mob received a striking illustration when, on March 29th, 457, the Catholic Patriarch, Proterius, was murdered in his cathedral by the adherents of his Monophysite opponent, Timothy the Cat, his body being dragged through the city, roasted over a fire, and his entrails eaten by his savage enemies. The emperors made efforts to heal the schism in the Church, which was ruining their own political power, but all in vain. Thus, in 482, Zeno issued a decree called Henoticon, or Act of Union, intended to reconcile the opposing parties by a vague formula which all parties might sign. It only intensified the quarrel. The most striking figure of the earlier portion of this period was the Emperor Justinian, who was practically emperor from 518 to his death in 565, though during the years 518–527 his uncle, Justin, was the nominal ruler. Justinian is famous in history as a restorer of Roman glory and Empire, as a theologian, legislator and architect; while the reputation of his wife, Theodora, and of the blue and green factions which BYZANTINE HISTORY. 67 then divided the circus of Constantinople are still celebrated. Justinian was born of Gothic parentage, about the year 482, at Tauresium, a place on the borders of Illyricum and Macedonia, in a district called Dardania. His father's name was Istok, Latinised into Sabatius, while his mother's name was Bigleniza, Latinised into Vigilantia. He became a soldier, and by the help of his uncle, Justin, rapidly rose to high position. Justin had been a distinguished general, and had raised himself to the throne by sheer ability. He was an old man when he became emperor, and depended largely on the assistance of his nephew, who succeeded him in 527. In 526, Justinian married Theodora, an actress, with whose reputation scandal made very free. Justinian proved himself an able ruler. He stands out, indeed, one of the most prominent figures among the Emperors of the East. He restored Roman glory and Empire against the Vandals, Goths and Persians. He despatched, in 533, the great Belisarius against the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa, which he destroyed, thus restoring Roman rule in that province till the Mahometan con- quest. He next attacked the Goths of Italy. In 535' Belisarius seized Sicily; in 536 he attacked Italy, en- tered Rome, and utterly defeated the Goths. This war terminated with the establishment of the Exarchate of 68 MEDIAE VAL HISTORY. Ravenna, which lasted till the end of the eighth century. The third great struggle of Justinian's reign was waged against the Persian monarchy, which, from the rise of the Sassanid dynasty in the third century, was in a state of perpetual warfare against Rome. The Persians seemed at one time secure of victory. Chosroës, then king, captured Antioch in 540, and transplanted a large number of its inhabitants to Ctesiphon, his capital. Here again the genius of Belisarius saved the Empire. The war lingered on, however, throughout Justinian's reign, till a fifty years' peace was concluded in 562. Justinian was also a theological prince and headed the Catholic party, while his wife, Theodora, favoured and supported the Monophysite or Eutychian heresy. Justinian, like Zeno mentioned above, strove to bring about a reconciliation between the contending parties, because he recognised that these theological disputes were ruining the strength of the empire— a fact forced upon his attention when he found the Nestorian Christians exiled from the empire arrayed on the side of Chosroës and lending him effective assistance. With this end in view, Justinian wrote several theological works, and published, in 545, an edict called the “Three Chapters,” intended to reconcile the Monophysites to the church, but which, like other attempts to effect uniformity, only produced fresh divisions and strife which extended over the whole Christian world even as far as the BYZANTINE HISTORY. 69 British Islands. Justinian destroyed the last fortress of Paganism by closing the schools of Athens, A.D. 527, and exiling seven leading Neoplatonic philosophers, who fled to Chosroës. Paganism con- tinued, however, to maintain itself, not only in the country but even in the cities. The ecclesiastical history of John of Ephesus was discovered some few years ago in Syriac, and has been translated into English by Dr. Payne-Smith. It treats of the age of Justinian from the standpoint of a pious Monophysite, and tells of Christian bishops who were convicted of taking part in Pagan sacrifices, while, again, the higher classes of Constantinople seem to have been largely infected with the same tenets. Justinian is famous as a legislator. He codified the Roman law, Completing the work begun by Theodosius II. He entrusted the work to the most eminent jurists of that day, who produced the Corpus juris Civilis, which has had a great influence on the nations of modern Europe. The Theodosian Code was composed out of the imperial edicts; but there were, besides, a vast number of laws current in the empire derived from opinions and treatises of great lawyers; while again the imperial legislation of the century which had elapsed since Theodosius had added much new matter. It must suffice now to state that Justinian's work is divided into the Code, containing the imperial edicts, the Digest or Pandects, embracing the opinions of the 7o MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. great jurists, the Novels or new edicts, as the words suggest, of Justinian himself (issued subsequently), and the Institutions, a handbook of law for the use of the great law schools of Constantinople and Beyrout. Justinian is also distinguished in the history of art. He spent much time and treasure in architecture. Procopius, in a treatise on Edifices, tells of his achieve- ments in this direction. He built or restored cities, fortresses and churches throughout the empire, two of which, St. Sophia at Constantinople, and St. Vitalis at Ravenna have become models, the one for the East, the other for the West. The most celebrated emperor we next meet with, is Heraclius, 610-641. He added to the religious confusion of the East, by inventing a novel heresy called Monothelism, which arose out of his renewed attempt to reconcile the Monophysites to the Church. His efforts in this direction were quickened by the rise of Mahometanism, and the attacks of the Saracens, who, under the direction of the Caliphs were theatening the destruction of the empire. He waged war against the Persians with varying success. They penetrated as far as Egypt, where memorials of their presence have been lately discovered amid the Fayum manu- scripts now deposited in Vienna [see Contemporary Review, December, 1884, page 907, and May, 1885, page 739], and, with the help of the Avars, even besieged BYZANT IN E HISTORY. 7I Constantinople in 626. The Persians seized Jerusalem in the course of this war, and captured the supposed true cross preserved there. Heraclius recaptured it, however, in 628, and restored it in triumph in the following year. To Heraclius and his policy is due the establishment of the nation now constituting the principality of Servia, by whose means he hoped to establish a barrier against the Avars. The great event marking the reign of Heraclius is the rise of Mahomet. Soon after Mahomet's death the Caliphs, his successors, attacked the empire, captured Antioch, Damascus and Jerusalem, and in 638 invaded Egypt, which was surrendered to them through the treachery of the party variously called Monophysite, Jacobite or Copt. The reign of Heraclius has therefore been justly designated by Mr. Finlay, the historian of the Eastern Empire, “one of the most remarkable epochs, both in the history of the empire and in the annals of mankind,” for during it, movements began whose direct results are still in operation. The descendants of Heraclius continued to occupy the throne for nearly a century, till a new dynasty arose in the person of Leo the Isaurian, 717–741, one of the ablest emperors who ever ruled the East. Like Justinian, he probably was of barbarian blood. Like that emperor also a soldier of fortune, he rose to empire through the army, who elected him 72 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, emperor on the death of Anastasius II. Leo waged vigorous war against the various enemies of the empire, but is specially famous for the Iconoclastic controversy which he originated, and which brought about the final separation of East and West, as well as the restoration of the Western Empire in the person of Charlemagne. The worship of images was very prevalent among the Greek Christians, and Leo found himself at a contro- versial disadvantage on this point, as against the Saracens and the Jews; he, therefore, issued a decree for their destruction. The popes, however, took the matter up, and in the persons of the Gregories II. and III. defied the emperor's authority. His son, Constantine (Cop- ronymus), pursued the same line of policy, as did also his grandson, Leo IV. They were three able emperors, during whose reigns, covering the greater part of the century, the power and glory of the empire were restored, though their religious action tended more and more to throw the popes into the hands of the Carolingian dynasty. Irene, wife of Leo IV., who suc- ceeded him, reversed their policy and established the worship of images at the second Council at Nice, A.D. 787; but the popes had gone too far to be won back by the concession, and from the Iconoclastic controversy we may date the final division between the East and the West. That division was consummated by the coronation of Charlemagne in 800. ARA.B IAN HISTORY. 73. B. ARABIA AND MAHOMETANISM. Authorities.—Gibbon; Muir's Mahomet, and Caliphate; and Badger's Article on Mahomet in the Dictionary of Christian Biography. Arabia was never subject to the Roman empire. Its border was touched by Roman power, but the peninsula itself escaped. The state of the peninsula during the first five hundred years of the Christian era has been of late years a subject of keen enquiry. The importance of the dynasty of Aretas, which reigned over a portion of it, “has been recognised. This dynasty was connected with the Herods, and is mentioned by St. Paul (2 Corinthians, xi., 32). Arabia was split up into a number of states or confederations, of which the most prominent were Yemen in the south and the Koreysh tribe in the north. The Koreysh rose into prominence in the fifth century, when they gained possession of the Kaabah, the Black Stone, or sacred national shrine of Arabia—as famous at that time as it is to-day when a Sacred Blanket is sent to it every year—in right of which the Koreysh presided over the Convention of North Arab Chiefs. The Koreysh claimed to be descended from Ishmael. The kingdom of Yemen is celebrated for a Jewish 74 t MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. dynasty which ruled there during the fifth and sixth centuries and cruelly persecuted the Christians. This persecution is known as the Homerite or Himyarite. Great quantities of manuscripts illustrating the history of this persecution and dynasty have come to light of late years, and have been utilised by the Bollandists in the last volume of their great work the “Acta Sanctorum.” This persecution was terminated by the Christian Abyssinians, who in 529 conquered Yemen, and ruled there for 76 years. - Mahomet was a member of the Koreysh tribe, and his family for several generations had presided over it. He was born at Mecca, August 12th, 570. His flight to Medina, which constitutes the Hegira, took place June 18th, 622. This is the Mahommedan era. Mahomet died in 632, and was buried at Medina. His religion was compounded out of Judaism, Christianity, Manichaeism and the primitive Paganism of Arabia. His immediate successors (Caliphs) rapidly propagated his faith. Under Omar, the second Caliph, it was extended into Syria, Persia, Central Asia and Egypt; the last of which succumbed to his general, Amrou, upon the capture of Alexandria, December 22nd, 640, when the famous library is said to have perished. The progress of the Arabs became now an almost unbroken series of victories. North Africa was wrested from the empire by the battle of Utica, A.D. 698, while ARAB IAN HISTORY. 75. at the beginning of the eighth century and in the very same year, 7II, the Arabs conquered Spain in the West and Northern India in the extreme East. Two great dynasties of Caliphs demand notice. The Ommiade Caliphs ruled at Damascus for 90 years, from 660 to 750, and in Cordova for two centuries and a half more; while the Abbasside Caliphs, descended from Abbas, uncle of the prophet, ruled at Bagdad for five centuries, viz.: from 750 to 1258, when the last Caliph, El-Mostasim, fell by the sword of the grandson of Jenghis-Khan. - Amongst the writers of this period may be enumer- ated, Timothy of Constantinople, Procopius, Agathias, John of Ephesus, and Stephen of Byzantium, in the sixth century; John of Antioch (Malalas), Theophylact (Simocatti) an historian, and different from a well- known theological writer of the same name who lived in the eleventh century, John Moschus, and Maximus the Confessor, in the seventh century; John of Damascus, Theophanes, and George (Syncellus), in the eighth century. The Greek historians of the Byzantine Empire were collected in the Bonn Edition, published under Niebuhr as editor, more than fifty years ago. We have mentioned above the names of only a few of them, the most celebrated of whom is John Malalas, noted among other points for having made the fame of Bentley as a critic. An interesting notice of him will be found in Jebb's “Life of Bentley.” 76 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (A.D. 814) To THE FIRST CRUSADE (A.D. Io96). A.—CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE. AUTHORITIES.*–Gibbon; Milman; and Pertz Monumenta Germaniae Historica. We began the First Period of Mediaeval History with Italy because Rome was still the centre and capital of the West. The empire of Charlemagne, especially in its German division, occupied that position during the Second Period. The Frankish empire must have struck the imagination of men with great force. This is evident from one fact. To this day, just as it was eight hundred years ago, the term Frank is the name for all Europeans among Eastern nations. Under this name, * NotE.—Wherever lists of Authorities are not prefixed, reference should be made to the corresponding section of the First Period, and to the general note on “Authorities” at the commencement of this sketch of Mediaeval History. **, CAROLINGIAN HISTORY. 77 Teutons and Latins alike are designated by authors so ancient as the Emperor Constantine, who wrote in the tenth century on the administration of the Eastern Empire, and by Eutychius, the Patriarch of Alexandria, who lived before the Crusades. The empire of Charlemagne did not long remain united. It was soon divided between the Eastern Franks, who subsequently became the German nation, and the Western Franks constituting the French nation. Charlemagne died in 814. His elder sons, Charles and Pippin, had died before their father. He was, therefore, succeeded by his youngest son, Ludwig the Pious (Louis le Débonnaire). This prince ruled over the united empire for three years, when he made a division of it in 817, assigning Bavaria to his son Ludwig (Louis), the remainder of Germany and part of France to his sons Lothaire and Charles the Bald, while to Pippin he gave Aquitaine. Ludwig the Pious died in 840, after experiencing the horrors of civil war. His sons, Ludwig of Bavaria and Charles the Bald, by the treaty of Verdun (A.D. 843), divided modern France and Germany between them, assigning to Lothaire the Italian kingdom of Charlemagne. The treaty of Verdun may therefore be taken as the date whence originated the modern empires of Germany and France, which were united under Charlemagne. The sovereigns of Germany from that date to the time of the first Crusade were :— 78 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Ludwig (Louis the German).. ... 840— 876 Charles the Fat (ruler of United } - Empire). . . . . . . . ; 876–887 Arnulf .. © tº tº tº e - ... 887— 899 Ludwig the Child Q & e tº ... 899– 9 II Conrad I. e e Q - • C. ... 91 I– 918 Henry I. (the Fowler).. tº º ... 9.18— 936 Otho I. (the Great) .. gº & . . 936— 973 Otho II. . . ... .. . . . . . 973– 983 Otho III. • * tº e * e ... 983—IOO2 Henry II. (the Saint) .. to 0 ... IOO2—IO24 Conrad II. (the Salian) . . . . . IO24–IO39 Henry III. (the Black) e tº ... IO39–IO56 Henry IV. we & & sº A & ... IoS6—IIoô The dynasty of Charlemagne was a miserable failure. The policy of Charlemagne developed the feudal system and established a number of subordinate princes, who usurped all real power under his weak descendants. His dynasty, in the direct male line, lasted in Germany till 91 I, when the great feudatories and dukes elected to the throne one of themselves, Conrad I., Duke of Franconia, who was descended in the female line from Charlemagne. Conrad was succeeded by his rival and opponent, Henry, Duke of Saxony, 918–936, who proved himself the first really competent sovereign since Charlemagne. He delivered Germany from the -— attacks of the Magyars by initiating a military policy ~ similar to that which in this century has made CAROLING IAN HISTORY. 79 Prussia the head of Germany. The Magyars invaded Germany, according to their usual custom, soon after his accession. Henry made a lengthened truce with them and consented to pay an annual tribute, whereupon he was left in peace. He then devoted all his energies to the organisation of the whole nation as a trained army, and to the erection of fortresses. Upon the termination of the truce he declined to pay tribute, and when the Magyars invaded Germany he defeated them with great slaughter. Henry restrained the invasions of the North- men by attacking Denmark and making Gorm, its king, his vassal. His internal policy was wise. He perceived the danger of the feudal system, and strove to ~ : balance it by developing cities and towns. Henry was succeeded by Otto or Otho I., the greatest sovereign of the tenth century. He crushed the great vassals of the empire; enlarged its borders; made the neighbouring nations—the Danes, Poles and Bohemians tributary; defeated the Magyars, who had again invaded Germany, at a great battle in 955; and, passing the Alps, subdued the kingdom of Italy, and fixed the imperial crown in the name and nation of Germany. “From that memorable era,” says Gibbon, “two maxims of public jurisprudence were introduced by force and ratified by time –(1) That the prince who was elected in the German Diet, acquired from that instant the subject kingdom of Italy and Rome; (2) But that he might not legally assume the titles of emperor 8o MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. and Augustus till he had received the crown from the hands of the Roman Pontiff-”(Chap. xlix.) From the time of Otho the emperors exercised a dominating influence over the popes. Otho, in 963, obliged the Romans to promise never to elect another pope without the consent of the emperor, thus reducing the Papacy to the position it occupied prior to the Iconoclastic controversy, when the Exarchs of Ravenna, as the imperial deputies, exercised a similar power. Otho I. advanced the German nation to a high degree of glory, but he also sowed the seed of its long disunion and weakness. The crown of the Holy Roman Empire, which he permanently connected with the kingdom of Germany, was a fatal gift. It compelled the sovereigns of Germany to lead a dual existence, and prevented them bestowing an undivided attention on Germany. It led to prolonged absences from home, and thus encouraged the growth of those great feudatories, secular and ecclesi- astical, who long proved the great weakness of Germany. — On the other hand their rivals, the kings of France, were enabled to concentrate their attention on home affairs. Their personal presence and influence by degrees reduced the power of their great vassals, and thus France, which at the era of division from Germany was simply a federation like Germany itself, became one homogeneous whole, while her rival remained in her original state of disunion and weakness. The line of Saxon emperors continued about the same CAROLINGIAN HISTORY. 8I period as the dynasty of Charlemagne, and expired in the person of Henry II. (the Saint), who reigned from Ioo2 → to Io24. On his death an election was held, when Conrad II. was chosen Emperor of Germany. With him begins the line of Franconian or Salian Emperors, which lasted just another century, till the death of Henry V., in 1125, when the Hohenstaufens succeeded. These Salian emperors form a distinct dynasty indeed, but they were connected in the female line with the Saxon dynasty which preceded them. The greatest emperor of this family was Henry III., Io:39–IO56. The popes during these two dynasties, the Saxon and the Franconian, were the mere dependants of the emperors till Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) vindicated their position and triumphed over Henry IV. \ The imperial power was at its highest point under Henry III. In IOA6–47, hearing of the scandalous lives led by the popes, he made an expedition to Rome and convoked a synod at the City of Sutri for the trial of three rival popes, Sylvester III., Benedict IX. and Gregory VI., all of whom he deposed, and then, repairing to Rome itself, appointed one of his own retinue, a German, as pope under the title of Clement II., by whom he was crowned emperor, Christmas, IOA6. After Clement, Henry appointed three German popes in succession. The empire sunk, however to the lowest depth F 82 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. under his son, Henry IV., whose life, IoS6—IIo6, at least from the time he reached manhood, was one continuous struggle against the Papacy. His chief opponent was Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), Io'73– Io85. Hildebrand vindicated the position of the Papacy, enforced the celibacy of the clergy through- out Europe, and opposed the power of investiture into ecclesiastical dignities claimed by the temporal sovereigns. Henry IV. was willing enough to aid the pope in crushing the married clergy, though the Papal decrees on this point met with the fiercest resist- ance in Germany, as at the Synod of Erfurt, in Io'74, when the Papal agent, Siegfried of Mentz, scarcely escaped with his life. But Henry IV. was obstinate on the question of investiture. The ceremony of investiture consisted in the deliverance of a ring and a staff to bishops, conveying the temporal endowments of their benefices. In a synod held at Rome, February 24th, Io'75, Hildebrand abrogated by one decree the whole right of investiture by the temporal sovereign, excom- municating alike the giver and the receiver. Hence- forth there was deadly war. The emperor and the pope deposed one another in turn, till at last, on January 25th, 1077, Henry IV. appeared at Canossa, a penitent and a suppliant to the pope, who kept him for three days knocking at his gate, bareheaded and shivering, before he would condescend to admit him. After some years Henry had his revenge. He besieged Hildebrand in Rome, substituted a rival pope in his place, and compelled FRENCH HISTORY. 83 him to die in exile at Salerno, May 25th, Io&5. Henry himself died August, IIoô, in a civil war against his son, Henry V., having continued his struggle against the Papacy to the last, and dying under excommuni- cation. B.—FRANCE. AUTHORITIES.–Michelet; Sismondi; Gibbon; and Milman. Charlemagne left his united empire to Louis the Pious (814–840). He was gentle, literary and pious, but very ill-fitted to rule an empire such as his father left him. On his death, a division of the empire ensued, when France first appears as a distinct power, though the Carolingian dynasty was always in reality a German family. The French sovereigns during our period Were :- Charles the Bald tº º tº º ... 840—877 Louis II. (the Stammerer) .. tº e 877—879 Louis III. tº e tº º tº tº Q & Carloman & © tº º tº tº } 879–884 Charles the Fat (ruled the º 884–88 Empire of France and Germany) 7 Eudes or Odo .. * * tº e * - 887–898 Charles the Simple . . * g. tº wº 893–929 Rodolf .. & Cº tº º tº º tº º 923–936 Louis d’Outremer tº tº © tº sº tº 936–954 84 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Lothair .. tº dº * * * tº º e ‘º 954—986 Louis the Sluggard .. tº ſº tº º 986–987 Hugh Capet .. º º tº gº tº º 987—996 Robert .. & º tº º * , ... 996–Io31 Henry I. tº ºr tº º tº tº ... Io9'I—IO6o Philip I... tº ſº, tº e ge ºf ... Iodo—IIo8 The Carolingian dynasty was as great a failure in France as in Germany, though it lasted much longer in the former than in the latter country. We have, indeed, an original witness of the events of the time, in Nithard’s “History of the Discussions between the Sons of Louis the Pious,” where a high court official depicts to us the miserable state to which Charlemagne's great empire was reduced within a few years of his death.* The first sovereign of France, properly so called, was Charles the Bald. The treaty of Verdun, in 843, marks the origin of modern France. The reign of Charles was a long one, marked by constant * A document was discovered last year which illustrates the anarchy prevalent in France on the death of Louis the Pious. Dodona, wife of the Duke of Septimania, wrote in 842, a manual of Christian doctrine for her son. Louis had been long dead at that date. Yet even then more than a year after, she does not know who is to be king, and so she dates it “Christ reigning and we expect- ing the king whom God will send us.”—Comptes-Rendus, Academie des Inscriptions, 1885, p. 238. FRENCH HISTORY. 85 invasions of the Normans, who sacked all the leading towns of Western France, as Bordeaux, Tours, Rouen, Orleans, Toulouse, Nantes and even Paris, which however had not yet arrived at its modern dignity. His reign was unfortunate in a political point, but is distinguished in literary history. Charlemagne estab- lished the Palace School over which Alcuin of York presided. Charles the Bald emulated his grandfather's reputation in this respect. He imported Johannes Scotus Erigena, the best scholar of his time, and the most original thinker of the Middle Ages. John was called the Scot because born in Ireland, which then was called Scotia and its inhabitants Scots, names which were transferred to the present Scotland about the Eleventh Century. He had been educated at the Monastery of Bangor, in the County Down, whence St. Columbanus came two centuries earlier. John was the bosom friend of Charles the Bald,” who supported him against his great antagonist, Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims. He presided over the Palace School, trans- * A well-known story illustrates the friendship between the sovereign and the scholar. The first question in all logical enquiries in that age was quid distat, what is the distinction or distance. The point of our story depends on this. John was once supping with the king and took too much wine. The king noticed this and asked him, “Quid distat inter Scottum et Sottum 2'' The Irishman was not to be caught, however, so he at once replied, “Mensa, the table, please your Majesty." 86 p MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. lated the works of the pseudo-Dionysius, the Areopagite, out of Greek into Latin, and taught in his works, specially in that “Concerning the Division of Nature,” those pantheistic doctrines which have, through Spinosa, exercised a vast influence on modern Europe. . The remainder of the ninth century was marked by the ever-increasing disorganisation of France. Two influences conspired to this end. Firstly, the ravages, repeated year after year, of the Northmen who sailed up the rivers of the western coast, and plundered the towns so far up as Paris. Secondly, the rise and quarrels of the great feudal nobles. Charles the Bald introduced the principle of hereditary succession in the great fiefs. Previously they had been held at the will and pleasure of the sovereign, Now they became hereditary and were handed down from father to son, growing ever in strength and always at the expense of the weak Carolingian princes. This action of King Charles prepared the way for the destruction of his own dynasty, and for the rise of a more capable race of sovereigns. The family of the Capets displaced the Carolingians by their merits and courage, as the ancestors of the Carolingians—the Mayors of the Palace—had displaced the Merovingians. In 841, the Northmen seized Rouen, opening the way for them up to Paris. In 861, Charles the Bald made a brave soldier, FRENCH HISTORY. 87 Robert the Strong, Count of Paris, and set him to repel the Normans. His great-grandson, Hugh Capet, was the real founder of the French monarchy. Round the Capets, the descendants of Robert the Strong, the history of France thence centres. They rose every day higher in power and influence. Count Robert's eldest son, Odo or Eudes, was chosen sovereign, and reigned as such 888–912. The nobles felt that they needed a leader capable of dealing with the Northmen, and despaired of finding him among the Carolings. The dynasty of Charles lingered, however, till King Louis, A.D. 987, when it became extinct. The great event of the early part of the tenth century was the settlement of the Northmen in Normandy. The Northmen had permanently settled in England in the ninth century. They ceased their incursions and permanently settled in France somewhat later. In 912, they were granted the district of Normandy, with Rouen as their capital, by Charles the Simple, Rollo or Robert being the first duke. The dukes who succeeded were William the Longsword, A.D. 927; Richard the Fearless, who assisted Hugh Capet to ascend the throne; Richard II., or the Good; Richard III. ; Robert the Devil; and William the Bastard, or the Conqueror, who ruled Normandy from IO35 and conquered England in IO66. The accession of Hugh Capet, Duke of France and 88 MEL) IAE VAL HISTORY. *- Count of Paris, in 987, was the great event of the tenth century. He was crowned at Rheims, but transferred the capital from Laon, where the Carolingians had reigned, to Paris, the capital of his own duchy of France. Hugh Capet established the feudal monarchy, for he was the choice of the great feudal barons, the Dukes of Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, Aquitaine, and the Counts of Flanders, Champagne and Vermandois' The reign of Hugh and of his son, Robert the Pious, 996–IO31, was a time of expectation and paralysis. Men thought the millenium year Iooo would usher in the close of the world. Trade, commerce, agriculture, the arts, all were paralysed. This expectation was prolonged for a third of the next century, till a thousand years from our Lord's crucifixion had elapsed, when there came an outburst of thankfulness which found expression in the numerous and splendid churches which date from that period, a point on which Labarte, in his “Handbook of the Arts of the Middle Ages,” enlarges. The reign of the third Capet, Henry I., IoSI-IO60, was a miserable time for . France. The country was torn with civil war till the Church stepped in and proclaimed, in Io96, the Peace of God, followed in IoA6 by the Truce of God, whereby war was forbidden from Thursday evening to Monday morning, on all feast days and during Advent and Lent. The reign of Philip I., Iobo-IIoo, was marked by the beginning of ITALIAN HISTORY, 89 the Crusades. The first Crusade was proclaimed at the Council of Clermont, in Auvergne, A.D. Io95, by Pope Urban II. It set out in Io96, led by Walter the Penni- less and Peter the Hermit. Its history, however, more properly belongs to the next period. C.—ITALY. AUTHORITIES.–Gibbon and Milman. For the history of the Papacy, the student may consult the learned work of A. Bower, History of the Popes. The great collection of Muratori, Italian Historians, 5oo—15oo, is accessible only to scholars. The history of Italy is closely intertwined throughout this period with that of Germany and France. Italy formed the third great division of Charlemagne's empire, which was divided into three parts by the treaty of Verdun in 843. It was ruled during this period, 800-IIoo, by three dynasties, called— Ist. The Frankish emperors or the descendants of Charlemagne through Lothaire I., the grandson who received Italy as his portion in 843. This dynasty ended with Charles the Fat, in 888. 2nd. Italian kings, who were ten in number, lasting till Berengar ceded his rights as sovereign to Otho the Great, king of the Germans, in 962. 90 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 3rd. The German emperors beginning with Otho, and ending with the unfortunate Henry IV. Under the Frankish and Italian sovereigns, the state of Italy was lamentable. The Northmen ravaged the coasts, the Saracens invaded the south; the Greeks restored their power in Lombardy in 890; and the , Magyars attacked the North. The first symptoms of better things appear under Otho the Great. He laid the foundations of those municipalities and that, municipal life which was the glory of the later Middle Age. He encouraged the independence of the great towns; and freed them from the jurisdiction of the Counts; who under the older system had ruled them ; enabling them to act for themselves under the leader- ship of their bishops and elected magistrates. This development of the great Northern towns rapidly advanced in the eleventh century under the guidance of Milan and Heribert its archbishop. Apart from the history of Charlemagne's empire in Italy, corresponding broadly to the old Lombardic kingdom, there are three other divisions of the peninsula which deserve notice: (1). The 'Papacy; (2). The Kingdom of Naples or of the Two Sicilies (3). Venice. We shall briefly take them in this order. ITALIAN HISTORY. 9I 1. The Papacy. During this period—8oo–IIoo—there were sixty- four popes, the vast majority of whom reigned but a very short time. In fact the succession is at times very hard to follow. The Papacy sunk during this period to the lowest depths, and yet at the close it had regained more than its ancient power and glory through the exertions and talents of Hildebrand (Gregory VII.). Hildebrand, as already mentioned, set himself to oppose first, the marriage of the clergy, secondly, the intrusions of the lay power into spiritual elections. This latter object was closely con- nected with the dignity and character of the Papacy itself. Hildebrand clearly recognised that it had been reduced to its low estate by lay intrusions and the lay power which treated spiritual offices as mere matter of merchandise. The Counts of Tusculum had, during the first half of the eleventh century, regarded the pope- dom as the lawful appanage of their family; while the scandals of the Papacy during the tenth century are so great that even Cardinal Baronius paints them in the darkest colours, and then concludes that the institution which could survive such crimes and abuses must be divine. Profligate females, like Theodora and her daughter Marozia, wicked men like the Dukes of Tuscany 92 - & T MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, and Pope John XII. bought, sold, ruled and disgraced the Papal throne during the earlier portion of the tenth century. The career of John XII., 955–963, was typical of the times. He was son of Alberic, who long ruled Rome with despotic sway. He was elected pope in 955 when only twenty-two years of age. He was originally called Octavian, and was the first pontiff who took a Second or ecclesiastical name. As pope he led a life of grossest wickedness; he utterly neglected his sacerdotal office and character, and aspired after that of a warrior. His vices and scandals were so great as to excite the indignation and call, for the interference of Otho the Great, Emperor of Germany, who summoned a council at Rome, which after hearing the Pope accused of violation of every branch of the Decalogue, deposed him, December 4th, 963. After a century and a half of similar popes, Hildebrand, in the course of forty years, first as archdeacon and then as pope, more than restored the reputation and power of the Roman see, triumphing as we have already told (under Germany) over the Empire in the person of Henry IV. The close of the eleventh century was marked by the rise of the Crusades, a movement which had been originally planned by Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), but which only took shape under Urban II., 1088–1099. ITALIAN HISTORY. 93 2. Southern Italy and Sicily. This district, answering to the modern kingdom of Naples, continued its connection with the Eastern Empire long after the remainder of Italy had severed it. Sicily was conquered by the Saracens, A.D. 827-878. Detached portions of Southern Italy still owned the sway of the Greek emperors throughout the tenth cen- tury, and repeated efforts were made by them to deliver Sicily, which were unsuccessful till the Normans appeared on the scene in IoI6. They came at first in small numbers and gradually established themselves. They conquered Apulia in 1040-1043; received Naples as a Papal fief in IoS3; conquered Sicily under Count Roger, Ioão-IIoo (whom Pope Urban II. constituted by a special bull his legate in Sicily); and finally under his son, another Roger, IIoI-II54, the kingdom of the two Sicilies was established, which under various dynasties lasted till our own times. 3. Venice. AUTHORITY.-Daru's Histoire de Vertise. The rise of the republic of Venice goes back at least to the middle of the fifth century, when the 94 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. invasion of the Huns, under Attila, drove numbers of the inhabitants of Northern Italy to take refuge among the hundred islands which stud the north-eastern coast of Italy. There they continued to form a peaceful and prosperous community, while all the rest of Italy was torn with war. In the sixth century, A.D. 523, we find their importance as a maritime power recognised in an epistle of Cassiodorus, which compares them to water fowl, calls the sea their fatherland, and asks their help in transporting provisions to Ravenna. Their original government was by twelve tribunes—Cassiodorus calls , them maritime tribunes—elected apparently by the various islands. In 697, Doges or Dukes were appointed, and continued to rule the republic during Mediaeval times. Their right to coin money was recognised by Rodolph, King of Italy, in 926, as being an ancient privilege. Otho III. visited Venice in 998, but the Venetians, as we gather from the learned Byzantine emperor of the tenth century, Constantine Porpyrogenitus, long continued to regard themselves as subjects of the Eastern Empire when its sway was acknowledged nowhere else in Italy. When Pippin, in the eighth century, demanded their submission, they replied: “We wish to be the servants of the King of the Romans, i.e., the Byzantine Emperors.” The glory of the republic was greatest during our next period. ENGLISH HISTORY. 95 D.—ENGLAND. AUTHORITIES.—The works of Stubbs, Freeman, Green, Kemble and Palgrave. The history of England during this period was very chequered. Still we can clearly see the outlines of our modern constitution slowly taking shape, and the nation consolidating itself into a united whole, until the work is completed by the Norman Conquest. The succession of the leading monarchs till the Conquest was : — Ecgberht * @ tº gº tº º 8oo—836 Aethelwulf 836—858 Aethebald 858–860 Aethelberht 860–866 Aethelred I. 866–871 Aelfred .. 87I—gor Eadward 90I—925 Aethelstan 925—94O Eadmund 940–947 Eadred .. 947—955 Eadwig .. 955–957 Eadgar .. tº ſº gº & 958–975 Eadward (The Martyr) 975—978 Aethelred II. . . tº º tº e 979—IoI6 Eadmund Ironside .. IoI6 Cnut IOI7—Io35 Harold .. IO35—IO4o Harthacnut .. IO40–1042 Eadward the Confessor IO42—IO65 96 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. This list is composed of the descendants of Ecgberht and Aelfred, with three exceptions: Cnut, Harold and Harthacnut, who were Danish kings. England was united into one by Ecgberht's policy, but a new dis- turbing element now appears in our narrative. The Danes were first seen off the coasts of England about the last decade of the eighth century, or to be precise, in the year 786 or 787. Their ravages continued all through the ninth century. During the reigns of Ecgberht and his son Aethelwulf, the Danes came rather as pirates seeking plunder. When they gained their object they returned to Scandinavia. In the latter half of the ninth century they came as settlers seeking political supremacy. The four sons of Aethelwulf fought them in succession. The three elder, Aethelbald, Aethelberht and Aethelred, reigned only for thirteen years between them, leaving a distracted kingdom to their celebrated brother Aelfred, or Alfred the Great. • The popular fancy pictures this famous king as the conqueror of the Danes. He certainly inflicted some severe defeats upon them, but he did not conquer them. He made an arrangement however, whereby England was divided between himself and them. Aelfred took that part of England south of Watling Street—the Roman road from London to Chester, corresponding broadly to the line of the North Western Rail- way. The Danes ruled England north of this line. ENGLISH HISTORY, 97 The truce of Wedmore, in 878, marks the date of Aelfred's peace with the Danes. Henceforth Aelfred's chief work consisted in the reorganisation of his kingdom, the education of his people and the creation of a fleet. He codified the laws of Ina, the great West Saxon, and of Offa, the great Mercian king, prefixing the Decalogue and a portion of the law of Moses to the code, which thus became part of the law of England. He prohibited labour on Sundays and holidays, sacri- lege, perjury and the seduction of nuns. He was of a meditative frame of mind, always planning something for the good of his country, a quality illustrated by the tale which tells how, when hiding amid the woods of Athelney, he was scolded by a peasant's wife for forgetting to turn the cakes she had left him to bake. He was devoted to literature, and also to learned men whom he encouraged. Our islands had furnished France with scholars in days gone by in the persons of Alcuin and Erigena. France now returned the compliment and sent to Aelfred's court scholars like Grimbald, who came from St. Omer to preside over the abbey at Winchester, and John the Saxon, who came from Corbey to rule the monastery and school of Athelney. Aelfred devoted himself to the advancement of education. When he came to the throne, Wessex, his hereditary kingdom, + G 98 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY." was the most ignorant part of England. “When I began to reign,” said he, “I cannot remember one south of the Thames who could explain his service book in English.” Aelfred ordered that every freeborn youth should, as far as possible, “abide at his book till he can well understand English writing.” He established, after the example of the Carolingian sovereigns, a palace school for the young nobles of his court, which he himself superintended. He was the first really literary king. He translated, into the language of the people, books which had previously been known only to the clergy. He revised, translated and enlarged the popular manuals of his age—the Consolations of Boethius; the Pastorals of Gregory the Great ; the seven books of the History of Orosius; and Bede's History. He may, therefore, be regarded as the founder of English prose. There was one great poem previous to Aelfred, that of Caedmon. He is, however, the first great prose writer in the language which subsequently became English. The reigns of the successors and descendants of Aelfred the Great were marked by the same perpetual and varying conflicts with the Danes till we come to the reign of Eadmund, 940–947, under whom Dunstan rose into power as Prime Minister. He passed through successive stages from a simple monk and the Abbacy of Glastonbury to being Archbishop of Canterbury and Primate of England. He was the first great statesman England ever possessed. Under his guidance successive ENGLISH HISTORY. 99 kings followed out Aelfred's policy, consolidated the kingdom, developed education, reconciled the Danes, established a rigorous justice, and introduced from Clugny a stricter monasticism than had hitherto prevailed. The Danes, however, triumphed at last over the house of Aelfred in IoI7. Aethelred II. reigned from 979–IOI6. He was a weak king, and was surnamed the Unready. He resorted, like many weak men, to treachery, and massacred, November 13th, IOO2, the Danes scattered among the West Saxons. Then began a struggle which ended in the flight of Aethelred to Normandy. The Danish kings now seized and ruled Eng- land in the persons of Cnut, IOI6–Io35, and his two Sons, Harold, IO35–IO40, and Harthacnut, IO40–IO42. Under them appears the first great lay statesman of England, Godwine, Earl of Wessex. His influence restored Eadward the Confessor, son of Aethelred the Unready. He was a weak sovereign, of elegant and pious tastes. He had been educated at the Norman court, and all his sympathies were Norman. Godwine married his daughter to the king, and then he, and subsequently his son Harold, managed Eadward, and with such success that Harold was elected king upon his death in Iof 5. William, the Duke of Normandy, at once claimed the throne on three grounds:–Ist. Eadward's bequest ; 2nd. Harold’s oath to himself; 3rd. The right of º *J es G © © e O o © º © "e • * : & * * * © . º • * 2 & * * * * * © º IOO MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. his wife, Matilda, who was descended in the female line from Aelfred the Great. William defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings, October 14th, Iobó. Harold perished on the field, and was succeeded for a brief space by Eadgar Aetheling, son of Eadward the Con- fessor, who soon, however, submitted to William. The history of the Conquest of England and its results properly belong to the next section of this work. i E.—IRELAND. AUTHORITIES.—O'Donovan's Four Masters; Halliday's Scandinavian Kingdom of Dublin; Todd's Wars of the Gaedhil with the Gaill; Gilbert's Fac-similes of Irish MSS. The history of Ireland and Scotland during this period was very similar to that of England, though generally much less known. Both islands were ravaged by the Danes, who appeared on their coasts at the same period—about 787—as on that of England. Both nations worked slowly up out of national disunion to national union, urged to such a step by the terror of Danish invasion. The year 8oo marks a period when Ireland seems to have attained a high position in the artistic and learned world. The book of Kells, now in the library of Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, belongs to that age. It has been described by judges like Mr. Westwood and other palaeographers as v e° e * s • º e w 0 º & ; * º : º : : IRISH HISTORY. IOI one of the most wonderful monuments of mediaeval skill. The book of Armagh, in the same library, is another witness of the learning of that time. Philosophy and the Greek language were then attentively studied in Irish schools, as the evidence of this same book of Armagh and the scholarship of John Scotus Erigena abun- dantly prove. Ireland was at the same time politically powerless, divided into endless petty sovereignties, and torn with perpetual wars. The Danes came, as in England, first as mere plunderers, but soon estab- lishing themselves as settlers in the leading seaports, Dublin, Waterford, Cork and Limerick, where to this day traces of their settlements and institutions are found. They established the Scandinavian kingdom of Dublin; adopted the Christian faith; and founded cathedrals and bishoprics,which they connected with the See of Canterbury, thus paving the way for English influence in Ireland. The latter half of the tenth century and the beginning of the eleventh were marked by the career of a monarch, Brian Boru, very similar in many respects to Aelfred the Great. He united Ireland under one sovereign and conquered the Danes in two great conflicts, the battles of Glenmama in the year IOOO, and of Clontarf on April 23rd, IoI4. The conflicts of Danes and Celts went on through the eleventh and twelfth centuries, till at last the defeated party invited the intervention of the Normans under Henry II., and Strongbow in 1172. Ioz MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. F.—Scotland. AUTHORITY.-Skene's Celtic Scotland. The course of historical evolution was much the same in Scotland. The Picts and Scots were united in 843 into one nation under Kenneth Macalpin, who was directly descended from the ancient kings of Ireland (Reeves's “Antiquities of Down and Connor.”) The invasion of the Danes probably hastened this step. Their ravages continued, as in the sister islands, all through the ninth and tenth centuries. Their invasions, how- ever, tended only to consolidate the Scottish nation and develope national life. Thus Kenneth III., in 97O, united to it the ancient Celtic kingdom of Strathclyde, occupying the south-west corner of Scotland. - Malcolm II., in IoI.4, made a treaty with the Danes which freed Scotland from their ravages. In IoI8, he conquered Lothian, hitherto part of England or at least of Northumbria. Malcolm II. was succeeded, in 1033, by his grandson Duncan, immortalised by Shakespere. Malcolm III. (Clanmore) reigned from Ioš7. He was the greatest of the early Scotch kings. He married Margaret, sister of Eadgar Aetheling. He quarrelled with William the Conqueror in Io?2, and with William SPANISH HISTORY. IO3 Rufus in Io91, both of whom invaded Scotland. His daughter, Matilda, married Henry I. of England, thus uniting the rival claims of Saxons and Normans, and forming the link by which the present royal house of England is connected with the three great lines of the Celtic or Irish, the Saxon and the Norman mon- archies. Queen Margaret is known as St. Margaret of Scotland. She reformed the discipline of the Scotch Church, abolishing its Celtic customs and bringing it into conformity with the Churches of England and of Rome. G.—SPANISH PENINSULA. AUTHORITY.-Condé's Arabs in Spain, in Bohn's series. The history of Spain during this period is very involved, owing to the numerous kingdoms established by the Mahometans and the Christians. Thus there Were— (I). The Mahometan or Caliphate kingdom of Cordova, originally founded by the Emirs, Tarik and Musa, in 7II. It became a kingdom in 753, under Abderahman I., a scion of the Ommiade House of IO4 MEDIAEvAL HISTORY. Damascus, and a survivor of the massacre in which it fell. He escaped to Spain and founded a throne, which lasted under various dynasties till about 1225. (2). The Christian kingdom of Asturias founded by Pelago in 718. His dynasty lasted till Io27, when the male line died out in Bermudo III.; Asturias was then divided into two parts called Leon and Castile, which for a time formed separate kingdoms, but were finally united in 1230; Castile being so called from the castles erected to repel the Moors. (3). Kingdom of Navarre, founded by Garcia I., 88 s: united to Castile in 1512. - (4). Kingdom of Aragon, founded by Ramiro I., 1035 ; united to Castile in 1516. (5) County of Barcelona (Catalonia), founded by Count Bera ; united to Aragon in II31. (6). Portugal, originally a county and a fief of Castile, ruled by the Burgundian Count Henry, Io95; erected into a kingdom, I 140. After the Mahometan) conquest, the Christians of Spain soon reorganised their power, and their history all through this period is one of almost continuous progress. Centuries IX. —XIII. Witnessed, however, a very RUSSIAN HISTORY. IO5 brilliant Moorish civilisation. The Mahometans used a generous toleration towards both Jews and Christians. They encouraged learned men from every quarter; studied Aristotle's works with great devotion; produced writers like Averroes, of Cordova, and Avicebron, who have powerfully influenced European thought, and largely helped to lay the foundation of modern scientific progress. H.—RUSSIA. AUTHORITIES.–Gibbon; and Rambaud's History of Russia, translated by Lang, London, 1879. The ancient history of Russia is very obscure. To classical antiquity Russia was known as Scythia, con- cerning which Herodotus has much curious information. During the first eight centuries of our era, Russia was covered with vast hordes of people of Slavonian, Finnish, Turkish, and Lithuanian origin, some of whom still prac- tise in the recesses of Russia the same rites and follow the same dualistic religion as they did one thousand years ago (Rambaud, t. I., p. 28). The foundation of modern Russia was laid by the Varangians, a Scandinavian people, who invaded Russia IO6 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. under Rurik, and established a fixed central government at Novgorod, in 862, the 1,000th anniversary of which event was commemorated at that city in 1862. With the Varangians, and from that date, the Russian name became famous in Eastern Europe. The formation of Russia as a great power is, therefore, due to the same Northman or Scandinavian influence which so largely shaped the fortunes of England, France and Italy. The princes who ruled Russia during the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries were: Rurik ; Oleg; Igor, who was killed in 945; Olga, wife of Igor, who introduced Christianity, but without success; her son Sviatoslaf, 964-972; Vladimir, 972–IoI5; and Jaroslaf the Great, IoI6–Ioš4, after whose reign Russia was split up into a number of principalities and torn with intestine conflicts. Three of these, Vladimir, Kief and Novgorod, by degrees gained power over the rest. These three correspond to the divisions of Great, Little and White Russia, whence the Czar's title of Emperor of all the Russias. The principal events in this period were the following: —Oleg, the second sovereign, removed the seat of govern- ment to Kief, and made the first formal Russian expedition against Constantinople, A.D. 907; a piratical expedition having been made some thirty years previously. Igor, the third prince, led in 943, another expedition, but was defeated by the use of the Greek fire. Olga, his widow, RUSSIAN HISTORY. - Io'7 visited Constantinople in a friendly way, and was there baptized under the name of Helen, the emperor, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, being her godfather. Her conversion had, however, no influence on the nation, who remained Pagans. Her son, Sviatoslaf, refused to accept Christianity. “My men will mock me,” he replied to the prayers of his mother ; “and often,” the Chronicle adds, “he became furious with her.” This prince waged a fierce war against the Greek Empire for the possession of Bulgaria, but was defeated with great slaughter, in 972, first at Adrianople and then at Silistria, by John Zimisces, the ablest and most vigorous of the later Greek emperors. The reign of Vladimir, the next prince, 972–IOI5, was marked by the conversion of the Russians as a nation. Vladimir, as soon as he determined to embrace the faith of the Greek church, destroyed the images of the Pagan gods. He had been specially devoted to a god, Perun, with a head of silver and beard of gold. The image was flogged and cast into the Dnieper, at a spot still shown at Kief, called the Devil's Leap, the people being forced to enter the river while the Greek priests read the baptismal service. His son, Jaroslaf the Great, IoI6–IOS4, completed the work by translating the Bible into Russian. He was a prince in many respects resembling Charlemagne. He loved letters, codified the laws, and erected stately buildings. IO8 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. I.—SCANDINAVIA. COMPRISING DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. The history of Denmark, Sweden and Norway during this period is very dark and confused, though antiquarians like Worsaae and Stephens have devoted much attention to it, and the publication of the Icelandic records, as by Dasent in his “Burnt Njal,” has thrown light upon it. - I. Denmark. This country came into conflict with Charlemagne, the pagan Saxon fugitives having fled thither to escape his persecution. In 822, Christianity was preached in Denmark by Ebbo, Archbishop of Rheims, and in 826 by Anscharius, the Apostle of the North and Bishop of Bremen, but without success; though Anscharius is commemorated in ecclesiastical records as having converted the Danes and Swedes. Gorm the Old, about 900, the first King of all SCANDINAVIAN HISTORY. IO9 Denmark, persecuted any Christians he could find. Christianity was finally introduced from Germany by the Emperor Otho II., about 975, Harold the Blue- Tooth, being king. The early part of the eleventh century marks the culminating point of Danish power in this period; England and a large part of Ireland being then subject to them, while in Io.28 Cnut of England was proclaimed King of Norway. 2. Sweden. The early history of this country is also involved in darkness. Sweden was the first Scandinavian kingdom to attain power. Its authentic history begins about 830, when St. Anscharius of Bremen preached there with much success. Yet the nation long adhered to Paganism, Olaf the Lap-king being the first Christian monarch, 993—Io24. 3. Norway. The history of Norway was very similar. Like Denmark and Sweden, and indeed the British Islands, © 0 & (P - tº I IO ~ MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, it was torn with internal convulsions and rival chiefs, till Harold Harfager, 863–932, won the battle of Hafurstfiord, in 872, and introduced the feudal system which led to a vast migration of Norwegians to the British Islands, to France under Duke Rollo, to Iceland, where traces and records of their settle- ments have been found, and to Greenland, whence they are believed to have discovered America, which they called Vineland, between 986–IoII. Norway was converted to Christianity under St. Olaf, who reigned from IOI 5–IO3O. Sir George Dasent’s work, “Burnt Njal,” will be found full of most interesting information on early Scandinavian history, as well as upon their discoveries in Iceland, Greenland and America, drawn from the Scandinavian sagas which have been only of late years brought to light. Iceland, it may be noted, was discovered by the Norwegians about 860. The Irish monks of the Columban order discovered it a century earlier, as we learn from Dicuil, a Celtic writer of the year 820, whose geography was published by Letronne, the eminent French scholar, in the early part of the present century. : : : : * BYZANTINE HISTORY. III J.-Byzantine EMPIRE. of Greece. EMPERORS. Nicephorus I. . . * * tº º & we 8o2—81 I Michael I. (Rhangabé) $º º ſº tº 812—813 Leo V. (the Armenian) He tº tº e 813—820 THE AMoRIAN DYNASTY (820–867). Michael II. (the Stammerer). tº º 820–829 Theophilus tº º tº º e G 829—842 Michael III. (the Drunkard). . go tº 842—867 THE BASILIAN DYNASTY (867—963). Basil I. (the Macedonian) .. Q & 867–886 Leo VI. (the Philosopher) .. tº & 886–912 Alexander © º tº º tº º 912–913 Constantine VII. (Porphyrogenitus) 9I3–959 With whom were associated Romanus I. 920–944, and Romanus II. 945–963 Nicephorus II. (Phokas) tº o tº º 963–969 John Zimisces .. tº gº $º º ºn tº 969–975 Basil II. (Bulgaroktonos) . . ... 976—IO25 Constantine VIII. tº e tº e ... Io25—IO28 Romanus III. . . tº º tº º ... IO28—IO34 Michael IV. (the Paphlagonian) ... Io34–Io4I Michael V. (Kalaphates) tº gº tº º IO42 Constantine IX. (Monomachos) . . Ioa 2–1054 Michael VI. (Stratiotikos) .. ... IOS4—IO57 AUTHORITIES.–Gibbon; Milman's Latun Christianity; and Finlay's History II 2 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. The history of the Byzantine Empire from 8oo to IOS7 may be divided into the following sections:— (I). Termination of the Iconoclastic struggle,800–867. (2). Consolidation of Byzantine legislation and despotism, 867–963. (3). Period of renewed conquest and military glory, 963—IO25. (4). Period of Conservatism and stationary pros- perity, IO25–IO57. . Twenty-one emperors ruled during these two centuries and a half. The Iconoclastic controversy continued to rage with various fortunes throughout the first half of the ninth century. Thus Leo the Armenian, an adventurer, who raised himself to the throne, 813–820, supported the Iconoclasts. In fact it is a notable circumstance that the Asiatic party and the army, all through the Iconoclastic struggles, were bitterly hostile to image worship. This arose from the military policy which had been pursued by the Isaurian dynasty during the eighth century. They recruited the army from the unorthodox tribes which inhabited the Eastern provinces, whose courage had been developed and their hostility to images strengthened BYZANTINE HISTORY. II 3 by contact with the Saracens. Thus when the Empress Irene called a council to establish image worship the army dissolved it, and she had to remove the troops before she could succeed. The popular opinion of the Byzantine people, however, was in favour of images; and as the result image worship was finally established under Michael the Drunkard, February 19th, 842—a festival which con- tinues to be observed in the Greek Church, as the Feast of Orthodoxy, on the first Sunday in Lent. When we speak of image worship, however, we must remember that the practice of the East differs from that of the West in this matter. In the West images and pictures are adored, in the East statues are proscribed, while pic- tures, or icons as they are called, are universally revered. There is only one statue permitted in the whole Eastern Church, viz., a wooden one of St. Clement of Rome, in the Metropolitan Church of Ochrida, in Western Macedonia. The period of the Iconoclastic emperors, extending Over a century and a half from Leo the Isaurian, A.D. 7I6, was a time when the empire was consolidated and strengthened anew. They were able, vigorous and brave rulers, restrained their enemies on every side, and gave the empire a new lease of life. Greece especially flourished under them. They conquered the Slavonians, who had invaded it, and established social order, so that from the ninth century till the Crusades Greece was the richest commercial province of the empire. The silk trade specially flourished there. H II.4. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. The Basilian dynasty ruled from 867–1057. The opening of it under Basil the Macedonian was marked by a great struggle with the popes of Rome, which paved the way for the great schism which practically has ever since existed between the churches of the East and West. That schism helped to ruin Eastern Christianity and establish Mahometanism, by breaking the bonds of sympathy which hitherto united the more vigorous West with the languid East. The cause of the schism was briefly thus. The patriarchs of Constantinople contrasted strongly with the Roman popes in one respect. The patriarchs were the mere creatures of the emperors, the popes were independent spiritual officers. The patriarchs obeyed every whim of the emperors or else were degraded. The popes often resisted them and protested for the laws of morality and justice. The patriarch Ignatius was deposed in 857, because of his opposition to imperial wickedness, and Photius, principal Secretary of State, was illegally chosen in his stead. The Pope refused to acknowledge Photius, when a struggle began between the two greatest sees in Christendom which lasted till the death of Photius, in 891, and has not yet ceased. The early Basilian dynasty, 867–963, was marked by two distinguished literary characters. Photius the Patriarch, already mentioned, was a great statesman as well as a great ecclesiastic. His fame, however, primarily rests upon his literary efforts. He was the BYZANTINE HISTORY. II.5 most learned man of his age in every department. In grammar, in oratory, in every branch of knowledge and letters, except poetry, and even in physical science, he stood alone. His letters are full of information con- cerning the social life of his time, but his Library, or Bibliotheca as it is called, was his great work. It is the most valuable storehouse of ancient literature known to us. Photius was a most industrious student. He made abstracts, too, of every book he read. His “Library’” consists of 280 such abstracts, to which alone we owe the knowledge of a great number of lost works of Classical and Christian antiquity, such as those of Ctesias, Arrian, Olympiodorus, Damascius, Diodorus Siculus and Isocrates. It is curious that this interesting work has never been translated into English. The second literary character of this period was Constantine VII., surnamed Porphyrogenitus. He was mild and inoffensive, wholly devoted to literature, a taste which he inherited from his father, Leo the Philosopher, but very unfit, indeed, to rule an empire always torn with faction and conspiracy. His writings are very valuable illustrations of the history of the Mediaeval Empire. He wrote the life of the founder of the dynasty, his grandfather Basil I. ; treatises on the Themes, or administrative divisions of the Roman Empire ; a work on the administration of the empire containing valuable information about the internal life of the Empire; two essays on military II6 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. tactics, and a work on the ceremonies of the Byzantine court, giving us an exact description of the elaborate ceremonial there practised. He also caused scholars to compile works, among which may be mentioned an encyclopaedia of historical knowledge, containing valuable fragments of ancient historians, treatises on agriculture and the veterinary art, and chronicles in continuation of the chronography of Theophanes. These works are all contained in the Bonn collection of Byzantine historians published some fifty years ago. The Basilian dynasty was marked, too, by repeated Russian attempts upon Constantinople, the first one having been made, in 865, under the Emperor Michael the Drunkard. The Basilian dynasty from 963—IO25 was marked by the administration of two great generals— Nicephorus II. (Phokas), 963–969, and John Zimisces, 969–976—both of whom reigned as colleagues and guardians of Basil II., the legitimate emperor. The empire then again attained a high pitch of military glory. The Russian war was the great event of the reign of John Zimisces. It was fought on the same ground and upon the very same battlefields which have been twice in this generation the scenes of similar struggles between Russia and Constantinople. This war was concluded by the peace of Silistria—July, 971. (See Russia.) * The greatest prince of the Basilian dynasty was BYZANTINE HISTORY. I 17 Basil II., 976–1025. He had been trained under the two great generals Nicephorus and Zimisces, and as the result Byzantine power reached its culminating point under him. He waged victorious war from the banks of the Danube to those of the Euphrates, and from the mountains of Armenia to the shores of Italy. He was indomitably courageous, cruel, superstitious, and indifferent to art and literature. His great object was to consolidate the unity of his government in Europe by conquering the Bulgarians and Slavonians, which he effected after a lengthened and varying struggle against Samuel, King of Bulgaria, which began in 981 and only terminated in IOI4. The social state of the empire attracted his attention. During the Basilian dynasty the landed aristocracy and nobles became ever more powerful and rich, the middle and lower classes ever poorer and weaker; till at last, at the close of our period, the nobles transferred the empire to Isaac Comnenus, one of their own number, wearied out by the profligate conduct of the Empress Zoe, the inca- pacity of Michael VI., and the government of rapacious and insolent eunuchs. Mr. Finlay has well pointed out that the Basilian dynasty prepared the ruin of the empire, by breaking up the permanent and trained civil service organisation which had hitherto carried on the government, no matter how incapable the sovereign, and by substituting in its stead the personal favourites of the sovereign, who were generally eunuchs. II.8 MEDIAE VAL HISTORY. The dynasty of the Comneni began with Isaac I., in Io57, and lasted till I2O4. It properly belongs, there- fore, to the next period, to which we shall postpone its consideration. K.—SARACEN OR MAHOMETAN EMPIRE. AUTHORITIES.—Those already quoted on the history of the Eastern Empire, to which may be added Ockley's and Freeman's Histories of the Saraceus. Under this head we shall include the history during this period of Arabia, Syria, Persia, Central Asia, Egypt and Northern Africa. The Caliphate of Bagdad covers the whole period. The Ommiade Caliphs reigned in Damascus till 750. A new dynasty, called the Abbaside Caliphs, removed the seat of government to Bagdad, and established a throne which lasted till the capture of the city by the Moguls under Holagoo, grandson of Zingis, or Jenghis Khan, February 20th, 1258, when Mostasem, the last of the Caliphs of Bagdad was slain. During that time the Caliphate lost much power and territory; still we may regard it as the central point of the Mahometan world. The founder of the Abbaside Caliphate was Abdalla, A.D. 749. In 753 he was succeeded by Almansor, who in 760 built Bagdad on the Tigris. The most famous of the Abbaside line was Haroon-el-Rasheed, or the Just, 786— 809. He was a friend of Charlemagne, and is best known SARACEN OR MAHOMETAN HISTORY. II9 as the hero of the “Arabian Nights Entertainment.” His reign and that of his son, Mamun, was the most fruitful period of science, art and manufactures among the Arabs. The Caliphate may have decreased in real power, but it certainly increased in splendour during the ninth century. Then it was that learning flourished at Bagdad in a manner which has laid modern ages under the deepest obligations. The Caliph's ambas- sadors and agents at Constantinople, in Armenia, Syria and Egypt, collected the volumes of Grecian science, which the scholars who thronged his courts duly trans- lated into the Arabic language. A Christian patriarch of the thirteenth century, Gregorius Bar-Hebraeus (Abulpharagius), paints the following glowing picture of the literary activity of the Caliph's (Almamon or Mamun) court. “He was not ignorant that they are the Elect of God; his best and most useful servants, whose lives are devoted to the improvement of their rational faculties. The mean ambition of the Chinese or the Turks may glory in the industry of their hands or the indulgence of their brutal appetites. Yet these dexterous artists must view with hopeless emulation, the hexagons and pyramids of the cells of a bee-hive; these brave heroes are awed by the superior fierceness of lions and tigers; and in their sensual pleasures they are much inferior to the poorest and most sordid quadrupeds. The teachers of wisdom are the true luminaries and legislators of a world, which I2O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. without their aid would again sink in ignorance and barbarism.” 4. The Arabic and Syriac versions of the works of ancient learning, thus due to the fostering care of the Bagdad Caliphate, have come to light in large numbers during the last half century, specially owing to the discoveries connected with the celebrated Nitrian Manuscripts of Egypt. The translations of Plato and Aristotle are believed to have been made by a Nestorian Christian physician, named Honain, attached to the Caliph's court, about A.D. 820–876. So widely and wisely did they extend their tolerance. The literary splendours of the Court of Bagdad could not, however, lend it military strength. Literary culture and civilisation even, perhaps, sapped the very sources of its strength. Mahometanism was a religion founded by the sword, and its votaries could only flourish by the sword. So we find that though the Abbaside dynasty lasted for centuries, its actual power and authority were every year contracted within narrower limits after the year 900. In 935 the Caliphate was deprived of most of its glory. It was divided into two parts, the secular and the sacred. The secular authority was vested in the Emir al Omra (prince of princes), while the Caliph became the spiritual head of the Faithful. In this maimed condition it lingered, the Caliph generally a mere tool in the hands of his Turkish, Persian or Koord guard, SARACEN OR MAHOMETAN HISTORY, I 2 I till the Mongol or Tartar invasion in the thirteenth Century put an end to the Abbaside, as it did to so many other dynasties in Europe and in Asia. During this period of decay Arabia revolted from the Abbasides about the year Iooo, impelled by a Mahometan sectary, Karmath, whose teaching was pantheistic in theory and socialist in practice. Arabia was then for two centuries torn by intestine wars, till at last it settled down into its present state of permanent disorganisation, with a coast line yielding a nominal subjection to the Sultan of Constantinople, who now claims to represent the ancient Caliphs. Egpyt fell away from Bagdad about 970. Haroon- el-Rasheed was a great warrior, as well as a wise and learned man, and fought campaigns with the Roman empire. He despatched a general into North Africa for this purpose about 797, who adopted a policy usual in those times. The successful general in a distant country established a new dynasty in North Africa, with Keyrawan as its capital. Out of the ruins of this kingdom arose the Fatimite dynasty, about 909, founded by Obeyd-Allah, a real or pretended descendant of Ali, the son-in-law, and Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet. The Fatimites seized Egypt, in 969–972, when they founded Cairo near the site of the ancient Roman colony of Babylon. From thence they ruled Egypt, Upper and Lower, Syria and Tripoli, claiming 4 I 22 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. the dignity and powers of the Caliphate as the true representatives of the Prophet. This dynasty lasted till 1171, when it was destroyed by the Koordish conqueror, Saladin, the heroic and chivalrous antagonist of our own king, Richard I., after which Egypt was ruled by the Mameluke Sultans, from 1250 till 1517, while the Caliphate continued as a strictly spiritual office, and was exercised by a branch of the Abbaside family which escaped the sword of the Mongols. Sultan Selim I. conquered Egypt, in 1517, and obtained from the last real or pretended descendant of Mahomet a formal investiture of the Mahometan Caliphate. The Shereef of Mecca then presented the Sultan with the keys of the city, and the Arab tribes proffered a general allegiance to the Ottoman government. It is through the Abbasides of Bagdad and Egypt, then, that the Sultan claims to be the head of the Mahometan world. L.—CENTRAL ASIA. AUTHORITIES.–Gibbon, chap. 57; De Guignes Histoire des Huns; Wamberg's - History of Bokhara. The Saracens invaded this district between 666 and 714. Haroon-el-Rasheed conquered Cabul and Transoxania. Central Asia was ruled by the Caliphs of Bagdad till 874, when it achieved independence under CENTRAL ASIATIC HISTORY. I23 the Samanides, 874–IOO4, acknowledging, however, the nominal suzerainty of the Caliph of Bagdad. To them the Seljouk Turks succeeded from Ioo4–1 183, the foundation of their dominion being laid by Mahmud of Ghazni, 997–Io28, one of the greatest of Turkish conquerors. He first received the title of Sultan, which was given him by the Ambassadors from Bagdad, and Conquered Central Asia, Persia, Cashmere, Thibet and India. In Io94, the Turks crossed the Euphrates and defeated the Romans. The Mongol invasion, however, I218–1226, crushed Turkish dominion in Central Asia, after which its history becomes very confused. The rule of the Caliphs in Central Asia was marked there as elsewhere by great literary activity. To this day, Bokhara is a great literary centre for Mahometanism. Schools abound, and a regular university course demands fifteen or twenty years for its completion. When its records are brought to light, we may gain a clearer view of the history of those parts. An instance of the literary riches of Central Asia about the year Iooo appeared in London, in 1879, when Albiruni's “Chronology of Ancient Nations,” ed. by Dr. E. Sachau, was published by the “Oriental Translation Fund.” Albiruni lived at Khiya, about A.D. Iooo, and was carried off with other scholars as a prisoner into Afghanistan, about IoI8. This work is a wonderful monument of the learning then possessed by Central Asia. I24 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. M.—INDIA. AUTHORITIES.—Mill's British India, t. I. ; Elphinstone's History of India (Ed. Cowell). The leading events of this period were the continuous decline of Buddhism and the victory of Brahmanism, together with the Mahometan invasions. First, as to the internal revolution, we have two very ancient accounts of India handed down by the Chinese Pilgrims, who travelled in India—Fa Hian, in A.D. 399– 4I4, and Hiouen Thsang, in 629–645. This later narrative was published in French, in 1853, by M. Stanislas Julien, in a work entitled “Voyages des Pelerins Bouddhistes,” an account of which has been given by Professor Max Müller, in his Selected Essays, vol. ii., and by Cowell in his edition of Elphinstone, mentioned above, p. 287. They found Buddhism flourishing, but still on the decline, while Brahmanism was increasing. Buddhism was persecuted in the seventh and eighth centuries, and then so completely disappeared that in the sixteenth century the Mogul emperor, Akbar, is said to have sought in vain for a single , Buddhist in his dominion. The place of the Buddhists INDIAN HISTORY. I 25 was taken by a sect somewhat similar in doctrine called the Jainas, which arose in the sixth and seventh centuries, reached its highest prosperity in the tenth and eleventh, and declined after the twelfth. It still exists in scattered parts of India. The Mahometan invasions were assaults political and religious from without. The early Saracens made their way to India about 664, but effected no permanent settlement. The generals of the Caliphs at Damascus penetrated thither, in 711, the very same year in which the Saracens conquered Spain. They remained there forty years and were then expelled, in 750, by the Hindus. The next Mahometan invasion was headed by the fierce Turkish conqueror of Central Asia, Mahmud of Ghazni. He took Guzerat in Io24 with the famous temple and statue of Siva. Mahmud, furious iconoclast like every Mahometan, smashed the idol with a club, when there poured out a fountain of jewels. The traditional club of Mahmud was preserved at the conqueror's tomb near Ghazni, in Afghanistan, till 1839, when the English seized the place. . Mahmud died in Io:30. Fourteen kings of his house succeeded, till the dynasty was expelled from Ghazni, about 1154. I 26 - MEDLEVAL HISTORY. N.—CHINA. AUTHoRITIEs.—A convenient and interesting authority is China, Pictorial, Descriptive and Historical, in Bohn's series; see also Legge's Religions of China; Gibbon; De Guignes Histoire des Huns. China claims for its history a fabulous antiquity. It was an ancient belief among the Chinese that a period of more than two millions of years elapsed between the creation of man and the time of Confucius. We first hear of the Tartars and their invasions of China in 936 B.C., in the reign of Muh Wang. Confucius was born in 551 B.C. He lived and taught till 475, when he died in retirement, a neglected man, whose teaching met at the time with no response among the Chinese ; though he is now reverenced by well nigh a third of the human race. He was born under the Chow dynasty, the third which is said to have reigned within the historic period. The others being, the Hia dynasty, 2205–1766, and the Shang, 1766–II23 B.C. The Chow dynasty lasted from 1122 to 256 B.C. Its history was written by Confucius in a book, “The Annals of Lu,” which has been called “The history of his own times.” CHINESE HISTORY. 127 Taôism is another of the great religions of China. It sprung up about the same time as Confucianism, and originally taught much the same doctrines. One of the most distinguished Chinese emperors was Che Hwang-te, or “the first universal emperor,” B.c. 246-210. He began the building of the Great Wall of China in 214 B.C. He extended his dominions on every side till the Empire reached the limits which it still retains. e Various dynasties succeeded each other, whose names would only burden the memory. About the middle of the second century, B.C., an embassy was sent to Western Tartary which introduced silk into Europe. This is the earliest contact with the West. About A.D. 70, Buddhism was introduced from India. In 220, the empire was divided into three kingdoms, which waged perpetual war against each other till they were reunited under one sovereign, in 265 A.D. From that time till 590, when Yang-Kian, a vigorous prince, mounted the throne, the history of China is in confusion, dynasties and revolutions following one another with great rapidity. Religious dissensions, too, added to the confusion, as Buddhism, Confucianism and Taëism were each striving for the mastery. In 635 Nestorian Christianity was introduced from the West. In 841–847 Christians, Buddhists and Magi º I 28 MEDIAE, VAL HISTORY, were expelled, but were again restored about 860. The history of China during this period is crowded with the records of endless dynasties, which followed one another in rapid succession, leaving no trace on the memory, and offering no marks by which they can be distinguished. Thus, no less than five dynasties reigned between 907 and 960. r The Mongols invaded China in the course of the twelfth century. Christianity continued to spread in China under the care of the Nestorian missionaries. Towards the end of the thirteenth century we hear of a Metropolitan of China, a Syriac title of that period has been found there, and many facts show that Syriac was in mediaeval times a kind of learned language in Western China and Tartary. The Jesuits discovered in China a Christian inscription of the eighth century, which they first printed in 1644, testifying to the extension of Christianity at that date. [Renan, in his “History of the Semitic Languages,” p. 281, has much interesting matter on this topic.] GERMAN HISTORY. I29 THIRD PERIOD. FROM THE FIRST CRUSADE (A.D. Io96) To THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE (A.D. 1453). A. —GERMANY. AUTHORITIES.*— EMPERORs. Henry IV. tº e & © e e ... IoS6—I IO6 Henry V. tº e tº º tº º ... IIoë—I I25 Lothaire the Saxon .. tº º ... I I25—I I37 Conrad III. . . tº º tº º ... II37–II52 Frederick I. (Barbarossa) . . ... II 52—II90 Henry VI. & O © tº tº º ... II90—II97 Philip . . to e tº º tº a ... II97–I2O8 Otho IV. tº º e - tº o ... I2O8–1218 Frederick II. . . tº tº e e ... I2I2—I 250 Henry Raspe (Anti-Emperor) ... I246–1249 * Note.—Wherever lists of Authorities are not prefixed, reference should be made to the corresponding section of the First and Second Periods, and to the general note on “Authorities” at the commencement of this sketch of Mediaeval History. I3O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. William of Holland I250—I256 Interregnum .. tº e I256—1273 Rudolph of Hapsburg. . . I273—I29I Adolph of Nassau I29I—I298 Albert of Austria tº e 1298–1308 Henry VII. .. ... .. I3O8—I313 Ludwig (Louis) of Bavaria .. . . I3 I4–I347 Charles IV. . . tº e tº e ... I347–I378 Wenzel .. I378–1400 Rupert .. I4OO—I4IO Sigismund . . . tº º tº tº . . I4IO-I437 On his death, his son-in-law, Albert II., I438–1439, succeeded as emperor. He reigned only a few months, dying after his return from an expedition against the Turks. He was of the house of Hapsburg, which kept continuous possession of the empire till Charles VI., 1740, when the male line became extinct. Frederic III., I440–1493, closed our period. The history of Germany during this period was one of almost continuous strife between the temporal and spiritual powers, during which the foundations of that national disunion were laid which lasted till the present age. Under Henry IV. the empire touched the lowest depths of degradation, as already told in the previous section, so that “ Going to Canossa,” now expresses for a German the extreme of humiliation. The Papal party pursued that unfortunate emperor with its direst hatred in life and in death alike, refusing even to allow his burial in consecrated ground. In pursuance of the same policy, the Papal party violated the most solemn and GERMAN HISTORY. - I3 I fundamental laws of God. They encouraged the emperor's eldest son, Prince Henry, to revolt against his father. The pope himself, Paschal II., ascribed the young prince's revolt to the direct inspiration of God, and gave him absolution from his oath of allegiance and absolution in the final judgment of Christ for his rebellion. - Henry IV. died excommunicated, and Henry V. triumphed, but it is an instance of almost poetic justice that the same Henry V. lived to lead the very same pope, Paschal, a captive, and to be excommunicated by him in turn. During the reign of Henry V. the quarrel concerning investitures con- tinued to rage with all the old fierceness. Henry V. made use of the pope to gain possession of the empire, but once in possession, he would not relax one atom of the imperial claims, and men were coming to see that it was not for a mere shadow the emperor was con- tending. The resistance to investiture was in fact a claim on the part of the ecclesiastical power to hold temporal dominions, powers and dignities, without discharging any of those duties to the crown and the state, which laymen fulfilled. The contest raged all through the pontificate of Paschal II. till his death in II 18. Within five years of the pope's absolution of Prince Henry as a rebel, the same prince invaded Italy, seized Rome, imprisoned the pope and extorted from him by violence a treaty recognising his I32 - MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. right of investiture. That treaty the pope, as usual, repudiated as soon as the emperor's army was with- drawn. Pope Calixtus II., his successor, was a man of firmer and more vigorous character, and succeeded in retrieving much of the dignity of the Holy See lost under Paschal II. He was a French pope, having been Archbishop of Vienne before his election to the papal chair. From his time the popes who succeeded eventually in establishing their titles were usually con- nected with and maintained by France, while the anti- popes were usually supported by Germany; until the secession to Avignon, I 309–1377, almost reduced the pope to the position of a French prelate. After a severe contest Henry V. and Callixtus II. compromised the long dispute concerning investitures by the Concordat of Worms, A.D. II 22, ratified afterwards by the Lateran Council, February 27th, I 128. The terms of this important treaty were—(I.) The emperor surrendered investiture by the ring and staff, granted to the clergy the right of free election, and restored to the Church all temporal possessions seized by him or his father. (2.) The pope on his part granted that all elections of bishops and abbots should take place in the presence of the emperor or his commissioners, and that the bishop elect should receive his temporalities by the touch of the sceptre. Thus ended a quarrel which had deluged Italy and Germany with blood. We shall meet with it again in the history of England, where in another shape it played an important part under Henry II. GERMAN HISTORY. I33 With Henry V. died out the Franconian line of emperors who held the throne between Io24–II25. Lothar, or Lothaire, Duke of Saxony, was then elected emperor, and ruled from 1125 to 1137. On his death the Hohenstaufen line of princes gained possession of the throne in the person of Conrad III., nephew of the emperor Henry V. From this time we date the struggles, famous in Italian history, between the Ghibellines and the Guelfs. The term Ghibelline is an Italian corruption of the word Waiblingen, the name of a castle of the Hohenstaufen family. The Ghibellines were originally, therefore, the adherents of the Hohenstaufens and upholders of the imperial party. The Guelfs, or Welfs, were so called from Welf, Duke of Bavaria, A.D. I Ioo. They originally supported the Emperor Lothaire against the Hohenstaufen princes. When transferred to Italy they became the adherents of the pope as against the imperialists. The struggles between these two parties is the distinguishing feature of the reign of the greatest Hohenstaufen, the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, II 52—II90. Frederick's reign may be viewed from two standpoints. His rule in Germany was peaceful, flourishing and popular. He was supported by the body of the nation, ecclesiastics included. He maintained order and encouraged the growth of I34. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. the cities. But Germany suffered in the long run because of his thirst for empire, and consequent long absences upon his Italian struggles. In Italy his reign was marked by perpetual war. He made six distinct expeditions into Italy, the first in II 54–55 the last in 1184–86, most of them lasting several years. In these expeditions he dissipated his time and strength in struggles ever renewed against the popes and the Lombard cities now rising into strength and inde- pendence. His struggles against the popes commenced with Adrian IV. (Nicolas Breakspeare), the only Englishman who ever filled the papal chair. He was a man with the loftiest ideas concerning the claims and rights of the papacy, while Frederick, on his side, held just as lofty ideas concerning his own imperial dignity. The struggle between Germany and Rome went on all through the pontificate of Hadrian and Alexander III., against whom the imperialists raised several anti-popes, while on the other hand the popes united with the Lombard League, including cities like Venice, Verona, Parma, Milan and Bologna, in resistance to the imperial demands. The popes came victorious out of the strife, though the fortune of war often wavered. On May 29th, I 176, Frederick Barbarossa was totally defeated at Legnano, the battlefield on which the Lombard republics won their independence. Then Alexander III. stepped in as mediator and brought about the truce of Venice in II77, by which the GERMAN HISTORY. I35 privileges of the Lombard republics were secured and a stop put, at least for a time, to the disastrous struggles which were sapping the strength of Germany and of Italy alike. Milman, after describing the truce of Venice, sums up the results of Barbarossa’s struggles with the popes as follows:—“Thus closed the first act of the great tragedy, the strife of the popes with the imperial house of Hohenstaufen. The pope had gained a signal victory; he had won back the now uncontested papacy and the City of Rome. He was at the head of a mighty Italian interest, both in the South and in the North, Sicily and the Lombard League. Yet, though humbled, Barbarossa was still of formidable power; he had subdued, driven into exile, his one dangerous German subject, the rebel Henry the Lion. Many cities, and some of the most powerful, were firmly attached to the imperial cause, the more firmly from their internecine hatred each to some other of the cities of the League ; the proverbial jealousy of Guelf and Ghibelline had begun to rage. Till towards the close of this century the Papacy might seem to be in quiet repose, gathering its strength for the great culminating manifestation of its power in Innocent III.” After the conclusion of peace in Italy, Barbarossa joined the third crusade in company with Philip Augustus of France and Richard the Lion-hearted of England. The latter proceeded to Palestine by sea, while Barbarossa marched by land. He was, however, I36 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. drowned in a small river in Pisidia in 1179, while a remnant merely of his host reached Antioch. Frederick was succeeded by his son Henry VI., I 190–97, celebrated for having extorted an immense ransom as the price of our own King Richard's freedom after he had been released by Leopold, Duke of Austria. The earliest years of the thirteenth century were marked by a struggle between Philip of Suabia, youngest son of Barbarossa, and Otho IV. of Brunswick, representing the Ghibelline and the Guelfic factions respectively. In 1212 there succeeded the most brilliant, perhaps, of the Hohenstaufen princes, Frederick II., who reigned till 1250. He was a patron of science, arts and literature, a great statesman and a vigorous opponent of papal claims. In external splendour Germany as an empire never surpassed the point it then reached. Frederick died possessed of six crowns, viz., the imperial one, and those of Germany, Burgundy, Lombardy, Sicily and Jerusalem. Still his perpetual absences and consequent neglect of German interests sapped the roots of his power. Thus in 1220 he left Germany to take care of itself for fifteen years while he made war with the Lombard cities and Pope Gregory IX. It is no wonder then that his reign was marked by civil wars. His son Henry revolted in GERMAN HISTORY. I 37 1235, but was deposed at the diet of Mainz; while, again, Henry Raspe and William of Holland attempted to seize the imperial crown between 1246–56. The dynasty of the Hohenstaufens ended with Conrad IV., son of Frederick II., who died May 21st, 1254. The rule of the Hohenstaufens was externally very brilliant, yet the seeds of two great movements which long rendered Germany weak and divided were then widely and thickly sown. The Hohenstaufens were staunchly anti-papal. They were devout Roman Catholics indeed, but they were equally strong in their opposition to the papal claims to temporal Supremacy over Germany. It is very hard to combine opposition in temporal with allegiance in spiritual matters to any authority whatsoever. The Hohenstaufens by their policy laid the foundations of the Reformation which for the time intensified the divisions though it benefited the intellectual, religious and social life of Germany. Again the Hohenstaufen policy split up Germany into those fragments which so long destroyed its unity, weakened its force and rendered it the prey of foreign powers. The Italian policy of the Hohenstaufens was essentially anti-national as regards Germany. The great German feudatories instead of gradually submitting themselves more and more to the central national authority, by degrees claimed increasing independence. The policy again of several emperors led them to encourage the German citics ...-> *-a--- __- ~ * * _- * ~~ _-...--> * - ~. I38 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. and play them off against the electors and the nobility. Hence, in time, arose the Hanseatic, the Suabian and the Rhenish Leagues which, as we shall see, developed an active and powerful municipal life, but also intensified the course of national disintegration. After Conrad IV., there was a lengthened inter- regnum, I256–1273, when Rudolf I., Count of Hapsburg, was chosen emperor and reigned from 1273 to 1291. He was the first emperor of a house which ever afterwards continued to be one of the chief forces in German life, and is still represented, though in the female line, through Maria Theresa, by the imperial house of Austria. A few words will fitly be devoted to the rise of such an his- torical family. The Hapsburgs, or Habsburgs, drew their origin from a family of counts, who owned the Swiss Castle of Hapsburg, or Habsburg (Hawkscastle), situated on the river Aar in the Canton of Aargau. That castle was built in Io2O, while the earliest mention of a Count of Hapsburg is found about Io99. Bar- 'barossa created a count Albert of that ilk Landgrave of Upper Alsace and Count of Zurich ; Albert died in II99. His grandson Rudolph, born on May 1st, 1218, was the first emperor of the Hapsburg race. He was a vigorous prince, brave, active and just. He abandoned the Italian policy of his predecessors and confined his attention to Germany. He vigilantly administered justice, and is said to have destroyed seventy castles of GERMAN HISTORY. I39 noble robbers in Thuringia and other parts. He laid the foundations of the future greatness of his family by Investing his son Albert, in 1283, with the fiefs of Austria, Styria and Carniola. His reign, too, was marked by the rise of the Swiss Confederacy as an independent power. Hitherto, they had been ruled by the Counts of Hapsburg with an undetermined kind of sway. Upon Rudolph's death, in 1291, the Cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unter Walden formed a perpetual league, which attained practical independence from Hapsburg control after 1315, when Leopold of Austria was defeated by the Swiss, November 15th. The story of Tell, as connected with this movement, is now, however, regarded as pure legend, and the best authorities are agreed that neither the story concerning the shooting of the apple from his son's head, nor the murder of the bailiff Gessler, have any historical foundation ; the apple legend, indeed, occurs in five or six different countries outside Switzerland. The house of Hapsburg did not at once attain to all its future greatness. Rudolph's son, Albert I., was emperor, 1298–1308, and his grandson Frederic from I314–1330, conjointly with Louis IV., I314–1347, but no Hapsburg again ascended the throne till Albert II. of Austria, I438–1439, after which date the emperors were always chosen from that family. I4O MEDIAE VAL HISTORY. Louis IV. of Bavaria was followed by the emperors of the Luxemburg-Bohemian line, descended from Henry VII., emperor from 1308–1314, the most notable of whom, was Charles IV., 1347–1378, called by the Bohemians the “Parsons' Kaiser.” His reign is famous for the growth of the reforming party in Bohemia, the most celebrated leaders of which were John Hus and Jerome of Prague. Charles IV. was a man of scholarship and culture, but devoid of any Striking qualities as a ruler. He studied at Paris and Boulogne, was acquainted with Bohemian, German, Latin, French and Italian, and founded the earliest German University at Prague, after the model of that of Paris. His most celebrated achievement was the Golden Bull (so called from the golden case which contained its seal), which became a fundamental law of the empire. That instrument which was issued at the diet of Nuremberg and Metz, 1356, ascertained the privileges of the Electoral College, and terminated the disputes concerning the persons to whom the suffrage belonged, which the Bull declared inherent in certain definite territories. The number of imperial electors was absolutely restrained to seven. The place of election was fixed at Frankfort, of coro- nation at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the latter ceremony was restricted to the Archbishop of Cologne, while the electors were appointed as follows: three ecclesiastical, archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Treves, and four GERMAN HISTORY, I4 I secular, King of Bohemia, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of Saxon-Wittenberg and the Margrave of Brandenburg, which latter dignities were made here- ditary on the principle of primogeniture. During the reign of Charles, the Hanseatic and Suabian leagues were very active ; the Hanseatic League waged war on its own account with the Danish king and defeated him. (See Denmark, page 198.) The reign of Sigismund of Hungary, 14 IO-I437, was marked by the convocation of the council of Constance, which was intended to heal the divisions in the Papacy and the struggles between rival popes which were the scandal of Christendom. It was convoked by John XXIII., who hoped by its means to triumph over his opponents. It, however, degraded the pope himself from his office, and passed decrees declaring the Roman pontiff subject to a general council. On the other hand it took away the cup from the laity, burned Hus, July 6th, 1415, and Jerome of Prague, May 30th, 1416, and ordered the bones of Wickliffe to be dug up, consumed and cast away. These violent proceedings were followed by a prolonged civil war in Bohemia. Sigismund granted the March of Brandenburg, in 1415, to Frederick Count of Hohenzollern, from whom is descended the present royal house of Prussia. The Hohenzollern family takes its name, like the I42 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Hapsburgs, from an old castle called Zollern, the cradle of its race, said to have been built in the ninth century by a Suabian count, one of whose descendants Frederic V., was raised to princely rank in I363. In 1415, another Frederic became elector of Brandenburg, while in 1701, another Frederic made himself king of Prussia. Sigismund was succeeded by his son-in-law, Albert II., of Austria, I438–39, who re-introduced the house of Hapsburg destined to hold the imperial crown for centuries. He reigned but a few months, and was followed by his cousin Frederick III., I440–1493. He was the last emperor crowned at Rome (1452). His long reign was marked by the fall of Constantinople and the Eastern Empire; by frequent civil wars in Germany; by the Council of Basel, 1431, which attempted various reforms in the church but all in vain; and, finally, by the invention of printing by John Gutenberg, at Mainz, about 1450. Under his imme- diate successors, Maximilian I., I493, and Charles V., 1519, the Reformation movement was begun, which properly belongs to Modern History. FRENCH HISTORY. B.—FRANCE. House of CAPET, Iobo—1328. Philip I... Louis VI. Louis VII. Philip II. Louis VIII. Louis IX. (St. Louis) .. Philip III. Philip IV. Louis X. Philip V. Charles IV. Iočo—IIo8 IIo8—II37 II37—II8o II80—1223 I223–1226 1226—127o I270—1285 I285–1314 I314—I316 I316–1322 I322—I328 HOUSE OF VALOIs, 1328–1498. Philip VI. John II. .. Charles V. Charles VI. Charles VII. Louis XI. Charles VIII. . . I328–1350 I350—I364 I364–1380 I38o—I422 I422—I461 I46I—I483 I483—1498 Authorities in English, Gibbon and Milman; in French, Sismondi and Michelet. I44 MEDIAEvaL HISTORY. The first crusade marks the opening of this period of French history which becomes now to a large extent identical with that of the crusades. As we noted at the conclusion of the last period, the first crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II. at the Synod of Clermont, Io95. It was divided into two great movements. There was first the popular expedition led by Peter the Hermit. That army never reached Palestine, but perished at the hands of the Turkish Sultan of Nicaea. The nobles of France soon after organised a crusading army, led by Godfrey of Bouillon and Robert of Normandy, where Frenchmen, Normans and English fought side by side. The Emperor Alexius Comnenus, who then reigned at Constantinople, regarded the crusaders as quite as dangerous foes as the Mahometans He assisted them, therefore, to cross into Asia as speedily as possible. They defeated the Sultan of Nicaea in June, Io97, and then marched on Antioch, which they besieged from October, Io97, to June 28th, Io98, on which day they defeated the Saracens with great slaughter. This battle rescued the crusaders from the danger of annihi- lation which was imminent. Christian legend played an important part in the victory. A priest of Marseilles pretended to have discovered by immediate revelation the holy lance with which our Saviour's side was pierced. This roused the fainting courage of the soldiers. During the course of the conflict the Normans were hard pressed, when two young men, clad in white, are said to have issued from the mountains and led FRENCH HISTORY. I45 the Christians on to victory. They were declared to be St. George the Great Martyr and St. Demetrius, both of whom were centurions who had suffered for the faith in the Diocletian persecution. The memory of the apparition is perpetuated to this day in the neighbourhood by a con- vent called after Demetrius, which still exists. [Renan's “Mission en Phenicie,” p. 31.] But the memory thereof gained a more abiding monument. From the battle of Antioch, St. George became a favourite saint with the Normans and the English, with whom he gradually superseded St. Edward the Confessor, hitherto the national patron saint of England, till St. George was fully installed in St. Edward's place by Edward III., in 1349. [See St. George, in “Dict. Christian Biography,” t. ii., p. 647.] The crusaders now proceeded to establish Nor- man princes in the leading vantage points. Bohemond was made Prince of Antioch, Godfrey of Bouillon King of Jerusalem, Baldwin Prince of Edessa, and Raymond of Toulouse Prince of Tripoli, principalities which were organised on the strictest feudal lines and held as the direct fiefs of the popes. The reader who wishes to see the events of this crusade traced in the most masterly manner should turn to Gibbon's 58th chapter. The results of the crusades in general have been thus summed up by Milman, following Gibbon —(1.) They estranged the East. (2.) They vastly increased the power and wealth of the pope and clergy. Under pretence of collecting for the crusades the popes in- truded their agents into every nation, of which we * K 146 MEDLEvaL HISTORY. possess a valuable record in the still remaining taxation of these kingdoms by Pope Nicholas IV. (3.) They intensified and sanctified religious wars against Jews and heretics as well as unbelievers. (4.) They developed chivalry. (5.) They exercised also a special local in- fluence in France; where they strengthened the central power of the sovereign, which was still very weak, depressed the great nobles by leading them to waste their lives, strength and resources on foreign war, and developed the towns and municipal freedom. Philip I. was King of France when the first crusade started. He was succeeded by his son, Louis VI., IIo8–1137, surnamed the Wideawake and the Bruiser. He was a vigorous and wise prince. He recognised the weakness of his position Owing to the inordinate power of the great nobles, and therefore threw all his weight on the side of the towns, which he developed as a counterpoise. His reign was marked by internal tranquillity and by the progress of agriculture, trade and learning. St. Bernard, the last of the Latin fathers, and Abelard were sufficient to render it famous in the latter respect. To Abelard, especially, with his bold speculations, is due the literary fame of Paris, which subsequently developed into the foundation of the university of Paris by Philip Augustus, A.D. 1200. Paris is the oldest of European universities, and became the model on which all others were established. FRENCH HISTORY. I47 Louis VII. (The Young), 1137–1180, succeeded, and pursued as far and as well as he could the same course as his father, Louis VI. He was a weak prince, still he saw that it was his interest to encourage the towns and patronise learning and the church as against the nobles. He weakened however his power by joining Conrad of Germany in the second Crusade, A.D. II.47. } His son Philip Augustus, I 180–1223, was one of the greatest of mediaeval French sovereigns. He has been defined “as a great king but not a great man,” and his conduct justified the distinction thus made. He was cold, calculating and sagacious, but devoid of any high or noble impulses. His career was marke his contests against the English sovereigns Zukes of Normandy. He struggled suc- cessfully witn Henry II., Richard Coeur de Lion and with John, asserting his claim to feudal superiority. He engaged in the third crusade, A.D. I 182, when Frederic Barbarossa was drowned. Philip himself quarrelled with King Richard and returned home, while King Richard on his return journey was seized by Leopold of Austria, and rescued only by a large ransom. Philip Augustus was a wise prince for French interests. He extended France in various directions, and availed himself of every opportunity to lessen the power of the great feudatories. The latter portion of his reign was I48 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. signalised by the Albigensian Crusade, 1208–1217, marked by every form of cruelty and bloodshed. The southern provinces and districts of France, and specially the districts round Toulouse, had become infected with the ancient oriental dualism, variously called Gnosticism and Manichaeism. It is a striking instance of the perpetuity of provincial and national characteristics when we find just the same heretical and philosophic tendencies existing there in the second century, and combatted by the celebrated church father, Irenaeus. During the Middle Ages, the Manichaeans of Asia Minor and Bulgaria in- vaded Southern France, and taught their views with great success in soil well suited for them. Then there followed the Albigensian Crusade, when the Englishman, Simon de Montfort, as general, and St. Dominic, the founder of the Dominicans, as spiritual guide, endeavoured to extirpate heresy. The Albigenses on the other hand found a skilful and heroic leader in Raymond, Count of Toulouse, who had learned war as Prince of Tripoli in Palestine. Simon de Montfort prevailed for a time, and was formally confirmed in the possession of the County of Toulouse by the great Lateran Council of 1215, which is also celebrated for the formal definition of the doctrine of transubstantiation. His acts and edicts while acting as Count of Toulouse are preserved in the national library at Paris in a collection called “Registrum Curiae.” Simon did not, however, enjoy his dignity for long. He was attacked in Toulouse and killed by Raymond, June 25th, 1217. His biographers FRENCH HISTORY. I49 * → ~ *- :- *** -º-º-º-º-º-º- * * * tell a story of Simon's piety, which illustrates the spirit of the age. He was hearing mass when a mes- senger came to summon him in haste to the ramparts with the tidings that the beseigers were approaching. “I will not go,” said he, “until I have seen my Redeemer.” He waited therefore for the Elevation of the Host, and then, stretching his hands towards Heaven, he cried, “Lord now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace,” adding “Let us go and die for him who deigned to die for us.” He was killed that same day by the blow of a stone cast from a military engine. The most permanent result of the Albigensian Crusade was the establishment of the Inquisition, a tribunal which was originally instituted to root out the Manichaean or Albi- gensian heresy and was formally committed to the hands of the Dominicans by Pope Gregory IX. in 1231. The University of Toulouse was founded at the same time to combat heresy with intellectual weapons. Philip - Augustus was succeeded by his son Louis VIII., who reigned only three years, 1223–1226, to whom succeeded Louis IX., better known as St. Louis of France. He ascended the throne at twelve years of age and reigned forty-four years, 1226–1270. He was a wise and prudent and yet a pious monarch. He was attentive to the duties of religion, and yet had courage to restrain the aggressions of the pope. We may briefly note his policy under two heads:— I5O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. (1) External.—He pursued the traditional policy of the French sovereigns and took every opportunity of strengthening the central power at the expense of the great feudatories. He joined two crusades. In 1248 he sailed for Egypt, where he attacked the Sultan of Egypt who now ruled Palestine. He was defeated with great loss, made prisoner for a time, and then compelled to retreat to Palestine whence he returned to France in 1254, after six years' absence. The crusading enthusiasm again seized him in 1267, when he took the Cross and sailed in 1270 against Tunis, where he died of fever on August 25th. This was the seventh and last crusade. During the interval between the two crusades, that is, during the last sixteen years of his life, he ruled France wisely and peacefully, anticipating the policy of modern times and striving in every way to keep up peaceful relations with England, whose interests he recognised as identical with those of France. (2) Internal.—He developed trade, industry and learning. He specially patronised the study of the Roman law, which had been lately revived, and with the help of his lawyers defended the liberties of the Gallican Church from papal attacks by his famous Pragmatic Sanction, while he restrained feudal power and claims by his Establishments. He built the Sainte Chapelle, the most exquisite of Parisian churches, as a receptacle for the precious relics he had purchased at FRENCH HISTORY. I5 I -º- -- Constantinople from Baldwin II., viz., the crown of thorns, the lance, sponge, chain used in the Crucifixion, a large portion of the true cross and numerous others of a similar kind. He was fairly learned himself in theological matters, though his piety led him to doubt the powers of any layman in controversy. His theory was : “Even clerks, if not profoundly learned, ought to abstain from controversy with unbelievers. The layman, however, has but one argument, his good sword. If he heard a man to be an unbeliever he should not dispute with him, he should at once run his sword into his entrails, and drive it up to the hilt.” He related with special appro- bation the story of an old knight, who weary of a disputation between Catholic doctors and Jewish rabbis, terminated it by bringing down his mace on the head of the principal Jewish teacher. He approved, however, of theologians devoting themselves to learning, and Paris under his auspices reached its highest fame as a university, for it produced during the thirteenth century, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon—who pre- viously had studied at Oxford—and Thomas Aquinas, besides seven popes and a host of cardinals and bishops. The University of Paris quarrelled with the mendicant orders, and pleaded its cause against them before the king and pope, accusing them of heresy. Robert of Sorbon founded the College of the Sorbonne for ecclesiastics during this reign. St. Louis con- trasted with his predecessors on the French throne in his strict love and administration of justice, and also I 52 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. in his virtue. He married Margaret of Provence, and by her had eleven children, from one of whom, a younger son named Robert, the Bourbon family is descended. . This Robert was Count of Clermont, and married Beatrice of Bourbon, hence the name. St. Louis was succeeded by Philip III. (the Rash), 1270–1285, whose reign is distinguished by the Sicilian Vespers, when all the French in Sicily were massacred, and which are so called because the conspiracy broke out at vespers on Easter Monday, I282. Philip IV. (the Fair), reigned 1285–1314. He united Navarre with the French throne by marriage with Joanna heiress thereof. His reign was marked externally by his wars with Edward I. of England, 1292–99, and by that with the Flemings in 1302, when the battle of Courtrai (Day of the Spurs) was fought, July 1st, and so many nobles slain that four thousand gilt spurs were collected by the victors. This defeat vacated so many fiefs that Philip saw his royal power much strengthened by it. Philip quarrelled also with Pope Boniface VIII., I296–1304, concerning the taxation of the clergy, which the pope forbade by his bulls “Clericis laicos’’ and “Ausculta fili.” These bulls Philip rejected in the most peremptory manner. The chief result of this quarrel was the residence or “Great Captivity” of seventy years, as it is called, FRENCH HISTORY, I53 of the popes at Avignon, from Clement V., in 1309, to Gregory XI., who returned to Rome in 1377; after which Avignon continued to be the seat of a race of French anti-popes from 1378–1418. Avignon remained a papal possession till the French revolution and to this day bears many marks of its ancient dignity; the papal palace still exists. - Philip in 1312 added to France, Lyons, which had been previously an imperial fief. His internal policy was marked by his devotion to the study of Roman Law, which he used like St. Louis against the papal claims; by his development of the Parliament of Paris, which he made the supreme court of the realm though devoid of legislative powers ; and by the des- truction of the Templars, 1307–1312, a subject still shrouded in mystery. Three sons rapidly succeeded Philip, viz., Louis X. (the Quarrelsome), 1314–1316; Philip V. (the Tall), 1316–1322; Charles IV. (the Fair), 1322–1328. The last died without male issue, January 31st, 1328, when the crown passed to his first cousin, Philip VI., 1328– 1350, with whom the house of Valois a younger branch of the Capets ascended the throne. Philip VI., the first of this line, had been a great feudal noble and antagonist of royal power. When he came to the throne he simply reversed his course of I54 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. action and displayed the same energy in vindicating royal authority as he had shown in opposing it. During Philip's reign commenced the long struggle between France and England called the Hundred Years' War, though in strictness it lasted 114 years, that is, with brief intervals from 1337 to 1451. Into the history of this war we cannot attempt to enter at any length, it must simply suffice to mention the leading events. This long struggle covered the reigns of the following French kings, Philip VI., 1328– I350 ; John II. (the Good), 1350–1364; Charles V. (the Wise), 1364–138o; Charles VI., 1380–1422; Charles VII., I422–1461. The origin of this prolonged struggle was as follows. Edward III. and Philip VI. were jealous of one another owing to Edward's claim through his mother to the crown of France. England, too, even at that early date adopted a free trade policy which attracted the Flemings, while the French king inclined to protection and oppressive taxation. At last, in 1336, Philip induced his cousin Louis of Flanders to arrest all the English merchants in his dominions. England retaliated by stopping the export of wool, which soon induced the Flemings to fling off the French alliance and seek English protection. Hence the war, which the English inaugurated by gaining the great naval victory of Sluys, 1340, which FRENCH HISTORY. I55 gave them the command of the Channel for centuries. The great battles of this war were Crecy in Picardy, August 26th, 1346, when cannon were first used aud the blind king, John of Bohemia, was slain, from whom the Prince of Wales derives his motto “Ich dien;” capture of Calais, August 4th, 1347, when Queen Philippa is said to have gained the lives of the townsmen by her intercession with Edward III. ; battle of Poitiers, September 19th, 1356, when the Black Prince captured King John II. of France, who was kept captive in London for four years; battle of Agincourt October 25th, 1415, when the English king, Henry V., defeated a vastly superior French force. So far all the great triumphs of the war lay with the English, though at the same time the whole tendency was towards their final expulsion. That event was greatly accelerated by the short-lived triumphs and the romantic career of Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc), the Maid of Orleans, 1429– I431, who was cruelly put to death, at Rouen, May 30th, 1431, by the English on a charge of sorcery. There were three great truces in this long struggle. These epochs were—Treaty of Bretigny, May 8th, 1360; of Troyes, May 21st, I420; and the final expulsion of the English in 1451, when the war terminated without any formal treaty. The internal history of France during that time was one continuous tale of confusion and misery, though, at the same time, she worked through it to a united national life; just as, on the other hand, the English I 56 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. defeat and expulsion ultimately benefited the English people by concentrating all their interests in England. Had Edward III. and Henry V. succeeded in their efforts to gain the crown of France, England would have become a mere appanage of that country. Three great internal movements require brief notice. When King John was carried captive to London in 1356, the country was left in a state of chaos. Then rose up Etienne Marcel, Provost of Paris, who strove to organise a popular and Constitutional govern- ment. He ruled Paris for a time as head of a committee of thirty-six. His efforts were discredited by the out- break of the peasant war known as the Jacquerie, from the nickname Jacques Bonhomme given to its leader Guillaume Caillet; whence the name for the lower class in France. Marcel was murdered in 1358. In the next century another popular effort after good government was made in Paris. It was called the rising of the Cabochians after their leader, one Caboche, a butcher. Michelet fixes its date at I413. The Avignon popes in the legal line ceased in 1378, but continued as anti- popes till the council of Constance in 1417. These French popes were mixed up with all the internal quarrels of France, and specially with the struggles between the partisans of the Dukes of Burgundy and Orleans, or Burgundists and Armagnacs as they were called, which raged for more than half a century after 1380, and fatally weakened the French resistance to * ENGLISH HISTORY, I 57 English attacks. The expulsion of the English and the termination of the great Hundred Years' War, coincided with the fall of Constantinople and the end of the period. C.—ENGLAND. AUTHORITIES.–In addition to those previously mentioned, the great series of histories, chronicles and other original documents, published under the direction of the Master of the Rolls, may be consulted. THE NorMAN LINE. William I. (the Conqueror) .. ... Ioč6—Io87 William II. (the Red) * - º º ... Io97—IIoo Henry I. tº o & e tº 9 ... I IOO–II35 Stephen .. - * tº º º º ... II35—II 54 This period determined the course of modern English history and laid the foundation of institutions still flourishing amongst us. William the Conqueror triumphed at Hastings, or Senlac, October 14th, Iofl6. His work, however, was only then begun. Insurrec- tions of the English, repeated again and again, kept him busy, till at last he crushed all opposition by the terrible example, he afforded in his vengeance on 158 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Northumbria, where he desolated sixty miles of country with fire and sword. He took politic measures to secure his conquests. He gave England peace in all its borders, he encouraged the progress of the towns, he retained and developed the ancient legal institutions of the country, the courts of the hundred and the shire, where according to Teutonic fashion (as Sir G. Dasent has shown us in his tale of “Burnt Njal") every freeman had a right to appear; he placed the King's Court above all, giving every one a right of appeal to it. But his chief institution to secure his English con- guests was the feudal system, which he introduced from France, disposing of the vast estates which fell into his hands through the Conquest to the Norman soldiery on feudal tenures, which bound the nobles to supply the sovereign with troops and to retain possession of their estates for him as supreme lord. These feudal tenures supplied William with money as well as troops. The manors were all burdened with certain dues to the crown, which are set forth in the Domesday Book, the most precious monument of ancient English history. William did not, indeed, depend upon these dues alone for support. He was himself the greatest landholder in Britain, and from his vast properties— of which the present crown estates are a remnant— provided for his necessities. He perceived, however, the danger lurking in the feudal system and strove to guard against it. He knew by experience how dangerous ENGLISH HISTORY. I59 to centralised royal power is the rule of great nobles, and in every way possible took precautions. But, as we shall hereafter see, without effect, for the same struggle arose in England between the crown, the nobles and the towns as in France and Germany. William exercised again the sternest supremacy over the Church in synods, convocations and councils. He made the bishops pay him homage just like nobles, refused permission for the entrance of papal bulls, curtly told the pope he would render him no fealty for England, disposed of bishoprics as he pleased—the documents and forms still used in episcopal elections were devised by his lawyers—and permitted no church legislation without his formal licence. No Tudor monarch ever claimed more than William. The reign of his son, Henry I., saw the first symptoms of the struggle between the crown and nobility. Soon after his accession, in I IOO, the barons extorted from Henry a charter which laid down the lines upon which John's Magna Charta ran, while again the anarchy which marked the twenty years of Stephen's reign, when the feudal nobles desolated the land, showed from what misery the strong hand of William and his sons had for a time saved England. Henry I. developed the judicial system of the Superior or King's Courts, so that we can perceive in his day the rude outline of the Courts of Chancery, Exchequer and King's Bench. He also conciliated the affections of the English by his I6O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. marriage with Matilda, daughter of Malcolm, King of Scotland, and of Margaret, sister of Eadgar Aetheling, whereby he fused the conflicting claims of the Saxon and Norman dynasties. The nation now became rapidly united, the Normans ceasing to be French and becoming English, when the proud hopes of the nation were dashed to pieces by the shipwreck of Prince William, Henry's only son, in 1120. The king had an only daughter, Matilda, whom he married to Geoffrey the Handsome, Count of Anjou, whose son became Henry II. after Stephen's disastrous and anarchical reign. THE PLANTAGENETS, II54—1399. Henry II. © tº e - & Cº. ... II54—II89 Richard I. e - tº tº © & ... II:39–II99 John e e e Q tº º tº º ... II99–12 I6 Henry III. e G & ºt © - ... I2I6––1272 Edward I. * - tº º tº e ... I272–1307 Edward II. . . * * & & ... I307-I327 Edward III. . . e tº tº e ... I 327–1377 Richard II. . . e G e - ... I377–1399 Henry II. was a really great monarch. His reign was, however, marked more by its internal than its external policy. Three points are noteworthy:—(1). His legislative and judicial reforms. (2). His policy towards the feudal nobles. (3). His policy towards the church. On the first point Mr. Freeman remarks, “Of all the kings between the Conqueror and Edward the First, ENGLISH HISTORY. I6I Henry II. has the highest right to the name of lawgiver. He is not the author of any formal code, but he is the author of a greater number of actual enactments than any king before him.” He had a great field for his activity. The reign of Stephen had introduced universal anarchy. Henry II., aided by his Chancellor, Thomas à Becket, devoted the first six or eight years of his reign to the restoration of order. To Henry's efforts we can trace the origin of trial by jury and the circuits of the judges, who went into every district restraining and correcting the excesses and abuses of feudalism. “Under Henry,” says Mr. Freeman, “the legal system of England took a shape which it has practically kept ever since. The endless changes of the last seven hundred years are rather special amendments of Henry's work than anything which can be said to start altogether afresh from a new point.” [Article “England,” “Encyclopaedia Britannica ’’—new ed.] Towards the barons he adopted a wise policy. He developed the towns by giving them charters of incor- poration, and struck, in II60, at the root of feudal power by substituting Scutage or shield-money as pay- ment in lieu of the personal service of his feudatories. This made him independent of them by enabling him to hire mercenary troops, with whose aid he crushed the barons. He also developed another counterpoise to them by reviving the old militia of the country, where every freeman had a right to carry arms. L I62 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. . . Henry's policy towards the church is connected with the history of Thomas à Becket, of which we can give only a very brief account. This celebrated man was of Norman descent—his father being from Rouen, his mother from Caen—but of English birth. His father was a London merchant, where he attained the position of sheriff or portreeve. Primate Theobald took young Becket under his care, made him archdeacon of Canter- bury and obtained for him the post of chancellor from Henry II., to whom he became simply indispensable. Henry heaped honours and riches upon him, and the chancellor in return assisted him in every way, in war and peace alike. He was as yet, it must be remembered, in deacon's orders merely. He assisted Henry even in the limitations which the latter was minded to throw round the powers and demands of the church, and imposed the scutage tax on ecclesiastical as well as lay property. Primate Theobald died in April, 1161. Henry II. appointed Becket in his stead, and thence- forth found in his former chancellor, the sternest opponent of all his designs upon ecclesiastical claims. They soon quarelled on this subject. Henry summoned (January, 1164) the Council of Clarendon which, in its celebrated Constitutions, aimed at subjecting the bishops and clergy to the crown as completely as the feudal barons. Becket yielded, then retracted, then opposed himself as before, and finally fled to the Continent in the autumn of the same year, whence he did not return for six years, and then only to die. ENGLISH HISTORY. I63 He landed triumphantly at Sandwich, December 1st, 1170, and was assassinated on December 29th, by four knights, Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy, Hugh de Moreville, and Reginald Brito. Three years and a half afterwards, Henry did public penance in Canterbury Cathedral, and was flogged by the monks as an atonement for Becket's murder, of which his hasty words were the unwitting cause. Henry's reign, subsequent to Becket's death, was marked by manifold disasters and by rebellions of wife and children, which the clergy took care to ascribe to the wrath of heaven. Two other points in Henry's career deserve notice. He was the first king of England who received the homage of a Scotch king, and he added Ireland to the English dominions. Very soon after Henry's accession to the throne he applied to the English Pope, Hadrian IV., for his advice upon this latter point. Matthew Paris fixes the date of this application to II55, Fleury to II 56, and says that the king's letter asking for it was brought to Rome by John of Salisbury. The pope agreed to the king's prayer, and issued a bull handing over Ireland to England on condition that the king paid a penny per annum for every house in the island. This document has been often a source of much trouble to controversialists. It has been boldly maintained that Pope Hadrian could never have sent such a bull because the original is not now forthcoming I64 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. at Rome. But the non-existence of a document at the present time is no proof that it has never existed. An original copy of it is to be found in the Black Book of the Exchequer, in London. Henry gained possession of Ireland in II 71–72, and was duly acknowledged at the Synod of Cashel, held in November, 1172. Henry made his son John king of Ireland. John dropped the title king and assumed that of Lord. The kings of England after him were thence called lords of Ireland till Henry VIII. again assumed the higher title. [Brewer's edition of Giraldus Cambrensis in the Master of the Rolls' series.] Henry II. was succeeded by Richard I. (Coeur de Lion), I 189–1199, who spent his time chiefly in the crusades, or fighting with Philip Augustus of France. He was succeeded by his brother John, II99–I2I 6, whose reign was ignominious for the sovereign but most important and beneficial for England at large. Freeman remarks that “No period of our history, save those of the conversion and conquest, is of greater importance than the seventeen years of John.” Exter- nally England lost a great portion of its continental dominion, whereby national unity and strength was attained. Internally Parliament was organised in first rude outline while the great charter extorted by the barons under Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canter- bury, July 15th, I215, laid the foundations, deep and solid, of English liberty. An original copy of that ENGLISH HISTORY. I65 charter can still be seen in the British Museum, injured by age and fire, but with the royal seal still hanging from the parchment.” The leading provisions of Magna Charta proclaimed the most precious rights . of Englishmen, their right to justice, to personal freedom, to security of property and good government. It guaranteed the due execution of the legal reforms of the past reigns, judges of assize were to hold their courts four times a year, and the Court of Common Pleas was to sit in a fixed place, not to follow the King's Court. Taxes were only to be raised by the consent of the common council of the realm, while the City of London and all other cities and towns were secured in all their old rights and privileges. John was followed by his son Henry III., 1216– I273, and he by Edward I. (Longshanks), I273– 1307. Those two reigns were very important for the development of the English Constitution. Parliament gradually took shape during the reign of Henry III. Its power was increased by the foreign policy of the king. He desired to restore the rule of England over Normandy, and for this purpose required money which the Great Council of England would only grant in return for fresh privileges. In 1263 war broke out between Henry and the barons, which resulted in the admission of the Commons to Parliament, that assembly having hitherto consisted of nobles and clergy alone. I66 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. During Henry's reign the Mendicant Friars (Dominicans and Franciscans) came to England, having been founded, early in the century, by St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assisi. They revived religion in England and soon gained possession of Oxford, where their teachers exercised a powerful influence. [On this topic the reader may consult Brewer's valuable work, Monumenta Franciscana, in the Rolls' series.] Roger Bacon lived in this reign, and then produced his Opus Majus, which sounded the first note of modern science and discovery, and anticipated in some respects the doctrines of his great namesake, Francis, Lord Bacon. Another celebrated scholar lived at this time. Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, I.25o, was one of the few Greek scholars produced during the Middle Ages. He gathered Greek students around him, sent to Greece for manuscripts and translated Greek works into Latin. Thus he translated the “Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs,” and is supposed by Archbishop Ussher and by Bishop Lightfoot [“Ignatius and Polycarp,” t. I., p. 77] to have made a Latin version of the Epistles of St. Ignatius. The 13th century is also famous in the history of art for the development of Gothic architecture in the direction called Early English. The reign of Edward I., 1273–1307, is even more important than that of Henry III. Internally it added Wales to England, 1276–1284, and brought E. NG LISH HISTORY, 167 Scotland into subjection to the English crown, after a lengthened contest. In 1292, Baliol did homage to Edward for Scotland. In 1294, war broke out which lasted with brief intermissions till Edward's death. During that war Sir William Wallace gained his fame. He was betrayed to the English and executed in 1305. During this struggle, as some say in 1296, others in 1304, the Coronation Stone was carried to London and deposited in Westminster Abbey, where it now lies. Internally the country made great progress in the direction of constitutional liberty. Edward I. has been called the English Justinian and he has certainly just claims to the name. To his time we owe funda- mental statutes and laws still in operation. Thus, in 1295, the first perfect parliament was summoned ; the barons and clergy by special writ, the knights of the shire, the citizens and burgesses, by writs directed to the sheriffs. In 1297 an Act was passed forbidding the imposition of taxes without the consent of Parliament. In 1279 the Statute of Mortmain was passed, forbidding the alienation of land to religious bodies without royal permission ; and in 1285 the Statute of Winchester, appointing justices of the peace in every shire. Edward also formally separated the King's Court into the three great divisions of, the Exchequer for cases where the royal revenue was concerned, the King's Bench for criminal cases, and the Common Pleas for suits between private individuals, while to the Chancellor's hearing I68 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. were reserved cases where relief could not be obtained at common law. Edward II., 1307–1327, fourth son of Edward I., was a yeak prince, under whom the Scotch nation revived, and defeated the English king at the battle of Bannockburn, June 24th, 1314. Edward was ruled by . favourites, Gaveston and Despenser, who were very displeasing to the feudal nobles. The royal favourites were imprisoned and executed, and then the king himself was murdered in his prison, Berkely Castle, September 21st, 1327. Edward III. ascended the throne in 1327 and reigned till 1377. Two great wars marked his reign. The Scotch nation, under Robert Bruce, gained its independence by the treaty of Northampton, 1328. War broke out again in 1333 when Edward won the battle of Halidon Hill and captured Berwick-on-Tweed, which was thenceforth taken to represent the kingdom of Scotland as a fief, sub- ject to the King of England. As representing the whole of Scotland, it had its chancellor, cham- berlains and other state officials, whilst the peculiar heading of Acts of Parliament enacted for England and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed still preserves the memory of Edward's conquest and its own peculiar position. The struggle with Scotland lingered till the outbreak of the IOO years' war between ENGLISH HISTORY, I69 —A- England and France, I336–1340, saved Scotland by drawing off the English forces to France. The war with France occupied the remainder of Edward's reign. The principal events in it were the naval Battle of Sluys, 1340, Battle of Cressy, August 26th, 1346, and the capture of Calais, I347, followed by a truce which lasted till 1354, when the war was renewed and signalised by the Battle of Poitiers, September 19th, 1356, to which the Treaty of Bretigny succeeded. The domestic history of England during Edward’s reign was very important. Wickliffe then laid the found- ations of the Reformation. He was born near Richmond, in Yorkshire, between I314 and I324, was educated at Oxford, where he became Master of Balliol about 1361. In 1366 he defended before the University the action of Edward III. and of Parliament in refusing to pay tribute to Rome. In 1374 the king appointed him a royal com- missioner to negotiate with the Papal Nuncios at Bruges, after which Edward made him rector of Lutterworth, which parish he held till his death. His writings, specially his traslation of the Bible, had a great effect in stirring up opposition to Rome both in England and in Bohemia, where John Hus and Jerome of Prague imbibed the opinions of the English Reformer. Wickliffe's translation of the Bible was his most important work. It is the earliest classic Middle English. Hitherto the Psalter had been the only I7O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. * complete book of scripture accessible in English. Wickliffe translanted the Bible from the Latin Vulgate, for he was ignorant of Greek. He finished the work in 1382. This version marks an epoch in the development of the English language. Edward's reign was rich in other movements. Chaucer then laid the foundations of modern English poetry; Parliament developed the power and juris- diction of the Commons; the Black Death which swept away a full half of the population in 1348, and the succeeding years, completely changed the social and economical aspects of England. The long war with France assisted the work of the Great Plague and produced an exhaustion and decay which affected the whole nation. During the reign of Edward III. there were passed two great ecclesiastical laws limiting the claims of the pope to jurisdiction in England, one was the Statute of Praemunire, passed 1353, renewed 1392, whereby the admission of papal bulls was forbidden, and the other, that of Provisors, 1352, by which the papal claim to dispose of church benefice was rejected. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, succeeded his grandfather, 1377–1399. His reign is celebrated for the revolt of the peasants, headed by Wat Tyler, 1381, which brought as great disgrace on Wickliffe's movement as the revolt of the Anabaptists subsequently brought upon Luther and the Reformation in Germany. Richard was ENGLISH HISTORY. I71 deposed by Henry, eldest son of John of Gaunt; Parliament then elected him king, and in his person the House of Lancaster ascended the throne. THE House of LANCASTER (a branch of the Plantagenets). Henry IV. tº ſº sº gº tº º . . I399—I4I3 Henry V. tº º tº tº tº º . . I4 I3–I422 Henry VI. ge º tº jº g & ... I422—I461 THE HOUSE of York. Edward IV. . . tº º tº º ... I461–-I483 Edward V. tº º tº º tº G ... I483 Richard III. . . tº º tº e ... I483–1485 The reigns of Henry IV., 1399–1413, and Henry V., I4I3–1422, were marked internally by the perse- cution of the Lollards and externally by the con- tinuous and brilliant war against France. The reign of Henry IV. witnessed the passing of the first act against heresy, 1401, whereby the penalty of execution by fire was decreed against obstinate heretics. Under this statute great numbers perished, the most distinguished of whom was Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, who suffered under Henry V. The war with France was conducted by Henry V. with great success. The battle of Agincourt, October 25th, 1415, proved that the English archers were still as skilful and "brave as seventy years before at Cressy, while the Treaty of Troyes, I42O, recognised the English king as regent of France, and next heir to its throne. I72 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. e The end of English dominion in France was drawing near when English power seemed at its climax. Henry died within two years of this treaty, and was followed by Henry VI., I422–1471, whose reign was marked, I422– I451, by the continuance of the great French War, the triumphs of Joan of Arc and the final expulsion of the English from France, upon the loss of Normandy and Guienne, in 1451. Then followed the wars between the adherents of the Houses of York and Lancaster, 1455–1485, called the Wars of the Roses, from the White Rose, the badge adopted by the Yorkists, and the Red Rose by the Lancastrians. The House of Lancaster claimed the crown as descended from John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III. ; the House of York as from Edmund, Duke of York, fifth son of the same king, and in the female line, from Lionel, Duke of Clarence, his third son. The Yorkists triumphed at first. Edward IV., I461– I483, deposed Henry VI. in 1461 ; he lingered till May 22nd, 1471, when he died in the Tower. Edward was engaged in continual struggles with the Lancastrian party ; he also fought with France and Scotland, for which purpose benevolences, a subscription supposed to be voluntary, and raised without Parliamentary consent, were first introduced. They afterwards played an important part in the great civil war. Edward IV. was succeeded by his son, thirteen ENGLISH HISTORY. I73 sºms ºver years old, Edward V., who reigned only three months, April–June, 1483, when he was murdered in the Tower. Richard III. (Duke of Gloucester), brother to Edward IV., then succeeded, 1483–1485, and after reigning two years was defeated and slain at the battle of Bosworth Field, August 22nd, 1485, by Henry, Earl of Richmond. Henry, great-great-grandson of John of Gaunt, ascended the throne as Henry VII., 1485–1509. By his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., he terminated the Wars of the Roses and introduced the House of Tudor. The Wars of the Roses destroyed feudalism by ruining and almost extirpating the old nobility. They also destroyed for the time the progress of constitutional freedom which had been hitherto asserted by the barons, and prepared the way for the despotism exercised by the Tudors and terminated only by the Great Rebellion under Charles I. A powerful middle class, the guardians of liberty, did not then exist. At the same time the commercial progress of England does not seem to have been much impeded. The battles and struggles were confined chiefly to the country districts and did not affect the towns. As they drew to a close, William Caxton introduced printing into England, I476, and thus established a new power destined one day to revive and consolidate the course of that national development which the Wars of the Roses so rudely and completely suspended. I74 º MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. D.—Scotland. The history of Scotland during this period was bound up with that of England. England was perpetually asserting its claim to feudal superiority over Scotland, and Scotland was in turn ever endeavouring to assert its independence. The reign of Malcolm Canmore coincided with that of William . the Conqueror. Eadgar, his son by St. Margaret, the Saxon Queen of Scotland, succeeded, Io97–IIo6. From that time till the death of Alexander III. in 1285, a period of two centuries, Scotland enjoyed a considerable measure of national prosperity. The Church, as well as the kings of England, made attempts on Scottish independence. The Primates of Canterbury and York endeavoured to assert their jurisdiction over the Scottish bishops, and were stoutly resisted. Alexander I., II oé, maintained that struggle for fourteen years and succeeded. The same attempt was renewed towards the end of the century. The Scotch Church appealed to the pope against English aggression, and obtained in II88 a bull from Clement IJI., by which it was declared to be a special daughter of Rome, and immediately subject to the Papal See alone. SCOTCH HISTORY. I75 The most notable reign of the twelfth century was that of William the Lion, II65–1214, distinguished as the longest in Scottish history. He gained his name not because of his bravery, but because he was the first Scottish king who assumed a coat of arms on which appeared a lion rampant. He came in contact with Henry II., Richard I. and John. He was taken prisoner by Henry II., and surrendered to him some of the most important fortresses of his kingdom ; but concluded a treaty with Richard which secured peaceful relations between England and Scotland during the succeeding century. The thirteenth century was ..marked by another long reign, Alexander III., I245– 1285. He was the last of the old Celtic dynasty of Scottish kings and saw the final concentration and union of the various Scottish provinces into one com- pact nation, effected by the cession of the Isles in the year 1268. This event followed the battle of Largs on the Clyde, 1263, when Alexander defeated Hakon, king of Norway, who had hitherto ruled Man and the islands of the Scotch coast. With Alexander's death begins the long tale of English wars and invasions. Edward I. took advan- tage of the contest between Bruce and Baliol for the Scotch throne to push forward his own preten- sions. Alexander left no direct male heir, so Robert Bruce and John Baliol as descendants from David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion, I I65–I2I4, 176 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. claimed the crown. Edward summoned them to submit their claims to him for decision as Lord Paramount which they did in May, 1291. He awarded the throne to John Baliol, who soon, however, quarrelled with Edward, was taken prisoner and consigned to the Tower. In that war Sir William Wallace gained his fame. He defeated the English at Stirling in I297, and was defeated by Edward at Falkirk in 1298. Edward made peace with Scotland in 1304, and then carried the coronation stone from Scone to Westminster. Robert Bruce proclaimed himself king, I 306, and carried on war with Edward I. and Edward II., winning the battles of Loudon Hill, 1307, and of Bannockburn in 1314. This war lasted practically the whole of Bruce's reign. He concluded a treaty in 1328, by which the independence of Scotland was recognised, and then died in I329. There now followed in Scotland a succession of weak princes, while England was ruled by such men as Edward III., Henry IV. and Henry V. Still Scotland maintained its independence, though almost perpetual war raged between the two nations, marked by such battles as Halidon Hill, 1333; Neville's Cross, 1346, when King David II. was taken prisoner and retained as a captive till I357; Chevy Chase, 1388; and Homildon Hill, I 402. During the fourteenth century, the House of Stuart | Scotch HISTORY. - 177 . | . mounted the throne in the person of Robert II., : son of the Steward of Scotland by his marriage with Margory, Robert Bruce's only daughter. He reigned, 1371–1390. The next able prince who ruled Scotland, and the best of the Stuarts, was James I., 1424–36, though legally he began his reign in I4O6 upon the death of Robert III. He was, however, a captive in England, I4O6–1424. He was a great king. He repressed the feudal nobles, protected the people, encouraged trade and commerce. He is thus described by Mr. Green : “Schooled by a long captivity in England, James the First returned to his realm to be the ablest of her rulers, as he was the first of her poets. In the twelve years of a short but wonderful reign, justice and order were restored for awhile, the Parliament organised on the English model, the clans of the High- lands assailed in their own fastnesses and reduced to swear fealty to the Saxon king. He turned to assail the great houses, but feudal violence was still too strong for the hand of the law, and a band of ruffians who burst into the royal chamber, left the king lifeless with sixteen stabs in his body.” He was succeeded by a series of kings each named James till James V. and Queen Mary, I560, under whom the royal authority sank every day lower and lower, while the feudal nobility ruined the land with their tyranny, exactions and strife. - 178 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. E.—IRELAND. AUTHORITIES.—State Papers, Chronicles, &c., published in the Rolls' Series; Liber Munerum Hibernia: ; Bishop Reeves' Ecclesiastical Antiquities; Bag- well’s Ireland under the Tudors. The history of Ireland during this period was very chequered. From IIoo to II 72 Roman and English influences were gaining ground both in Church and State. The country was torn by intestine struggles. The Church was sinking into inefficiency, while some zealous spirits, chief among whom were Gilbert, Bishop of Limerick, and Malachi of Armagh, were striving to bring the Celtic Church into complete union with the English and Roman Churches. Malachi of Armagh is one of the most striking characters in Irish history. He was thoroughly devoted to his work, vigorous, pious, earnest. His life, as written by his friend the great St. Bernard, is one of our most authentic records concerning the Celtic Church of the twelfth century. Through Malachi's influence Ireland was formally divided into dioceses, and four archbishoprics were constituted (Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam), at the Synod of Kells, I 152. The Celtic Church, both in Scotland and Ireland, was previously ruled by monastic and tribal bishops without fixed diocesan limits. The Conquest of Ireland by the Normans under IRISH HISTORY. I79 Strongbow took place between II69 and II 72, in which year Henry II. landed and received the sub- mission of the Irish chiefs in a rustic palace made of osier branches and earth on College Green, where the old Parliament House, now the Bank of Ireland, stands. From that date Irish history is simply identical with that of England. Henry handed over Ireland to John as his lordship, and the English kings continued to call themselves simply lords of Ireland till Henry VIII. assumed the higher title of king. The Plantagenets regarded Ireland as they did Scotland, simply as a feudal fief, recognising the various kings and chiefs as feudatories bound to render homage, but otherwise independent. They recognised the ancient kings as feudal nobles, and created besides new feudal dignities. Thus they sub- stituted the De Lacys as Lords of Meath instead of the ancient kings. In the first volume of the Printed Irish Statutes, which are primary authorities for Irish history of this period, we find mention made of the four great earldoms of Marche, Connaught, Trim and Ulster, while subsequently Tipperary was created a feudal principality with its own courts and dignitaries. This fact accounts for much of the subsequent history of Ireland. The country was never really conquered. In England the great feudatories were restrained and gradually brought under the power of the Crown and the Parliament. In Ireland the central authority was ever weak and of no avail at all beyond the Pale, a I8O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. ditch which, starting from Dalkey, near Dublin, embraced simply the counties of Dublin, Kildare, Meath and Louth. The Pale can to this day be traced by the line of castles which bordered it, and by the remains of the great double ditch, twelve feet high which bounded it. The English Crown possessed indeed a few other fortresses scattered here and there throughout the country. The strong places are enumerated in an Act of Henry VII. [Printed Irish Statutes] as the Castles of Dublin, Trim, Leixlip, Athlone, Wicklow, Greencastle, Carlingford and Carrick-fergus, of which the Castles of Dublin, Athlone and Carrick- fergus are still in use, while the ruins of Trim Castle constitute one of the finest specimens of Norman feudal architecture extant. The Castle of Randon, now called St. John's, on Lough Ree, was also during the first three centuries of English rule one of the great Norman fortresses which kept Connaught in order. John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich, and Lord Justiciary of Ireland during King John's reign, built the greater number of these castles. The wars of Scotland, too, told on Ireland as the Bruces, in the fourteenth century, carried the struggle into Ireland when hard pressed in Scotland, just as in 1486 Lambert Simnel, the pre- tender to the English Crown, landed in Ireland and was crowned in Christ Church Cathedral. The Par- liament of Ireland was developed part passu with that in England. Its most famous Acts are the Statute of Kilkenny, 1367, which prohibited intermarriage between | ITALIAN HISTORY. I8I \ the English and Irish, the use of the Irish language and dress, &c.; and Poyning's Act, I495, which tied its own hands. F.—ITALY. AUTHORITIES.—Hallam's Middle Ages; Daru's Histoire de Venise ; and Milman's Latin Christianity. We shall take the history of Italy during the period I IOO–1453 in two great divisions: (1). Northern Italy, which will deal with the history of the great towns and cities, including the Lombard League and Venice. (2). Southern Italy, including the Papacy and its fief, the kingdom of Naples and Sicily. I. Northern Italy. The great feature of the twelfth century was the rise of the cities, which followed upon the long wars waged between the popes and the emperors, Henry IV. and V. The popes and emperors had supported the cities in order to gain their aid, and then while the principals in the struggle fought out their quarrel, the municipalities gradually emancipated themselves from the rule of the neighbouring nobles. They all developed a republican constitution with two consuls as their principal officers, I82 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. $ while the local bishops who led them in the road to freedom, generally exercised a preponderating influence Thus, to take a well-known instance, Brescia was th birthplace of the celebrated Arnold, who from II 30 to II 55 exercised a wondrous political and religiou influence in Italy, Switzerland and France. In Brescia, the Bishop Arimanno had taken the lead in shaking off the yoke of servitude. Brescia declared herself a republic, and established a municipal government with two consuls. The temptation of power was too much, however, for the bishop, and so he usurped the sovereignty which had been wrested from the feudal nobles and the empire. The republican spirit he had kindled would not tolerate his tyranny; he was defeated in war and banished for three years to the distance of fifty miles from Brescia, and was finally deposed by Pope Paschal in the Lateran Council, A.D. III6. His successors, Conrad and Manfred, followed the same ambitious course and thus provoked the wrath of Arnold, who spread the principles of political and religious reform to the very foot of the papal throne. During the second half of the century, the cities were divided between the Guelf and Ghibelline parties. We have already explained the origin and meaning of these terms as used in Germany. In Italy, where they remained current and influential long after they were disused in Germany, the term Guelf designated the papal, and Ghibelline the imperial party. ITALIAN HISTORY. 183 The reign of Frederic Barbarossa was one continual struggle on his part against the Guelfic cities, headed by Milan, while Pavia as the capital of Lombardy was Ghibelline and sided with the emperor, who was King of Lombardy. Milan was conquered, and totally destroyed in II62, when, in the plunder of the city, the relics of the three kings—the wise men from the East, of St. Matt. ii.-fell to the share of the Archbishop of Cologne, whose cathedral has ever since boasted of the holy spoil which is still shown there; but the Lombard League, formed in II67, finally defeated Barbarossa, in II76, at the battle of Legnano, fifteen miles from Milan. This battle established the freedom of the North Italian cities, though at the same time it did not put an end to the struggle between Guelf and Ghibelline. The Emperor Frederic II. renewed the war with the cities, and when it ceased, the factions designated by those names raised quarrels between the cities them- selves, and divided individual cities into hostile parties all through the thirteenth century. Venice, during the twelfth century, continued its ancient eastern connection and still held itself aloof from the other cities of Italy, though she assisted the Lombard League against Bar- barossa. During the twelfth century she was not the greatest commercial city of Italy. Pisa and Genoa occupied that position. The greatness of Pisa at that period is still attested by its cathedral, baptistery and bell tower. The fourth crusade, which started from # I84 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Venice, 1202–1204, largely extended the power of Venice at the expense of the Byzantine empire. From that time we date the extensive conquests made by Venice in Greece and the Levant. Venice began at that period to lose its ancient popular constitution. In fact all the Italian republics, Lombardic and Tuscan, as well as Venice soon lost their pure republican consti- tutions through stress of constant war, which necessitated a strong, vigorous government and vigorous military leaders. Military leadership and rule in a republic soon develop into a despotism. The people are thankful to yield up their troublesome rights and liberties in return for quietness, security and business prosperity. So it was in Venice. The grand council was formed in II72. This institution naturally in all cities soon assumed the place of the free popular assembly of all the citizens wherein secret measures could not possibly be devised. In 1297 Venice became a strict oligarchy by the limitation of this grand council to a certain number of families who succeeded by birth. This, together with the establishment, in 1311, of the Council of Ten, Completed that famous constitution which lasted till the end of the republic in 1797. After the fall of Constanti- nople in 1453 the old ties which connected Venice and Constantinople for a thousand years were finally dis- solved, and then Venice stood forth as the champion of Christendom against the Turks. The fourteenth century saw the gradual transference s ITALIAN HISTORY. 185 of all the republics into despotisms, a course that was intensified by the very riches to which they had attained, and which enabled them to hire mercenary troops, “Condottieri,” as they were called, from “condotta,” a paid contract to supply a certain number of fighting men in serviceable order. The leaders of these hired troops soon made themselves rulers of the towns which depended on them. During the fourteenth century were developed the Republican rulers or despots who have been ever since associated with the names of the Italian cities, such as the Visconti at Milan and the Medici at Florence. It would be impossible, however, in such a sketch as the present to attempt the history of the Italian cities during this period. Hallam, in his able and celebrated Chapter III. of his “Europe during the Middle Ages,” has related it in a comprehensive manner, remarking, however, its complex character in the following words:— “From the death of Frederic II., in 1250, to the invasion of Charles VIII., in 1494, a long and undis- tinguished period occurs which it is impossible to break into any natural divisions. It is an age in many respects highly brilliant, the age of poetry and letters, of art and continual improvement. Italy displayed an intellectual superiority in this period over the Transalpine nations, which certainly had not appeared since the destruction of the Roman Empire. But her political history presents a labyrinth of petty facts, so obscure I86 MEDIAEvaL HISTORY. and of so little influence as not to arrest the attention, so intricate and incapable of classification as to leave only confusion in the memory. The general events that are worthy of notice, and give a character to this long period, are the establishment of small tyrannies upon the ruins of republican government in most of the cities, the gradual rise of three considerable states, Milan, Florence and Venice, the naval and commercial rivalry between the last city and Genoa, the final acquisition by the popes of their present territorial Sovereignty and the revolutions in the Kingdom of Naples under the lines of Anjou and Aragon.” It is evident that what Hallam took one-seventh of his great work to tell, can be here only briefly noticed. The history of Florence and the Medici is bound up with the most celebrated of those Italian despotisms. The Medici were a commercial family who rose into fame and station at Florence about the year I3OO. They are enumerated among the chiefs of the Black Faction in Florence about the year I3O4, while again one of the family was beheaded by order of the Duke of Athens, who ruled there in 1343. But the greatest glory of the family is connected with the name of Lorenzo de' Medici, who ruled Florence from 1469. He is celebrated as the patron of science, art and learning, and also for his ability as a politician and Statesman. * ITALIAN HISTORY. . 187 * 2. Southern I taly, including the Papal See and the Kingdom of Naples. - The history of the Papacy during this period is for the most part one continuous story of internal schism —popes contending against popes—and of external struggles against the emperors and other sovereigns. The twelfth century is notable for the pontificates of Hadrian IV. and Alexander III. Hadrian was the only Englishman who ever held the papal See, II 53– II59. He is celebrated in history as having issued a bull transferring Ireland to Henry II., and as having put to death Arnold of Brescia, A.D. II 55, whose story has been already referred to. Alexander III., II60– II 79, saw the murder of Becket, and maintained a successful struggle against the greatest of the Hohen- staufens, Frederic Barbarossa, placing himself at the head of Italy as opposed to Germany, and thus standing forth as the champion of national rights. The next great pope was Innocent III., II98–1216, a man who carried the papal pretensions to the greatest height, and shrank from no conflict in the course of his activity. He fought with the Emperors Philip, Otho IV. and Frederic II., with Philip Augustus of France, with John of England. He devoted all energies to the I88 - - MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. resuscitation of the crusading spirit in Europe which he used as a means of destroying the schismatic Church of Constantinople, where he established in its stead a Latin hierarchy, A.D. 1203, after the capture of that city with the most horrible cruelties. He also, applied himself to the extirpation of heresy in Southern Gaul, in connection with which the Albigensian crusade and massacres occurred. Hallam has well summed up the result of Innocent's pontificate thus:—“In each of the three leading objects which Rome has pursued, independent sovereignty, supremacy over the Christian Church, control over the princes of the earth, it was the fortune of this pontiff to conquer. He realised that fond hope of so many of his predecessors, a dominion over Rome and the central parts of Italy. During his pontificate, Constantinople was taken by the Latins; and however he might seem to regret a diversion of the Crusaders, which impeded the recovery of the Holy Land, he exulted in the obedience of the new patriarch, and the reunion of the Greek Church. Never, perhaps, either before or since, was the great Eastern schism in so fair a way of being healed. Even the kings of Bulgaria and of Armenia acknowledged the supremacy of Innocent, and per- mitted his interference with their ecclesiastical institutions.” Innocent, however, did not win a permanent or a complete victory, and the same dreary struggle between | ITALIAN HISTORY. ſ 189 | the popes and the temporal sovereigns went on all through the thirteenth century. On the whole, how- ever, the popes were the victors. Never di they carry their pretentions so high. Innocent IV. . Alexander IV. triumphed over the Emperor Frederic II. Martin IV. absolved the subjects of Peter of Aragon from their allegiance; Boniface VIII. attempted to drive Edward I. from Scotland; while again the popes naturally enough claimed as feudal lords to interpose in the quarrels which raged for the possession of Naples between the houses of Anjou and Aragon. The basis of this claim to dispose of kingdoms was the Canon Law, the first great collection of which was published by Gratian in his work called the Decretum, A.D. II40, based on the false decretals of Isidore, a forgery of the ninth century. [Milman’s “Latin Christianity,” i chap. iv.] Ook v., The residence of the popes at Avignon, as already described [see France], marked the fourteenth Century. This, together with the schism, I 378–1429, which followed, largely reduced papal power during the later years of this period. The kingdom of Naples wº ruled by the Normans, by the Hohenstaufens, by the French and the house of Anjou, till the Sicilian A.D. 1282, and then by the house of Aragon. t espers, | | j I90 | MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, ^. | | G.—RUSSIA AND POLAND. } | \ I. Russia. \ The º: of Russia during the first three centuries of this period, I IOO–14OO, was one of perpetual wars. The vast extent of territory now comprised in Russia was split up into a number of republics, of which Novgorod was the chief, all of which waged war upon On 62 another, while the Tartar-Mongols exercised after I 237—when Moscow was burned by them—supreme dominion over the whole land. The Tartar-Mongol rule lasted till I480 when the Russians gained their freedom, though this day remnants of the Mongols still continue "to exist. During the Mongol dominion two states slowly came to maturity whose existence has determined the course of modern history. The princes of Mosców first emerge into the clear light of history about thi year 1300. From them are descended the modern emperors of Russia. The name of Moscow first appears in the Chronicles about II 47, when a prince built on the º spot where the Kremlin now stands, the city of Moscºbw. The name of a still existing church, “St. Saviour of the Pines,” preserves the memory of the thick forests which then clothed both banks of the stream on which it is situated. The real founder of the principality of Moscow was Daniel, a son of Alexander | RUSSIAN AND POLISH HISTORY. 191 Nevski, a chief who had received it and a few villages as his inheritance. This Daniel was the, first to be buried, A.D. 1303, in the Church of St. Michael the Archangel, which continued till the time of Peter the Great to be the burial place of the Russian princes. This was the nucleus whence sprung the present empire of Russia. A number of princes succeeded from 1303—when George, brother of Daniel, obtained the throne—till Vassili the Blind, under whom Russia first appears in the West. Isidore, the Metropolitan of Moscow, took part in the Council of Florence, 1439, intended to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches. He signed the act of union, but his conduct was repu- diated by Vassili and the Russian Church. Ivan the Great, A.D. I.462–1505, was Vassili's son. He freed Russia from the Mongol yoke, brought Novgorod under his sway, waged war with Lithuania and the Poles, married Sophia Palaeologus of the imperial House of Constantinople, formed an alliance with Venide, intro- duced Greek art and civilisation, and united ºt into one compact state. Rambaud thus shows the im- portance of Ivan's career: “Ivan the Great became the heir of the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Caesars. He took for the new arms of Russia the two- headed eagle, which in its archaic form is * to be found in the “Palais a facettes” of the Kremlin. Moscow succeeded to Byzantium as Byzantium had succeeded to Rome. Having become the only Metropolis of I92 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. l— Orthodoxy, i was incumbent on her to protect the Greek Christians of the entire East, and to prepare the revenge against Islamism for the work of 1453.” With the Greeks came Italians, Aristotele Fioraventi of Bologna, who was Ivan's architect, military engineer and master of artillery; Marco Ruffo, his ambassador in Persia; Pietro Antonio, who built his imperial palace; Paul Bossio, his metal founder, besides architects and arquebusiers. Ivan's son, Vassili Ivanovitch, 1505–1533, pur- sued the same course, waged war with Poland in the West and with the Tartars in the East, and increased his communications with Europe, sending embassies to all its courts save those of England, and France. He was the correspondent of Leo X. and Clement VII., of Maximilian and Charles V., of Gustavus Vasa, of Sultan Selim the conqueror of Egypt, and Suleiman the Magnificent, In the East, the great Mogul of India, Baber, descen- dant of Tamerlane, sought his friendship. He invited learned Strangers to Russia, the most illustrious of whom º Maximus, surnamed the Greek, a monk of Mount * and a native of Arta in Albania. In his youth he had studied at Venice and Florence, and had been an admirer of Savonarola. Vassili sent for him with other Greeks to translate Greek books into Slavonic, and to arrange his library, which astonished Maximus by its manuscript wealth. RUSSIAN AND POLISH HISTORY IQ3 Vassili was succeeded by his son, Ivan I (., surnamed the Terrible, 1533–1584, under whom Russia extended its bounds in the East, till towards the closelbf his reign, when Siberia was added. He was unfortunate in the West where he was vanquished by the Poles and Swedes. During the reign of Ivan IV. the English penetrated in 1553 into the White Sea, where they found the Russians already established. The chief of the expedition went to Moscow, where he had an interview with Ivan, was favourably received and authorised to trade in his dominions. The same friendly º Were kept up during the reigns of Mary and Elizábeth. The first Russian ambassador was received by bueen Mary, February 28th, 1557. His name was º Nepei. During Elizabeth's reign ambassadors frequently passed and repassed between England and Russia, and Ivan himself wished to marry Lady Mary Hastings, cousin of Queen Elizabeth, who, however, declined the alliance. The subsequent development of this great country belongs to modern history. | 2. Poland. The early history of Poland is involved in much darkness. Its conversion from Paganism is dated in the second half of the tenth century. Miseco, IPuke of Poland, married in 965 a princess named Dubravă, sister of the Duke of Bohemia, and became a Christian through MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Christianity at first did not exercise e upon the Polish sovereigns, as we find that King Holeslas II., surnamed the Cruel, murdered St. Stanislau , Bishop of Cracow, May 8th, Io'79, when celebrating mass, because the bishop had reproved him for his crimes. The Poles, Russians and Bohemians were all Slavs or Slavonians. The Poles and Bohemians adopted Latin Christianity while the Russians adopted Eastern or º Christianity. This fact accentuated the rivalry which soon developed itself between the Russians and the Poles. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the tribes of Lithuania increased in power. The Livonian a fid Teutonic knights attempted to convert them about the year I2OO in a military fashion, but only succeeded in confirming their hatred to Christianity. In 1386, however, the Lithuanians Were º in a more peaceful way. Their king Iagellon married in that year, Hedwiga, Queen of Poland, was baptized, received the crown of Poland, and thus constituted Poland and Lithuania one united state with which henceforth the Moscow princes waged lmost endless war; till during the reign of Ivan the Grºat, 1462–1505, Russia deprived Lithuania of a great dial of territory. Ivan IV., about 1560, destroyed the Order of Livonian Knights, but their quarrel was taken up and sustained by Poland till its final dissolution. - SPANISH HISTORY. I95 º H.—SPAIN. | $ AUTHORITY...—Condé's History of the Arabs in Spain, translated by Foster, in Bohn's Series, 3 vols. | | This period of Spanish history opens with the achievements of Alfonso I., king of all Christian Spain —Aragon, Navarre, Castile and Leon—and, from his warlike character, surnamed El Batallador. He was the greatest king of Mediaeval Spain, and ºf igned from IIo.4—I 134. Aided by French and ºyvolunteers, he waged perpetual war against the Saracens, took Tarragona and Saragossa, which for four centuries had been in their possession, and made it his capital, converting the Great Mosque of the latter place into the church of St. Salvador. During his réign the Benedictines were introduced into Spain by hº Archbishop of Toledo. They contributed much to the progress of civilisation and learning. | . The contest between the Moors and the Christians went on all through the twelfth and thirteenth centuries with very varying fortunes, the details of which would only burden the memory without conveying any distinct view of the struggle. We shall therefore only note the } 196 | MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | leading events. The battle of Tolosa was fought between the Moors and Alfonso IV., of Castile, on July 16th, I 212. It was so crushing a defeat for the Moors that the Mahometans count it one of the most disastrous in their history, while its memory is perpetuated in Castile and Toledo by a festival called the Triumph of the Cross. | ; Alfonso lW., the victor in this battle, was noted not only for his valour, but also for his love of learning and the protection he extended to learned men. He founded, in 1208, the first Spanish university at Palencia, now united with Salamanca. Ferdillanº III., king of Leon and Castile, gained great advantages over the Moors between 1233 and 1248. He captured Toledo, Cordova and Seville. The loss of Cordova, in 1236, was specially felt by the Moors, as it was a kind of sacred city on account of the long residence of the Caliphs, and the magnificence of its principal mosque, which had been originally built by Abderrahman I. on the site of a Roman temple. It is even still one of the most splendid specimens of Moorish architecture in Europe. After the capture of Cordova, the Saracens estab- lished the kingdom of Granada in 1238, which resisted for 250 years the hostile attacks of all opponents. The next great defeat was suffered by the Moors, | | SPANISH HISTORY. I97 October 30th, 1342, on the banks bf the river Salado, when Alfonso XI. of Castile defeated them with a loss of Ioo,000 men killed or taken prisoners. He besieged Algerisias, in 1344, where the Saracens first used cannon. Alfonso received frºm our King Edward III. a present of a flock of Englis sheep which became the ancestors of the celebrated Merinos of Spain. | Spanish history for a century now presents no great or important event, till the reign of Henry IV. of Castile, 1454. He reigned till 1474 when he was succeeded by his sister Isabella and her husband Ferdinand of Aragon, 1474–1512. During their reign the kingdom of Granada was extinguished, and the Moors finally conquered, November 25th, 1491; America was dis- covered by Christopher Columbus, 1492; ' and the Inquisition organised with large powers to crush out the remains of Mahometanism, 1480. I98 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | \ | I.—SCANDINAVIA, couraising DENMARK, NORWAY AND SWEDEN. | I. Denmark. | | The history of Denmark during this period is obscure, yet so far as we are acquainted with it, it was marked by much the same features as that of other European countries. Thus, in the twelfth century we find the feudal system introduced, which naturally resulted in prolonged'contests for superiority between the sovereign and the inobility during the thirteenth century. A parliament sprang up at the same period, and the towns gained in power and were enfranchised. The kings of Denmark during this period were obscure personages, rejoicing for the most part in such names as Knut, Waldemar and Eric. The most remarkable sovereign was Waldemar II., I2O2–1241. In 1219 he undertook a crusade against the Pagans of Esthonia, on which occasion the Danish national colours were adopted, which * a white cross on a red field. The fourteenth century was marked by frequent wars between Denmark and the Hanseatic League, so-called | | SCAN DINAVIAN HISTORY. I99 r— from Hansa, a trade guild. The Leagueſ being a great German trading corporation naturally came into conflict with Denmark, which commanded the outlets of the Baltic Sea ; during one of such wars, | 361–65, with Waldemar of Denmark, Copenhagen was captured and plundered by the League. The most important event in Mediaeval Danish history was theſ union of all Scandinavia into one kingdom, which happened by the Compact or union of Calmar in 1397. º Margaret, daughter of Waldemar of Denmark, married Hakon VI. of Norway and Sweden, and finally ruled the three united countries. This union lasted, in the case of Sweden, till I 523, when Gustavus Vasa broke the yoke of Denmark. In the case of Norway it lasted till 1814. l \ 2. Norway and Sweden. | The history of these lands is still more obscure from I roo to 1500. Norway was the scene of varying struggles during the twelfth century till about 1184, when a new and vigorous dynasty ascended the throne in the person of a king named Sverri, 1177–1202. His grandson Hakon V., I217–1263, was the most notable of these early kings. He curbed the clergy, acquired Iceland, 1260, and Greenland, and was defeated by the Scotch king at Largs on the Clyde, 1261. Norway sur- rendered the Hebrides to Scotland by the ſtreaty of } | | | 2OO | MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Perth, 1268, entered into union with Denmark by treaty of Calmar, 1397, and surrendered to Scotland the Orkneys and $hetlands in I468, thus finally abandoning the last relics of its ancient conquests. | | The early history of Sweden is even still more obscure and confused. The twelfth century was marked by the diffusion of Christianity throughout the whole kingdom, and º establishment of the Archbishopric of Upsala in 1163). Stockholm was founded in I255. In 1319, Magnus, an infant son of Erik, ascended the throne. He º till 1364, and married his son Hakon to Margaret of Denmark, thus uniting the three crowns in 1397. Margaret reigned over United Scandinavia till I412, wen, in default of male issue, she was "...º. grandson of Albert of Mecklenburg, King of Sweden, 1365–1388. He was followed by Christian I. and Christopher. BYZANTINE HISTORY. 2O I J.—ByzANTINE Ewpire! Isaac I. * ve Constantine X. Eudocia Romanus IV. Michael VII. Nicephorus III. Alexius I. John II. o de Manuel I. Alexius II. Andronicus I. Isaac II. Alexius III. .. Theodore I. .. John III. Theodore II. .. John IV. Michael VIII. Andronicus II. Andronicus III. John V. « * * * Manuel II. .. John VI. .. Constantine XI. * EMPERoRs. ] | Io57—Io59 I o59—Io67 Iό67—1o68 Io68—Io7I 1671—1078 Io78—Io8I ICûV* I8 I II 43 II 43— f I8o II8o—I, I83 I 183—1185 1 185—195 1195—i2o4 I2o4—1222 I222 — I. 254 Ę 1258 ' seg-re; 1282—1328 I328—I34I 134-39; I39I—I425 I42 ;-i; 1448—1453 \ \ | \ 2O2 | MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | * The history of the Eastern Empire during the period covered by the above list of emperors is simply a narrative of continuous decay. It is filled, too, with a multitude of revolutions' and rebellions, the relation of which could only burden the memory without imparting any broad view of the progress of events, which led to the final catastrophe. We propose, therefore, very briefly to sketch the great movements of the period which brought about that result, and whose consequences are still manifest on the European map. These were--(1). The rise, progress and conquest of the Seljouk Turks. (2). The Crusades and the Latin Kingdom of Constanti- nople. (3). The Mongol invasions and the rise of the º Osman Turks. (4). The last attempt at union be the East and West, followed by the capture of Constantinople. \ I. The Seljouk Turks. The erhperors of this period were very weak and poor characters, with the exception perhaps of the earlier mºtº of the Comnenus dynasty, Io&I— I I8o. Yet it was under the Comneni that the Seljouk Turks became really formidable to Constanti- nople. They first attacked the Roman Empire about the year, Ioso. Under the Sultan, Alp Arslan, who succeeded to the throne in Iof 3, they conquered Georgia t } 4 ) | BYZANTINE HISTORY. | 2O3 and Armenia, capturing Ani, the capital of the latter country, June 6th, Io94, the ruins of whose massive walls still testify to the power and resources of the Armenian kings, who fortified it in the tenth century. [Saint Martin's edition of Le Beau, Histoire du Bas- Empire.] The policy of the Seljouk Turks was to depopu- late the agricultural districts and thus render them fit for the habitation of nomad tribes alone. In pursuit of this policy they spread themselves all over the Asiatic provinces of the Empire, which they quickly reduced to a state of desolation, from which they have never since recovered; defeated the Roman armies, and finally estab- lished themselves as Sultans, at first of Roum, otherwise Iconium, and then of Nicaea, a dynasty which continued to exist from Io'74 till the death of Alaeddin III. in 1307. [Appendix to Finlay's History of Greece, Vol. III.] Their progress was one continuous scene of success till the Crusaders appeared, against whom they were at times successful and at times unsuccessful. They were Con- quered in the thirteenth century by the Mongols, and their power crushed in the beginning of the fourteenth by the Grand Company of the Catalans, an army of western mercenaries which delivered Asia Minor, from the Seljouks in order to ravage and plunder it themselves, 1303–1307. It is a curious fact that the Seljouks established themselves at Iconium with the complete goodwill of the Christian agricultural population by taking advantage of the unhappy relations which existed } } | | 2O4 | MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | | between the Byzantine aristocracy and their tenants. They made t e tenants proprietors of their lands on payment of a land tax to the government, and expelled the landlords. 2. The Crusades) and the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople. The history of the Crusades, followed by the establishment ºf the Latin Empire of Constantinople, is closely connected with that of the founder of the dynasty of the Comneni, Alexius I., Io&I–III.8. He is best known to modern times through his daughter, Anna Comnena, a learned lady who has left us in her works a complete but tedious picture of the wretched state of the once great Byzantine empire. He was the nearest approach to a great emperor we can discover among the later emperors; he withstood the Turks, availing himself judiciously of Crusading help, extended the bounds of the empire and steered a very wise and clever course amid the succes- sive shoals of Westerns who sought Constantinople, demanding provisions and transport into Asia. Alexius lived on good terms with the Crusaders, but his suc- cessors, Manuel and Isaac Angelus, are accused of conspiracy with the Mahometans against the Christian warriors. j ! BYZANTINE HISTORY. 2O5 *-*-**-*-* * **** **-*-* ---------------- - --------- --- ----- -- -- --- The hostility of the Greeks towards) the Crusaders increased with every fresh incursion from the West, till at last it terminated in a massacre of the Latin residents of Constantinople in II83. But the West had its revenge. The fourth Crusade, i 198–1204, was intended to conquer Mahometanism. | Its permanent result was the destruction of the Greek Empire of Con- stantinople which was twice besieged in the course of the years 1203 and I2O4, and treated with all the horrors of a military storm. The French and Venetians, thereupon, agreed to divide the empire between them, twelve electors, six from each nation, were chosen to regulate the succession to the throne. A Latin emperor, Bald- win I., and a Latin patriarch were chosen, the Latin Church established, and Constantinoplgwas Once again united in communion with Rome. This Latin empire lasted from 1204 to 1261, when the Greeks recovered Constantinople, during which time the Greek emperors ruled at Nicaea and Trebizond. The emperors of the Latin dynasty were Baldwin I., I2O4–I2O5; Henry, 1205–1216; Peter de Courtenay, 1217–1229; Robert, 1220–1228; Baldwin II., I228–1261. 3. The Mongol Invasion and the Rise of the Ottoman Empire. The dynasty of the Palaeologi restored Greek | 2O6 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | dominion and the Greek Church in Constantinople under Michael VIII., 1261–1282. Under him we per- ceive the first beginnings of the Ottoman Turks, who during the next century took the place of the Seljouk Turks of Iconium, ruined by the irruption of the Mongollinvaders. Mr. Finlay thus describes; Vol. III., p. 360, the origin of a power which has so largely influenced modern history:—“About the time Michael VIII. usurped the throne of the Greek empire a small Turkish tribe made its first appearance in the Seljouk empire. Othman, who gave his name to this new band of immigrants, is said to have been born in the year 1258, and his father, Ertogrul, entered the Seljouk empire as the chief of only four hundred families; yet Cºkhan, the son of Othman, founded the Othoman empire. No nation ever increased so rapidly from such small beginnings, and no government ever constituted, itself with greater sagacity; but no force or prudence could have enabled this small tribe of nomads to rise with such rapidity to power had it not been that the energy of the Greek empire and nation were paralysed by political and moral corruption.” The progress of the Othomans or Ottomans during the fourteenth century was very remarkable. They were ruled by a series of vigorous sovereigns, under whom they conquered Asia Minor, including Bithynia as far as the shores of the Hellespont, and crossing into Europe established themselves at Adrianople in 1361. | BYZANTINE HISTORY. | 2O7 Their course was checked for a time by the conquests of Timour or Tamerlane, who defeated and captured in 1402 the Sultan Bajazet whom, it is jº he carried . about in an iron cage. The names of these early Ottoman rulers are as follows:—Othman, 1299–1326; Orkhan, 1326–1360; Amurath or Murad I., 1360–1389 —under whom the Janizaries were established out of the human tribute levied on the Christian inhabitants of the Balkan peninsula–Bajazet I., 1389–1403. After his death civil war ensued between the five sons of Bajazet, viz., Mustapha, Isa, Soliman, Mousa and Mahomet I. This last finally succeeded to the throne 1413–1421. He was followed by his son, Amurath or Murad II., 1421–1451, and by Mahomet II., 1451–1481, under whom Constantinople was finally taken. } | 4. Fall of Constantinople. The last two centuries of the Byzantine Empire present miserable scenes of misgovernment, civil wars and religious superstitions, and the only |subject for wonder is that the fresh, young, vigorous Ottoman government did not sooner sweep the tottering and rotten fabric out of its path of conquest. | The fourteenth century was one continuous SCéIne \ | | 2O8 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, | of intestine struggles between the Emperors and the Catalans, between rival aspirants to the throne, and against the Genoese at Pera and Galata. Religious struggles and superstitions intensified the disorders of the State. Michael Palaeologus joined the Church of Rome, adopted the Filioque clause in the creed, and persecuted the Greek Church, I 274–1282. His son Andronicus returned to the faith of his ancestors. Thé fourteenth century is marked by the extraordinary dispute concerning the Uncreated Light of Mount Tabor, 1341-1351, a subject upon which the celebrated imperial historian, John Cantacuzene, 1347– 1355, and Nicephorus Gregoras, a contemporary, treat at great length. It would be impossible here to explain the meaning of this controversy. It must suffice to say that the monks of Mount Athos maintained that in abstraction from all earthly things and in profound meditation, there was revealed to their bodily eye the Uncreated Light of God which they identiº with that manifested at the trans- figuration of Christ. Hence the name of the con- troversy which engaged imperial attention equally with the civil war which raged between Cantacuzene and John Paiºlogue. I34I-I39 I. The last century of the empire was marked by repeated º after union with Rome, as the seem to have become conscious that their ) emperors | BYZANTINE HISTORY. 209 only hope for successful resistance to Mahometan power lay in obtaining help from the West. This the popes would not grant to a schismatic nation. Thus we find efforts in this direction made by Androni- cus III. and Benedict XII. in 1339, by Cantacuzene and Clement VI. in 1348, by John Palaeologus and Innocent VI. in 1355, John Palaeologus even visited Urban V. at Rome, while his son and successor, Manuel, extended his travels to France and England about the year I4oo, a visit which has left us a curious description of these islands in the pageº of the Greek historian, Laonicus Chalcondyles. The last attempt at union was made e Council of Florence in 1439, when the Emperor, John VI., the Patriarch of Constantinople, and all the Greek representatives, except the Bishop of Ephesus, adopted the doctrines of the Roman Church concerning the procession of the Holy Ghost, the nature of Purgatory, the use of unleavened bread in the Holy Communion and papal Supremacy; and solemnly ratified the union of the two churches, July 6th, 1439, an act which was promptly repudiated by the Greek Church at large. But all these efforts were in vain, and the end of the empire was rapidly approaching. l \ ) for a time threatened Ottoman dominion in Europe, but the victory of Varna in 1444 re-established it. John \o \ \ The exploits of John Hunniades and the º: | | 2 IO | MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Palaeologus, after the failure of his efforts to obtain Western help, made the best of his situation, allied himself with the Sultan Amurath, and died in peace . with him in 1448. He was succeeded, however, by his brother, Constantine XI., destined to be the last of the long succession of Greek emperors. He had previously ruled in Greece, whence he carried on war with the Ottomans. The Sultan, Amurath, died in I451, and was succeeded by his son, Mahomet II., a man of un- bounded ambition and great talent. He and Constantine soon quarrelle” and Mahomet was enabled to carry out his cherishe/ sign of seizing Constantinople, on May 29th, 1453. n the emperor was slain, and St. Sophia turned int urkish mosque. SARACEN OR MAHOMETAN -- 2 II ſ | | \ K.—SARACEN or MAHOMETAN Empire. | In the account given in the previous section dealing with the Mahometan Empire we traced the history of the Caliphate down through the various dynasties to the time of Selim I., wher; the office was transferred to the sultans of Constantinople. In the account we have just given of the Bºzantine empire during this period we have traced the º and progress of the Ottoman Turks, whose sultan now represents the Caliphs. But all through this period, I IOO–1453, the Egyptian sultans were the real centres of Mahometan power and splendour. l Saladin was the most brilliant Eastern ruler of the twelfth or any succeeding century. He was a Koord from beyond the Tigris, who raised himself by sheer force of genius to the throne of Egypt left vacant by the fall of the Fatimite dynasty, He was one of the ablest generals that ever existed in any age. He conquered and defeated Egypt, waged war with the Crusaders and our own Richard I., with . rulers of Damascus, Aleppo and Diarbekir, conque red Mecca, Medina and Happy Arabia, and at the hour of his º | | 2 I 2 | MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. } death, March 4th, I 193, possessed an empire which stretched from the African Tripoli to the Tigris, and from the Indian Ocean to the mountains of Armenia. His character, which was brave, vigorous and mag- nanimous, has been fully and brilliantly sketched by Gibbon in his 59th chapter. He was a very wise ruler of Egypt, and during his rule many public works of great utility were executed. ſ The Memlook or Mameluke dynasties which succeeded Saladin's descendants in I25o ruled for centuries with great vigour. The Memlooks were originally 'slaves of two distinct races, advanced to the pºiſºn of praetorian guards on account of their strength and bravery. Turkish Memlook Sultans reigned from 1250 to 1388, when the Cir- cassian Memlook Sultans succeeded. Under the earlier Sultans of these dynasties their sway extended over Egypt, Nubia, Arabia and Syria. Several of them were able rulers, under whom Egypt flourished, libraries Were established, buildings erected and learning encouraged One of the greatest events in Mahometan history during this period was the irruption and subse- quent conversion of a large section of the Mongols. The invasions of Jenghis Khan in the beginning of the thirteenth century threatened the existence of Mahometánism as well as of Christianity. Large f # SARACEN OR MAHOMETAN HISTORY. 2I3 numbers of the Mongols soon abandohed the Deistic Creed of their ancestors and embraced Mahometan- ism; and so we find that Tamerlane of Samarcand, who captured an Ottoman Sultan and sacked Mahometan towns likeAleppo, as he did in 14oo, was a Mahometan, though of the Persian Sect, and, there- fore, a heretic in the eyes of the more orthodox. The Mahometans and Mongols exercised a great influence over India during this period. In fact, their history constitutes all we know of the country at that time. The Mahometans made repeated efforts to conquer India. Thus the second great Mahomſ-tan conqueror of that country was Muhammad Ghori, who flourished from 1176 to 1206. After his death Delhi appears 2.S the Mahometan capital of India, where the Slave dynasty flourished from 1206 to 1288. In 1294 the third great conqueror appeared named Allah-ud-din. He died in 1316. Next came the Mahometan Mongols under Tamerlane in 1398, followed in I525 by Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane, who founded the Mongol and Mahometan Empire which lasted till 1857. | * 2I4. t MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. i } .3% L.—CHINA. The history of China is intimately bound up with that of the Mongols, who first invaded it early in the twelfth century. Jenghis Khan established his dominion over it in 121 . displacing the Kin dynasty, which had previously rulºd there, but which finally fell in 1232. A branch of the family of Jenghis reigned there till 1368. Ogdai, son of Jenghis, I227–I24I, was a vigorous sovereign.) He organised China, establishing a code of law º custom duties. The º celebrated monarch of the Mongol dynasty was Kublai Khan, 1259–1294, who ruled not º China, but all Asia, except India and Arabia. His reign was the most illustrious period of Chinese history. We have a contemporary account of it from Marco Polo, the Venetian, who visited the court | of Kublai, and described its glories. The Mongol dynasty terminated in 1368, in the person of Shun-ſte, 1333–1368. The Ming or Bright dynasty succeeded in 1368 | *~ CHINESE HISTORY. in the person of Choo-Yuen-Chang! priest who assumed the title of Hung- 1398. He naturally supported Buddhism 2 sº the ancient religion of China, Tāoism,_ºhe Ming dynasty lasted till 1643, when it was ceeded by the Manchoo Tartar dynasty, which 1 possesses the throne, the shaved head and pigſſils being the distinctive signs of Tartar supremacy. The Great Wall of China was, as already stated, briginally built by the Emperor Che-Wang-te in the third century B.C. to restrain Tartar incursions. In passing, some of the most mºnº. of the later Middle Ages have been noted. The subject is a vast one. Merely a general reference to authorities can, therefore, now be given. J In the West, Abelard, followed by the long line of the schoolmen, including Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus, rendered this period celebrated. A good analysis of the writers and councils to the end of the thirteenth century will be found in the learned French Benedictine work Ceillier's Histoire des Auteurs Ecclesias- tiques, in xiv. vols., 2nd edition, Paris, 1863, For an account of Chaucer and the rise of English poetry in the fourteenth century, and in general for the develop. ment of English literature, the student may º Dr. W. Smith's Manuals of the English Language and of y MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. ºuye. The last chapter of Hallam's consult it about Scholasticism and te and the Italian poets; to which may . Symonds' History of the Renaissance in Italy, Lond., 1875. As for the East, the Bonn edition of the Byzantine Historians and the great work of Assemani, the Bibliotheca Orientalis, collect together the writers of this period, including Gregory Bar-Hebraeus, the most industrious of Eastern Mediaeval students. A useful and convenient authority for the lives of the various writers ... above is Schaff and Herzog's Encyclopædia Toº Historical Theology, New York, 1884, iii. vols. It isſ practically a translation of Herzog's great German Encyclopædia. (also about be added J. CHRONOLOGICAL '** OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. CHRON OLOGICAL TAIBLES OF } g | MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | ) | ~y FIRST PERIOD. A.D. FROM THE DEATH OF THEoDosius THE GREAT To THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE, (A.D. 395–814). 395 Theodosius the Great, Emperor tº º !. . . 379–395 Division of Empire between Arcadius and Honorius . . .395 Council of Carthage settles Canon of Scripture . . . 397 Chrysostom (347–407) Patriarch of Cºţilºš ... 398 Decree of Honorius, for Destruction of Pagan T emples 399 400 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Confessions of St. Augustine (Bishop of Hippo) (354–430) 400 Revolt of Gainas; Goths capture Constantinople .. 4oo Invasion of Italy by Alaric tº & tº tº .l. . . 402 Western Capital transferred to Ravenna | 4O2 Innocent I., Pope (402–417) & © tº º •l. . . 4O2 Alaric defeated at Pollentia by Stilicho .. | 4O3 Abolition of Gladiatorial Shows .. tº & . . . . 404 Banishment of Chrysostom tº ſº. tº ſº tº tº . . 4.04 Radagaſsus defeated by Stilicho .. tº tº * * ... 406 Revolt of Constantine in Britain . . tº tº tº tº . . 4O7 Stilicho murdered .. tº ºn tº º tº ſº dº ſº ... 408 Theodosius II. Emperor of East .. tº º * * ... 408 Vandals enter Spain tº tº tº tº tº e * * . . 409 Alaric captures and sacks Rome .. tº g tº de . . 4 IO Honorius recalls Roman legions from Britain . . . . 4 IO Rise of the Pelagian heresy \ . . 4 II Cyril Bishop of Alexandria. . º tº tº ſº • C. 4I2 Athaulf concludes peace with Honorius and wins Gaul and Spain from the Vandals . . © º * g. 4I2–18 4.18 22O - | | MEDLEVAL HISTORY. A.D. FIRST PERIOD–continued. 418 West Got lic Kingdom in Gaul under Theodoric (419– 45I tº - • . . . . . • * . . . . . . . . 4I9 Franks on the Lower Rhine (under Merovingian Kings) - (420–451) • & - º e & Cº. . . 42O Death of St. 3 erome. . . . . - 42O valentiaiah III. Emperor of West Revolt of Boniface in Africa * * • tº º • . . 42 Vandals expelled from Spain by the West Goths e 9 º, Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople . . e - . . 428 Vandals land in Africa under Genseric . . . . . . . 429 Kingdom of Vandals in Africa (429-534) g - • - 429 Death of Sã. Augustine ... • * º s tº - 43 I Third General Council at Ephesus * - * * - condemns Nestorianism . . - - tº e . . . 43 I Mission of 'St. Patrick • . . . . . . * - (?) 432 Attila, King of the Huns, (433-453) • * * - • , 433 The Vandāls capture Carthage g tº - 439 Leo I.'(the Great) Pope (440-461) 425 440 Attila invades the East . . - * * tº tº • , 44 I. Theodosius concludes peace with Attila.. * @ . . 446 Hengist and Horsa land in Kent . . , is º & a • - 449 Death of Theodosius II., Marcian, Emperor of East .. 450 Fourth General Council of Chalcedon * - 45 I Battle of Châlons; Theodoric slain 45 I Orosius * - º e Attila, invades Italy . . • . & A (, º . tº - . . 452 Proclus (412–485) . . • * : * , • . tº tº • - 4 I2 Republic of Venice founded tº º .* * * - ... 452 Valentinian III. killed at Ravenna; Maximus, Emperor 455 The Vandals, under Genseric, sack Rome .. 455 Avitus, Emperor . . tº º & a • . tº e . . 455 . Majorian, Emperor of Wes . . . . . tº º • . 457 Leo I. (the Thracian), Emperor in East . . . . . . . 457 Ricimer tº e tº e © ºt . . . . . e tº . . 461 Anthemius, Emperor of West . . . . e e . . 467 Olybryius , , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472 Glycerius and Julius Nepos, Emperors of West . . . 473–5 Ileo II. and Zeno, Emperors in the East e - © e Augustulus, last Emperor of West 4 º' tº o tº - 475 END OF ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST.. 476 Senate at Rome votes Zeno sole Emperor tº º . . 477 Odoacer, King of the Heruli, patrician in Italy ... ??? | Clovis, King of the Salian Franks, (481–5II) . . . . 481 474 " _481 i } CHRONOLOGICAL wº 22 I A.D. FIRST, PERIOD–continued. 481 - - - Clovis defeats Syagrius at Soissons * , tº e ... 486 . Theodoric, King of the East. Goths inv, de Italy .. 489 Gelasius, Pope . . . . . tº gº ... W. * @ • - 492 Odoacer defeated and killed * * * tº ſº • - 493 Theodoric, King of the Goths, founds kingdom of the East Goths in Italy, (493–555) º e tº • - 493 Kingdom of Wessex founded • * • * * * . . 495 Clovis, King of Salian Franks, baptized tº ſº . . 496 500 Theodoric at Rome .. tº gº ºr . . . . & © West Gothic Kingdom in Spain, (507–711) . . . . 507 * e J - Justin I., Emperor . . * @ * - ... 518 Death of Boëthius (470–526) * & !. tº e ... 526 Death of Theodoric. . tº e tº ºn -i- tº º ... 526 Accession of Justinian I., Eastern Emperor . . . . 527 Benedict (480-543) founds his Order . . . . . . . 529 Schools of Athens closed by Justinian . tº º “ Institutes and Pandects of Justinian .. tº º 529–33 Chosroës, King of Persia . . . . . tº sº * is s . . 53 I Campaigns of Belisarius against the Vandals in Africa, 533–4 Against the Goths in Italy.. * - tº º tº º 534 Destroys Gothic Kingdom in Italy • . . gº tº • - 539 Belisarius in the East tº gº e & * * tº e • - 54 I Goths under Totila recover Italy .. tº º tº a • - 54.I Gregory of Tours (544–595) e e % is 544 Justinian's Edict of the “Three Chapters” 544 Belisarius again in Italy . . tº º tº e tº º . .544-9 Recall of Belisarius tº º tº º tº e , - s • - 549 Fifth General Council, (Second of Constantinople) .. 553 Narses, successor of Belisarius, defeats Teias, last Gothic King in Italy ſº tº § tº tº º • , 553 Narses, first Exarch of Ravenna .. tº º e ‘º • - 554 Clotaire, sole King of the Franks tº ſº * e ge ... 558 Peace between Justinian and Chosroës .. tº º ... 562 Columba (521-597) at Iona * † & ºn .. ... 563 Death of Justinian ; Justin II., Emperor # g ... 565 End of the Monophysite Controversy .. tº º ... 565 Lombards under Alboin invade Italy . . . . . ... 567 Lombard kingdom in Italy (568-774) . . tº gº . . .568 Birth of Mahomet .. tº tº º tº ºt • * . . 570 Maurice, Emperor . . & º tº e Q & tº º ... 582 582 | { MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 222 A.D. | FIRST PERIOD–continued. 582 Columban is in Burgundy .. © tº * - 585 King Recºred reclaims Spain from Arianism 589 Gregory I., the Great, Pope (590–604) 590 Aethelberht, King of Kent (590–616) 590 Augustinelands in Kent .. tº º tº - • * 597 6oo ! . . . . . . . . . a tº e º 'º e º e º sº a e º 'º - sº º & º º e s is a e º a º º ºr e º ſº a tº e s tº º e º a tº a º Phocas, Emperor . . tº º tº & 6O2 Beginning of Mahomet's mission 609 ; (610-642) 6IO Campaign bf Chosroës II. . . . . . - - 6II–615. Eadwine, King of Northumbria (617–633) 617 Mahomet driven from Mecca; the Hegira 622 Caedmon to a tº tº • *. tº º Wars of Heraclius with the Persians 623–628 Adamnan (625–705) * - e e e - 625 Conversiorſ of Northumbria by Paulinus 625 Persians and Avars besiege Constantinople 626 Penda, King of Mercia (627–655). . & ſº tº & 627 Death of St. Gall, the Apostle of Switzerland . . ... 627 * Conquest of Arabia by Mahomet.. - * & 629–632 Death of Mahomet .. * - * e ... 632 The Saracens conquer Syria 632–638 The Saracens conquer Persia 632–65 I Omar at Jerusalem .. 637 Monothelite disputes º 638 Amrou takes Alexandria .. tº tº . . . . 64O Rotharis publishes the laws of the Lombards ... 643 Africa conquered by the Saracens 647–698 Omniade Caliphs at Damascus ... 660 Synod of Whitby . . º e & e - - 664 Theodore of Tarsus, Primate of England 669 Birth of Bede (672–735) .. tº ſº & º © a 672 First Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens.. 673 St. Boniface born .. tº tº tº tº e - tº g 68O Sixth General Council (Third of Constantinople). . 680 Ina, King of Wessex (688–726) * - tº e ... 688 Wilfrid converts the South Saxons 685 Carthage taken by the Saracens .. 698 OO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 7 Conquest of Spain by the Saracens 7II Grøgory II., Pope (715–731) * * tº - G. s. 7I5 Charles Martel, Mayor of the Palace (715–741).. 7I5 715 | } CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.S. 223 | i. -------, ------ - - - | --------------- -- A.D. FIRST rºop-ºº: 7I5 l Second Siege of Constantinople * † l & º ... 716–718 Leo III. (the Isaurian) Emperor (717–74%) tº º . . 7 I7 Edict of Leo against Pictures; beginning of Iconoclastic Controversy tº ſº º gº 724 Gregory III., Pope .. tº º * * tº º 73 I Bede's Ecclesiastical History tº gº * * ſº e 73 I Charles Martel defeats the Saracens at Tours. . . . 732 Deaths of Leo III., Charles Martel and Gregory III... 741 Constantine I., Copronymus Emperor f e * * . . 74 I End of the Ommiade Caliphs at Damaścus . . 750 Beginning of Abbaside Caliphate (750–1258) .. ... 750 Childeric, last Merovingian King of the Franks deposed by Pippin II. (751–768) * * * = e tº . . .75 I Pippin II., first King of the Carolingian dynasty . . .75 I Delivers Rome from the Lombards * • - 754 Offa, King of Mercia (755–794) . . tº tº * * . . 755 Abderrahman founds Caliphate of Cordova .. ... 756 Exarchate of Ravenna granted by Pippin to Pope Stephen III. . . tº e tº & tº ſº tº º ... 756 Charles the Great and Carloman succeed Pippin II. .. 768 Charles the Great, sole King of the Franks . . . ... 77 I Charles destroys the Lombard Kingdom in Italy • - 774 Leo IV., Emperor. Irene favours Image-wbrship .. 775 Constantine VI. Emperor . . tº dº . . . . . ... 78o Alcuin at Court of Charles tº & • * e e tº º Haroon-el-Rasheed, Caliph at Bagdad (786–809) ... 786 Seventh General Council (Second of Nice). Authorizes Image-worship. . tº wº * 9 ... 787 Charles conquers South of Italy . . wº, ſº * * * ... 787 First landing of Danes in England & is & Cº. ... 787 Libri Carolini issued tº ſº tº s * * * tº º ... 790 General Council of West at Frankfort .. * * • - 794. Pope Leo III., acknowledges Charles .. gº tº • - 795 8oo Charles crowned Emperor at Rome tº E tº gº ... 8oo Foundation of Holy Roman Empire tº ºt § Death of Charlemagne .. * , * * tº º ... 814 End of First Period. 814 224 MEDLEVAL HISTORY. A.D. ----------- 814 goo ! SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE DEATH of CHARLEMAGNE to THE FIRST s ) CRUSADE, (A.D. 814–IQ96). } Louis I. º Pious) succeeds Charles, (814–840) ... 814 Ecgberht, King of Wessex, (802-837) . . º 4. ... 802 3 3 i England. . e ‘º * * • * ... 827. Louis I. divides the Empire tº s tº º e - ... 817 The Saracers conquer Crete tº º tº - ... 823 } } , Sicily º º tº e & º 827-878 Death of Louis I. . . tº e º º tº gº © tº ... 840 Image worship finally established in the East .. ... 842 Treaty of Vērdun. Division of dominions of Louis Louis the German (843–876) º º .. tº e 8 Charles the Bald, King of France (843–877) . . 43 Lothaire I. (Italy) with title of Emperor, (840–856) Photius made Patriarch of Constantinople 57 Normans in France (860–932) .. tº 0 tº e ... 860 Robert the Strong, Count of Paris ſº ºn tº - . . 86.I The Varangians at Novgorod 862 Harold Haifager, King of Norway (863-933) : : 863, f Macedonian or Basilian Emperors begin tº tº ... 867 Aelfred, King of England (871–901) is tº tº - ... 871 3 ohannes Scotus Erigema .. e ſº 875 Charles the Fat unites the Empire (876–887) .. ... 876 Rolf the Ganger in Neustria g tº e tº a is º Peace of Wedmore . . . . tº tº º tº ºn º e • Q Paris besieged by the Northmen .. tº º & & ... 885 Charles the Fat deposed .. tº º tº a . . . . . 887 Arnulf, King of the East Franks .. tº º * * ... 887 Odo, Count of Paris, elected King e tº tº tº . . 888 Charles the Simple, King of France is tº e tº ... 893 Magyars settle in Hungary * * • * : * * ... 894 Louis the Child, King of Germany . . . * - ... 899 • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Gorm the Old, persecutes Christians in Denmark . . 900 Conrad I. of Franconia elected . . * @ tº º . . 91 I Settlement of Rollo in Normandy tº tº gº tº . . 912 Henry I. Duke of Saxony, founder of the German Monarchy • tº ſº © º e 9I9 Truce with the Magyars .. º 924 William Longsword, Duke of Normandy : .. 927 Henry I. defeats the Magyars tº º tº º tº º Louis d’Outremer, King of France (936–954) . . ... 936 936 CHRONO LOGICAL TABLE S. S; g 225 ſº SECOND PERIOD–conſinued. 936 IQOO Otho I., (the Great), King of Germany, ( First expedition of Otho into Italy Victory over the Magyars on the Lechfel 955 John XII., Pope (955–963). * @ 'ſ- & ſº • • 955 Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, (961–979).. . . 96I Second Expedition of Otho into Italy . tº º ... 962 Otho captures Rome, deposes John XII., and is crowned , Emperor. Beginning of Holy Román Empire ... g62 36–973) . . 936 * * . . 95 I l John Zimisces (969–976) . . *º º $º e ‘º . . 969 War between Russians and Eastern Empire concluded by peace of Silistria . . g 97 I Caliphate of the Fatimites in Egypt (973-1 I71) . . 972 Vladimir of Russia (972–IoI5) . . | . . . . . 972 Otho II., Emperor (973-983) & tº º . . 973 Basil II., Eastern Emperor (976–Io25) : . te tº ... 976 Hugh Capet, King of France (987–996) * . © tº . . 996 * ! • * * Mahmud of Ghazni (997–Io28) .. ** • * • - 997 Robert the Pious, King of France * * * * * . . 996 Mahometan Invasion of India .. . . . . . IoIo-Io26 Henry II. (the Saint) Emperor . . • - " - - . . IOO2 Massacre of Danes by Aethelred . . gº º tº º . . IOO3 Malcolm II., of Scotland (Ioos–Ioã3) . . tº wº . . IOO3 Danish Conquest of England * … tº º ... IoI3—IOI6 St. Olaf of Norway (IoI5–1072) , . © º * * . . IOI5 Cnut, King of England . . tº ſº & ſº IOI7—Io35 Death of Henry II. End of Saxon Line Conrad II., first Franconian Emperor . . ë g ſ IO24 Avicenna (980–Io97) , º e gº tº * > tº & tº e Henry I., King of France (Io91—Ioôo) . . . . . . . IO3 I End of Ommiade dynasty in Spain $ tº tº gº . . IO3 I Union of Burgundy with the Empire .. qº º . . IO32 Kingdom of Aragon founded tº º • • • . . IO35 Henry III., King of Germany .. tº § tº e • . IO39 | The Cid (1040–Io99) © º we tº . . . . . • IO4O Edward the Confessor (1042–1066) • * : * * . . IO42 Truce of God cº º . IO46 Henry III., appoints Clement II. Pope, and is crowned Emperor , - - tº tº tº ſº. . . . . ... IO46 Henry IV., Emperor (Ioš6-IIo6) * @ tº º ... IOS6 Beginning of the Comnenian dynasty at Constantinople IoS7 IoS7 l 226 l } } | MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Io57 Iogó | SECOND PERIOD–continued. | Malcolm t (Canmore) (1057–1093) . . . . . IO5 Philip I., Illing of France (Ioflo–IIoo) e tº e tº ; The Normans conquer Southern Italy and Sicily . IOGO The Seljouk Turks cross the Euphrates .. © º ... Ioë4 Battle of Hastings .. º - $º º tº 4 . IO66 William I. King of Englan tº e e - e e ... Ioë6 The suitän Alp-Arslan defeats the Romans at Manzikert tº º e tº tº e. tº º tº º ... IO7I Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) Pope (IoT3–1086) . IO73 Conquest jºini completed .. & º . . IO73 Synod of Erfurt .. - * tº º . . IO74 Henry IV. at Canossa • * tº tº e e ... IO77 Henry, again at Rome, besieges Hildebrand ... IoSo William II. (Rufus) • * º tº tº º ... Io97 Hildebrand º in exile at Salerno . IO38 Urban II., Pope º e s ... Io98 Revolts of ºienry's sons Iog2–IIo6 Council oftieſ ont . IO95 First Čusade ... Io96 End of Second Period. i l * \ | CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEs. 227 THIRD PERIOD. A.D. FROM THE FIRST CRUSADE To THE FALL OF CoNSTANTINOPLE (A.D. Io96–1453). IOgó The Crusaders take Jerusalem .. & ſº tº º • - IO99 I IOO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | Henry I. of England tº º tº wº * * tº e . . I IOO Kingdom of Jerusalem founded by Crusaders .. . . I IOO Alfonso I. of Aragon (IIO4–II34) .. !. tº º . . I IO4. Henry V. of Germany tº e * * 1. º e ... I [of Louis VI. of France º e * - & º tº ſº ... I IO6 John Comnenus, Emperor of East (III8–II43).. ... III.8 Concordat of Worms * e * - ! . . * * . . II 22 Norman kingdom of Two Sicilies - - * * ... II 3O Abelard (Io'ſ 9–II42) • gº * - * - & © • e Othar of Saxony Emperor . . • * * & & © . . II.33 Stephen, King of England .. * * * & ſº º . . II 35 Louis VII., King of France * - e e ... II.37 Conrad III. (first Hohenstaufen) (1138–1152) .. ... II38 Leopold, of Austria, in Bavaria Strife between Guelfs and Ghibellines begins .. ... II.4O Arnold of Brescia (II40-II55) - - • * * * . . II.4.O Manuel Comnen us, Eastern Emperor . . sº tº • - II.43 Second Crusade . . e e tº ºr * - * * , - II.47 Frederick I. (Barbarossa), King of Germany .. ... II 52 Henry II., King of England - - tº tº tº e • II54 Averrhoës (II49–II98) • * - - * - \ tº ſº. * - Adrian IV. (Breakspear), Pope .. tº tº tº º ... I I54. Arnold of Brescia . . tº tº - - tº º tº e ... I I55 Sack of Milan by Barbarossa * - tº ºr tº e ... II.62 Constitutions of Clarendon e - . . ... II64 The Lombard League º e - © º ºg • tº ... II67 Murder of Thomas-à-Becket * * tº º e g ... II.7O St. Dominic (1170–1221) .. tº º • * tº g ... II70 Conquest of Ireland * e • tº - tº- tº e ... I I7 I Saladin, Sultan of Egypt .. tº tº tº tº * * ... II? I Battle of Legnano .. " . . ... II.76 Philip II., Augustus, King of France (iişo-1333) ... IISO Saracens take Jerusalem .. - - * g. ... II.87 Richard I., King of England (1189-1199) \" - ... II.89 Third Crusade tº º * & - - * - ! • ... I IQO Henry VI., Emperor (1190–1197). . * - tº º ... I ICO Siege of Acre & g º - - - - º º . . II9 I Innocent III., Pope (1198–1216) .. * * tº e ... II98 I Ig8 228 i MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | THIRD PERIOD–continued. A.D. I 198 John, King of England (IIq9–1216) tº º tº tº . . II.09 University of Paris founded • . tº º • II99 1200 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • *, e º 'º e º e s = < * * * * * * * Fourth Crusade ſº tº ... I2OO–I2O4. University of Oxford ſounded; Charter of King John... 1200 Capture of Constantinople by the Latins tº gº . . I2O4. Latin Empile of Constantinople (I2O4–1261) .. . . I2O4. Invasion of Moguls under Jenghis Khan (1206–1227) ... I2O6 Albigensian Crusade (1208–1229).. tº e * * ... I2O8 Battle of Tolosa .. tº º tº e tº gº tº e . . I2 I2 Frederick III, Emperor . . tº º & g gº º . I 2 I 2 Magna Chaita signed at Runnymede .. tº º . . I2 I5 Henry III., King of England (1216–1272) tº iº ... I2I6 Fifth Crusade (1216–1220).. tº e * g. © ºr . I2I6 Ferdinand. II., King of Castile (1217–1252) .. ... I2I7 Robert G|Fostéte (1175–1253) * * . . . . . Frederick II., Emperor .. © tº tº tº tº º . . I22O Mogul invasion of Persia . . * : * > § {e º . I222 St. Francis of Assisi (1182–1226).. tº º tº º ... I226 St. Louis of France (1226–1270) .. º ºg tº e ... I226 Gregory IX., Pope . . tº º tº e * g. e g . I227 Frederick II. crowned King of Jerusalem tº º ... I228 Albertus Magnus (II93-1280) .. tº g tº & tº ſº Ferdinahd III. unites Leon and Castile .. # e. . . I23O Teuton?c Knights conquer Prussia tº tº ... I230–I26o University of Cambridge founded e e tº tº . . I23.I Dominican Inquisition established tº º tº º . . I23 I Retreat of Moors to Grenada tº tº e & º ... I238 Matthew Paris (1195–1259) tº º tº º #jić League formed .. tº tº * * * & . . I24. I Rise of the Ottoman Turks tº º tº e tº º . . I24O Sixth Crusade (First of St. Louis) . I248 Mameluke Sultans in Egypt (25%–1517) © .. . . I250 Roger Bacon (1214–1292) .. tº º g © tº gº tº Conrad IV. (last Hohenstaufen) .. tº e • I254 Interrégnum in Germany (1254-1273) . . • * • . I254 Thomſºs Aquinas (1227–1274) & ſº º: of Anjou at Naples tº tº tº gº tº º . . [254 Manfred, King of Sicily .. s & tº º * * ... I258 End of Caliphate of Bagdad tº º tº gº tº º ... I258 Michael Palaeologus, Eastern Emperor .. tº º . . I259 I259 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 229 ; THIRD PERIOD —continued. A.D. I259 { | End of Latin Empire at Constantinople. . I261 Battle of Evesham .. tº e , * * tº g tº g ... I265 | Charles of Anjou conquers Sicily. . | . 1266 Seventh Crusade. Death of St. Louis .''. . I270 Philip III., King of France * * . I270 Gregory X., Pope * > ! • . I271 Genoa powerful * @ tº ºt 1. I270–1284 Edward I., King of England ! . I272 Rudolf of Hapsburg, King (1273-1292), , . . I273 The Sicilian Vespers tº ge * * * * * * . I282 Wales conquered by Edward I. !. * & . I282 Philip IV. (the Fair), King of France (#85-13 I4) ... I 285 Beginning of Swiss Confederacy .. .. tº º . . I292 Adolf of Nassau, King of Germany (1292–1298) . . I292 Boniface VIII., Pope (1294–1303) !. tº tº . . I294 Albert I. of Austria, King of Germany .. * * * * ... I298 The Colonnas and Orsinis at Rome * - tº e tº e Duns Scotus (1265–1308) | I3OO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Battle of Courtrai .. ſº tº sº tº tº tº g ºt. . . I3O2 Clement V., Pope . . • * tº e * * q e . I305 Edward II., King of England (1307–1327) º & . . I3O7 Popes at Avignon (1309–1377) . . tº tº tº tº . . I3O9 Fall of the Templars tº º tº º tº gº l ... I307–I3IO Dante (1265–1321) . . º & tº wº tº º © tº ge tº Henry VII. of Luxembourg, King of Germany (1308–13) I308 Council of Ten at Venice .. tº º . . . . . . . I3 II Philip adds Lyons to France tº º tº º *E º . . I3 I2 Louis of Bavaria, King of Germany (1314–1328) . . I3 I4. Battle of Bannockburn * * . I3 I4. Louis X., King of France (1314–1316) .. • * . . I3 I4. Battle of Morgarten tº e tº gº tº º gº º . I3 I5 Philip V., King of France (1316–1322) .. tº tº ... I3 I6 Edward III., King of England (1327–1377) . . ... I327 Philip VI., of Valois, King of France (1328–1350) ... 1328 Independence of Scotland. . * e • e º e e ... I328 Hundred Years' War (1337–1451) tº ſº. ... begins I337 Battle of Sluys * tº ºn tº Q . I34O Chaucer (1340–14oo) © tº tº e tº tº ... born 1340 Rienzi tº º tº º tº º tº ºt tº tº . . I343-I354 Battle of Crecy .. tº tº tº º tº º tº º ... I346 I346 23O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | | A.D. | THIRD PERIOD — continued. \ I346 Charles IV., |King of Germany (1346–1364) .. ... I346 Capture of Calais by the English. . gº º * - . . I347 The Black I)eath . . e - tº - e is tº º . . I349 John II., King of France (1350–1364) . . tº gº . . I35O Boccacio (1313–1375) & º * - * - tº º & ſº The Golden Bull . . e - is tº º e • * ... I356 Petrarch (1394–1374) ºw tº tº e tº ſº © tº Battle of Poictiers . . e - tº e tº 6. tº ſº. ... I356 l The Jacquerie in France .. tº e tº tº tº e ... I358 Peace of Brºtigny ſº tº tº tº tº ſº. tº º tº q ... I360 Gower (1325+1408) .. e - tº tº - tº e tº º e Philip of Valois, Duke of Burgundy .. tº tº ... I36I The Visconti at Milan e tº ſº & ſº tº e º ... I36I Hadrianople taken by the Turks .. tº s * * ... I36I Piers Plowman tº & tº º * * e 0. tº º ... I362 Charles V of France (1364–1380) ... I364 Battle of Najara ; . e - is s e & * - ... I366 Rise of Tamerlane (1306–1405) .. tº º tº e ... I370 Return of Popes to Rome.. e tº tº s * * . . I376 Richard II., King of England (1377–1399) - e ... I377 Beginning of the Great Schism .. © tº ... I378 Froissart (1337–1410) & º º tº e tº e º º Tamerlane conquers Persia tº º tº tº ... I 380–1393 Wat Tyler's Insurrection .. º º tº º ... I38I Death of Wickliffe (1324–1384) • . . . . ... I384 The Canterbury Tales (1384–1398) tº e & e ... I384 Battle of Sempach. . tº º tº gº $ tº * - ... I386 Margaret of Norway (1387–1397).. • e ... I 387 Bajazet, Sultan of the Ottomans tº º - tº ... I389 Turks victorious at Nicopolis . . e G tº e ... I396 Union of Calmar . . e - tº e & 9 tº º . . I397 Sack of Delhi by Tamerlan tº º tº dº º ºg ... I398 Henry IV. (Lancaster), King of England (1399–1413) 1399 I4OO - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Timour defeats Bajazet at Angora tº sº. © tº ... I 4O2 John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy .. tº gº . . I4O4. Sicily inited to Aragon . . tº e * * tº a . . I4O9 Council of Pisa & © tº a e - e e tº º . . I4O9 Sigismund (King, I4Io; Emperor, 1433) e tº . . I4 IQ Henry V., King of England e e tº e tº º ... I 4 I3 Battle of Agincourt, . e e tº de tº ſº tº tº . . I4 I5 I4I5 # \ CHRONOLOGICAL rºws 23 I { A.D. THIRD rºoº-ºº: | I4 I5 | Council of Constance tº gº tº º - A ſº tº . . I4I5 John Hus burned . . tº e tº º {- . tº º • . I4 I5 Frederick of Hohenzollern, Elector of Brandenburg . . I415 Alfonso V., King of Aragon tº ge . . ſº tº ... I4I6 Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy i © º • - I4 IQ Beginning of Hussite Wars & & tº ºp • . I4. I9 Treaty of Troyes g * * * . I42O Battle of Prague { . I42O Amurath II., Sultan d . I42I Siege of Constantinople .. & & : ; tº º . . I422 Henry VI., King of England (1422–1461) tº º . . I422 Charles VII., King of France (1422–1461) * * . . I422 James I. of Scotland (IA24–1436) . . e tº . . I424 Siege of Orleans gº tº tº º gº tº * * ... I428 Joan of Arc (1429-1431) . . tº tº * * tº º . . I429 Medici at Florence . . * & º º . . tº gº • . I429 Council of Basel .. tº e tº º te tº º • - I43 I Treaty of Arras . . tº & tº & e go º & • . I435 The French recover Paris . . I436 Albert II., King of Germany (House of sburg) * } i43% Council of Florence * * tº º tº ſº e º • - I 439 Frederick III. (1440–1493, crowned at Roméº, I452) ... I44o tº tº } Battle of Varna * . tº º tº ſº tº º • - I444 Constantine Palaeologus, Eastern Emperor .. ... I448 Francisco Sforza, Duke of Milan tº º • - . . I45O Mahomet II., Sultan © Qº tº & * * tº º • . I45 I End of Hundred Years’ War © tº tº tº tº tº • . I 453 The Fall of Constantinople tº ge tº ſº ge e • I453 I453 End of Third Period. \ MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. INDEX. Abbaside Caliphs (descendants of Abbas, uncle of Mahomet) rule at Bagdad from eighth to thirteenth centuries, 75; I 18, I 19; branch of, 1n Egypt, I22. Abdalla, founder of Abbaside dy- nasty, II8. Abderrahman, founder of Caliph- ate of Cordova, Ig5. Abelard, the Schoolman, 146 Abyssinian Christians conquer Yemen, 74. Acta Sanctorum, 74. Adamnan, author of Life of Columba, 63, 64. Adoptionist heresy, 52. Adrian IV. (Hadrian) (Nicolas Breakspeare), Pope ; struggle with Emperor Barbarossa, I34, 135, 187: Aelfred, King of England, account of, 96, 98, Aethelred II. (Unready), King of England, 95. Aetius, Roman General, defeats Attila, 21 ; murdered, 22. Africa, 20, 21 ; churches of, 23 ; corn supply from, 38. Agathias, 75. * Agilulf, King of Lombardy, 33. Agincourt, battle of, I55, Alaric, defeated by Stilicho; sacks Rome, 19; war with Arcadius, 26. } Albert I., son of Rudolf of Haps- burg, º, I39. Albert II. of Austria, Emperor, I39, I-42 Albertus Magnus, 151. Albigenses, account crusade against, I48. Alboin, Lombard King, invades Italy, 39. Alcuin, monk of York, assists Charlemagne ; letter of, 52, of, I48 ; 53, 60. 4. Alexander I. of Scotland resists encroachments of English Church, 174. Alexander III of Scotland defeats Hakon of Norway, 175. Alexander III., Pope ; struggle with Emperor Barbarossa, 187. Alexandria, Monophysite disturb- ance in, 66 ; captured by Saracens, 74. Alexius Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor, founder of Com- nenian dynasty, 204. Alfonso I., King of Spain, 195. Alfonso IV. wins battle of Tolosa over the Moors, 196. Alfonso XI., of Castile, defeats Saracens, 197. Allah-ud-din, Sultan of Delhi, 213. Almansor builds Bagdad, II8. Alp Arslan, Sultan of Seljouk Turks, 202. Q | | 234. Ambrose, St , 25. l America discovered glans, IIO ; by by Norwe- Columbus, Anastasius, Emperor)of West, 18; recognises Cloviš, 47. Ani, capital of Armenia, captured by Seljouk Turks, 203. Anjou, House of, rules kingdom of Naples, I89. Anscharius, Bishop of Bremen, converts Danes land Swedes, Io8. Anthemius, Praetoriarh prefect, 28. Anthemius, Roman IEmperor, I8: murdered by º: 22. I97. Amrou, general of º 74. Antioch captured by (Chosroës, 68; siege of, in First Crusade, I44. Apollinaris Sidonius, 25. Aquinas. Thomas, scholastic philo- sopher, I5 I. Arabia, account of, 73, 74, 75; rise of Mohametanism in, 74; revolt of, from the Abbaside Caliphs, I2 I. Arabic versions of Greek and Latin authors, I2O. Arabs conquer Egypt and Spain, 74, 75. Aragon, kingdom of, united to Castile, IO4; House of, in Naples, I89. Arcadius, Emperor of East, 25–27. Architecture of Charlemagne, 54. Aretas, King in Arabia, 73. Arianism in Africa, 21; among the Goths, 38; the Lombards, 40; in Gaul, 46; Spaniards re- claimed frºm, 56. * Armagnacs, or Orleanist faction in France, I56. Arnold of Brescia, I82. Asturias, C*-istian kingdom in Spain, IO4. Ataulphus, founder of Visigoth kingdom in Spain, 55. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | Athanasian Creed, 25. Athens, schools of, Justinian, 69. Attalus, Emperor, 20. Attila, King of the Huns, 21, 22, 28, 29. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, 25. Augustine, St., sent by Gregory to convert the English, 60, 61. Augustulus, last Roman Emperor, dethroned by Odoacer, 37. Austrasia, kingdom of, 44. Austria, 36; made a duchy under Frederick I., 39; house of Hapsburg re-established, 139; Leopold of, defeated by Swiss, 139; Albert II. of, Emperor, closed by I39. Avars, attacks of, on Empire under Heraclius, 70–71. Avignon, Popes at, from 1309– 1377, 152, 153 Avitus, Roman Emperor, 18. Baber, founder of Mogul Empire, seeks friendship of Vassili Ivanovitch, Ig2, 213. "Bacon, Roger, 151; account of, I66. Badbury, Battle of, 59. Bagdad : built by Almansor, II8; Caliphate of, I 18, II9, I2O ; capture by Moguls, II8; rule over Central Asia, I22. Bahram, King of Persia, war with Theodosius, 28. Bajazet, Sultan of Ottoman Turks, captured by Tamerlane, 207. Baldwin I. and II., Latin Emperors of Constantinople, 205. Baliol, John, 167. Bannockburn, battle of, 176. Barbarossa, Frederick, Emperor, I33; wars with Italy and Popes, I36, 183. INDEX. 235 Barcelona (Catalonia), united to Aragon, IO4. Baronius, Cardinal, 91. Basel, Council of, 142. Basil I., the Macedonian, Emperor, II.4. Basil II., Emperor, II?. Basilian, dynasty of Emperors, II.4, II8. Bede, authority for history of Saxon Conquest and Early English Church, 6o ; history of, revised by Aelfred, g8. Belisarius conquers Vandals in Africa and Goths in Italy, 39, 67. Benedictines introduced into Spain, IQ5. Benevolences introduced by Ed- ward IV., 172. Berengar, King of Italy, cedes his rights to Otho the Great, 89. Bernard, St., last of Latin Fathers, I46, I78. Berwick-on-Tweed captured by Edward III., I68. Bible translated by Wickliffe, 169, I70. Bobbio, monastery of, founded by Columbanus, 48. Boëthius slain by Theodoric, 38, 63; “Consolation ” of, tran- slated by Aelfred, g8. Bokhara, I23. Boniface, Roman General, 2I. Boniface, St., English missionary to Germans, 6I. Boniface VIII., Pope, quarrel with Philip Augustus, I52. Bonifacius, Emperor of West, 18. Bosworth Field, battle of, 173. Brahmanism in India, account of, I24. Brescia, birth-place of Arnold, de- clares itself Republic, 182. Bretigny, treaty of, I55. Brian Boru, King of 1reland, IoI. | Britain, 20 (kee England). Bruce, Robert, wins independence for Scotland, 168, 176. Buddhism h India, I24; intro- duced it! China, I27, 215. Bulgaria, war between Russia and Greek, Empire for, Io; ; con- quered by Basil II., II7. Burgundians' defeated by Stilicho, I9. Burgundy. Kingdom of founded, 44. Byzantine Empire, history of, from end of fifth century to final division between East and West, 64–72; list of Emperors from Llo 3. to Constantine VI., 65 ;|schisms in Church, 66; reig ºf Justinian, 66– 67; law of, 69–70; Hera- clius, attºo'ks of Saracens and Persians, under, 70–71 ; Leo the Isaurian, 7.I; the Icono- clastic controversy and sepa- ration of Eäst from West, 72. During Secoiád Period. List of Emperors, III ; his- tory of, T J I–II8; end of Iconoclastic struggle, II2– II3; consolidation of Byzan- tine despotism, II5; renewed conquest under Basilian dy- nasty, II6–II.7; period of Con- servative prosperity, II 7-II8. During Third Period. List of Emperors, 201 ; rise and conquests of Seljouk Turks, 202-)-204; Crusades and Latin Kingdom of Con- stantinople, 20.4—205; Mongol invasion and rise of Ottoman Empire, 205-30% ; fall of Con- stantinople, 207–2 Io. Cabochians, rising of, I56. Caedmon, poem of 98. 236 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | Caillet, Guillaume (Jacques Bon- homme), I56. Calais, captured by English, 155. Caliphates (see Bagdad and Cor- dova). Caliphs, successors of Mahomet, origin of, 7I Calixtus II., Pope; Henry V., 132. Calmar, Compact of, union of Den- mark, Norway, Śweden, Igg ; treaty of 200. Canon Law, Media: Hal, 55; basis of Papal clai, mi 189 Cantacuzene, John. Historian of Byzantine Empire, 208. Capet, Hugh, g(real grandson of Robert the Štrºng, Count of Paris, crowned king of France by the barons) stablishes the Feudal Monarchy, 84, 86–88. Capetian dynasty; list of kings of, I43. . - * * * Capitularies of * kings and ë. ne, 54. Captivity, great, of Popes at Avig- non, I52, I53. Carloman, son of Charles Martel, 45; king of Austrasia, 50. Carloman, king of France, 83. Caroline Books, written by Al- cuin, pºlished by Charle- magne, 52. Carolingian Dynasty, 45, 49, in France, 84––86. Carolingian Empire, 76–83; Em- pire of Charlemagne, divided between eastern and western Franks, giving rise to German and French nations, 77; list of Emperors, 78; reign of Conrad 78; Otho, 79, crowned Emp at Rome, restores Holy Roman Empire, 8o; Conrad II. of Franconia chosen Emperor, 81 ; Salian Emperors; Henry III. de- | \ contest with Q poses and appoints popes, 81 ; struggles of Henry IV. with Pope Gregory VII, 82, 83. Carthage captured by the Vandals, 2 I. Cashel, Synod of, I64. Cassian, 25. Castile, kingdom of, IOA. Castles held by English in Ireland, list of, I8o. Catalans, Grand Company of, drive Turks from Asia Minor, 203; war with the Emperors, 208. Caxton William, introduces print- ing into England, 173 Celibacy of clergy enforced by Gregory VII., 82. Celts defeated by Stilicho, 19. Chalcedon, Council of (fourth general), 24, 30, 32. Chalcondyles, Greek Hisorian. 209. Châlons, battle of, 21. Charles Martel, king of the Franks, 45, 49 ; defeats the Saracens, 50. Charles the Great (Charlemagne), 45; son of Pippin II. becomes sole king of the Franks, con- quers the Lombards, 5o ; wars of, 50 — 51 ; crowned Emperor. of the West by Leo III., 51 ; Wars with the Saxons, 51 ; rejects decrees of Second Council of Nice, 52 ; edu- cation under, 52, 53; Churches founded by, 53, 54; legisla- tion of, 54, 55 ; capitularies of, 54. Charles the Bald, share in Treaty of Verdun, 77, 83, 84, 85. Charles the Fat, king of France, 83. Charles IV, Emperor, account of, growth of reforming party under, I40, I4I. Chaucer, 170. Che-Hwang-Te, Emperor of China, builds the great wall, 127. t 237 INDEX. Childeric, king of Salian Franks, 45, 46. China, account of, during second period. I26–128; account of during third period, 2I4, 215. Chow Dynasty in China, 126. Christianity—Palladius sent to British Isles by Pope Coeles- tinus, 24 ; Nestorian form of in East, 30 ; Arian among the Germans, 38; Lombards, 40 ; in Spain, 56; in Gaul, 46; Mission of St. Colum- banus, 47, 48 ; Charlemagne attempts conversion of Sax- ons, 51 ; in Britain, 57 ; Conversion of English, 60– 61 ; St. Boniface in Ger- many, 61 ; St. Patrick in Ireland, 62; Columba among the Picts, 63; in Abyssinia. 74; Danes in Ireland adopt, IoI ; in Spain, IoA: ; Conversion of Russians to, Io'7; Persecution of Christians in Denmark, Io8, Io9; Swedes converted to, Io9, 200 ; Norway converted by St. Olaf, I Io; Nestorian form of introduced into China, 127, 128; in Poland, and thence among Lithuanians, I94. Chrysostom, St., Patriarch of Con- stantinople, 26, 27, 29, 32. Churches of St. Vitalis, 53; of St. Gall, 54. Clarendon, Constitutions of, 162. Clement II. made Pope by Henry III., 8 I. Clermont, Synod of, 144. Clotilda, wife of Clovis, 46, 47. Clovis, first Merovingian King, 44, 46.47. Cnut, King of England, 96, 99. Codes of Theodosius II., 31 ; of Justinian, 69, 7o ; of Aelfred, 97. Coelestinus |. Emperor of West, I8, 23, 24. Columba, Irish missionary to Picts, 63. | Columbanus, apostle of Burgundy, account of, 47, 48. Commons, admission to Parlia- ment, 167, 17o. Common Pleas, Court of, made stationary, 165. Comneni, dynasty of, I 18. Comnenus, iſ lexius, Emperor, I44. Comnenus, aac, Emperor, II8. Condottieri, * Confucius, I Conqueror, jam the, 87 Conrad I., e of Franconia, elected eror, 78. Conrad II., rst of Franconian Emperor. 81 Conrad III., staufen E perors, 133. Conrad IV., 1st of the Hohen- staufen Ełperors, 137, 138. Constance, Council of, I4I. Constantine the Great, 20. Constantine (Copronymus) forbids worship of images, 72. Constantine (Porphyrogenitus) Em- peror and historian, account of, Io'7, II5, II6. Constantinople taken by Goths, 26; besieged by Persians and Avars, 70, 71 ; taken by the Latins, I88, 205. Constitution, English, develop- ment of, under Edward I. and Henry III., I65. Council, Great, of England, 165. Council of Ten, at Venice, I84. Councils—2nd Council of Nice, 51, 72 ; Lateran, I32 ; of Chalcedon, 24, 30, 32 ; of Constance, I4I ; of Basel, I42; of Clarendon, I62. Courtrai, battle of, 152. Crecy, in Picardy, battle of, I55. 238 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. | Creed, Athanasian, 25. Crusade against the Albigenses, I48, I49. Crusades planned by Gregory VII., 92; Ist, proclaimed at Council of Clermont, by Pope Urban II, 89; account of, I44; 2nd, joined by Conrad'of Germany, and Louis VII., I47 ; 3rd, joined by Emperor Barbarossa, Philip Augustus Üand Richard I., I47; 4th, start” from Venice, I83, 184 ; deſ roys Greek Empire of nstantinople, 2O5. Crusades of St Lo I50. Cyril, Patriarch Alexandria, opposes Nesto 5, 29. Dagobert II. exile 48; murdered, 9. Dalmatia acquired Jy Rome, 37. Dalriada, kingdom ſof, in Scotland, 63. Damascus, caliph of, conquer India, I25. ( Damascine character, 23. Damasus, Pope, 23. Danes—Invasions of England during 8th and 9th centuries, 96; arrangement of Aelfred with, 96, 97 ; fresh invasions under his successors, g8 ; Danish dynasty, on English throne, 99; in Ireland, Ioo, IoI ; in scoland, IO2. Danube, 36. Decretal, Papal, 23. Delhi becomes intº capital of India, 213. Demetrius, St., apparition of, at battle of Antioch, I44, I45. Denmark, made fief by Henry I. 79. During Second Period—Intro- duction of Christianity and con- by Grimoald, nection with England, Io&-Io9. During Third Period—Feudal system introduced in 12th century; wars with Hanseatic League; united with Norway - and Sweden by Union of Calmar, Ig8, 199. Desiderius, last king of Lombards, 4O. Dionysius Exiguus, monk, author of first work on Canon Law and of the Dionysian Era, 43. Dioscorus of Alexandria, 32. Doges or Dukes of Venice appointed at end of 7th century, 94. Domesday Book, I58. Dominic, St., promotes Crusade against Albigenses, I48. Dominicans, Inquisition commit- ted to, I49; in England, I66. Dubrava, sister of Duke of Bohe- mia, marries Duke of Poland, I93. Duncan, King of Scotland (Shak- spere's Duncan), Io2. Dunstan, Abbot of 'Glastonbury and Primate of England, 98 ; influence as a statesman, 99; and on the Church, 99. Eadgar Ætheling, son of Eadward the Confessor, Ioo, I6o. Eadgar, son of Malcolm Canmore, King of Scotland, 174. Eadmund, King of England, 98. Eadward the Confessor, King of England, 99. Ebbo, Archbishop of Rheims, preaches Christianity in Den- mark, Io8. Ecgberht, (Egbert) King of Wessex and of the English, 60. Edmund, Duke of York, 172. Edward I., King of England, wars with France, I52, 165; wars INDEX. 239 | | | with Scotland, 167, 175; laws of, I67. Edward II., King of England, defeated by the Scotch, 168, I76; murdered, 168. Edward III., King of England, wars with France, I54, 168; with Scotland, 168; England under, I69. Edward IV., King of England, succeeds Henry VI., 172 ; wars with France and Scot- land, I72. Edward V., King of England, murdered in Tower, 173. Egypt, corn supply of, 38 ; Mono- physite party in, 66 ; falls away from Caliphate of Bag- dad, I21 ; the Fatimites in, I21 ; flourishes under the Memlooks or Mamelukes, 212. Electors, Imperial, fixed by Golden Bull, I40. Elizabeth, Queen of England. friendly relations with Ivan IV, of Russia, Ig3. El - Mostasim, last Bagdad, 75. Emir al Omra, head of secular division of Saracen Caliphate, I2O. Emperor, title of, conferred on German Kings, 79, 80 ; lists of Emperors of Holy Roman Empire, 77, I29, 130 ; of the West, 18 ; of Byzantine Empire, 25, 65, III, 20I. Empire, Eastern— During First Period, 25–32; Theodosius, legislation of, 27–3 I. During Second Period (Byzantine Empire), III–II8. During Third Peruod, 201–2 Io; Seljouk Turks, 202-204 ; Cru- sades and Latin kingdom of Constantinople,204; Mongols, Caliph at and rise of Ottoman Empire, 205; fall of Constantinople, 207-219. Empire, Western, 18–25, 32—35; description of ; reconstruction of; modern kingdoms arising from, 36–64. England— During First Period. Early history of, to line of Ecgberht, 57–62; Honorius withdraws Roman legions, 57; invasions of Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, and kingdoms founded by them, 58; struggles between Wessex, Northum- bria, did. Mercia, 59, 60 ; Wessex; becomes supreme, 60 ; Christianity in, 60 ; founding of the English Church by Theodore, 61. During Second Period. Table of Kings from Ecgberht to Eadwºrd the Confessor, g5; invasions, of Danes; division of England with Danes made by Aelfred, 96; work of Aelfred, 97, 98; fresh conflicts with Danes ; rise of Dunstan, 98 ; Danish dynasty on English throne, gg ; rise of Godwine ; restoration of Saxon line in Edward the Confessor; William, Duke of Normandy, claims the throne, 99; battle of Hastings, Ioo. During Third Period. Norman, Kings of, I57—160 ; under the Plantagenets, 160— 171 ; under the houses of York and Lancaster, I7 I—I'73. Ephesus, Council of (third general), 29 ; Bishop of, refuses to adopt Romish doctrines, 209, Epiphanius, 32 Erfurt, Synod of, 82. Eric, King of Denmark, Ig8, 200. ! ; | 24O MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Erigena, Johannes Sco ius, a CCOllnt of, in counection with Charles the Bald, 85, 86; scholarship of, IoI. Ertogrul, grandfather of Orkhan, founder of Ottoman Empire, 2O6. Establishments of Louis IX., 150. Esthonia, pagans of, Ilg8. Etienne Marcel, Provost of Paris, I56. Eudes (Odo), King of France, 83. Eudoxia, wife of Arcadius, 26. Eugippius, 36. Euric, King of Visigoths, 56. Eutychian party, 39. Exarchate of º 36; history of, 41–43; ififluence of Ex- archs over the Popes, 80. Exchequer, the, formed by Edward I., I67. Fa-Hian, Chinese º ancient account of India) by, I24. Falkirk, battle of, 176. False decretals, º Fatimite dynasty, 121. Ferdinand of Aragon, husband of Isabella, Queen of Spain, 197. k Ferdinand III., King of Leon and Castile, defeats Moors, Igó. Fergus MacErc founds kingdom of Dalriada in Sęotland, 63. Feudal System i. I58. Filocalus, Furius Dionysius, 23. Filioque clause $f Nicene Creed adopted, 208. Flemings, wars Óf, with Philip IV. of France, 152; seek English protection, {54. Florence, battle of, 19; Medici at, 185, 186; state of, I86; Coun- cil of, 209. France— During First Period. History of, 44–55; Visigoths in, 38; lists of early kings, 44–45; French monarchy established by Clovis, 47; origin of kingdom of modern France, 77. During Second Period. History of, from Louis the Pious to First Crusade, 83–89; list of sovereigns from Charles the Bald to Philip I., 83–84; reign of Charles the Bald, 84–86 ; rise of the Capetian dynasty, 86, 87;, invasions of North- men and origin of Duchy of Normandy, 87; Hugh Capet establishes feudal monarchy, 88; Robert the Pious, Henry I., Philip I., l'irst Crusade, 88,89. During Third Period. Kings of House of Capet, list, I43; of House of Valois, I43; Crusades, I44, I45; effects of, according to G 1bbon, I45 ; France under Philip Augustus, I47 ; Albigensian Crusade, I48; under St. Louis, I5o— I52; policy of, I50—I52 ; hundred years' war, I 54—I55; internal movements, I 56, I57. Francis, Lord Bacon, I66. Francis, St., of Assisi, founder of I’ranciscan Friars, 166. Franciscan Friars in England, 166. Franconian or Salian Emperors, line of, 81. Frankfort, council of,52; condemns Nicene decrees, 52. Frederick Barbarossa, 183; strug- gle of against Alexander III., 187; drowned, I47; see Bar- barossa. Frederick II. (of Hohenstaufen), Emperor, extends the Empire, INDEX, 24.I * I36, 137 ; wars with Italian cities, 183; triumphed over ‘by Innocent IV., 189. Frederick III, 142. Friars, mendicant, in England, 166. Gainas, Gothic leader, 26. Galata, struggles of Genoese and men of Constantinople at, 208. Gallican School, 55; Church de- fended by Louis IX. of France, I50. Gaul, 20; Churches of, 23; Heresy extirpated in Southern Gaul by Innocent III., 188. Gelasian Sacramentary, 42. Gelasius, Pope, publishes Western Liturgy, 42. Genoa, great commercial city, 183; rivalry of with Venice, 186. Genoese, struggles of with people of Constantinople, 208. Genseric, King of the Vandals, 2I, 28. Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, marries Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England, father of Henry II., I60 George, Prince of Russia, 191. George, St., the Great Martyr, legend of, installed Patron- Saint of England by Edward III., I45. George (Syncellus), 75. Georgia, conquered by Turks, 202. Germany— During Second Period. Origin of 77; Kings of, 78; under the Saxon and Fran- conian Kings, 79, 82. During Third Period, 129–142; List of Emperors, 129, 130; quarrels with the Popes, 131, 132 ; Concordat of Worms, I32; House of Hohenstaufen, I33; Guelfs and Ghibellines, I33; J3al barossa, I33–136; struggles with Popes, 134, I35 ; Frederick II., I 36 ; policy of the Hohenstaufens, I37; interregnum, 138; Rudolf of Hapsburg, 138; rise of Swiss League, I39; Luxem- burg Emperors, I40 ; the Golden Bull, I4o ; Hanseatic and Suabian Leagues, I41 ; Council of Constance, I4I ; the Hohenzollerns, I4I, I42; re-introduction of House of Hapsblºg, I42; Council of Basel, F. Ghazni in ghanistan, tomb of Mahm; ſat, I25. Ghibellines origin of party wars of, I 33 or Imperial party in Italy, I e. Ghori Muh immad, Mahometan conqueſ r of India, 213. Gilbert, Bishºp of Limerick, 178. Gildas, authority for English In- vasions of Britain, 57. Glenmama, Battle of, IoI. Glycerius, Emperor of West. Gnosticism in France, I48. Godfrey of Bouillon, head of French Crusade, I44; be- comes King of Jerusalem, I45. Godwine, Earl of Wessex, states- man of England, 99. Golden Bull of Charles IV. 14o. Gorm, first King of Denmark, conquered by Henry I., 79 ; persecutes Christians, Iog. Gothic kingdom, 36; architecture, I66. Goths, defeated by Stilicho, 19 ; wars of Arcadius with, 26; conquered by Belisarius, 39 ; Goths in Italy utterly defeated by Belisarius, 67; in Spain, 55, 56. 242 l/IEDIAEVAL HISTORY. / Glanada, kingdom of, established by Saracens, Igó. Gratian, the Decretum bf, 189. Great Plague, the, 17o. Greece under the Byzantine Empire; Slavonians driven out and prosperity restored, II.3. | Greencastle, castle of, in Ireland, I8o. Gregoras Nicephorus, discussion on the Uncreated light, 208. Gregorian Chant, 42. r Gregorius Bar-Hébraeukpatriarch, account of Couſº of Bagdad, II9, I2O ; great tern medi- aeval student, 21 Gregory I., Pope, pº ades Lom- bards to become ( tholics, 40, 4I ; publishes work, the basis of Roman Missal, and English Book ºf Common Prayer,42; sends t. Augustine to England, 60'ſ introduces Gregorian chant ; defends Rome, 42. Gregory II. & III., take part in the Iconoclastic coſtröversy, 4 I- 43, 72. { Gregory VI., deposed by Henry ( , III., 81. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), vindi- cates Papacy against Emperor Henry IV., 82, 91, 92; besieged and driven from Rome by the Emperor, 82, 83. Gregory XI. goes to Rome from Avignon, I53. Gregory of Tours, 64. Grimbald (scholar), 97. Grosseteste, Robert, Lincoln, Gréek Middle Ages, 166. Guelfs, origin of party-wars of, I33; the Guelf or Papal party in Italy, I82. Guienne, loss of to England, I72. Bishop of scholar in Gustavus Vasa, correspondent of Vassili Ivanovitch of Russia, I92. Hadrian I., Pope, 35, 43. Hadrian IV., Pope, Bull of, hand- ing Ireland over to England, I63; only English Pope, I87. Hakon, King of Norway, defeated by Alexander of Scotland, I75. Hakon V., King of Norway, acquires Iceland and Green- land; defeated by Scotch, and surrendels to Scotland He- brides, Orkney, and Shetland, Igg–2OO. Hakon VI., King of Norway, marries Margaret of Denmark, and rules Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, Igg, 200. Halidon Hill, battle of, 168, 176. Hallam (Historian), 185, 216. Hansa, trade guild, Igg. Hanseatic League in Germany, developed active municipal life but intensified national disintegration, 138; active during the reign of Charles, I4I ; wars of with Denmark, Ig8; account of, Igg Hapsburg, House of, origin of, 138; Rudolf I., first Emperor of the line, I38, I39. Harold, son of Godwine, g6; elected King, gg ; defeated by William, IOO. Harold the Blue Tooth, King of Denmark, Io9. Harold Harfager, King of Norway, 1ntroduces feudal system into Norway, IIo. Haroon-el-Rasheed, Caliph of Bagdad, I18—II9; war with Roman Empire, I2 I. INDEX. 243 Harthacnut (Dane), King of Eng- land, 96, 99. Hastings, battle of, Ioo ; William triumphs at, I57. Hastings, Lady Mary, cousin of Queen Elizabeth, Ig3. Hebrides, surrendered to Scotland by Norway, 199. Hegira, Mahometan era, 74. Henoticon of Zeno, 66. Henry I., King of England, 157; charter of, I59; developes ju- dicial system, 159; shipwreck of only son, William, 16o. Henry II., King of England, struggles with Philip Augustus of France, I47; a law re- former, policy of towards barons, 161 ; policy towards the Church, connections of, with Thomas à Becket, Council of Clarendon sum- moned by, 162; public pen- ance of, receives homage of Scotch kings, 163; adds Ire- land to England, 163, 179; connection with Scotland, 175. Henry III., King of England, wars of with barons, formation of House of Commons under, 165. Henry IV., King of England, son of John of Gaunt, first mem- ber of House of Lancaster, I7I. Henry V., King of England, de- feats French force, I55. Henry VI, King of England, wars of with France, 172; deposed by Edward IV., dies in the Tower, 172. Henry VII., King of England (Earl of Richmond) defeats Richard III., 173. Henry VIII., King of England, assumes the title of King of Ireland, 179. Henry I. . (the Fowler) Emperor, § 78; Victories over the Mag- yars ºnd Northmen, 79. Henry I., I third Capetian King of Francle, 84, 88, Henry II. (the Saint) last Saxon Emperor, 81. Henry III., Franconian Emperor, deposiès and appoints Popes, 8I. Henry IV.W Franconian Emperor, struggle with Gregory VII. about Jcelibacy of clergy and investiture, submits to Gre- gory, '82 ; deposes him, 83 ; the Empire degraded under, 130; struggles of with Pope, I8I ; dies excomunicated, 131. Henry V l Franconian Emperor, war with his father Henry IV.; resistance to Papal authority and war with Popes, 131, 18 r. Henry VI., Emperor, extorts ransom for Richard I. of England, 136. Henry, Count of Burgundy rules Portugal, IoA. Henry IV., of Castile, King of Spain, It)7. Henschenius A author of “Thes- aurus Antiquitatis,” 49. Heptarchy, kingdoms of 58, 59. Heraclian proclaimed Emperor in Africa, 20. Heraclius, Emperor, attacks of Saracens under the Caliphs, wars with Persia, 7o. Heribert, Ardhbishop of Milan, ! 90, Hia dynasty in China, 126. Hilarius, Emperor of West, 18. Hilary of Arles, 25. Hildebrand—see Gregory VII. Himyarite or Homerite, Jewish dynasty in Arabia in fifth and sixth centuries, 74, Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, opponent of Erigena, 85. } 244. MIF.DIAEVAL HISTORY. ancient account of India by, I24. Hohenstaufen line of Emperors, I33; Character and Policy of, 137 ; wars with Italy, 187; rules Naples, 189. w Hohenzollern House, origin of, I4 I, I42. Holagoo the Mogul, II'S. Homildon Hill, Battle ºf, 176. Honain, Nestorian Physician, sup- posed to have translated Plato and Aristotle, I2O. Honorius, Emperor ºf West, 18; son of Theodosills the Great, murders Stilichlo, Ig ; dies, Hiouen Thsang, º pilgrim, 2O. Hundred Years' War between England and France, 154, 157, 168, 169. } Hung Woo, Emperor of Chinn, 2I 5. | Hungarians, exploits ºf, 209. Hunneric, son of º 2 I. Hunniades, John, Éxploits 2O9. Huns, invasions of, J21, 28; de- of, feated by father i f Theodoric, 38. Huntingdon, Daviſ, Earl of, ancestor to Bruce, I75. Hus, John, I40; burnt, I4I. Iagellon, King of Lithuanians, constitutes Poland and Lithu- ania one State, 194. Iceland— During Second Period, IIo ; Norwegians settle in, IIo, I 99 Iconium or Roum, 2O3, 206. Iconoclastic controversy, 43 ; causes final division between East and West, 72 ; con- demned by second Council of Nice, 51. Idatius, 25. Ignatius, St., Latin version of the Epistles of, by Grossesteste, I66. Igor, third Prince of Russia, Iob. Illyricum, churches of, 23. Ina, laws of, 97. India—— During Second Period, account of, I24, 125. Innocent I., Western Emperor, I8, 23. Innocent III., Pope, battles of with Emperors and with France and England, 187; his power over Rome, 188. Innocent IV., Pope, triumphs over Emperor Frederick II., J.89. Innocent VI., Pope, in opposition to the Emperors, 209. Investiture, the deliverance of a ring and staff to bishops, 82; struggles between Gregory and Henry IV. about, 82; com- promised by Concordat of Worms, I32. Ireland, 62–64; early history and divisions of, 62 ; Christianity. During Second Period, learn- ing in ; Danish invasions and settlements ; Brian Boru, Ioo —IoI ; invasion of by Henry II., IoI, I63, I64. During Third Period, history of, 178–181; Henry VIII. assumes title of King of, I79. Irenaeus, Father of the Church, I48. Irene, wife of Leo IV., restores image-worship. 72, II3. Isa, son of Bajazet, 207. Isaac, Angelus of Constantinople, accused of conspiracy with Mahonetans against Chris- tians, 2O4. | INDEX. | 245 -— Isaac Comnenus, made Emperor by Nobles, II.7. Isabella, Queen of Spain, America discovered during reign of, I97. º Isidore of Seville, 64; decretals of, I89. Isidore, Metropolitan of Moscow, I9 I. Italian poets, 216. “Italicarum Scriptores Rerum,” 4.O. Italy, invaded by Vandals, 21 ; History of, 36–43; invaded by Alboin, 39; divided between Lombards and Exarchs of Ra- venna, 39,41; ruled by Narses, 42; History of, under Frankish Emperors, Italian Kings, Ger- man Emperors, 89–90 ; be- comes third division of Charle- magne’s Empire, 89; History of The Papacy in, g I, 92; History of Southern Italy and Sicily, 93 of Venice, 93; of Northern Italy, with Florence and Venice; the Medici in, 181–186; history of Southern Italy, with the Papal See and Naples, 187—189. Ivan the Great, frees Russia from the Mdngol yoke; forms alli- ance with Venice; introduces Greek art and civilisation into Russia, Igr, 192. Ivan IV., the Terrible, extends boundaries of Russia ; Van- quished by Poles and Swedes; friendly relations of with England ; wishes to marry the cousin of Queen Elizabeth, Ig3 ; destroys order of Livo- nian Knights, Ig4. Ivanovitch, Vassili, ruler of Russia, wages war with Poland and the Tartars; an ardent student of art and literature, IQ2. |Jacq. or peasant war in France, I 56. Jainas, seqt of, in India, 125. James I. pf Scotland, able ruler and pbet; quarrels with clans; murdered, 177. James II.) to V., Kings of Scot- land, #77. Janizaries stablished among Otto- mans, 1207. Jaroslaf the Great, Russian Prince, translates Bible into Russian, IO7. Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc), the Maid of Orleans, put to death at Rouen by English on a charge of sorcery, 155. Jenghis Khan, II8, 2I2; 1m China, 214. Jerome of Prague, I4o ; burnt, I4 I- Jerome, St., lamentations of, at fall of Rome, 20 ; celebrated writer, 25. Jerusalem taken by Persians, but re-captured by Heraclius, 71. Joanna, wife of Philip IV. of France, I52. John the Saxon, 97. John of England, struggles of, with Philip Augustus of France, I47; great Charta of, 164; in contact with Scotland, I75. John, son of Henry II. of England, Lord of Ireland, 164, 179. John II., King of France, 154 ; captured by Black Prince, I55. John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich, Lord Justiciary of Ireland, I8o. John of Antioch (Malalas), his- torian of Middle Ages, 75. John, of Bohemia, blind King, slain at Crecy, I55. John of Damascus, writer of eighth century, 75. 246 * HISTORY. EDIAEVAL | | John of Ephesus, eclèlesiastical history of, 69, 75. ) John of Gaunt, father of Henry IV. of England, I7I, I72. John Moschus, º writer of eleventh century, 75. º Popes of e John XII., Pope, type tenth century, d Otho the Great, g2. John's, St., Castle in Ireland, 180. Jornandes (Jordanus), Western author of thirtee th century, 63. Jovinus proclaimed Gaul, 20. Junilius, Western author, 63. Justin, Emperor, 65,66. Justinian I., Emperor of East, early fortunes, 67; reign of, 67–70; successes against the Vandals and Goths, 67 ; against the Persians, 67, 68; relations with the Church, 68 ; closes the schools of Athens, 69; legislation of, 69; Corpus Juris Civilis, 69, 70 ; archi- tecture of, 42, 70 | posed by k * Emperor in Kaabah, sacred shrine of Arabia, 3. Kelſ Synod of, in Ireland, I78. Kehneth III., King of Scotland, conquers Strathclyde, Io2. Keyrawan (North Africa), 121. Khan, Jenghis, II8, 212 ; ruler of • China, 2I4. Khan, Kublai, Mongol monarch, 2I4. Kid: county of, in Ireland, 180. Kilkenny, statue of, I80. Kin dynasty in China, 2I4. Kineth MacAlpin, King of Dal- riada, founder of first line of Scottish Kings, 63, IO2. of, King's Bench, the Court founded by Edward I. of Eng- land to try criminal cases, 167. Knut, King of Denmark, Ig&. Koreysh tribe in Arabia, 73; Ma- homet a member of, 74. Kremlin, in Russia, Igo. Kublai Khan, see Khan. Lambert Simnel, see Simnel. Lancaster, house of, 17I, 172. Lateran Council, ratifies Con- cordat of Worms, 132, 182. Latin Fathels, St. Bernard, the last of, I46. Latin Kingdom of Constantinople, history of, 204, 205. Law, Canon, 55. Law, Roman, code of Theodosius, 3I ; code of Justinian, 69, 70. Laws of Charlemagne, capitu- laries, 54. Legnano, battle of, I34, 183. Leo III., Empel or (the Isaurian), 65, 7 I ; abolishes images, 72, II.3. Leo IV., Emperor, forbids image worship, 72. Leo I., Pope, 21, 22; character of, 24. Leo III., Pope, 35, 43. Leon, Kingdom of, united with Castile, IO4. Leopold of Austria, Richard Coeur de Lion seized by, I47. Lerins, Vincent of, 25. Lithuania, account of, Ig4. Lollards, 17 I. Lombard League takes part with Popes against Emperors, I34; wals of Frederick II. with, I36; Barbarossa defeated by, Ib3. Lombardic Kingdom, 36; Alboin, King of, 39. | INDEX. 247 t Lombards, rule of in Italy; origi- nally Arians, become Catho- lics; laws of, 40; conquered by Charlemagne, 50. Lothair, King of France, 84. Lothaire, Duke of Saxony, elected Emperor, I53. Lothaire, son of Louis the Pious, Loué Hill, battle of, 176. Louis le Débonnaire (Ludwig the Pious), son of Charlemagne, Emperor, 77, 83. Louis (Ludwig the German), son of above, King of Bavaria, 77, 8. $. Loué II., King of France, 83. Louis III., King of France, 83. Louis d’Outremer, King of France, 83. Louis the Sluggard, King of France, 84. Louis VI. (the Wideawake), King of France; tranquil reign of, I46. Louis VII. (the Young), King of France; weak prince, joins Conrad of Germany in 2nd Crusade, I47. Louis VIII., King of France, I49. Louis IX. (St. Louis of France), reigns 44 years, wise monarch, restrains aggressions of Popes, 149; joins two Crusades; de- feated by Sultan of Egypt; develops learning in France; Pragmatic Sanction of; builds the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, 15o ; learned in theological matters ; Paris at its highest fame as a University in reign of ; great love of justice of, 151 ; marries Margaret of Pro- vence, I52; dies at Tur’s, I5O. Louis X. (the Quarrelsome), I53. Louis of #: cousin of Philip VI. of France, arrests British merchants in Flanders, L54. Lyons added to France by Philip IV. of France, I53. ! Macrobius, 25. Magna Charta, 165. Magyars defeated by Henry I., 79; and by, Otho I., 90. Mahmud, $of Ghazni, Turkish Conqueror of Central Asia, I25. Mahomet, 7 I, 74. Mahomet II., Sultan, seizes Con- stantinople, 2Io. Mahometarism, rise of, 71; account of 73, 75. Maid of Orleans, see Jeanne d'Arc. Majorian, Emperor of West, 18. Malachi of Armagh, striking char- acter in' Irish History, life of, written by St. Bernard, 178. Malcolm II., King of Scotland, IO2. \ Malcolm III, King of Scotland, IO2, IO3. Mameluke, or Memlook Sultans, I22. Man, Isle of, ruled by Hakon, King of Norway, I75. Manchoo Tartar dynasty in China, 2I5. Manichaeans of Asia Minor and Bulgaria in Southern France, I48. | Manichaeism, districts of France infected by, I48; Inquisi- tion instituted to root out, I49. Marcel, Etienne, Provost of Paris, murdered, I56. Marco Polo in China, 2I4. Margaret, of Provence, wife of Louis of France, I52. 248 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. l | * Margaret, of Scotland | (St. Mar- garet of Scotland) sister of Edgar Aethling and wife of Malcolm III., IoS, 174. Margaret, Queen of Denmark, 199. Margus, peace of, 28. Marius, Mercator, 32. Maroria, daughter of . Theodora, 9I. Mars, field of, 22. Martianus, 25. i Martin I., Pope, 43. Martin IV., Pope, i89." Maruthas, bishop of Mesopotamia, 28. Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., wife of Henry I. of England, IO3. | Matilda, wife of William Duke of Normandy, Ioo. Maximus, Emperor of West, 18, 2O. Maximus, Petronius, *enator, 22. Maximus, the Confessor, 75. Mayors of the Palace, rise of, 49. - Medici at Florence, 1,85, 186. Memlook or Mameluke dynasties, 2 I 2. ! * Mercia, kingdom of, under Offa, 60. Merovingian Kings, list of, 44, France under, 46, 49. Michael the Drunkard, Byzantine Prince. I 13. Michael, Greek Church in Con- stantinople under, 206. Michael, Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor, joins Roman Church, 208. Milan conquered, 183. Millenium, expectation of in year A.D. I, Ooo, 88. Ming, or Bright, dynasty in China, 2I4, 2I 5. Miseco, Duke of Poland, 193. Missal, RC man, 42. 58, 59; ºrsº-º-º-º-º- Mongol Tartars, see Tartars. • Seljouk Turks conquered by, 203; Invasion and His- tory of, 205, 207, 2I2; Mah- ometanism embraced by, 213 ; termination of dynasty, 2I4. Monophysite party (those holding doctrine of only one nature in Christ), 30 ; in the Eastern Church, and in Egypt, 65, 66; supported by Theodora, wife of Justinian, 68; attempted reconciliation of by Justinian, edict of “Three Chapters,” 68; represented in history of John of Ephesus, 69; betray Egypt to the Sara- cens, 7 I. * Monothelism (doctrine of only one will in the two-fold nature of Christ), heresy brought forward by Heraclius, 70. Montfort, Simon de, see Simon. Moors in Spain, civilization and learning among, IO4. IO5 ; contest of with Christians, 195; finally conquered, 196, I97. Moºn, Statute of, forbidding alienation of land to religious bodies without royal per- mission, I67. Moschus, John, writer, 75. Moscow burnt by Tartar-Mongols, Princes of, Igo. - Mostasem, last Caliph of Bagdad, II8. Muhammad Ghori, second great Mahometan conqueror of India, 213. Muratori, 4o; Collection of Italian Historians, 89. Naples, ruled by Exarchs of Ravenna, 41 ; becomes a • { INDEX. 249 Norman fief under Papacy, and under Roger becomes part of the Kingdom of the two Sicilies, g3, 181 ; ruled by Normans, Hohenstaufens, and French, then by house of Anjou, till Sicilian Vespers, and then by house of Aragon, I89. Narses, campaigns of, 39 ; rules Italy, 42. Navarre, Kingdom of, IOA ; united to Castile, IO4; united to France by Philip, I52. Nepos, Emperor of West, 18. Nestorianism, 29, 30 ; Nestorians on side of Persia, 68 ; intro- duced into China, I27, 128. Nestorius made Patriarch of Con- stantinople, 29, 32. Neustria, Kingdom of, founded, 44. Neville's Cross, Battle of, 176. Nicaea, Sultan of, defeats the Crusades led by Peter the Her- mit; Sultan of, defeated by Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon, I44. Nice, Second Council of, con- demns the Iconoclasts, 51, 72, Nicene Creed, insertion of Filioque clause in, 52. Nicephorus, General, II7. Nicholas IV., Pope, taxations of, I46. Nilus of Egypt, 32. Nithard, History of, 84. Nitrian Manuscripts of Egypt, I2O. Noricum, 36; acquired by Rome, 37. Normandy, Duchy of, granted to Northmen by Charles the Simple; Dukes of, 87, I47. Normans or Northmen, first in- cursion of, 5 I ; invasions of France, 85, 86; settlement in Normándy, 87; ravage coasts of Italy, go; conquer Apulia, receiv Naples, conquer Sicily, and establish Kingdom of twid Sic.lies, 93 ; hard pressed in battle of Antioch, I44, I45; No.1 man Princes es- tablished by Crusaders, 145; union of, with English, I6o. Northumbria, Kingdom of, 59. Norway— During (Second Period, Io9; conversion to Christianity, I IO. During Third Period, Igg. Novgorod, seat of Varangian . Government, Iof ; becomes a chief principality, Ioë. Odo (or º'- son of Count Robert (of Paris, Count of Paris, 8% ; elected King by nobles, 87. w Odoacer, the Herulian King of Italy, 36; interview with Severinus; dethrones Augustulus—called “Patrician ; ” resides at Ra- venna ; acquires Dalmatia and Noricum ; in conflict with Theodoric, King of Goths ; defeated and killed, 37. Ogdai, son of Jenghis, reign of, in China, 2I4. Offa, King of Mercia, 6o ; laws of, olaš, converts the Norwegians, oles, *cond Sövereign of Russia, oºie of Igor, rules Russia oft Emperor of West, 18. Omar, second Caliph, 74. R * 250 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Ommiade Caliphs at Damascus, 75, II8. Orestes, 22, Orkhan, son of Othmān, founds Ottoman Empire, Boö. Orkney, Islands of, surrendered to Scotland, 200. Orleans, Maid of, see Jeanne d'Arc, Dukes of, 156. Orosius, History of, translated by Alfred, 98. Orthodoxy, Feast of, IU 3. Othman, Ottoman Empire named after, 206; checked by Ti- mour, 207. Otho I. (the Great), King of Ger- many, wars with D nes, Poles, Magyars, 79; £równed Em- peror at Rome, 8o; reign of 8o ; development of Italy under, 90. | Ottoman Empire, rise of, 205– 207; founded by Drkhan, 206; conquest of Ottºmans, 206; established at Adjianople, 206. Oxford, Roger Fº studies at, I5 I. Paganism, 19. Palaeologus, John, allies himself to Sultan Amuriath, 210. Palaeologus, Michaël, see Michael. Pale, Irish, 179. Palestine, ruled Egypt, I50. Palladius, Bishop of Scots, 24. Pannonia, 36, | Papacy, the, 22, 41; ; from 800 A.D., —I Ioo, 91, 92 ; degradation of during tenth Century, 91 ; in- terference of Otho, g2 ; H 11- debrand restores its power, 92; account of during third period, 187—189. Papal decretal, 23 ; dominions, 36. y Sultan of z Paris made capital of France by Clovis, 47; capital of France, by Hugh Capet, 88; Uni- versity, of, see University, under Louis IX., I5I ; Par- liament of developed by Philip, 153; Etienne Marcel, Provost of, 156. Parliament, English, first outline of, 164, 165, under Henry III., admission of Commons to, 165; first perfect Parliament summoned under Edward I, 167; under Edward III, 170. Parliament of Ireland, I80. Parliament of Paris developed by Philip, I53. l Patriarchs of Constantinople compared with Popes, II4. Patrick, St., 62. Paul, the deacon, Lombards, 64. Pavia, Desiderius captured in, 40, I83. Pelagius, 25. Persia, war with Eastern Empire under Justinian, campaigns of Belisarius against, 68 ; under Heraclius, 70; Persians in Egypt, 70. Pertz. 36. Peschiera, 22. Peter the Hermit, I44. Philip, Augustus, founds uni- versity of Paris, I46; great mediaeval French sovereign ; contests of with English so- veigns ; engages in third Cru- sade and quarrels with King Richard of England, I47. Philip I, King of France, 84; first Crusade starts in reign of, 146. f Philip III. (the Rash) Sicilian Vespers in reign of, 152. Philip IV. of France (the Fair), unites Navarre with France historian of | INDEX, 25I by his marriage with Joanna ; wars of, with Edward of Eng- land, and the Flemings; quarrel of with Pope Boni- face VIII., 152; adds Lyons to France ; studies Roman laws, developes Parliament of Paris; destroys Templars, I53. Philip V. (the Tall) 153. Philip VI. of France, first member of house of Valois, I53 ; the Hundred Years’ war commences in reign of ; jealous of Edward III. of England ; induces Louis, his cousin, of Flanders, to arrest English merchants in his dominions, hence the war, I54. Philippa, Queen, wife of Edward III., I55. Photius made Patriarch of Con- stantinople, II4; account of, II5; works of, II5. Picts, 20. Pippin Heristal, Mayor of the Palace and Duke of Austrasia, 49. Pippin II., King of the Franks, 5o ; consolidates the Empire of the Franks, 50. Pisa, great commercial city of Italy, I83. Placidia, 2I. Plague, the Great, I70. Plantagenets, The, 160. Poictiers, battle of, I55. Poland, wars of, with Russia, 192 history of, 193, 194. Poles, Latin Christianity adopted by, 194. Pollentia, battle of Ig. Popes (see Papacy), power of, increased by Crusaders, I45; influence of Emperors over, 8o. Portugal made a kingdom, IoA. ſ Praemunile Statute of, whereby admission of Papal Bulls were º I70. . Pragmatic Sanction of Louis of Printing, invention of, 142. Priscus, 32. Procopius, secretary of Belisarius, histor|an under Justinian, 70, º I5O. Proterius, Patriarch of Alexandria, 66. Provence, Margaret of, see Mar- garet. Provisors, Statute of, whereby Papal claim to dispose of Church benefices was rejected, I70. | Provost of Paris, Etienne Marcel, I 56. Pulcheria, s ster of Theodosius II., J º Prussia inhabited by Lombards, 39. 28. Radagaſsus defeated at battle of Florenc I9. Exarchate of, 36; Ravenna, Ig); imperial residence, 37 : Theodorikº buried at, 39 ; Archbish pps of, 4 I ; embel- lished by Justinian I., 42 ; given to Popes by Pippin II. and Charlemagne, 50. Raymond of Toulouse made Prince of Tripoll by Crusaders, I45, heroic leader of Albigenses; defeated by, and then defeats and slays, Simon de Montfort, I48. Recared I., King of the Visigoths, reclaims Spaniards from Arianism, 56. “Registrum Curiae" at Paris, I48. : Remigius, bishop of Rheims, 46. Richard (Coeur de Lion), struggles 252 MEDLEVAL HISTORY. ſ of, with Philip alsº of France ; on third | Crusade : seized by Leopold of Austria and ransomed, 147; account of, I64. Richard II. (the good. Duke of Normandy, 87. Richard III., Duke of Normandy, 87. Richard (the Fearless), Duke , of Normandy, 87. Ricimer, 22. Robert of Normandy crusading army organised by nobles of France, led by, 144. Robert of Sorbon. See Sorbon. Robert the Devil, Duke of Nor- mandy, 87. | Robert the Pious, son of Hugh Capet, 84; King of France, 8 8. Robert the Strong, * Count of Paris by Charles the Bald, 86, 8 7. Robert, son of St. Louis of France. Bourbon family descends from, I5I, I52. Robert II., King of Scotland, 177. Rodolf, King of France, 83. Roger Bacon, see Baçon. Roger I., Count of the Normans, conquers Sicily, g3. Roger II., Count of the Normans, establishes the Kingdom of the two Sicilies, g3. Rollo, first Duke of Normandy, 7. Roman Empire of the West, 32. Rome sacked by Alaric, Ig ; captured by Ricimer ; See of, 22 ; Ecclesiastical supremacy of, 23 ; Church of 24; Empire of, 36; Gregory XI. returns to, I53. Romulus Augustulus, Emperor of West, 18, 22. Roses, wars of I72. Rotharis, King, publishes laws of Lombards, 40. Rouen, Jeanne d'Arc, put to death at, I55. Rudolf I., first Emperor of the Hapsburg House, reign and policy of, 138, 139. Russia, early notice of, IOS ; During Second Period, history of, IoS–Io'7; the three princi- palities of Vladimir, Kief, and Novgorod gain chief power, Ioé ; reign of Vladimir and conversion of the Russians, IO7. During Third Period : reigns of Ivan the Great and Vassili Ivanovitch, Igo—Ig3. Sainte Chapelle, Parisian Church built by St. Louis of France, I5O. e Saladin, Koordish Conqueror, destroys Fatimite dynasty in Egypt, 122; war with Richard I., character of, 2II, 212. Salvianus, 25. Samarcand, Tamerlane of, 213. Sanction, Pragmatic, of Louis of France, I5o, Saracens, conquest of Spain by, 56; During Second Period, Saracen Empire, account of, I 18, I22; Caliphate of Bagdad, Haroon-el-Rasheed, II8, Irg ; Conquest of Central Asia by, I22 ; civilisation of; I Ig ; literature under, I2O ; Fati. mite dynasty in Egypt, I21 ; Saladin, the Mameluke Sul- tan, I22; Saracens in India 125; defeated by Crusaders, under Godfrey of Bouillon, I44; wars of with Spain, Ig5 ; INDEX. 253 During Third Period, history of 2II-2I3. Saxon Emperors, the, 78, 81. Saxons, the, 20 ; wars of Charle- magne with, 51. Scandinavia, history of, Io8–IIo. sée Norway, Sweden, Den- mark. Scotland, early history of, 63. During Second Period, Io2, Io3; united into one nation, invasion of Danes, Malcolm II.conquers Lothian; Malcolm IV. ; his daughter marries Henry I. of England, Ios. During Third Period, war with England, 174–177. Scots, 20, 24. Selim I. conquers Egypt, 122. Seljouk Turks conquer Central Asia, I23; history of, 202– 2O4 ; conquered by Mongols, 2O3. - Senlac, or Hastings, William I. triumphs at, I57. Servia, principality of, founded by Heraclius, 71. Servius, 25. Severus, Emperor of West, 18. Shang dynasty in China, 126. Shetland, Island of, surrendered to Scotland, 200. * Sicilian Vespers, all French in Sicily massacred, I52, 189. Sicily ruled by Exarchs of Ra- venna, 4 I ; connection with Eastern Empire, conquered by Saracens in 9th centnry, and by Normans in the IIth, who establish kingdom of the two Sicilies, 93; French in massacred, I52; kingdom of Sicily, 181. Sidonius, Apollinaris, 25. Siegfried of Mentz, 82. Sigismund of Hungary, Emperor, I4I. f –-sº | Simnel, Lambert, pretender to English Crown, crowned in Ireland, I80. Signon de Montfort, General of Albigensian, Crusade, in pos- session of county of Toulouse, killed by Raymond, 148; story of great piety of, I49. Simplicius, Emperor of West, 18. Siricius, flºp. of West, 18. Sixtus IIIA. Emperor of West, 18. Sluys, victory of English over French at, I54, I69. Socrates, 31. Sorbon, Robert of, founds College of the Sorbonne, I5I. Sorbonne, College of the, I5I. Sozomen, 32. - Spain, 20; Churches of 23; Visi- goths of, 38; early history of, 55, 56; kingdoms of the Van- dals, Alans and Suevi ; Visi- goths conquer and establish first Monarchy under Ataul- phus, 55; Recared I. re-estab- lishes Roman faith ; attacks of the Saracens; Cordova, Gren- ada; Goths found kingdom of the Asturias, 56. During Second Period, history of, Io:3-105; different kingdoms in; Saracen and Christian Moorish civilization during IX.—XIII. centuries, Io.4, IOS. During Third Period, history of, g5–197; reigns of Alfonso IV. and Ferdinand III., Igó. St. Ambrose, 25. St. Augustine sent to England, 42. St. Chrysostom, 26, 27, 29, 32. St. Jerome, 20, 25. St. Patrick, 24. St. Peter, See of, 24. St. Severinus, 36; interview with Odoacer, 37. Sophia, Church of, in Con- stantinople, 42, 70. St. *— 254 HISTORY. *ows: States of the Church, 36), 41. Stephen III., Pope, receives Exar- chate of Ravenna from Pippin, St. Vitalis, Church of, ; 70. 43. Stephen, of Byzantium,75. Stephen, king of England, 157; Anarchy in reign of, 159. Stilicho, Ig. Stirling, Battle of, 176. Stuart, House of, 176, 177. Suabian League, 138, 141. Suevians, Ig. Sultan of Egypt attacked by and defeats St. Louis of France, I5O. Superior, or King's Court, estab- lished in England by Henry I., I59. Sutri, City of, Synod at, held by Henry III., for the trial of the Popes, 81. Sviatoslaf, son of Olga, of Russia, IO7. Sweden, During Second Period, Io9; During Third Period, 200. Switzerland, rise of Swiss Con- federacy, 139; defeats Leopold of Austria and becomes inde- pendent, I39. | Syagrius, last Roman ruler in Gaul, conquered by Clovis, 46. Symmachus, Minister of and slain by Theodoric, 38 ; seen in a dream by Theodoric, 39. Tamerlane of Samarcand sacks Aleppo, 213. , Tāoism, ancient religion of China, I27, 2I5. Tartar-Mongols, dominion of in Russia, Igo Teias, Gothic sovereign, 30. Telemachus, St., Ig. Tell, legend of, I39. Templars, destruction of, by Philip of France. I53. Theodelinda, wife of Agilulf of, Lombards, 40. Theodora, wife of. Justinian, 66,67. Theodore of Tarsus, Primate of England, 61. Theodore of Mopsuestia, 32. Theodoret, 32. Theodoric, King of the Ostro- goths, rules Italy 33 years, rules the Visigoths, very pros- perous reign, 38; dies, 39. Theodoric I., King of the Franks, 44. Theodoric (son of Alaric), King of the Visigoths, falls at Châlons, 36. Theodosian code, 20; dynasty, 22. Theodosius the Great, Emperor, I9, 2I. Theodosius II., Emperor of East, 27; wars with Persia and Huns, 28, 29; makes Nes- torius patriarch of Constan- tinople, 29; forms the Theo- dosian code, 3.I. Theophanes, 75. Theophylact (Simocatti) historian, 5. Thoffs Aquinas, see Aquinas. Timothy of Constantinople, 75. Timothy the Cat, Monophysite leader at Alexandria, 66. Timour of Tamerlane, the Otto- mans checked by, 207. Tipperary created a feudal prin- cipality, I79. Tolbiac, battle of, between Clovis and the Alamanni, 46. Tolosa, battle of, 196. Totila, Gothic King, 39. Toulouse, Raymond of, I45, dis- trict round Toulouse infected with Oriental dualism, Simon de Montfort in possession of INDEX. 255 county of, 148; University of, founded, I49. Tribigild, leader of Goths, 26. Tripoli, Raymond, of Toulouse made Prince of, I45. Troyes, treaty of, I55, 171. Tudor, House of, 173. Tunis, Louis of France sails against and dies at, I50. Turks conquer Central Asia, 123; defeated by Mongols, 123; the Seljouk Turks, history of, 202, 2O4. Tuscany, Dukes of, gr Tusculum, Counts of, connections with Papacy in the IIth cen- tury, 91. Uldin, King of the Huns, 26, 28. Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths, 38. Ultramontanism. 55. Uncreated light, dispute concern- ing, 208. University of Paris, founded by Philip Augustus, oldest Euro- pean University, I46; quarrels with Mendicant Order, 15I. University of Prague, earliest German University, founded by Charles IV., I40. University of Toulouse, I49. Urban, II., Pope, proclaims first Crusade, 89, I44. Utica, battle of, 74. Valentinian III., Emperor of the West, 18, 20, 2I, 22. Valois, house of, I53. Vandals, 19, 21 ; in possession of Northern Africa, 38 ; con- quered by Belisarius, 39, 67. Varangians, Russia invaded by, IO5, IC6. Vassili Ivanovitch, see Ivanovitch; wars of, with Tartars; intro- duces art and literature into Russia, Ig2. Vassili, the Blind, ruler of Russia, I9I. Venice, 22; ruled by Exarchs of Ravenna, 4 I ; account of, 93, 94; importance in sixth cen- tury as a maritime power; , Doges or Dukes of; connec- tion with Eastern Empire, 94; treaty of, between Italy and Germany, I34, I35; history of, during twelfth century, 183 ; becomes an Oligarchy under Council of Ten, 184– I86. Verdun, treaty of 77, 84. Vespers, Sicilian. See Vespers. Vienna, 37. Vincent of Lerins, 25. Visigoths, 21 ; under Theodoric, 38. Vitalis, St., church of, at Ravenna built by Charlemagne, 53, 7o. Vladimir, Principality of, Great Russia, Iob. Vladimir, Russian Prince, under whom the Russians were con- verted, 107. Waldemar II., King of Denmark, Ig8. Wales, origin of motto of Prince of, 155; added to England, I66. Wallace, Sir William, 167, 176. Walter the Penniless, leader of First Crusade, 89. Wedmore, peace of, between Aelfred and Danes, 97. Wessex, Kingdom of, founded, 58. Whitbv, Synod of. Wickliffe, account of, 169, 170. 256 , MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. William (the Bastard), Duke of Normandy, 87; triumphs at Hastings, and is crowned King of England as William I. (the Conqueror), go, Ioo, I57; crushes insurrection in Eng- land, and vengeance of, on Northumbria; introduces Feu- dal System from France, 157, I58; supremacy of over Church, I59. William, Duke of Normandy (the Longsword), 87. William the Lion, of Scotland, reign of, in twelfth century, I75. William II. (the Red), King of England, 157. Wimbledon, battle of, 59. Winchester, statute of, appointing Justices of the Peace in every shire, I67. Worms, Concordat of, I32. Yemen, Arabian state, 73, 74. York, house of, 171, 172. Zeno, Emperor of East, 37, 65; Henoticon of, 66. Zimisces, general under Basilian dynasty, II7. Zosimus, Emperor of the West, I8, 32. ſº Iliſiiiii. ERSITY - 3 9015 06300 7986 : * - * > . * * * ‘. … * * * * * , - • * * *, r* * * * * • * * * * * : * * * * * . . . is t , tº 4 hr s a , a # * ~ *.*.* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * • * * * s ºrº & - w • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ' ' " º A, sº tº ... ', 4 gº * ~ * * * * * * * * * * \e e tº * * * ~ e : *... - - - - * * ss swº-assº **** * * * * * * * * * * **** #:::: ... . . . . . .” - assº's “. 4 * r , , , , , sº s * *, r r • * : * , = * * * * * * * * : * * * * * - s , * : * f : . . . . . . . . --~~~~ - *.*.*-------- - ****） §§§ tae ſae ºf: º: żż <ſ $2- §§ 8 $2 ö· È įſff) ğ ? i 。。、、、、、、、、） §§§§§§§ §§§§§%. ſºsº， º 9， *№， ¿ *：'， §§§§§ §:№ſ: ſaei §:ssae ſºº-， *ae sees， §§§！ -№aeae ■■■■■■§§§§ saeae·-r.§0§§§ ™ae✉ ₪-ſae， §§ $$$$$$$$$$$$$$|-№aeae £; ſaeţſ;------：： -§§§§ …§§§§§---|------··№šķae --|-~·§§§§§ ſae！！！----- ·----§§§）----№，§§§ *， ， ， ，·-，-ſae№ſae * ，…！--§§§·……… ：-） ſaeºſºraeaeae-∞∞∞∞∞（~~~~， ~- №v ， ！ſaeaeaeae********）ºº：：::：：::：::：:::：-§§§§§！！！ ！！！！，·， ，№ºº！！！，∞■■■■>.■****，· ---！！！！！！！！!（*****ſaeſae▪#𧧧 --ſae§§|----- **，-№-|- ±∞∞∞∞∞№ae， º：**?<！！！！！！！ºſº，ſºs：ºſae， §§§§§§§§§§§ §§§§§-·-§§§ ≡≡·№sae！ --------≡≡.ºrº， ºſ--ſae- ·-ſae！∞---- §§§ſº º ſae.t.-…-§§§§§§× × ×-- № ：*（∞ √∞----ſae;- §§§§*:'，|-…！！！！！！§§§§ §§§§§№ae，|--№.· ·§¶ſae：·¿····****¿¿.* |--$£§§§§§--ð， ſaeaeae:§§§§§§§fu·.---- ſaeº ， ！~~~~…№---- §§§§§-|-----…-- §§§------ ！！！！！！！!---- ſae· §§ ，^..…ſae ae → ∞|- • ×！***! ：）...« *ae ****** （ºſae:|-- ， ，35; æraerº， №. ！！！ ***¿¿.* ！=）? 、、、。、、。（）-----·！ §§§§§§§§·…-§##### ----ſae;■§§§§§！！！，，，，，，，，∞º， g-） ---，-№ºr，■ -^ ^-- *： *）-----§§§§）;·- --ſaeaeae: -|-ſaei, ！！=）*****¿¿.* ！！！！！！！！----- º # º § ###### š §§§ º §§§ gº º: º # º: ºš #; * § § : º º : i º § * §§ # # º § ######## # § § § i 3. º *.*.*.*. ; § º: § # - ; § § # : ; § º § º º 3. ######## ############## #º º: - º º: #: º ################ ############ *ś lºš º º º: §§§ -- §§ º § § §§ ºf ºś § § § º : # ; # § §§ # #: § º §§§ - º 3. fººtº: ---- §§§ º § º : º -- 㺠º: w # #º ######$º #º º 3 - lſº ------- # ####### # ## ###### º º: - §º § ºś § - º º w - §ººt § º § § § ºś #: # §§§ §§ ################## § § # º º § # º § #º: -- §§ § § § º: §§ § ºrry ºf # # : †† § §§ §§ ##################### º §§§ - §§§ §§§ - § § #: ºś § §§ ###### §§ º- # § # §§ §§ º º: § # § º ########## º § § § #; # § - - gºt ºf --- º ºº:: - - º § § § § §§ º §§ § :::::: ;; §§ §§ : § § ; # §§§ º - º § º - # º º: #: - º # º #. §§ º § # º tº: - tº. sºrºrº § - ##### º § §: § §§§ sº #º 2. - Fººt - º - - §§§ # § --------> §§ § º º º ſº § fººtº #º ñº Fº fººtº º § §: £º §§ § - ſº - º - 5 º i º #: ; : sº º : º:#º* i# El# :ºoº º;sº º*:d º # º º 8- ; * º §§§ §§ § § § ######## º # § º § &F jºir; º §§ s §§§ § § i. ; ; ©º: * : § i - # º º ğ # §; # º º §§§ º #º §§ - §§ # § § # § §§ §§ § º # ſº § §: § §§§ # § # § # §§ § §§§ §§§ º º; §§ §§ d ######### # º - §§ § ºś §§ ºº:: º: º § § º § § - § bº - § º º sº # §: ############# º: § § º § º: § §§§ - .. º: º § ; - º º R; : §: º # … §; º § §§ # º § º jºº : * º :# º ~ º § º # #: § # # 5. º § §§ º §§ § º §: §: # # §§§ §§ ####### # # § ######## §º $ºtº º º § § - º § §§ º º §§ º §§ º §:## §: § § ; § # § º º § § § º - ſ § # Bº | ſº º º § tº ºr - º #º: ºr ºft- ºś §§§ º § º ########################## § : # ##### º § § r º §§ § Fº § sº º º: bºº ºš § § § - §º w Bºº §§ºi º #: º º - fº ºº:: º º §: : §: § - Fº - ; - º § § # - - § # É. § tº: º § § º --- - § º i : § ſ: #: : : º - - Tº bºº : ºf-ºr-º-º: º :-" wº - º § - - º º # sº E. ºº:: ###### § § -> -->> wº º º Fº §: § ########### § r - ſº sº § § ; s; º º ſº §§ a--- § § [. º: º - [. §º º ; º º #: - § º - # - §§ - †: § ######## - § # § #: § ###############: º § #### ſº # § § § #º § §§ #: º § §§§ § § - º º º; § # º º : º § § 3. E º: º: rº § º º ; ; º º º # § # §- º : : i # § gº -º º #§#º#º;º;Eº,ºi §§ :#ſº wº§;-iº#-: *-:-#ºººº#:i-#º ##; --;ºº--º# cººº ; º # # # º ; º . ºº:#§ ;ºgº#º: : sº # º § # § ; º § # - § § § º # § : #: º f ; ſº § -- § 8: ; # # * § § §§ ################# ºº:: º º: - E. Fºº W. & wº §: ##### # § sº § § § | #; º º º #########, §§§ # # º §: ##########$º: #: ſ º ºf :;:#3. : -º :ºº r ; § :º º ; H º º ;§ i º i.; | # # # : # : º§*>##§º#::Nº.§§;:ti-lº#: :ºº -º#.# -#{º -º##º;º#§ #§§º|i §;º #§::º§ º º§ # § º #. s º º *** * * # #: º º: º # § § T º: Bºº. ; # t§ º º # § º §§§ ;º;;::#.º #i.§iº º; § : # º # ######### º § º º º:- º:§#i ## #-*ººº§ º # : i # # ; : : # § º ; i- tºº º º B º § º º º --;:-É - :º#: :-º:## #º #:;:º:3.t H : § #º: ; º # º º- - º º##: ; # Fº # # § 3º º * º: § ; # º tº: § º::# igº;# §:# º º: ; §§ tº: º: #º º º: # §§ § #. §º ºś #: # # § - $º º §§ º # § ſºft. # 8. º A. ºrnº º º §§ § § § §§ º § ſfº # º § §§ § §§ Kºś sº § Bº §: # † r º º § : : : ; º: º ; # #: # º º sº §; ; º- sº § § § ºf # wº- # § &# #! § : § # º # # i § § º $: º:º #;;# }: #; # ; # º # º ;# : ; ñº º §: #; P. # # º §§ ##### # º:#; § #: ####. §§ ; : º : : # § º º sº §§§ º § *: º ; ; : º § ; § # # # ; §#§:#:º T] : ############ - § ############### §§ §§ § § 5. #: §§ # # § ####### §º º ##### º º ####### ###### §§ #: §§§ ########## #### # §§ §§§º: ############ §§§ §§ º: §: § - º j #: # §§ º Fº § º § § º º #: # º º º #§ §§ # º 5G : ; §º | -## §:º§ºrº# : º § # # : : #. º § § # } º ;º Fº § § w º;§ - ::ºi ;§ t#º Sº§;º # §§ § § -:i# -;º:º: --:i :ºº§ f- -º i §; -:ºr -rii º º º º§-: §t §# :- - --# º§~ § § : sº º § # # i # §§; § # ;º # º : º ºº f # º ſº º º ſ: # º: # r#~ #§# # § § #t # # sº § #: ſº fº # § º º # s : º § § ;#:º~ ;; ;