1817
Eins
ARTES
SCIENTIA
LIBRARY VERITAS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
TUEBOR
SI QURRISPENINSULAM AMENAM
CIRCUMSPICE
VUZUNDU.UNOMOUWEN
MUSEUM

Museum
QE
507
B92
1824




11 - 117
RELIQUIÆ DILUVIANÆ;
OR,
OBSERVATIONS
ON THE
ORGANIC REMAINS
CONTAINED IN
CAVES, FISSURES, AND DILUVIAL GRAVEL,
AND ON
OTHER GEOLOGICAL PHENOMENA,
ATTESTING THE ACTION OF AN
UNIVERSAL DE LUGE.
BY THE REV. WILLIAM BUCKLAND, B. D. F. R. S. F. L. S.
MEMBER OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; OF THE IMPERIAL SOCIETIES OF MINERALOGY AND
NATURAL HISTORY AT PETERSBURG AND MOSCOW; OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF BONN, ON THE RHINE; AND OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AT HALLE ;
HONORARY MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; CORRESPONDENT OF THE
MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY OF FRANCE; FELLOW OF C. C. C. AND PROFESSOR
OF MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.
SECOND EDITION,
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.
MDCCCXXIV.

Bolelong to the
mundo do to bood
be
LONDON:
PRINTED BY THOMAS DAVISON, WHITEFRIARS.

TO THE
HONOURABLE AND RIGHT REVEREND
SHUTE BARRINGTON, L.L.D.
LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM, &c. &c.
My LORD,
The investigation which has led me to the present work
was begun in obedience to your Lordship’s immediate advice; I
know not, therefore, to whom I can so fitly dedicate the results
of an inquiry, which but for this timely encouragement I might
never have undertaken. It has, already, produced conclusions,
which throw new light on a period of much obscurity in the
physical history of our globe; and, by affording the strongest
evidence of an universal deluge, leads us to hope, that it will
no longer be asserted, as it has been by high authorities, that
geology supplies no proofs of an event in the reality of which the
truth of the Mosaic records is so materially involved.
Hoo

iv
DEDICATION.
The warm interest your Lordship has been pleased to take in
the progress of these later discoveries, which are now published to
the world, demands this tribute of my grateful acknowledgment:
and I have been long indebted to your Lordship, for the same
indulgent notice of my endeavours to call the attention of the
University to the subject of geology, and combine with those
branches of study which are more strictly academical, the cul-
tivation of this new and interesting science. I am happy,
therefore, in being permitted to add these expressions of my own
feelings to the public respect and veneration, which have accom-
panied your Lordship through a long and eminently useful life;
a life distinguished no less by the enlightened encouragement
of learning and the liberal arts, than by the faithful discharge
of the higher and more important duties which belong to your
exalted station.
I have the honor to remain,
My Lord,
Your much obliged, and most devoted servant,
WILLIAM BUCKLAND.
Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
May, 1823.

CONTENT S.
Page
1
48
52
54
57
Cave at Kirkdale
Chronological inferences from it
Caves at Kirby Moorside
Open fissure in Duncomb Park
Cave at Hutton, in the Mendip Hills
on Derdham Down, near Clifton
at Balleye, near Wirksworth
Dream Cave, near Wirksworth
Three sets of caves near Plymouth
Cave at Crawley Rocks, near Swansea
at Paviland, near Swansea
60
61
ib.
67
80
82
99
108
111
CAVES IN GERMANY
Evidence of diluvial action in the caves and fissures of Germany
Caves near Spa
in Westphalia
of Scharzfeld
of Bauman's Höhle
112
113
117
of Biel's Höhle
121

vi
CONTENTS.
Page
CAVES IN GERMANY
Forster's Höhle
Cave of Rabenstein
126
129
of Zahnloch
130
of Gailenreuth
133
-
of Kühloch
137
General remarks on the German caves
142
OSSEOUS BRECCIA OF GIBRALTAR, NICE, DALMATIA, &c.
148
HUMAN REMAINS IN CAVES
164
PART II.
EVIDENCES OF AN INUNDATION AFFORDED BY PHENOMENA ON
THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
171
185
201
Evidence of diluvial action from the dispersion of the bones of elephants, &c.
Evidence of diluvial action afforded by deposits of loam and gravel
Evidence of diluvial action in Scotland
Evidence of diluvial action in Wales
Evidence of diluvial action in Ireland
Evidence of diluvial action on the Continent
206
207
211
Evidence of diluvial action in North America
215
220
Evidence of diluvial action in Africa and Asia
Evidence of an inundation at high levels
221
POSTSCRIPT.
Opinions of Cuvier
229

CONTENTS.
vii
rage.
APPENDIX
235
On the excavation of valleys by diluvial denudation
Valleys of denudation, and diluvial pebbles, in Dorset, Devon, Wilts,
and Berks
Valleys of denudation, and beds of diluvial gravel, in Warwickshire,
Oxon, and Middlesex
239
.
249
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES
259
281
INDEX
The Description of the Cave at Kirkdale and the eleven first Plates are reprinted
from the Philosophical Transactions, by permission of the President and
Council of the Royal Society.

ERRATA.
Page 26, for A. Bloxham, Esq., read Bloxam.
80, for we know that animals are, read we hear of animals.
191, for attrissement, rend atterissement.

24/01 VA TTCIDIDUDDA
AN ACCOUNT
OF
AN ASSEMBLAGE OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES,
8c.
a
That portion of the present Memoir which relates to the history of
the cave at Kirkdale, together with a short review of its relation to
other similar caves in England and Germany, has already appeared
before the public in the Philosophical Transactions for 1822: the cave
had been discovered in the summer of 1821, and having gone into
Yorkshire for the purpose of examining it in the following December,
I lost no time in laying the results of my investigation before the Royal
Society of London. The encouragement they have since given me,
by the award of their Copley medal, emboldens me to bring the sub-
ject again before the public in its present enlarged form ; with an ad-
ditional account of subsequent discoveries of several other caverns in
England, and of an examination I undertook last summer of the most
remarkable caves in Germany. To these I shall add a collection of
facts presented by the form and structure of hills and valleys, and the
accumulation on the earth's surface of diluvial loam and gravel, con-
taining the remains of animals of the same kind with those that occur
in the caverns; all tending to throw an important light on the state of
a
B

2
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
our planet at a period antecedent to the last great convulsion that has
affected its surface, and affording one of the most complete and satis-
factory chains of consistent circumstantial evidence I have ever met
with in the course of my geological investigations.
As I shall have frequent occasion to make use of the word dilu-
vium, it may be necessary to premise, that I apply it to those extensive
and general deposits of superficial loam and gravel, which appear to
have been produced by the last great convulsion that has affected our
planet; and that with regard to the indications afforded by geology
of such a convulsion, I entirely coincide with the views of M. Cuvier,
in considering them as bearing undeniable evidence of a recent and
transient inundation. On these grounds I have felt myself fully
.
justified in applying the epithet diluvial, to the results of this great
convulsion; of antediluvial, to the state of things immediately pre-
ceding it; and postdiluvial, or alluvial, to that which succeeded it, and
has continued to the present time: I forbear to enter in this work
into
any
discussion on the state or circumstances of the animal remains
that occur in the solid strata that compose the surface of the earth, as
it would be foreign to my immediate object, and as this subject, to-
gether with that of the days mentioned in the Mosaic account of
the creation, has been already considered in my inaugural lecture
published at Oxford in 1820.
In detailing the observations I am about to make on Kirkdale, I
propose, first, to submit a short account of the geological position and
relations of its immediate neighbourhood; to proceed, in the next
place, to a description of the cavern itself; then to enter into a par-
ticular enumeration of the animal remains inhumed in it, and the very
a

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
3
remarkable phenomena with which they are attended ; to review the
general inferences to which these phenomena lead; and conclude
with a comparative account of analogous animal deposits, and of the
evidences of diluvial action connected with them in this country and
on the Continent.
Kirkdale is situated (as may be seen by reference to the annexed
map, Plate I.) about 25 miles N.N. E. of the city of York, between
Helmsley and Kirby Moorside, near the point at which the east base
of the Hambleton hills, looking towards Scarborough, subsides into
the vale of Pickering, and on the S. extremity of the mountainous
district known by the name of the Eastern and the Cleveland Moor-
lands.
The substratum of this valley of Pickering is a mass of stratified
blue clay, identical with that which at Oxford and Weymouth reposes
on a similar limestone to that of Kirkdale, and containing, subordi-
nately, beds of inflammable bituminous shale, like that of Kimeridge,
in Dorsetshire. Its south boundary is formed by the Howardian
hills, and by the elevated escarpment of the chalk that terminates
the Wolds towards Scarborough. Its north frontier is composed of
·
a belt of limestone, extending eastward 30 miles from the Hambleton
hills, near Helmsley, to the sea at Scarborough, and varying in breadth
from four to seven miles ; this limestone is intersected by a succession
of deep and parallel valleys (here called dales), through which the fol-
lowing rivers from the moorlands pass down southwards to the vale
of Pickering, viz. the Rye, the Rical, the Hodge Beck, the Dove, the
Seven Beck, and the Costa; their united streams fall into the Der-
went above New Malton, and their only outlet is by a deep gorge,
B 2

4
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
a
extending from near this town down to Kirkham, the stoppage of
which would at once convert the whole vale of Pickering into an
immense inland lake ; and before the excavation of which, it is pro-
bable that such a lake existed, having its north border nearly along
the edge of the belt of limestone just described, and at no great
distance from the mouth of the cave at Kirkdale.
The position of the cave is at the south and lower extremity of
one of these dales (that of the Hodge Beck), at the point where it
falls into the vale of Pickering, at the distance of about a furlong
from the church of Kirkdale, and near the brow of the left flank of
the valley, close to the road. This flank slopes towards the river at
an angle of 25°, and the height of the brow of the slope above the
water may be about 80 feet. (See Plate II. fig 1.)
The rock perforated by the cave is referrible to that portion of
the oolite formation which, in the south of England, is known by
the name of the Oxford oolite and coral rag: its organic remains are
identical with those of the Heddington quarries near Oxford, but its
substance is harder and more compact, and more interspersed with
siliceous matter, forming irregular concretions, beds, and nodules of
chert in the limestone, and sometimes entirely penetrating its coral-
line remains. The most compact beds of this limestone resemble the
younger alpine limestone of Meillierie and Aigle in Switzerland; they
alternate with and pass gradually into those of a coarser oolitic tex-
ture, and both varieties are stratified in beds from one to four feet
thick. The cave is situated in one of the compact beds which lies
between two others of the coarser oolitic variety ; the latter vary in
colour from light yellow to blue; the compact beds are of a dark

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
5
grey passing to black, are extremely fetid, and full of corals and
spines of the echinus cidaris.
The compact portions of this oolite
partake of the property common to compact limestones of all
ages
and formations, of being perforated by irregular holes and caverns
intersecting them in all directions; the cause of these cavities has
never been satisfactorily ascertained: into this question (which is
one of considerable difficulty in geology) it is foreign to my present
purpose to inquire, any farther than to state that they were neither
produced, enlarged, nor diminished by the presence of the animals
whose bones we now find in them. The half-corroded fragments of
corals, shells, and spines of echini, and the irregular ledges of lime-
stone and nodules of chert that project along the sides and roof of
this cave, together with the small grooves and pits that cover great
part of its interior, show that there was a time when its dimensions
were less than they are at present, though they fail to prove by what
cause it was originally produced *
* Caves in limestone are usually more or less connected with fissures of the rock in
which they exist, and the solid matter that once filled them appears in many cases to
have been carried off through the fissures by the long continued and gradual perco-
lation of water, removing the softer or decayed portions of the rock, either in a state of
solution or mechanical suspension, so that no traces of it remain at present either in the
caverns or the fissures.
I think it highly probable, from the description given by Tournefort, in his Voyage
to the Levant, p. 53, and from the map and plan of it published in Sieber's Travels in
Crete, 1823, Pl. 13, that the celebrated labyrinth of Crete was nothing more than a long
connected series of natural caverns, such as we are now considering, a little assisted by
art, and by the addition of a few corridors between the natural vaultings that compose
this subterraneous wonder of classic antiquity. It is stated to occur in grey stratified
limestone, which is found abundantly in Crete, and is full of caves and fissures.
Through the whole island,” says Tournefort, “there are a world of caverns, especially
in Mount Ida, there are holes you may run your head in, bored through and through, and
66

6
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
The abundance of such caverns in the limestone of the vicinity of
Kirkdale is evident from the fact of the engulfment of several of the
rivers above enumerated in the course of their passage across it from
the eastern moorlands to the vale of Pickering; and it is important
to observe, that the elevation of the Kirkdale cave, above the bed of
the Hodge Beck, being nearly 80 feet, excludes the possibility of our
attributing the muddy sediment we shall find it to contain to any
land flood or extraordinary rise of the waters of this or of any other
river in the neighbourhood.
It was not till the summer of 1821, that the existence of any
animal remains, or of the cavern containing them, was suspected.
At this time, in continuing the operations of a large quarry along
the slope just mentioned (see Plate II. fig. 1), the workmen acci-
dentally intersected the mouth of a long hole or cavern, closed
externally with rubbish, and overgrown with grass and bushes. As
this rubbish was removed before any competent person had examined
a
many very deep perpendicular abysses are also seen there;" these abysses are evidently
vertical fissures connected with the caves.
The extent to which apertures of the same kind are known to prevail in the compact
limestone districts of England may be seen from a list of the principal caverns and sub-
terraneous rivers in England, given from a note by Mr. Greenough at p. 353 of Cony-
beare and Phillips's Geology of England and Wales ; and from a still more detailed list
given by Mr. Farey, at p. 64, and p. 292 of the 1st vol. of his Survey of Derbyshire, in
which he enumerates twenty-eight remarkable caverns, and as many open fissures, locally
called shake-holes, or swallow-holes, from their swallowing up the streams that cross the
limestone districts of that country. The fissures descend from the surface to a depth
that is very considerable, and often communicate laterally with, or enlarge themselves
into, caverns.
Similar cavities give origin very generally to the engulfment of rivers, examples of
which may be seen in the limestone districts of the Mendip Hills and South Wales, of
the west of Ireland, Carniola, and North America.

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
ny
it, it is not certain whether it was composed of diluvial gravel and
rolled pebbles, or was simply the debris that had fallen from the
softer portions of the strata that lay above it; the workmen, however,
who removed it, and some gentlemen who saw it, assured me, that it
was composed of gravel and sand. In the interior of the cave I could
not find a single rolled pebble, nor have I seen in all the collections
that have been taken from it one bone, or fragment of bone, that
bears the slightest mark of having been rolled by the action of water.
A few bits of limestone and roundish concretions of chert that had
fallen from the roof and sides, and which might be mistaken for rolled
pebbles, were the only rocky fragments that I could find, with the
exception of broken pieces of stalactite.
The original entrance of the cave is said to have been very small,
and having been filled up as above described, there could have been
no admission of external air through it to the interior of the cavern.
Nearly 30 feet of its outer extremity have now been removed,
and the present entrance is a hole in the perpendicular face of the
quarry about three feet high and five feet broad, which it is only
possible for a man to enter on his hands and knees, and which ex-
pands and contracts itself irregularly from two to seven feet in breadth
and two to fourteen feet in height, diminishing however as it pro-
ceeds into the interior of the hill. The cave is about 20 feet below
the incumbent field, the surface of which is nearly horizontal, and
parallel to the stratification of the limestone, and to the bottom of
the cave. Its main direction is E.S.E. but deviating from a straight
line by several zigzags to the right and left (see Plate II. fig. 3); its
greatest length is stated by Mr. Young and Mr. Bird to be 245 feet.
a

8
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
a
а
In its interior it divides into several smaller passages, the extent of
which has not been ascertained. In its course it is intersected by
some vertical fissures, one of which is curvilinear, and again returns
to the cave; another has never been traced to its termination; whilst
the outer extremity of a third is probably seen in a crevice or fissure
that appears on the face of the quarry, and which closes upwards
before it leaves the body of the limestone. By removing the sedi-
ment and stalactite that now obstruct the smaller passages, a farther
advance in them may be rendered practicable. There are but two or
three places in which it is possible to stand upright, and these are
where the cavern is intersected by the fissures; the latter of which
continue open upwards to the height only of a few feet, when they
gradually close, and terminate in the body of the limestone; they are
thickly lined with stalactite, and are attended by no fault or slip of
either of their sides. Both the roof and floor, for many yards from
the entrance, are composed of regular horizontal strata of limestone,
uninterrupted by the slightest appearance of fissure, fracture, or stony
rubbish of any kind; but farther in, the roof and sides become irre-
gularly arched, presenting a very rugged and grotesque appearance,
and being studded with pendent and roundish masses of chert and
stalactite; the bottom of the cavern is visible only near the entrance ;
and its irregularities, though apparently not great, have been filled up
throughout to a nearly level surface, by the introduction of a bed of
mud or loamy sediment, the history of which, and also of the stalac-
tite, I shall presently describe *. (See Plate II. fig. 22)
a
* For a full explanation of the terms STALACTITE, STALAGMITE, and BRECCIA, which
I shall frequently make use of, I beg to refer my readers to Dr. Kidd's Outlines of

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
9.
The fact already mentioned of the engulfment of the Rical Beck,
and other adjacent rivers, as they cross the limestone, showing it to
abound with many similar cavities to those at Kirkdale, renders it
likely that other deposits of bones may hereafter be discovered in
this same neighbourhood; but as the mouths of these caverns are
filled up and buried under diluvial loam and gravel, or postdiluvian
detritus, and overgrown with grass, nothing but their casual inter-
section by some artificial operations will lead to a knowledge of their
existence; and in this circumstance, we also see a reason why so few
caverns of this kind have hitherto been discovered, although it
is probable that they are very numerous.
In all these cases, the bones found in caverns are never mineral-
ised, but simply in the state of grave bones more or less decayed or
incrusted by stalagmite; and have no farther connexion with the
rocks themselves, than that arising from the accident of having been
Mineralogy: the following extract will suffice for my present purpose. Water, in pene-
trating through limestone strata, often becomes impregnated with particles of the cal-
careous carbonate of which the limestone is composed, and which on exposure to air
it again deposits either in the form of pendulous masses that hang like icicles from the
roof, or of stony concretions adhering to the sides of cavities, into which the water thus
impregnated finds admission: to such deposits the term STALACTITE is applied.
If the percolation of water containing calcareous particles is too rapid to allow time
for the formation of a stalactite, the earthy matter is deposited from it after it has fallen
from the roof upon the floor of the cavern; and in this case the deposition is called
STALAGMITE: the substance deposited is the same as in the case of stalactite. Stalagmites
are commonly, at least in the early stages of their formation, of a mamillary shape; by
gradual accumulation they become conical; and at length form pillars, by the continual
addition of their materials, till they meet, and become united with the stalactite that
depends from the roof immediately above.
The term BRECCIA is applied to broken fragments of stone or bone reunited into a
solid mass by a stony cement.
a
с

10
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
lodged in their cavities, at periods long subsequent to the formation
and consolidation of the strata in which these cavities occur.
On entering the cave at Kirkdale (see Plate II. fig. 2), the first
thing observed was a sediment of soft mud or loam, covering entirely
its whole bottom to the average depth of about a foot, and concealing
the subjacent rock, or actual floor of the cavern. Not a particle of
mud was found attached either to the sides or roof; nor was there a
trace of it adhering to the sides or upper portions of the transverse
fissures, or any thing to suggest the idea that it entered through
them. The surface of this sediment when the cave was first
opened was nearly smooth and level, except in those parts where its
regularity had been broken by the accumulation of stalagmite above
it, or ruffled by the dripping of water : its substance is an argillaceous
and slightly micaceous loam, composed of such minute particles as
would easily be suspended in muddy water, and mixed with much cal-
careous matter, that seems to have been derived in part from the
dripping of the roof, and in part from comminuted bones. At about
100 feet within the cave's mouth the sediment became more coarse
and sandy, and partially covered with an incrustation of black man-
ganese ore.
Above this mud, on advancing some way into the cave, the roof
and sides were found to be partially studded and cased over with a
coating of stalactite, which was most abundant in those parts where
the transverse fissures occur, but in small quantity where the rock is
compact and devoid of fissures. Thus far it resembled the stalactite
of ordinary caverns; but on tracing it downwards to the surface of
the mud, it was there found to turn off at right angles from the sides
a

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
11
of the cave, and form above the mud a plate or crust, shooting across
like ice on the surface of water, or cream on a pan of milk. (See
Plate II. fig. 2.). The thickness and quantity of this crust varied
with that found on the roof and sides, being most abundant, and
covering the mud entirely where there was much stalactite on the
roof and sides, and more scanty in those places where the roof or sides
presented but little : in many parts it was totally wanting both on the
roof and surface of the mud and of the subjacent floor. Great portion
of this crust had been destroyed in digging up the mud to extract
the bones before my arrival; it still remained, however, projecting
partially in some few places along the sides ; and in one or two, where
it was very thick, it formed, when I visited the cave, a continuous
bridge over the mud entirely across from one side to the other. In
the outer portion of the cave, there was originally a mass of this
kind which had been accumulated so high as to obstruct the passage,
so that a man could not enter till it had been dug away.
These horizontal incrustations have been formed by the water
which, trickling down the sides, was forced to ooze off laterally as
soon as it came into contact with the mud; in other parts, where it
fell in drops from the roof, stalagmitic accumulations have been raised
on its surface, some of which are very large and flat, resembling a
cake of bees' wax, but more commonly they are of the size and shape
of a cow's pap, a name which the workmen have applied to them.
There is no alternation of mud with any repeated beds of stalactite,
but simply a partial deposit of the latter on the floor beneath it ; and
it was chiefly in the lower part of the earthy sediment, and in the
stalagmitic matter beneath it, that the animal remains were found :
c2

12
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
there was nowhere any black earth or admixture of animal matter,
except an infinity of extremely minute particles of undecomposed
bone. In the whole extent of the cave, only a very few large bones
have been discovered that are tolerably perfect; most of them are
broken into small angular fragments and chips, the greater part of
which lay separately in the mud, whilst others were wholly or par-
tially invested with stalagmite; and others again mixed with masses
of still smaller fragments and cemented by stalagmite, so as to form
an osseous breccia. In some few places where the mud was shallow,
and the heaps of teeth and bones considerable, parts of the latter
were elevated some inches above the surface of the mud and its
stalagmitic crust; and the upper ends of the bones thus projecting
like the legs of pigeons through a pie crust into the void space above,
have become thinly covered with stalagmitic drippings, whilst their
lower extremities have no such incrustation, and have simply ad-
hering to them, the mud in which they have been imbedded; an
horizontal crust of stalagmite, about an inch thick, crosses the middle
of these bones, and retains them firmly in the position they occupied
at the bottom of the cave. A large flat plate of stalagmite, cor-
responding in all respects with the above description, and containing
three long bones fixed so as to form almost a right angle with the
plane of the stalagmite, is in the collection of the Rev. Mr. Smith, of
Kirby Moorside. The same gentleman has also, among many other
valuable specimens, a fragment of the thigh bone of an elephant, which
is the largest I have seen from this cave.
The effect of the loam and stalagmite in preserving the bones
from decomposition, by protecting them from all access of atmospheric

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
13
air, has been very remarkable; some that had lain uncovered in the
cave for a long time before the introduction of the loam were in va-
rious stages of decomposition ; but even in these the further progress
of decay appears to have been arrested as soon as they became
covered with it; and in the greater number, little or no destruction
of their form, and scarcely any of their substance, has taken place. I
have found, on immersing fragments of these bones in an acid till
the phosphate and carbonate of lime were removed, that nearly the
whole of their original gelatine has been preserved. Analogous
cases of animal remains preserved from decay by the protection of
similar diluvial mud occur on the coast of Essex, near Walton, and
at Lawford, near Rugby, in Warwickshire ; here the bones of the
same species of elephant, rhinoceros, and other diluvial animals occur
in a state of freshness and perfection even exceeding that of those in
the cave at Kirkdale; and from a similar cause, viz. their having been
guarded from the access of atmospheric air, or the percolation of
water, by the argillaceous matrix in which they have been imbedded:
whilst other bones that have lain the same length of time in diluvial
sand or gravel, and been subject to the constant percolation of
water, have lost their compactness and strength, and great part of
their gelatine, and are often ready to fall to pieces on the slightest
touch ; and this where the beds of clay and gravel in question alter-
nate in the same quarry, as at Lawford.
The workmen, on first discovering the bones at Kirkdale, sup-
posed them to have belonged to cattle that died by a murrain in this
district a few years ago, and they were for some time neglected, and
thrown on the roads with the common limestone; they were at length

14
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
noticed by Mr. Harrison, a medical gentleman of Kirby Moorside,
and have since been collected and dispersed amongst so many indi-
viduals, that it is probable nearly all the specimens will in a few
years be lost, with the exception of such as may be deposited in
public collections. By the kindness and liberality of the Bishop of
Oxford (to whom I am also indebted for my first information of the
existence of this cave) and of C. Duncombe, Esq. and Lady Charlotte
Duncombe, of Duncombe Park, a nearly complete series of the teeth
discovered in it has been presented to the Museum at Oxford;
whilst a still better collection, both of teeth and bones, is in the
pos-
session of J. Gibson, Esq. of Stratford in Essex, to whose exertions
we owe the preservation of many valuable specimens, and who has
presented a series of them to several public collections in London *
W. Salmond, Esq. also, of York, has been engaged with much zeal
and activity in measuring and exploring new branches of the cave,
and making large collections of the teeth and bones, from which he
has sent specimens to the Royal Institution of London and to M.
Cuvier. He has recently deposited the bulk of his collection at the
newly-established Philosophical Society at York. I am indebted to
him for the annexed ground plan of the cave, and its ramifications,
* The British Museum, the Royal College of Surgeons, and the Geological Society
have all been enriched by the liberality of Mr. Gibson. The Geological Society pos-
sesses also a magnificent collection of the remains of elephant, rhinoceros, ox, elk, and
other antediluvian animals found in the diluvian gravel beds of various parts of England,
together with some fine specimens of bones from the caverns of Germany: their collec-
tion also of the organic remains found in the secondary strata of England, and of speci-
mens of the strata themselves, is arranged in a manner which affords to the members of
that society the most ready access to a knowledge of the physical changes which the
country we inhabit has undergone, and of general geology.

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
15
(Plate II, fig. 3.) Drawings by Mr. Clift, of some of the most perfect
of Mr. Gibson's specimens, have been sent to M. Cuvier, for the new
edition of his work on fossil animals; copies of these have been made
for me by the kindness of Miss Morland, and appear in the annexed
plates, with many other drawings, for which I am indebted to the
pencil of Miss Duncombe; and the Rev. George Young, and Mr. Bird
of Whitby, in their History of the Geology of the Coast of Yorkshire,
have given engravings of some other teeth and a few bones in their
possession.
It appears that the teeth and bones which have as yet been dis-
covered in the cave at Kirkdale are referrible to the following 23
species of animals.
6 Carnivora.--Hyæna, Tiger, Bear, Wolf, Fox, Weasel. (See Plates
III. IV. V. VI. and XIII.)
4 Pachydermata.-Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, and
Horse. (See Plates VII. X. and XIII.)
4 Ruminantia.-Ox, and three species of Deer. (See Plates
VIII. IX. and X.)
4 Rodentia.--Hare, Rabbit, Water-rat, and Mouse. (See Plates
X. XI. and XIII.)
5 Birds.-Raven, Pigeon, Lark, Snipe, and a small species of
Duck, resembling the anas sponsor, or summer duck.
See Plate XI. fig. 19 to 29, and Plate XIII. fig. 11,
12.)
The bottom of the cave, on first removing the mud, was found to

16
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
m
be strewed all over like a dog-kennel, from one end to the other, with
hundreds of teeth and bones, or rather broken and splintered frag-
ments of bones, of all the animals above enumerated; they were
found in greatest quantity near its mouth, simply because its area in
this part was most capacious; those of the larger animals, elephant,
rhinoceros, &c. were found co-extensively with all the rest, even in
the inmost and smallest recesses. (See Plate II. fig. 3.*) Scarcely a
single bone has escaped fracture, with the exception of the astragalus,
and other hard and solid bones of the tarsus and carpus joints, and
those of the feet. (See Plate X. fig. 1 to 5, and fig. 7 to 10, and
Plate V. fig. 5 to 12.) On some of the bones, marks may be traced,
which, on applying one to the other, appear exactly to fit the form
of the canine teeth of the hyæna that occur in the cave. The
hyæna's bones have been broken, and apparently gnawed equally
with those of the other animals. Heaps of small splinters, and
highly comminuted, yet angular fragments of bone, mixed with teeth
of all the varieties of animals above enumerated, lay in the bottom of
the den, occasionally adhering together by stalagmite, and forming,
as has been before mentioned, an osseous breccia. Many insulated
fragments also are wholly or partially enveloped with stalagmite, both
externally and internally. Not one skull is to be found entire; and
it is so rare to find a large bone of any kind that has not been more
or less broken, that there is no hope of obtaining materials for the
construction of a single limb, and still less of an entire skeleton. The
jaw bones also, even of the hyænas, are broken to pieces like the rest ;
and in the case of nearly all the animals, the number of teeth and of
the solid bones of the tarsus and carpus is more than twenty times as
a

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
17
great as could have been supplied by the individuals whose other
bones we find mixed with them.
a
Fragments of jaw bones are by no means common; the greatest
number I saw belong to the deer, hyæna, and water-rat, and retain
their teeth ; in all the jaws both teeth and bone are in an equal state
of high preservation, and show that their fracture has been the effect of
violence, and not of natural decay. I have seen but ten fragments of
deers" jaws, and about forty fragments of those of hyænas, and a still
greater number of those of rats. (See Plate III. fig. 3, 4, 5, and Plate
IV. fig. 2, 3.) The ordinary fate of the jaw bones, as of all the rest,
appears to have been to be broken to pieces and swallowed, the teeth
being rejected as too hard for mastication, and without marrow.
The greatest number of teeth are those of hyænas, and the rumi-
nantia. Mr. Gibson alone collected more than 300 canine teeth of
the hyæna, which at the least must have belonged to 75 individuals,
and adding to these the canine teeth I have seen in other collections,
I cannot calculate the total number of hyænas of which there is evi-
dence, at less than 200 or 300. I have already stated, that many
of
these animals had died before the first set, or milk teeth, had been
shed; these teeth are represented in Plate VI. fig. 15 to 27: the
state of their fangs shows that they had not fallen out by absorption.
The only remains that have been found of the tiger species (see
Plate VI. fig. 5, 6, 7) are two large canine teeth, each four inches
in length, and a few molar teeth, one of which is in my pos-
session; these exceed in size that of the largest lion or Bengal tiger.
There is one tusk only of a bear (see Plate VI. fig. 1), which
exactly resembles those of the extinct ursus spelæus of the caves of
D

18
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
Germany, the size of which, M. Cuvier says, must have equalled that
of a large horse. Of the fox there are many teeth (see Plate VI.
fig. 8 to 14). Of the wolf I do not recollect that I have seen more
than one large molar tooth (see Plate XIII. fig. 5, 6); the smaller
molars of the wolf however are very like some of the first set of the
young hyæna. A few jaws and teeth have also been found belonging
to the weasel. (Plate VI. fig. 28, 29; and Plate XXIII. fig.
11, 12, 13). Teeth of the larger pachydermatous animals are not
abundant. I have information of about ten elephants' teeth, but of
no tusk; most of these teeth are broken, and as very few of them
exceed three inches in their longest diameter, they must have
belonged to extremely young animals. (See Plate VII. fig. 1 and 2.)
I have seen but six molar teeth of the hippopotamus, and a few
fragments of its canine and incisor teeth, the best of which are in the
possession of Mr. Thorpe, of York. (See Plate VII. fig. 8, 9, 10,
and Plate XIII. fig. 7.) Teeth of the rhinoceros are not so rare: I
have seen at least 50, some of them very large, and apparently from
aged animals. (See Plate VII. fig. 3, 4, 5, 6.) I have heard of only
two or three teeth belonging to the horse. Of the teeth of deer
there are at least three species (see Plate VIII. fig. 9, 11, 13), the
smallest being very nearly of the size and form of those of a fallow
deer, the largest agreeing in size, but differing in form from those of
the modern elk; and a third being of an intermediate size, and
approaching that of a large stag or red deer. I have not ascertained
how many species there are of ox, but apparently there are two.
But the teeth which occur perhaps in greatest abundance are those
of the water-rat (see Plate XI. fig. 1 to 6, and 11 to 18); for in almost

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
19
every specimen I have collected or seen of the osseous breccia, there
are teeth or broken fragments of the bones of this little animal mixed
with, and adhering to the fragments of all the larger bones. These
rats may be supposed to have abounded on the edge of the lake, which
I have shown probably existed at that time in this neighbourhood :
there are also the jaw of a hare, and a few teeth and bones of rabbits
and mice. (Plate X. fig. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, Plate XI. fig. 7, 8, 9, 10,
and Plate XIII. fig. 8.)
Besides the teeth and bones already described, the cave contained
also fragments of horns of at least two species of deer. (See Plate IX.
fig. 3, 4, and 5.) One of these resembles the horn of the common
stag or red deer, the circumference of the base measuring 9 inches,
which is about the size of our largest stag. A second (fig. 4) mea-
sures 7 inches at the same part, and both have two antlers, that rise
very near the base. In a smaller species the lowest antler is 3] inches
above the base, the circumference of which is 8 inches. (See fig. 5.)
No horns are found entire, but fragments only, and these apparently
gnawed to pieces like the bones: their lower extremity nearest the
head is that which has generally escaped destruction: and it is a
curious fact, that this portion of all the horns I have seen from the
cave shows, by the rounded state of the base, that they had fallen off
by absorption or necrosis, and been shed from the head on which they
grew, and not broken off by violence.
It must already appear probable, from the facts above described,
particularly from the comminuted state and apparently gnawed con-
dition of the bones, that the cave at Kirkdale was, during a long
succession of years, inhabited as a den by hyænas, and that they
D 2

20
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
a
dragged into its recesses the other animal bodies whose remains are
found mixed indiscriminately with their own: this conjecture is ren-
dered almost certain by the discovery I made, of many small balls of
the solid calcareous excrement of an animal that had fed on bones,
resembling the substance known in the old Materia Medica by the name
of album græcum (see Plate X. fig. 6): its external form is that of a
sphere, irregularly compressed, as in the fæces of sheep, and varying
from half an inch to an inch and a half in diameter; its colour is yellowish
white, its fracture is usually earthy and compact, resembling steatite,
and sometimes granular ; when compact, it is interspersed with small
cellular cavities, and in some of the balls there are undigested minute
fragments of the enamel of teeth. It was at first sight recognised by
the keeper of the Menagerie at Exeter Change, as resembling, both in
form and appearance, the fæces of the spotted or Cape hyæna, which
he stated to be greedy of bones beyond all other beasts under his care.
This information I owe to Dr. Wollaston, who has also made an analysis
of the substance under discussion, and finds it to be composed of the
ingredients that might be expected in fæcal matter derived from bones,
viz. phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, and a very small proportion
of the triple phosphate of ammonia and magnesia; it retains no
animal matter, and its originally earthy nature and affinity to bone
will account for its perfect state of preservation *.
I do not know what more conclusive evidence than this can be
added to the facts already enumerated, to show that the hyænas
* I have one ball of this substance that is in great part invested with a thin circular
case or crust of stalagmite. This must have been formed round it whilst it lay loose and
exposed to the dripping of water on the bottom of the cave, before the introduction of
the mud.

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
21
inhabited this cave, and were the agents by which the teeth and
bones of the other animals were there collected; it may be useful
therefore to consider, in this part of our inquiry, what are the habits
of modern hyænas, and how far they illustrate the case before us.
The modern hyæna (of which there are only three known species,
all of them smaller and different from the fossil one) is an inhabitant
exclusively of hot climates ; the most savage, or striped species,
abounds in Abyssinia, Nubia, and the adjacent parts of Africa and
Asia. The less ferocious, or spotted one, inhabits the Cape of Good
Hope, and lives principally on carrion. He is seldom seen by day,
but prowls by night, and clears the plains of the carcasses, and even
skeletons, which the vultures have picked clean, in preference to
attacking any living creature. In the structure of its bones this
animal approaches more nearly than the striped hyæna to the fossil
species: to these M. Cuvier adds a third, the red hyæna, which is
very rare.
The structure of these animals places them in an intermediate
class between the cat and dog tribes; not feeding, like the former,
almost exclusively on living prey, but like the latter, being greedy of
putrid flesh and bones * : their love of putrid flesh induces them to
follow armies, and dig up human bodies from the grave. They
inhabit holes in the earth, and chasms of rocks; are fierce, and of
obstinate courage, attacking stronger quadrupeds than themselves,
and even repelling lions. Johnson says of them, in his Field Sports,
* It is quite impossible to mistake the jaw of any species of hyæna for that of the wolf
or tiger kind; the latter having three molar teeth only in the lower jaw, and the former
seven; whilst all the hyæna tribe have four. (See Plate IV. fig. 1, 2, 3).

22
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
that “they feed on small animals and carrion, and often come in for
the prey left by tigers and leopards after their appetites have been
satiated: they are great enemies of dogs, and kill numbers of them.
They make no earths of their own, but lie under rocks, or resort to
the earths of wolves, as foxes do to those of badgers; and it is not
uncommon to find wolves and hyænas in the same bed of earths."
Their habit of digging human bodies from the grave, and dragging
them to their den, and of accumulating around it the bones of all
kinds of animals, is thus described by Busbequius, where he is
speaking of the Turkish mode of burial in Anatolia, and their custom
of laying large stones upon their graves to protect them from the
hyænas. “Hyæna regionibus iis satis frequens; sepulchra suffodit,
extrahitque cadavera, portatque ad suam speluncam ; juxta quam
videre est ingentem cumulum ossium humanorum veterinariorum'*
et reliquorum omne genus animalium.” (Busbeq. Epist. 1 Leg. Turc.t)
Brown, also, in his Travels to Darfur, describes the hyænas' manner
of taking off their prey in the following words :—“ they come in
herds of six, eight, and often more, into the villages at night, and
carry off with them whatever they are able to master; they will kill
dogs and asses even within the enclosure of houses, and fail not to
assemble wherever a dead camel or other animal is thrown, which,
acting in concert, they sometimes drag to a prodigious distance.”
6
2
* Veterinam bestiam jumentum Cato appellavit a vehendo : (quasi veheterinus vel
veterinus.) Pomp. Fest.
+ This evidence is the more valuable, from the accuracy and delight with which it
appears, from his own testimony, that Busbequius used to watch the habits of wild
animals, which he kept for this purpose in his menagerie at Constantinople, where he
resided many years as ambassador from the Emperor of Germany.

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
23
Sparman and Pennant mention that a single hyæna has been known
to carry off a living man or woman in the vicinity of the Cape *.
The strength of the hyæna's jaw is such, that in attacking a dog,
he begins by biting off his leg at a single snap. The capacity of his
teeth, for such an operation, is sufficiently obvious from simple in-
spection; and, consistent with this strength of teeth and jaw, is the
* It appears from the discussions of the learned Bochart, in his Hierozoicon, on the
hyæna, that the peculiar habits of this animal had attracted the attention of the earliest
naturalists, more especially his savage voracity, and practice of digging human bodies
from their graves for the purpose of devouring them. He quotes the following passages:
Aristotelis Hist. lib. viii. cap. 5. « Τυμβωρυχεί δε εφιέμενον 7ης σαρκοφαγίας των ανθρώπων.” –
Plinius, lib. viii. cap. 30. “ Ab uno animali sepulchra erui (traduntur) inquisitione cor-
porum.”—Solinus, “ Eadem hyæna inquisitione corporum sepultorum busta eruit.”-
Hieronymus in Esaiam, capite lxv. “ Semper cadavera persequitur et vivit succo et sanie
corporum mortuorum.”—Et in Ieremiam, capite xiii.“ Vivit cadaveribus mortuorum, et
de sepulchris solet effodere corpora."
Bochart shows also that certain parts of the body of this animal, particularly the
atlas or first vertebra of the neck, which they called the “nodus,” were used by the
"
ancient enchanters in the ceremonies of their magical incantations.
-
9
-
“ Huc quicquid foetu genuit natura sinistro
Miscetur: non spuma canum, quibus unda timori est ;
Viscera non lyncis, non diræ nodus hyænæ,
Defuit.”
Lucanus, Lib. VI. v. 673.
And contends that the same animal is also alluded to in the Old Testament, in 1 Samuel,
ch. 13. v. 18, and Jeremiah, ch. 12. v. 9.
In the former of these passages he is of opinion with Aquila, that the “ Valley of
Zeboim” ought to have been translated the “ Valley of Hyænas ;” and in the latter he
thinks with the Septuagint, that the words which in our version are rendered “ speckled
bird,” should have been “ ravenous spotted beast," i. e. hyæna. The Septuagint have
it, “My) onyaalov valyns vi rampovojíc ue fuel." Mr. Parkhurst, also, and Scheuchzer are for
establishing the hyæna in this passage.
The proverbial enmity supposed to subsist between this animal and the dog is also
mentioned by Oppian, Pliny, and Ælian, and alluded to in Ecclesiasticus, ch. xiii. 18.
“Tis eipývn valyn Tipòs xúvæ;"_" What agreement is there between the hyæna and a dog?"

24
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
state of the muscles of his neck, being so full and strong, that in
early times this animal was fabled to have but one cervical vertebra.
They live by day in dens, and seek their prey by night, having large
prominent eyes, adapted, like those of the rat and mouse, for seeing
in the dark. To animals of such a class, our cave at Kirkdale would
afford a most convenient habitation; and the circumstances we find
developed in it are entirely consistent with the habits above enu-
merated.
It appears, from the researches of M. Cuvier, that the fossil hyæna
was nearly one-third larger than the largest of the modern species,
that is, the striped or Abyssinian; but, in the structure of its
teeth, more nearly resembled the Cape animal. (See Plate III. fig.
1, 2, 3, 4, and Plate IV. fig. 1, 2, 3.) Its muzzle also was shorter
and stronger than in either of them, and consequently its bite more
powerful. The length of the largest modern hyæna noticed is five
feet nine inches.
The fossil species has been found on the Continent in situations
of two kinds, both of them consistent with the circumstances under
which it occurs in Yorkshire, and, on comparing the jaws and teeth
of the latter with those of the former engraved in M. Cuvier's Re-
cherches sur les Ossemens fossiles, I find them to be absolutely iden-
tical. The two situations are caverns and diluvian gravel.
1. In Franconia the bones of hyænæ have been found mixed with
those of an enormous number of bears and of tigers in the
caves near Muggendorf.
2. In the Hartz Forest similar bones of hyænæ, bears, and tigers
have been found together in the caves of Scharzfeld and
Bauman's Hole.

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
25
3. At Sundwick, in Westphalia, Mr. A. L. Sack, of Bonn, has
within the last two years discovered remains of the hyæna
in the same cave with the bones of the ursus spelæus, ursus
arctoideus, and glutton; and accompanied by the molar teeth,
head, and foot bones of rhinoceros, and the horns, jaws, and
other bones of two species of large deer; the bones of the
deer and rhinoceros he describes as having their softer
parts broken off, and bearing distinct marks of the teeth of
the wild beasts by which they have been gnawed.
4. In France, at Fouvent, near Gray, in the department of Doubes,
bones of the hyæna were found mixed with the teeth and tusks
of elephants, and the bones of the rhinoceros and horse, in
a cavity of limestone rock, which, like that at Kirkdale, was
discovered by the accidental digging away of the rock in a
garden.
5. In Saxony, on the S.W. of Leipsig, Baron Schlotheim has
discovered at Köstritz, in the valley of the Elster, the bones
of hyænæ mixed with those of rhinoceros, horse, ox, stag,
bear, and extinct tiger, in the fissures and cavities both of
the limestone and gypsum rocks which occur in that district.
The bones are buried in, and mixed up with a mass of dilu-
vial loam or clay, containing also pebbles of limestone and
granite.
6. In Wirtemberg at Canstadt, in the valley of the Necker,
A.D. 1700, hyænas' bones were found mixed with those of
the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, ox, stag, hare, and small
carnivorous animals, and with rolled pebbles, in a mass of
E

26
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
a
yellowish clay and sand, which was partially agglutinated
into a hard breccia: they lay without any order, or relative
proportion to each other, were for the most part broken,
and some of them rolled.
17. In Bavaria between Kahldorf and Reiterbuck, on the surface
of the hills that bound the valley of Eichstadt. These were
buried in a bed of sand, and mixed with the bones of
elephants and stags.
8. On the west base of the Hartz Forest, Blumenbach has de-
scribed, in his Specimen, 2. Archæologiæ Telluris, a mass of
bones belonging to the hyæna, elephant, and rhinoceros,
discovered in 1808 between Osterode and Dorste, and im-
bedded in diluvial mud.
9. In Italy, M. Pentland has found, in the Museum at Florence,
the head and lower jaw of an hyæna, and the remains of a
bear, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, from
the sand and loam beds of the Val d'Arno.
The first three of these cases appear to have been dens like the
cave at Kirkdale; the 4th and 5th have possibly received their bones
in the manner I shall hereafter point out when speaking of the caves
at Plymouth; the last four are deposits of diluvial detritus, like the
surface gravel beds of England.
The bones of the hyæna, however, had not been discovered in the
diluvial detritus of this country till the spring of last year, 1822, when
Mr. Andrew Bloxham, by mere accident, brought me some bones
from the clay in which they so often find the remains of elephant
and rhinoceros at Lawford, near Rugby, that I might inform him

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
27
what they were: the instant I saw them I was enchanted to find the
entire under jaw and entire radius and ulna of a very old and large
hyæna, supplying the only link that was deficient to complete the
evidence I wanted to establish the hyæna's den at Kirkdale. These
bones are in the highest possible state of preservation; the jaw is
quite entire, and from an animal so old that it had lost more than half
its teeth, and the remainder are ground almost to the stumps, and have
their surface polished like a burnishing stone. (See Plate XII.)
The bones of the arm also (see Plate XIII. fig. 1, 2) are equally per-
fect with the jaw. There are not the slightest marks of fracture on
any of them like those on the bones at Kirkdale; and this is con-
sistent with the different circumstances of this individual from those
in the cave; the hyæna at Lawford appears from its position in the
diluvial clay to have been one that perished by the inundation that
extirpated the race, as well as the elephant, rhinoceros, and other
tribes that lie buried with it ; and, consequently, as it could have had
no survivors to devour its bones, we should on this hypothesis expect
to find them entire, as they are actually found in the specimens before
us. (See Plate XII. and Plate XIII. fig. 1, 2.) With them were found
some entire small bones of the foot apparently of the same individual
hyæna, and also the humerus of a bird in size and shape nearly resem-
bling that of a goose (see Plate XIII. fig. 9, 10), and in the same state of
high preservation with the hyæna and rhinoceros bones amidst which
it lay. This is the first example within my knowledge of the bones
of birds being noticed in the diluvium of England.
It was stated, when speaking of the den at Kirkdale, that the
bones of the hyænas are as much broken to pieces as those of the
animals that formed their prey; and hence we must infer, that the
a
E 2

28
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
.
carcases even of the hyænas themselves were eaten up by their sur-
vivors. Whether it be the habit of modern hyænas to devour those
of their own species that die in the course of nature; or, under the
pressure of extreme hunger, to kill and eat the weaker of them, is a
point on which it is not easy to obtain positive evidence. Mr. Brown
however asserts, in his journey to Darfur, " that it is related of the
hyænas, that upon one of them being wounded, his companions in-
stantly tear him to pieces and devour him.” It seems therefore in the
highest degree probable, that the mangled relics of hundreds of hyænas
that lie indiscriminately scattered and equally broken with the bones
of other animals in the cave of Kirkdale, were reduced to this state by
the agency of the surviving individuals of their own species.
It has not only been stated as above, that modern hyænas devour
their own species, but still further, that when in captivity they eat
up parts of their own bodies. The keeper of Mr. Wombwell's col-
lection told me in December 1821, that he had an hyæna some years
ago which ate off his own fore paws; and his Royal Highness the
Prince of Denmark has subsequently informed me, that the old hyæna
in the Jardin du Roi at Paris has eaten off his own hind feet. I
have since requested my friend Mr. Underwood, who is resident in
Paris, and is an accurate observer of nature, to procure me further
particulars of this circumstance, which I subjoin in his own words.
“ The present Cape hyæna," says he, “about ten years ago, in
the month of September, began to nibble and suck his hinder paws,
which nearly destroyed them in two months, at which time he left
off: at the same period of the following year he began again, and
continued for about the same space of time, by which the metatarsal
and tarsal bones of both feet, and about half the tibia and fibula of
9

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
29
9
**
:
the right leg, were eaten. Since that time he has not attacked any
other part of his body. He now walks on three legs, but with great
difficulty." The fact seems to be, that many animals, particularly
the monkey tribe, when in confinement, are subject to a sort of
itching, which induces them to nibble their extremities; and in the
case of monkeys, especially their tails, and that they rarely cease
until mortification and death ensue
A large proportion of the hyænas' teeth bears marks of extreme
old age, some being abraded to the very sockets by continual gnawing,
and the majority having lost the upper portion of their coronary part,
and having fangs extremely large: these probably died in the den
from mere old age: and if we compare the lacerated condition of the
bones that accompany them, with the state of the teeth thus worn
down to the very stumps, notwithstanding their prodigious strength,
we find in the latter the obvious instruments by which the former
were thus comminuted. A great number of other teeth appear to
have belonged to young hyænas (see Plate VI. figs. 15 to 27), being
of the first set or milk teeth; in many others of the second set the
fangs are not developed, and the points and edges of the crown not
the least worn.
I have a fragment of the lower jaw, in which the
second set of teeth had not been protruded, but were in the act of
forming below the first. (See Plate V. fig. 3, 4.) Mr. Salmond has an
entire one. (See Plate XXIII. fig. 10.) Archdeacon Wrangham has a
* Pennant, in his Zoology, (3rd edit. 4to. vol. 1, p. 305) speaking of the Caspian
Lynx, mentions one which bit off and devoured one of its own fractured limbs. Rats
and foxes, when caught in traps, are often known to bite off their wounded limbs, but I
have not heard of their devouring them.

30
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
similar fragment of an upper jaw (see Plate XIII. fig. 3, 4), where the
second set of teeth are in the act of forcing out one of the first set, which
is identical with those engraved in Plate VI. No. 22, 23, 24, 25; and
I have seen at least a dozen smaller fragments of jaws, which are nearly
in the same state ; other teeth of the second set are found in various
stages of advancement towards maturity, and the number of all these
young teeth is much too great for us to attribute them to animals
that may have died in early life from accident or disease. It seems
more probable, and the idea is confirmed by the above statement of
Mr. Brown, and by the fact of all the hyænas' bones in the den being
gnawed and broken to pieces equally with the rest, that they were
occasionally killed and devoured by the stronger individuals of their
own species, and that both young and old were always eaten up after
natural death.
But, besides the evidence their teeth afford to show that the
animals died at various periods of life, they present other appearances
(and so likewise do the bones) of having passed through different
stages and gradations of decomposition, according to the different
length of time they had lain exposed in the bottom of the den, before
the muddy sediment entered, which, since its introduction, has pre-
served them from farther decay. This observation applies equally to
the remains of all the animals. I have some portions of bone and
teeth that are so much decomposed as to be ready to fall to pieces on
the slightest touch; these had probably lain a long time unprotected
in the bottom of the den ; others still older may have entirely pe-
rished; but the majority both of teeth and fragments of bone are in
a state of the highest preservation ; and many thousands have been

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
31
collected and carried away since the cave was discovered. The degree
of decay is always equal in the teeth and portions of jaw bones to
which they are attached.
In many of the most highly preserved specimens of teeth and
bones there is a curious circumstance, which, before I visited Kirk-
dale, had convinced me of the existence of the den, viz. a partial
polish and wearing away to a considerable depth of one side only;
many straight fragments of the larger bones have one entire side, or
the fractured edges of one side, rubbed down and worn completely
smooth, whilst the opposite side and ends of the same bone are sharp
and untouched, in the same manner as the upper portions of pitching
stones in the street become rounded and polished, whilst their lower
parts retain the exact form and angles which they possessed when
first laid down. This can only be explained by referring the partial
destruction of the solid bone to friction from the continual treading
of the hyænas, and rubbing of their skin on the side that lay upper-
most in the bottom of the den. In many of the smaller and curved
bones, also, particularly in those of the lower jaw and toes, as well as in
the curved teeth, (see Plate V. fig. 1 and 3) the convex surface only has
been uniformly worn down and polished, whilst the ends and concave
surface have suffered no kind of change or destruction (Plate V. fig.
2 and 4): and this also admits of a similar explanation ; for the cur-
vature of the bone or tooth would allow it to rest steady under con-
stant treading only in this position: as long as the concave surface was
uppermost, pressure on either extremity would cause it to tilt over,
and throw the convex side upwards; and this done, the next pressure
would cause its two extremities to sink into any soft dirt on'sub-
a

32
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
stance that lay beneath, and give it a steady and fixed position.
Such seems to have been the process by which the curved fragments
I allude to, have not only received a partial polish on the convex
side only, but have been submitted to so much friction, that in
several instances more than one-fourth of the entire thickness of the
bone, and a proportionate quantity of the outer side of the fangs and
body of the teeth, have been entirely worn away. (See Plate V.
fig. 1.) I can imagine no other means than the repeated touch of
the living hyænas' feet and skin, by which this partial wearing away
and polish can have been produced * : for the process of rolling by
water would have made pebbles of them, or at least would have
broken off the edges of the teeth and delicate points of the fractured
extremities of the bone, which still remain untouched and sharpt.
I have already stated, that the greatest number of teeth (those of
the hyæna excepted) belong to the ruminating animals; from which
it is to be inferred that they formed the ordinary prey of the hyænas.
I have also to add, that very few of the teeth of these animals bear
* I have been informed by an officer in India, that passing by a tiger's den in the
absence of the tiger, he examined the interior, and found in the middle of it a large por-
tion of stone, on which the tiger reposed, to be worn smooth and polished by the friction
of his body. The same thing may be seen on marble steps and altars, and even metallic
statues in places of worship that are favourite objects of pilgrimage : they are often
deeply worn and polished by the knees, and even lips of pilgrims, to a degree that, with-
out experience of the fact, we could scarcely have anticipated.
+ It has been suggested that the dropping of water might possibly have produced
the polish, but this would not have caused the curved teeth and bones to lie with their
convex side upwards. The latter circumstance may be referred to the hyænas' tread;
and when placed in this position, a repetition of such treading would produce the polish
in question. I have, moreover, specimens which show that water dropping on these
bones produced a stalagmitic incrustation on them, instead of polishing or removing any
portion of their surface.

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
33
marks of age; they seem to have perished by a violent death in the
vigour of life. With respect to the horns of deer that appear to have
fallen off by necrosis, it is probable that the hyænas found them thus
shed, and dragged them home for the purpose of gnawing them in
their den ; and to animals so fond of bones, the spongy interior of
horns of this kind would not be unacceptable. I found a fragment
of stag's horn in so small a recess of the cave, that it never could have
been introduced, unless singly, and after separation from the head;
and near it was the molar tooth of an elephant. I have seen no re-
mains of the horns of oxen, and perhaps there are none; for the bony
portion of their interior, being of a porous spongy nature, would pro-
bably have been eaten by the hyænas, whilst the outer case, being of
a similar composition to hair and hoofs, would not long have escaped
total decomposition. For the same reason the horn of the rhino-
ceros, being merely a mass of compacted hair-like fibres, has never
been found fossil in gravel beds with the bones of that animal, except
in Siberia, where it has been frozen up in ice, nor does it occur in the
cave at Kirkdale. I have been told that sheep's horns laid on land
for manure will be consumed in ten or a dozen years; the calcareous
matter of bone, being nearly allied to limestone, is the only portion of
animal bodies that occurs in a fossil state, unless when preserved, like
the Siberian elephant, of the same extinct species with that of Kirk-
dale, by being frozen in ice, or buried in peat.
The extreme abundance of the teeth of water rats has also been
alluded to; and though the idea of hyænas eating rats may appear
ridiculous, it is consistent with the omnivorous appetite of modern
hyænas, and with the fact, quoted from Johnson, that they feed on
a
F

34
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
small animals, as well as carrion and bones; nor is the disproportion
in size of the animal to that of its prey greater than that of wolves
and foxes, which are supposed by Captain Parry to feed chiefly on
mice, during the long winters of Melville Island. Hearne, in his
Journey to the Northern Ocean, mentions the fact “of a hill, called
Grizzle Bear Hill, being deeply furrowed and turned over like
ploughed land by bears in search of ground squirrels, and perhaps
mice, which constitute a favourite part of their food.” If bears eat
mice, why should not hyænas eat rats? Our largest dogs eat rats
and mice; jackalls occasionally prey on mice, and dogs and foxes will
eat frogs. It is probable, therefore, that neither the size nor aquatic
habit of the water rat would secure it from the hyænas. They might
occasionally also have eaten mice, weasels, rabbits, foxes, and birds;
and in masticating the bodies of these small animals with their coarse
conical teeth, many bones and fragments of bone would be pressed
outwards through their lips, and fall neglected to the ground*.
The occurrence of birds' bones may be explained by the proba-
bility of the hyænas finding the birds dead, and taking them home,
as usual, to eat in their den: and the fact, that four of the only six
bones of birds I have seen from Kirkdale are those of the ulna, may
have arisen from the position of the quill feathers on it, and the small
* The teeth and bones of water rats have been found by M. Cuvier to occur abun-
dantly in many of the osseous breccias from the shores of the Mediterranean and
Adriatic. He has also in his collection a large mass from Sardinia, composed exclusively
of the bones and teeth of these animals, nearly as white as ivory, and slightly adhering
together by delicate stalagmite ; but by what process these bones were collected together,
and whether in the antediluvian period, or more recently, it is not possible to decide,
without careful examination of the spots in which they are respectively found, unless they
happen to be in the same mass with bones or teeth belonging to other animals of extinct
species.

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
35
a
a
quantity of fleshy matter that exists on the outer extremity of the
wings of birds ; the former affording an obstacle, and the latter no
temptation to the hyænas to devour them. Two of the bones here
mentioned (see Plate XI. fig. 19 to 23), in size and form, and
the position of the points at the base of the quills, exactly resemble
the ulna of a raven; a third (fig. 26, 27) approaches closely to the
Spanish runt, which is one of the largest of the pigeon tribe ; a fourth
bone (fig. 24, 25) is the right ulna of a lark; a fifth (fig. 28, 29) the
coracoid process of the right scapula of a small species of duck resem-
bling the Anas sponsor, or summer duck; and a sixth (Plate XIII.
fig. 11, 12), resembles as closely as possible the humerus of a com-
mon snipe*
With respect to the bear and tiger, the remains of which are
extremely rare, and of which the teeth that have been found (see
Plate VI. fig. 1, 5, 6, 7), indicate a magnitude equal to the great
Ursus spelæus of the caves of Germany, and of the largest Bengal
tiger, it is more probable that the hyænas found their dead carcasses,
and dragged them to the den, than that they were ever joint tenants
of the same cavern. It is however obvious that they were all con-
temporaneous inhabitants of antediluvian Yorkshire.
In the case of such minute and burrowing animals as the mouse
and weasel, and perhaps the rabbit and fox, it is possible that some
of them may have crept into the cave by undiscovered crevices, and
there died since the stoppage of its mouth ; and if so, their
* For my knowledge of these, and many other bones I have from Kirkdale, I am
indebted to a careful examination and comparison of them made by Mr. Brooks, in his
most valuable collection of osteological preparations. Mr. Clift also has kindly assisted
me at the Royal College of Surgeons in furtherance of the same object.
F 2

36
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
.
bones would have been found lying on the surface of the mud before
it was disturbed by digging: as no observations were made in season
as to this point, it must remain unsettled, till the opening of another
cave may give opportunity for more accurate investigation. This
uncertainty, however, applies not to any of the extinct species, or to
the larger animals, whose habit it is not to burrow in the ground, nor
even to those of the smaller ones, (e. g. the water rat,) fragments of
whose bones and teeth are found imbedded in the antediluvian
stalagmite, and cemented by it both to the exterior and internal
cavities of bones belonging to the hyænas and other extinct species,
which, beyond all doubt, were lodged in the den before the period
of the introduction of the mud. Should it turn out that since this
period the cave has been accessible to foxes and weasels, it is possible
that some of the birds may also have been introduced by them. The
evidence of this, however, rests on a fact not yet carefully ascertained,
viz. whether the bones in question were buried, like those of the
extinct animals, beneath the mud, or lay on its surface; the state of
one of the ravens' bones, containing stalagmite in its central cavity
(see Plate XI. fig. 22, 23), seems to indicate high antiquity; and the
quarryman, who was the first to enter the cave, assured me, that he
has never seen a single bone of any kind on the surface, nor without
digging into the substance of the mud, with the exception of a very
few such cases as that of the specimen I have described in the pos-
session of Mr. Smith.
As ruminating animals form the ordinary food of beasts of prey,
it is not surprising that their remains should occur in such abundance
in the cave (see Plate VIII. fig. 1 to 14); but it is not so obvious by

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
37
a
what means the bones and teeth of the elephant, rhinoceros, and hip-
popotamus, were conveyed thither (see Plate VII. fig. 1 to 6, and 8
to 10). On the one hand, the cave is in general of dimensions so
contracted (often not exceeding three feet in diameter), that it is
impossible that living animals of these species could have found an
entrance, or the entire carcases of dead ones been floated into it;
moreover, had the bones been washed in, they would probably have
been mixed with pebbles and rounded equably by friction, which they
are not: on the other hand, it is foreign to the habits of the hyæna
to prey on the larger pachydermata, their young perhaps excepted.
No other solution of the difficulty presents itself to me, than that the
remains in question are those of individuals that died a natural death;
for though an hyæna would neither have had strength to kill a living
elephant or rhinoceros, or to drag home the entire carcase of a dead
one, yet he could carry away, piecemeal, or acting conjointly with
others, fragments of the most bulky animals that died in the course
of nature, and thus introduce them to the inmost recesses of his
den.
Should it be asked why, amidst the remains of so many hundred
animals, not a single skeleton of any kind has been found entire, we
see an obvious answer, in the power and known habit of hyænas to
devour the bones of their prey; and the gnawed fragments on the
one hand, and album græcum on the other, afford double evidence of
their having largely gratified this natural propensity: the exception
of the teeth and numerous small bones of the lower joints and extre-
mities, that remain unbroken, (as having been without marrow and
too hard and solid to afford inducement for mastication,) is entirely

38
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
consistent with this solution*. And should it be further asked, why
we do not find, at least, the entire skeleton of the one or more hyænas
that died last and left no survivors to devour them; we find a suf-
ficient reply to this question, in the circumstance of the probable
destruction of the last individuals by the diluvian waters. On the
* Since this paper was first published, I have had an opportunity of seeing a Cape
hyæna at Oxford, in the travelling collection of Mr. Wombwell, the keeper of which
confirmed in every particular the evidence given to Dr. Wollaston by the keeper at
Exeter 'Change. I was enabled also to observe the animal's mode of proceeding in the
destruction of bones: the shin bone of an ox being presented to this hyæna, he began
to bite off with his molar teeth large fragments from its upper extremity, and swallowed
them whole as fast as they were broken off. On his reaching the medullary cavity, the
bone split into angular fragments, many of which he caught up greedily and swallowed
entire: he went on cracking it till he had extracted all the marrow, licking out the lowest
portion of it with his tongue: this done, he left untouched the lower condyle, which con-
tains no marrow, and is very hard. The state and form of this residuary fragment are
precisely like those of similar bones at Kirkdale; the marks of teeth on it are very
few, as the bone usually gave off a splinter before the large conical teeth had forced
a hole through it; these few, however, entirely resemble the impressions we find on the
bones at Kirkdale; the small splinters also in form and size, and manner of fracture,
are not distinguishable from the fossil ones. I preserve all the fragments and the
gnawed portions of this bone for the sake of comparison by the side of those I have from
the antediluvian den in Yorkshire : there is absolutely no difference between them, ex-
cept in point of age. The animal left untouched the solid bones of the tarsus and carpus,
and such parts of the cylindrical bones as we find untouched at Kirkdale, and devoured
only the parts analogous to those which are there deficient. The keeper pursuing this
experiment to its final result, presented me the next morning with a large quantity of
album græcum, disposed in balls, that agree entirely in size, shape, and substance with
those that were found in the den at Kirkdale. I gave the animal successively three
shin bones of a sheep; he snapped them asunder in a moment, dividing each in two parts
only, which he swallowed entire, without the smallest mastication. On the keeper putting
a spar of wood, two inches in diameter, into his den, he cracked it in pieces as if it had
been touchwood, and in a minute the whole was reduced to a mass of splinters. The
power of his jaws far exceeded any animal force of the kind I ever saw exerted, and
reminded me of nothing so much as of a miner's crushing mill, or the scissars with which
they cut off bars of iron and copper in the metal founderies.
a

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
39
rise of these, had there been any hyænas in the den, they would have
rushed out, and fled for safety to the hills; and if absent, they could
by no possibility have returned to it from the higher levels: that they
were extirpated by this catastrophe is obvious, from the discovery of
their bones in the diluvial gravel both of England and Germany.
The same circumstance will also explain the reason why there are no
heaps of bones found on the outside of the Kirkdale cave, as described
by Busbequius on the outside of the hyænas' dens in Anatolia ; for
every thing that lay without, on the antediluvian surface, must have
been swept far away, and scattered by the violence of the diluvian
waters; and there is no reason for believing that hyænas, or any
other animals whatever, have occupied the den subsequently to that
catastrophe*.
Although the evidence to prove the cave to have been inhabited
as a den by successive generations of hyænas appears thus direct, it
may be as well to consider what other hypotheses can be suggested,
to explain the collection of bones assembled in it.
1st. It may be said, that the various animals had entered the cave
spontaneously to die, or had fled into it as a refuge from some general
convulsion : but the diameter of the cave, as has been mentioned
before, compared with the bulk of the elephant and rhinoceros,
renders this solution impossible as to the larger animals; and with
* It has been suggested further, that there is no proof that this individual cave was
actually occupied at the precise point of time at which the waters began to rise, although
it certainly had been so during several generations not long preceding. It may have
been abandoned a short time prior to it, and at that moment have been untenanted; for
modern hunters do not always find their game exactly on the same spot, nor is there any
thing to prevent hyænas as well as other wild animals from occasionally changing their
quarters. Quarterly Review, Oct. 1822, p. 468.
a

a
40
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
OTO
respect to the smaller, we can imagine no circumstances that would
collect together, spontaneously, animals of such dissimilar habits as
hyænas, tigers, bears, wolves, foxes, horses, oxen, deer, rabbits, water-
ro
rats, mice, weasels, and birds.
2d. It may be suggested, that they were drifted in by the waters
of a flood : if so, either the carcases floated in entire; or the bones
alone were drifted in after separation from the flesh: in the first of
these cases, the larger carcases, as we have already stated, could not
have entered at all; and of the smaller ones, the cave could not have
contained a sufficient number to supply one-twentieth part of the
teeth and bones ; moreover, the bones would not have been broken
to pieces, nor in different stages of decay. And had they been washed
in by a succession of floods, we should have had a succession of beds
of sediment and stalactite, and the cave would have been filled up by
the second or third repetition of such an operation as that which in-
troduced the single stratum of mud, which alone occurs in it. On
the other hypothesis, that they were drifted in after separation from
the flesh, they would have been mixed with gravel, and at least
slightly rolled on their passage; and it would still remain to be shown
by what means they were split and broken to pieces, and the dispro-
portion created which exists between the numbers of the teeth and
bones. They could not have fallen in through the fissures, for these
are closed upwards in the substance of the rock, and do not reach to
the surface.
The 3rd, and only remaining hypothesis that occurs to me is, that
they were dragged in for food by the hyænas, who caught their prey
in the immediate vicinity of their den ; and as they could not have
dragged it home from any very great distances, it follows, that the

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
41
animals they fed on, all lived and died not far from the spot where
the remains are found.
The accumulation of these bones, then, appears to have been a
long process, going on during a succession of years, whilst all the
animals in question were natives of this country. The general
dispersion of bones of the same animals through the diluvian gravel
of high latitudes, over great part of the northern hemisphere, shows
that the period in which they inhabited these regions was that imme-
diately preceding the formation of this gravel, and that they perished
by the same waters which produced it. M. Cuvier has moreover
ascertained that the fossil elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and
hyæna, belong to species now unknown; and as there is no evidence
that they have at any time, subsequent to the formation of the
diluvium, existed in these regions, we may conclude that the period,
at which the bones of these extinct species were introduced into the
cave at Kirkdale, was antediluvian. Had these species ever re-
established themselves in the northern portions of the world since
the deluge, it is probable their remains would have been found, like
those of the ox, horse, deer, hog, &c. preserved in the postdiluvian
accumulations of gravel, sand, silt, mud, and peat, which are referable
to causes still in operation, and which, by careful examination of their
relations to the adjacent country, can be readily distinguished from
those which are of diluvian origin.
The teeth and fragments of bones above described seem to have
lain a long time scattered irregularly over the bottom of the den, and
to have been continually accumulating until the introduction of the
sediment in which they are now imbedded, and to the protection of
which they owe that high state of preservation they possess. Those
a
1
G

ACCOUNT
42
DONOS
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
that lay long uncovered at the bottom of the den have undergone a
decay proportionate to the time of their exposure; others, that have
lain only a short time before the introduction of the diluvian mud,
have been preserved by it almost from even incipient decomposition.
Thus the phenomena of this cave seem referable to a period im-
mediately antecedent to the last inundation of the earth, and in which
the world was inhabited by land animals, almost all bearing a generic
and many a specific resemblance to those which now exist; but so com-
pletely has the violence of that tremendous convulsion destroyed and
remodelled the form of the antediluvian surface, that it is only in
caverns that have been protected from its ravages that we may hope
to find undisturbed evidence of events in the period immediately
preceding it. The bones already described, and the stalagmite formed
before the introduction of the diluvial mud, are what I consider to be
the products of the period in question. It was indeed probable, before
the discovery of this cave, from the abundance in which the remains
of similar species occur in superficial gravel beds, which cannot be re-
ferred to any other than a diluvial origin, that such animals were the
antediluvian inhabitants not only of this country, but generally of
all those northern latitudes in which their remains are found (but
the proof was imperfect, as it was possible they might have been
drifted or floated hither by the waters from the warmer regions of
the earth); but the facts developed in this charnel-house of the ante-
diluvian forests of Yorkshire demonstrate that there was a long suc-
cession of years in which the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus
had been the prey of the hyænas, which, like themselves, inhabited
England in the period immediately preceding the formation of the
diluvial gravel ; and if they inhabited this country, it follows as a

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
43
corollary, that they also inhabited all those other regions of the
northern hemisphere in which similar bones have been found under
precisely the same circumstances, not mineralised, but simply in the
state of grave bones imbedded in loam, or clay, or gravel, over great
part of northern Europe, as well as North America and Siberia.
The catastrophe producing this gravel appears to have been the last
event that has operated generally to modify the surface of the earth,
and the few local and partial changes that have succeeded it, such as
the formation of deltas, terraces, tufa, torrent-gravel and peat-bogs,
all conspire to show, that the period of their commencement was
subsequent to that at which the diluvium was formed *.
* It was stated in describing the locality of the cave at Kirkdale, and on comparing
it with the fact of its containing the remains of large and small aquatic animals, that there
was probably a lake in this part of the country at the period when they inhabited it;
and this hypothesis is rendered probable by the form and disposition of the hills that still
encircle the vale of Pickering. (See Map, Plate I.)
Inclosed on the south, the west, north-west, and north, by the lofty ranges of the
Wolds, the Howardian hills, the Hambleton hills, and Eastern Moorlands, the waters of
this vale must either run eastward to Filey Bay, or inland towards York; and such is the
superior elevation of the strata along the coast, that the sources of the Derwent, rising
almost close to the sea, near Scarborough and Filey, are forced to run west and southward
fifty miles inland away from the sea, till falling into the Ouse, they finally reach it by
turning again eastward through the Humber. The only outlet by which this drainage is
accomplished is the gorge at New Malton; and though it is not possible to ascertain what
was the precise extent of this antediluvian lake, or how much of the low districts, now
constituting the Vale of Pickering, may have been excavated by the same diluvian waters
that produced the gorge, it is obvious, that without the existence of this gorge, much of
the district within it would be laid under water; and it is not till within these few
years
that a large tract of this land has been recovered from a state of swamp and marsh by an
artificial canal, called the Muston Drainage, which runs inland from the sea westward
along the valley of the Derwent, from Muston, near Filey Bay, to the gorge of New
Malton; it is equally obvious, that this gorge is referable to the agency of diluvial de-
nudation, the ravages of which have not, perhaps, left a single portion of the antediluvian
,
G2

44
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
It is in the highest degree curious to observe, that four of the
genera of animals whose bones are thus widely diffused over the tem-
perate, and even polar regions of the northern hemisphere, should
at present exist only in tropical climates, and chiefly south of the
equator ; and that the only country in which the elephant, rhinoceros,
hippopotamus, and hyæna are now associated is Southern Africa. In
the immediate neighbourhood of the Cape they all live and die to-
gether, as they formerly did in Britain ; whilst the hippopotamus is
now confined exclusively to Africa, and the elephant, rhinoceros, and
hyæna are also diffused widely over the continent of Asia.
To the question which here so naturally presents itself, as to
what might have been the climate of the northern hemisphere when
peopled with genera of animals which are now confined to the warmer
regions of the earth, it is not essential to the point before me to find
a solution ; my object is to establish the fact, that the animals lived
and died in the regions where their remains are now found, and
were not drifted thither by the diluvian waters from other latitudes.
The state of the climate in which these extinct species may have
surface of the whole earth, which is not excavated and re-modelled, so as to have lost all
traces of the exact features it bore antecedently to the operations of the deluge.
It is probable, that inland lakes were much more numerous than they are at present,
before the excavation of the many gorges by which our modern rivers make their escape;
and this is consistent with the frequent occurrence of the remains of the hippopotamus
in the diluvian gravel of England, and of various parts of Europe, particularly in the
Val d'Arno. It is not unlikely that, in this antediluvian period, England was connected
with the Continent, and that the excavation of the shallow channel of the Straits of
Dover, and of a considerable portion of that part of the German ocean which lies be-
tween the east coast of England and the mouths of the Elbe and Rhine, may have been
the effect of diluvial denudation. The average depth of all this tract of water is said to
be less than thirty fathoms.
a

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
45
.
a
lived antecedently to the great inundation by which they were extir-
pated is a distinct matter of inquiry, on which the highest authorities
are by no means agreed. It is the opinion of Cuvier, on the one hand,
that as some of the fossil animals differ from existing species of the
genera to which they belong, it is probable they had a constitution
adapted to endure the rigours of a northern winter; and this opinion
derives support from the Siberian elephant's carcase, discovered with
all its flesh entire, in the ice of Tungusia, and having its skin partially
covered by long hair and wool; and from the hairy rhinoceros found
in 1771 in the same country, in the frozen gravel of Vilhoui, having
its flesh and skin still perfect, and of which the head and feet are
now preserved at Petersburg, together with the skeleton of the ele-
phant above alluded to, and a large quantity of its wool. To which
Cuvier adds the further fact, that there are genera of existing ani-
mals, e. g. the fox tribe, which have species adapted to the extremes
both of polar and tropical climates.
On the other hand, it is contended that the abundant occurrence of
fossil crocodiles and tortoises, and of vegetables and shells (e. g. palms
and nautili), nearly allied in structure and character to those which are
now peculiar to hot climates, in the secondary strata, as well as in the
diluvium of high north latitudes, renders it more probable that the
climate was warm in which these plants and animals lived and died,
than that a change of constitution and habit should have taken place
in so many animal and vegetable genera, the existing members of which
are rarely found except in the warner regions of the present earth.
To this argument, I would add a still greater objection arising from
the difficulty of maintaining such animals as those we are considering

46
ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES
amid the rigours of a polar winter; and this difficulty cannot be
solved by supposing them to have migrated periodically, like the
musk ox and rein deer of Melville Island; for in the case of croco-
diles and tortoises extensive emigration is almost impossible, and not
less so to such an unwieldy animal as the hippopotamus when out of
water. It is equally difficult to imagine that they could have passed
their winters in lakes or rivers frozen up with ice; and though the
elephant and rhinoceros, if clothed in wool, may have fed themselves
on branches of trees and brushwood during the extreme severities of
winter, still I see not how even these were to be obtained in the
frozen regions of Siberia, which at present produce little more than
moss and lichens, which during great part of the year are buried
under impenetrable ice and snow; yet it is in these regions of ex-
treme cold, on the utmost verge of the now habitable world, that the
bones of elephants are said to be found occasionally crowded in heaps
along the shores of the icy sea from Archangel to Behring's Straits,
forming whole islands composed of bones and mud at the mouth of
the Lena, and encased in icebergs, from which they are melted out by
the solar heat of their short summer, along the coast of Tungusia, in
sufficient numbers to form an important article of commerce*.
* “Lieutenant Kotzebue has discovered, in the western part of the gulf to the north
of Behring's Straits, a mountain covered with verdure (moss and grass) composed in-
teriorly of solid ice. On arriving at a place where the shore rises almost perpendicu-
larly from the sea to the height of 100 feet, and continues afterwards to extend with a
gradual inclination, they observed masses of the purest ice 100 feet high, preserved
under the above vegetable carpet. The portion exposed to the sun was melting and
sending much water into the sea. An undoubted proof of this ice being primitive (i. e.
i.e.
not formed by any causes now in action), was afforded by the great number of bones and
teeth of mammoths which make their appearance when it is melted. The soil of these

DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE.
47
Between these two conflicting opinions we are compelled to make
our choice: there seems to be no third or intermediate state with
which both may be compatible. It is not, however, to my present
purpose to discuss the difficulties that will occur on both sides, till
the further progress of geological science shall have afforded us more
ample information as to the structure of our globe, and have supplied
those data, without which all opinions that can be advanced on the
subject must be premature, and amount to no more than plausible
conjecture. At present I am concerned only to establish two im-
portant facts, 1st, that there has been a recent and general inundation
of the globe; and, 2d, that the animals whose remains are found
interred in the wreck of that inundation were natives of high north
latitudes, and not drifted to their present place from equatorial regions
by the waters that caused their destruction. One thing, however, is
nearly certain, viz. that if any change of climate has taken place, it
took place suddenly; for how otherwise could the elephant's car-
case, found entire in ice at the mouth of the Lena, have been pre-
served from putrefaction till it was frozen up with the waters of the
then existing ocean? Nor is it less probable that this supposed
change was contemporaneous with, and produced by, the same cause
which brought on the inundation. What this cause was, whether a
change in the inclination in the earth's axis, or the near approach of
a comet, or any other cause or combination of causes purely astrono-
a
a
mountains, which, to a certain height, are covered with an abundant herbage, is only
half a foot thick; it is composed of a mixture of clay, earth, sand, and mould; the ice
melts gradually beneath it, the carpet falls downwards and continues to thrive; the
latitude is 66° 15' 36" N."-Gilbert's Annalen, 1821, quoted in the Journal of Science
and the Arts, No. 27, page 236.

48
SCHRONOLOGICAL INFERENCES FROM
mical, is a question the discussion of which is foreign to the object of
the present memoir.
a
Having thus far described the principal facts I observed in the
interior of the den at Kirkdale, and pointed out the most important
conclusions that seem to arise from them, I proceed to consider the
chronological inferences that may be derived from the state of the
bones, and of the mud and stalagmite that accompany them, and to
extract the following detail of events that have been going on suc-
cessively within this curious cave.
1st. There appears to have been a period (and if we may form an
estimate from the small quantity of stalagmite now found on the
actual floor of the cave, a very short one,) during which this aperture
in the rock existed in its present state, but was not tenanted by the
hyænas. The removal of the mud, which now entirely covers the
floor, would be necessary to ascertain the exact quantity of stalagmite
referable to this period; but it cannot be very great, and can only be
expected to exist where there is much stalactite also upon the roof
and sides.
The ad period was that during which the cave was inhabited by
the hyænas, and the stalactite and stalagmite were still forming.
The constant passage of the hyænas in so low a cave would much
interrupt this deposition; as they would strike off the former from
the roof and sides by their constant ingress and egress; and accord-
ingly in some specimens of the breccia, we find mixed with the bones
fragments of stalactite, that seem to have been thus knocked off from
the roof and sides of the cave, whilst it was inhabited by hyænas

THE STATE OF THE CAVE AT KIRKDALE.
49
a
a
before the introduction of the mud. I have one example of a hollow
stalactitic tube that lay in an horizontal position in the midst of, and
parallel to some splinters of large bones, and the unbroken ulna of a
rat: all these are united by stalagmite; and it is impossible that this
stalactitic pipe could have been formed in any other than a vertical
position, hanging from the roof or sides. In other specimens of the
breccia, there are split fragments of the teeth of deer and hyæna; and
in almost every portion I have seen, either of this breccia or of the
antediluvian stalagmite, there are teeth of the water rat. Mr. Gibson
has presented to the British Museum a mass exceeding a foot in
diameter, composed of fragments of many large bones, mixed with
some teeth of the hyæna, ox, and several other animals, and also of
rats, all adhering firmly together in a matrix of stalagmite. During
the formation of the stalagmitic matter, no mud appears to have
been introduced ; and had there been any in the cave at the time
whilst the osseous breccia was forming, it would either have excluded
all access of the stalagmite to the bones, or have been mixed and
entangled with it, forming a spongy mass, as it does at the root of the
staglamites that lie on its surface. The universal cover of mud pre-
vented me from ascertaining whether the bottom of the cave is any
where polished (like the tiger's den before alluded to), in those parts
which must have been the constant gangway of the hyænas.
The 3d period is that at which the mud was introduced and the
animals extirpated, viz. the period of the deluge. I have already
stated that the animal remains are found principally in the lower
regions of this sediment of mud, which appears to have been intro-
duced in a fluid state, so as to envelope the bony fragments then
H

50
CHRONOLOGICAL INFERENCES FROM
a
lying on the bottom of the cave: and the power of water to introduce
such sediments is shown by the state of Wokey Hole, and similar
caverns in the Mendip Hills, and Derbyshire, which are subject to
be filled with water occasionally by heavy land floods; the effect of
these floods being to leave on the floor a sediment of mud similar to
that which covers the bones and osseous breccia in the cave of Kirk-
dale. I have also mentioned that there is no alternation of this mud
with beds of bone or of stalagmite, such as would have occurred had
it been produced by land floods often repeated; once, and once only,
it
appears to have been introduced ; and we may consider its vehicle
to have been the turbid waters of the same inundation that produced
universally the diluvial gravel and loam on the surface without: these
would enter and fill the cave, and there becoming quiescent, would
deposit the mud suspended in them (as we see daily silt and warp
deposited in quiet spots by waters of muddy rivers) along the whole
bottom of the den, where it has remained undisturbed ever since.
We cannot refer this mud to a land flood, or succession of land floods,
partly for the reasons before stated, and partly from the general
dryness of the cave; had it been liable to be filled with muddy
water, it would have been so at the time I visited it in December,
1821, at the end of one of the most rainy seasons ever remembered;
but even then there were not the slightest symptoms of any such
occurrence, and a few scanty droppings from the roof were the only
traces of water entering the area of the cave.
The 4th period is that during which the stalagmite was deposited
which invests the upper surface of the mud. The quantity of this
stalagmite appears to be much greater than that formed in the two

THE STATE OF THE CAVE AT KIRKDALE.
51
periods, during and before which, the cave was tenanted by hyænas.
In the whole of this 4th period no creature appears to have entered
the cave, with the exception possibly of mice, rats *, weasels, rabbits,
and foxes, until it was opened last summer; and no other process of
any
kind appears to have been going on in it except the formation of
stalactitic and stalagmitic infiltrations: the stratum of diluvial sedi-
ment marks the point of time at which the latter state of things began
and the former ceased. As there is no mud at all on the top or sides
of the cave, we have no mark to distinguish the relative quantities of
stalactite formed on those parts during the periods we have been
speaking of: should it however contain in any part a fragment of
bone or tooth of any of the extinct animals, it will be probable that
this part was antediluvial. A farther argument may be drawn from
the limited quantity of postdiluvian stalactite, as well as from the
undecayed condition of the bones, to show that the time elapsed since
the introduction of the diluvial mud has not been one of excessive
length, nor at all exceeding that which M. Cuvier, after comparing
the traditions of a deluge that prevail among all nations with natural
phenomena, infers to have elapsed since that great and universal
inundation which has overwhelmed the earth, at a period which, he
says, he is of opinion with De Luc and Dolomieu, cannot have ex-
ceeded five or six thousand years ago.
* Mr. Salmond has a portion of the upper stalagmite, with the entire skeleton of a
rat, embedded between two of the upper laminæ of the stalagmitic crust. This animal
must have entered the cave, and died there, not long ago.
H 2

52
CAVES AT KIRBY MOORSIDE.
nare open
soos
CAVES AT KIRBY MOORSIDE. elad atro
in store
I mentioned in my former paper, that a second cave had been
discovered in the vicinity of Kirkdale, which was reported also to
contain bones, and that it had been closed by Mr. Duncombe till I
should come down to examine it, which I did in July last, accom-
panied by Sir H. Davy and Mr. Warburton. Our labour was lost as
far as related to the discovery of more bones, or a second den of
hyænas ; but it was repaid by the confirmation which this cave
afforded in all its other circumstances of my speculations on that at
Kirkdale, and by the discovery of another cavity in Duncombe Park
containing animal remains, which throw much light on the mode in
which the caves and fissures that were not inhabited as dens became
filled with bones. I had also the satisfaction of demonstrating on
the spot to Sir H. Davy and Mr. Warburton the actual state of many
of the phenomena described in my account of Kirkdale. The cave
at Kirby Moorside was intersected in working the face of a quarry
of the same limestone as that at Kirkdale, at the north end of the
town, and on the right side of a narrow gorge or valley called
the Manor Vale, which descends from the north towards the Vale of
Pickering, nearly parallel to the valley of Kirkdale, being about sixty
feet broad, and bounded by slopes forty feet high, and forming one of
the
many
smaller vallies of denudation excavated on this limestone
by the diluvial waters as they subsided from the moorlands to the
Vale of Pickering. A considerable portion of the right bank of this
valley has been laid bare by the workings of the quarry, and on the
(ilidadore ed obbe Grossetod
godt

CAVES AND FISSURES AT KIRBY MOORSIDE.
53
a
а
face of it there are traces of a fissure connected with several small
cavernous holes. The aperture discovered last spring is in the centre
of this quarry, and near its floor; on removing the wall with which
Mr. Duncombe had caused it to be closed, it was found to pass ob-
liquely into the body of the hill, and to be intersected at a few feet
from its entrance by a large fissure; this point of intersection forms,
as at Kirkdale, the widest and most lofty part of the cavern, within
which it diminishes into smaller vaults, which soon become impass-
able: the outer part of the cave when first opened was about four
feet high and six broad, and its entire floor covered with an uniform
mass of loamy clay, precisely similar to that on the floor of the den
at Kirkdale. On digging into this loam it was found to be six feet
deep for a considerable distance inwards, and to contain no bones.
At its bottom there was no stalagmitic undercrust dividing it from
the limestone floor, nor any repetition or alternation of a second or
third bed of stalagmite in any part of its substance; its surface alone
was in many parts glazed over with an extensive sheet of it oozing
outwards from the side walls, and sometimes entirely crossing and
forming a bridge over the loam. Above this crust some parts of the
roof and sides were loaded with stalactite in its usual fantastic forms;
but there were no bones of modern animals, nor traces of loam, or
even of dust, upon the surface of the superficial crust of stalagmite,
In all its circumstances, as far as they went, it agreed with and con-
firmed the history and chronology I have given of the cave at Kirk-
dale, excepting the two accidents of its not having been inhabited as
a den, or received any stalagmite on its floor, before the introduction
of the diluvial loam. The absence of bones in this cave (the mud
being present) adds to the probability that it was by the instru-
a

54
OPEN FISSURE IN DUNCOMBE PARK,
a
a
mentality of the hyænas, and not of the diluvial waters, that the animal
remains were collected in such quantities in the adjacent den at
Kirkdale.
At about a mile east of Kirby Moorside, at a spot called the Back
of the Parks, there are other quarries on both sides of a comb that
descends rapidly into the valley of the Dove, in the face of which
there occur several small caverns and vertical fissures: these fissures
vary from one to six feet in breadth, and rise from the bottom of the
quarry to the surface of the land, and are entirely filled with diluvial
loam, of the same kind as that in the caves both here and at Kirkdale,
and the Manor Vale. It was in the upper part of one of the fissures
that several human skeletons were found and taken out in the
year
1786, but the spot on which they occurred has been destroyed in con-
tinuing the workings of the quarry: they were probably bodies that
had been interred here after a battle.
OPEN FISSURE IN DUNCOMBE PARK.
The newly discovered fissure in Duncombe Park differs from those
we have been last describing in the circumstance of its being of post-
diluvian origin; it contains no diluvial sediment and no pebbles, and
has within it the remains of animals of existing species only, and these
in a much more recent and more perfect state of preservation than
the bones at Kirkdale. It is a great irregular crack or chasm, in the
solid limestone rock, which forms a steep and lofty cliff on the right
side of the valley of the Rye, being in that most beautiful valley of
denudation which descends from Rivaulx Abbey through Duncombe
a

CONTAINING POSTDILUVIAL BONES.
55
a
Park to the town of Helmsley, and on the left bank of which are the
magnificent terraces of Rivaulx Abbey, and of the gardens at Dun-
combe Park. The crack has probably been formed by a subsidence
of part of the cliff towards the valley, and terminates upwards near
its edge, in a small aperture, about twenty feet long and three or four
feet broad, which is almost concealed and overgrown with bushes, and
which being nearly at right angles to the edge of the cliff, lies like a
pitfall across the path of animals that pass that way. It descends
obliquely downwards, and presents several ledges or landing places
and irregular lateral chambers, the floors of which are strewed over
with loose angular fragments of limestone, fallen from the sides and
roof, and with dislocated skeletons of animals that have from time to
time fallen in from above and perished. One of Mr. Duncombe's
park-keepers had been for many years aware of the existence of
bones in this chasm, but had never mentioned it till my second visit
to Duncombe Park, when we examined it, descending by means of a
rope, and found it to contain the skeletons of dogs, sheep, deer, goats,
and hogs, lodged at various depths on the landing places I have just
mentioned: the bones lay loose and naked on the actual spots on
which the animals had died, and to which they had probably fallen
when passing carelessly along the surface of the Park above; they
were neither broken, nor buried in loam, nor incrusted with stalag-
mite, as at Kirkdale, but simply stripped of their flesh; they are not
adherent to the tongue when fractured, but retain much more animal
matter, and are in all respects more fresh and recent, than those
which occur at Kirkdale entombed beneath the loam.
In a geological point of view, the occurrence of these bones, under
the circumstances above described, is important, as illustrating the

56
OTHER CAVES IN ENGLAND.
manner in which the bones of antediluvian animals may have been
accumulated by falling into similar fissures, which are now filled up
with diluvial mud and pebbles ; for if fissures existed (as they un-
doubtedly did) on the antediluvian face of the earth in much greater
abundance than since that grand aqueous revolution, which has
entirely filled up so many of them with its detritus, there is no reason
why the then existing animals should not have fallen into them and
perished, as modern animals do in the comparatively few cavities
that remain still open in our limestone districts: and when we con-
sider that it is the habit of graminivorous animals to be constantly
traversing the surface of the ground in every direction in pursuit of
food, it is obvious that they are subject in a greater degree than those
which are carnivorous to the perpetual danger of falling into any
fissure or imperfectly closed chasm that may lie in their way; and in
this circumstance we see an explanation of the comparatively rare
occurrence of the remains of beasts of prey in the osseous breccia of
the antediluvian fissures, although they also perished in them, occa-
sionally as the dogs do at this day in the open fissure at Duncombe
Park.
Many of the arguments arising from the detail of facts we have
been describing in Yorkshire are applicable to the illustration of
analogous phenomena, where the evidence of their history is less com-
plete. In our own country there are seven other instances of bones
similarly deposited in caverns, the origin of some of which, though
not before satisfactorily made out, becomes evident as a corollary from
the proofs afforded by the cave at Kirkdale; these are in the counties
of Somerset, Derby, Devon, and Glamorgan.

CAVE WITH BONES, IN SOMERSET.
57
do broja
Broto stop
1.-CAVE OF HUTTON, IN THE MENDIP HILLS.
a
The first I shall mention is that of teeth and bones of elephants
and other antediluvian animals discovered in the Mendip Hills in
cavities of mountain limestone, which were lined, and nearly filled
with ochreous clay. These are preserved in the collection of the
Rev. Mr. Catcott, in the City Library at Bristol. The following ac-
count of them is extracted by my friend the Rev. W. D. Conybeare,
from Mr. Catcott's MS. notes; he has added also a few explanatory
observations.
“ The ochre pits were worked about the middle of the last century,
near the summit of the Mendip Hills, on the S. of the village of
Hutton, near Banwell, at an elevation of from three hundred to four
hundred feet above the level of the sea : they are now abandoned *.
“ The ochre was pursued through fissures in the mountain lime-
stone, occasionally expanding into larger cavernous chambers, their
range being in a steep descent, and almost perpendicular. Thus, in
opening the pits, the workmen, after removing eighteen inches of
vegetable mould, and four feet of rubbly ochre, came to a fissure in
the limestone rock, about eighteen inches broad, and four feet long.
This was filled with good ochre, but as yet no bones were discovered:
* I shall presently mention an analogous case of the occurrence of ochre in a similar
series of caverns in Derbyshire, near Wirksworth, and in some caves and fissures, filled
with a similar accumulation of diluvial matter, on the continent, at Theux, near Spa. In
the latter case it is accompanied with a large admixture of pebbles, but no bones.
I

58
CAVE OF HUTTON IN MENDIP,
3
it continued to the depth of eight yards, and then opened into a
cavern about twenty feet square, and four high ; the floor of this cave
consisted of good ochre, strewed on the surface of which were mul-
titudes of white bones, which were also found dispersed through the
interior of the ochreous mass. In the centre of this chamber, a large
stalactite depended from the roof; and beneath, a similar mass rose
from the floor, almost touching it: in one of the side walls was an
opening about three feet square, which conducted through a passage
eighteen yards in length, to a second cavern, ten yards in length, and
five in breadth; both the passage and cavern being filled with ochre
and bones. Another passage, about six feet square, branched off
laterally from this chamber about four yards below its entrance; this
continued nearly on the same level for eighteen yards ; it was filled
with rubbly ochre, fragments of limestone rounded by attrition, and
lead ore confusedly mixed together; many large bones occurring in
the mass; among which four magnificent teeth of an elephant (the
whole number belonging to a single skull) were found. Another shaft
was sunk from the surface perpendicularly into this branch, and ap-
pears to have followed the course of a fissure, since it is said that all
the
way nothing appeared but rubble, large stones, ochre, and bones :
in the second chamber, immediately beyond the entrance of the branch
just described, there appeared a large deep opening, tending per-
pendicularly downwards, filled with the same congeries of rubble,
ochre, bones, &c. ; this was cleared to the depth of five yards; this
point, being the deepest part of the workings, was estimated at about
thirty-six yards beneath the surface of the hill: a few yards to the
a
a

CONTAINING LARGE BONES.
59
west of this another similar hole occurred, in which was found a large
head, which we shall have occasion presently to notice.”.orca v
The bones from this cavern, preserved in Mr. Catcott's cabinet in
the Bristol library, are the teeth and fragments of some bones of the
elephant; and similar remains of horses, oxen, and two species of stag,
besides the skeleton, nearly complete, of a fox, and the metacarpal
bone of a very large species of bear, nearly five inches in length.
There are also molar teeth of the hog, and a large tusk of the upper
jaw; (see Plate XI. fig. 30, 31, 32, 33.) This tusk probably be-
longed to the head mentioned in the MS. as having been found in the
pit above described, and of which the following particulars are spe-
cified :-“ The head was stated by the workmen to have been about
three or four feet long, fourteen inches broad at the top, or head part,
and three inches at the snout. It had all the teeth perfect, and four
tusks, the larger tusks about four inches long out of the head, and the
lesser about three inches *.” The tusk now preserved is about three
inches long, its enamel is fine, it is longitudinally striated, and on one
side of the apex truncated and worn flat by use.
Some farther details of the bones found in the cave at Hutton are
given as a note in Mr. Catcott's Treatise on the Deluge (page 361,
first edition), in which he specifies six molar teeth of the elephant,
one of them lying in the jaw, part of a tusk, part of a head, four thigh
bones, three ribs, with a multitude of lesser bones, belonging probably
to the same animal. “ Besides these,” he adds, “ we picked up part
a
a
a
* The head here described is evidently that of a hog; the account of its length
being exaggerated by the workmen, from whose report alone Mr. Catcott gives the mea-
sures of it. The head itself was lost or destroyed before he had seen it.
1 2

60
CAVE NEAR CLIFTON.
a
of a large deer's horn very flat, and the slough of a horn (or the
spongy porous substance that occupies the inside of the horns of oxen),
of an extraordinary size, together with a great variety of teeth and
small bones belonging to different species of land animals. The bones
and teeth were extremely well preserved, all retaining their native
whiteness, and, as they projected from the sides and top of the cavity,
exhibited an appearance not unlike the inside of a charnel-house.”
It appears most probable, from the description given of these
bones and horns, that they were not dragged in by beasts of prey, but
either drifted in by the diluvian waters, or derived from animals that
had fallen in before the introduction of the ochreous loam : the loam
itself and pebbles are clearly of diluvial origin.
On the summit of Sandford Hill, on the east of Hutton, bones of
the elephant were also, according to Mr. Catcott's MSS., discovered
four fathoms deep among loose rubble.
2.-CAVE ON DERDHAM DOWN, NEAR CLIFTON.
A second case of fossil fragments of bone has been communicated to
me by Mr.J.S. Miller, of Bristol, as discovered by Mr. Benton,in a fissure
of mountain limestone, near Clifton, by the turnpike-gate on Derdham
Down. The fissure was two feet broad, and contained fragments of
stone and stalagmite. The bones lie beneath this breccia, and are not
rolled, but have evidently been fractured by violence: they are partially
incrusted with stalactitic matter, and the broken surfaces have also an
external coating of thin ochreous stalactite, showing the fracture to have
been ancient. One specimen, the property of Mr. Miller, displays the
curious circumstance of a fossil joint of the horse: it is the tarsus joint,

CAVES IN DERBYSHIRE.
61
in which the astragalus retains its natural position between the tibia
and os calcis; these are held together by a stalagmitic cement, and
were probably left in this position by some beast of prey that had
gnawed off the deficient portions of the tibia and os calcis.
Tour
3.-CAVE AT BALLEYE, NEAR WIRKSWORTH.
A third case is that of some bones and molar teeth of the elephant,
found in another cavity of mountain limestone at Balleye, near Wirks-
worth, in Derbyshire, in the year 1663; one of these teeth is now in
the collection of Mr. White Watson, of Bakewell. There is, I believe,
no other account of the circumstances under which these remains
were found than the subjoined MS. in the possession of Mr. Wat-
son, by a miner, named George Mower *.
C
a
a
4.-DREAM CAVE, NEAR WIRKSWORTH.
A fourth example has just occurred in the same neighbourhood,
in a lead mine called the Dream, in the hamlet of Callow, about one
mile W. of Wirksworth, towards Hopton, on the property of Philip
Gell, Esq., whose attention has been judiciously directed to the sub-
ject, and by whose exertions nearly the entire skeleton of a rhinoceros
has been extracted, together with some considerable remains of the
horse, ox, and deer. On being informed of this discovery, through
,
the kindness of my friend the Rev. D. Stacy, I set off immediately
for Derbyshire, for the purpose of examining all its circumstances,
and found them to be nearly as follows. In the month of December,
* In sinking for lead at Bawlee, within two miles of Wirksworth, A. D. 1663, they
came to an open place as large as a church, and found a skeleton reclining against the
side, so large that his brain-pan would have held two strike of corn, and so big that
they could not get it up without breaking it. My grandfather having a share in the
said mine, they sent him a tooth, weighing four pounds three ounces.-Geo. MOWER.
a

62
20 CAVE NEAR WIRKSWORTH, TOO
а
1822, some miners engaged in pursuing a lead vein had sunk a shaft
about sixty feet through solid mountain limestone (see Plate XX.
A. B. 7.), when they suddenly penetrated a large cavern E, filled
entirely to the roof with a confused mass of argillaceous earth
and fragments of stone, through which they attempted to continue
their shaft perpendicularly downwards to the vein below; in this
operation they were interrupted by the earth and fragments be-
ginning to move and fall in upon them continually from the sides,
until the roof of a large cavern became apparent, in consequence
of the subsidence and removal of the matter with which it had been
filled. It was nearly in the centre of this subsiding mass, and at the
height of many feet above the actual floor of the cave, that the work-
men discovered the bones F G, which I am about to describe, and of
which those belonging to the rhinoceros g lay very near each other,
and probably formed an entire skeleton before they were disturbed
by the agitation and sinking of the materials e, in which they were
imbedded. The following parts of a rhinoceros, all apparently from
the same individual, have been collected; viz. the head, its central
part being much broken, ten molar teeth, one entire side of the
under jaw, and a large fragment of the other side; the atlas entire
and fitting the head, two cervical vertebræ, several dorsal and two
caudal ditto, with numerous fragments of ribs; the sacrum and
several parts of the pelvis, the humerus, ulna, and radius of both
fore legs, the femur and tibia of both the hind legs, both patellæ,
and several pair of corresponding bones from the right and left feet,
and the joints of the tarsus and carpus. All these are in a state of
high preservation, and from a nearly full grown animal, and being

CONTAINING AN ENTIRE RHINOCEROS.
63
found so close together, are without doubt portions of a skeleton
which lay entire in the middle of the cave before the materials that
had filled it began to subside. There were no supernumerary bones,
indicate the presence of a second rhinoceros; but in the same
cave were found some teeth and bones of a horse, and many entire
bones from the legs of a very large ox, all apparently from one
individual; also many bones of deer from at least four individuals,
and fragments of horns, none so large as those of red deer, and some
of them palmated. (See Plate XXII. fig. 3, 4.) None of these
bones have marks of partial decay on one surface only, as at Kirkdale
and Plymouth; and from this circumstance we may infer that they
were derived from animals that perished by the waters that introduced
them to the cave : they are of a yellowish brown colour, similar to
those from Kirkdale. All these valuable specimens have, by the
munificence of Mr. Gell, been deposited in the Oxford Museum*.
For some time after the cave was penetrated there was no apparent
communication between its interior and the surface; but as the loose
materials that at first filled it subsided into and were taken out by the
shaft, a sinking appeared in the field above at I., and a further mass
of the same kind, viz. argillaceous earth and fragments of limestone,
mixed with a few rolled pebbles of quartz, continued to fall down-
wards into it (like the contents of a lime-kiln, sinking towards the
lower aperture by which the lime is extracted), until a large open
chasm D, more than six feet broad, and fifty feet deep, was left en-
section and her bir
* Mr. Gell has also in his possession the horn of a very large urus, that was found
at a considerable depth in digging away the diluvium near the west mouth of the tunnel
of the Cromford Canal, at Butterley, about thirty years ago.
a
a

64
CAVE CONTAINING RHINOCEROS.
a
tirely void, and seen to form a direct communication from the side of
the cave to the surface of the field above. Till undermined in this
manner, the fissure d had been entirely filled, and the surface afforded
not the slightest indication of its existence; at present it is restored
to the same state of an open chasm in which it probably was before
the access of the diluvian waters, that appear to have swept into it
the mud and rocky fragments which filled both it and the cave below;
and on examining its sides, I found the projecting parts of them rubbed
and scratched by the descent of these heavy bodies as they dropped in
from above. From the situation of the rhinoceros' bones in the middle
of this drifted mass, and in the centre of the cave, added to the juxta-
position of so many of the component parts of one entire skeleton,
which are neither rolled, or gnawed, or broken, except by the move-
ment they have recently undergone, and the pickaxes of the miners, it
seems probable that they are the remains of a carcase that was drifted
in entire at the same time with the diluvial detritus, in the midst of
which they were found imbedded: had they been washed in singly,
they would have been slightly rolled and scattered irregularly, and
we should probably have found parts of more than a single individual;
and had they been derived from an animal that fell into the fissure, and
perished before the introduction of the diluvium, they would not have
been suspended, as they were, all together nearly in the middle of it,
but would have lain either on the actual floor of the cave beneath the
loam and pebbles, or have been scattered and drifted irregularly to
different and distant parts of its lowest recesses.
I could discover no
stalagmite, and but few traces of stalactite in any part of this cavern,
or of the fissure immediately connected with it.
:

CAVE CONTAINING OCHRE.
65
a
a
In the same field with the Dream Mine, and on the upper edge
of a steep declivity, is a small crag that overhangs the subjacent valley,
and has in its face an aperture called the Fox Holes, by which we
enter an extensive suite of connected chambers and vaultings of irre-
gular size and shape, perforating the rock in various directions, and
at various elevations. In all of these the floor is covered to the
depth of many feet, whilst some of the smaller ones are entirely filled
with a mass of clay and ochreous loam, which in many parts is suf-
ficiently pure to have been extracted for sale as a coarse pigment, and
to have caused much of the diluvial sediment within these chambers
to have been dug over in search of it, as was done in the cavernous
fissure of Hutton in the Mendips, just described as having contained
the bones of an elephant and other animals imbedded in ochre. In
the cave of Fox Holes, now before us, no bones have been discovered,
nor are there any traces of pebbles or angular fragments of stone
except near the mouth. The quantity of stalactite and stalagmite
also is small: and this little occurs chiefly near the entrance,
where the roof is clustered with tufts of beautiful lac lunæ. The
position of the cave on the edge of a high cliff, and far above the
possible influence of any floods from the nearest brooks or rivulets,
obliges us to refer the enormous deposit it contains of ochreous mud
to no other than diluvial origin; and Mr. Gell informs me, that in
all the caves and in the greater number of the fissures which he has
for
many years been in the habit of frequently exploring with the
miners in this low peak district of Derbyshire, he has constantly ob-
served a deposit of mud and stony fragments similar to that which I
:
K

66
FISSURES NEAR WIRKSWORTH.
A
examined with him in the Dream Cavern and the Fox Holes, and
that almost all these apertures occur in elevated situations, where not
a stream or rivulet exists at the present time, to the flood waters of
which it would be possible to refer their introduction. The absence
of pebbles and stony fragments in the interior of the cave of Fox
Holes may be explained by the circumstance of there being no fissure
communicating from it upwards to the surface, whilst its mouth is
placed in a nearly vertical cliff that faces inwards to the valley.
In the crag called Yeo-Cliff, immediately on the west of Wirks-
worth, and in other natural cliffs that occur on the north side of the
same town, are lofty precipices formed by the edges of the metalli-
ferous limestone strata. These are seen to be intersected from top
to bottom by numerous and nearly vertical fissures or veins, many of
which are still filled with various kinds of spar and ore; others par-
tially empty, in consequence of the removal of these substances by
the operations of mining; and others again wholly or partially filled
with diluvial detritus. These metalliferous limestone strata compose
the
upper table-lands of much of this district, and have been for cen-
turies ransacked in pursuit of lead. They are in all parts intersected
by fissures similar to those exposed in the cliffs near Wirksworth,
and which like them are either filled with spar, and form the most
prolific deposits of metallic ore, or are choked up with mud and rocky
fragments drifted in by diluvial agency, or (which is but rarely the
case) remain still open, and have apparently been never filled with
any thing since the fracture of the rock took place to which they owe
their origin. In these last we find no other extraneous substances

CAVES AT ORESTON, NEAR PLYMOUTH.
67
than a few fragments of limestone that scale off daily and fall from
their sides, and the bones of cattle and recent animals that tumble in
continually, and there perish.
2
5.-THREE SETS OF CAVES NEAR PLYMOUTH.
a
The fifth example I have to adduce is that of three deposits of
bones discovered at Oreston, near Plymouth, by Mr. Whidby, in re-
moving the entire mass of a hill of transition limestone for the con-
struction of the Breakwater. The first of these is described by Sir
Everard Home and Mr. Whidby, in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1817. They were found in a cavern fifteen feet wide, twelve
high, and forty-five long, and about four feet above high-water mark;
it was filled with solid clay (probably diluvial mud) in which the
teeth and bones were imbedded, and was intersected in blasting away
the body of the rock to make the Breakwater. The state of the
teeth and bones was the same with that of those found in the caves
already described ; they were much broken, but not in the slightest
degree rounded by attrition, and Sir Everard Home has ascertained
them to belong exclusively to a species of rhinoceros. A similar dis-
covery of teeth and bones was made in 1820, in a smaller cavern,
distant one hundred and twenty yards from the former, being one
foot high, eighteen wide, and twenty long, and eight feet above the
high-water mark; a description of its contents is given in the Philo-
sophical Transactions for 1821, by the same gentlemen ; it contained
no stalactite, which abounds in many of the adjacent caverns. Sir
K 2

68
CAVES AND FISSURES AT ORESTON.
a
a
Everard Home describes these teeth and bones as belonging to the
rhinoceros, deer, and a species of bear. ibido
A third, and still more extensive discovery, was made in the same
quarries in the summer of 1822, by the intersection of other apertures
in the middle of the solid limestone, containing an immense deposit of
bones and teeth imbedded in a similar earthy matrix to that in which
they were found in the two former cases. On this discovery being com-
municated to me through the kindness of Mr. Barrow, I went imme-
diately to Plymouth accompanied by Mr. Warburton, and found the
circumstances to be nearly as follows: In a vast quarry produced by
the removal of an entire hill of limestone for the construction of the
Breakwater, there is an artificial cliff ninety feet in height, the face of
which is perforated and intersected by large irregular cracks and ca-
vities, which are more or less filled up with loam, sand, or stalactite.
These apertures are sections of fissures and caverns that have been
laid open in working away the body of the rock, and are disposed in
it after the manner of chimney flues in a wall; but they attracted no
attention till the discovery of bones in them above mentioned. Some
of them have lateral communications with adjacent cavities, others are
insulated and single; some rise almost vertically towards the surface,
others are tortuous, passing obliquely upwards, downwards, inwards,
and in all directions in the most irregular manner through the body
of the rock. Apertures of the same kind occur in continual succes-
sion in the limestone of the natural cliff that forms the shore from
Oreston to Stonehouse; and at the latter place, immediately on the
north side of the Marine barracks, is another large quarry, in the face
of which I found four apertures of the same kind leading also into
a

CAVES AND FISSURES AT CHUDLEIGH.
69
caverns, the floor of all which was covered with a deep bed of mud,
over the surface of which was spread a crust of stalagmite; but as
these caverns have not been examined, no bones have as yet been
found in them. The occurrence, however, of fissures and caves more
or less filled with mud, sand, fragments of stone and stalactite, is
universal in the limestone rocks of this district, whilst the dispersion
of bones through them is partial. The caves of Kent's Hole and
others near Babicombe and Torbay are notorious examples of this
kind *
These fissures and caverns are so connected, so often confluent
and inosculating with each other, and so identical as to their con-
tents, that there appears to be no difference as to the time or manner
in which they were filled ; indeed, something intermediate between
a cavern and a fissure, which we may call a cavernous fissure, is the
more common form under which they occur. In many of those which
are nearly vertical the communication with the surface is obvious ;
up
* At the extensive quarries in the rock of Chudleigh, composed of the same tran-
sition limestone as that of Plymouth, we found exactly the same phenomena of caves and
fissures, partially or wholly filled with a similar diluvium, to that at Oreston. In one of
the fissures so filled, which was several feet in breadth, and intersected the limestone
exactly like a great wall or dyke, Mr. Warburton discovered a few small fragments of
bone, and in all of them there were numerous pebbles of chert and chalk flint, and tran-
sition slate, mixed with the mud that formed the principal substance which filled these
fissures
to the very surface of the soil. In another large fissure fragments of lime-
stone predominated, and the quantity of mud was small; and here the entire mass was
united by stalagmite into a breccia so solid that it remains erect, projecting like a thick
wall after the removal of the limestone from each side of it, and at first sight looks more
like a mass of rude masonry running across the quarry than a natural production; a
similar wall, composed of fragments of oolite cemented by stalagmite, crosses the middle
of a large quarry of oolite on Banner Down, near Bath. The solid rock that once in-
closed it has here also been removed from both its sides, whilst at each extremity it is
seen to be prolonged into the body of the natural rock, and entirely to fill up a fissure
therein of considerable breadth.
а

70
DILUVIAL DETRITUS INI
whilst in others that traverse the rock obliquely it can be seen only
where their upper extremity intersects the surface of the rock, and if
this happens not in a cliff, but along the level face of the country, it
is usually so completely filled and covered up with earth as not to be
discoverable unless by approaching it through the caverns from below.
We have in this circumstance a satisfactory reason why so many
cavities, having at first view no apparent communication with the
upper surface, are intersected in working the central and deepest
portions of these limestone rocks *.
In almost all the cavities there occurs a deposit of diluvial detritus,
consisting of mud and sand, and angular fragments of limestone;
these substances sometimes entirely fill up the lower chambers, and are
usually lodged in various quantities and proportions on the shelves and
ledges, and lateral hollows of the middle and upper regions. The com-
position of the mud, or earthy portion of this diluvium at Plymouth,
differs in some degree from that of the cave at Kirkdale, having
been derived from the detritus of strata of a different character; it is
of a redder colour, and looser texture, and less calculated to protect
the bones in it from the access of atmospheric air and water. In one
large vault at Oreston, where the quantity of diluvium was very great,
it was stratified, or rather sorted and divided into laminæ of sand, earth,
and clay, varying in fineness, but all referable to the diluvial wash-
ings of the adjacent country. It is often partially interspersed with
small fragments of clay-slate and quartz. The sand and loam are in
many places invested with, and cemented together by, stalagmite, but
a
a
* See a good illustration of this in Plate XX., and the description of the cave at the
Dream Mine, near Wirksworth, at page 62, et seq.

CAVES AND FISSURES.
71
:
a
not so firmly as in the Gibraltar breccia, and in much of that which
occurs in the caves of Germany: portions of bone and single frag-
ments of rock are also found occasionally incased with a thin crust or
coating of the same substance; but, generally speaking, it is not suf-
ficiently abundant to hold the mud and bones together in a solid
mass after they are moved from the cave. In some few spots there
were balls of iron stone, and concretions of ochre formed in the clay;
in others there was a considerable deposit of manganese ore dispersed
through the sand and porous portions of the loam ; in the latter were
also concentric balls of the same ore inclosed within each other after
the manner of the ochreous aetites *.
It was in one of these oblique apertures in the present face of the
rock at Oreston, and at about forty feet above the bottom of the
quarry, that the congeries of bones, skulls, horns, and teeth I am now
about to speak of, was discovered. Mr. Whitby had collected
fifteen large maund baskets full of them before our arrival; these
have been sent to the College of Surgeons, and distributed to
various public collections. In the upper parts of the cavity from
* A small quantity of manganese is found disposed in a similar manner in some
parts of the sediment in the cave at Kirkdale; and I have often found this ore incrusting
the pebbles and sand in subordinate beds of a large mass of mixed diluvial gravel, e. g.
in Lord Barrington's gravel pit at Sedgefield, in the county of Durham; and in some
gråvel pits near Liege. It does not pervade the entire mass, but is usually limited to
beds of a few inches in thickness, and seldom spreads in these beyond a few feet in
breadth. The source from which it has been derived in situations of this kind is by
no means obvious; it is decidedly of later origin than the gravel itself, and seems
analogous to the incrustations of iron and carbonate of lime, which are often disposed
in a similar manner around the component materials of common surface gravel, cementing
it into a solid breccia, (e. g. in the gravel pits immediately on the east and north of Ox-
ford). It seems to have been deposited from water infiltrated through the gravel and
sand which are thus incrusted by it.
a
a
.

72
BONES AT ORESTON.
which they were taken we saw appearances of as many more still un-
disturbed, and forming a mass which entirely blocked it up to an
extent which we could not then ascertain ; those already extracted had
been discovered in a hollow, which apparently formed the lowest part
of a cavernous aperture descending obliquely downwards. Ascend-
ing this aperture from its lowest point, we pursued it upwards many
feet through the solid rock till it became narrow, and was entirely ob-
structed by a mass of bones, fragments of limestone, and mud; these
have probably been since removed, and I must refer to Mr. Whidby's
account, in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1823, Part I.,
for further particulars as to the manner in which he has traced its
connexions upwards through other caverns towards the surface *
* In the course of the summer of 1822, Joseph Cottle, Esq. of Bristol, has made a
large collection of bones from this same cave during a visit to Plymouth, and has added
the tiger to the list of animals before discovered in it. He has favoured me with
the following list of the remains in his possession, and is about to publish a description
of them.
18 jaws of horse.
2 jaws of ox.
2 jaws of hyæna.
2 jaws of deer.
5 jaws of wolf.
Single teeth, 188 of horse.
26 of ox.
9 of hyæna.
2 tusks of tiger: one 3 inches long, the other 31; one from the
upper, the other from the lower jaw.
5 teeth of wolf.
35 of deer.
50 of ox or deer: not ascertained.
Bones : 300 large and small, chiefly of the horse; none of them are gnawed, many
are quite perfect, and the majority of them slightly broken.
Osseous breccia: 33 specimens, containing teeth and bones cemented by stalagmite.
From this list it appears that the bones of horse greatly predominate in the collec-

BONES AT ORESTON.
73
The bones appeared to us to have been washed down from above
at the same time with the mud and fragments of limestone, through
which they are dispersed, and to have been lodged wherever there
was a ledge or cavity sufficiently capacious to receive them, or a strait
sufficiently narrow to be completely obstructed by them; they were
entirely without order, and not in entire skeletons; occasionally frac-
tured, but not rolled ; apparently drifted, but to a short distance from
the
spot
in which the animals died; they seem to agree in all their
circumstances with the osseous breccia of Gibraltar, excepting the
accident of their being less firmly cemented by stalagmitic infiltra-
tions through their earthy matrix, and consequently being more de-
cayed; they do not appear, like those at Kirkdale, to bear marks of
having been gnawed or fractured by the teeth of hyænas, nor is there
any reason to believe them to have been introduced by the agency
of these animals.
The only marks I have seen on them were those pointed out to
me by Mr. Clift, of nibbling by the incisor and canine teeth of an
animal of the size of a weasel, showing distinctly the different effect
of each individual tooth on the ulna of a wolf, and the tibia of a horse;
and a few pits or circular cavities produced by partial decomposition
on one surface only of the tibia of an ox, exactly resembling those
which occur on many of the bones from the cave at Kirkdale.
These pits must have been formed before the bone was imbedded
a
tion made by Mr. Cottle : in that sent to the College of Surgeons those of the ox were
much more numerous, being nearly equal to those of the horse; but whatever be the
disproportion of their numbers, the bones and teeth of all the animals are found con-
fusedly mixed together in irregular heaps, and not in entire skeletons, nor arranged in
different parts of the cavern according to the difference of their species.
L

74
BONES AT ORESTON.
a
a
in mud in the lowest recesses of the cave, and probably whilst it lay
exposed in some upper cavity of the rock. The weasels' teeth also
must have made their impressions on the bones of the wolf and
horse before they were buried in diluvial mud, and probably whilst
these dead animals lay in the same situation with the tibia of the ox.
The bones when half dry, on being thrown out of a basket on the
floor, had the smell of a charnel-house, or newly opened grave. On
examining the spot where they lay yet undisturbed in the mud of
the cave, we found some of them decomposed, and crumbling under
the touch into a blackish powder, and all extremely tender and fran-
gible, and of a dark brown colour whilst wet; but on drying they
acquired a greater degree of firmness and a whiter colour. They
retain less of their animal gelatin than the bones at Kirkdale, and
when dry they ring if a blow be given to them, and are absorbent to
the tongue. On some of them there are marks of extensive disease.
Mr. Clift has discovered in two of these bones from Oreston (the
metatarsus and metacarpus of an ox) extensive enlargement by
ossific inflammation, arising probably from a kick or blow; and also
cavities and swellings produced by abscesses in both sides of the under
jaw of a wolf. Professor Soemmering also has in his collection the
head of an hyæna from the cave of Gailenreuth, from which part of the
nose, with the canine and incisor teeth, had been entirely torn away,
and the elevated ridge formed by the parietal crest and frontal
suture dreadfully lacerated by the fangs of a bear, or tiger, or perhaps
another hyæna and the individual had survived until the injuries had
been considerably, and, as far as was possible, repaired. A drawing
of this head is given in the 4th vol. of the 2d edition of Cuvier's
a

BONES AT ORESTON.
175
a
Animaux Fossiles, Pl. XXX. M. Esper, also, in his Representations
of bones from Gailenreuth (Plate XIV.), gives a drawing of the thigh
bone of a bear, which had been broken and re-united, having at the
points of junction marks of extensive exostosis.
It appears from a description accompanied by beautiful drawings
of many of the Oreston bones by Mr. Clift, published in the Phil.
Trans. for 1823, Part I. that those sent to the College of Surgeons
belong to the six following genera of animals, viz. Hyæna, Wolf, Fox,
Horse, Ox, and Deer; to these must be added the tusks of Tiger,
discovered by Mr. Cottle. Mr. Clift has ascertained the following
number of individuals.
Hyænas, five or six, of the same extinct species as those at Kirk-
dale; three of them were young, and in the act of changing their
teeth.
Wolves, five. Mr. Clift can find no difference between these fossil
teeth and bones and those of existing species *.
Fox, two tusks, much decayed, and absorbent to the tongue.
Horses, about twelve, of different ages and sizes, as if from more
than one species.
Oxen, about twelve, of different species, some having very short
and straight horns; but not referable to young animals.
Deer, two or three, of a small species.
No traces of bear or rhinoceros have yet been noticed in this last
discovered cavern, though they occurred in the former cavities at no
great distance; but this circumstance is an accident likely to arise
* M. Cuvier also can find no difference between the bones and teeth of fossil wolves
and foxes, which he has examined, and those of recent ones.
L 2

76
THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF
a
from the irregular manner in which the remains are now dispersed,
and implies no difference in the time or circumstances under which
they were introduced.
It remains only to consider what this time and what the circum-
stances were. I have already stated, that there is no evidence like
that at Kirkdale, to show the animal remains at Oreston to have been
collected by the hyænas; no disproportion in the number of the
teeth to that of the bones; no destruction of the condyles and softer
parts, and abundance in excess of fragments of the harder portions ;
no splinters of the marrow bones ; no friction or polish on the convex
surfaces only of the curved bones; no marks of large teeth ; no album
græcum ; and no dispersion of bones along the horizontal surface
of a habitable den : but, on the contrary, a deep hole nearly perpen-
dicular, and bones quite perfect, lodged in irregular heaps in the
lowest pits, and in cavities along the lateral enlargements of this hole,
and mixed with mud, pebbles, and fragments of limestone, in pre-
cisely the same manner as I shall hereafter show them to be lodged
and mixed in the caves and fissures of Germany and Gibraltar; and
as they would have been, supposing they were drifted to their present
place by the diluvian waters from some lodgment which they had
before obtained in the upper regions of these extensive and connected
cavities. That they are of antediluvian origin is evident from the
presence of the extinct hyæna, tiger, and rhinoceros; but there still
remains a difficulty in ascertaining what was the place from which
they were so drifted ; 1. Are they the bones of animals that were
drowned, and their bodies drifted in entire by the waters which in-
troduced the mud and pebbles? Or, 2, had they lain some time dead

THE BONES AT ORESTON.
777
on the antediluvian surface of the earth, till they were washed in at
the deluge ? Or, 3, were they derived from the animals that had
fallen into the open antediluvian fissures, and there perishing, re-
mained as entire skeletons in the spots on which they died, till they
were drifted on further by the diluvian waters into the lowest recesses
and under-vaultings with which these fissures had communication,
and there mixed up, in irregular heaps, with mud, pebbles, and
angular fragments of limestone, all falling down together with them
to the places of their present interment, and producing in this
short transit that quantity of fracture to which they have been sub-
mitted ?
1. On the first of these hypotheses, had they been drowned, and
the carcases drifted in by the diluvian waters, we should have found
the skeletons more entire, and the bones less broken and less con-
fusedly mixed together than they are ; and we should neither have
had the marks of nibbling by the weasels' teeth on the bones of the
wolf and horse, nor the hollow pits arising from partial decay on one
surface only of the tibia of the ox; for neither of these effects could
have been produced on bones surrounded with a bed of mud.
2. To the second hypothesis, that they had lain as dead bones on
the antediluvian surface till they were drifted from thence into the
fissures, I would reply, that in a land inhabited as this was by wolves
and hyænas, it is not likely that any carcases would have lain long
on the surface without at least the softer portions of the bones being
eaten off by the hyænas, and thus we should have found them lacerated
rather than perfect, in the place to which they have since been drifted;
be
die bei
a
a

78
THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF
they might also in this case have been expected to be more or less
rolled, and to have lost their angles by friction, which does not appear
to be the fact. Another objection also arises from this circumstance,
that the bones of dead animals exposed on the surface of the earth,
without any protection of soil or gravel, are soon destroyed by minute
insects and continual atmospheric changes; and were it not so, the
world would by this time have been spread over most abundantly
with the bones of the myriads of animals that have died on its surface,
and received no burial ever since the period of the last retreat of the
diluvial waters.
3. The third hypothesis is that which I propose as most probable,
viz. that the animals had fallen during the antediluvian period into
the open fissures, and there perishing, had remained undisturbed in
the spot on which they died, till drifted forwards by the diluvian
waters to their present place in the lowest vaultings with which these
fissures had communication. This explanation is supported by the
strong fact, that animals at this day do fall continually into the few
fissures that are still open, and that carnivorous as well as grami-
nivorous animals lie in nearly entire skeletons in the open fissure at
Duncombe Park, each in the spot on which it actually perished, upon
the different ledges and landing places that occur in the course of its
descent, and from which, if a second deluge were admitted to this
fissure, it could only drift them downwards, and with them the loose
angular fragments amidst which they now lie, to the lowest chambers
in which the bottom of this fissure terminates. The teeth marks of
the weasel, and the pitted surface of the tibia, will on this hypothesis

THE BONES AT ORESTON..
79
have been effects produced on the bones as they lay dead within the
fissures (for a weasel might find access by minute crevices to the in-
terior of such fissures), and the wolves and hyænas may have either
fallen, like the horses, oxen, and deer, by accident into these natural
pitfalls, or have been tempted to the fatal experiment of leaping into
them to eat the carcases of the other animals, whilst they lay yet un-
decayed within the fissures. The proportion of individuals collected
at Oreston (the graminivorous being very much in excess beyond the
carnivorous) is, as far as it goes, consistent with this hypothesis; and if
this solution appears fanciful, it is one that need not be urged, for by
the same accident that dogs at this day fall into the open fissure at
Duncombe Park, no less than sheep and deer, might the wolves and
the hyænas also of the antediluvian world have fallen, as well as the
horses and oxen, into the chasms which then in countless numbers
crossed their paths, whenever they ventured on the perilous regions
of the hollow and fissile limestone; and possibly some of them, whilst
in the very act of pursuing their prey, may have dashed (like our less
ferocious dogs in pursuit of game) into the chasms, which became the
common grave of themselves and of the victim they were too eager to
devour. And however new and unheard-of the existence of such
fissures may be to those who have never visited or lived in a country
composed of compact limestone, it is matter of painful notoriety to
the farmers in Derbyshire, that their cattle are often lost by falling
into the still open fissures that traverse the districts of the Peak; and
it is no less matter of fact, that similar accidents are avoided in the
mountain limestone countries of Monmouth and Glamorganshire only

80
BONES IN GLAMORGANSHIRE.
by walls carefully erected round all the open chasms, with which there
also the same rocks are intersected *.
In speaking of the bones at Oreston in my former paper on Kirk-
dale, I had expressed a decided opinion that the caverns in which they
occur must have had some communication with the surface through
which the bones may have been introduced ; and as Mr. Whidby has
since found reason to adopt the same opinion in his further account of
this third discovery to the Royal Society, accompanied by plans and
sections of the caves, and Mr. Clift has laid before the same society an
anatomical description of the bones, with beautiful drawings, all of
which will in the Phil. Trans. for 1823, I shall conclude this part
of my subject with referring my readers to these memoirs for further
particulars.
6.-CAVE OF CRAWLEY ROCKS, NEAR SWANSEA.
The sixth deposit of bones which has come to my knowledge was
in the parish of Nicholaston, on the coast of Glamorganshire, at a
spot called Crawley Rocks, in Oxwich Bay, about twelve miles S.W.
of Swansea ; it was discovered in the year 1792, in a quarry of lime-
stone, on the property of T. M. Talbot, Esq. of Penrice Castle, and
no account of it has, I believe, been ever published; some of the bones
* In Sir John Nicholl's park at Merthyr Mawr there are many such apertures thus
walled round; and in mining countries we know that animals are perpetually being lost
by falling into old shafts that are not sufficiently fenced round to keep them off.

CAVE IN CRAWLEY ROCKS.
81
however are preserved in the collection of Miss Talbot, at Penrice;
they are as follows:
Elephant. ...... Three portions of large molar teeth.
Rhinoceros. . ... Right and left ossa humeri.
One atlas bone.
Two molar teeth of upper jaw.
Ox............... First phalangal bone of left fore foot.
Stag....... Lower extremity of the horn.
Three molar teeth.
One first phalangal bone, right leg.
Hyæna ......... Two canine teeth, much worn.
These bones were found in a cavity of mountain limestone, which
was accidentally intersected, like the cave at Kirkdale, in working a
quarry: they have a slight ochreous incrustation, and a little earthy
matter adhering to them ; but are not in the least degree rolled ; and
the condyles of the two humeri of the rhinoceros, belonging to dif-
ferent individuals, have in each case been entirely broken off. There
is also in the collection of J. Lucas, Esq. at Southall, in this neigh-
bourhood, the entire femur of a rhinoceros, said to have been found
many years ago in a cavern of limestone at Port Inon, together with
teeth, and a gigantic skull, which was sent over to Appledore, and has
not been heard of since. As there is a similar tradition of a large
skull having been found at Crawley Rocks, together with the bones
now at Penrice, it is probable that this head, and possibly the femur
of the rhinoceros also, were found all together in the cave at Crawley,
which has now been entirely cut away,
.
.
a
a
M

82
CAVE OF PAVILAND,
7.--CAVE OF PAVILAND.
The seventh and last case that has occurred in this country is that
of another discovery recently made on the coast of Glamorganshire,
fifteen miles west of Swansea, between Oxwich Bay and the Worms
Head, on the property of C. M. Talbot, Esq. It consists of two large
caves facing the sea, in the front of a lofty cliff of limestone, which
rises more than 100 feet perpendicularly above the mouth of the
caves, and below them slopes at an angle of about 40° to the waters
edge, presenting a bluff and rugged shore to the waves, which are
very violent along this north coast of the estuary of the Severn.
These caves are altogether invisible from the land side, and are acces-
sible only at low water, except by dangerous climbing along the face
of a nearly precipitous cliff, composed entirely of compact mountain
limestone, which dips north at an angle of about 45°. One of them
only (called Goats Hole) had been noticed when I arrived there,
and I shall describe it first, before I proceed to speak of the other.
Its existence had been long known to the farmers of the adjacent
lands, as well as the fact of its containing large bones, but it had been
no farther attended to till last summer, when it was explored by the
surgeon and curate of the nearest village, Port Inon, who discovered
in it two molar teeth of elephant, and a portion of a large curved tusk,
which latter they buried again in the earth, where it remained till it
was extracted a second time, on a further examination of the cave in
the and of December last by L. W. Dillwyn, Esq. and Miss Talbot, and
a

IN THE SEA CLIFFS.
83
H
a
removed to Penrice Castle, together with a large part of the skull to
which it had belonged, and several baskets full of other teeth and
bones. On the news of this further discovery being communicated
to me, I went immediately from Derbyshire to Wales, and found the
position of the cave to be such as I have above described; and its
floor at the mouth to be from 30 to 40 feet above high-water mark,
so that the waves of the highest storms occasionally dash into it, and
have produced three or four deep rock basins in its very threshold,
by the rolling on their axis of large stones, which still lie at the bot-
tom of these basins (see Plate XXI. h H.); around their edge, and
in the outer part of the cave itself, are strewed a considerable number
of sea pebbles, resting on the native limestone rock. The floor of
the cave ascends rapidly from its mouth inwards to the furthest ex-
tremity (see Plate XXI. and description), so that the pebbles have
not been drifted in beyond twenty feet, or about one-third of its
whole length; in the remaining two-thirds no disturbance by the
waters of the present sea appears ever to have taken place, and within
this point at which the pebbles cease, the floor is covered with a mass
of diluvial loam of a reddish yellow colour, abundantly mixed with
angular fragments of limestone and broken calcareous spar, and inter-
spersed with recent sea-shells, and with teeth and bones of the fol-
lowing animals, viz. elephant, rhinoceros, bear, hyæna, wolf, fox, horse,
ox, deer of two or three species, water-rats, sheep, birds, and man.
I found also fragments of charcoal, and a small flint, the edges of
which had been chipped off, as if by striking a light. I subjoin a list
of the most remarkable of the animal remains, most of which are pre-
served in the collection at Penrice Castle, and the Museum at Oxford.
M 2

84
ANIMALS AT PAVILAND.
a
Elephant ...... Head broken into numerous fragments, the sockets of
the tusks being nearly entire, and six inches in
ma
diameter, and very long.
One large portion of tusk, nearly two feet long, and five
Tinches and a half in diameter.
One large portion of diseased tusk, and many very small
fragments of decayed ivory.
Two molar teeth entire, fragments of two others.
Part of the epiphysis of the humerus.
Large fragments of the ribs.
Splinters of large cylindrical bones of the legs.
Rhinoceros.... A tooth resembling the incisor of the upper jaw.
One fragment of upper molar tooth.
One large bone of the carpus.
Two phalangal bones of the toe.
Horse .... .Many teeth and fragments of bones.
Hog............One upper incisor, apparently modern.
Bear...... ....Many molar teeth, two large canine ditto.
One fragment of lower jaw, and the anterior portion or
chin part of two other lower jaws firmly anchelosed,
and exhibiting the sockets of the incisor teeth and
of both tusks; the latter are more than three inches
deep, and equal in size to the largest from the caves
lule of Germany.
One humerus, of the same large size, nearly entire.
Many vertebræ, equally large.
Two ossa calcis, and many large bones of the meta-
carpus and metatarsus.

ANIMALS AT PAVILAND.
85
a
a
Hyæna.........Lower extremity of the left humerus.
Fox............. Lower extremity of the femur.
Wolf............One lower jaw.
One os calcis.
Several metacarpal bones.
Ox...... ... Many teeth.
Two lumbar vertebræ.
One femur, and many entire bones of the foot, and
fragments of larger bones. Des
Deer............ One skull, large as the red deer, but of a different species.
Fragments of various horns, some small, others a little
palmated, one approaching to that of the roe.
Many teeth, and fragments of bones.
Rat .............One skeleton, nearly entire, of a small water-rat, or
large field-mouse, probably postdiluvian.
Birds .......... Single bones of small birds, all recent.
Man........ Portion of a female skeleton, clearly postdiluvian.
Fragments of many recent bones of ox and sheep, ap-
parently the remains of human food.
The entire mass through which the bones are dispersed appears
to have been disturbed by ancient diggings, and its antediluvian re-
mains thereby to have become mixed with recent bones and shells ;
the latter of which Mr. Dillwyn has examined, and refers to the fol-
lowing species: buccinum undatum, turbo littoreus, patella vulgata,
trochus crassus, nerita littoralis ; these are all common on the adjacent
shore, and the animals that inhabit them are all eatable. That portion
of the diluvial mass which lies on the east side of the cave (see Plate
Deretter
a

a
a
86
RECENT MARINE SHELLS WITH
XXI. F.) adheres together in a loose breccia, and has been less dis-
turbed than the rest, which it overhangs with a cliff about five feet
high, and extending inwards from F to the interior extremity of the
cave B, where it enters into and covers the floor of the small hole that
terminates the cave. At the point B the recent shells and bones of
birds are most abundant, and the earthy mass containing them is
cemented to a firm breccia by stalagmite; and this is almost the only
point within the cave at which any stalagmite or stalactite occurs.
The two elephants' teeth were found in the small cliff F, at a distance
from the head and tusk, which lay close together in the loose earth E,
at the spot represented in the drawing. The anterior part of the skull,
and the sockets of both the tusks, were found nearly entire, but have
been much broken by removal. They were but slightly covered
with earth, and very tender; the portion of tusk also, being about
two feet long, is so much decayed that the whole of its interior has
crumbled to small angular fragments, so soft as to be cut by the nail,
whilst the outer laminæ alone remain entire, and in the form of a
hollow shell, which is preserved at Penrice; so also are the fragments
that composed great part of the entire skull, and were broken
in extracting them; and another portion of ivory, in which has
been formed an irregular cavity, about two inches in diameter,
similar to those produced by ossific inflammation in recent ivory by
gun-shot wounds, and encircled with concentric laminæ of bony
matter, placed obliquely to the grain of the ivory: it is probably the
effect of a blow or puncture received whilst this part of the tusk
was yet in its pulpy state, and within the socket. No large bones
of the skeleton have as yet been discovered entire; they seem to

ANCIENT AND MODERN BONES.
87
have been destroyed and broken to pieces by repeated diggings.
The other ancient bones also have been much broken, and appear
generally in the state of fragments dispersed irregularly through the
earthy matrix, together with ancient teeth, and fragments of horns,
and with the modern bones and recent shells above enumerated.
None of these remains have any marks of having been gnawed or
rolled, nor have the fragments of limestone, and of calcareous spar
that occur with them, lost much of their angles. Among the horns
I noticed the base of two that are separate from the skull, and ap-
pear to have been cast off by necrosis ; and among the bones was the
entire skull of a deer, from which the horns had been broken off by
violence. In the centre of the cave, and about two feet deep, I found
under and amongst the broken bones of elephant, bear, and other
extinct animals, a portion of the scapula apparently of a sheep, which
had been smoothly cut across as if by a butcher's saw; and, from its
state of preservation, was decidedly not antediluvian. This mixture
of ancient and comparatively modern bones must have arisen from
repeated diggings in the bottom of the cave.
In another part (see Plate XXI.) I discovered beneath a shallow
covering of six inches of earth nearly the entire left side of a human
female skeleton. The skull and vertebræ, and extremities of the
right side were wanting; the remaining parts lay extended in the
usual position of burial, and in their natural order of contact, and
consisted of the humerus, radius, and ulna of the left arm, the hand
being wanting; the left leg and foot entire to the extremity of the
toes, part of the right foot, the pelvis, and many ribs ; in the middle
of the bones of the ancle was a small quantity of yellow wax-like sub-
n
a

88
HUMAN FEMALE SKELETON.
a
stance resembling adipocere. All these bones appeared not to have
been disturbed by the previous operations (whatever they were) that
had removed the other parts of the skeleton. They were all of them
stained superficially with a dark brick-red colour, and enveloped by a
coating of a kind of ruddle, composed of red micaceous oxyde of iron,
which stained the earth, and in some parts extended itself to the
distance of about half an inch around the surface of the bones. The
body must have been entirely surrounded or covered over at the
time of its interment with this red substance. Close to that part of
the thigh bone where the pocket is usually worn, I found laid together,
and surrounded also by ruddle, about two handsfull of small shells
of the nerita littoralis in a state of great decay, and falling to
dust on the slightest pressure. At another part of the skeleton, viz.
in contact with the ribs, I found forty or fifty fragments of small
ivory rods nearly cylindrical, and varying in diameter from a quarter
to three quarters of an inch, and from one to four inches in length.
Their external surface was smooth in a few which were least de-
cayed; but the greater number had undergone the same degree of
decomposition with the large fragments of tusk before mentioned ;
most of them were also split transversely by recent fracture in digging
them out, so that there are no means of knowing what was their
original length, as I found none in which both extremities were un-
broken ; many of them also are split longitudinally by the separation
of their laminæ, which are evidently the laminæ of the large tusk,
from a portion of which they have been made. The surfaces exposed
by this splitting, as well as the outer circumference where it was
smooth, were covered with small clusters of minute and extremely

RODS AND RINGS OF IVORY. SKEWER OF BONE.
.
89
delicate dendrites*; so also was the circumference of some small frag-
ments of rings made of the same ivory, and found with the rods,
being nearly of the size and shape of segments of a small teacup
handle; the rings when complete were probably four or five inches
in diameter. Both rods and rings, as well as the nerite shells, were
stained superficially with red, and lay in the same red substance that
enveloped the bones; they had evidently been buried at the same
time with the woman. In another place were found three fragments
of the same ivory, which had been cut into unmeaning forms by a
rough edged instrument, probably a coarse knife, the marks of which
remain on all their surfaces. One of these fragments is nearly of the
shape and size of a human tongue, and its surface is smooth as if it
had been applied to some use in which it became polished; its sur-
face also is covered with dendrites like that of the rods: there was
found also a rude instrument, resembling a short skewer or chop-
stick, and made of the metacarpal bone of a wolf, sharp and flattened
to an edge at one end, and terminated at the other by the natural
rounded condyle of the bone, which the person who cut it had pro-
bably extracted, as well as the ivory tusk, from the diluvial detritus
within the cave. No metallic instruments have as yet been dis-
covered amongst these remains, which, though clearly not coeval
with the antediluvian bones of the extinct species, appear to have
lain there many centuries.
The charcoal and fragments of recent bone that are apparently
the remains of human food, render it probable that this exposed and
solitary cave has at some time or other been the scene of human ha-
* A superficial stain of oxyde of iron, assuming the form of branches of trees, or
extremely delicate moss; but almost invisibly minute.
N

90
BRITISH CAMP ON THE HILL ABOVE.
a
bitation, if to no other persons, at least to the woman whose bones I
have been describing. The ivory rods and rings, and tongue-shaped
fragment, are certainly made from part of the antediluvian tusks that
lay in the same cave; and as they must have been cut to their pre-
sent shape at a time when the ivory was hard, and not crumbling to
pieces as it is at present on the slightest touch, we may from this
circumstance assume to them a very high antiquity, which is further
confirmed by the decayed state of the shells that lay in contact with
the thigh bone, and, like the rods and rings, must have been buried
with the woman. The wolf's toe bone also was probably reduced to
its present form, and used by her as a pin or skewer, the immediate
neighbourhood being wholly destitute of wood.
The circumstance of the remains of a British camp existing on
the hill immediately above this cave, seems to throw much light on
the character and date of the woman under consideration; and what-
ever may have been her occupation, the vicinity of a camp would
afford a motive for residence, as well as the means of subsistence, in
what is now so exposed and uninviting a solitude. The fragments
of charcoal, and recent bones of oxen, sheep, and pigs, are probably
the remains of culinary operations; the larger shells may have been
collected also for food from the adjacent shore, and the small nerite
shells either have been kept in the pocket for the beauty of their
yellow colour, or have been used, as I am informed by the Rev.
Henry Knight, of Newton Nottage, they now are in that part of
Glamorganshire, in some simple species of game. The ivory rods
also
may
have either been applicable to some game, as we use chess
men or pins on a cribbage-board; or they may be fragments of pins,
such as Sir Richard Hoare has found in the barrows of Wilts and

SIMILAR REMAINS FOUND IN BARROWS.
91
Dorset, together with large bodkins also of ivory, and which were
probably used to fasten together the coarse garments of the ancient
Britons. It is a curious coincidence also, that he has found in a
barrow near Warminster, at Cop Head Hill, the shell of a nerite, and
some ivory beads, which were laid by the skeletons of an infant and
an adult female, apparently its mother *
That ivory rings were at that time used as armlets, is probable
from the circumstance of similar rings having also been found by Sir
Richard Hoare in these same barrows; and from a passage in Strabo,
lib. 4, which Mr. Knight has pointed out to me, in which, speaking
of the small taxes which it was possible to levy on the Britons, he
specifies their imports to be very insignificant, consisting chiefly of
ivory armlets and necklaces, Ligurian stones, glass vessels, and other
such like trifles. The custom of burying with their possessors the
DO
ornaments and chief utensils of the deceased, is evident from the
remains of this kind discovered every where in the ancient barrows;
and this may explain the circumstance of our finding with the bones
of the woman at Paviland the ivory rods, and rings, and nerite shells,
which she had probably made use of during life. I am at a loss to
11000
conjecture what could have been the object of collecting the red
oxyde of iron that seems to have been thrown over the body when
a
ou
* A long and rude shaped pin made of bone, of very high antiquity, being of the
size and length of a large woooden skewer, and very similar to the smaller fragments of
ivory from Paviland, has recently been found on Foxcomb hill, near Oxford; and my
friend the Rev. J. J. Conybeare has discovered a bone bodkin, nearly of the same size,
among the remains of the British or Belgic settlements which he has lately been tracing
out with great success on the flat summits called Charmy Down, Banner Down, Salisbury,
and Claverton Down, in the immediate neighbourhood of Bath. .
a
N 2

92
DATE OF THE HUMAN SKELETON.
a
laid in the grave: it is a substance, however, which occurs abundantly
in the limestone rocks of the neighbourhood.
The disturbed state of the diluvial earth all over the bottom of
the cave, and fractured condition of the ancient bones, may have
been produced by digging in search of more ivory, or to gratify the
curiosity which the discovery of such large and numerous remains
must naturally have excited ; and in the course of these diggings the
antediluvian bones would become mixed with those of modern ani-
mals which had been introduced for food. The preservation of so
large a part of the elephant's tusk may probably have arisen from the
use to which it was destined, and had been in part appropriated in
the making of rods and rings.
From all these circumstances there is reason to conclude, that the
date of these human bones is coeval with that of the military occu-
pation of the adjacent summits, and anterior to, or coeval with, the
Roman invasion of this country.
The above are the most remarkable phenomena in the interior
of this cave. It remains only to describe a long cavernous aperture
that rises like a crooked chimney from its roof to the nearly vertical
face of the rock above: its form and diameter are throughout irre-
gular, the latter being about twelve feet where longest, and in its
narrowest part about three feet; so that it is impossible the large ele-
phant, whose bones were found in the cave below, could have been
drifted down entire through this aperture. It expands and contracts
irregularly from D, its lower extremity in the roof of the cavern, to K,
the point at which it terminates in the face of the cliff. (See Plate XXI.)
Along this tortuous ascent are several lateral cavities, L. L. L., the
a

RECENT BONES IN AN UPPER VAULT.
93
a
a
bottoms of which afford a place of lodgment for a bed of brown earth
about a foot thick, and derived apparently from dust driven in con-
tinually by the wind. In this earth I found the bones of various birds,
of moles, water-rats, mice, and fish, and a few land shells; all these are
clearly the remains of modern animals, and their presence in this almost
inaccessible spot can only be explained by referring the bones of birds,
moles, rats, and mice, to the agency of hawks, and the fish-bones to
that of sea-gulls. The land shells are such as live at present on the
rock without, and may easily have fallen in. Had there been any
stalagmite uniting these bones into a breccia, they would have afforded
a perfect analogy to the accumulation of modern birds' bones, by the
agency of hawks, at Gibraltar; where Major Imrie describes them as
forming a breccia of modern origin in fissures of the same rock which
has other cavities filled with a bony breccia of more ancient date, and
which I shall presently endeavour to show is of the same antediluvian
origin with the older parts of the bones that occur on the floor of the
cave at Paviland.
Whilst exploring this cavern, I was informed by the workmen that
there was another of the same kind about a hundred yards further to
the west ; and proceeding to examine it, I found it to be very similar
to the first, in size, form, and position, and closed on every side with
solid rock, excepting the mouth, which is large and open to the sea ;
its body contracts gradually towards the inner extremity, and upwards
also towards the roof, where it terminates in a vein, that is still filled
with calcareous spar: the cave itself, in fact, seems to be merely an
enlargement of this vein. There is also a similar, but longer and
more narrow, aperture immediately on the east of Goats Hole, the
a

94
TWO OTHER CAVES ADJOINING GOATS HOLE.
а
bottom of which, being on the level of the sea, is almost perpetually
under water. This east cave also is seen to terminate upwards in a
vein of calcareous spar. The floor of the west cave is at its mouth
about thirty feet above the sea, and more horizontal than that of
Goats Hole, and being throughout within reach of the highest storm
waves, is strewed over entirely, to the depth of more than a foot, with
a bed of small sea pebbles. Digging through these, I found beneath
them a bed of the same argillaceous loam and fragments of limestone
as in the Goats Hole, and a still more abundant accumulation of
animal remains. In a short time I collected two baskets' full of the
teeth and bones of ox, horse, deer, and bear; and have reason to
think the entire floor beneath the pebbles is covered with a con-
tinuous mass of the same diluvial earth and fragments of stones, in-
termixed with teeth and bones, and altogether of the same age and
origin with the antediluvian part of those in Goats Hole, the near
position of which renders it probable that both these caves are re-
siduary offshoots or branches of some larger cavern, that has been cut
away by the denudation which formed the present cliffs, and whose
main trunk is now no more; and that by means of this main trunk
they originally had communication with each other, and received at
the same time the animal remains and diluvial detritus that are com-
mon to them both. Their relative position is such, that if both were
prolonged towards the sea they would soon meet, and either become
un con
confluent, or intersect each other.
teine
li The time and manner in which these two caverns received the
antediluvian teeth and bones, and the earthy matter through which
they are dispersed, would not so easily have been ascertained had it

ORIGIN OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN BONES.
95
not been in our power to illustrate them by the analogies of other
caverns now under consideration. From a comparison of these with
the internal evidence afforded at Paviland, it seems nearly certain that
the latter are identical in all the circumstances of their diluvial and
antediluvial phenomena with those of the former ; and that occurring
as they do, in the vertical cliffs that flank the submarine valley which
forms the estuary of the Severn, they are analogous to the caves we
find in the equally vertical and not less lofty cliffs that flank the in-
land valleys of the Avon at Clifton, of the Weissent river at Muggen-
dorf, of the Bode river at Rubeland in the Hartz, and of the Mur at
Peckaw, near Gratz, in Styria ; all being cliffs produced by diluvial
denudation, and all containing, in a nearly vertical precipice, the
mouths of caves which are but the truncated extremities of other
and originally more extensive caverns, which descended from the ante-
diluvian surface, and terminated in the vaults that still remain in
those portions of the rock which have not been washed away by the
diluvial waters, from whose action these cliffs have derived their
origin. By such larger and upper chambers, whose destruction I am
now assuming (and for the proof of which I must refer to the con-
cluding part of this work), the animal remains may either have been
washed in at the same time with the diluvial loam and fragments of
stone, in the midst of which they lie, or have fallen in and perished
in the period immediately preceding the deluge, and been sub-
sequently drifted onwards to their present place in the lowest re-
cesses with which the upper cavities had communication. The detail
of the manner in which this latter process may have taken place has
been already pointed out in my description of the caves at Oreston,

96
GENERAL CONCLUSION AS TO ENGLAND.
near Plymouth. I have as yet found no evidence to show that either
of the caves at Paviland were occupied as antediluvian dens.
In the flat surface of the fields, a quarter of a mile distant inland
а
from the cliff of Paviland, is an open cavern, to which it is possible to
descend only by a ladder, and which, like the open fissure at Dun-
combe Park, contains at its bottom, and in the course of its descent,
the uncovered skeletons of sheep, dogs, foxes, and other modern
animals, that occasionally fall into it and perish. It is needless to
repeat the arguments I have founded on facts of this kind, to show
the manner in which antediluvian animals may have fallen into the
then existing cavities of the limestone rocks, and have supplied the
remains we find in the bony breccia of Gibraltar and Plymouth, and
I may here add also of Paviland.
The above facts are, I think, sufficient to warrant us in concluding,
that in the period we have been speaking of the extinct species of
hyæna, tiger, bear, elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, no less
than the wolves, foxes, horses, oxen, deer, and other animals which
are not distinguishable from existing species, had established them-
selves from one extremity of England to the other, from the caves of
Yorkshire to those of Plymouth and Glamorganshire ; whilst the di-
luvial gravel beds of Warwickshire, Oxford, and London, show that
they were not wanting also in the more central parts of the country;
and M. Cuvier has established, on evidence of a similar nature, the
probability of their having been spread in equal abundance over the
Continent of Europe. But it by no means follows, from the certainty
of the bones having been dragged by beasts of prey into the small
cavern at Kirkdale, that those of similar animals must have been

BONES IN CAVERNS, WHY RARELY DISCOVERED.
97
introduced in all other cases in the same manner; for as all these
animals were the antediluvian inhabitants of the countries in
which the caves occur, it is possible, that some may have retired
into them to die, others have fallen into the fissures by accident
and there perished, and others have been washed in by the diluvial
waters. By some one or more of these three latter hypotheses, we
.
may explain those cases in which the bones are few in number and
not gnawed, the caverns large, and the fissures extending upwards to
the surface; but where they bear marks of having been lacerated by
beasts of prey, and where the cavern is small, and the number of
bones and teeth so great, and so disproportionate to each other as in
the cave at Kirkdale, the only adequate explanation is, that they were
collected by the agency of wild beasts. We shall show hereafter,
that in the case of the German caves, where the quantity of bones is
greater than could have been supplied by ten times the number of
carcases which the caves, if crammed to the full, could ever have
contained at one time, they were derived from bears that lived and
died in them during successive generations.
Although it must appear probable from the facts I have now
advanced, that similar bones abound generally in the caves and
fissures of our limestone districts, we shall yet cease to wonder that
their existence has been so long unnoticed, when we consider the
number of accidental circumstances that must concur to make them
objects of public attention. 1st, The existence of caverns is an acci-
dental occurrence in the interior of the rock, of which the external
surface affords no indication, when the mouth is filled with rubbish,
and overgrown with grass, as it usually is in all places, excepting
O

98
CMAI CONCURRENCE OF ACCIDENTS NECESSARY. W CMOS
.
cliffs and the face of stone quarries. 2d, The presence of bones is
another accident, though probably not an uncommon one in those
cavities which were accessible to the wild animals, either falling in,
or entering spontaneously, or being dragged in by beasts of prey,
in the period immediately preceding the deluge. 3d, A further re-
quisite is, the intersection of one of these cavities, in which there
happen to be bones, by a third accident, viz. the working of a stone
quarry, by men who happen to have sufficient curiosity or intelligence
to notice and speak of what they find, and this to persons who also
happen to be willing or able to appreciate and give publicity to the
discovery. The necessary concurrence of all these complicated con-
tingencies renders it probable, that however great may be the number
of subterraneous caverns, in an inland country, very few of them will
ever be discovered, or if discovered, be duly appreciated. Those I
have mentioned in Yorkshire, Devon, Somerset, Derby, and Glamor-
ganshire, were all laid open, with the exception of the caves at Pavi-
land, by the accidental operations of a quarry or mine. to be
Одоо
Splona

BONES IN GERMAN CAVES COEVAL WITH THOSE IN ENGLAND. 99
ar nerod B200053
shoto
dador
CAVES OF GERMANY.
We may now proceed to consider how far the circumstances of
the caves we have been examining in England appear consistent with
those of analogous caverns in other parts of the world. The history of
the diluvian gravel of the Continent, and of the animal remains con-
tained in it, appears altogether identical with that of those in our own
country; and with respect to the bones that occur in caverns, the chief
difference seems to be, that on the Continent some of the caves have
their mouths still open, and have been inhabited also in the post-dilu-
vian period by animals of existing species. Thus at Gailenreuth the
great extinct bear (Ursus spelæus) occurs, together with the Yorkshire
species of extinct hyæna, in a cave, the mouth of which has no appear-
ance of having ever been closed, and which at this moment would,
probably, have been tenanted by wild beasts, had not the progress of
human population extirpated them from that part of Germany.
For the best existing accounts of the cavern at Gailenreuth, which
I have twice visited in 1816 and 1822, and of which, in Plate XVII.
I have given a sectional representation, I must refer to Esper's
“ Description des Zoolithes et des Cavernes dans le Margraviat de
Bareuth,” fol. 1774, with fourteen plates of the bones of bears and
hyænas; and to the work of Rosenmuller, published at Weimar in
1804, in folio, with engravings of almost all the bones composing the
skeleton of the extinct bear, the size of which approached nearly to
02

100
ELEPHANT AND RHINOCEROS COEVAL WITH BEAR.
a
that of a large horse. M. Goldfuss also in his Taschenbuch has given
a general description of all the most important caves that occur in the
neighbourhood of Muggendorf; and Leibnitz in his Protogæa, and
De Luc in vol. 4 of his Lettres Physiques et Morales, have given
considerable details as to the interior of the most important caverns
in the Hartz.
M. Rosenmuller says he has never seen the remains of the elephant
and rhinoceros in the same cavern with those of bears; but that
he has found the bones of wolves, foxes, horses, mules, oxen, sheep,
stags, roebucks, badgers, dogs, and men *; and that the number of
all these is very small in proportion to that of the bears. The bones of
all kinds occur in scattered fragments; one entire skeleton only of the
Ursus spelæus is said to have been found by Bruckmann, in a cave in
the Carpathians, and to have been sent to Dresdent. He adds, that
the different state of these bones shows that they were introduced at
different periods, and that those of all the animals last enumerated,
including man, are in much higher preservation than those of the
bears and hyænas.
Thus it appears that the bones which are in most perfect pre-
servation, and belong to existing species, have been introduced during
the post-diluvian period; whilst the extinct bears and hyænas are
referable to the antediluvian state of the earth. In corroboration of
* Mr. Esper has found in the cave of Gailenreuth many fragments of sepulchral
urns, which from their form were probably made at least 800 years ago : they were of four
kinds, and some of them must have been two feet in diameter, others much smaller.
+ Being at Dresden myself in 1822, I ascertained that no such skeleton exists
at present in the royal collection in that city, although there are magnificent specimens
in it of heads and single bones of the fossil bears and fossil elephants.

DISPOSITION ON THE BONES IN GERMAN CAVES.
101
this, I found in 1820, in the collection of the Monastery of Krems-
minster, near Steyer, in Upper Austria, skulls and bones of the Ursus
spelæus in consolidated beds of diluvial gravel, forming a pudding-
stone, and dug for building near the monastery. M. Cuvier men-
tions the occurrence of teeth, supposed to be those of bears, with the
remains of elephant, rhinoceros, and hyæna, in the diluvium near
Canstadt, on the Necker; and Mr. Pentland has discovered in Italy
the remains of bears mixed with the bones of hyæna, elephant, and
rhinoceros in the diluvium of the Val d'Arno. Hence it appears that
these bears lived with the elephant and rhinoceros in the period im-
mediately preceding the formation of the diluvium; and the same
thing has been already shown of the extinct hyæna in the gravel of
France, Germany, and England.
M. Rosenmuller states that in all the caverns he has examined, the
bones are disposed nearly after the same manner; sometimes scattered
separately, and sometimes accumulated in beds and heaps of many
feet in thickness; they are found every where, from the entrance to
the deepest and most secret recesses; never in entire skeletons, but
single bones mixed confusedly from all parts of the body, and animals
of all ages. The skulls are generally in the lowest part of the beds of
bone, having from their form and weight sunk or rolled downwards,
through the longer and lighter bones, during the agitation to which
they have been submitted; the lower jaws are rarely found in contact
with or near to the upper ones, as would follow from the fact last
mentioned*. He adds, that they are often buried in a brown
* At Kirkdale, not one skull, and few, if any, of the larger bones, are found entire;
for these had all been broken up by the hyænas to extract the brains and marrow; and
in their strong and worn out teeth we see the instruments by which they were thus

102 STATE OF PRESERVATION OF BONES IN GERMAN CAVES.
argillaceous or marly earth, as in the cases of Gailenreuth, Zahnloch,
and in the Hartz, and that some of this earth, from an analysis by
M. Frischman, was found to contain a large proportion of animal
matter.
In the caves of Gailenreuth and Mockas, a large proportion of
the bones is invested with stalactite. Even entire beds, and heaps
of them many feet thick, are sometimes cemented together by it, so as
to form a compact breccia, but they are never found in the substance of
the rock itself. At Sharzfeld and in the Carpathians, they are some-
times enveloped with agaric mineral (lac lunæ); they have undergone
no alteration of form, but the larger bones are generally separated
from their epiphyses. Their usual colour is yellowish white, but
brown where they have lain in dark-coloured earth, as at Lichten-
stein. At Mockas their degree of decay is by far the greatest ;
even the enamel of the teeth is far gone, and the bones are perfectly
white, having lost all their animal gluten, and acquired the softness
and spongy appearance, as well as colour, of calcined bones ; still
their form is perfect, and substance inflexible, and, when struck, they
ring like metallic bodies falling to the ground. These retain
simply their phosphate of lime. In other caverns they are usually
less decayed, but they sometimes exfoliate and crack on exposure to
air, and the teeth, particularly, are apt to split and fall to pieces, as
are also those at Kirkdale *
destroyed. The bears, on the other hand, not being exclusively carnivorous, nor having
teeth fitted for the cracking large bones, have left untouched the osseous remains of
their own species.
* It is mentioned as a curious accident, that of five caves in the calcareous hills,
near Muggendorf, that flank the valley of the Weisent-stream, three on the north chain
contain not a fragment of any bones, while two on the south side are full of them. This

EVAD BEARS LIVED AND DIED IN THE CAVES.
103
M. Rosenmuller is decidedly of opinion with M. Cuvier, that the
bears' bones are the remains of animals which lived and died through
successive generations in the caves in which we find them; nay,
even that they were also born in the same caves; in proof of which
he has found some bones of a bear, so small, that it must have died
immediately after its birth, and other bones of individuals that must
have died in early life, like the young hyænas which have been found
at Kirkdale: and M. Blumenbach expresses precisely the same
opinion in his first Specimen Archæologiæ Telluris, p. 14.
“ Utut interim sit, speluncarum istarum ratione et ossium ursi-
norum in iisdem situ persuasus sum, ea, neque ut quorundam ferebat
opinio ab hominibus illic illata, neque quæ aliorum sententia fuit
a diluvio illuta esse, sed quod et Cl. De Luc asserit, ipsos istos specus
harum ferarum nativos quondam recessus et postmodum sepulchretum
fuisse.”
The above description of the cave at Gailenreuth, extracted prin-
cipally from Rosenmuller, and confirmed by my own observations on the
spot, may be taken as an example of the general state of the bones in
the other caves on the Continent, of which it is superfluous here to say
any thing more than to subjoin a list of the most important of them,
may probably be explained by supposing the mouths of the former to have been closed
and inaccessible in the antediluvian period, and afterwards laid open by denudation. In
the adjacent valley of the Esback, at the castle of Rabenstein, they occur in caves on
both sides of a similar valley of denudation; and even admitting them to have been all
open and accessible in the period above alluded to, it does not follow that they would all
have been equally tenanted by bears, whose gregarious habits would lead them to prefer
a frequented den to a solitary one; and this predilection, acting through successive
generations, would accumulate the bones of hundreds or thousands in one cave, by the
side of another which may have remained all the while almost wholly unoccupied.

104
EXTENT OF CAVES ON THE CONTINENT.
а.
and refer to M. Cuvier's Animaux fossiles, for further details taken
from the authors by whom these caves have been described.
The caves alluded to are as follows:
1. That of Scharzfeld, in Hanover, in the south border of the
Hartz, described by Leibnitz, De Luc, and Bruckmann.
Behrens, in his Hercynia Curiosa, speaks of several more in the
neighbourhood of the Hartz; from most of these the bones were
collected during a long course of years, and sold for their imaginary
medicinal virtues, as the bones of the Licorne, or fossil Unicorn, of
which a most absurd drawing is given by Leibnitz in his Protogæa.
2. That of Bauman, in the county of Blankenberg, in Brunswick,
on the east border of the Hartz forest, and described by Leibnitz and
De Luc.
3. The caves that next attracted attention were those of the Car-
pathians, and the bones found in them were at first known by the
name of dragons' bones, and have been described by Hayne and
Bruckmann.
4. But the most richly furnished are the Caves of Franconia,
described by Esper and Rosenmuller, near the sources of the Mayn,
between Nurenburg, Bamberg, and Bayreuth, in the vicinity of
Muggendorf, and known by the names of Gailenreuth, Mockas,
Zahnloch, Zewig, Rabenstein, Schneiderlock, and Kühloch.
5. A fifth locality occurs at Glücksbrun and Leibenstein, near
Meinungen, on the south-west border of the Thuringerwald.
6. And a sixth in Westphalia, at Kluterhoehle and Sundwick, in
the country of Mark. An account of these is shortly to be published
by Professor Goldfuss and Mr. A. L. Sack, of Bonn.
a

GRAMINIVOROUS ANIMALS RARELY FOUND IN BEARS' CAVES.
105
a
M. Cuvier states, that the bones found in these caverns are iden-
tical over an extent of more than 200 leagues; that three-fourths of
the whole belong to two species of bear, both extinct; the ursus
spelæus and ursus arctoideus *, and two-thirds of the remainder
to extinct hyænas t; a very few to a large species of the cat family,
being neither a lion, tiger, panther, or leopard, but most resembling
the jaguar of South America: with them is found a species of
glutton, and a wolf or dog (not distinguishable from a recent species),
a fox, and polecat.
It has been said, that in the caves thus occupied, there occur no
remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, ox, tapir, or any of the
ruminantia or rodentia, and in this respect they differ materially
from that of Yorkshire; but such variation is consistent with the
different habits of bears and hyænas, arising from the different
structure of their teeth and general organization; from which it
follows that bears prefer vegetable to animal food; and, when driven
a
* I found in the collection of M. Soemmering, whom I visited at Frankfort in 1822,
the head of a third species of bear, from the cave of Guilenreuth, scarcely distinguish-
able from the head of a common brown bear from North America, which he had
placed by the side of it for comparison. He had the kindness to lend it me, that I
might convey it to M. Cuvier at Paris. It was much calcined, and appeared to be of the
same age with the bones of the extinct species. This head has been since described by
M. Cuvier in the 4th vol. of his new edition, p. 356, with engravings of it at plate 27,
fig. 5 and 6, of the same volume. Though it approaches so closely to the brown bear,
there are points in which it differs from it; and it is on this variation that M. Cuvier rests
his opinion, that it is a third species of fossil bear, till now unnoticed, and differing from
any existing species of that genus. M. Soemmering has called it the Ursus Priscus.
+ I am disposed to think that this proportion, as it relates to the hyænas, is too
large; for in visiting all the caverns, as well as several collections of bones taken from
them, in Germany, I could find very few fragments of teeth or bones of the hyæna,
amidst hundreds which belonged to bears.
P

106
CASES WHERE THEY HAVE BEEN SO FOUND.
to the latter, prefer sucking the blood to eating the flesh, whilst
hyænas are beyond all other beasts addicted to eating bones.
From this circumstance it is indeed probable, that in the caves
inhabited chiefly by bears, the bones of other animals should be
extremely rare; they are not, however, wholly wanting. M. De Luc
(Lettres, vol. iv. p. 588) mentions that the remains of rhinoceros have
been found in the cave of Scharzfeld, and ascertained by Professor
Hollman, of Göttingen, to belong to that animal; and M. Soemmer-
ing informed me, that he is assured of the fact, having seen the tooth
of the animal here alluded to in Hollman's collection at Göttingen:
an account of it is given by Hollman in the Comment: Göttingens:
M. Esper also mentions, that bones of elephants have been found by
M. Frischmann in the cave of Schneiderloch; and speaking of Zahn-
loch, his words are, “On a trouvé ici des morceaux des dents d'elephant,
a
ce que les fragmens prouvent incontestablement, la forme, la croiss-
ance, la structure interne, et en général tous les characteres, mettent
hors de doute la réalité de cette production.” And Mr. Sack, of
Bonn, whom I have before quoted, has found in the cave of Sund-
wick, within the last two years, the molar teeth and foot bones of
the rhinoceros, and the horns, jaws, and other bones of deer, in the
same cave with the remains of the hyæna, glutton, and two extinct
species of bear; they have moreover the marks of teeth on them, and
their softer parts and condyles have been gnawed off. Hence it
follows, that graminivorous animals occur, though rarely, in the caves
of Germany; and they may either have been washed in together
with the diluvial loam and pebbles, or have been dragged in for prey
by the few hyænas that occasionally intruded. That the elephant

ELEPHANT AND RHINOCEROS IN GRAVEL, NEAR THE CAVES. 107
and rhinoceros lived in the neighbourhood of these caves, in the
period immediately preceding the formation of the diluvium, is
probable, from the abundant occurrence in it of the bones of both
these animals near the caves of Scharzfeld, in the Hartz, and of
Altenstein, in Saxe Meinungen, mentioned by Blumenbach. (Ar-
chæologia Telluris, Part I. p. 13 and 15.) We shall hereafter see
that carnivorous animals have been found recently in vertical fissures,
as well as in the caves.
Professor Hollman, in the Commentar: Göttingens: for 1752,
T. II. p. 215, has published an account of many baskets full of these
large bones, which were discovered 70 years ago, in marl pits
(i. e. diluvial loam), at the village of Horden, near Herzberg, and
within six miles of the cave of Scharzfeld, and sent to Göttingen;
amongst them were portions of five skeletons of rhinoceros; and I
have already mentioned another discovery of the bones of elephant,
rhinoceros, and hyæna, made in 1808, in the same neighbourhood of
Herzberg, between Osterode and Dorst; they were also embedded in
diluvial marl, and are described by Professor Blumenbach, in Part II.
of his Archæologia Telluris. The facts of the same extinct species of
hyæna, being common to the caves and gravel of France, Germany,
and England, and of bears occurring in the diluvial gravel of Upper
Austria, Wirtemberg, and Italy, prove both these animals to have
been the antediluvian contemporaries of the extinct elephant and
rhinoceros; there is, therefore, no anachronism in finding the remains
of the two latter in dens that were occasionally inhabited by the
hyænas and bears.
P 2

108
HARMONY OF GERMAN AND ENGLISH CAVES.
EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN THE CAVES AND FISSURES
OF GERMANY.
I come now to consider, what is the evidence of diluvial action
afforded by these caverns, and how far it is analogous to that which
we find in the caves of our own country; and having made it my busi-
ness during the summer of 1822 to visit Germany, for the purpose
of
investigating this important question, I shall now proceed to show by
a detailed description and drawings of the interior of those among them
which are most remarkable for containing bones, that there prevails
throughout them all, in comparing them with each other, as well as
with those in England, a harmony of circumstances exceeding what
my fullest expectations would have anticipated; all tending to esta-
blish the important conclusion of their having been once and once
only submitted to the action of a deluge, and that this event happened
since the period in which they were inhabited by the wild beasts.
In every cave I examined, I found a similar deposit of mud or sand,
sometimes with and sometimes without an admixture of rolled pebbles
and angular fragments of rock, and having its surface more or less
abundantly covered over with a single crust of stalagmite; and in
those among them, which had been inhabited as dens before the intro-
duction of the mud and pebbles, the latter are always superinduced
upon the remains of the wild beasts.
I had, indeed, in my first paper on Kirkdale, extracted the same
conclusion from descriptions given by De Luc, Esper, Leibnitz, and
other writers; parts of which I have subjoined in the note annexed.
a

MUD OR LOAM IN ALL THE GERMAN CAVES.
109
But they had, many of them, overlooked the fact of the occurrence of
pebbles in the earthy sediment, and the no less important feature of
there being but one stalagmitic crust incumbent upon the mud ; and
they had ventured to offer no reasonable conjecture, as to the time or
manner of the introduction of these earthy materials, or their re-
lations to the period in which the caverns were inhabited ; these
desiderata I am now enabled to supply on my own authority, having
conducted my observations with a careful regard to a comparison of
the phenomena of these caverns, with those that occur in England *.
The caverns themselves are composed of a succession of vaulted
chambers, communicating with each other by long and narrow pass-
ages, ascending and descending irregularly through limestone rocks
--
* De Luc has described in the following words, the matrix in which the bones are
lodged in the cave, at Scharzfeld : “Le fait est donc simplement, que le sol de ces
caverns est d'une terre calcaire, qu'en creusant cette couche molle, on en tire quantité de
fragmens d'os, et qu'il s'y trouve aussi des concrétions pierreuses qui renferment des os.”—
De Luc, Lettres, Vol. IV. p. 590.
Leibnitz, also, in his description of this cavern, has the following passage to the same
purpose, “ Limo nigricante vel fusco infectum est solum.”—Leibnitz, Protogæa, p. 65.
Esper thus describes the state of the floor near the entrance of one of the largest
caverns at Gailenreuth. “ Dans toute la contrée, le terrain est marneux, mêlé avec du
limon, et tire sur le jaune, mais ici on trouve une terre moins limoneuse dans une profon-
deur considerable.”—Esper, p. 9.
Rosenmuller, speaking generally of the same subject, says, “ Ces fragmens se
trouvent assez souvent déposés dans une terre brunâtre argileuse ou marneuse, comme
dans les cavernes près de Gailenreuth au Zahnloch, et dans les cavernes du Hartz.” It
is also stated, that a sediment of mud was found on the sides and floor of a cave, at
Glucksbrun, in the Thuringerwald, near Meinungen, when it was newly opened in cutting
a road in 1799; and that in other caverns also there is mud. In all the above quotations,
the fact of the mud is clearly stated, but no satisfactory attempt is made to offer any ex-
planation as to its origin. My own observations in 1822 enable me now to speak with
more confidence and precision on this subject than I could do on the authority of
others.
-
a

110
GENERAL STATE OF THE FLOOR, AND POSITION
:
than once.
of various ages and formations. The general state of their interior is
nearly as follows. 1. The first thing we see on entering them is
an irregular carpet or false floor of stalagmite: this has been much
broken, and almost wholly destroyed, in those which have been ran-
sacked for centuries in search of bones ; but in the newly discovered
caves, and in others, which, containing but few bones, have not been
broken up, its extent is great, and sometimes total. 2. Between
this crust, and the actual floor of native rock, there is usually a bed
of loam cr diluvial mud, interspersed with rolled pebbles, angular
stones, and bones, and varying in thickness from a few inches to
20 or 30 feet; there is no alternation of the mud or pebbles, with
any second or third general crust of stalagmite, nor any thing to
indicate that the cause which introduced them has operated more
3. Beneath this mud, we arrive at the native rock, or
actual floor of the den, the surface of which is very uneven, and
sometimes polished, as if by the trampling of its antediluvian in-
habitants.
In those caverns, which appear to have been occupied as dens of
wild beasts, before the introduction of the mud, the quantity of
bones contained in the uppermost chambers is comparatively small ;
but, as we descend deeper, we find them more and more abun-
dant, till, at length, in the lower vaultings, or cellarage, they are
accumulated in enormous heaps, and the vaults themselves become
filled and entirely choked up with a congeries of bones, pebbles, an-
gular stones, and mud, piled confusedly together. In many portions
of this mass the earth is loose, and the bones may easily be extracted;
in other parts it is consolidated by stalagmitic infiltrations into a hard
а

OF THE BONES, MUD, AND PEBBLES, IN CAVES NEAR SPA. 111
osseous breccia, resembling that of Gibraltar, and along the shores of
the Mediterranean, but not so red. It resembles it also in being full
of irregular cells, and of small veins, that are lined internally with a
thin pellicle of stalagmite. In this breccia of the under vaultings
artificial holes, or small galleries, have been dug to extract the bones ;
and of these only it is true that the roof and sides, as well as the
floor, have bones adhering to them : in the natural chambers there is
not a single fragment of bone, except upon the floor.
These general observations apply to the caves and fissures near
Spa, as well as to those in the Hartz Forest and Franconia, and it
will be convenient to begin my more detailed account of them with
those cases that are most simple.
I. CAVES NEAR SPA.
In the transition limestone which occurs in the neighbourhood
of Spa, at Theux, and Verviers, I found numerous vertical fissures
extending upwards to the surface, and often communicating laterally
with other fissures and with small caverns. All these fissures were
filled entirely, and the caverns partially, with a mass of diluvial mud
and rolled pebbles. Amongst the latter were chalk, flints, and many
varieties of quartz and slate rocks. The mud in some of the larger
fissures abounds with ochreous concretions, formed stalagmitically
since its introduction to its present vertical position ; and like that in
the cave near Wirksworth, illustrates the history of the ochre I have
before mentioned, as having been worked in a similar fissure con-
;

112
BESTE
CAVES IN WESTPHALIA.
a
taining antediluvian bones of elephants, &c. at Hutton, in the Mendip
Hills. In the caverns near Theux, I found a crust of stalagmite
covering the mud; and above this stalagmite some bones of modern
animals, e. g. chicken, fox, dog, and sheep: the mud beneath the
stalagmite has not been examined, but I could obtain no intelligence
of bones having been as yet discovered in it. In this district there
are other large caves near Spa and Verviers, which I had not time to
visit, but which deserve examination, with a view to the discovery of
bones beneath their stalagmitic floor *
a
SII
II. CAVES IN WESTPHALIA.
I had no opportunity to visit the caves of Klüterhoëhle and
Sundwick, in Westphalia, but I was informed that they occur in the
same transition limestone as those of Verviers and Theux; and in
the Museum of the University of Bonn, I found magnificent heads
* The manner in which these fissures are filled up to the surface of the soil is pre-
cisely similar to that of the mud veins, or dykes, which I have already described as oc-
curring in the limestone rock at Chudleigh, and to those dykes which Mr. Strangways
(in the 5th vol. of the Geol. Trans. Plate 26) has represented as occurring in vertical
fissures of transition limestone on the banks of the Pulcovca, near Petersburg, and as
being filled with diluvial gravel, containing boulders of granite, such as are scattered over
the surface of all that country: these dykes have immediate communication with a bed
of the same diluvium, also containing granite boulders, and reposing on the surface of the
limestone in which the fissures occur.
It is probable that the observation of dykes, or veins, of this kind, so evidently filled
by substances poured in from above, suggested to Werner the erroneous idea, that
basaltic and metallic veins also had been filled by materials introduced from above in a
similar manner.

CAVE OF SCHARZFELD. ENTRANCE BY A FISSURE.
113
of the fossil bear, tiger, and glutton, collected from thence. These
heads have been recently described, with excellent engravings by
Professor Goldfuss, in the Nova Acta Naturæ Curiosorum, v. 10, and
are precisely of the same species with those found in the caverns of
England, the Hartz Forest, and Franconia. I have already men-
tioned that further accounts of the Westphalian caves are in pre-
paration by Professor Goldfuss, and M. A. L. Sack, of Bonn.
III. CAVE OF SCHARZFELD.
The next caverns I examined were those of Scharzfeld, near
Herzberg, in Hanover, on the west border of the Hartz Forest, not
far from Göttingen. The rock in which these caves occur is mag-
nesian limestone, of the same age with the limestone of Sunderland,
in England, and being the first floetz limestone of Werner; occasion-
ally it is very cellular, and abounds in fissures and caverns. The
position of the great cave containing the bones is at an elevation of
at least 500 feet above the nearest river, and in the centre of one of
the many wooded ridges which connect the higher mountains of the
Hartz with the plain, and are separated from each other by deep
valleys of denudation.
The entrance to this cave is not, as usually happens, in the side
of a rocky cliff or precipice, but by an open fissure, placed like a well,
in the surface of a plain field, and communicating directly downwards
by a steep but practicable descent on ledges of rock into the body of
the cave. (See Plate XIV. A, and explanation.) This fissure may
Q

114
CAVE OF SCHARZFELD-STATE OF THE FLOOR.
a
have been the actual aperture by which the animals came in and out
whilst the cave was inhabited, and by which also the mud and peb-
bles that occur below were drifted in. Descending by it, we find
ourselves in a long and lofty cavern, terminated at one extremity by
the fissure just mentioned, and proceeding in the opposite direction
to a great distance into the body of the hill. It has several lateral
communications and connecting passages, for a detailed description
of which I refer my readers to De Luc's Letters, vol. 4. The point
to which I wish, at present, to direct their attention, is the state of
the floor and position of the bones.
- The floor appears to have been at one time covered in many
places with a crust of stalagmite, of which there are a few traces still
remaining, but the greater part has been destroyed by visitors con-
tinually digging into the subjacent mud in search of bones. In my
drawing (see Plate XIV. c) this crust is restored to the state in which
it probably existed when the first diggings began to be made in it;
at present we see little more than a bed of mud and pebbles, and
broken fragments of stalagmite, covering the bottom of the cave, and
interspersed with teeth of bears and other animals, and fragments of
bones. In some parts of the floor, holes like that at E have been
dug through this bed of mud to the limestone rock below, for the
purpose of collecting bones; in other parts the natural rock projects
above the surface of the mud, and is without any stalagmite. The
general appearance of the whole corresponds with the description
given of it by Gottschalk in his Guide for the Hartz : “ the bottom is
almost every where covered with a fine loose earth, full of broken
bones.”
:

a
a
UNDER VAULTINGS FILLED WITH MUD AND BONES.
115
Along the edges of this floor are seen a number of smaller
caverns, which pass off from the main chamber to various distances
in the body of the rock; the bottom of these is filled also with the
same materials that cover the floor of the great chamber. Beneath
the latter are also numerous undervaultings, and small branching
catacombs of irregular shape; (see H. 1;) some terminating in a cul
de sac, others communicating by a lateral aperture with some ad-
jacent cavity, which again has further communications either with
the main chamber above, or with other smaller ones below, so that
the rock is intersected and undermined like an irregular mass of
honeycomb. These undervaultings have for the most part been en-
tirely filled up, as at 1, with a mass of brown earth, or diluvial loam,
,
through which, as their matrix, are disseminated enormous quantities
of broken bones, teeth, angular fragments and pebbles of limestone.
In the cavities thus choked up there is no room for any stalagmitic
crust, as there is no expanded surface over which it could be spread.
The mass which fills them, however, is in some parts firmly cemented
together by stalagmitic infiltrations of calc sinter; more frequently
the mud is semi-indurated, spungy, and cellular, and may be readily
cut with a knife; in other parts it is quite soft and loose, and the
bones and pebbles are simply imbedded in it.
These lower vaults have in no case that I could find been laid
open to their full extent, but are still choked up below with matter
of the nature above described, and would no doubt richly repay the
labour of any person who has leisure to explore them. The excava-
tions that have been made in them have produced small artificial
caverns, the sides and roof of which are crowded with, and sometimes
.
Q 2

116
NO BONES IN THE ROOF OR SIDES, ABOVE THE MUD.
in great part made up of bones ; (see Plate XIV. ;) but not a particle
of bone occurs adhering to the roof or sides of the great chamber (B)
er?
above the level of its floor *. Id etib yorld wollor to atishi
There are several artificial excavations similar to that represented
at n, in one of which I found the head of a large bear, from which
the upper part of the skull had been broken off, and a pebble lay im-
bedded in mud in the cavity of the skull t. Close to it was an under
jaw, (possibly of the same animal,) and both were surrounded with
mud, pebbles, and bones, the latter exceeding in proportion both the
former: they were so firmly packed together, that with a small ham-
mer and chisel, I could advance but slowly in extracting them; but,
with proper instruments, cart-loads of bones might easily be obtained.
Whilst working on this mass, I could not help imagining that I was
in the cavernous fissure at Plymouth, so precisely analogous were all
the circumstances before me to those I had there witnessed, as to the
manner and matrix in which the bones were packed together, and
the difficulty of unpacking without destroying them. Their state of
a
the
a
TH
son
* I dwell more on this circumstance than I should have otherwise thought neces-
sary, because preceding writers on this subject have overlooked the important distinc-
tion I am now drawing, and have stated the occurrence of bones in the roof and sides
in such general terms, that persons who have not themselves carefully inspected the
caverns with a view to this particular point may conclude from their descriptions that
the bones are found indiscriminately adhering to the sides and roof of the upper cham-
bers, as well as of the lower vaults, which is not the fact.
+ In another skull from this cave, which was given me by Professor Blumenbach,
the cavities of the brain and nose are entirely filled up with the same kind of brown mud:
and in a third which I found at Gailenreuth, the cavity of the brain contains half a dozen
fragments of stone cemented together by calc sinter. These specimens I have deposited
wa
in the Museum at Oxford, together with a complete series of bones, &c.; illustrating all i
the most important phenomena mentioned in this work, as occurring in the ca
the caves of
Germany, as well as in those of England.
odt at both SH or to robrod jase-ridon erit mo abotgaidi, to
a

QUM HT CAVE OF BAUMANS HÖHLE. I cuva on
117
a
, nor
preservation also is nearly the same, being less perfect than is usual
in the other caves of Germany and England. Instead of the ordinary
white or yellow, they are of a dingy brown colour approaching to
black; and whilst wet may be readily crushed to a dark earth-like
powder, which I presume to be the black earth said by many writers
І
to abound in this cavern, but of which I could neither here,
in any other cave, excepting that of Kühloch, near
of dis-
cover any further traces, though I looked for it very carefully in every
over
direction. The circumstances of this exception are very peculiar,
and will presently be described. The looseness of the earth in which
the bones are for the most part embedded, both at Scharzfeld
and Plymouth, and the comparatively small quantity of stalagmite
that accompanies them, may explain the cause of their greater
state of decay than is usual where the mud is more argillaceous,
or the incrustation of each individual bone with stalagmite more
complete. tagot bozos 29 noddy Horn
10 st altrobal
Tidt for gaiyouzob brow gaizdomu to voli
2000rt grid IV. CAVE OF BAUMANS HÖHLE.
ordeb tartom od
OD 1337
Builson
This celebrated and much frequented cave, or suite of caverns,
?
ad
has already been described by Leibnitz in his Protegæa. It de-
rived its name from an unfortunate miner, who, in the year 1670,
ventured alone to explore its recesses in search of ore; and after
having wandered three days and nights in total solitude and dark-
length found his way out in a state of such complete exhaus-
tion, that he died almost immediately. It lies in a bed of transition
limestone at the village of Rubeland, about two miles below the town
of Elbingrode, on the north-east border of the Hartz, and in the
more
ness, at
a
a

118
MOUTH IN A NEARLY VERTICAL CLIFF.
a
L
country of Blankenburg; its relative position to the nearest river is
low when compared with Scharzfeld, being at an elevation of about
100 feet above the bed of the Bode; this, however, is sufficient to
assure us, that it is quite impossible to attribute the pebbles and
mud within this cave to any floods of that river, which could not rise
ten feet without destroying the adjacent village of Rubeland. Above
this village is seen the present entrance of the cave, in a nearly per-
pendicular cliff, which forms the left side of a deep gorge, through
which the river runs, and which is similar to that through which the
Avon passes at Clifton. (See Plate XV. L.) The breadth of this gorge
varies from 100 to 300 feet, its depth is about 150; the rocks on both
sides of it are nearly precipitous. In the drawing the scale is falsified
as to breadth, for the sake of getting room*.
The present entrance (see Plate XV.) is by the aperture A into a
low flat cavern, 15 feet broad, and five feet high ; the outer extremity
of which is in the truncated face of the cliff, whilst within, it descends
rapidly to the broad and lofty chamber B. The form of this chamber
is irregularly oblong, varying from 30 to 50 feet in diameter, and
from 10 to 20 in height, and affording some of the most grand and
picturesque features of cave scenery. The floor of this cave resembles
in all its circumstances that of the great cave at Scharzfeld, with the
addition of several large masses of rock (see o, o) that have fallen
* This gorge is simply a valley of denudation, produced (like hundreds which I
could mention in compact limestone countries) by the force of the diluvian waters. The
dotted line n (Plate XV.) represents the manner in which the two sides were probably
connected before the excavation of the gorge, and m the probable continuity of the pre-
sent mouth of the cave A to the then existing surface. As I shall hereafter consider the
evidence geology affords of the formation of such valleys by the diluvian waters, I at pre-
sent beg those of my readers to whom this subject is new to allow the fact to be assumed
in the case immediately before us.

BONES CRUSHED AND POUNDED BY LARGE PEBBLES. 119
E,
from the roof, and stand high above the surface of the mud and
broken stalagmite, which is represented as restored at c. From the
great cave B, we descend by the passage p to the hollow vault the
lower half of which contains beneath a thick crust of stalagmite, an
accumulation of several feet of mud or sand mixed with bones, and
extremely large pebbles of transition limestone; the mud and peb-
bles have been separated from each other, and drifted to different
parts of this vault. The bones which lie in the mud and sand are
not much broken, and about 30 years ago some very entire ones were
extracted from it, and sent to the Museum at Brunswick; but those
which occur among the pebbles are more than usually fractured, and
some of them stamped or pounded, as if in a mortar, into hundreds
of small splinters, which adhere by stalagmite to the surface of some
of the largest pebbles: none of them, however, have lost their angles,
or are in any way rounded; but they are simply broken or crushed
when in juxta-position to the heavy pebbles, which are more abun-
dant and larger here than in any other part of this, or indeed of any
cavern I have yet visited.
It follows from these facts, that the pebbles could not have
received their actual state of perfect roundness by violent agitation
of water within the cave itself, as in this case the bones also would
either have been reduced to pebbles, or totally destroyed; they
were probably, therefore, rounded before they reached their pre-
sent place, being derived from the limestone rocks of the adjacent
country, and drifted in by the mouth A and its prolongative M, whilst
the valley I was in the act of being excavated. Thus introduced,
they might have passed downwards across the cavern B to the vault E,
A

120
INNER PARTS OF BAUMANS HÖHLE.
1
where the rock r would form an impediment to their further
progress; many bones that lay in the great cave B would pass for-
ward with these pebbles into E, and others may have already been
laid there; in either case, a rapid movement of the large pebbles
must have been necessary to crush to pieces the large and strong
bones, whose sharp and angular splinters now adhere to them.
Their state again is totally different from that of the splinters in the
den at Kirkdale, which latter are as obviously the effect of fracture
by the hyænas' teeth, as the former are of a violently crushing blow,
imparted by a heavy mass of stone. These splinters, as well as the
less injured bones that lie among the pebbles, are held together by
stalagmite, by which they adhere to, and form with the pebbles
a strong breccia; their preservation from decay is complete, and
their colour that of natural bone, or light cream colour.
Within the vault E, the rock F rises almost suddenly about 20
feet, and must be crossed by ladders; on the further side of it, we
descend again a considerable distance by a lofty and rugged aperture g,
to the lower cavern h, from the roof and sides of which there ascend
other passages resembling K, which I did not explore, but of
which, and indeed of the whole cavern, a ground plan is given by
Leibnitz, in his Protogæa, Plate I. By some of these passages, the
pebbles may have come in which we find below, in the cavern u.
This cavern has, from its position in the inmost recesses, and its
difficulty of access, been not much disturbed, and has several off-
shoots, the contents of which are still glazed over with a crust of
virgin stalagmite : in others, the stalagmite has been broken through
as at 1; and artificial vaults, like those at Scharzfeld, have been dug

CONCLUSIONS AS TO BAUMANS HÖHLE. CAVE OF BIELS HÖHLE. 121
I
am
some feet into the subjacent mass of mud, which is also loaded with
teeth, bones, and pebbles, but not with such large pebbles, or in such
unusual quantity as in the vault E. The roof and sides of the
artificial cave i have bones adhering to them, being in fact composed
of a breccia of bones and agglutinated mud; but in none of the
natural chambers do we find bones adhering to the side and roof
above the surface of the mud and stalagmite.
All these circumstances are corroborative of the hypothesis I
endeavouring to establish. First, That the agent, by which the mud
and pebbles were introduced, was the same diluvial waters, which
extirpated the animals that had antecedently inhabited the cave.
Secondly, That this diluvial detritus was not introduced at different
intervals by the action of rivers, or land-floods, but was by one single
operation superadded to the bones already existing in the dens.
Thirdly, That the period of its introduction is that from which
we must begin to date the formation of the superficial crust of
stalagmite, by which these diluvian and antediluvian records have
been sealed up, and maintained in such high preservation to the
present hour.it
generation
CAVE OF BIELS HOHLE.
2,"
This cavern is said to have derived its name from a heathen
temple that formerly stood on the edge of the cliff immediately
.
above it, and of which some traces still exist : its position is at the
distance of but a few hundred yards from the Baumans Höhle, last
described ; and at nearly the same elevation in the cliffs on the op-
R

122 CAVE OF BIELS HÖHLE-CONTAINS NO BONES. STALAGMITE.
а
posite side of the gorge, E, and on the right bank of the Bode river.
(See Plate XVI.) No bones have as yet been discovered in it, nor
does it contain any such lofty and broad chambers, as those at Scharz-
feld, and Baumans Höhle: it is composed of a succession of cavernous
vaults, ascending and descending irregularly in the transition lime-
stone, and communicating with, and intersected by, other similar
tubes, which traverse the body of the rock in various directions
(see Plate XVI. c. c. c.) It is remarkable for the beauty of the
stalactite that hangs from its roof, and the quantity of stalagmite that
forms an universal cover of considerable thickness over its floor ;
but it has not as yet been discovered to contain bones. In passing
through it, we are obliged to ascend by ladders a succession of rocky
projections or pinnacles (see Plate XVI. D. D. D.), between which
we descend into as many intervening hollows or basins of unequal
size and height, B. B. B.; and having entered by the small hole a in
the cliff, overhanging the River Bode, we come out by an artificial
hole in the same cliff, at a small distance from the former. Other
cavities of the same kind rise probably to the surface of the land by
the tubes c. c. c., and are choked up by diluvium. The dotted lines
F. G. represent the restoration of the rock and of the tube A to the
state in which they probably existed before the excavation of the
gorge E.
This cave appears to be one of those which has never been
inhabited as a den by wild beasts, as had it been so, it is probable
some traces of bones would have been found in the excavations
which have been dug in its floor, for the purpose of making an easy
path for visitors, that crowd to see the beauty of its stalactite. To

MUD AND SAND IN ITS CAVITIES AND ON ITS PINNACLES. 123
myself, these excavations afforded matter of much higher interest, as
they enabled me to identify beneath the crusts of stalagmite H. H. the
same bed of diluvial mud 1. I., which I had already seen at Baumans
Höhle, and Scharzfeld, and Theux, and in the caves of England, and
alternating also as it does at Plymouth, with thin beds of blue clay,
and coarse loose sand, mixed abundantly with small fragments of
greywacke slate and clay slate. I was told, though I did not see
them, that it sometimes contains pebbles. It is remarkable, that this
diluvium is accumulated on the top of the pinnacles D. D. D., in
nearly as great quantity as in the intermediate basins B. B. B.; and
here again, we have another analogy to the caves at Plymouth,
viz. that wherever there was a ledge, or shelf, or basin, however
minute, whereon there was space enough for the smallest deposit
to take place, from a mass of water loaded with mud, and sand, there
these materials have found a lodgment, and have ever since ré-
mained undisturbed, under a gradually accumulating crust of stalag-
mite. The single post-diluvian crust H. H. is the only one that
appears both in the basins and on the pinnacles: it is spread on the
upper surface only of the diluvial sediment 1. I.; and in no case has
it been found to alternate with the mud, or sand, or clay, of which
this sediment is composed. I was unable to ascertain, whether or
not there be (as at Kirkdale), a subjacent crust of stalagmite, accu-
mulated on the native rock beneath, before the introduction of the
mud. On the surface of the upper stalagmite there is a quantity of
mould, which has been brought in by the present guide from the
adjacent field, for the purpose of making a path in the interior
of the cave.
R 2

124 CAVES IN FRANCONIA-POSITION OF THE DISTRICT.
.
CAVES IN FRANCONIA.
Having thus far ascertained, by careful examination of the most
important caverns in the Hartz, that there exists no discrepancy, or
rather a complete analogy in all their phenomena to those of the
caves in England, allowing as much as is due to the different habits
of the animals whose remains we find in them respectively, my
next attention was directed to the no less celebrated assemblage of
caverns in Franconia, situated in the district round Muggendorf, in
the Upper Palatinate, about 30 miles N. E. of Nurenberg, in the
direction of Bareuth, and nearly in a central point between the
three towns of Nurenberg, Bareuth, and Bamberg, (see Map, at
Plate XIX.) The position of this district is at one of the great
water heads of central Europe, from which the streams descend on
one side southwards, by the Naab and Danube, to the Black Sea, and
on the other, by the Mayn and Rhine, to the German Ocean. It
is composed of an assemblage of limestone beds, corresponding with
the lias, oolite, green sand, and chalk formations of England, and with
the Jura and Alpine limestones of the Continent; and forms the im-
portant link by which the Jura chain, and its continuations in the
Rough or Swabian Alps, are connected with the same formations in
the north of Germany, where they are designated by the Wernerian
appellation of first and second floetz limestone, and Muschel kalk.
The limestone of the immediate vicinity of Muggendorf has been,
from its cavernous nature, locally designated by the name of Höhlen

PRESENT MOUTHS NOT THE ORIGINAL ONES.
125
a
kalk (Hole limestone); and it seems more nearly allied to the calca-
reous portions of our green sand formation than to any other strata
of the English series ; but differs from them in aspect, in consequence
of its containing a large admixture of magnesia, and very few organic
remains. This district is at present for the most part cultivated, and
without any other beasts of prey than foxes and a few wolves; but there
appears to have been a time when its savage population was prodi-
giously great, and the bones of thousands of gigantic bears, and other
wild beasts, which once swarmed in the caverns, with which its hills are
perforated, still remain to attest their antediluvian dominion over it.
Though at an high elevation, this district cannot be said to be
mountainous ; its valleys indeed are flanked by precipitous crags,
which, when seen from below, have all the ruggedness and picturesque
form of Alpine scenery; but they are narrow, and not deep, rarely
exceeding 300 feet, and are simply valleys of denudation, excavated by
the diluvian waters on the surface of an elevated calcareous plain,
which was the scene on which the bears and hyænas that are
entombed in the recesses of its caverns ranged unmolested by the
approach of man.
The entrance to the caverns at that time would have been by
apertures on the surface of this plain, like that described as now
existing at Scharzfeld, and of which some are found still open in the
more elevated parts of this neighbourhood; and it seems to have
been by these original apertures and fissures rising to the level
surface of the main table-land, rather than by the present mouths
in the vertical face of the cliffs, that the pebbles, and probably
great part of the mud that occurs within the caves, found their

126
MOUTHS IN THE FACE OF VERTICAL CLIFFS.
8
a
admission: these present mouths must have formed part of the
interior of the caverns, before the matter which once filled the
valleys had been swept away. When viewed on a correct map
(see Plate XIX.), or looked at from the summit of a distant hill,
these valleys appear but as open gutters on the surface of a
meadow, falling into a main gutter, by which the whole of their
waters are carried off, in the same manner as the streams of the
Esbach, the Weissent, and others pass off by the main valley of
Muggendorf. The manner in which the present mouths of the
caverns appear in the cliffs that flank these valleys will at once be
understood by referring to Plate XVIII., C. E. 1. where three of them
are represented in the cliffs that flank the valley of the Esbach, near
the castle of Rabenstein, and to the map at Plate XIX., in which the
place of each cavern is correctly marked, and a view given of the
mouth of the cave of Gailenreuth.
From these preliminary observations on the district, I proceed to
describe in detail a few of the most important caverns which it
contains. I shall select five, and treat of them in the following
order ; first, Forster's Höhle; second, Rabenstein ; third, Zahnloch;
fourth, Gailenreuth ; fifth, Kühloch.
1..FORSTER'S HÖHLE.
This cave is situated near the village of Weischenfeld, in the
steep and rocky slope that forms the right flank of the valley of the
Zeubach. It was not till within these few years that it attracted

FORSTER'S HÖHLE. BEAUTY OF ITS STALAGMITE.
127
any attention, or was indeed accessible without great difficulty, its
only opening having been a hole in the roof, through which it was
necessary to be let down by ropes or a long ladder. More recently
a lateral adit had been driven into it by an innkeeper named Forster,
nearly on the level of the floor, and forms the present entrance.
This cave is one of the most remarkable I have ever seen, for the
beauty of its roof, and perfection of its stalagmite; but contains no
other bones than a few of dogs and modern animals, which have
recently been placed in it as appropriate furniture. Its height varies
from 10 to 30 feet; its breadth where widest being about 30. Its
floor is no where quite level, and the subjacent rock is buried under
a deep bed of diluvial mud, over which is superinduced a more
than usually thick covering of stalagmite. The form of this stalag-
mite is particularly striking in the side vaults that descend in various
directions into the main chamber, being inclined at an angle of about
45°, and having the lower half of their area filled also with mud; on
the surface of which entire bridges of thick stalagmite are formed
across from side to side, presenting the varied features and irregular
undulations of large and beautiful cascades, suddenly congealed into
a mass of transparent alabaster : large waving streams of this orna-
mental substance are seen descending into the main chamber from
all the lateral avenues by which it is encircled, and contributing, as
it were, to swell the stalagmitic lake that occupies its centre. The
roof also of the main chamber, as well as of its side aisles, is in all
parts broken into, and clustered over with irregularly grotesque
forms of exquisite beauty, rivalling the richest combinations of the

128
FRETTED ROOF. MUD ON THE FLOOR.
most complicated gothic fret-work, and far surpassing them in the
wild and irregular varieties in which its masses descend, like inverted
pinnacles, to meet the icy lake of stalagmite that covers the floor.
The quantity of stalactite dependant from this roof is comparatively
small; and though extremely beautiful, it forms a subordinate feature
only in this most magnificent vault; the peculiar beauty of which
consists in the deep carious cavities into which its entire surface has
been corroded, and the endless succession of sharp points and ridges,
and irregularly projecting partitions, that stand in high relief between
these cavities, and descend many feet, suspended almost by nothing,
into the body of the cavern. With respect to the muddy sediment
that occurs below the stalagmitic floor, it remains only to observe,
that its thickness has not been ascertained, though several holes have
been dug in it to the depth of three or four feet: it contains
numerous angular fragments of limestone, but I could find no
pebbles. I have already stated that there are no bones: it probably
was inaccessible, or at least not tenanted at the period when the bears
were in occupation of this country. By the holes dug into this mud
it appears that there is no trace of any other crust, or even of a film
of stalagmite alternating with it, so as to lead us to infer that it was not
deposited at one and the same period, and by the same inundation that
introduced a similar sediment into all the other caves of which I have
been speaking. Whether there be any under crust of antediluvian
stalagmite between it and the subjacent rock, I could not ascertain.
There is not a particle of mud, or even of dust, above the surface of
the
upper crust of stalagmite, or interposed between its component
Sist or wool beristtoe bricol E datito toqqu ad lo sonte ads
a

CAVE OF RABENSTEIN. FEW BONES IN IT.
129
laminæ: which would have happened, had the mud been either
introduced by successive land-floods, or been composed of dust
falling continually to the floor from the decomposition of the roof.
2.-CAVE OF RABENSTEIN.
The cave to which I have assigned this title stands near the
upper part of the vertical cliff on which is built the castle of Raben-
stein, and immediately under the adjacent chapel of Klaustein, by
which name also it is sometimes designated. Its position and
present mouth of entrance are represented in Plate XVIII. c. It is
less remarkable for bones than the three I am next about to mention;
and to this circumstance it owes the preservation of a large pro-
portion of the thick stalagmitic crust that is spread over the mud,
which here also is found to cover the floor, and to be mixed with
pebbles and angular fragments of limestone, and a few bones and
teeth of bears and other animals. As similar remains are so much
more abundant, and more easily accessible in other adjacent caverns,
these few have not afforded sufficient inducement to the searchers
for bones to rip up the stalagmite which covers the diluvial sediment,
in which they are here rather sparingly dispersed. The depth of
this sediment varies from two to six feet, and upwards, and it differs
in nothing essential from that already and hereafter to be described
in other caverns.
In the few places where the actual floor was
visible beneath it, there was no subjacent crust of stalagmite. On
the surface of the upper crust I found scattered loosely the recent
S

130
CAVE OF ZAHNLOCH-ITS POSITION HIGH.
ASOVA
bones of sheep, dogs, foxes, and some smaller animals. These were
not invested with stalagmite, and were in the same state with the
recent bones discovered in the modern fissure at Duncombe Park.
tudow to greitb dour
20
SY
Bloominen
Nicht 3. CAVE OF ZAHNLOCH. Bol to
a
The next cave I propose to speak of is that of Zahnloch (or the
Hole of Teeth), so called from the abundance of fossil teeth that
have been extracted from it, and being situated about two miles on
the south-east of Rabenstein. Its position is not like that of the
other caverns I have to describe in this neighbourhood, in a cliff
that flanks some one or other of the valleys, but near the summit of
a hill called Höhen Mirschfeld, which rises above the main table-
land, and forms one of the most elevated points of this district,
being about 600 feet above the valley of Muggendorf. (See Plate XIX.)
The entrance of this cave is a low oven-shaped aperture, in a very
small rock, that projects through the grass in the north slope of a
green and naked hill. It is visible at a considerable distance, and
must have attracted notice from the earliest times : it is about ten
feet broad, and four feet high, and leads immediately into an extensive
crypt-like chamber, about 60 feet in length, and varying from 20
to 40 feet in breadth, but so low that there are few parts in which it
is possible to stand upright. From the edge of this larger chamber
there branch off several smaller under vaultings, and on one side of
it is a cavern the height of which is more considerable than that of
the main chamber, and in the middle of which stands a large in-

ANCIENT AND MODERN BONES IN IT. SEPULCHRAL URN. 131
sulated block of stone, rising about six feet above the present floor,
and remarkable for having its surface smoothed over (as if it had
been polished), in a way which the natural rock never presents.
There is much dripping of water, but very little stalactite hanging
from the roof and sides of any of these chambers, and probably the
floor also has never been invested with much stalagmite. At present
it is strewed over, to the depth of several feet, with a mass of brown
loam, mixed with numerous pebbles and angular fragments of lime-
stone, with teeth also, and fragments of bones of bears, and other
extinct animals, and with recent bones of hares, foxes, dogs, and
sheep: I found also a fragment of a rude sepulchral urn, but could
discover few traces only of black earth. The average depth of this loam
must be four or five feet: the entire bulk of it has been again and
again dug over in search of teeth and bones, of which it still contains
considerable quantities. Even the smaller under vaultings have been
ransacked to their extremities; so that there is no possibility of
seeing in its natural state any part of this mixed mass, which now
covers the floor. Still all its phenomena, allowing for the dis-
turbances that have taken place by digging, are consistent in every
respect with those of the other adjacent caverns: the introduction of
the mud and pebbles may be referred, as usual, to diluvial agency ;
some of the angular fragments may have been washed in others; have
fallen from the roof; the teeth and bones of the extinct animals may
be referred to the wild beasts that inhabited the cave before the in-
troduction of the mud, and the sepulchral urn to the use that has
since been made of it for the reception of human remains; whilst the
bones of hares, foxes, dogs, and sheep, are derived from animals that
s 2

a
132 VIT BLOCK OF STONE POLISHED BY BEARS. O
may at any time have entered spontaneously, or been dragged into it,
the mouth being so large, and having no appearance of ever having
been shut up.
Its most remarkable phenomenon is the polished surface of the
great insulated block of stone, which stands like a sarcophagus in the
middle of the side chamber. Not being aware of it at the time I was
there, I did not observe this circumstance myself, but Rosenmuller
states, and Goldfuss repeats it, that the surface of this block is all over
smooth, as if polished (glatt wie polirt) in a manner which must be
attributed to some cause external to the rock itself, and which its
place and circumstances seem to induce us to refer to no other than
friction from the skin and paws of the antediluvian bears *. (Goldfuss
Taschenbuch, p. 120.)
* It is only necessary to examine the habits of modern bears as delineated after
nature in Ridinger's excellent engravings of wild animals, or to have seen the agility and
apparent delight with which the bears in the Jardin du Roi at Paris climb up a tree
placed for this purpose in their open den, to feel assured that if the habits of antediluvian
bears were at all like those of existing species, such a pedestal as that we are speaking of
would have been subjected to continual friction from the ascending and descending of
these animals, whilst they inhabited the den : see Ridinger's Plates, No. 31, where he re-
presents the interior of a den of bears, in which most of them are climbing up rocks, and
one is in the very act of mounting a pedestal similar to that in Zahnloch. The numbers
also in which he represents them as herded together (seven or eight in the same cave),
show them to be gregarious, and illustrate the otherwise almost inexplicable fact of the
remains of so many hundred bears being assembled together in four or five such caves as
those of Scharzfeld, Baumans Höhle, Zahnloch, Gailenreuth, and Kühloch.
Sobre 1991 Tove Stod
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Sowolde bite bumbrat oled od ben
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a

CAVE OF GAILENREUTH. POSITION OF ITS MOUTH.
133
a onimbrood so landantenog basata
i a bordo de
arbeta som
CAVE OF GAILENREUTH.
er til
to seara bodailos
I have already mentioned this cave, as the most remarkable in the
country we are now speaking of, for the quantity and high state of
perfection of the bones that have been extracted from it, and for the
descriptions that have been given of them by Esper, Rosenmuller, and
other writers. I had visited it in 1816 with less attention to its
minute details, and had then overlooked the circumstance of the bed
of mud and pebbles, which I now find to be mixed with the bones,
and placed between the stalagmitic crust and native rock, which forms
the actual floor of the cavern ; in other respects the drawing I have
given in my first edition in the Phil. Trans. 1822, differs not materially
from that which I have now substituted for it at Plate XVII.
Its mouth is situated in a perpendicular rock, in the highest part of
the cliffs which form the left side of the valley of the Weissent River,
at an elevation of more than 300 feet above its bed. (See Plate XIX.
in the corner of which is a view of it, copied from a print in Esper.)
This valley being, as I before stated, simply a valley of denudation, the
present entrance could not have been the original one, as it existed
before the excavation of the valley; we now enter by an aperture
about seven feet high and twelve feet broad in the cliff just men-
tioned, and close to it observe an open fissure, rising from the cave
toward the table land immediately above; this fissure is also re-
presented in the view of the mouth of the cave I have just referred to,
and by it, or by other similar fissures, the mud and pebbles we shall
a

184
INNER CHAMBERS. BONES, PEBBLES, AND LOAM.
a
а
find within were possibly introduced. The form and connexions
of the cave will be best understood by referring to the drawing at
Plate XVII. It consists principally of two large chambers, B and F,
varying in breadth from ten to thirty feet, and in height from three to
twenty feet: the roof is in most parts abundantly hung with stalactite;
and in the first chamber, B, the floor is nearly covered with stalagmite,
c, piled in irregular mamillated heaps, one of which in the centre, is
accumulated into a large pillar uniting the roof to the floor. From B
we descend by ladders to a second chamber, F, the floor of which also
appears to have been once overspread with a similar stalagmitic crust:
this, however, has been nearly destroyed by holes dug through it, in
search of the prodigious quantities of bones that lie beneath. The cave,
F, is connected by a low and narrow passage, M, with a smaller cavern,
n, at the bottom of which is a nearly circular hole, K, descending like
,
a well about twenty-five feet, and from three to four feet in diameter,
into which you let yourself down, as in climbing a chimney, by sup-
porting the hands, feet, and back against the opposite sides. In
descending this hole, we find its circumference to be for the most part
composed of a breccia of bones, pebbles, and loam, cemented by stalag-
mite: on one side of it is a lateral cavity, L, which is entirely artificial,
and is the spot from which the most perfect skulls and bones have
been extracted in the greatest abundance; the lowest cavity, kk, is
also entirely surrounded with the breccia above described; how much
deeper, or how widely it may extend, has not yet been ascertained,
The roof and the sides of the artificial cavities, K and L, having been
dug in the breccia, are crowded with teeth and bones; but these latter
do not occur in the roof or sides of any of the upper or natural
vlotetxe ataq mi bon augerii od o gusaqqa niqob all agosla

MOONFLOOR OF FIRST CHAMBER.
135
:
chambers above the level of the stalagmitic crust that covers their
floor : this observation, as I have before mentioned, applies equally to
all the other caverns I have been describing, and is important on
account of the erroneous statements and opinions which exist on this
subject. The floor of the first chamber B has been stated to be at
this time almost entirely covered with a crust of stalagmite ; on the
surface of this crust is a quantity of blackish mould, mixed with ashes
and charcoal : the latter being derived from fires that are frequently
made to illuminate the cave; the former is vegetable mould, which
has been brought in from the adjacent land, possibly for the purpose
of making a path over the slippery stalagmite, as has been lately done
at Biel's Hole in the Hartz. Through this crust of stalagmite some
large holes have been dug resembling that at E, and in these we see a
bed of brown diluvial loam and pebbles, mixed with angular fragments
of rock, and with teeth and bones; but the latter being less abundant
here than in the deeper chambers of the cave, the floor has from this
circumstance been for the most part left entire. I could not ascertain
the depth of this diluvium ; where I saw it, it was three or four feet,
but the rock below was still invisible. The bones of bears, that lie
loosely scattered over the surface of the stalagmite, and even on the
outside of the cave's mouth, are rejected fragments that have been
dug out from beneath it, or from the lower cavities; and they are
mixed with the recent bones of dogs, sheep, foxes, &c. that have en-
tered in modern times by the open mouth, A.
In the second chamber, c, the diluvium is of the same description
as in B, but more abundantly loaded with bones; for this reason it
has been more disturbed, and the crust remains entire only in a few
places. Its depth appears to be irregular, and in parts extremely

136
FLOOR OF SECOND CHAMBER. OSSEOUS BRECCIA.
a
K
great. At h a side chamber descends rapidly into the body of the
rock, and contains cart-loads of teeth, bones, and pebbles, dispersed
through a loose mass of brown diluvial loam, but not united by sta-
lagmite, as in the adjacent cavities, K and L. In these latter they are
firmly cemented together into a compact breccia, and accumulated in
a heap of at least 25 feet in depth, from the top, K, to the bottom, KK.
The distribution of the component materials of this breccia is irre-
gular: in some parts the earthy matter is wholly wanting, and we
have simply a congeries of agglutinated bones; in others, the pebbles
abound; in a third place, one half of the whole mass is loam, and the
remainder teeth and bones : at k the top, and K k the bottom of the
well, pebbles and bones occur mixed together in the same proportion
as in the middle regions of it. The state of preservation of the bones
when incrusted in stalagmite, is quite perfect, and the colour yel-
lowish white; those extracted from the loose earth in the upper
chambers are of a darker hue, and the total decay of some of them
seems to have produced a blackish colour in the loam immediately
adjacent to them ; but I could no where find the beds entirely com-
posed of black animal earth described by preceding observers, as oc-
curring in this and other caverns.
All these phenomena are in perfect harmony with those of the
other caverns in Germany and England; the upper parts of the
existing cave, and probably others, which have been cut away by de-
nudation, seem to have been the lodging places of wild beasts, that
lived and died in them in the period preceding the introduction of
the mud and pebbles ; the diluvial waters rushing, as they could
not fail to do, into these caverns, would introduce pebbles and mud,
and would also drift downwards to their lowest recesses the bones
a
a

AICA
CAVE OF KÜHLOCH. PECULIAR CONTENTS.
137
that lay perhaps more equally distributed than they are at present.
Since this event, the accumulation of stalagmite on the surface of the
mud, and in the interstices of the hollow masses of bones and peb-
bles, is the only geological change that appears to have taken place :
the limestone rock of the actual floor rarely projects so as to be visible
beneath the false floor of diluvial matter and bones with which it is
overspread; in one place where it does so, in the low passage m, it
is smooth and highly polished, like the pedestal in Zahnloch; but
whether from the paws of bears, or the hands and knees of post-
diluvian visitors, or the united action of both, I will not venture to
determine. I could not ascertain whether there was any stalagmitic
crust below the mud, as in the cave of Kirkdale.
ollona
halos arba
CAVE OF KÜHLOCH.
--
It now remains only to speak of the cave of Kühloch, which is more
remarkable than all the rest, as being the only one I have ever seen,
excepting that of Kirkdale, in which the animal remains have escaped
disturbance by diluvial action ; and the only one also in which I could
find the masses of black animal earth, said by other writers to occur
so generally, and for which many of them appear to have mistaken the
diluvial loam in which the bones are so universally imbedded. The
only thing at all like it, that I could find in any of the other caverns,
were fragments of highly decayed bone, which occurred in the loose
part of the diluvial sediment in the caves of Scharzfeld, Zahnloch, and
cas
Gailenreuth; but in the cave of Kühloch it is far otherwise. It is
саме
literally true that in this single cavern (the size and proportions of
T

138
EOS
QUANTITY OF BLACK ANIMAL EARTH.
a
which are nearly equal to those of the interior of a large church) there
are hundreds of cart-loads of black animal dust entirely covering the
whole floor, to a depth which must average at least six feet, and which,
if we multiply this depth by the length and breadth of the cavern, will
be found to exceed 5000 cubic feet. The whole of this mass has been
again and again dug over in search of teeth and bones, which it still
contains abundantly, though in broken fragments. The state of these
is
very different from that of the bones we find in any of the other
caverns, being of a black, or more properly speaking, dark umber colour
throughout, like the bones of mummies, and many of them readily
crumbling under the finger into a soft dark powder resembling
mummy powder, and being of the same nature with the black earth
in which they are embedded. The quantity of animal matter accu-
mulated on this floor is the most surprising, and the only thing of
the kind I ever witnessed ; and many hundred, I may say thousand,
individuals must have contributed their remains to make
up
this
appalling mass of the dust of death. It seems in great part to be
derived from comminuted and pulverised bone; for the fleshy parts
of animal bodies produce by their decomposition so small a quantity
of permanent earthy residuum, that we must seek for the origin of
this mass principally in decayed bones. The cave is so dry, that the
black earth lies in the state of loose powder, and rises in dust under
the feet; it also retains so large a proportion of its original animal
matter, that it is occasionally used by the peasants as an enriching
manure for the adjacent meadows*.
* I have stated, that the total quantity of animal matter that lies within this cavern
cannot be computed at less than 5000 cubic feet; now allowing two cubic feet of dust

MOUTH OF KÜHLOCH. STATE OF ITS INTERIOR.
139
20
The exterior of this cavern presents a lofty arch E, in a nearly per-
,
pendicular cliff, which forms the left flank of the gorge of the Esbach,
opposite the castle of Rabenstein. (See Plate XVIII. E.) The
depth of the valley below it is less than 30 feet, whilst above it the
hill rises rapidly, and sometimes precipitously, to 150 or 200 feet.
This narrow valley or gorge is simply a valley of denudation, by
which the waters of the Esbach D fall into those of the Weissent.
The breadth of the entrance arch is about 30 feet, its height 20 feet.
As we advance inwards the cave increases in height and breadth, and
near its inner extremity divides into two large and lofty chambers,
both of which terminate in a close round end, or cul de sac, at the
distance of about 100 feet from the entrance. It is intersected by no
fissures, and has no lateral communications connecting it with any
other caverns, except one small hole close to its mouth, and which
opens
also to the valley. These circumstances are important, as they
will assist to explain the peculiarly undisturbed state in which the
interior of this cavern has remained, amid the diluvial changes that
have affected so many others. The inclination of the floor, for about
30 feet nearest the mouth, (see Plate XVIII. E,) is very considerable,
and but little earth is lodged upon it; but further in, the interior of
the cavern g is entirely covered with a mass of dark brown or blackish
earth H, through which are disseminated, in great abundance, the
bones and teeth of bears and other animals, and a few small angular
fragments of limestone, of the same nature with the roof from which
and bones for each individual animal, we shall have in this single vault the remains of at
least 2500 bears, a number which may have been supplied in the space of 1000 years, by
a mortality at the rate of two and a half
per annum.
a
T 2

140
CAUSE OF ITS PECULIARITIES.
a
they have probably fallen, but I could find no rolled pebbles. The
upper portion of this earth seems to be mixed up with a quantity of
calcareous loam, which, before it had been disturbed by digging, pro-
bably formed a bed of diluvial sediment over the animal remains; but,
as we sink deeper, the earth gets blacker and more free from loam,
and seems wholly composed of decayed animal matter. There is
no appearance of either stalactite or stalagmite having ever existed
within this cavern.
In some of the particulars here enumerated, there is an apparent
inconsistency with the phenomena of other caverns, but the dif-
ferences are such as arise from the peculiar position and circumstances
as the cave at Kühloch: the absence of pebbles, and the presence of
such an enormous mass of animal dust, are the anomalies I allude
to; and both these circumstances indicate a less powerful action of
diluvial waters within this cave than in any other, excepting Kirkdale.
To these waters, however, we must still principally refer the intro-
duction of the brown loam *, and the formation or laying open of the
present entrance of the cavern: from its low position so near the bot-
tom of the valley, this entrance could not have been exposed in its
present state, and indeed must have been entirely covered under
solid rock, till all the materials that lay above it had been swept
away, and the valley cut down nearly to its present base; and as the
cave ends inwardly in a cul de sac, and there is no vertical fissure, or
any other mode of access to it, but by the present mouth, if we can
find therein any circumstances that would prevent the admission of
a
* A small quantity of this loam may possibly have been derived from dry dust that
has fallen from the decomposition of the roof.

CAUSE OF ITS PECULIARITIES.
141
E,
pebbles from without, or the removal of the animal remains from
within, the cause of the anomaly we are considering will be explained.
By referring to Plate XVIII. it will be seen that the throat of the
cave F, by which we ascend from the mouth E to the interior G, is
highly inclined upwards, so that neither would any pebbles that were
drifting on with the waters that excavated the valley ascend this in-
clined plane to enter the cave G, nor would the external currents,
however rapidly rushing by the outside of the mouth e, have power
to agitate (except by slight eddies in the lower part of the throat F)
the still waters that would fill the body of the cavern, and which being
there quiescent, would, as at Kirkdale, deposit a sediment from the
mud suspended in them upon the undisturbed remains of whatever
kind that lay on the floor. From its low position, it is also probable
that this vault formed the deepest recess of an extensive range of in-
habited caves, to which successive generations of antediluvian bears
withdrew themselves from the turbulent company of their fellows, as
they felt sickness and death approaching; the habit of domesticated
beasts and birds to retire and hide themselves on the approach of
death, renders it probable that wild and savage animals also do the
same. The unusual state of decay of the teeth and bones in this
black earth may be attributed to the exposed state of this cavern,
arising from its large mouth and proximity to the external atmosphere,
and to the absence of that protection which in closer and deeper
caves they have received, by being secluded from such exposure, or
embedded in more argillaceous earth, or invested with, and entirely
sealed up beneath a crust of stalagmite.
pe
debe od to fosteroneboom med til and

142
FISSURES AND CAVES COEVAL,
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE GERMAN CAVES.
To the facts already enumerated in describing the particular
appearances in the interior of individual caverns may be added the
following remarks, which apply generally to them all.org
IU 1. With respect to the apertures themselves, whether fissures or
caverns, they appear to have been open, and without mud or pebbles,
at the time when the animals lived and died, whose remains are now
found in them. These two kinds of apertures rarely occur separate,
and many of the caves appear to be only enlargements, and hollow
side branches shooting off from a fissure or congeries of connected
fissures. Some of these fissures terminate upwards, like the caves, in
the body of the rock; others rise to the surface, and are occasionally
open, as at Scharzfeld, but more frequently they are filled up with
diluvium of the same kind as that which has universally covered the
floor, and filled the undervaultings of the caves.
2. The present mouths of the caves did not exist in their actual
state at the time when they were inhabited; but are rather truncated
portions of the middle and lower regions of the original caverns, laid
open by the diluvial waters which excavated the valleys in whose cliffs
they stand; and which also drifted into them the mud and pebbles.
3. The proportion of teeth in all these caverns does not appear
(as at Kirkdale) to be in excess, beyond that which is due to the
number of bones that accompany them; and this circumstance is
explained by the fact of their being principally derived from bears,

OCCURRENCE OF BONES PARTIAL.
143
whose habit it is not to devour the bones, either of their own species,
or of other large animals. To
4. The partial occurrence of these remains in so comparatively
small a number of the many caves that lie adjacent to each other,
added to the immense quantities in which they are usually crowded
together where they exist at all, shows that they were accumulated
by some cause independent of the diluvial action that introduced the
mud and pebbles; for had they been drifted in together with them,
they would probably have been distributed co-extensively with these
latter substances, and in small quantities ; whereas, on the contrary,
whilst we find in every cave nearly the same proportion of diluvial loam
and pebbles, the occurrence of bones is limited to a small number;
and in these, they are crowded in such enormous quantities, and are
attended with such circumstances, as are explicable only on the
hypothesis of their having existed there before the introduction of
the diluvium ; and in general, the deeper we descend, the more
abundantly loaded do we find the lower regions and undervaultings
to be, till they are entirely choked up with mud, pebbles, and bones.
5. The mud and pebbles were not introduced at a period anterior
to that in which the caves were inhabited; for in this case, they would
have found a separate bed at the bottom, beneath the bones, and not
have been dispersed so equally as they are amongst them : e. g. we
find the pebbles occur as abundantly at k the top, as at K. K. the
bottom, and at L, the middle region of the great heap that lies piled
together to the height of 25 feet in the lowest region of the cave, at
Gailenreuth. (See Plate XVII.)
6. The angular fragments of limestone that are found within the

144
ANGULAR FRAGMENTS. STALAGMITE. STATE AND
a
caves may have fallen from the roof either before or since the intro-
duction of the diluvium, according as they are placed below or above
the stalagmitic crust that covers its surface; some of them below it
may also have been drifted in together with the pebbles.
7. With respect to the stalagmite, though it often occurs trans-
fused bodily through the substance of the diluvial sediment, it is never
found in continuous strata alternating with other strata of mud, or
pebbles, but always forming a single crust on the upper surface of the
sediment. I could not find in any of the German caves a lower crust
of stalagmite formed as at Kirkdale, beneath the mud, on the surface
of the subjacent limestone rock; but from the thickness of the dilu-
vium, though it was in many places excavated 6 feet deep, there were
so very few points in which it was possible to see the bottom, that at
present we are without any evidence as to its existence or otherwise.
8. The diluvium itself is either simply a mass of pebbles, or of
loam or sand, or (which is more common) an irregular admixture of
all these three substances, having bones indiscriminately distributed
throughout them all, and in proportion as the mass has been more
or less percolated by stalagmitic infiltrations, the bones are either
simply embedded in loose earth, or in semi-indurated loam and
pebbles, or cemented together with loam and pebbles into a firm
osseous breccia, resembling that found in the fissures of limestone at
Gibraltar, and along the shores and islands of the Mediterranean.
Should it be suggested, that this loam or earthy matter may have
originated from dust that has fallen from the decomposition of the
roof of the caverns, the improbability of this origin appears from its
non-agreement in chemical composition with the limestone of these

ORIGIN OF DILUVIUM. HARMONY OF CAVES AND FISSURES. 145
roofs; whilst on the other hand, its perfect agreement with the dilu-
vial loam that abounds on the surface of the adjacent countries, added
to the fact of the materials within the cave being often sorted, or
drifted, as if by water into distinct deposits of loam, and sand, and
pebbles; and the still more irresistible argument, arising from the
almost universal presence of the pebbles themselves, renders it im-
possible to refer the earthy matter in question to any cause acting
exclusively within the interior of the caverns, or indeed to any other
origin, than one violent movement of waters over the land without :
the effects likely to have been produced by such an inundation on
the interior of caverns having communication with the then existing
surface, are precisely such as we find to have actually taken place,
and to be attended by circumstances, all of which are consistent with
the hypothesis of the mud and pebbles having been superinduced
upon bones already existing in the caverns, by the waters of a tran-
sient deluge.
The facts I have enumerated in the above descriptions go to
establish a perfect analogy, as far as relates to the loam and pebbles
and stalagmitic incrustations in the caves and fissures of Germany
and England, and lead us to infer an identity in the time and manner
in which these earthy deposits were introduced; and this identity is
still further confirmed by the agreement in species, of the animals
whose remains we find enveloped by them, both in caves and fissures,
as well as in the superficial deposits of similar loam and pebbles on
the surface of the adjacent countries; viz. by the agreement of the
animals of the English caves and fissures, not only with each other,
but also with those of the diluvial gravel of England, and of the
U

146 CAVES, FISSURES, AND GRAVEL PROVE THE SAME DELUGE.
greater part of Europe: and in the case of the German caves, by the
identity of one of their extinct species of bear with that found in the di-
luvial gravel of Upper Austria ; and of the extinct hyæna with that of
the gravel at Canstadt, in the valley of the Necker; at Horden, near
Herzberg in the Hartz; at Eichstadt, in Bavaria ; the Val d'Arno, in
Italy; and Lawford, in Warwickshire. To these may be added the
extinct rhinoceros, elephant, and hippopotamus, which are common to
gravel beds as well as caves; and hence it follows, that the period at
which the earth was inhabited by all the animals in question was
that immediately antecedent to the formation of those superficial and
almost universal deposits of loam and gravel, which it seems impossible
to account for unless we ascribe them to a transient deluge, affecting
universally, simultaneously, and at no very distant period, the entire
surface of our planet *.
* I have much pleasure in referring my readers to two short and excellent
papers
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1794, Part II., by the Margrave of Anspach and
the ever-memorable John Hunter; the former describing the caves of Gailenreuth, and
the latter their organic remains, in a manner which cannot fail to be highly interesting to
those who have followed me in my present description of them.
The account given by his Serene Highness is accurate and spirited; and it had not
escaped him that the stalagmitic crust of the floor did not reach down to the bottom of
the cave, but that there was a collection of what he calls animal rubbish between it and
the actual floor of solid rock; but he overlooks the existence of pebbles, and adopts the
two common errors of considering the diluvial loam as animal earth, and stating that the
bones are found sticking every where in the sides of the cave, as well as lying on the
bottom. I have more than once explained the source of this mistake, and pointed out
the limitation within which the assertion is to be received.
Mr. Hunter accompanies his description of the bones with some curious speculations
on the revolutions which may have affected the earth's surface, and some general
observations on the different state of preservation of fossil animal remains; and con-
cludes, as Cuvier has done since, with regard to the bones in the cave of Gailenreuth

JOHN HUNTER ON THE BEARS OF GERMANY.
147
a
and others, that they have been accumulated in consequence of the cavities having been
occupied as a place of retreat, or den of wild beasts during a long series of years—his
words are, many thousand years; but he overrates this period considerably, grounding
his opinion on the single fact of the different degrees of preservation of the bones in the
same cavern. These, however, are not greater than those which exist in churchyard
bones, or a common charnel-house, and may have been produced by the difference of a
very few years, or certainly of a few hundred years, in the time of their exposure to de-
composing causes at the bottom of the cave, before the introduction of the diluvial loam,
which has since buried and protected them from any further considerable decay. Mr.
Hunter's reasoning would have been correct, had there not existed this difference in the
degree of exposure of the bones before and since the introduction of the loam: had he
been aware of this fact, he certainly would have seen the force of it, and his expression
would probably have been, many hundred years, instead of many thousand. I refer to
I
my note on the cave of Kühloch, and to my account of Kirkdale, for further grounds on
which I have founded my opinion as to the chronological inferences to be derived from
the quantity of animal remains accumulated in these caves, and from the state and relative
position of their stalagmite and diluvial loam and pebbles.
U 2

148 BRECCIA IN FISSURES ON THE SOUTH COASTS OF EUROPE.
OSSEOUS BRECCIA OF GIBRALTAR, NICE, DALMATIA, &c.
The close connexion, or rather the identity of circumstances
which we have seen to exist with respect to the time and manner in
which the bones were introduced both into caverns and fissures, in
Germany and England, leads me to think it almost certain, that those
fissures also which are found to contain such large quantities of
osseous breccia in the limestone rocks of Gibraltar, Antibes, Nice,
Cette, Pisa, and Dalmatia, and numerous other places along the
north shores of the Mediterranean and Adriatic, and in the islands of
Cerigo, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, &c., had become charged with these
remains in the same antediluvian period with the caves and fissures I
have been describing. M. Fortis, in his account of the breccia of
Dalmatia, and some of the islands, says it occurs both in vertical
and horizontal cavities of the limestone, and that it is visible in clefts
and fissures along the shores, and in caves in the interior of all the
islands and coasts of Illyria ; that the bones are usually embedded in
a red ochreous cement, dispersed and broken, and that a single
skeleton is never found entire. M. Provençal repeats the same
observations in his account of the breccia in the caves and fissures
near Nice. M. Chevalier also says of the bones at Gibraltar, that
they lie separate one from another, but not rolled, and that the
greater part of them appear to have been broken before they were
incrusted in their present cement: and M. Cuvier, in his first

OSSEOUS BRECCIA OF TWO ERAS.
149
edition, has given a list of the animals of this breccia ; among which
he enumerates the ox, deer, antelope, sheep, rabbits, water-rats, mice,
horse, ass, snakes, birds, and land-shells. He states, also, that the
greater number of them decidedly agree with existing species, and
supposes them to have fallen into the fissures in the period succeeding
the last retreat of the waters. With respect to some of these bones,
it is probable that this hypothesis is correct, and that here, as well as
in England, there may exist, in addition to the breccia containing
bones of antediluvian origin, other more recent deposits, derived from
animals which are continually falling into the comparatively few
fissures which are still open, as at Duncombe Park; but with regard
to others, viz. to those which occur in fissures that are closed up, as
at Gibraltar, to the very surface of the soil, the case is different, and
their origin clearly antediluvian.
In my first paper on Kirkdale I had ventured to differ from M.
Cuvier on this subject, judging from the apparent agreement in species,
of many of the graminivorous animals of the osseous breccia with those
found in the antediluvian cave at Kirkdale, and in the diluvial gravel-
beds of England, and had suggested that the discovery in the Medi-
terranean breccia of any of the extinct species of animals we find in
the caves, or in diluvian gravel, would establish the higher antiquity
I am contending for. Being at Paris in October 1822, I had the
satisfaction to be informed by M. Cuvier, that he has lately found
the tusks of the extinct lion or tiger in the breccia of Nice, and that
he has added other animals belonging to species now unknown, to
the list he had before given. Mr. Pentland also has recently dis-
covered the tooth of the same extinct tiger in the breccia of Antibes,

16OMAND
150 LOAM AND PEBBLES IN OSSEOUS BRECCIA.
and has found in the cabinet of Professor Targioni, at Florence, the
femur of a bear from the osseous breccia of Pisa, and has been informed
that other similar bones occur in the neighbourhood of Sienna. I
was still further gratified by M. Cuvier's showing me specimens from
several of the places above enumerated, many of which contained
rolled pebbles, and all of them a large proportion of indurated earthy
loam, through which, as their matrix, the teeth and fragments of
bones are disseminated in a manner no way different from that in
which they occur in the indurated loam at Plymouth and in the
caves of Germany. This loam is described in many accounts of the
osseous breccia, as being ochreous stalactite, but this description is
incorrect; it is a mass of earthy loam, differing only in colour from
that which fills the caves and fissures, and composes the superficial
diluvial loam in Germany; and its consolidated state arises from the
stalagmitic infiltrations that have percolated its pores, and formed
thin veins and linings of calc sinter in the innumerable crevices and
small cellular cavities with which it is interspersed. This is precisely
the state of much of the loam in the caves of Germany; and in both
cases the admixture of pebbles with angular fragments of limestone,
and the irregular manner in which the bones, though evidently not
rolled, are broken and crowded together in confused heaps, seem to
indicate that, as I have suggested in my explanation of the bones
and breccia at Plymouth, they have been moved within the cave or
fissure by water, to a small distance only from the spot where they
fell in and died, and simply broken by this removal, but neither
rounded or reduced to pebbles. The same waters which would thus
drift them into irregular heaps in the bottom of the caves or fissures

ANGULAR FRAGMENTS, WHY MORE ABUNDANT IN CAVES. 151
may also have introduced the loam and pebbles through which they
are in each case dispersed. The chief differences with regard to the
Mediterranean breccia seem to consist, 1st. in the loam being red,
instead of its more usual colour, brown; an accident which
may
be
explained by the hypothesis of its being diluvial detritus, derived
from strata of a red colour, and which is rendered probable by the
fact mentioned by Major Imrie, of there being, on the summit of the
rock of Gibraltar, superficial deposits of a similar red earth, which
from his description are clearly diluvial. 2d. In the proportion of
angular fragments of stone being greater in this breccia than in that
from the caverns: this may be referred to their having fallen in greater
abundance from the sides of the fissures (whilst they were yet open),
than from the roof of close caverns, in consequence of the greater
exposure of the former to the decomposing influence of the atmo-
sphere; and this hypothesis is corroborated by the fact spoken of by
Mr. Allan, in his excellent Paper on the Geology of Nice (Edin.
Phil. Trans. vol. viii. part 2), that the naked surfaces of the limestone
rocks near Nice (which are of the same kind with that of Gibraltar),
are broken and shattered into angular fragments, which lie on the
surface of the mountains, and are mentioned by Saussure under the
name of “ bréche en place *.” 3d. A third point wherein the breccia
we are considering differs from that of the caverns is, that it contains
land-shells. These may be considered as having fallen in from the
sides of the fissures, together with the animals and the angular
fragments last spoken of; whilst the depth and covered state of the
a
My own observation has presented to me many similar occurrences of loose naked
angular fragments on the surface of many other compact limestone rocks.

152
ANIMALS, WHY GRAMINIVOROUS.
66
caves would allow no such circumstance to have occurred in them.
4th. A fourth difference arises from the remains being chiefly those of
graminivorous animals; and this is consistent with the circumstance
I mentioned when speaking of the recent bones in Duncombe Park,
that such animals are more liable than beasts of prey to fall into open
fissures, from their constant habit of traversing the surface in the act
of cropping the grass which forms their food. All these differences
may be explained on the theory I am maintaining, that the bones
in the osseous breccia are of antediluvian origin, and coeval with the
remains we find in the caves and fissures of Germany and England.
M. De Luc has expressed precisely the same opinion at the con-
clusion of his description of the bones, earth, and breccia contained
in the caverns of the Hartz. “ L'aspect de la couche d'ou l'on tire
ces os, ne permet pas de douter de leur origine; elle est la même
que celle des os de Dalmatie et de Gibralter, ainsi que de tous les
autres corps terrestres ensevelis dans les couches de nos continens."
By which latter he means the bones of elephant, rhinoceros, &c. that
occur so universally in the diluvium.--De Luc's Lettres Phys. et
Mor. vol. iv. p. 90.
Mr. Allan, in his paper just quoted, designates the earthy matrix of
these bones as “ Red indurated clay ;” and adds also, that “ with the
bones are rounded pebbles of limestone.” He also states his opinion,
that the bones have been deposited in two distinct eras, which, I have
no doubt, will on explanation turn out to be the same antediluvian
and postdiluvian periods to which I have assigned respectively the
introduction of different bones into the fissures of Plymouth and Dun-
combe Park. “On the castle rock at Nice,” says he, “ the bones occur

BONES IN FISSURES AND CAVES COEVAL-MAJOR IMRIE. 153
a
in two distinct states, one forming a very hard indurated breccia, the
cement of which varies from a brown colour to almost black; in the
other, they are loose, or feebly agglutinated, by means of calcareous
infiltrations, with fragments of limestone and sea shells *.” He adds,
there appear to be several fissures, some containing a few dispersed
fragments of bone, and others of loose earth and stones.
All these arguments are still further corroborated by the state of
preservation of the Gibraltar bones, being exactly that of the bears
bones, which occur in the osseous breccia of the caves of Gailenreuth,
&c.; they are white, dry, and adherent to the tongue, different from
and indicating a much higher antiquity than the postdiluvian bones
that occur above the stalagmite crust within the German caves, or in
the open fissure at Duncombe Park.
But the fact of the breccia of Gibraltar (and by consequence those
of Nice, Cette, Dalmatia, and the other places before enumerated)
being coeval with that of the caverns we have been describing, is, I
think, established beyond all doubt by the minute and careful account
we have of it in Major Imrie's Mineralogical Description of Gibraltar,
in the 4th vol. of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
which is so important, that I shall here extract those parts of it which
bear on the point before us :—“ The insulated mountain, or rock of
Gibraltar,” says he, “ is composed of compact limestone, rising at its
greatest elevation 1439 feet above the level of the sea, being about
three miles long, and three quarters of a mile broad in its widest part,
* This occurrence of marine shells in the looser variety of breccia may possibly be
attributed to their having been collected by sea birds or by men, as in the case of the
cave of Paviland.
Х

154
MAJOR IMRIE'S ACCOUNT OF GIBRALTAR.
and bounded for the most part by rugged slopes, or by precipices; like
other compact limestones, it is perforated by caverns of vast extent,
and also by vertical fissures. The largest cavern (St. Michael's) is
1000 feet above the sea, and consists of a long series of caves, of
difficult access, which have been penetrated to the distance of 300
feet from the first cavern, and extend still further, and abound with
stalactites. In this cave no bones have yet been noticed, but in the
perpendicular fissures of the rock, and in some of the caverns (all of
which afford evident proofs of their former communication with the
surface) a calcareous concretion is found of a reddish brown fer-
ruginous colour, with an earthy fracture and considerable induration,
inclosing the bones of various animals; these bones are of various
sizes, and lie in all directions, intermixed with shells of land snails,
fragments of the calcareous rock, and particles of spar. Bones com-
bined in similar concretions are found also in Dalmatia, the islands of
Cherso, and Ossero, and have been described by Fortis ; and by his
account it appears, that with regard to situation, composition and
colour, they are perfectly similar to those found at Gibraltar, and occur
in fissures and caves of the same species of limestone. I have traced
(says Major Imrie) in Gibraltar this concretion from the lowest part
of a deep perpendicular fissure up to the surface of the mountain ; as
it approached the surface, it became less firmly combined, and when
it had no covering of the calcareous rock, a small degree of adhesion
only remained
66 At Rosia Bay, on the west-side of Gibraltar, this concretion is
found in what has evidently been a cavern originally formed by huge
unshapely masses of rock, which have tumbled in together. The

BONES NOT IN THE SOLID ROCK-RECENT BIRDS' BONES. 155
a
fissure, or cavern, formed by the disruption and subsidence of these
masses, has been evidently filled up with this concretion, and is now
exposed to full view, by the outward mass having dropped down, in
consequence of the encroachments of the sea. It is to this spot that
strangers are generally led to examine the phenomenon; and the
composition having here attained to its greatest degree of hardness
and solidity, the hasty observer seeing the bones inclosed in what has
so little the appearance of having been a vacuity, examines no further,
but immediately adopts the idea, of their being incased in solid rock.
The communication from the former chasm, to the surface from which
it has received the materials of the concretion, is still to be traced in
the face of the rock, but its opening is, at present, covered by the base
of the line-wall of the garrison. Here bones, apparently human*, are
scattered among others of various kinds and sizes, even down to the
smallest bones of birds.
“ At the north extremity of the mountain, the concretion is ge-
nerally found in perpendicular fissures; the miners there employed
upon the fortifications, in excavating one of those fissures, found at a
great depth from the surface two skulls (not human.) This concre-
tion varies in its composition, according to the situation where it is
found. At the extremity of Princes Lines, high in the rock which
looks towards Spain, it is found to consist only of a reddish calcareous
earth, and the bones of small birds, cemented thereby. The rock
around this spot is inhabited by a number of hawks, that in the
breeding season nestle here and rear their young; the bones in this
* This error, as to the existence of human bones in this breccia, has been since
corrected.
x2

156
BRECCIA OF TWO ERAS-RED DILUVIAL LOAM AND
concretion are probably the remains of the food of those birds. At
the base of the rock below Kings Lines, the concretion consists of
pebbles of the prevailing calcareous rock. In this concretion, at a
considerable depth under the surface, was found part of a green glass
bottle.”
The above extracts need but little comment. The birds' bones at
the rock of Princes Lines, and the glass bottle buried under pebbles
at the base of Kings Lines, show that there is still going on daily a
formation of postdiluvian breccia; whilst the whole description of the
earthy contents of the caves and fissures, and of the manner in which
they are filled, is so entirely like that I have given of the caves and
fissures of Germany and England, that it seems to me impossible to
hesitate in admitting the identity of their origin. But the proof
(satisfactory as it is) does not stop here; I would attribute, in this
case, as in the caves at Plymouth, the introduction of the loam and
pebbles to diluvial action superinduced upon bones and angular frag-
ments, that had fallen into the cavities whilst yet open, in the period
preceding the last general inundation of the earth ; and in the paper
I have just quoted, Major Imrie has supplied one of the most neat
and convincing proofs I ever met with, that this same diluvial action
has been exerted on the summit of the very mountain whose fissures
I am contending have been filled by it. Describing the upper surface
of this mountain, he says, “ The uncovered parts of the rock expose
to the eye a phenomenon worthy of some attention, as it tends clearly
to demonstrate, that however high the surface of this rock may now
be elevated above the level of the sea, it has once been the bed of
agitated waters. This phenomenon is to be observed in many parts

a
a
PEBBLES ON THE SUMMIT OF THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. 157
of the rock; it consists of pot-like holes of various sizes, hollowed out
of the solid rock, and formed apparently by the attrition of gravel or
pebbles, set in motion by the rapidity of rivers or currents in the sea.
One of those which had recently been laid open I examined with at-
tention, and found it to be five feet deep, and three in diameter; the
edge of its mouth rounded off, as if by art, and its sides and bottom
retaining a considerable degree of polish. From its mouth, for three
and a half feet down, it was filled with a red argillaceous earth, thinly
mixed with minute parts of transparent quartz crystals; the remaining
foot and a half, to the bottom, contained an aggregate of water-worn
stones, which were from the size of a goose's egg to that of a small
а
walnut, and consisted of red jaspers, yellowish white flints, white
quartz, and bluish white agates, firmly combined by a yellowish brown
stalactitical calcareous spar. In this breccia I could not discover any
fragment of the mountain rock, or any other calcareous matter, ex-
cept the cement with which it was combined. This pot is 940 feet
above the level of the sea.”
Now, comparing these facts with the phenomena he had before
described, we see that the red earth here mentioned is the very sub-
stance which, in the caves and fissures immediately below, forms the
diluvial matrix in which the bones are embedded, and together with
which they have been united by stalagmitic infiltrations into a mass
of solid osseous breccia ; and the pebbles of quartz, agate, jasper, &c.
lodged with this red earth on the summit of an insulated, lofty, and
precipitous mountain of naked limestone, present a case analogous to
the blocks of Mont Blanc granite on the limestone mountains of the
Jura; both being on spots from which it is impossible they could

158
MR. PARGETER'S ACCOUNT OF BRECCIA AT GIBRALTAR.
have derived their origin, and to which they could have been trans-
ported by no other force than that of a tremendous deluge, or de-
bacle of water drifting them from a great distance to the place they
at present occupy; and in which, like all the other deposits of this
grand catastrophe, they have remained ever since undisturbed, on the
very spot on which they were cast at the time of the last great geo-
logical change, by an inundation of water that has affected universally
the surface of the earth.
To the above extracts from Major Imrie, I am enabled to add the
testimony of another gentleman, now resident at Gibraltar, which
has just been forwarded to me from thence by my friend the Rev. R.
Curtois. As the information comes in the form of a letter to Mr.
Curtois from Mr. C. Pargeter, a medical officer at Gibraltar, and who
proposes himself to publish an account of the bones they find in that
spot, I will subjoin an extract from it, which is equally corroborative
of my views with the account I have just transcribed from Major
Imrie.
“ The bones,” says he, « are found imbedded, 1st. in an ochreous
sandy earth, cemented by calcareous matter, and much indurated,
together with angular fragments of limestone; or, 2nd. in a mass,
which may be termed pudding-stone; consisting of pebbles of white
quartz, and of variously coloured flinty pebbles (of the same nature
as noticed by Colonel Imrie, as occurring in the pot-holes at the
summit of the rock) and of limestone; all of them much rounded,
and varying in size from minute gravel to that of a goose's egg; ma-
rine shells, but in small number, are sometimes found with the bones
in this mass, and all the materials are firmly cemented together ; or,

SECTION OF CAVE-ELEPHANT AND RHINOCEROS AT TARIFA. 159
3dly, the bones occur in a mass, composed of rounded pebbles and
reddish earth. These three varieties are to be seen together, both
on the western and eastern side of the rock, particularly the latter ;
the bones, sand, pebbles, &c. are found at various heights above the
sea, from a few feet to five and six hundred.” He then subjoins the
following sketch of the position of the breccia on the floor of some
caves facing the sea, which I have here copied, as being almost a fac
simile of the section of the two caves facing the sea at Paviland, near
Swansea.
a
a
L
///
Cave
Ștratified Rock
Вопу Breccia
Aseu
Mr. Pargeter adds further, “ It has not been ascertained, that
there are here any other varieties of bones than those described by
M. Cuvier; we have no remains of elephant, rhinoceros, hippopo-
tamus, &c., though the two first have been lately found in an alluvial
calcareous rock, at Tarifa, and the same alluvial formation extends
for a great way round the Bay of Gibraltar.” Mr. Curtois also states,

160 BRECCIA OF FISSURES AND CAVES CONTEMPORANEOUS.
a
that among the remains discovered at Tarifa, is the tusk of an
elephant, the chord of whose curve is six feet, and that the greatest
quantity of osseous breccia is in a cave opposite Ceuta *.
All these circumstances concur to establish, as far as any evidence
short of personal examination can establish, an identity of time in the
formation of the osseous breccia, in the fissures and caves of Gibraltar,
and the coast and islands of the Mediterranean, with that of the
bones which occur in the caves and fissures of Germany and Eng-
land; and to show, that in each case, the period in which the animal
remains were introduced to them was that immediately preceding
the inundation, which superadded the mud and pebbles in which they
are now enveloped.
In the adjacent country of Spain, Mr. Bowles has described some
caves at Concud, near Teruel, in Arragon, in a rock of Shelly lime-
stone, in which they find bones and teeth of ox, horse, ass, sheep,
and other animals; some solid, and in the state of common grave
bones, others calcined and falling to powder; and also human bones,
of which the cavities are full of crystalline matter. These in some
cases lie in loose earth with rolled pebbles, in others they are united
into blocks of hard rock, from four to eight feet long. The details of
Mr. Bowles's description are given by M. Cuvier, and though they are
indistinct, it yet seems probable, that here also as at Gibraltar, and
a
* The extensive alluvial calcareous rock here spoken of is the same which I have
called diluvium, and its consolidated state probably arises from the abundance of calca-
reous matter which pervades it. A similar consolidation occurs in the calcareous dilu-
vium I have before mentioned as containing the bones of bears at Kremsminster, in Upper
Austria; and is very common in all countries, in the case of gravel beds that contain a
large proportion of calcareous pebbles, or calcareous sand.

BONES IN CAVES OF ITALY, STYRIA, CARNIOLA, CROATIA, &c. 161
near Nice, we have osseous deposits of two eras, one recent and post-
diluvian, the other immediately antediluvian.
In Italy, M. Cuvier mentions several caverns containing similar
deposits of bones, to which I am enabled to add, on the authority of
Mr. Pentland, that the bones of ruminating animals have been found
united by stalagmite to a breccia, like that of Nice and Antibes, in the
Grotto Della Molpa, at Cape Palinurus, in the kingdom of Naples;
and that in the Sabine Mountains, not far from Tivoli, near the town
of Palombaro, there is a cave in which the remains of the bear have
been found incrusted with stalagmite, and amongst them a jaw which
is in the collection of Professor Canali, of Perugia.
In the gorge, at Peckaw, in Styria, by which the Mur runs down
from Brück to Gratz, there is a lofty vertical cliff of Alpine limestone,
in the perpendicular face of which I observed the mouths of several
caverns; some of these have been found to contain also the bones of
the great extinct species of bear. The position of these caves with
respect to this diluvian gorge is analogous to that of the caves in the
cliffs that flank the valley of Muggendorf, in Franconia, and of the
Avon, at Clifton.
An account has recently been published of bones of the same kind
of bear discovered at Adelsberg, in Carniola. And a breccia, like that
of Gailenreuth, and containing also the bones of bears, has been found
in the mountain of Ischuber, in Croatia.
For a detailed account of further localities of these ossiferous
caves and fissures, extending as they do over England, Spain, France,
Italy, Dalmatia, Croatia, Carniola, Styria, Austria, Hungary, Poland,
Y

162
PRESENT SURFACE OF EUROPE
and Germany, I must refer my readers to the “Ossemens Fossiles of
Cuvier ;' a work containing more sound and philosophical reasoning
on the early state of our planet, and a more valuable collection of
authentic facts relating to the history of its fossil animals of the higher
orders, than can be found in all the books that have ever yet been
written upon the subject.
In the conclusion of my account of Kirkdale, I stated, that its
phenomena were decisive in establishing the fact, that animals which
are now limited exclusively to warmer latitudes, e. g. the elephant,
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and hyæna, were the antediluvian in-
habitants of Britain, and not drifted northwards by the diluvian cur-
rents from more southern or equatorial regions, as had often been
suggested, and was never till now disproved; and I pointed out the
inference with respect to a probable change of climate in the northern
hemisphere, which seems to follow from this circumstance.
Another important consequence arising directly from the inha-
bited caves, and ossiferous fissures, the existence of which has been
now shown to extend generally over Europe, is, that the present sea
and land have not changed place; but that the antediluvian surface
of at least a large portion of the northern hemisphere was the same
with the present ; since those tracts of dry land in which we find the
ossiferous caves and fissures must have been dry also, when the land
animals inhabited or fell into them, in the period immediately pre-
ceding the inundation by which they were extirpated. And hence
it follows, that wherever such caves and fissures occur, i. e. in
the greater part of Europe, and in whatever other parts of the

WAS DRY LAND ALSO BEFORE THE FLOOD.
163
world such bones may be found under similar circumstances, there
did not take place any such interchange of the surfaces occupied
respectively by land and water, as many writers of high authority
have conceived to have immediately succeeded the last great geo-
logical revolution, by an universal and transient inundation which has
affected the planet we inhabit,
Y 2

164 HUMAN REMAINS IN CAVES OF ENGLAND ALL POSTDILUVIAN.
HUMAN REMAINS IN CAVES.
a
It was mentioned, when speaking of Gailenreuth and Zahnloch,
that human remains and urns have been discovered there in the same
cave with the bones of antediluvian animals, but that they are of com-
paratively low antiquity.
Six analogous cases have been noticed in this country in cavities
of mountain limestone, in the counties of Somerset, Glamorgan, Caer-
marthen, and York; and these also are attended by circumstances
which indicate them to be of postdiluvian origin.
1. The discovery of human bones incrusted with stalactite, in a
cave of mountain limestone at Burringdon, in the Mendip-hills, and
mentioned in Collinson's History of Somerset, is explained by this
cave having either been used as a place of sepulture in early times,
or been resorted to for refuge by wretches that perished in it,
when the country was suffering under one of the numerous military
operations, which, in different periods of our early history, have been
conducted in that quarter. The mouth of this cave was nearly closed
by stalactite, and many of the bones incrusted with it. In the
instance of a skull, this substance had covered the inside as well as
the outside of the bones; and I have a fragment from the inside,
which bears in relief casts of the channel of the veins along the
interior of the skull. The state of these bones affords indications of
very high antiquity; but there is no reason for not considering them

FOUND AT BURRINGDON AND WOKEY HOLE.
165
postdiluvian. Mr. Skinner, on examination of this cave, found the
bones disposed chiefly in a recess on one side, as in a sepulchral cata-
comb; and in the same neighbourhood, at Wellow, there is a large
artificial catacomb of high antiquity, covered by a barrow, and con-
structed after the manner of that at New Grange, near Slane, in the
county of Meath, of stones successively overlapping each other till
they meet in the roof. In this were found the remains of many
human bodies. A description of it may be seen in the Archæologia
for 1820.
2. Mr. Miller, of Bristol, has lately discovered the remains of human
bodies in the much frequented cave of Wokey Hole, near Wells, at
the south-west base of the Mendips. On hearing of the fact in
January 1823, I went the next day to examine it, and found the bones
to be placed in the most secluded and distant part of a large fissure
that shoots off laterally from this cave, and is separated from its main
chambers by a subterraneous river of considerable size, that constantly
runs through them. They have been broken by repeated digging to
small pieces; but the presence of numerous teeth establishes the
fact that they are human. These teeth and fragments are dispersed
through reddish mud and clay, and some of them united with it by
stalagmite into a firm osseous breccia. Among the loose bones I
found a small piece of a coarse sepulchral urn. The spot on which
they lie is within reach of the highest floods of the adjacent river,
and the mud in which they are buried is evidently fluviatile, and not
diluvian; so also is great part, if not the whole, of the mud and
sand in the adjacent large caverns, the bottoms of all which are filled
with water to the height of many feet, by occasional land-floods,
a

166 HUMAN BONES IN GLAMORGAN AND CAERMARTHENSHIRE.
a
which must long ago have undermined and removed any diluvial
deposits that may have originally been left in them. I could find no
pebbles, nor traces of any other than the human bones, on the single
spot I have just described; these are very old, but not antediluvian.
In another cave on this same flank of the Mendips, at Compton
Bishop, near Axbridge, Mr. Peter Fry, of Axbridge, discovered in
the year 1820 a number of bones of foxes, all lying together in the
same spot, and brought away 15 skulls. These also, like the remains
of foxes in Duncombe Park and near Paviland, are of postdiluvian
origin, and were probably derived from animals that retired to die
there, as the antediluvian bears did in the caves of Germany.
3. Mr. Dillwyn has observed two analogous cases in the mountain
limestone of South-Wales; one of these was discovered, in 1805,
near Swansea, in a quarry of limestone at the Mumbles, where the
workmen cut across a wedge-shaped fissure, diminishing downwards,
and filled with loose rubbish, composed of fragments of the adjacent
limestone, mixed with mould. In this loose breccia lay, confusedly,
a large number of human bones, that appear to be the remains of
bodies thrown in after a battle, like those I have mentioned near
Kirby Moorside in Yorkshire, with no indications of regular burial ;
they were about 30 feet below the present upper surface of the lime-
stone rock.
4. The other case occurred in 1810 at Llandebie, in Caermarthen-
shire, where a square cave was suddenly broken into, in working
a quarry of solid mountain limestone on the north border of the
great coal basin. In this cave lay about a dozen human skeletons
in two rows at right angles to each other. The passage leading to

HUMAN BONES AT KOSTRITZ, NEAR LEIPSIG.
167
this cave had been entirely closed up with stones for the purpose
of concealment, and its mouth was completely grown over with
grass.
5 and 6. For the particulars of these two cases I refer my readers
to the descriptions I have already given of the human remains in the
cave of Paviland, in Glamorganshire, and in the fissure at the back of
the parks, near Kirby Moorside, in Yorkshire.
It is obvious, that in none of these cases are the bones referable to
so high an era as those of the wild beasts that occur in the caves at
Kirkdale, and elsewhere.
The 7th and last case I shall mention is one which has re-
cently been published, with a very able and judicious commentary
by Mr. Weaver, in the Annals of Philosophy for January 1823 ;
wherein he gives a translation of Baron Schlotheim's account of
human bones discovered in the Valley of the Elster, near Köstritz in
Saxony, a few leagues south-west of Leipsig, and of which I shall
subjoin the following abstract. The Valley of the Elster, near
Köstritz, is flanked by hills, the summits of which are composed of
limestone, locally called Zechstein, whilst the lower regions contain
beds and large masses of gypsum. Both limestone and gypsum con-
tain caves and fissures, which are in each case equally filled with a
mass of loam or clay of the same kind as that which covers the
adjacent country. In this loam are various pebbles of limestone, and
of rocks that occur only at a distance, e. g. granite, &c. The principal
deposits of bone are in the loam which fills the cavities of the lime-
stone: among these there occur at Politz the remains of rhinoceros'
horse, ox, hyæna, tiger (or jaguar), and bear; they are in the same

168
BONES AT KÖSTRITZ OF TWO ERAS.
indu
state as the bones at Gailenreuth and Scharzfeld, and probably of the
same era.
The cavities of the gypsum are very numerous, communicating
with each other, and traversing the rock in all directions: in the loam
which fills them the bones are dispersed irregularly in clusters, or
collected in heaps, without order, and at different depths, and have
been continually discovered from the first opening of these quarries,
thirty years ago, to the present time. They consist of the following
animals :
No. 1. Rhinoceros, deer, ox, jaguar, and hyæna, the same as in
the limestone cavities, excepting the remains of horse.
No. 2. Sheep or roe, fox, weasel, squirrel, field-mouse, shrew-
mouse, common rat, hamster rat, bat, mole (five por-
tions of the jaw of young ones), hare, rabbit, bat, frog,
two species of owl, domestic-cock, and man.
These bones, No. 2, occur mixed confusedly, not only with one
another, but also with the bones of the extinct animals; they all
belong to existing species, and are in various stages of decay, but are
less calcined than the bones of extinct animals, No. 1. Remains
similar to them are found also in the soil of the adjacent fields. In
one quarry (called Winters), the human bones were found eight feet
below those of rhinoceros, and 26 feet below the surface. It is highly
probable, as M. Schlotheim himself suggests, from the admixture of
the bones of so many species of recent animals with the human
remains in the gypsum quarries, that both these are of later origin
than those in the limestone; they appear, I think, to have been
introduced at a subsequent period into the diluvian loam, which

HUMAN BONES POSTDILUVIAN. M. SCHLOTHEIM'S THEORY. 169
had before contained the more ancient bones and pebbles ; but by
what means, or at what precise period of the postdiluvian era, remains
yet to be ascertained.
M. Schlotheim says, “I am far from thinking satisfactory the
explanation I have attempted of these phenomena, and am disposed
to consider the human bones to be of a later epoch than the larger
land animals of the ancient world; all other reported cases of human
remains accompanying the bones of beasts of prey have not been con-
firmed on closer investigation.” He dwells also on the circum-
stance, that the limestone cavities which are situated in the hills
contain only the remains of ancient animals, whilst ancient and
modern bones occur mixed together only in the gypsum cavities, the
position of which is at a lower level in a kind of basin at one of the
lowest parts of the district.
M. Schlotheim's hypothesis is that the ancient bones were washed
out of the upper caves into the lower ones, and thus mixed with the
modern bones, by a succession of floods, produced by the successive
bursting of lakes in a higher part of the country; I fully agree with
him in thinking this explanation unsatisfactory. The chief point,
however, is conceded, viz. that the human bones are not of the same
antiquity with those of the antediluvian animals that occur in the
same caves with them; and thus far the case of Köstritz affords no
exception to the general fact, that human bones have not been
discovered in any of those diluvial deposits which have hitherto
been examined; and in which, from the great abundance they
contain of the remains of wild animals, that could not have existed
in numbers sufficient to supply these remains, in a country inha-
z

170 HUMAN BONES TO BE LOOKED FOR IN CENTRAL ASIA.
bited by man, it is highly improbable that they ever will be found. On
this important subject I fully coincide with the opinions expressed by
Mr. Weaver, “ that the satisfactory solution of the general problem, as
far as it relates to man, is probably to be sought more particularly in
the Asiatic regions, the cradle of the human race; and that another
interesting branch of inquiry connected with it is, whether any fossil
remains of elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and hyæna, exist in
the diluvium of tropical climates; and if they do, whether they agree
with the recent species of these genera, or with those extinct species,
whose remains are dispersed so largely over the temperate and frigid
zones of the northern hemisphere*.”
* One probable reason why such remains have not been noticed in the banks of the
rivers of Central and Southern Asia, and of Africa, may be, that in warm climates, they
cannot have been preserved in ice as in the higher latitudes in a state of perfection fit
for the purposes of commerce; and consequently, can have afforded to the natives no
motive to collect them for sale. The absence of roads also in these barbarous coun-
tries, and consequent non-existence of open gravel pits (in which such remains are
for the most part found in Europe), is another cause, which helps to explain the total
ignorance in which we have so long stood, and are likely to continue, as to the presence
or absence of bones of any kind in the diluvium of Central Asia, and Africa. To these
we must add the utter inattention of the natives to scientific investigations, and the fatal
jealousy with which any European would be regarded who should be rash enough to
attempt extensive excavations in search of what they never could be taught to believe
was any thing else than gold.
loadeoqabio
ostalo obtenico ad van bo
blogg

PLAN OF REMAINING PART OF THE WORK.
171
PART II.
Having thus far fulfilled my original proposal to illustrate my
account of Kirkdale, and the caves of England, by a comparative view
of similar caverns and fissures on the Continent, I come now to the
second part of my inquiry, viz. the evidence of diluvial action afforded
by the accumulation on the earth's surface of loam and gravel, con-
taining the remains of the same species of animals that we find in
the caves and fissures, and by the form and structure of hills and
valleys in all parts of the world.
EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION FROM THE DIS-
PERSION OF THE BONES OF ELEPHANTS, &c.
As the fossil elephant is more generally dispersed, and has been
more frequently noticed than any one of the other animals we find
with it in the diluvial detritus of which I am about to speak, and as
it is peculiar to, and may be considered characteristic of deposits of this
2 2

172 FOSSIL ELEPHANT, OR MAMMOTH, IS AN EXTINCT SPECIES.
a
3
era, I shall introduce my remarks on the evidence of diluvial action
afforded by deposits of loam and gravel with a short history of the
remains of this animal, and of the extent to which they occur in
England; and with respect to the Continent, shall simply refer to
Cuvier for proofs of their dispersion over every country, and almost
every valley in Europe and northern Asia, as well as in North
America.
The fossil elephant differs from any living species of that
genus, but approaches more nearly to the Asiatic than to that of
Africa. Blumenbach has distinguished it by the name of elephas
primigenius, and Cuvier of elephant fossile. The term mammoth
(animal of the earth) has been applied to it by the natives of Siberia,
who imagined the bones to be those of some huge animal that lived
at present like a mole beneath the surface of the earth.
It appears from the wonderful specimen that was found entire in
the ice of Tungusia, that this species was clothed with coarse tufty
wool of a reddish colour, interspersed with stiff black hair, unlike
that of any known animal; that it had a long mane on its neck and
back, and had its ears protected by tufts of hair, and was at least
sixteen feet high
The bones of elephants occurring in Britain had from very an-
cient times attracted attention, and are mentioned with wonder by
the early historians (see Harrison's Introduction to Hollingshed's
Chronicle, ch. v. p. 17 and 21; also Roger de Coggleshall, as quoted
by Camden, Collinson's Hist. of Somerset, vol. i. p. 180, and Plott's
Oxfordshire, p. 132 to 139); but their history was never fully under-
stood till the recent investigations of Cuvier. The old and vulgar
a

OLD OPINIONS AS TO ELEPHANTS BONES IN ENGLAND.
173
notion that they were gigantic bones of the human species is at once
refuted by the smallest knowledge of anatomy. The next idea,
which long prevailed, and was considered satisfactory by the anti-
quaries of the last century, was, that they were the remains of
elephants imported by the Roman armies. This idea is also refuted;
1st, by the anatomical fact of their belonging to an extinct species of
this genus; 2dly, by their being usually accompanied by the bones
of rhinoceros and hippopotamus, animals which could never have
been attached to Roman armies ; 3dly, by their being found dis-
persed over Siberia and North America, in equal or even greater
abundance than in those parts of Europe which were subjected to the
Roman power. The still later and more rational idea, that they
were drifted northwards by the diluvian waters from tropical regions,
must be abandoned on the authority of the evidence afforded by the
den at Kirkdale; and it now remains only to admit, that they must
have inhabited the countries in which their bones are found.
It was to be expected that the remains of elephant should be found
in the diluvial gravel of Yorkshire, from the fact already established,
that these animals inhabited the neighbourhood of Kirkdale, whilst its
caverns were occupied by hyænas; and accordingly, the teeth, tusks,
and bones of elephants of prodigious size have been found in the dilu-
vium at Robin Hood's Bay, near Whitby, at Scarborough, Bridlington,
and several other places along the shore of Holderness. As we proceed
southwards, we continue to find them abundantly on the coast, and in
the interior of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex. The largest deposit of
them is at Walton, near Harwich, where they lie in a mass of diluvial
clay between high and low water mark, mixed with great numbers of

174
EXTENT OF FOSSIL ELEPHANTS, IN ENGLAND.
a
a
the teeth, bones, and horns of elk, stag, ox, horse, hippopotamus, and
other diluvial animals. In the valley of the Thames they have been dis-
covered at Sheppy, the Isle of Dogs, Lewisham, London, Brentford, Kew,
Hurley Bottom, Wallingford, Dorchester, Abingdon, and Oxford ; also
at Norwich, Canterbury, and Chartham, near Rochester. On the south
coast of England they occur at Lyme Regis and Charmouth (from the
latter place Mr. De la Beche has lately obtained a tusk nine feet eight
inches in length); also at Abbotsbury, Burton, and Loders, near
Bridport, and near Yeovil in Somerset. At Whitchurch, near Dor-
chester, they lie in gravel above the chalk, and are found in a similar
position on Salisbury Plain: in the valley of the Avon also, at Box,
and Newton near Bath, and in that of the Severn, at Gloucester; and
at Rodborough, near Stroud. In the centre of England we have
them at Trentham, in Staffordshire, at two places mentioned by Grew
and Morton, in Northamptonshire, and abundantly at Newnham and
Lawford, near Rugby, in Warwickshire. In North Wales, Pennant
mentions two molar teeth and a tusk found in Flintshire, at Halkin,
near the mouth of the Vale of Clwydd; and they are not wanting,
though they have been less frequently noticed, in Scotland and
Ireland. In all these cases they are found in the superficial diluvial
detritus, consisting either of gravel, sand, loam, or clay, and are never
embedded in any of the regular strata.
The circumstances that attend some of these deposits require to
be more particularly detailed. In the streets of London the teeth and
bones are often found, in digging foundations and sewers, embedded in
the gravel; e. g. elephants' teeth have been found under 12 feet of
gravel in Gray’s-Inn Lane; and lately at 30 feet deep, in digging the

FOUND UNDER THE STREETS OF LONDON AND OXFORD. 175
grand sewer, near Charles-street, on the east of Waterloo Place. At
Kingsland, near Hoxton, in 1806, an entire elephant's skull was dis-
covered, containing two tusks of enormous length, as well as the
grinding-teeth : they have also been frequently found at Ilford, on
the road from London to Harwich, and, indeed, in almost all the
gravel-pits round London. The teeth are of all sizes, from the milk-
teeth to those of the largest and most perfect growth; and some of
them show all the intermediate and peculiar stages of change to
which the teeth of modern elephants are subject. In the gravel-pits
at Oxford and Abingdon, teeth and tusks, and various bones of the
elephant, are found mixed with the bones of rhinoceros, horse, ox,
hog, and several species of deer, often crowded together in the same
pit, and seldom rolled or rubbed at the edges, although they have not
been found united in entire skeletons *.
In the Ashmolean Museum there are some vertebræ, and a thigh-
bone of an enormous elephant, at least sixteen feet high, which are in
the most delicate state of preservation, and were found in the gravel
at Abingdon four or five years ago. In the same pit with them were
collected also fragments of sixteen horns of deer. These bones and
horns are extremely soft and brittle whilst wet, but harden by
drying: they are not in the smallest degree mineralised, but retain
less of their animal matter than those which have been laid in clay or
loam ; they are very adherent to the tongue. About three years since
* For a further detail of the gravel beds of Oxford, Witham Hill, and Bagley
Wood, and of the organic remains contained in them, I must again refer to chap. xvii.
of Dr. Kidd's Geological Essays.

176
ELEPHANT AND HIPPOPOTAMUS AT BRENTFORD.
a large molar tooth of an elephant was dug up in a gravel-pit in one
of the streets of Oxford, in front of St. John's College.
In the Philosophical Transactions for 1813, is a report of the tusk
of an elephant, nine feet long, and of other remains of the same
animal, with those of hippopotamus, ox, and several species of deer,
and the horn of an ox, four feet and half in length, all of which were
found by Mr. Trimmer in the gravel of the valley of the Thames,
near Brentford. Six tusks of the hippopotamus lay in an area of 120
yards. At Plate XXII. fig. 5, I have copied from Lee's Natural
History of Lancashire the entire head of an hippopotamus, found in
that county under a peat bog. In all these gravel beds it rarely
happens that two bones lie in immediate contact with each other, and
in
very few cases are they rounded by attrition.
At Newnham, in Warwickshire, near Church Lawford, about two
miles west of Rugby, two magnificent heads and numerous bones and
teeth of several individuals of the Siberian rhinoceros, with many large
tusks and teeth of elephants, and some stag's horns, and bones of the ox
and horse, were found, in the year 1815, in a bed of diluvium, which isim-
mediately incumbent on stratified beds of lias; and is composed of a mix-
ture of various pebbles, sand, and clay: in the lower regions of which,
(where the clay predominates), the bones are found at the depth of 15
feet from the surface; they are not in the smallest degree mineralised,
and have lost almost nothing of their weight or animal matter. One
of these heads, measuring in length two feet six inches, together
with a small tusk, and molar tooth of an elephant, have, by the
kindness of Henry Hakewill, Esq. (of architectural celebrity) been
a

ELEPHANTS’ AND OTHER BONES IN NORTH WALES. 177
a
deposited in the Museum at Oxford. The other and larger head,
with a tooth and leg bone of the same animal, has been presented by
Henry Warburton, Esq. to the Geological Society of London. Of
the remaining tusks of elephants, the largest is in the possession of
G. Harris, Esq. of Rugby; and the other of J. Caldecot, Esq. of
Lawford. These tusks have all of them a considerable curvature
outward towards the point, like those of the one found entire in the
ice of Tungusia. By the kindness of Edward Grimes, Esq. another
enormous semi-circular tusk, from the same place, measuring seven
feet in length, together with a highly valuable collection of the bones
of rhinoceros, are deposited in the Oxford Museum *.
The remains of elephant, which I have mentioned as being found
in North Wales, in the Vale of Clwydd, and near Dyserth, are
attended with some peculiar circumstances: they are commonly said
to occur in a lead mine, and so in fact they do; but it is a lead mine
of an unusual kind, being conducted in a bed of diluvial gravel, that
contains pebbles of lead, as the gravel beds of Cornwall, called stream
works, contain pebbles and sand of tin ore. Extensive lead mines
of the same kind are worked in North America, between Lake Su-
perior and the Missisipi. It is the only case I know in this country,
a
a
* Many of these latter have been engraved in vol. ii. part i. plate xiv. of Cuvier's
Animaux Fossiles, from drawings by Miss Morland. The largest and finest head I have
ever seen of this species of rhinoceros was sent me from Siberia by J. Prescott, Esq.
now resident at St. Petersburg; and I have presented it, through M. Cuvier, to the
Museum of the Royal Garden at Paris, where they had no head of this animal. This
specimen is engraved in vol. ii. part i. plate xii. of Cuvier's Animaux Fossiles, and in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1822, part i. plate iii. In the British Museum there are
two heads of the same species, one of which was presented to the late Sir Joseph Banks
by the Emperor of Russia.
A A
1

178 SECTIONS OF LEAD MINES IN THE GRAVEL AT CLWYDD.
where lead is found under such circumstances in sufficient quantity
to be worth working. It is locally called flat ore, from its occurring
in flat or horizontal beds of gravel. Its occurrence here is explained
by the position of this gravel bed at the mouth of a valley of de-
nudation, cut in the limestone hills of Halkin, which are full of lead
veins. The gravel resulting from this destruction contains fragments
of lead ore, mixed up with the wreck of the rock, that formed its
matrix before the excavation of the valley. Its thickness is unusually
great, and several mines are worked in it; one, called Gronant Mine,
gives the following section :
1. Vegetable mould, two feet.
2. Clay, mixed with some sand and rolled stones, 26 yards.
3. Gravel beds, containing rolled pieces of lead of all sizes, eight
yards.
In another mine, called Tal-ar-goch, the remains of ox and stag are
found at present: and in 1815 a pair of stag’s horns were discovered
at 60 yards below the surface, and are now in the possession of the
Earl of Plymouth at Tardebig. The section of this mine is :
1. Vegetable mould, two feet.
2. Clay, 26 yards.
3. Sand and gravel, 68 yards ; containing pebbles of copper as
well as of lead. Horns, teeth, and bones, are found in it,
at from 40 to 70 yards from the surface, and also at the
bottom of the gravel, in immediate contact with the subjacent
limestone rock.
Another shaft dug one mile south of St. Asaph, at a spot between
the Ebwy and the Clwydd, presented irregular alternations of clay

REMAINS OF ELEPHANTS FOUND IN SCOTLAND.
179
and gravel, to the depth of 88 feet. For the above particulars, as to
these lead mines, I am indebted to the kindness of C. Stokes, Esq.
and Robert Dawson Esq. *
Of the occurrence of elephants in Scotland, we have the following
evidence by Mr. Bald, in the 4th vol. of the Wernerian Transactions,
p. 58, where he states, that an elephant's tusk, 39 inches long, and 13
in circumference, and weighing 254 pounds, was found embedded
in diluvial clay at Clifton Hall, between Edinburgh and Falkirk, in
cutting the canal in July, 1820, at the depth of 15 or 20 feet below
the present surface; it was in so high a state of preservation, that it
was purchased for two pounds, and sawn asunder, by an ivory turner
at Edinburgh, to be made into chess men; but the parts have been
preserved by Sir Alexander Maitland Gibson, and an engraving of it
is attached to the memoir by Mr. Bald. Two other tusks, of nearly
the same size, were also discovered, with several small bones lying
near them, in Jan. 1817, at Kilmaurs, in Ayrshire, near the water of
Carmel, at the depth of 171 feet from the surface, in a mass of similar
diluvial clay. Parts of these are preserved at Eglington Castle, and
in the College Museum at Edinburghỉ.
* I am informed by Professor Sedgewick, that being in Derbyshire in 1818, he was
told that bones had been found in a lead mine on Bakewell Moor, nearly 100 feet below
the surface; and that on visiting the spot, he found the miners working in a fissure filled
with pebbles of limestone and sandstone, large rolled pebbles of galena, and mud:
amongst these were teeth and fragments of the bones of horses. These probably had
been all washed together into the open fissure at the same time, when the galena pebbles
and elephants' bones were lodged together in the Vale of Clwydd, and the rhinoceros,
&c. washed into the Dream Cave near Wirksworth.
+ The state of preservation of these tusks is nearly equal to that of the fossil ivory
of Russia: those found in England are usually more decayed. The only one I have seen
sufficiently hard to be used by the turners was found on the coast of Yorkshire, where
A A 2

180 ELEPHANTS IN IRELAND. HEAP OF BONES NEAR STUTGARD.
With respect to Ireland, there is a description in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1715, by Dr. Molineux, accompanied by engravings,
of some molar teeth of elephant found at Maghery, in the county of
Cavan ; and the occurrence of the remains of the same large and ex-
tinct species of elk, with that found in the diluvial clay and gravel of
Walton in Essex, and other parts of England, is notorious and almost
universal in the marl that lies at the bottom of the Irish peat bogs*
.
For foreign localities of the fossil elephant, I have already referred
to Cuvier's account of places in which they have been found all over
Europe. Blumenbach, in his Archæologia Telluris, part i. p. 12,
1803, states, that within his knowledge more than 200 elephants, and
30 rhinoceroses, have been found in Germany.
At Seilberg, near Canstadt, on the Necker, in 1816, they dis-
covered, in 24 hours, 21 teeth, or fragments of teeth of elephant,
mixed with a great number of bones; and soon after, in continuing
their diggings, fell on a group of 13 tusks and some molar teeth of
elephants, heaped close upon each other, as if they had been packed
artificially. These were all carefully removed, in their natural position,
with the clay in which they were embedded, by order of the King, to
the Cabinet at Stutgard. The largest of the tusks, though it had
lost its point and root, was eight feet long, and one foot in diameter.
They are in good preservation, and in general curved to the amount
of three quarters of a circle, and bending outwards.
At the village of Thiede, on the plain, four miles south-west of
a
a
the diluvium is very argillaceous: a portion of this tusk is now preserved in a Museum
at Bridlington.
* Dr. Molineux says that in the space of twenty years, thirty individuals of the Irish
elk have been found in the county of Meath, and three of these in the same acre of land.
<<

HEAP OF BONES NEAR BRUNSWICK, AT THIEDE.
181
a
:
the town of Brunswick, a similar discovery was made in 1816, of a
congeries of tusks, teeth, and bones, piled together in a heap of 10
feet square, and embedded in diluvial loam that covers some gypsum
quarries in the new red sandstone. In this small heap, (see Plate
XXIV.) Mr. Berger, of Brunswick, found 11 tusks of elephant, one
of them 11 feet long, another 14 feet 8 inches long, and 12 inches
in diameter, and both curved into a perfect semicircle ; 30 molar
teeth, and many large bones of elephant, some of which were five feet
long, and one of them, according to Mr. Bieling, six feet eight inches.
Mixed with these were the bones and teeth of rhinoceros, horse, ox,
and stag; they all lay mixed confusedly together: none of them were
rolled, or much broken; and the teeth for the most part separate and
without the jaws: there were also some horns of stag. I have seen
the hole from which they were taken: it remained entire in 1822,
and no further search had been made in the loam surrounding it. I
saw also many of the specimens in the collection of Mr. Bieling at
Brunswick, who has published a short description, with an engraving
of them, as they lay in the quarry. It is very difficult to account for
this partial accumulation of various teeth and bones: they were most
probably drifted together by eddies in the diluvian waters ; but can-
not have been rolled far, as they have rarely lost any thing of their
projecting points and angles.
A third spot in which they occur in unusual abundance is near
Florence, in the valley of the Arno, above the gorge of Incisa. From
this gorge, the valley widens upwards to Arezzo, a distance of 25
miles, whilst the hills become gradually more and more contracted
:

182
ELEPHANT, RHINOCEROS, &c. IN THE VAL D'ARNO.
towards its lower extremity, and would meet, but for the existence of
the gorge cut through them, at Insica, and from which the town has
evidently derived its name. This gorge forms the only outlet to the
waters of the Arno, and appears to be of diluvial origin like that of
the Derwent, at New Malton, and of the Weissent, near Muggen-
dorf; and without it, the valley above must have been a lake:
within the last ten years, parts of the skeletons of at least a hundred
hippopotami have been discovered here, and placed in the Museum
at Florence. With these are found also, in great abundance, the
remains of rhinoceros and elephant, together with those of horses,
oxen, several species of deer, hyæna, bear, tiger, fox, wolf, mastodon,
hog, tapir, and beaver : they are from animals of all ages, and one of
the elephants could not have been a week old. The analogies which
this valley and its gorge present to those of the antediluvian lake, in
the Vale of Pickering, and its gorge at Malton, as described in my
account of Kirkdale, together with the resemblance of so many of the
animals which at that time occupied these districts respectively,
shows an identity of the antediluvian condition of Italy and England
too striking to be overlooked ; and each assists in throwing light on
the state of the other, during that remote and obscure period in the
history of our globe. For the detail of the above facts relating to the
Vale of Arno, I am indebted to a communication from Mr. Pentland,
who is now at Florence.
It is, however, a rare occurrence to find the remains of these ani-
mals collected in such great numbers on one small spot: the bones
and teeth are more usually scattered about irregularly among the
:

PRESERVATION OF ELEPHANTS IN HIGH NORTH LATITUDES. 183
loam and gravel, and occur but seldom in entire skeletons, except in
the frozen regions of Russia and Siberia. Over these countries their
dispersion also is universal. There is not, says Pallas, in all Asiatic
Russia, from the Don to the extremity of the promontory of Tchut-
chis, a stream or river in the banks of which they do not find
elephants and other animals now strangers to that climate. These
are washed out by the violent floods arising from the thaw of the
snows, and have attracted universally the attention of the natives,
who collect annually the elephants' tusks to sell as ivory. I have
already mentioned the elephants' teeth found by Kotzebue, in the ice-
berg, near Behring's Straits, and the extraordinary quantity of similar
bones and teeth of elephants and oxen in the islands of mud and ice,
at the mouth of the Lena. For a detailed account of these, and of
the carcase found entire in the ice of Tungusia, and which is now
preserved at Petersburg, I must refer to M. Cuvier's Animaux Fossiles,
or to the translation of his · Essay on the Theory of the Earth,
published by Mr. Jameson * Mr. Mitchell, in his translation of this
same essay, has shown the extent to which this extinct species of
elephant prevails in North America. Humboldt, also, has found it
on the plains of Mexico, and in the province of Quito.
How is it possible to explain the general dispersion of all these
* A translation of the account given of this animal, in the Memoirs of the Imperial
Academy of Sciences, at Petersburg, accompanied by an engraving of the entire skeleton,
with the flesh still adhering to the head, has been published in a small Tract of 15 pages,
by Mr. Phillips, George-yard, Lombard-street, 1819. Its two tusks together weighed
360 pounds.

IVAD WURDA TURID PONOSAT TOT
184 ELEPHANTS LIVED WHERE THEIR BONES ARE FOUND.
remains, but by admitting that the elephants, as well as all the other
creatures whose bones are buried with them, were the antediluvian
inhabitants of the extensive tracts of country over which we have
been tracing them ? and that they were all destroyed together, by
the waters of the same inundation which produced the deposits of
loam and gravel in which they are embedded.

ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OF TWO DISTINCT ERAS.
185
EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION AFFORDED BY
DEPOSITS OF LOAM AND GRAVEL.
It is admitted on all hands, that the surface of the earth is
strewed over with deposits of gravel, sand, and loam, which have
been drifted to their present place by the action of water, since the
formation of the strata over which these deposits are irregularly
spread. To account for these appearances, various theories have been
suggested, all of which have been defective, from their attempting to
refer to one common cause two distinct classes of phenomena; viz.
1st, the general dispersion of gravel and loam over hills and elevated
plains, as well as valleys; and 2d, the partial collection of gravel
at the foot of torrents, and of mud at the mouths and along the
course of rivers. The former of these I shall endeavour to show are
the effects of an universal and transient deluge, the latter are clearly
referable to the action of existing causes. I know not any work in
which this distinction is so well and so clearly laid down as in a
paper by Mr. Bald, (in the third volume of the Wernerian Memoirs,
p. 123, and fourth volume, p. 58), in his account of the Clackmannan
Coal Field ; in which he says, “The alluvial cover which rests upon the
rocks of this district is of two very distinct kinds, which are termed
the old and the recent alluvial covers ;” and this observation, he adds,
applies to every district of Great Britain which he has examined :
“ that termed recent is found along banks of rivers and lakes, and is
generally very fertile ; and along the Frith of Forth is in some places
:
в в

186
MR. BALD'S ALLUVIUM OF TWO ERAS IN SCOTLAND.
90 feet deep*: it contains abundance of organic remains of trees,
shells, &c., and is visibly forming every day: on the other hand, the
old alluvial cover is of vast extent, occupying a large portion of the
surface of Great Britain, is found at great heights and also under
the level of the sea, and is of three kinds : first, sand, second, gravel;
third, clay; the clay is sometimes mixed with sand, gravel, and
boulder stones, which are several tons in weight. The whole is
without horizontal divisions into beds or strata, and both large and
small boulder stones are found mixed irregularly through every part
of it. In some places it attains the thickness of 160 feet; besides
boulder stones, it contains gravel (i. e. rounded fragments) of almost
every kind of rocks, and angular fragments of the adjacent rocks,
which are often of a softer nature than those which have been rolled
to pebbles. It is this old alluvial cover in which the elephants'
tusks are found; but besides these and the bones found with them, it
has been observed to contain no other kind of organic remains; the
absence of such remains, and irregular manner in which the ma-
terials of this deposit are mixed together, lead to a conclusion that
they were collected by some violent and sudden convulsion totally
different from the daily and gradual process by which the present
alluvium has been and continues to be formed.”
a
a
It was in this alluvium, that the entire skeleton of a large whale, which is now in
the College Museum, at Edinburgh, was found a few years since; it must have been
drifted and stranded there, while this part of the estuary was under the process of filling
,
up by the deposits of the present sea. The bones of whales have been found in a nearly
similar position at Pentuan, in an ancient estuary that is now filled up on the coast of
Cornwall. A description of the stream works at this place is given in Vol. IV. of the
Geol. Trans.
p.
404.

MR. STRANGWAY'S ALLUVIUM AND DILUVIUM IN RUSSIA. 187
The difference between the two species of alluvium thus clearly
pointed out by Mr. Bald, as prevailing in Scotland, is the same which
I have stated to exist universally over the world ; and for the purpose
of distinguishing which, I have, in my table of the super-position of
the strata in the British islands, proposed to limit the term alluvial
to those partial deposits which Mr. Bald calls “recent alluvial covers,"
the origin of which may be referred to the daily action of torrents,
rivers, and lakes; and to appropriate the term diluvium to those
universal deposits of gravel and loam which he calls “ the old alluvial
covers,” to the production of which no cause at present in action is
adequate, and which can only be referred to the waters of a sudden
and transient deluge *.
66
a
* The Hon. Wm. Strangways, in a valuable Synoptic Table of the Formations near
Petersburg, published by him during his late residence in that city, has adopted the di-
vision I am now speaking of between diluvian and postdiluvian formations ; distinguishing
them by the name of diluvium and alluvium. He dates the commencement of the allu-
vium from the period of the retreat of the last waters that have covered the earth, and
includes under it-1, Drift sand; marine, or inland; 2, Marsh land; composed of mud
deposited by rivers; 3, Peat; 4, Calcareous tuf. All these formations are referable to
causes that are still in daily action. Under the term diluvium he includes the superficial
gravel beds that lie indiscriminately on all strata of antediluvian origin, and are composed
of a mixed detritus of pebbles, sand, and clay, torn down from formations of all ages,
except alluvial; and also the blocks of granite and other fragments of primitive and
secondary rocks, that are scattered over the plains and low hills of that part of the north
of Europe, either mixed with the superficial gravel, or lying insulated in situations to which
they must have been drifted from very considerable distances, as there is no matrix near
them from which they could by possibility have been derived. He has omitted to men-
tion beds of gravel produced locally by torrents and rapid rivers, because the flat con-
dition of the district on which his synoptic table is founded has allowed no gravel of this
kind to be transported to so great a distance from the hills or mountains, from the daily
detritus of which it is immediately derived.
A well digested and valuable comparative account of the mode of action and effect
B B 2

188
ALLUVIUM AT BASE OF MOUNTAIN TORRENTS.
I have seen a good example of these two deposits in Holland,
in immediate contact with one another. The alluvial detritus of
of rivers and mountain torrents, showing that the maximum of their force is wholly in-
competent either to excavate the main trunks of the valleys through which they flow, or
to produce the gravel beds that cover them at a distance from the hills and mountains
whence this gravel has been transported, is given in chap. 20 of Dr. Kidd's Geological
Essays, and in the second Essay of Mr. Greenough's Examination of the first Principles
of Geology. The same subject has been treated with equal accuracy and ability by
M. Brongniart in the latter part of his “ Histoire naturelle de l'Eau,” published in the
14th volume of the “ Dictionnaire des Sciences naturelles," and separately as a small
pamphlet, which I strongly recommend to the attention of those persons who wish for
correct information as to the effects produced by water upon the surface of our globe.
A difficulty occurs frequently along the base of a mountain chain, in marking the
exact line which separates the deposits of postdiluvian detritus, which have been and still
continue to be drifted down by wintry torrents, from that gravel which is strictly of di-
luvian origin. The bursting of an Alpine Lake (such as occurred in June, 1818, in the
valley of the Dranse in Switzerland), and the daily action of torrents and rapid rivers in
times of flood, are competent to produce partially over a limited district, beds of gravel
somewhat similar to those of the great diluvian waters. Striking examples of this kind
are afforded in the Duchy of Venice, along the base of that part of the Alps which lies
immediately on the north and north-west of the town of Valvasone, where the flood waters
of the Tagliamento, the Meduna, and the Zelline, have strewed the plains to an extent of
many miles from the base of the mountains with a beach of pebbles of enormous breadth,
which in summer is dry and barren, resembling a naked chesil bank on the sea shore.
Similar features are presented by the Torre and Malina torrents on the north-east of
Udina, and by the numerous torrents that descend into the plain of Lombardy, from the
mountains on the north of Verona and Vicenza. The Trebbia and Taro rivers also, and
all the torrents adjacent to them, which fall into the Po from the south, near Parma and
Piacenza, cover the lands in the vicinity of their courses with a similar and annually in-
creasing accumulation of detritus, from that part of the Apennines in which they take their
origin. And in our own country, the small river of Avon Lwyd or Tor Vaen, which de-
scends from the west side of the Blorenge mountain in Monmouthshire, by the valley of
Pontypool, presents, at the point where it leaves the mountains immediately below that
town, a naked strand of pebbles, that is perpetually shifting and laying desolate the level
regions that succeed immediately to the sudden termination of the steep and precipitous
mountain valley, along which the torrent has its course above Pontypool. in
At the point where transverse mountain valleys fall into the great longitudinal valleys,
a
a

ALLUVIUM COVERING DILUVIUM IN HOLLAND.
189
a
modern rivers which is so enormous in that country, never rises above
the level of the highest possible land floods; but beneath this level
forms nearly the entire surface of that low and extensive flat; whilst
the diluvial deposits rise from beneath it into a chain of hills, com-
posed of gravel, sand, and loam, which cross Guelderland, between
the Yssel and the Rhine, from the south-east border of the Zuyder
Zee, to Arnheim, and Nymegen, and form at the latter place a cliff,
overhanging the left bank of the Waal, and another cliff of the same
kind on the right bank of the Rhine, from Arnheim to Amerongen
on the road to Utrecht. In the districts that lie below the flood-
level of these rivers, it is probable that there is an extensive deposit
of this same diluvium buried beneath the alluvium, which forms the
surface; and the certainty of this fact has been established in several
places, where, from the bursting of dykes, the water has made exca-
vations through the alluvium into the subjacent diluvium, and washed
we sometimes find a considerable talus-shaped accumulation of postdiluvian gravel, par-
tially filling up the diluvian gorge of the transverse valley, and protruding itself to a con-
siderable distance into the main trunk of the longitudinal valley; many striking examples
of this latter kind may be seen in ascending the passage of Mont Cenis on its western
side from Aiguebelle upwards. Here, at the termination or mouth of the transverse
valleys that fall into the main valley of the Arc, immense talusses of gravel of modern
origin project into the latter valley, being often incumbent on, and easily distinguishable
from, the subjacent beds of diluvial gravel, and sometimes protruding across the great
longitudinal valley, so as entirely to obstruct it, with the exception of a small passage
which is kept open by the present river, in the lowest edge of the talus. I have seen also
similar examples well displayed at the mouths of the transverse valleys, that fall into the
main valley of the Kiszucza River, on the Hungarian side of the pass of Iablunka, at the
west extremity of the Carpathians. Deposits of this kind go on accumulating daily under
our observation, and may, by careful investigation, be always distinguished from that
gravel which is strictly diluvian. All the cases above quoted rest on my own personal
observations.

190 ALLUVIUM AND DILUVIUM ON EAST COAST OF ENGLAND.
up
from it the teeth and bones of the extinct elephant* and other
animals, which are peculiar to that formation.
The term alluvial has, however, been hitherto applied too
generally, not only to the diluvial and postdiluvial formations I am
now speaking of, but also to all deposits of whatever era, in the
regular strata, that have been drifted to their present place by the
action of water; and when thus used affords no kind of information
as to the age or relations of the deposit to which it is applied.
The important distinction I have been drawing between diluvian
and alluvium is not less remarkable in the lowlands of the estuaries
of the Thames, the Wash of Lincolnshire, and the Humber, than it is
in Holland. At the mouths of all these rivers, and of others less
important, there is a continual gain of new land, by depositions of
mud and silt, analogous to those which form deltas at the mouth of
the Rhine, the Po, and the Nile. On the east coast of England, there
is also a considerable addition of silt and mud on some parts, which
is derived from extensive cliffs of diluvial clay and mud, that are con-
tinually cut away by the action of the sea in others. The history of
deposits of this kind has been so admirably illustrated in M. Cuvier's
Theory of the Earth, and the proofs he advances to show that the
period at which they began to be formed cannot have been exceedingly
remote are so decisive, that, referring my readers to him for further
information on this subject, I proceed to consider the evidences of
diluvial action preceding the commencement of this alluvium, viz.
* In the Museum at Leyden, there is an immense os innominatum of an elephant,
three feet six inches long, which was washed up in this manner in 1809, by the inunda-
tion at Leonen, in the district of Betuwe. The head of an elephant three feet ten
inches long was discovered in a similar manner after an inundation at Heukelum.
987915 Dream ono os

GRAVEL MAY BE TRACED TO ITS NATIVE ROCK.
191
the history of the formation and extent of those deposits of loam and
gravel which I have already to a certain degree marked out in tracing
that of the elephants embedded in them, and which, as I have before
stated, are of universal occurrence in this as in every other country.
The loam itself possesses no character by which it is easy to
ascertain the source from which it has been derived, but usually varies
with the nature of the hills composing the adjacent districts. It is
of immense extent on the Continent, is known in Germany by the
appellation of “ Dammerde,” and of 5 Terrain d'attrissement” in
France; and its occasional abundance on the chalk of the north of
France is the cause of greater fertility in some of the chalky districts
of that country than of our own. But the deposits of gravel contain
solid fragments, and often large blocks of granite and other rocks,
which can be traced to their parent mountain; the position of which
with respect to the fragments is important, as affording a proof of
the direction of the currents that drifted them to their present place
of lodgment.
This diluvial gravel is almost always of a compound character,
containing amongst the detritus of each immediate neighbourhood,
which usually forms its greatest bulk, rolled fragments of rocks, whose
native bed occurs only at great distances, and which must have been
drifted thence at the time of the formation of the gravel, in which
they are at present lodged.
Dupa
Now, if we examine with this view the eastern coast of England,
we shall find that from the mouth of the Tweed to that of the
Thames, it is covered irregularly with beds of superficial loom, or
clay and gravel, of enormous thickness, not only in the lowland dis-
tricts, but also on the summits of lofty hills, and on the elevated
a

192
DILUVIUM ON SUMMITS AS WELL AS LOW LANDS.
table lands of the interior : e. g. on the north of Bridlington there
are beds of this kind forming a cap, on the chalk hills and cliffs be-
tween that town and Flamborough Head ; they are also found, in a
similar position, between Flamborough Head and Filey Bay, as well
as on the top of the cliffs near Scarborough, and on the north of Tyne-
mouth. They also occupy the whole coast of the Holderness part of
Yorkshire and the coast of Lincolnshire, and form the entire district
between the sea and the wolds of these two counties. They abound
still further on the shores of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, forming
along all this coast cliffs that overhang the sea, and are undergoing a
perpetual destruction by the waves, so that many villages have been
lost, and the ground on which they stood reduced below the level of
the present sea *. In the interior, they are spread widely over the
table-lands of Suffolk and Norfolk; and in the north cover much of
the country between Newcastle and Tynemouth, and between Stock-
ton-on-Tees and Darlingtont.
Their most common character in the localities here enumerated
is that of a tough bluish clay, through which are dispersed irregularly
pebbles of various kinds, together with the bones of elephants
and other animals before spoken of. The pebbles are of two classes,
1. composed of the wreck of the adjacent inland districts of England ;
2. large blocks and pebbles of many varieties of primitive and tran-
sition rocks which do not occur in England, and which can only be
accounted for by supposing them to have been drifted from the
* See Mr. Greenough's Geological Map for the names of lost villages all along the
east coast of England. The old church-yard at Walton, in Essex, is at this time (1823),
under the process of being cut away. It will, in a few years, be wholly destroyed.
+ It is well displayed in the quarries where the great Whin dyke crosses the Tees,
a few miles above Stockton.
a

LG
NORWEGIAN PEBBLES ON THE EAST COAST OF ENGLAND. 193
nearest continental strata of Norway, by a force of water analogous
to, and contemporaneous with that which drifted the blocks of Fin-
land granite over the plains of Russia *, and the North of Germany.
A diluvial current from the North is the only adequate cause that
can be proposed, and it is one that seems to satisfy all the conditions
of our problem.
The pebbles of iridescent felspar, like that of Labrador, which are
found on the coast near Bridlington, and resemble similar fragments
near Petersburgt, can only be referred to the primitive districts of the
most northern parts of Europe. Many of the other pebbles of the
English coast can be identified with rocks that are known to exist in
Norway, and must have been drifted hither at the time of the de-
position of the masses of clay and gravel through which they are dis-
seminated; it is impossible to refer them to any action of the present
sea, because they occur on the high table lands of the interior as well
as on the coasts, and because the cliffs themselves, being composed of
clay mixed with the pebbles in question, are undergoing daily destruc-
tion, and receive no addition from the action of the present waves.
These foreign (and probably Norwegian) pebbles on the coast of
England are mixed up with the wreck of the hills composing the in-
terior of each district respectively; and the component fragments of
* The enormous block of granite which forms the base of the celebrated statue of
the Czar Peter, at Petersburg, was one of these drifted masses that lay on the marshy
plain near that city, whence it was moved to the town on rollers and cannon balls whilst
the ground of the marshes was hardened with ice.
+ The Duke of Devonshire possesses a magnificent block of this kind of felspar,
which was found a few years since in the bed of the Neva whilst his grace was at Peters-
burg. I saw it at Chatsworth in 1821, when it had been judiciously sawn into most
beautiful slabs, each of sufficient diameter to make a small table.
а
C C

LATEST
194 WRECK OF EACH NEIGHBOURHOOD MIXED WITH THEM.
a
а
the latter are less rolled and more angular than those which have
come from the Continent: thus in the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk,
Lincoln, and Yorkshire, the diluvium contains a large proportion of
fragments of chalk and chalk-flints, which might have been derived
from the immediately subjacent strata of chalk, or their continuation
across the German Ocean by the Dogger Bank to Denmark; whilst
in the counties of Durham and Northumberland there are no remains
of chalk, but a similar admixture of the wreck of strata that
compose
the coal formation of these counties, with Scotch, Norwegian, and
Swedish rocks. In the diluvium of the numerous valleys of York-
shire, that unite to fall into the Humber, there is a similar admixture
of the debris of strata composing the adjacent country, with rounded
fragments of distant rocks; and in the county of Durham I collected,
within a few miles on the north of Darlington, pebbles of more than
20 varieties of slate and greenstone rocks, that occur no where
nearer than the Lake district of Cumberland. In the street at Dar-
lington, at the north end of the town, is a large block of granite, of
the same variety with those at Shap, near Penrith. Blocks of the
same granite lie also in the valley of Stokesley, and in the bed of the
Tees at Bernard Castle, and near the highest points of the pass of
Stainmoor Forest. Similar blocks are found also on the elevated
plain of Sedgefield, on the south-east of Durham. In all these places
they are mixed with rolled masses of various kinds of green-stone,
and porphyry.
The nearest point from which these blocks and pebbles could pos-
sibly have been derived is the Lake district of Cumberland; and the
only place in England where this peculiar kind of granite occurs in

GRAVEL NEAR NEWARK, DERBY, AND LITCHFIELD. 195
,
situ is the neighbourhood of Shap, just mentioned, from which they
are at present separated by the lofty ridge and escarpment of Cross
Fell and Stainmoor Forest. If the difficulty of transporting them
over this barrier be thought too great, the only remaining solution
will be that they have come from Norway, like the other pebbles
before mentioned, as abounding in the diluvium of the whole east
coast of England.
In the valley of the Trent, north-east of Newark, I have noticed
a similar admixture of pebbles of primitive and transition rocks, with
rounded and with angular chalk flints, that may have come from the
wolds of Lincolnshire. At Chellaston also, on the south of Derby,
higher up in the same valley, I found the gypsum quarries to be
buried beneath a thick bed of diluvial clay, through which are dis-
persed angular fragments of lias, oolite, hard chalk, and chalk flints,
drifted from no great distance, and confusedly mixed with highly
rolled pebbles of quartz, and other transition rocks.
Mr. Farey, in his Agricultural Report of Derbyshire, gives a long
and interesting list of the deposits of gravel in that county, from
which it appears, that fragments of all the English formations, from
granite upwards to chalk, are accumulated abundantly in the form of
diluvial gravel in that midland part of England, and I have myself
found plenty of chalk flints in the gravel pits three miles north-west
of the town of Derby.
It is mentioned, in a paper by Mr. Aikin, on the gravel at Litch-
field, in the 4th vol. of the Geological Transactions, that he found
near that town pebbles of granite, syenite, greenstone, schist, lime-
stone, quartz, chalcedony, and hornstone: amongst these the pebbles
cc 2

196 GRAVEL OF LEICESTER, RUTLAND, AND WARWICKSHIRE.
of coralline limestone are most abundant, and like those of hornstone
appear to have been derived from the mountain limestone of
Derbyshire.
The Rev. W. D. Conybeare has noticed in the following terms
the superficial gravel beds of the midland districts of Leicester, Rut-
land, and Buckinghamshire.
“ The gravel accumulated in the midland counties of England,”
says he, “ is worthy of much more attention than it has hitherto re-
ceived. These accumulations extend over the plains that lie between
the north-west escarpment of the great colite chain, and also over
the low tract between these hills and the north-west escarpment of
the chalk of Bucks, Herts, and Bedfordshire; but they are more par-
ticularly abundant in the former position, where extending many
fathoms in depth, they often effectually conceal the subjacent strata,
and sometimes by their acervation constitute decided hills. Tracts
of this description are particularly abundant on the borders of Rut-
land, Warwick, and Leicestershire. From Houghton on the Hill,
near Leicester, to Braunston, near Daventry, proceeding by Market
Harborough and Lutterworth, the traveller passes over a continuous
bed of gravel for about 40 miles. Near Hinckley, great depositions
of gravel, probably connected with this mass, are found, and afford
pebbles containing specimens of the organic remains of most of the
secondary strata in England. This deposition may probably be traced
continuously to that of Shipston-on-Stour, most of the hillocks scat-
tered over the lias and red marl tract, between Southam and Ship-
ston, being crowned with this gravel.
5 These accumulations of pebbles, promiscuously heaped together,

CHALK FLINTS IN CENTRAL COUNTIES.
197
are composed of the wreck of rocks of the most distant ages, and
which exist in their native state only in distant quarters of the island.
Flints from the chalk formation, accompanied by rounded masses of
hard chalk, and fragments of the different colite rocks, seem, how-
ever, decidedly predominant in Leicestershire; and next to these in
quantity are the granular quartz rock pebbles, resembling those from
the Lickey, with others of white quartz, and dark coloured hard
flinty slate. It would, however, be not difficult in many places, as
for instance on the west of Market Harborough, and in the Valley of
Shipston-on-Stour, to form almost a complete geological series of
English rocks from among these rounded fragments, which often
occur in boulders of very considerable size.
“ The immense quantities of chalk flints which are scattered in
this gravel at such a distance from the present limits of the chalk,
seem decisively to indicate that this formation once occupied a much
wider space than it does at present. A remarkable example of this
kind may be seen near Northampton, in the gravel used for roads in
Earl Spencer's Park at Althorp, which is dug in the adjoining parish
of Great Brington, and in which there is a large proportion of chalk
flints. Near Sywell also, six miles north-east of Northampton, on
the oolite formation, there are some fields as thickly strewed over
with fragments of pure white chalk, as the surface of stony arable
land is usually with the substance of the subjacent rock. And in the
south of Derbyshire, chalk flints are commonly found dispersed over
the surface of the country.”
The accumulations of gravel on the low grounds along the valley
of Buckingham and Bedford are principally composed of fragments
a
a

198 GRAVEL OF CAMBRIDGE, AND OF VALLEY OF THE THAMES.
of the neighbouring rocks of oolite and chalk, with an occasional ad-
mixture of quartz and other pebbles from the central counties. The
latter occur also in Whittlebury Forest near Northampton, and at
Brackley. The late Sir Joseph Banks informed me he had observed
pebbles of porphyry in the road gravel on the north side of the town
of Dunstable. There is no nearer place from which these latter could
have been derived than the porphyritic rocks of Charnwood Forest,
in Leicestershire.
Professor Sedgwick has ascertained, that the gravel beds on the
summit of the Gogmagog Chalk Hills, near Cambridge, and on the
hills adjoining towards Bedfordshire, as well as that in the valleys,
contain not only the wreck of chalk strata, but also fragments of
almost every formation that occurs in England; amongst them he has
found the joint of a basaltic pillar, between one and two feet long.
Another striking example of a similar kind is afforded by the
gravel of the valleys of the Thames from London to Oxford, and of
the Cherwell and Evenlode, that fall into the Thames from the
northern parts of Oxfordshire. (See Plate XXVII.) I shall subjoin,
in an appendix, a detailed account of this gravel, and of the state of
the hills and valleys over which it is dispersed, extracted from a paper
I have published on the Lickey Hill, in the 5th vol. of the Geological
Transactions. Its phenomena are in perfect unison with all the other
cases I have been examining, and show the effect of a violent rush of
waters from the north, which has drifted pebbles of quartz rock from
the plains of Warwickshire, and other central counties, over the whole
country intermediate between them and London, along the line of
these three rivers; and has mixed them up in each district with the
a
a

a
GRAVEL AND BOULDERS IN THE WEST OF ENGLAND. 199
angular and slightly rolled detritus of the adjacent hills, so that we
have pebbles of the porphyry and greenstone of Charnwood Forest,
at Abingdon, and Oxford ; and pebbles of the rocks near Birmingham,
at Henley and Maidenhead, and in Hyde Park.
It
appears
then we have evidence, that a current from the north
has drifted to their present place, along the whole east coast of
England, that portion of the pebbles there occurring, which cannot
have been derived from this country; a certain number of them may
possibly have come from the coast of Scotland, but the greater part
have apparently been drifted from the other side of the German Ocean.
It appears also that there are proofs of a similar current having passed
over the central and south-eastern parts of England; and if we
examine its western side, we find similar evidence of a violent rush
of waters from the north, in the pebbles and blocks of granite and
sienite of a very peculiar character, that have been drifted from the
Criffle Mountain in Galloway, across Solway Frith, to the north base
of the mountains of Cumberland, where I have seen them at a spot
called Shalk, between Ireby and Carlisle ; whilst pebbles and large
blocks of another kind of granite have been drifted in still greater
numbers from Ravenglass, on the west of Cumberland, over the plains
of Lancashire, Cheshire, and Staffordshire: their course is marked in
Mr. Greenough's map of England, and they lie in masses of some tons
weight on the west of the towns of Macclesfield and Stafford, and
between Dudley and Bridgnorth.
In an appendix, I shall subjoin the details of the evidence we
find in the south-west of England, to show the excavation of valleys
along the coast of Devon and Dorset, by the denuding force of the

200
VALLEY AND GRAVEL OF SOUTH-WEST OF ENGLAND.
same diluvian waters, whose effects we have been tracing in the eastern,
western, and central parts of the island. The breadth and depth of
these valleys, from Sidmouth to Bridport, may be seen, by reference
to the views of their termination in the coast, at Plate XXV. whilst
their origin and extent in the interior are marked in the map at
Plate XXVI. The highest summits of this district are also strewed
over with rolled pebbles of quartz, that must have come from some
distant part of the country, before the excavation of the valleys that
now intersect it, and probably at the same time with, and by the
agency of the same inundation from the north, which has drifted
southwards the pebbles I have already traced over so large a portion
of England.

DILUVIAL PEBBLES AND CLAY ON CAMPSEY HILLS. 201
PROOFS OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN SCOTLAND.
a
I will now proceed to consider the evidence we have, of a similar
inundation producing similar effects in Scotland.
Colonel Imrie, in his Geological Account of the Campsey
Hills, published in the second volume of the Transactions of the
Wernerian Society, page 35, has described a series of phenomena
resulting from diluvial action, in the southern district of Stir-
lingshire.
He refers the removal of certain portions of the trap-rocks, which
generally form the incumbent stratum of the Campsey district, to the
effect of heavy and rapid currents of water, and finds many parts
of their actual surface to be strewed over with an admixture of
drifted clay and rolled pebbles, analogous to that which occurs along
the east coast of England from Essex to Northumberland, and to bear
marks of violence from the friction of heavy masses of stone that have
been drifted over it.
“ In all situations of this district,” says he, “ where the trap has
disappeared, the vegetable or surface soil rests upon a strongly
tenacious blue clay, much mixed with water-worn stones, and this
blue clay rests upon sandstone. Among the water-worn stones
imbedded in the clay, I seldom found specimens of the native rocks
9
D D

202 VALLEYS EXCAVATED. SCRATCHES ON SURFACE OF ROCKS.
of the district : those which I examined consisted mostly of rocks,
generally deemed of the oldest formations, such as quartz, por-
phyries, granites, &c. ; the native beds of which are far distant to the
north and west of that part of the country.
“ The disappearance of the trap in some of the glens and
narrow vales seems to have been produced by the attrition of
heavy bodies, set in motion by a great force of water in rapid
inovement.
“ In some of the glens and narrow vales where the trap had not
entirely disappeared, I perceived upon its surface strong indications
and marks of attrition. In some places the surface of the trap was
nooth, and had evidently received a considerable degree of polish;
and this polish is almost always seen marked by long lineal scratches.
In other places there appeared narrow grooves, apparently formed by
the rapid movement of large masses of rock having swept along its
surface.
“ In the eastern part of the district there occurs a small
elevated plain, slightly undulated. Here the surface of the trap
in some places had lost its covering of soil, and was left bare for
inspection. Upon this plain I again detected some of these
scratches. Upon the surface there were scattered immense masses of
trap, which, from their apparent weight, seemed perfectly capable of
forming these scratches and grooves above described, had they been
put in motion and impelled along the surface. Upon examining
.
some of these huge masses, I found their surfaces scratched and worn
in such a way as to prove sufficiently indicative to me, that they had

SIR J. HALL. PEBBLES AND SCRATCHES NEAR EDINBURGH. 203
been long subjected to attrition in water; and I also observed, that
many of them presented their principal or most projecting angle
towards the west, and sometimes towards the north-west; which, ac-
cording to my opinion, strongly implies the direction of the current
which left them in the position in which they now rest. It is not
the object of this paper to dip into the causes of these phenomena ;
but that such currents, as were capable of the effects which I
have endeavoured to describe, have overflowed the surface of our
globe, is to me clearly evident; and these scratches and grooves
here mentioned are some of the minor, but clear proofs of its
action.”
In a very able and ingenious paper by Sir James Hall, in vol. vii.
of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, he has
recorded his discovery of similar traces of the action of a mighty
current on the surface of the hills and valleys near that city. These
districts are not only strewed over with the gravelly wreck of rocks
that have been drifted to a great distance from their native bed by
the force of violent waters; but Sir James has also observed channels
and furrows, which he calls dressings, still remaining on the surface
of the hard rocks over which these waters passed, driving before
them blocks and fragments of every substance that lay in the line of
their course, and also excavating deep valleys. Where a mass of
rock has been followed underground to where its surface has been
protected by a covering of clay, it is found to resemble a wet road
along which a number of heavy and irregular bodies have been
recently dragged ; indicating that every block that passed had left
D D 2

204
EFFECT OF AN INUNDATION ON COSTORPHINE HILL.
its trace behind. Occasionally the scratches deviate from the general
direction, but the majority agree in parallelism with each other, and
with the general direction not only of the scoops and grooves of the
rock upon which they occur, but also of the ridges and large features
of the district. The shape of many of the valleys, moreover, is
exactly similar to that of those we see excavated by water on a sand-
bank in a running brook; whilst the form and relative position
of the hills resemble those presented by the residuary portions
of the same recent sand-banks in which the brook cuts out its little
furrows.
In a small map of the immediate neighbourhood of Costorphine
Hill, on the west of Edinburgh, he gives in detail fifteen examples,
within a circle of two miles in diameter, each exhibiting both the
large and small features which indicate the action of water flowing
with violence along the surface, and carrying large blocks of stone
along with it, and points out many others in the adjacent country;
and after showing that it is quite impossible to refer these effects to
any causes now in action, arrives at the following conclusion. “ All
the diluvian facts in this neighbourhood that have come under my
observation concur in denoting one inundation, overwhelming the solid
mass of this district, this inundation being the last catastrophe to
which it has been exposed.”
The direction of the current producing these effects in the
immediate neighbourhood of Edinburgh has been from the west,
and seems to have been influenced by the local circumstances of the
hills enclosing the estuary of the Forth; but in the neighbourhood

MAIN CURRENT IN SCOTLAND FROM THE NORTH-WEST. 205
of Stirling, and on the east coast of Berwickshire, and generally
where deviations have not arisen from local causes, it appears to
have been from the north-west*.
* The whole of this paper is so very accurate and satisfactory, that I strongly
recommend the perusal of it to the attention of every one who has the smallest doubts as
to the evidence there is to prove that the surface of the earth owes its last form not to
the gradual action of existing causes, but to the excavating force of a suddenly over-
whelming and transient mass of waters.
a

206 SCRATCHES NEAR LLANRWST. GRAVEL IN SOUTH WALES.
EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN WALES.
a
а
a
In North Wales Mr. Underwood has noticed a similar effect of
diluvial scratches and scorings on the surface of the slate-rock, where
it is immediately covered with a very thick bed of gravel, in a section
of the new Irish road at Dinas Hill, about one mile east of Bettws y
coed, near Llanrwst, and about a mile and a half east of the bridge
called Waterloo Bridge. It is a case completely similar to those I
have quoted from Sir James Hall, and Colonel Imrie.
The deposits of gravel I have already mentioned in the Vale of
Clwydd, and the valleys excavated in the hills adjacent to it, are
equally of diluvial origin ; and the whole low country of South
Wales, from the estuary of the Severn for several miles inland, is
strewed over irregularly with large boulders and beds of gravel,
derivative by diluvial actions from the mountains that flank this
district on the north* The surface and sides of these mountains
are also intersected by very deep and narrow valleys of denudation ;
a good example of which is afforded by the valleys of the Taff, the
Ebwy, and the Neath.
* Near Penllergare, in the parish of Langerelach, about 5 miles north of Swansea,
Mr. Dillwyn pointed out to me large blocks of mountain limestone, some of them 6 feet
square, in the midst of gravel, which is chiefly composed of the debris of coal measures.
The nearest limestone rock on the north of this spot, is at the distance of 10 miles.

VALLEYS EXCAVATED IN THE NORTH AND EAST OF IRELAND. 207
EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN IRELAND.
1. With respect to Ireland, I shall adduce a few facts only, to show
that it presents diluvial phenomena altogether identical with those
in England and Scotland.
In the Philosophical Transactions for 1808, Dr. Richardson has
pointed out the effect of mighty currents of water in excavating
valleys, many hundred feet deep, in the county of Antrim, and
adjoining parts of the north of Ireland; and Mr. Weaver, in his
very valuable Memoir on the Geology of the East of Ireland, in the
fifth volume of the Geological Transactions, p. 294, has discussed
with his usual accuracy the subject of the excavation of valleys, and
the gravel produced by denudation in the counties of Wicklow and
Wexford.
It seems impossible,” says he, “ to consider the form of any con-
siderable portion of the surface of the earth, or to reflect even upon
the nature and disposition of its alluvial tracts, without recognizing
the powerful agency of an agitated fluid in a state of retrocession.
The abrupt and curved outlines, the fractured surfaces and de-
nudations of extensive tracts, the sinuosities of glens, defiles, and
valleys, the salient and re-entering angles, the plains, all betray its
course and moulding force. To ascribe such appearances to a
gradual degradation produced by the influence of the atmosphere
and the current of streams, seems to be assuming causes wholly

208
BLOCKS OF GRANITE AND LIMESTONE GRAVEL.
inadequate to such effects.” “ The flanks of the central part of the
mountain chain of Wicklow and Carlow are strewed with native
debris ; and these are dispersed over lower ranges for a distance of
some miles from the central group, and sometimes under circum-
stances that claim particular attention. Cronebane Hill (being com-
posed of slate) bears upon its summit a boulder of granite (called
motty-stone) 99 feet high, and 42 feet in circumference, and the
sides of the hill are also strewed with boulders of granite nearly as
large. How then did these attain their present position? The
nearest granite rock is that which extends from the eastern bank of
the Avonmore, towards West Aston Hill; but this is very dissimilar
in aspect to the granite boulders on Cronebane. The next granite
in point of distance is that of Ballincarrig, on the banks of the
Avonbeg; yet in both these instances the granite rock is found
in a situation several hundred feet lower than the summit of
Cronebane.”
66 Whence are the limestone, gravel, and marl derived, which we
find distributed along the coast of the counties of Wicklow and
Wexford ? The nearest visible limestone rock in the northern
quarter is that which occurs at Williamstown and Booterstown, on
the southern side of the bay of Dublin ; and to the southward, the
first rock of this description that appears is on the south coast of the
town of Wexford.”
After describing other phenomena of the same kind, he proceeds :
" It is worthy of observation, that many of these deposits of lime-
stone pebbles, gravel, and marl, are situated at distances from two
to ten miles from the nearest part of the continuous calcareous tract,

RIDGES OF GRAVEL ON LIMESTONE PLAINS OF IRELAND. 209
and at an elevation reaching to two, three, and four hundred feet
higher than the existing surface of the limestone rock itself.”
66 The limestone field also abounds in rolled calcareous masses,
pebbles, gravel, sand, and marl, often raised into hillocks or long
extended ridges, which seem to owe their form to the action of eddies
and currents. There is scarcely any part of the extensive limestone
tract in the centre of Ireland, that is not more or less marked by
them. Sometimes these ridges appear like regular mounds, the work
of art, forming a continued line of several miles in extent: that
which passes by Maryborough, in the Queen's County, is a remarkable
instance of this kind; and similar mounds, hillocks, and ridges,
occur also in the counties of Meath, Westmeath, Kildare, Carlow,
and other portions of the limestone field, in which the calcareous
gravel and sand frequently exhibit a stratified disposition, the alter-
nate layers being very distinct from each other.”—Further details
as to these ridges of limestone gravel may be seen in the Irish Bog
Reports.
It is needless to adduce further evidence than this to show the
effects of diluvial action to be as unequivocally displayed in Ireland
as in other parts of the British Islands. I do not recollect to have
seen in England examples of such distinct and lofty ridges of
diluvial gravel, as those in the limestone plains of Ireland, excepting
in the level district of Holderness, on the east coast of Yorkshire.
Here there are similar ridges, known locally by the name of barfs,
and composed chiefly of rolled chalk flints, and a few primitive
pebbles (apparently Norwegian). The most remarkable of these is
near Bransburton, on the north-east of Beverley: it stretches across
2
-
E E

210 GRAVEL RIDGES IN HOLDERNESS AND NORTHUMBERLAND.
a
the plain like a vast chesil-bank on the sea-shore, being about 50 feet
high, and 100 broad at the base, and nearly a furlong in length, and
has at first sight the appearance of an artificial military mound of
enormous magnitude: it bears marks of having been applied to mi-
litary purposes, but is clearly of diluvial origin.
There is also in the county of Northumberland a similar narrow
ridge of diluvial gravel, resembling a long military vallum, which runs
some distance, nearly parallel to the great north road, a few miles on
the north of Alnwick; it is on nearly the highest point of an elevated
plain, and is intersected near its south extremity by the public road,
and in several other places by gaps that have been cut through it to
enter the adjacent fields. I hope hereafter to be enabled to give a
more detailed account of this gravel bank, which I expect to receive
from my friend W. C. Trevelyan, Esq. of Wallington.
todo
Busque ad oma
os buscando o
teatro
bet bos bolsas Bolle

DILUVIAL GRAVEL IN FRANCE.
W
211
PROOFS OF DILUVIAL ACTION ON THE CONTINENT.
M. Cuvier and Brongniart, in their Geological Map of the Basin
of Paris, show that the actual form and position of many of the hills
in this district, especially on the side of Fontainbleau, where they
stand insulated, and in rows parallel to the main direction of the
valley of the Seine, can only be referred to the denuding force of a
transient mass of waters. To the same waters must be referred also
the pebbles of granite, and other distant primitive rocks that occur in
this same neighbourhood, mixed with the wreck of the adjacent hills;
and I must again refer my readers to M. Brongniart's excellent
treatise on the natural history of water, in the 14th vol. of the Dic-
tionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, for further and abundant evidence
of a violent deluge having produced the actual form of the hills and
valleys, and superficial deposits of loam and gravel that occur in France.
In Buffon's History of the Epochs of Nature*, we find his description
also of the state of the valleys in France, and of their forms, as derived
from the excavating force of a mass of waters, to be in perfect har-
mony with those of the other authors I have been just quoting.
In Italy M. Brongniart has described the summit of the Superga,
near Turin, to be covered with blocks of serpentine, and accu-
a
*
* Vol. XII. p. 159, Deux Pont edit. 1782.
E E 2

212
DILUVIAL BOULDERS IN ITALY AND SWITZERLAND.
mulations of sand and gravel (which he calls “ terrains de transport
anciens,” as compared with the postdiluvian detritus of the floods of
modern rivers), reposing on the regular strata of that steep and
almost insulated mountain. These blocks can only have arrived
at their present place by being drifted from some part of the distant
Alpine chain that encircles the upper extremity of the valley of
the Po.
De Saussure has recorded a valuable series of observations on the
effects of what he calls the DEBACLE, or breaking up and transport
of massive rocks and gravel, by an enormous rush of waters, in
Switzerland. The most remarkable of these is the transport of
blocks of granite from Mont Blanc * to the Jura Mountains, across
the space which is now the Lake and Valley of Geneva. These
effects appear to be only a larger example of that same diluvial
action which we have been tracing in other countries; and which
has operated in Switzerland on a scale proportionate to the mag-
nitude of the Alpine masses on which it had to exert itself. For
the detail of these effects, I must refer to Saussure's own descriptions,
and to Sir James Hall's excellent paper in the Edinburgh Philo-
sophical Transactions, before quoted ; in which he offers some very
ingenious and not improbable conjectures, as to the manner in
* These blocks lie on the Jura Mountains, at an elevation of 2000 feet above the
Lake of Geneva. Their size in some cases amounts, as in the Valley of Monetier, upon
the Saleve Mountain, to 1200 cubic feet; and in the case of those on the Coteau de
Boissy to 2250, and even to 10,296 cubic feet, which is the measure of the block called
Pierre à Martin.

VALLEYS OF DENUDATION IN CENTRAL GERMANY.
213
which these stupendous operations which have taken place in Switzer-
land were brought about.
Baron Von Schlotheim, in his Nachtrage zur Petrefactenkunde,
1822, describes, in the following terms, the valleys of denudation
which traverse the plains of Saxony, on the south-west of Leipsig.
And I remember to have been myself struck with them as being very
remarkable in the vicinity of Jena, where they afford some of the
most decided examples of deep valleys and gorges excavated entirely
by diluvial action which I am acquainted with in Germany.
“ The deep narrow valleys and defiles prevailing in the neigh-
bourhood of Jena, in the valley of the Muhl, and further towards
Drakendorf and Köstritz, clearly show the power with which the
ancient waters raged when these channels were excavated, in which at
present flow the Saale, the Elster, and the adjoining smaller streams.
It is manifest that during the course of this operation large tracts of
the limestone superincumbent on the gypsum, as well as of the new
red sandstone, were torn and swept away.”
M. Schlotheim is disposed to consider these as local occurrences,
and to attribute them to the bursting, at successive periods, of
the barrier of some fresh-water lakes. But this solution is in-
admissible, unless we assume the existence of similar lakes at
the head of every stream, and of every valley in the world; for
there are none in which the effects of similar denudation are not
apparent: and Mr. Weaver, in his comment on this passage, most
judiciously remarks, that lakes in the present course of nature have
a tendency to fill up, by a gradual accumulation on their bottoms,

214
VALLEYS NOT EXCAVATED BY CAUSES IN ACTION.
and not to burst their barriers; and that whatever antediluvian lakes
and inland seas may have formerly existed, the gorges and defiles by
which their waters were discharged can be referred to no physical
cause at present in action, but were excavated by some extraneous and
more mighty power than the waters of the lakes themselves; and
“ where,” says he, “ is such a power to be found, but in the agency of
the diluvian waters ?”
sved os savode od osm sod

BLOCKS DRIFTED FROM THE NORTH TO LAKE HURON,
215
DILUVIAL ACTION IN NORTH AMERICA.
a
Dr. Bigsby, in his Memoir on the Geography and Geology of Lake
Huron, which is about to appear in the 2d part of the first volume of
the new series of the Geological Transactions of London, has traced in
America the similar action of a violent flood of waters rushing also from
the north, and drifting from thence blocks of various primitive rocks
over the secondary and transition formations that compose the basin
of that lake. He also notices in this same district, effects similar to
the diluvial denudations in Europe, in the excavation of valleys, the
separation of islands from the mainland, the formation of crags and
serrated ridges of rocks, and the wearing away of the highest
summits; and shows that these cannot be attributed to any causes
now in action, or to any gradual subsidence of the waters of the
lake, but must be referred to the great debacle of a flood advancing
from the north. The same waters, he adds, have accumulated
immense deposits of sand and gravel, in heaps and ridges, at various
levels of the main shores and islands in the lake. These travelled
fragments are foreign to the district they pervade, and are almost
exclusively of the older class of rocks; granite, gneiss, mica slate,
greenstone, porphyry, sienite, and amygdaloids, which occur not in
the neighbourhood, but may be shown to have come from the north,
a

216
POSTDILUVIAN DETRITUS.
and can many of them be traced to their original source in that
direction. Between Lake Erie also and Lake Huron, he states the
beaches and woods to be strewed with masses of gneiss, porphyries,
conglomorates, and greenstones; and that similar blocks appear on
the north coast of Lake Erie, which itself is for the most part com-
posed of a series of clay-cliffs and sand-hills.
He moreover draws an accurate distinction between these diluvial
driftings of the great debacle, and the small and usually angular
debris of strata produced by causes now in existence: this latter
remains unmoved nearly in the place in which it is formed, at the
base of the parent-cliffs from which it has fallen. Thus the opposite
shores of Pelletau, on Lake Huron, being of different formations, the
one limestone, the other greenstone, each is lined with its own debris,
and without admixture.
In the fifth volume, number 2, of Silliman's American Journal of
Science, he also gives an excellent example of another species of
postdiluvian operations, viz. the forming of terraces, like the parallel
roads described by Dr. Macculloch, at Glenroy, in Scotland, around
the edges of lakes and on the flanks of great rivers, at considerable
elevations above the level of their present waters: terraces of this
kind are not uncommon in North America. The case I now quote is
that of the valley of St. Etienne, near Malbay, in which Dr. Bigsby
accompanies his description with a map; by which it appears that
this valley has been a postdiluvian lake, which has lowered its level
at successive periods, by the breaking down at distant intervals
of the gorge through which the Malbay river now flows into the

PARALLEL TERRACES IN EUROPE.-BOULDERS IN NOVA SCOTIA. 217
St. Lawrence. The parallel terraces that encircle this dry valley
show the number of successive stages by which the bursting of
the gorge took place, and are exactly similar to those engraved in
Dr. Macculloch's paper above quoted, in the fourth volume of the
Geological Transactions *
Sir Alexander Croke has informed me, that the summits of some
of the highest hills in Nova Scotia, being composed of slate, are
strewed over with large blocks of granite. The present position of
these fragments can only be accounted for by supposing them to
have been drifted from the nearest granite districts by the same
rush of waters that transported those described by Dr. Bigsby in
the districts of Lake Huron and Lake Erie. And Dr. Meade, of
a
* I have myself observed a similar appearance of successive terraces flanking the
valleys of the Rhine below Basel; of the Salza, at Golling, on the south of Saltzburg;
of the Iser, at Munich; and on the sides of many other rivers that descend from the
Alps. These terraces are all of postdiluvial origin, and are often formed on diluvial
gravel, and indicate either the shores of lakes that have at successive periods burst their
barriers, and lowered their level, or become entirely dry; or, where they occur on the
sides of rivers, they are cliffs or escarpments cut in diluvial gravel by floods of
extraordinary height, resulting either from unusual tempests, or from the bursting
I have just mentioned of lakes in the higher districts from which these rivers are
supplied.
The examples here mentioned, of the bursting of lakes, militate at first sight against
the observation I have quoted from Mr. Weaver, that modern lakes have not a tendency
to burst their barriers, but to fill up; still, however, he is right in his general rule, that
such is the ordinary course of nature with respect to them. The bursting of modern
lakes is of rare occurrence; and wherever it has happened, there is evidence of the fact,
in its leaving parallel terraces of gravel on its ancient shores; and when we consider
how very few the valleys are in which such terraces occur (the neighbourhood of Glen
Roy, for example, being the only instance we know in Britain), it is obvious that these
few cases are but rare exceptions to the general rule which Mr. Weaver has laid
down.
F F

218 BOULDERS IN NEW YORK-GOLD SAND OF SOUTH AMERICA.
Philadelphia, in his account of the mineral waters of Ballaston and
Saratoga, in the state of New York, about 200 miles north of that
city, states, “ That the surface of the ground, which is here composed
of shale and limestone, is covered with large insulated masses of
stone, commonly called boulders, consisting of large blocks of quartz,
and rolled masses of other primitive rocks. These (he adds) must
have been transmitted from the neighbouring mountains, as they are
not attached to the rocks in situ, and have no connexion with them :
they are found in every country, and only prove the action of an
extensive flood of waters.”
In this dispersion of blocks of granite and beds of gravel in
North America, we have evidence of a debacle by the diluvian
waters in the western hemisphere, analogous to that we have been
examining in Europe ; and the presence of the bones of elephants,
and other animals which are common to the gravel of both con-
tinents, shows that the time of its formation was in each case the
same.
In South America the sand and gravel in which they find the
tin of Mexico, and such extensive deposits of grains of gold and
precious stones, are composed of the diluvial wreck of mountains,
in which, as their matrix, these minerals were once imbedded, and
where they would have remained to the present hour, had they not
been broken down and reduced to sand and gravel by the same
diluvial waters that have in a similar manner overspread Europe
with the detritus of its own mountains. I have already mentioned
metalliferous examples of this detritus in the stream tin ore of Corn-
wall, and the lead ore that is similarly circumstanced in the Vale of
3

GOLD SAND IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 219
Clwydd. In the same gravel of Cornwall, and in that of Devon,
Wales, and Scotland, small pebbles and grains of gold have occa-
sionally been found; and in Ireland the gold mine that was worked
a few years since in the county of Wicklow was simply a stream-work,
in which the gold was dispersed in the form of small pebbles and
sand, through a bed of gravel *.
* For an account of this gold mine, see an excellent paper by Mr. Weaver, in the
Transactions of the Geological Society, vol. v. p. 207.
.
FF 2

220 GOLD SAND OF AFRICA AND ASIA. III
PROOFS OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN AFRICA AND ASIA.
The gold that occurs so largely in various parts of Africa is
chiefly found, like that last spoken of, in the state of small rolled
grains disseminated through diluvial sand and gravel ; so also is the
tin, which is so abundant in the peninsula of Malacca, and in Banca,
and other islands adjacent to Sumatra, being simply diluvial or stream
tin, like that of the gravel of Cornwall.
In Hindoostan, near Bombay, agates and onyx stones are col-
lected as pebbles from diluvial gravel beds; whilst many of the plains
in the interior of India contain amidst their gravel rolled pebbles of
copper ore, in quantity sufficient to send large supplies of malachite
to the eastern markets. The greater part of the diamonds also of
India, as well as of South America, and the precious stones of Ceylon,
are found dispersed in the state of small sand and pebbles through
diluvial gravel. In the same kind of gravel also are found the topaz
pebbles of Cairn Gorm, in Scotland.
The erroneous idea of the old mineralogists, that the sand of all
rivers in the world contains gold, is true only of those which flow
through countries that are strewed with the wreck of mountains,
through which gold had been once disseminated, i. e. of primitive
and transition rocks; and as most great rivers of the world have their
origin in rocks of this kind, the very general dispersion of grains of
gold along their course adds another fact to the many I have already
advanced, to show the effects of diluvial action to be co-extensive
with the surface of the whole earth.

ALPS AND CARPATHIANS HAVE BEEN UNDER WATER.
221
PROOFS OF INUNDATION AT HIGH LEVELS.
It has been asserted by writers of high authority, and even by
Cuvier, that the occurrence of the diluvian remains of the larger
animals is limited to the lower regions and great valleys of the world;
and an inference has been drawn, that the waters of the flood, by
which they perished, did not cover the summits of the higher
mountains*.
Against this hypothesis the following facts appear decisive. ist. .
The blocks of granite, which have been transported from the heights
of Mont Blanc to the Jura mountains, could not have been moved
from their parent mountain, which is the highest in Europe, had not
that mountain been below the level of the water by which they were
so transported.
2d. The Alps and Carpathians, and all the other mountain re-
gions I have ever visited in Europe, bear in the form of their com-
ponent hills the same evidence of having been modified by the force
of water, as do the hills of the lower regions of the earth ; and in
their valleys also, where there was space to afford it a lodgement, I
have always found diluvial gravel of the same nature and origin with
that of the plains below, and which can be clearly distinguished from
the postdiluvian detritus of mountain torrents or rivers.
a
* D'ailleurs l'inondation qui les a enfouis ne s'est point élevée au-dessus des grandes
chaîns de montagnes, puisque les couches qu'elle a déposées et qui recouvrent les osse-
mens ne se trouvent que dans des plaines peu élevées.-Cuvier, vol. i. p. 202.
—

222 BONES IN SOUTH AMERICA AT ELEVATION ABOVE 7000 FEET.
3d. With regard to the bones of animals that perished by this
great inundation, although they have not yet been discovered in
the high alpine gravel beds of Europe (which is but a negative fact),
we have in America the bones of the mastodon at an elevation of
7800 feet above the sea, in the Camp de Géants, near Santa Fe de
Bagota ; and another species of the same genus in the Cordilleras,
found by Humboldt, at the elevation of 7200 feet, near the volcano
of Imbaburra, in the kingdom of Quito. Mr. Humboldt has also
found the tooth of the fossil elephant, resembling that of the northern
hemisphere, at Hue-huetoca, on the plain of Mexico; and if the
animal remains of this era have not yet been discovered at such heights
as these in Europe, let it be recollected that we have no elevated
mountain plains like those in America ; that our highest mountains
are but narrow peaks, and ridges of small extent, when compared with
the low country that surrounds them; and that if it were proved
(which it is not) that the animals inhabited these highest points, it
is more than probable that their carcases would have been drifted off,
as the greater mass of their gravel has been, into the lower levels of
the adjacent country.
But in central Asia the bones of horses and deer have been found at
an elevation of 16,000 feet above the sea, in the Hymalaya mountains.
The bones I am now speaking of are at the Royal College of Surgeons
in London, and were sent last year to Sir E. Home, by Captain W. S.
Webb, who procured them from the Chinese Tartars of Daba, who
assured him that they were found in the north face of the snowy
ridge of Kylas, in lat. 32, at a spot which Captain Webb calculates
to be not less than 16,000 feet high : they are only obtained from the

BONES ON HYMALAYA CHAIN AT 16,000 FEET.
223
a
masses that fall with the avalanches from the regions of perpetual
snow, and are therefore said by the natives to have fallen from the
clouds, and to be the bones of genii. Those I have seen are the
astragalus, head of femur, and portions of humerus of a small species
of horse, and some bones of deer; their medullary cavities and cancelli
are lined, or entirely filled with white crystalline carbonate of lime,
beautifully transparent, and the bone itself is white, and very absorbent
to the tongue; their matrix is a grey calcareous sand, adhering firmly
to the bones, and interspersed with small concretions of carbonate of
lime. There were also found with them the bones of bears *.
The occurrence of these bones at such an enormous elevation in
the regions of eternal snow, and consequently in a spot now unfre-
quented by such animals as the horse and deer, can, I think, be ex-
plained only by supposing them to be of antediluvian origin, and that
the carcases of the animals were drifted to their present place, and
lodged in sand, by the diluvial waters.
This appears to me the most probable solution that can be sug-
gested; and, should it prove the true one, will add a still more
decisive fact to those of the granite blocks drifted from the heights of
Mont Blanc to the Jura, and the bones of diluvial animals found by
Humboldt on the elevated plains of South America, to show that
“ all the high hills and the mountains under the whole heavens
were covered,” at the time when the last great physical change by
an inundation of water took place, over the surface of the whole
earth.
* For further particulars, received from Captain Webb, respecting these bones,
see the Quarterly Review, No. 57, p. 155.

224 MR. GREENOUGH'S EVIDENCE OF ONE UNIVERSAL DELUGE.
a
Thus far I have produced a various and, in my judgment, incon-
trovertible body of facts, to show that the whole earth has been sub-
jected to a recent and universal inundation. The same opinion is
maintained in Mr. Greenough’s Examination of the First Principles
of Geology, where he concludes his admirable summary of phenomena
derivative from diluvial action, in all quarters of the earth, with the
following important passages. “The universal diffusion of alluvial
sand, gravel, &c. proves that at some time or other an inundation has
taken place in all countries; and the presence of similar alluvial de-
posits, both organic and inorganic, in neighbouring or distant islands,
though consisting often of substances foreign to the rocks of which
the islands are respectively composed, makes it highly probable at
least, that these deposits are products of the same inundation. The
universal occurrence of mountains and valleys, and the symmetry
which pervades their several branches and inosculations, are further
proofs, not only that a deluge has swept over every part of the globe,
but probably the same deluge.” He also shows it to be highly pro-
bable, “ that the order of things immediately preceding the deluge
closely resembled the present order, and was suddenly interrupted by
a general flood, which swept away the quadrupeds from the con-
tinents, tore up the solid strata, and reduced the surface to a state of
ruin : but this disorder was of short duration; the mutilated earth did
not cease to be a planet; animals and plants, similar to those which
had perished, once more adorned its surface; and nature again sub-
mitted to that regular system of laws, which has continued uninter-
rupted to the present day.”

OPINIONS OF CATCOTT, JONES, HUTCHINSON, AND CUVIER. 225
In the works of Catcott, Jones, and Hutchinson *, a mass of strong
evidence is brought forward to show the agency of diluvial currents in
excavating valleys, over large portions of the surface of this island.
And M. Cuvier, in his Essay on the Theory of the Earth, expresses
his conviction, that if there be any one fact thoroughly established
by geological investigations, it is that of the low antiquity of the
present state of the surface of the earth, and the circumstance of
its having been overwhelmed at no very distant period by the waters
of a transient deluge; and although Voltaire may have indulged
himself in denying the possibility of such an event t, and Linnæus
have overlooked its evidences t, the discoveries of modern geology,
founded on the accurate observation of natural phenomena, prove to
* See Catcott, on the Deluge, 1768; Jones's Physiological Disquisitions; and
Hutchinson's Works, Vol. XII.
+ “ Y a-t-il eu un temps où le globe a été entièrement inonde ? Cela est physique-
ment impossible.”_Voltaire, Dict. Phil. Art. Inondation.
| The opinion expressed by Linnæus, that he could discover in the earth's struc-
ture no proofs whatever of a deluge amidst abundant evidences of very high antiquity;
was obvious to be adopted by an accurate observer, at a time when it was attempted to
explain all the phenomena of stratification and organic remains, by reference to this
single catastrophe; the infant state of geology at that time rendered it almost impos-
sible to distinguish the phenomena which are strictly of diluvial origin from those which
must be referred to other and more ancient causes: but the advances that have
since been made in this science have established a numerous and widely varied series of
facts, a certain class of which bears as unequivocal evidence of the existence of a deluge
at no very distant period, as the phenomena of stratification afford on the other hand
of more ancient revolutions affecting our planet during the time in which its strata
were deposited ; and it has been from want of accuracy in distinguishing between these
two distinct classes of facts that errors have arisen, such as those into which Linnæus
fell. For an explanation of the manner in which these natural appearances may be
reconciled with the Mosaic account of the creation, I must again refer to my inaugural
lecture, before quoted.
G G

226 SUMMARY OF FACTS PROVING AN UNIVERSAL DELUGE.
demonstration, that there has been an universal inundation of the
earth, though they have not yet shown by what physical cause it was
produced : and I cannot better conclude this part of my subject
than by extracting from my inaugural lecture, before alluded to, the
following summary of the facts to which, in addition to those af-
forded by the interior of caves and fissures, I now appeal. They are
as follows:
I. The general shape and position of hills and valleys; the
former having their sides and surfaces universally modified by the
action of violent waters, and presenting often the same alternation
of salient and retiring angles that mark the course of a common
river; and the latter, in those cases which are called valleys of
denundation, being attended with such phenomena as show them to
owe their existence entirely to excavation under the action of a flood
of waters.
II. The almost universal confluence and successive inosculations
of minor valleys with each other, and final termination of them all in
some main trunk which conducts their waters to the sea ; and the rare
interruption of their courses by transverse barriers producing lakes.
III. The occurrence of detached insulated masses of horizontal
strata, called outliers, at considerable distances from the beds of
which they once evidently formed a continuous part, and from which
they have been separated at a recent period by deep and precipitous
valleys of denudation.
IV. The immense deposits of gravel that occur occasionally on
the summit and slopes of hills, and almost universally in valleys over
a
ܪ

SUMMARY OF FACTS PROVING AN UNIVERSAL DELUGE. 227
the whole world ; in situations to which no torrents or rivers that
are now in action could ever have drifted them.
V. The nature of this gravel, being in part composed of the
wreck of the neighbouring hills, and partly of fragments and blocks
that have been transported from very distant regions.
VI. The nature and condition of the organic remains peculiar to
this gravel ; many of them being identical with, and others not di-
stinguishable from, species that now exist, and very few having under-
gone the smallest process of mineralization. Their condition resembles
that of common grave bones, being in so recent a state and having
undergone so little decay, that if the records of history, and the cir-
cumstances that attend them, did not absolutely forbid such a sup-
position, we should be inclined to attribute them even to a much
later period than the deluge: and certainly there is in my opinion
no single fact connected with them, that should lead us to date their
origin from any more ancient era*.
VII. The total impossibility of referring any one of these ap-
pearances to the effect of ancient or modern rivers, or any other
* This gravel contains also rolled fragments of various organic bodies, more ancient
than those we are now considering, and which were embedded in the strata of whose
detritus the gravel is composed; e. g. belemnites, corals, oyster-shells, from the chalk
and oolite formations, &c.: these are wholly distinct from the organic remains, which
are peculiar to diluvium; the latter being chiefly the bones of quadrupeds that
inhabited the land, and the shells of mollusca that inhabited the sea at the period
immediately preceding the inundation, by which the gravel in question was formed.
The shells accumulated in the diluvial gravel of Suffolk and Norfolk, and known
locally by the name of Crag, are an example of the remains I now allude to. They appear
to be marine shells, drifted inland from the bottom of the antediluvian ocean, by the
same currents that produced the gravel through which they are now dispersed, in the
cliffs along the coast, and over the interior of these counties; and with very
few
excep-
tions, they agree in species with shells that at present inhabit the adjacent seas.
G G2

228 SUMMARY OF FACTS PROVING AN UNIVERSAL DELUGE.
a
causes, that are now, or appear ever to have been in action, since the
retreat of the diluvian waters.
VIII. The analogous occurrence of similar phenomena in almost
all the regions of the world that have hitherto been scientifically
investigated, presenting a series of facts that are uniformly consistent
with the hypothesis of a contemporaneous and diluvial origin.
IX. The perfect harmony and consistency in the circumstances of
those few changes that now go on, (e. g. the formation of ravines and
gravel by mountain torrents; the limited depth and continual growth
of peat bogs; the formation of tufa, sand-banks, deltas, coral reefs, and
streams of lava; and the filling up of lakes, estuaries, and marshes,)
with the hypothesis which dates the commencement of all such
operations at a period not more ancient than that which our received
chronologies assign to the deluge.
All these facts, whether considered collectively or separately,
present such a conformity of proofs, tending to establish the uni-
versality of a recent inundation of the earth, as no difficulties or
objections that have hitherto arisen are in any way sufficient to
overrule.
In the full confidence that these difficulties will at length be
removed by the further extension of physical observations, we may
for the present rest satisfied with the argument that numberless
phenomena have been already ascertained, which without the admis-
sion of an universal deluge, it seems not easy, nay, utterly impossible
to explain.

POSTSCRIPT.
;
As I have ventured in this work to controvert the opinions ex-
pressed by M. Cuvier in his first edition, on points of high import-
ance, in relation to the chronology of the animal remains contained
in the caves, fissures, and diluvian gravel ; I am much gratified that
the recent publication of the fourth volume of his second edition
enables me to subjoin the testimony of that illustrious naturalist to
the correctness of my views on the points in question, and to add the
flattering sanction of his full approbation of the description I have
published of the cave at Kirkdale, and of the important inferences I
have founded upon its phenomena.
At page 224, discussing the date of the osseous breccia of
Gibraltar, and on the coast of the Mediterranean, which he had before
considered to be more recent than the bones in the caves and diluvian
gravel, M. Cuvier says, “ Je reviens donc à l'idée que je n'avois osé
embrasser autrefois ; celle que ces dépôts des brèches osseuses ont été
formés aux dépens de la population contemporaire des rhinocéros et
des éléphans fossiles.”
And again at page 486, “ les brèches osseuses paroissent aujour-

230
OPINION OF M. CUVIER.
d'hui sous un point de vue d'un intérêt tout nouveau ; le nombre
des espèces, manifestement inconnues et des espèces au moins
étrangéres, qu'elles recèlent, s'est beaucoup accru.” “Ces espèces in-
connues reculent l'âge d'une grande partie de ces brèches bien au
delà de l'époque où on les croyoit formées, et portent à les regarder
au moins comme contemporaines des couches qui renferment les os
d'éléphant, de rhinocéros, et d'hippopotame.”
This is precisely the evidence to which I appealed in my first
account of Kirkdale, as that which would be decisive of the antiquity
I wished to establish with respect to the bones of the osseous breccia
at Gibraltar, and in other similar fissures.
With respect also to the relative ages of the bones found in
caverns, and in diluvium, M. Cuvier admits the same conclusion, page
486. “ Les cavernes à ossemens réclament aujourd'hui la même an-
tiquité. Parmi les nombreux carnassiers qui les remplissent, il en est
un, l'hyène, qui s'est trouvé associé soit à Kirkdale, soit à Fouvent,
soit près de Canstadt et d'Eichstadt, aux éléphans, aux rhinocéros,
à narines cloisonnées, aux hippopotames, en un mot, aux grands
pachydermes des terrains meubles; et comme la même espèce
accompagne à Gailenreuth les tigres et les grands ours elle fait
nécessairement remonter ces derniers animaux aussi haut qu'elle
dans le temps."
And again at page 305, speaking of the same subject, he says,
* Il est suffisamment prouvé que ces divers animaux ont vécus ensem-
ble dans les mêmes pays et ont appartenu à la même époque. Ce
fait important me paroît avoir été parfaitement établi par M. Buck-
land.”

OPINION OF M. CUVIER.
231
With respect to Kirkdale, he says, page 394, “ Le depôt le plus
abundant en os d'hyène que l'on ait jamais observé, où leur nombre
va pour ainsi dire jusqu'au merveilleux, c'est la caverne de Kirkdale,
dans le comté d’York, que j'ai décrite ci-dessus d'après M. Buck-
land.”
And at page 302, “ En général, il paroit qu'avant les dernières
découvertes, et surtout celle qui vient d'être faite dans le comté
d’York, on ne connoissoit guère que celles d'Allemagne, et de
Hongrie, qui fussent riches en ossemens de carnassiers.
“ A la vérité, on pouvoit déjà croire que le rocher de Fouvent,
dont nous avons parlé dans notre premier volume, et qui montre
dans une de ses cavités des os d'hyènes en même temps que d'élé-
phans, de rhinocéros, et de chevaux, appartenoit à cet ordre de
phénomènes, mais, comme on ne pénétra point dans la profondeur,
on ne put constater ce qui en étoit.
“ Il n'en a pas été de même de la caverne de Kirkdale. Visitée
aussitôt après sa découverte par plusieurs hommes instruits, et
surtout par le savant et ingénieux géoliste, M. Buckland, on n'a rien
à desirer à son sujet.”
M. Cuvier also expresses an opinion which coincides entirely with
my own, “ that the human race had not established themselves in
those countries where the animal remains under consideration have
hitherto been found, in the period preceding the grand inundation
by which they were destroyed.”


APPENDIX.
Η Η


APPENDIX.
ON THE EXCAVATION OF VALLEYS BY DILUVIAL
DENUDATION.
I HAVE reserved for this place, in the form of an Appendix, the
following details respecting two districts which I have already quoted
in my specification of the proofs of diluvial action in the south of
England, because the particulars herein enumerated would have
interrupted the course of my former argument; and also, because
they have already been published in the first volume of the New
Series of the Geol. Trans. Part I., and in the fifth volume of the Old
Series of the same Transactions, Part II. They relate to the valleys
of denudation that intersect the coast of Devon and Dorset, and to
the excavation of valleys and dispersion of beds of gravel in the
county of Warwick, and along the course of the Cherwell, Evenlode,
and Thames, from Warwickshire to London.
We have few opportunities of witnessing by direct experiment
or observation the force of immense masses of water, in excavating
hollows on the earth's surface, and removing to a great distance the
fragments which they tear away; and were it not for the ravages we
occasionally see produced by such comparatively trifling causes, as
the bursting of a dyke in Holland, or of the barrier of an Alpine
HH 2

236 FORCE OF LARGE MASSES OF WATER SET IN MOTION.
a
lake, we could scarcely believe that there are valleys of many miles
in breadth, and many hundred feet in depth, which owe their origin
exclusively to the excavating power of a flood of waters.
Our present rivers excavate but little, as they flow through
valleys already formed by an overwhelming ocean; and the de-
structive action of the present sea is limited to the partial cutting
away of cliffs by the slow undermining of the waves in storms and at
high tides. Yet we know from the effect of a mountain torrent
in cutting ravines and drifting gravel; from the blocks of granite
which were lifted to an elevated point on the side of a mountain by
the bursting of a small lake in the Val de Bagnes, in Switzerland,
a few years ago; and from the excavation of the Zuyderzee, by the
bursting of a dyke in Holland ; that the force of water in rapid
motion is competent both to transport such masses of gravel and
granite blocks as we have been tracing over the world, and to ex-
cavate valleys which though many miles in breadth, and many hun-
dred feet in depth, still bear a due proportion to the bulk and power
of the agent that produced them.
“ When we call to mind,” says Mr. Sumner, in his inestimable
and most judicious work on the Records of Creation, Vol. II. p. 350,
" the destruction which is spread by a sudden alteration in the level
of a very inconsiderable body of water, even to the extent of 50 or
100 feet, we cannot easily assign limits to the effect of a body of
waters like the ocean pouring in over the land when its level was
destroyed; we are at a loss to conceive what the power of such a
machine might be when once in operation.”
An agent thus gigantic appears to have operated universally on
the surface of our planet, at the period of the deluge; the spaces
a

VALLEYS EXCAVATED BY DILUVIAN WATERS.
237
then laid bare by the sweeping away of the solid materials that had
before filled them, are called valleys of denudation; and the effects
we see produced by water in the minor cases I have just mentioned,
by presenting us an example within tangible limits, prepare us to
comprehend the mighty and stupendous magnitude of those forces,
by which whole strata were swept away, and valleys laid open, and
gorges excavated in the more solid portions of the substance of the
earth, bearing the same proportion to the overwhelming ocean by
which they were produced, that modern ravines on the sides of
mountains bear to the torrents which since the retreat of the deluge
have created and continue to enlarge them.
When a gorge or valley takes its beginning, and continues its
whole extent within the area of strata that are horizontal, or nearly
so, and which bear no mark of having been moved from their original
place by elevation, depression, or disturbance of any kind; and when
it is also inclosed by hills that afford an exact correspondence of oppo-
site parts, its origin must be referred to the removal of the substances
that once filled it: and as it is quite impossible that this removal could
have been produced in any conceivable duration of years by rivers that
now flow through them, (since all the component streams, and conse-
quently the rivers themselves, which are made up of their aggregate,
owe their existence to the prior existence of the valleys through
which they flow,) we must attribute it to some cause more powerful
than any at present in action, and the only admissible explanation
that suggests itself is, that they were excavated by the denuding
force of a transient deluge.
That these excavations took place at a period subsequent to that
at which the earth was inhabited by the hyænas, bears, elephants,
a

238 VALLEYS EXCAVATED SINCE CAVES WERE INHABITED.
rhinoceroses, &c. whose remains we find in caves, and diluvial loam
and gravel, is evident both from the fact that the outscourings of
these valleys form the gravel in which such bones are for the most
part embedded; and from the number of caves (once inhabited as
dens) that have been intersected and laid open in the cliffs that
flank their sides and narrow gorges. The present entrance of these
caves is often a hole in an absolutely vertical precipice, which it
is impossible to approach except by ropes or ladders, and which,
therefore, could not have been accessible to the animals whose bones
we find within, if the caves had originally terminated, as they do at
present, in the face of a precipice; it follows therefore, that the
creation of such precipices, and consequently of the valleys in
question, was posterior to the time in which the beasts occupied these
dens. See an illustration of this hypothesis in the three caves
intersected by the gorge of the Esbach, at Plate XVIII: see also
Plate XV., XVI., and XIX.
NOTE. “The effects of water upon the solid strata of the globe have been the subject
of much geological debate; but it is now almost universally admitted, that valleys have
been excavated by causes no longer in action,-contrary to the opinion of Dr. Hutton
and Mr. Playfair, who maintained that they were formed by the long continued erosion of
the streams which actually run through them. This question had been long since placed
in a very convincing light by Hutchinson and his disciple Catcott; who have shown, that
the surface at present furrowed by valleys must have been in many cases continuous;
and this, in innumerable instances, where streams do not exist at all, (as every chalk down
clearly shows), or where the existing streams are quite inadequate to the effect. Thus,
in a series such as is here represented,
6
CL
6
6
с
d
d
e
f
e
e
,
the portions of the beds, a, b, and c, at present detached from each other, must once
have been continuous; d has only been partially cut through; and e has been left un-

VALLEYS ON THE EAST OF LYME AND OF SIDMOUTH. 239
VALLEYS OF DENUDATION, AND DILUVIAL PEBBLES
IN DORSET, DEVON, WILTS, AND BERKS.
Some of the best examples I am acquainted with of valleys thus
I
-produced exclusively by diluvial denudation occur in those parts of
the coasts of Dorset and Devon which lie on the east of Lyme, and
on the east of Sidmouth; and the annexed views and map will
illustrate, better than any description, the point I am endeavouring
to establish. In passing along this coast (see the Map and Views,
Plates XXV. and XXVI.) we cross, nearly at right angles, a con-
tinual succession of hills and valleys, the southern extremities of
which are abruptly terminated by the sea; the valleys gradually
sloping into it, and the hills being abruptly truncated, and often
overhanging the beach or undercliff, with a perpendicular precipice.
The main direction of the greater number of these valleys is from
north to south; that is, nearly in the direction of the dip of the
strata in which they are excavated: the streams and rivers that flow
through them are short and inconsiderable, and incompetent, even
when flooded, to move any thing more weighty than mud and sand.
The greater number of these valleys, and of the hills that bound
;
touched, merely because the excavation did not cut deep enough. The coast of Dorset
and Devon exhibits a case of this kind very beautifully; and with the greater distinct-
ness, because the beds, which are there intersected, by valleys nearly at right angles to
the coast, are so different from each other, and so unlike in appearance (chalk, green
sand, oolite, lias, and red marl), that there is no difficulty in tracing them, and no doubt
as to their former connexion. The author's paper on this part of the coast, which he
has subjoined in an Appendix, is accompanied by a map and explanatory views, and
illustrates very clearly this important step in his argument.”—Edinburgh Review, No. 77.
pp. 227, 228.
teraz tortish to Tamil and
ditologia
230 were

240 STRATA CORRESPOND ON OPPOSITE SIDES OF VALLEYS.
1
them, are within the limits of the north and north-west escarpment
of the green sand formation; and in their continuation southward
they cut down into the oolite, lias, or red marl, according as this or
that formation constitutes the substratum over which the green sand
originally extended. There is usually an exact correspondence in
the structure of the hills inclosing each valley; so that, whatever
stratum is found on one side, the same is discoverable on the other
side upon the prolongation of its plane: whenever there is a want of
correspondence in the strata on the opposite sides of a valley, it is
referable to a change in the substrata upon which the excavating
waters had to exert their force.
The section of the hills in this district usually presents an
insulated cap of chalk, or a bed of angular and unrolled chalk-flints,
reposing on a broader bed of green sand; and this again resting on
a still broader base of oolite, lias, or red marl (see Plates XXV. and
XXVI.) With the exception of the very local depression of the
chalk, and subjacent green sand, and red marl on the west of the
Axe, at Beer Cliffs, the position of the strata is regular and very
slightly inclined ; nor have any subterraneous disturbances operated
to an important degree to affect the form of the valleys.
If we examine the valleys that fall into the bay of Charmouth
from Burton on the east to Exmouth on the west, viz. that of the
Bredy, the Brit, the Char, the Axe, the Sid, and the Otter, we shall
find them all to be valleys of diluvian excavation; their flanks are
similarly constructed of parallel and respectively identical beds; and
the commencements of them all originate within the area and on the
south side of the escarpment of the green sand.
The valley of the Sid, as it is coloured in the annexed map, may

STRATA WERE ONCE CONTINUOUS ACROSS THE VALLEYS. 241
from its shortness and simplicity be taken as an example of the rest ;
it originates in the green sand, but soon cuts down to the red marl,
and continues upon it to the sea ; in both these respects it
agrees
with the upper branches of the Otter, and with the valleys that fall
from the west into that of the Axe.
But in those cases where the lias and oolite formations are inter-
posed between the red marl and green sand, the base of the valley
varies with the variation of substratum ; this may be seen by com-
paring the opposite sides of the lower valleys of the Otter, the Axe,
and the Char, with the variations of their substrata, as expressed in
the map
The valley of Lyme is of equal simplicity with that of Sidmouth,
and differs only in that its lower strata are composed of lias instead of
red marl: but the valleys of Chideock, Bridport, and Burton, being
within the area of the oolite formation, have their lower slopes com-
posed of oolite subjacent to the green sand; whilst that of Charmouth
is of a mixed nature, having its western branches in green sand re-
posing on lias, and in some of its eastern ramifications, intersecting also
the oolite. In the same manner the valley of the Axe has lias inter-
posed between the green sand and red marl on its east flank, but none
at all on its western side, below the town of Axminster. These
apparent anomalies form no exception to the general principle, that
the variation of the sides of the valleys is always consistent with that
which is simply referable to the variation of the substrata, on which
the denuding waters had to exert their force. It is moreover such
as can be explained on no other theory than that of the strata having
at one time been connected continuously, across the now void spaces
which constitute the valleys.
II

242
SECTION OF LIAS QUARRIES NEAR AXMINSTER.
a
Ft.
In.
The following section, taken from a series of lias quarries on the
two opposite sides of the valley of the Axe, near Axminster, will show
the degree of minuteness to which this correspondence extends*:
1. White lias... Slaty and fissile, is used for flooring
when split into slabs from two to
wina
three inches thick
2 0
Clay.
2. Burrs......... Rough blue building stone .. 0 10
Clay.
3. Cockles ....... Flat and broad blue stone, contain-
ing shells and divided into two
beds, each three inches thick, with
a parting of clay; is used for build-
ing.-- Total
O 10
Clay.
4. Anvils ....... Blue building stone, forming a bed
of irregular anvil-shaped blocks . 1 0
Clay.
5. Graze Burrs. Good blue building stone
0 10
Clay.
6. Fire stone ... White building stone, used also for
forming the arch-work of lime pits:
it divides into two beds, each four
inches thick, with a parting of
clay.—Total
1 0
* The details of these quarries are particularly well known to me, as they are in the
immediate neighbourhood of my native place, Axminster: when a child, I often visited
them, and collected specimens of fossil shells, which first excited my attention to the sub-
ject of geology.
bio

SECTION OF LIAS QUARRIES NEAR AXMINSTER.
243
Ft.
In.
Clay
7. Half-foot bed. Strong blue flagstone, the best for
paving
06 6
Clay.
8. Foot stone ... Blue paving and building stone 0 10
Clay.
9. Red-size ...... White lias, inclining to grey, splitting
into two or three thin slabs, and
used for paving and building 0 6
Clay.
10. Under bed... Blue building stone, used for paving,
and the best bed of all for steps 0 8
Clay, varying from one to six feet.
11. White rock... White lias, rough and rubbly through-
out;--not good for paving or build-
ing, but used largely to make lime,
which is better than that of the
other beds for plastering and in-
door work: the thickness of this
bed is variable ; its average is . . 30 0
.
All the above strata are separated by thin beds of clay, varying
from four inches to a foot, and exceeding the latter thickness in one
case only, viz. between Nos. 10 and 11: but the presence and relative
position of each individual stratum of stone is constant; and the
specific character and uses of each bed are of practical notoriety
among the masons through the district round Axminster, in which
there are many and distant quarries, to any one of which the above
II 2

244
EXTENT OF DENUDATION IN EAST DEVON.
section is equally applicable; e. g. to the quarries of Fox Hills on the
south-east, of Waycroft on the north, and of Sisterwood, Battleford,
Long Leigh, Small-ridge, Green-down, and Cox-wood, on the north-
west of Axminster. There can be little doubt, therefore, that the
component strata of all these quarries were originally connected in
one continuous plane across the now void space which forms the
valley of the Axe.
The fact of excavation is evident from simple inspection of the
manner in which the valleys intersect the coast, on the east of Sid-
mouth and the east of Lyme, as represented in the annexed views
(Plate XXV.); and it requires but little effort, either of the eye or
the imagination, to restore and fill up the lost portions of the strata,
that form the flanks of the valleys of Salcomb, Dunscomb, and Brans-
comb, on the east of Sidmouth; or of Charmouth, Seatown, and Brid-
port, on the east of Lyme. By prolonging the corresponding ex-
tremities of the strata on the opposite flanks, we should entirely fill
up the valleys, and only restore them to the state of continuity in
which they were originally deposited.
An examination of the present extent and state of the remaining
portions of the chalk formation within the district we are considering,
will show to what degree the diluvian waters have probably inter-
rupted its original continuity. The insulated mass of chalk, which at
Beer Head composes the entire thickness of the cliff, rises gradually
westward with a continual diminution and removal of its upper sur-
face; till after becoming successively more and more thin on the cliffs
of Branscomb, Littlecomb, and Dunscomb, it finds in the latter its
present extreme western boundary: beyond this boundary, on the
top of Salcomb Hill, and of all the highest table-lands and insulated
а.
:

INSULATED FLINTS AND DETACHED MASSES OF CHALK. 245
summits of the interior, from the ridges that encircle the vales of
Sidmouth and Honiton, to the highest summits of Blackdown, and
even of the distant and insulated ridge of Haldon, on the west of the
valley of Exe, beds of angular and slightly rolled chalk-flints (which
can be identified by the numerous and characteristic organic remains
which they contain) are of frequent occurrence; similar beds are found
also on the green sand summits that encircle the valleys of Char-
mouth and Axminster; large and insulated masses of chalk also occur
along the coast, from Lyme nearly to Axmouth, and in the interior
at Widworthy, Membury, White Stanton, and Chard; and these at
distances varying from 10 to 30 miles from the present termination of
the chalk formation in Dorsetshire, though within the limits of the
original escarpment of the green sand.
These facts concur to show, that there was a time when the chalk
covered all those spaces on which the angular chalk-flints are at this
time found ; and that it probably formed a continuous, or nearly
continuous, stratum, from its present termination in Dorsetshire, to
Haldon, on the west of Exeter*.
From the correspondence observed by Mr. Wm. Phillips, between
* There is also reason to think that the plastic clay formation was nearly coextensive
with the chalk, for on the central summits of Blackdown there are rounded pebbles of
chalk-flint, which resemble those found in the gravel-beds of the plastic clay formation
at Blackheath: and on the hills that encircle Sidmouth there are large blocks of a sili-
ceous breccia, composed of chalk-flints united by a strong siliceous cement, and differing
from the Hertfordshire pudding-stone only in the circumstance of the imbedded flints
being mostly angular, instead of rounded, as in the stone of Hertfordshire : a variation
which occurs in similar blocks of the same formation at Portisham, near Abbotsbury,
and elsewhere.— The argument, however, arising from the presence of these blocks and
pebbles is imperfect; as it is possible, though not probable, they may have been drifted
to their actual place by the diluvian waters, before the excavation of the valleys.

246 ENGLISH CHANNEL IN PART A VALLEY OF DENUDATION.
the strata of Dover and the hills west of Calais *, and by Mr. De
la Beche, between the strata of the coast of Dorset and Devon, and
those of Normandyt, it may be inferred (after making due allowance
for the possible influence of those earlier causes, which in many in-
stances have occasioned valleys) that the English Channel is a sub-
marine valley, which owes its origin in a great measure to diluvial
excavation, the opposite sides having as much correspondence as
those of ordinary valleys on the land. According to Bouache, the
depth of the Straits of Dover is on an average less than 180 feet;
and from thence westward to the chops of the Channel the water
gradually deepens to only 420 feet, a depth less than that of the
majority of inland valleys which terminate in the Bay of Charmouth ;
and as valleys usually increase in depth from the sides towards their
centre, so also the submarine valley of the Channel is deepest in the
middle, and becomes more shallow towards either shore.
It seems probable, that a large portion of the matter dislodged
from the valleys of which we have been speaking, by the diluvian
waters to which they owe their origin, has been drifted into the princi-
pal valley of this district, viz. the bed of the sea ; and being subse-
quently carried eastward, by the superior force of the flowing above
that of the ebbing tide, and the prevailing storms from the south-
west, has formed that vast bed of pebbles known by the name of the
Chesil Bank: the principal ingredients of which are such as on the
above hypothesis they might be expected to be; viz. rolled chalk-
flints, and pebbles of chert f; the softer parts of the materials that
* See Geol. Trans. vol. v. pp. 47, &c. + Ibid. vol. i. of New Series, p. 89.
This hypothesis has received a further confirmation from the discovery, by the
Hon. Wm. Strangways in the summer of 1825, of the molar tooth of an elephant, among
a

DILUVIAL GRAVEL AND ANIMALS IN DORSET AND DEVON. 247
filled these valleys, such as chalk, sand, clay, and marl, having been
floated off, and drifted far into the mid-channel or the ocean, by the
violence of the diluvial waters.
The quantity of diluvian gravel which remains lodged upon the
slopes, and in the lower regions of the valleys that intersect this
coast, is very considerable; but it is not probable that many animal
remains will be discovered in it, because the large proportion of clay
with which it usually is mixed renders it less fit for roads than the
shattered chert strata of the adjacent hills, and consequently gravel-
pits are seldom worked in the diluvium. Enough, however, has been
done to identify its animal remains with those of the diluvian gravel
of other parts of England, by the discovery of several large tusks of
elephant, and teeth of rhinoceros, in the valleys of Lyme and Char-
mouth.
On the highest parts of Blackdown, and on the insulated summits
which surround the Vale of Charmouth, I have found abundantly
pebbles of opaque white quartz, which must have been drifted thither
from some distant primitive or transition country, and carried to their
actual place, before the present valleys were excavated, and the steep
escarpments formed, by which these high table-lands are now on
every side surrounded. These cases are precisely of the same nature
with those of the blocks of granite that lie on the mountains of the
Jura, and on the plains of the north of Germany and Russia, and
with that of the quartzose pebbles found on the tops of the hills
the pebbles of the Chesil Bank near Abbotsbury: it was rounded to the shape of a peb-
ble, and must have been washed up not long since from the diluvium above alluded to,
which lies at the bottom of the sea, undisturbed, except by extraordinary storms. H
the tooth been many years exposed to the waves on the Chesil Bank, it must have been
totally destroyed; and the position of the bank will hardly allow us to suppose it to
have been derived from any bed of diluvium on the land side of it.

248
DILUVIAL BOWLDERS, USED AT STONEHENGE.
round Oxford amd Henley; which latter I shall immediately proceed
to show were drifted thither from the central parts of England, be-
fore the excavation of the present valley of the Thames*.
* In the interior of Dorset, and in the counties of Wilts and Berks, the surface of
the chalk is intersected in the same manner as that part of the coast we have been
examining, by deep combs and valleys of denudation. It is also, occasionally, strewed
over with enormous blocks of siliceous sandstone, the wreck of strata, whose softer ma-
terials have been entirely washed away. These blocks have been long noticed by the
name of Sarsden Stones, and Grey Wethers, on the downs of Wilts and Berks; and
are particularly abundant near Marlborough, at Kennet on the west, and in Savernake
Forest on the S. E. of that town: near the former place they cover a valley almost a
mile in length, as thickly as sheep grazing in a flock, (hence their name of Grey
Wethers), and some of the largest of them have been employed in the Druidical temple
of Abury, at the head of this valley ; whilst Savernake Forest has probably supplied
the gigantic masses used to form the pillars of the larger circles at Stonehenge.
The valleys called Clatford Bottom, Fifefield Bottom, and Lockridge Dame, near the
villages of Kennet and Overton, are also strewed abundantly with blocks of the same
kind; but they are rapidly diminishing, from the custom which has of late been exten-
sively practised, of splitting them with a heavy hammer after being gently heated. This
practice has been even extended to some of the masses that once formed part of the
temple at Abury, and if it be not stopped, will soon entirely demolish this most venerable
monument of Druidical antiquity. That such barbarous sacrilege should have been
tolerated by the proprietor of these precious relics, in an age like the present, is a matter
that must excite the indignation and regret not only of the antiquary, but of every man
who feels the slightest regard for the history of his country. Similar blocks of sand-
stone are also found scattered in great abundance over the chalk valleys at Ashdown
Park, on the S. W. of Wantage. Their present position can only be referred to the
same diluvial action which removed the softer portions of the sandy strata of which these
blocks originally formed a part, and which excavated the valleys, over whose bottom, as
well as on the sides and summits of the adjacent hills, they are now dispersed. The
smaller pillars at Stonehenge are blocks of green-stone which can have been brought
from no nearer spot than Devon, Wales, or Cumberland, or possibly Charnwood forest ;
but as there is a tradition that they have come from Ireland, from the county of Kildare,
in which a rock of this kind actually occurs, the tradition may be founded on fact. I
have observed Druidical circles composed of a nearly similar green-stone in the county
of Cavan, and in Cumberland. The altar at Stonehenge is a mass of fine grained sand-
stone, very different from the larger pillars, and being apparently capable of resisting the
fire ; it was most probably derived from some stratum that occurs in the coal formation
of the central parts of England.
a
a

QUARTZOSE PEBBLES IN MIDLAND COUNTIES.
249
VALLEYS OF DENUDATION, AND BEDS OF DILUVIAL
GRAVEL, IN WARWICKSHIRE, OXON, AND MID-
DLESEX.
The details of the second case I proposed to give in this ap-
pendix are those which relate to the excavation of valleys, and the
dispersion of beds of gravel, in the county of Warwick, and along the
course of the Cherwell, Evenlode, and Thames, from Warwickshire
to Oxford and London.
The new red sand-stone formation, in the central parts of Eng-
land, contains an enormous deposit of pebbles of compact granular
quartz, forming large beds, which may be seen near Bridgnorth, Lich-
field, and Birmingham. They here constitute a regular stratum,
subordinate to the red sand-stone, having been reduced to the state of
pebbles by the action of violent waters, at or before the time of the
deposition of this formation. From this lodgment, in one of the
deep and regular strata of the country, enormous quantities of the
pebbles in question have been swept away by the diluvial waters, and
dispersed superficially over the adjacent districts and midland coun-
ties, without any reference to the nature of the rocks that lie beneath,
and mixed with fragments of other rocks, both older and younger
than the red sand-stone*.
* For a detailed account of the geological history of these pebbles, and of the source
from which they were originally derived, I must refer to my paper on the quartz rock of
KB

250
VARIOUS PEBBLES COLLECTED NEAR SHIPSTON.
They have also been collected in prodigious numbers along the
plains subjacent to the escarpment of the colitic limestone that
crosses Warwickshire, near Shipston-on-Stour; particularly on the
south of that town, at the base of Long Compton Hill. (See Plate
XXVII.) They are here accompanied by pebbles of white quartz,
lydian stone, gneiss, porphyry, compact felspar, trap, sand-stone of
several kinds, lias, chalk, and chalk-flints.
Between Shipston and Moreton in the Marsh, they have been
drifted into a kind of bay, formed by the horn-shaped headland of
the Campden Hills, which projects like a pier-head some miles be-
yond the ordinary line of the great limestone chain of the Cotswold
Hills. The mouth of this bay opens directly to the north-east, from
which quarter it is probable the current which brought the pebbles
in question had its direction ; for on the south-east of Shipston there
are pebbles of a hard red species of chalk, which occurs not unfre-
quently in the Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, but is never
met with in the chalk of the south or south-east of England. The
nearest possible point, therefore, to which these pebbles of red chalk
can be referred, is the neighbourhood of Spilsby, in Lincolnshire,
whence a diluvial current flowing from the north-east would find an
unobstructed passage across the plains of Leicestershire to the Bay
of Shipston, and Moreton in the Marsh. With these pebbles of red
chalk are others of hard and compact white chalk, such as accom-
panies the red chalk in the two last mentioned counties, and which
occurs also at Ridlington, in Rutlandshire.
the Lickey Hill, in the 5th vol. of the Geological Transactions, from which this extract
relating to the diluvial part of their history is transcribed.

PEBBLES DRIFTED FROM SHIPSTON TO OXFORD.
251
The diluvian current thus impelled into the Bay of Shipston,
from the north-east, appears to have continued its course onwards
beyond the head of this bay, near Moreton in the Marsh, (see Plate
XXVII.) bursting in over the lowest point of depression of the great
escarpment of the limestone; and being deflected thence south-east-
wards by the elevated ridge of Stow in the Wold, to have gone for-
ward along the line of the vale of the Evenlode by Charlbury, till
it joined that of the Thames at Ensham, five miles north-west of
Oxford.
ord.
This hypothesis affords the most satisfactory explanation of the
origin of the great deposits of granular quartzose pebbles, which not
only cover irregularly the lower regions of the valley of the Even-
lode, but are scattered abundantly over the surface of the colite
strata, where they rise to a considerable height, and form table-lands
on both sides that valley along its whole extent. It also accounts for
the accumulation of beds of similar pebbles on the west and south of
Oxford, upon the insulated and almost conical summit of Wytham
Hill, and the ridge of Bagley Wood, by their position exactly op-
posite the mouth of the vale of the Evenlode, at its confluence with
that of the Thames, at the very point on which the driftings eva-
cuated from the former valley would be collected*. Being thus
introduced within the escarpment of the oolite, and having passed
along the line of the Evenlode into the country round Oxford,
these quartzose pebbles have been forced onwards, and mixed up
* Near this same point, pebbles of clear rock crystal occur scattered over the sur-
face at Ensham Heath, and are applied to the purposes of jewellery, like the Bagshot
Heath diamonds, as they are commonly called, being merely small pebbles of crystallized
quartz.
KK 2

252
COURSE OF PEBBLES FROM OXFORD TO LONDON.
with the gravelly wreck of the neighbouring hills, in each successive
district along the line of the Thames, from the vale of Oxford down-
wards to the gravel-beds of London, their quantity decreasing with
the distance from their source; so that in Hyde-Park, and the
Kensington gravel-pits, they are less abundant than at Oxford,
I have seen them on the summit of the chalk hills round Henley,
Maidenhead, High Wycomb, and Beaconfield. They have been
noticed also by Lord Grenville in his park at Dropmore, and in
the gravel-pits at Burnham; in all these last-named places the
great mass of the gravel is composed of imperfectly rolled flints
derived from the neighbouring chalk. They are found also mixed
with chalk-flints, and slightly rounded oolitic gravel, in the valley of
the Cherwell, and the plains adjacent to it, from its source at
Claydon and Cherwelton, to Banbury and Oxford, e. g. at Steeple
Aston, Heyford, Rowsham, Kirtlington, and Kidlington. At Abing-
don, they occur not only in the gravel-beds of the valley, but are
scattered loosely over the plains composed of various strata around
that town, as well as on the low hills round Newnham, Dorchester, and
Wallingford. Among these pebbles, especially at Abingdon and in
Bagley Wood, there are many of porphyritic green-stone and green-
stone slate, which cannot have come from any nearer source than
Charnwood Forest, in Leicestershire.
The occurrence of quartzose pebbles in such high situations as
the top of Henley Hill and Cumnor Hill, and again on the highest
summits of Witchwood Forest, and generally on the elevated plains
that flank the valleys of the Evenlode, the Cherwell, and the Thames,
(see Plate XXVII.) goes far to prove the recent origin of the valleys
.

PEBBLES ON SUMMITS AS WELL AS IN VALLEYS.
253
;
through which these rivers now flow; and compels us to refer their
excavation to the denuding agency of the same diluvial waters which
imported the pebbles. It seems probable that the first rush of these
waters drifted in the pebbles within the great escarpment of the
oolite, and strewed them over the then nearly continuous plains; and
that the valleys were subsequently scooped and furrowed out by the
retiring action of these same waters; for it is not easy to imagine any
explanation of the fact of the pebbles being heaped together on the
tops of the insulated, steep, and nearly conical hill of Wytham, and
of the elevated ridge of Bagley Wood near Oxford, or on the highest
crest of the oolite ridge of Witchwood Forest, and the chalky summits
near Henley, unless we suppose the transport of the pebbles to those
summits to have been anterior to the excavation of the valleys that
now intersect and surround them. Nor is this hypothesis unsup-
ported by the fact, that it is on the elevated plains that flank the
vales of the Evenlode and Cherwell, no less than in the lower regions
which form their present water-courses, that the quartzose pebbles
are scattered in an almost uninterrupted line, marking distinctly the
course by which they have been propelled from Warwickshire into
the valley of the Thames. (See map, Plate XXVII.)
There is another strong fact tending to prove the excavation of
the valleys of the Evenlode and Cherwell, and of the Thames (in
part) near Oxford, to have been subsequent to the transport of the
Warwickshire pebbles, namely, the absence of pebbles of oolite in the
beds of gravel just mentioned as crowning the summits of Wytham
Hill and Bagley Wood. Hence we may infer that the destruction
of the colite strata, as far as concerns these valleys, was not so
much the effect of the advancing deluge as of its retiring waters,

254 VALLEYS EXCAVATED BY SUBSIDING DILUVIAN WATERS.
e
cutting out deep gullies and furrows in the table-lands, and sides of
the higher ridges, and covering their bottom with gravel, composed
partly of the wreck of the strata immediately inclosing them, and
partly of pebbles, which their first rush had transported from more
distant regions; and thus it will appear that the lower trunks of the
valleys of the Thames, Cherwell, and Evenlode, (i. e. those portions
of them which may be fairly attributed to the exclusive action of
denudation, and which lie below the average level of the table-lands
which flank their course,) did not exist at the time of the first ad-
vance of the waters, which brought in the pebbles from Warwickshire,
but were excavated by the denuding agency which they exerted
during the period of their retreat *.
If we examine the geological structure of that large portion
of England which lies south-east of the escarpment of the colite
formation, along its whole extent, from the coast of Dorset to that of
Yorkshire, we shall find in it no one stratum that has the smallest
* The excavations produced by the waters entering the low point of the colite
escarpment near Moreton have been so great, (see map, Plate XXVII.) that the head
springs of the Evenlode, taking their rise from the lias strata in the vale of Moreton
beyond the termination of the oolite, flow south-eastward toward Oxford, instead of
falling by the much shorter course of the Stour into the valley of the Severn: and it is
of importance to observe, that the Evenlode and Cherwell are the only rivers of all
those which flow into the Thames, which have not their head-springs within the escarp-
ment of the great oolite. The sources of the Cherwell, and a few of its earliest tribu-
tary streams, being similarly circumstanced to those of the Evenlode, owe their exist-
ence to similar denudations cut through the oolite strata into the clay beds of the sub-
jacent lias, even as far south as the town of Banbury. The lowness of the oolite
escarpment at the lip or gap above Banbury appears still further from its having been
selected as the line by which the Oxford Canal is conducted out into the sandstone
plains of Warwickshire. This was probably also the lowest point along the N. W. fron-
tier of the oolite formation antecedently to the rise of the diluvian waters ; which, ad-
vancing from the north with great velocity, would enter more abundantly, and produce
larger deposits of gravel from the central counties along this line of lower depression,
than in any other part of the colitic area.

QUARTZ PEBBLES HAVE COME FROM A DISTANCE.
255
resemblance to the quartzose pebbles which are accumulated near
Oxford, and over the other districts which I have been describing.
So that if they were not transported hither across the depression at
the head of the valleys of the Evenlode and of the Cherwell, they
must have passed over some more elevated point of the oolite
escarpment, and have come from some still more distant part of the
red sandstone plains that cross the centre of the island; and the
difficulty of accounting for their origin will thus only be increased by
refusing to admit the solution I have proposed.
The quartzose pebbles, which I have been tracing without inter-
ruption from Birmingham to London, had, as I have already men-
tioned, received their roundness before they were embedded in the red
sandstone formation; their form cannot therefore be referred to friction
during their short transport by the diluvian waters : indeed instances
are rare where fragments even of soft rocks, which have undergone no
further attrition than that of these waters, have received such an
extreme degree of roundness as is found in the hard quartzose
pebbles we are considering. Dr. Kidd, in his excellent description
of the gravel-beds round Oxford, has well and accurately marked the
differences, between the completely rounded pebbles, and angular
fragments, of which this gravel is composed; the comparatively soft
fragments of the neighbouring hills being angular and but slightly
rolled, and those only being completely rounded which are hard, and
can be traced up to ancient gravel-beds, forming part of the red sand-
stone strata of Warwickshire *
* See the preface to Kidd's Elements of Mineralogy, and chap. 17 of Kidd's
Geological Essays.

256 COMPOUND NATURE OF GRAVEL AT OXFORD AND LONDON.
Similar varieties of gravel, the one angular, and the other completely
rolled (the latter being derived from the adjacent pebble beds of
the plastic clay formation), occur in the valley of the Thames near
London. These rounded pebbles, like those from Warwickshire, had
apparently received their attrition from the long continued action of
violently agitated waters, during more early revolutions that have af-
fected our planet; whilst the imperfectly rolled fragments are referable
to the diluvian waters, which drifted them only from the neighbour-
ing hills to their present place; and from the angular state of this and
similar beds of diluvial gravel, we may infer that the inundation which
produced them was of short duration.
On the south-west side of the Evenlode, the valleys that intersect
the Cotswold Hills in Gloucestershire are the effect of deep denuda-
tions produced on the oolite limestone, by a volume of waters rushing
downwards over strata composed of uniform and moderately yielding
materials. Any irregular projections that might have existed on the
original surface would cause these waters to descend with accelerated
velocity over the intermediate depressions, and to excavate that series
of sweeping combs and valleys that wind with the regular flexures of a
meandrous river, and present masses of land alternately advancing
and retiring with all the uniformity of the salient and re-entering
angles that mark the course of running water.
Striking examples of such valleys extending upwards far above
the highest springs that take their rise in them, and forming vast
diluvian furrows along the back of the inclined planes of the great
oolite formation, may be seen in passing along the line of the Roman
Fossway, from Bath to Stow in the Wold: this line, being parallel to

COMBS AND DILUVIAL VALLEYS ON THE COTSWOLD HILLS. 257
that of the great escarpment of the Cotswold Hills, crosses nearly at
right angles all the valleys that descend from them towards the
south-east, into the main trunks of the Thames or Avon; and in-
no part of it are the features of diluvian action more strongly
displayed than between North Leach and Stow in the Wold. It is
obvious that such valleys cannot possibly be attributed to the action
of springs or rivers that now flow through them, since they often
take their origin many miles above even the highest springs: their
magnitude and depth bespeak the agency of a mass of waters in-
finitely more powerful than even the most violent water-spouts of
modern times could produce : their form also differs entirely from
the deep and precipitous ravines which are excavated by mountain
torrents; and if it should be contended that the bursting of a series
of water-spouts would be competent to set in action such masses of
water as might have been sufficient for this effect; unless we can
suppose them to have fallen universally and contemporaneously, not
only over the district under consideration, but over the whole earth,
they will afford no solution of the phenomena of these and similar
contemporaneous systems of valleys, which occur on strata that are
similarly circumstanced in every part of the known world.
The chalk downs of England, and the upper portions of the
chalky and oolitic plains of France, are universally covered with a
series of dry valleys exactly similar to those that occur on the back of
the inclined planes of oolite in the Cotswold Hills; and the uniform
texture and moderate degree of inclination which usually attend
both these formations will explain the regularity of the diluvian
valleys that have been excavated on their surface.
3
L L

258
DENUDATION NOT THE ONLY CAUSE OF VALLEYS.
In strata of higher antiquity, that have been more shattered and
disturbed by violent convulsions (i. e. in the coal formation, and also
in transition and primitive rocks), irregularities in the texture and dis-
position of the strata on which the diluvian waters had to exert
their force have caused the features of the valleys that traverse them
to be much less exclusively derivative from the simple action of a
retiring flood of waters; and indeed have rendered the form, in-
clination, hardness, and relative position of the masses on which
these waters had to operate, essential elements of any accurate
calculations as to the quantity of effect that must be referred to
them. Though traces of diluvial action are most unequivocally
visible over the surface of the whole earth, we must not attribute the
origin of all valleys exclusively to that action ; in such cases as we
have been describing, the simple force of water, acting in mass on
the surface of gently inclined and regular strata of chalk and colite,
is sufficient for the effects produced ; but in other cases, more espe-
cially in mountain districts, (where the greatest disturbances appear
generally to have taken place, the original form in which the strata
were deposited, the subsequent convulsions to which they have been
exposed, and the fractures, elevations, and subsidences which have
affected them, have contributed to produce valleys of various kinds
on the surface of the earth, before it was submitted to that last
catastrophe of an universal deluge which has finally modified them
all.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
All the Drawings are of the natural size, except where it is expressed
to the contrary
PLATE I.
Map of the country adjacent to the cave at Kirkdale, showing the
entire drainage of the vale of Pickering to be effected through the
gorge at Malton, the stoppage of which would at once convert it into
an inland lake.
PLATE II.
Fig. 1. View of the mouth of the cave at Kirkdale, in the face of
a quarry, near the brow of a low hill.
Fig. 2. Section of the cave before the mud had been disturbed.
A. Stratum of mud covering the floor of the cave to the depth of
about one foot, and concealing the bones.
B. Stalagmite incrusting some of the bones, and formed before
the mud was introduced.
C. C. Stalagmite formed since the introduction of the mud, and
spreading horizontally over its surface.
D. Insulated stalagmite on the surface of the mud.
E. E. Stalactites hanging from the roof above the stalagmites.
Fig. 3. Ground plan of the cave, by W. Salmond, Esq. showing
its extent, ramifications, and the fissures by which it is intersected.
LL 2

260
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE III.
1. Portion of the left upper jaw of the modern hyæna from the
Cape.
2. Inside view of No. 1.
3. Analogous portion of the left upper jaw of the fossil hyæna
from Kirkdale.
4. Inside view of No. 3, with the tooth of a water-rat adhering
by stalagmite to a broken portion of the palate.
5. Fragment from Kirkdale, showing the inside of the palate, and
five incisor teeth of the upper jaw, much worn down.
PLATE IV.
1. Outside view of the right lower jaw of the modern Cape hyæna.
2. Analogous portion of lower jaw of the Kirkdale hyæna, being
nearly one-third larger.
3. Inside view of No. 2.
PLATE V.
1. Fragment of the right lower jaw of an hyæna, showing the
convex surface of the jaw and its teeth, that lay uppermost in the
den, to be deeply worn by friction, and to have received a polish.
The enamel and one-third of the substance of the teeth and bone on
this side have been worn away.
2. Concave surface of No. 1, having no marks of friction, polish, or
decay: the enamel on this side of the teeth is perfect and unchanged.
3. Fragment of the right lower jaw of a young hyæna, having
the convex surface only polished as in No. 1; and showing the cavities
in which the second set of teeth were rising to succeed the first
set: one of these, the posterior molar tooth, still remains in its place,

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
261
having its enamel on one side only worn away, as in the teeth of No. 1.
See also Plate XIII. fig. 3, 4. and Plate XXIII. fig. 9, 10.
4. Inside or concave surface of No. 3; this side has suffered no
friction or polish, and the enamel of the tooth is perfect and fresh as
in No. 2.
5. Metatarsal bone of hyæna.
6,7. Phalanges of the toe of an animal not ascertained.
8. Claw bone of the toe of an hyæna.
9, 10, 11. Metacarpal bone and two phalanges of the toe of hyæna.
12. Claw bone of the toe of an hyæna.
PLATE VI.
1. Canine tooth or tusk of a bear, (apparently Ursus spelæus).
2. Inside view of posterior molar tooth of the lower jaw on the
left side of hyæna.
3. Outside view of No. 2.
4. Largest canine tooth or tusk of hyæna found at Kirkdale.
5. Tusk of an animal of the tiger kind; four teeth only of this
sort have been found at Kirkdale.
6. Outside view of right posterior molar tooth of the lower jaw
of a tiger; four of these teeth also are all that have yet been noticed
at Kirkdale.
7. Inside view of No. 6. On comparing 6 and 7 with 2 and 3,
it will be observed that in 6 and 7, the angle near the middle part of
the crown is less obtuse than in 2 and 3, and that the two lobes
which project at the base of the crown of 2 and 3 are wanting in
6 and 7.
8. Tusk of fox.
9. Incisor tooth of fox.
10. Inside view of No. 9.

262
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
11. Small molar tooth of fox.
12. Great molar tooth of the right lower jaw of fox; outside view.
13. Inside view of No. 12.
14. Penultima of upper jaw, right side of fox.
15. M Molar teeth of the first set of a young hyæna.
16.
Molar teeth, &c.
a
17. SMO
Molar
18. Outside view of No. 17.
19. Canine tooth of a young hyæna.
20, 21. Posterior molar tooth of the lower jaw of a young hyæna,
much worn.
22, 23, 24, 25. Outside and inside views of two molar teeth of
the upper jaw of a young hyæna: they are all extremely thin, and
have deep furrows worn on them. They may be seen in the jaw at
Plate XIII. No. 3, 4.
26, 27. Posterior molar tooth of the upper jaw of a young hyæna.
28, 29. Posterior tooth and penultima of a weasel, left upper jaw
(twice the natural size).
30, 31. Side and front views of the same tooth, probably a
diseased molar tooth of an hyæna.
PLATE VII.
a
1. Small molar tooth of a very young elephant, being the average
size of those found in the den.
2. Fragment of a still younger elephant's tooth, of the natural size.
3. Molar tooth of upper jaw of rhinoceros.
4. Inside view of molar tooth of lower jaw of rhinoceros.
.
5. Crown of No. 4, as seen from above.
6. Outside view of No. 4.
17. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of a horse.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
263
8. Two views of a molar tooth of hippopotamus not at all worn
9. I down.
10. Molar tooth of hippopotamus, having the summits of the
crown worn down.
PLATE VIII.
a
a
1. Posterior molar tooth of the lower jaw of an ox.
2. Crown of No. 1.
3. Posterior molar tooth of the right lower jaw of a species of deer.
4. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of an ox.
5. Molar tooth of the lower jaw of a calf.
6. Side view of No. 5.
7. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of an ox.
8. Outside view of No. 7.
9. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of a very large species of deer,
equalling in size the largest elk, but differing in form.
10. Outside view of No. 9.
11. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of a second species of deer,
equalling in size the largest red deer.
12. Outside view of No. 11.
13. Inside and outside views of a rising molar tooth of a third
a
14. species of deer, of the size of a large fallow deer.
PLATE IX.
1. Outside view of a molar tooth of the lower jaw of a large
species of deer.
2. Inside view of No. 1.
3. Base of the horn of a large deer, measuring nine inches and
three-quarters in circumference, which corresponds exactly in size

264
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
a
with that of a very large English red deer in the Anatomy School at
Oxford.
4. Base of a horn similar to No. 1, having two antlers near its
lower extremity, and measuring seven inches and three-quarters in
circumference.
5. Base of a deer's horn, having the lowest antler at the distance
of three inches and a half from the lower extremity.
a
а
PLATE X.
a
1. Coronary bone of a horse.
2. First phalangal bone of a very large ox ; seen laterally.
3. Under side of No. 2.
4, 5. Astragalus of a large ox: two different sides of the same
bone.
6. Album græcum, showing a small sphere adhering to the larger
one, and an indentation of the sides of both by pressure from a third
sphere.
7. Astragalus of hyæna.
8. Side view of No. 7.
9. Astragalus of fox.
10. Side view of No. 9.
11. Astragalus of water-rat.
12. Os calcis of water-rat.
13. Os calcis of fox.
14. Os calcis of rabbit.
15, 16. Internal metatarsal bone of rabbit, having lost the
epiphysis.
17, 18. Metatarsal bone of rabbit, retaining the epiphysis at the
lower extremity.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
265
a
PLATE XI.
The specimens from 1 to 29, inclusive, are all from Kirkdale.
1. Lower jaw of a water-rat.
2. Lower incisor tooth of No. 1.
3. Upper incisor of water-rat.
4. Anterior molar tooth of lower jaw of water-rat.
5. No. 4, magnified.
6. Crown of No. 4, magnified.
17. Jaw of a mouse.
8 and 9. Teeth of No. 7, magnified four times.
10. Anterior molar tooth of the upper jaw of a rabbit.
11. Os innominatum of a young water-rat.
12. Tibia of a water-rat.
13. Lower epiphysis of femur of water-rat, twice magnified.
14. Femur of water-rat, twice magnified.
15. Ulna of water-rat.
16. Tail vertebra of water-rat.
17. Anterior extremity of No. 16.
18. Posterior extremity of No. 16.
19. Right ulna of a raven ; anterior extremity.
20. Outside view of No. 19, showing the points of attachment of
the quill feathers.
21. Right ulna of a raven, showing the other extremity of
No. 19.
22, 23. Other views of No. 20, showing the cavity to be nearly
filled with stalagmite.
24. Right ulna of a lark, showing the attachments of the quill
feathers.
25. Inside view of No. 24.
26. Left ulna of a very large species of pigeon.
M M

266
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
a
27. Inside view of No. 26.
28. Right coracoid process of the scapula of a small species of
duck or widgeon.
29. Inside view of No. 28.
30. Tusk of the upper jaw of a large hog, polished obliquely near
its apex, and having a molar tooth of hog adhering to it, near its
base, by an ochreous crust, from Hutton cavern, in Mendip.
31. View of the opposite side of No. 30.
32. Large molar tooth of hog in a fragment of the lower jaw,
slightly incrusted with ochre, from Hutton.
33. Small molar tooth of hog, from Hutton.
Nos. 30, 31, 32, 33 are in Mr. Catcott's collection at Bristol.
PLATE XII.
Lower jaw nearly entire of a very old hyæna, found with the
bones of elephant, rhinoceros, horse, ox, &c. in diluvium, at Lawford,
near Rugby, in Warwickshire. The coronary part of all the teeth is
nearly worn off, and on the worn surface of the two hindmost there
are deep furrows; all the surfaces are highly polished, and even
have a brilliant lustre; seven teeth only remain, the animal having
worn out nine from its lower jaw alone, viz. six incisors, the left
canine or tusk, and two anterior molars, Traces of the root of the
right anterior molar are still visible in their proper place : the sockets
of all the other lost teeth have been either removed by absorption, or
filled
up
with bone.
It should be observed, that this specimen, and the humerus and
ulna (Plate XIII. 1, 2.), are not in the least degree mangled or broken
like those from the den at Kirkdale, being derived probably from one
of the last hyænas that were drowned by the diluvian waters, together
with the other animals whose bones are found with them equally
perfect, and free from such marks of violence as occur on all the bones
of whatever kind discovered at Kirkdale.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
267
PLATE XIII.
1. Radius of a very old hyæna, found at Lawford, in the diluvium,
with the jaw, in Plate XII, and probably from the same individual.
2. Ulna fitting No. 1, and found together with it. Both these
bones, like the jaw, have no marks of gnawing or any violence in
them, and appear to be from the same individual. Nos. 1 and 2 are
reduced one-tenth.
3. Fragment of the right upper jaw of a young hyæna, showing the
second set of teeth advancing beneath the first. This interesting
specimen belongs to Archdeacon Wrangham, on whose property at
Kirkdale the cavern stands.
4. Outside view of No. 3; compare with this, the teeth 22, 23,
24, 25, at Plate VI.
5. Inside view of the great molar tooth of the right lower jaw
of a wolf found at Kirkdale, by Mr. Salmond.
6. Outside view of No. 5.
7. Small molar tooth of an hippopotamus from Kirkdale.
8. Part of the lower jaw of a hare or very large rabbit, from
Kirkdale. Nos. 7 and 8 are from drawings, by Miss Duncombe.
9. Humerus of a bird, apparently a goose, found at Lawford ;
with Nos. 1 and 2, and with No. 1, Plate XII.
10. Outside view of No. 9. This bone is the only example I
know of the remains of birds being noticed in the diluvium of Eng-
land, excepting those at Kirkdale.
11. Humerus of a bird, apparently a snipe, from Kirkdale. I had
not compared this bone with any recent skeletons, at the time when
page 15 of the first edition was printed.
12. Inside view of No. 11.
a
M M 2

268
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE XIV.
Vertical section of the great cave of Scharzfeld, on the west border of
the Hartz; drawn from a sketch made on the spot by Professor
Buckland, A. D. 1822.
A. Fissure in the surface of the land by which we descend into
the great chamber B.
B. Portion of the main chamber, which extends into the hill to at
least three times the length here represented; its roof is hung with
clusters of stalactite.
C. Crust of stalagmite, restored to perhaps a greater degree than
that in which it probably existed on the floor, before it had been dis-
turbed in search of bones.
D. Bed of brown earth or diluvial loam, spread over the actual
floor of the cave, and interspersed with angular fragments and
rounded pebbles of limestone, and a few teeth and bones.
E. Artificial excavation in this brown earth, down to the lime-
stone of the actual floor.
F. Artificial excavation through brown earth into the under-
vault G.
G. Under-vault filled completely with diluvium similar to D, but
much more abundantly loaded with bones.
H. Artificial vault excavated in G, in search of bones, which are
seen forming part of its roof and sides, as well as of its floor.
I. Under-vault, filled with the same diluvium and bones as G, and
not yet disturbed.
K. Passage, communicating from G to I, and also filled in the
same manner.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
269
PLATE XV.
a
Vertical section of the cave of Bauman’s Höhle, in the Hartz, in the
cliff on the left side of the gorge of the river Bode.
A. Present entrance, descending from the perpendicular cliff to
the large chamber B.
B. Grand chamber, from 40 to 50 feet in diameter, and having
stalactite on various parts of its roof.
C. Floor of the great chamber, covered with a bed of diluvial
loam, containing a few bones and pebbles, and having on its surface
some residuary fragments of a crust of stalagmite and large blocks of
limestone, marked o. o.
D. Inclined passage communicating from B. to the lower vault E.
E. Lower vault, containing beneath a thick crust of stalagmite a
considerable accumulation of loam and large pebbles, through both of
which are dispersed great quantities of bones of bears.
F. Rugged mass of rock, ascending about 20 feet, and dividing
the vault E. from the inner chambers G. H.
G. Long irregular chamber conducting from F. to the lower
cavern H.
H. Lower cavern, having its roof much hung with stalactite, and
on its floor a considerable crust of stalagmite.
I. Artificial vault dug through the crust of stalagmite into a
subjacent mass of loam, pebbles, and bones, accumulated to the thick-
ness of several feet.
K. An unexplored passage, ascending from the roof of the
cave H.
L. Deep gorge, being a valley of denudation, flanked on each
side by steep cliffs of limestone.
a

270
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
M. Supposed continuation of the cave A. to the antediluvian
surface N.
N. Supposed surface of limestone as it existed before the ex-
cavation of the valley L.
0. 0. Large block of limestone laid irregularly in the chamber B.,
and apparently fallen from the roof.
PLATE XVI.
Section of the cave of Biel's Höhle, nearly opposite that of Bauman's
Höhle, and on the right side of the gorge of the Bode.
A. Small hole of entrance in the side of the cliff, by which we
descend into the suite of irregular chambers that compose this cave.
B. Bottom of numerous hollows or basins that occur along the
course of the cave, and are uniformly covered with a deep bed of
mud and sand, over which is spread a crust of stalagmite.
C. Tubular cavities and fissures that ascend from various parts
of the cave towards the surface, and by which the mud and sand were
probably drifted in.
D. Irregular rocky masses that form large pinnacles between
the basins B., and have cavities on their summits filled also with a
deep sediment of mud and sand, the surface of which is sealed over
with a crust of stalagmite, H.
E. Gorge or narrow valley of the Bode river, flanked on both
sides by precipitous crags of transition limestone.
F. Supposed continuation of the mouth A. to the surface, as it
probably existed before the excavation of the valley.
G. Supposed surface of the limestone before the formation of the
subjacent valley.
H. Crust of stalagmite covering the diluvial mud and sand both
in the hollows B., and on the pinnacles D.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
271
PLATE XVII.
Vertical section of the cave of Gailenreuth, in Franconia, from sketches
made by Professor Buckland in 1816 and 1822.
A. Entrance passage, varying from six to ten feet in height,
terminating externally in a steep cliff, and internally expanding itself
into the large chamber B.
B. Large chamber, having much stalactite on its roof, and still
more stalagmite on its floor. In the centre is a pillar of these sub-
stances, uniting the roof and floor.
C. Crust of stalagmite, still perfect over great part of the floor
of B., but much destroyed on that of the lower chamber F.
D. Bed of diluvial loam, mixed with pebbles, angular fragments
of limestone, bones and teeth: the bones are not so abundant as in
the lower masses G. I.
E. Hole excavated in the mass D. for the purpose of extracting
bones : fragments of these bones lie loosely scattered on the surface
of the crust C., and mixed with bones of modern animals, with ashes
also and charcoal from fires made to illuminate the cave, and with com-
mon soil brought in from the external surface.
F. Second chamber, separated from B. by a perpendicular pre-
cipice, and having probably other less steep communications with it.
The stalagmite of the floor C. is represented as restored to the state
in which it probably existed before it had been disturbed by digging.
G. Enormous mass of bones lying in loose earth in a deep natural
cavern, which descends laterally from the chamber F.
H. Upper and empty part of the cavern which contains the bones G.
I. Mass of bones, 25 feet deep, mixed with pebbles and loam,
and cemented by stalagmite into a strong osseous breccia.

272
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
K. Well sunk 25 feet deep in I., for the purpose of extracting
bones.
K. K. Cavities excavated at the bottom of K., but not reaching
through the breccia to the natural limestone rock.
L. Oven-shaped cavity dug in the side of I. in search of bones
and skulls.
M. Low passage connecting the chamber F. with the smaller
chamber N.
N. Small innermost chamber, in the floor of which is sunk the
well K. This must originally have been the roof of a deep cave,
which has been filled up by the mass I. I.
PLATE XVIII.
a
:
View of the narrow valley or gorge of the Esbach river, which falls
into the Weissent a little above Muggendorf.
A. Ruins of the castle of Rabenstein, on the edge of a cliff about
100 feet high, on the right bank of the Esbach.
B. Chapel of Klaustein, standing immediately over the cave C.,
which I have called the cave of Rabenstein : it also bears the name
of Klaustein.
C Mouth of the cavern, leading to a large chamber, which has
many side vaults and lateral communications, some of which pro-
bably pass upwards to the surface. This cave contains few bones,
but much mud and stalagmite.
D. Channel of the Esbach, a very small river which descends by
this gorge to join the Weissent. The gorge in its narrowest part is
not 50 yards broad.
E. Mouth of the cave of Kühloch, in the lowest part of the cliff,
on the left flank of the gorge opposite the castle of Rabenstein. This

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
273
mouth must have been included in solid rock till the valley had been
cut down nearly to its present depth.
F. Entrance to the cavern by a lofty vault leading to the cave G.
The roof and floor of this vault are inclined downwards at a con-
siderable angle.
G. Section of the interior of the great cave, closed on every side
with solid rock except at F., and having its floor H. buried under a
deep bed of black animal earth and bones. The section is repre-
sented by dotted lines marked on the surface of the cliff.
H. Actual floor of the cave, beneath the black earth and bones.
I. Mouth of the cave of Schneiderloch, in the cliffs a little below
Kühloch, and also containing bones.
a
PLATE XIX.
Map of the district round Muggendorf, in Franconia, showing the
manner in which the country is intersected by deep valleys of de-
nudation, and the present mouths of the caves exposed in the cliffs
that flank these valleys, though not exclusively confined to them.
This map is copied from that in Goldfuss's Pocket-book on the
Environs of Muggendorf.
The Vignette, giving a view of the mouth of the cave of Gailen-
reuth, with a fissure close adjacent to it, is copied from an engraving
in Esper's account of the caves of this district.
PLATE XX.
Vertical section of the cave discovered in the Dream lead mine at
Callow, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire, in December, 1822.
A. Shaft sunk perpendicularly downwards 60 feet, through a
solid vein containing lead.
B. Supposed continuation of the lead vein below the floor of the cave.
N N

274
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
C. Cave in the state it was when visited by the author in January,
1823, excepting that a large number of the rhinoceros bones had
been extracted.
D. Fissure laid open by the subsiding of the materials that had
filled it, into the cave C.; the face of this fissure, under the plumb-
line, is rubbed and scratched as if by descending masses of stone.
E. Subsided mass of loose stones and argillaceous loam that had
filled the cave to its roof, and the fissure to its surface, before the
cave was penetrated, and its contents in part extracted by the
shaft A.
F. Bones of ox and deer, and horns of deer found near those of
the rhinoceros.
- G. Skeleton of rhinoceros restored to the state in which it pro-
bably lay before its matrix had been disturbed by subsiding towards
the shaft.
H. Solid limestone of Derbyshire, containing the now open
fissure D. and the shaft A., and intersected by numerous lead veins.
1. Surface of the fissure, which was entirely level, and overgrown
with grass, till its contents began to subside into the cave C.
PLATE XXI. Fig. 1.
Vertical section of the cave of Goat Hole at Paviland, in the sea cliff,
15 miles west of Swansea, in Glamorganshire.
A. Mouth of the cave, at the base of a nearly vertical cliff, facing
the sea, and accessible only at low water, except by dangerous
climbing
B. Inner extremity of the cave, where it becomes so small, that a
dog only can go further, and apparently ending at a short distance
within B.
C. Body of the cave. Its length from A. to B. is about 60 feet, the

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
275
a
a
breadth from C. to D. (in the plan, fig. 2) is about 20, the height of
the cave from 25 to 30 feet.
D. (In the section) irregular chimney-like aperture, ascending
from the roof of the cave, and terminating in the nearly perpendicular
cliff at K.; it is too small for the entire carcase of an elephant to have
passed down through it.
E. Bottom of the cave, to which the sea water never reaches; this
part is covered over with a loose mass of argillaceous loam and frag-
ments of limestone, of diluvial origin, about six feet deep, which has
been much disturbed by ancient diggings, and through which are dis-
persed the bones and teeth. The elephant's head, and human ske-
leton, are marked in the spot in which they were actually found.
F. Mass of the same materials as E., but less disturbed, and over-
hanging E. with a small cliff, five feet high, in which were found two
elephant's teeth. This mass, though less disturbed than E., has been
dug over before, and extends into the small hole within B.; it contains
dispersed through it, particularly near B., recent sea shells and pebbles :
at this place also it is firmly united by stalagmite, which rarely occurs
in any other part of the cave.
G. Loose sea pebbles, strewed in small quantity over the floor of
the cave near its mouth, and washed up only by the waves of the
highest storms.
H. Rock basins, three feet deep, produced by friction of the large
pebbles, which still lie in them.
I. Naked limestone of the floor of the cave, forming the line
within which the waves appear never to enter, and separating the sea
pebbles without, from the diluvial loam and angular fragments that
form the loose breccia within it.
K. Upper termination of the chimney-shaped aperture in the
face of the naked cliff.
N N 2

276
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
L. Ledges and hollows in the aperture K, on each of which is
lodged about a foot of loose fine earth, that seems to be accumulated
from dust drifted by the wind, and is full of minute land shells, and
the bones of small animals, apparently brought hither by hawks and
sea gulls, e. g. moles, water-rats, field-mice, small birds, and fish.
.
PLATE XXII.
1. Lower portion of the horn of a small deer, apparently a cast
horn separated by necrosis ; found in the Goat's Hole Cave at Pavi-
land.
2. Upper extremity of another horn found with No. 1, apparently
of the same species; it is very flat and thin.
3. Lower extremity of a horn, still adhering to the skull, found
with the rhinoceros in the cave near Wirksworth, 1822. Near it
were several cylindrical portions of the shaft of similar horns, nearly
of the same diameter as this, having their surface very smooth.
4. Portion of a flat and palmated horn found with No. 3. The
scale of 1, 2, 3, and 4, is half the natural size.
5. Head of an hippopotamus, copied from p. 185 of Lee's History
of Lancashire (fol. Oxon. 1700). The only account given of it is that
it was dug up under a moss in Lancashire.
6. Outside view of the right tusk of the upper jaw of an animal
of the tiger kind, found by Mr. Cottle, of Bristol, A. D. 1822, with
the bones already described, in the cave at Oreston, near Plymouth.
7. Inside view of No. 6.
PLATE XXIII.
1. Residuary part of the lower extremity of the tibia of an ox,
which I saw given entire to a Cape hyæna in Mr. Wombwell's tra-
velling collection at Oxford, in December, 1822: marks of the teeth are

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
277
C
e
C
distinctly visible at a, b, c, d, e, f. See note at p. 37, describing the
hyæna's manner of breaking and partly devouring this bone. Nos. 1,
2, 3, and 4, are reduced one-third.
2. Fragment of a similar tibia from Kirkdale Cave, broken nearly
in the same manner as No. 1, and bearing similar marks of teeth at
a, b, c, d, e: in the recent, as in the antediluvian specimen, the lower
condyle has, from its hardness, been left unbroken.
3. Splinter from another bone broken by the hyæna at Oxford :
the cavity at A. was produced by the hyæna's tooth.
4. Similar splinter, bearing a similar cavity A., from the cave at
Kirkdale, and partially incrusted with stalagmite.
5. Inside view of the lower extremity of the recent specimen,
No. 1, in which the hole A. was produced by the hyæna's bite. Nos.
5 and 6 are reduced nearly one-half.
6. Lower extremity of another tibia from Kirkdale, in which the
form of the cavity A. resembles that in No. 5.
7. Scaphoid bone of the left carpus of an ox, which, with the
other component bones of the carpus, lay all night untouched in the
hyæna's cage at Oxford.
8. Similar bone from Kirkdale, equally untouched.
The above specimens go far to explain the fact of the abundance
(in excess) at Kirkdale of similar solid and marrowless bones, and frag-
ments of bone; and of the absence of the softer portions analogous to
those which were devoured by the hyæna in Oxford.
9. Fragment of the lower jaw of a young hyæna from Plymouth,
exhibiting the posterior molar tooth of the first set about to be shed,
and two of the permanent teeth rising in the jaw beneath ; from a
drawing by Mr. Clift.
10. Jaw of a young hyæna from Kirkdale, belonging to Mr. Sal-
mond, showing it to have but three deciduous molar teeth in the

278
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
lower jaw, whilst the number of permanent molar teeth in this same
jaw is four: at A. the posterior tooth of the second set is in the act
of rising through the bone, but not yet protruded.
11, 12, 13. Jaws of weasels from Kirkdale, belonging to Mr.
Salmond.
a
PLATE XXIV.
Copy of a drawing by Schröder, published by Mr. Bieling, of a
remarkable mass of remains discovered in a bed of diluvial loam, that
covers the gypsum quarries in new red sand-stone at Thiede, about
four miles south-west of Brunswick. The remains lay heaped on
each other, as represented in the plate, all within a space of 10 feet
square. Among them were 11 tusks and 30 molar teeth of elephants
(one 14 feet long), and various bones and teeth of elephant, rhino-
ceros, horse, ox, and stag.
In the drawing, the letters and figures which are not placed on
teeth or bones imply that they existed in the loam in the place im-
mediately below the figures respectively.
a
PLATE XXV.
Fig. 1. Sectional view of the coast of Dorset, from Lyme Regis
to the Isle of Portland, as seen from Lyme Regis; showing the
manner in which the valleys are intersected at the point where they
terminate in the present sea-shore. It is probable that a consider-
able portion of this coast has been worn away by the sea, and that
the small valleys or combs, which are now abruptly truncated at
their termination, were originally continued with a gradual slope
to the water's edge. The form of these cliffs, and of those in fig. 2,
as they appear when seen from a boat in passing along the coast, is
represented in the sections by Mr. De la Beche, at Plate VIII. of the
Geological Transactions, second Series, vol. i. part i.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
279
Fig. 2. Sectional view of the coast of Devonshire, from Sidmouth
to Beer-head. The first comb or dry valley, on the east of Sidmouth,
is abruptly truncated, like those represented in fig. 1; the others
terminate by a gradual slope towards the sea. The line of junction of
the green-sand with the red marl is marked by the cessation of in-
closures and of fertile soil, exactly at the point where the green-sand
begins. The table-lands, that form the summits of these green-sand
hills, are for the most part barren heaths, except where they are
covered with diluvian gravel, or by a bed of unrolled chalk flints.
This observation applies also to the green-sand summits in fig. 1, and
to the table-lands composed of the same stratum, which stretch in-
land from the coast to the flat summits of the Black Down Hills, in
which this formation attains its highest elevation, overhanging with
its escarpment the vale of Taunton. (See map at Plate XXVI.)
PLATE XXVI.
Map of the valleys which intersect the coast of Dorset and
Devon.—The north-west angle, not being mentioned in the paper, is
not coloured.
PLATE XXVII.
Map showing the manner in which the Lickey sand-stone pebbles
have been drifted from Warwickshire, through two low points in the
escarpment of the oolite limestone at Moreton in Marsh, and on the
north of Banbury; and been spread over the country along the valleys
of the Evenlode, the Cherwell, and the Thames, and also on the north
of Buckingham.


Castor.
Tapir
Hog
Glutton
Bird
Mouse.
Deer
Ox.
Horse.
Water-rat.
Fox.
Bear
Weasel
.
Mastodon.
Wolf
Elephant
Rhinoceros
Tiger
Hippopotamus
Rabbit or Hare .
.
Hyæna.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Kirkdale.
Wirksworth.
है
Mendip.
Clifton.
}
।
Plymouth.
Crawley Rocks,
near Swansea.
Paviland Caves,
near Swansea,
In caves or fissures.
३
District of Mug-
gendorf.
District of the
Hartz.
Fouvent, in
France.
Shewing the principal Localities of the Antediluvian Animals mentioned in this work.
TABLE,
है
Sundwick, in
Westphalia.
।
Köstritz, near
Leipsig.
है
Gibraltar.
है
Oxford.
है
1
Brentford.
३
Walton, in
Essex.
३
है
Lawford, near
Rugby.
है
Thiede, near
Brunswick.
In superficial loam or gravel.
Herzberg and
Osterode.
܊
ह
Canstadt, near
Stutgard.
है
Eichstadt, in
Bavaria.
ܕܽ
Val d'Arno, near
Florence.


Pl. 1.
Redcar
Kim meridge Clay
Lees mouth
Stocktonya
Coral Rag. Oxford Oolite.
and Calcareous Grit.
Tees R.
Gisborough
V
E
Z
Farm
C
Whitby
Stokesley
Esk
R
R
E
Bills date
Hutton
Hodge bed
gin ble sota
Rical
data
H A M B LET ON HILL
Thelmsley
Duncombe
Thirsk
Donaldkiko
KIRKDALES
Scarborough
Kirby
Moorside
costaks
Derwent R.
8
lurrunean
CAVE
Pickeringo
Park
Rical
Muston
N. G
G
Rue R
T
PC
R
Filey Bu
Derwent R
Hunmanby
Rye R
H0 WAR D14
E
Fox
K K holes. Be
L
HILLS
subterranean
R
A
river
New Malton
Easingwold
Castle
Howard
CH
0
Kirkam
S T YOX
K
I
Pore R.
7
G! Driffield
A Z
A krn
Nidde
I
Ouse R.
V
Derwent
YORK
H
WWW
S ( TO M
Pocklington
0 R K
C
I. Basire, sc.


Fig.1.
Pl. 2.
Fig.2.
E
E
4 Teet.
D
с
Α.
B
4 feet
Section of the Cave
para
HUN
OD
Extremity unexplored
Fig. 3
Plan of the Cave Drawn and Measured by W. Salmond Eso?
The rigures within the lines express the width of the Cave in
feet and inches, those outside its height.
Both these hare been enlarged bi' removing Stones to obtain
a Passage.
F'issure
2.7
2.6
3
3
3
2.6.
2
A. Original slope of the Hill
B. Rubbish yilling the mouth of the cave
c. Original Entrance of Solid Rock
D. Portion of Cave destroyed by quarrying
E. Present Entrance of Cave.
3
Elephants Tooth found here
14
2.2
2.4
7
4.
Branch unexplored
fissure
2.8
6
Ground Plan of the Cave
fissure closed
3.0
6
upwards
3.0
Present Face of Quarry
D
22
ze
20 Yards
B
Former Outline of Quarry
D. Buckland del.
TOWebster


Pl. 3.
Fig..
Fig. 2.
Basire se
Fig. 4.
Fig. 3
Fig. 5.
7. Tebster det.


Pl. 4.
Fio.7.
Fig. 2.
Fig.3
T. Webster
W. Clift &
M. Morland
det.
Basire se


Pl. 5.
Fig.3.
Fig.s.
de
Fig.2.
.
Fig.4.
Fig.6
.
Fig.s.
Fig.8
.
Pig.7.
Fig.9.
Fig. 10
Fig.11.
Fig.12.
.
FDuncombe)
TOWebster
del.
I: Bavire e


PCS
5
Fig. 7.
3
6
7
8
7.5
26
72
27
78
73
in » 六六
​29
20
24
26
22
28
27
30
32
25
23
27
0
J. Basire sc.
M.Morland
7. Chi po


Pl. 7.
Fig.2.
Fig.3
3
Fig.2.
Fig.5.
Fio.4.
Fig.6.
Fig. 7
Fio.9.
Fig.8.
Eig.zo.
J:"Basire sc.
M. Morland
7. Clift &
T. Webster
det.


Pl. 8.
Fig.2.
Fig. 5.
Zin, 4.
Fig. 6
Fig.7.
F19.8.
මුල්
Fig.2.
Fio.3.
Fig.9.
F'io.20
F'io.Il.
Fig.12.
Fig.13.
Fio.14
W od
M. Morlanit
F. Duncombe del


Pl. 9.
Fig.1.
Fig.2.
Fig.3.
Fig.5.
Fig. 4.
F. Duncombe det.
J: Basic


Pl. 10.
Fio. 2.
Fig.2.
Fio.3
Fig.6.
Fig. 5
Fig.4.
N
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig.20.
Fiol.
Fig.75.
Fio.76.
Fig.77
Fig. 18
Fig. 72. Fig.12.
Fio.Z3.
Fig.14.
J. Basire
L'. Webster det.


Pl. II.
5
4
8
13
6
14
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C
7
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2
Fig. 7
20
7.
25
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3)
72
77
28
29
30
20
26
27
24
25
DO
22
27
23
28
29
37
32
33
M. Morland
7. Webster
HC Neil
dett
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Pl. 12.
ENE
I. Webster del
F'Basire, sculp.


T. Webster, del
Fig. 1.
2.
9
Pl.B.
ZZ
12.
10.
3.
4.
J. Basure, sculp.


P214
L
in
2
E
H
H
Uruwa by T hebster from a Shetch by il buckland 1822.
VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CAVE OF SCHARZFELD.
అది
28/59
vuonant Ininow-runva oy namanda


P1. 16.
N
妻
​M
Valley of the Bode R.
F
L
G.
K
H.
il
I
Drawn by 7.Webster from a/ Sketch by W, Buckland.
G.Scharf. Luchog. Printed by C. Hallmandel.
VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CAVE OF BAUMANS HÖHLE IN THE HARTZ.
Pub: by J, Murray Albemarle sur 1823.


P7:16
G
F
ninis
E
B
D
B
B
B
B
B
Drawn by 7. Webster from a Sketch by W.Bucand
G. Scharf Lithog. Printed by C. Hultmandet.
SECTION OF THE CAVE OF BIELS HÖHLE IN THE HARTZ.


P1:17.
B
B
E
F
72
K
L
ed
Drawn by IWebster from a Sketch by WBuckland.
G Sharf lithog: Printed by C. Hullmandet
VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CAVERN AT GAILENREU THIN FRANCONIA
London. Pela by z Murra


P:18.
-
B
A
Alwer
Esbach
I.D. Harding Lithog:
VIEW OF THE MOUTHS OF THREE CAVES in the Cliffs that flank THE GORGE
BY THE CASTLE OF RABENSTEIN IN FRANCONIA.
Printed by CHultmandel
OF THE ESBACH RIVER
London. Paba by J. Murray : Albemarle St. 1823.


PL. 19.
Map showing the deves and VALLEYS 9 Denudation
of
CAVES
in the District of MUGGEN DORF.
.
Weissent
Rauhenbergur H
Road from Bamberg
Prire
Haleam
Lindenbrunnen
ITI VL
Puteplochu
Aufscer
Nankendorf
FORSTERS/A
Road from Nurenberg to Bareuth
LI ME S T O N E
River
Mouth of the Cave of Gailenreuth:
copied from Eshers Work on the caves.
LAND
ch R.
Zendo
Oh Weisehenfeld
Muhstein
Geislonal
Road
T A B L E
TABLE LAND
die
-Kirche
Ahorn
Wund H
Schonstein
Brunstein
LA N D
I A
RABENSTEIN HER
OXUNACH
thneiderlocha
Road
LIMESTONE
daudek
Att Muggendorf
Valley
River
of
ZAHNZOOH
Esbach
PRO
the
Road
Mirsch
berg
Engereuth
Kandorf
Hole
berg
GALLEN, S sent
REUTA
Wasserol
River
TOR
GossWinston
Mokas
"Espers
7
Road
Buttlach
Explanation,
River
Hole or Cave
Crag
Cross Road
Scale. One Inch to a Mile.
2
G.Scharf lithog
Printed by C. Hallmandel


P1.20.
A
ހަހަހަ
I
ABO
Twier
H
H
BO
H
E
EL
39.
cos
T
G
SN
o
رہے
/
y
S
- E
E
port
ha
ب -
B:
Tead
:Vern
G. Scharf Lithog
Drawn by TWebster, from a Sketch by Prof."Buckland
SECTION OF THE CAVE IN
DREAM LEAD MINE NEAR WIRKSWORTH, DERBYSHIRE.182 2.


PV: 21.
Big. 1
unexplored
Atg?
75
B
E
F
L
D
E
I
С.
B
E
H
90
E
I
Vous 20
HS
be
G
geben ooda
А.
A
Ground Plan of the Cave.
H
OOO
ODO
H
G
Н.
13
des
Drawn by T Webster from a Sketch by Prop? Buckland
G. Scharf Lithog. Printed by Challmandel.
SECTION OF THE CAVE CALLED GOAT HOLE.
In the Sea Cliffs 15 Niles West of Swansea


PV: 22.
4
2
6
3
7
o
Printed by C Hullmandel
G. Scharf Lithog


PL. 23.
6
Fig: 1
A
a
a
3
6
8
3
A
А
13
12
wows
9
10
A
prawn from Nature Kon Stone by G.Scharf
Printed by C. Hullmandel
RECENT AND ANCIENT MARKS OF THE TEETH OF HYÆNAS,
JAWS OF WEASEL AND OF YOUNG HYA NAS.


Fig: 1
Pl. 24.
3
Uden
A 2
ความของ
Ci
B 2
El
xi
K
B3
A Z
F
3
Yanmar
GI 2
Ні
I
Celana
E 2
A1
H2
MI
DI
A3
01
D 2
M 2
103
Pi
P2
R1 R2
Z3
A4
C 2
L
27 N
24
S
Ai
26
U4
U 5
U1
U 3
U 2
T
A
6
X 3
w
G.fiharf der
Printed by Hullmandel
MASS OF TUS KS, TEETH AND BONES FOUND AT THIE DE NEAR BRUNSWICK.
M signifies Mammoth . R, Rhinoceros.
A 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 T'usias ot M
E 2 Lowor Part of the same Bone L Hip Bone of M
B12 lower Jaw of R.
F 1,2 Vertebræ of the Back of A. M1 Horn of S.
B 3 Upper Jaw of R
G 1,2,3,4 Toe Bones of M.
M 2 Middie Part of the same.
Ci Thigh Bone of M.
H1 First Vertebra of the neck of M. N Lower law of R.
C 2 Thigh Bone of R.
H 2 Second Vertebra of the same. (1,2,3,4 Ribs of M.
D 12 3 Head Part of Thigh Bone ofM. I Lower Jaw of M.
Pi Tria of H
H, Horse. 0. Ox. S, Stag.
Q Metatarsus of 1.
* W Half of the Lover Jaw with Teeth of M.
R 1.2, Molar Teeth
from Upper Jaw of H. X 1,2,3 Shoulder Blades of M.
S Part of Pelvis of M.
Y Vertebra of the Back of M.
Tðlumerus of M, which measures 6,8, & Z 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 Molar Teeth of.M.
may be considered the Scale for the rest. 1, 2. Peeth of Upper Jaw of M.
U 1.2.3.4.5 Cervical Vertebrcy M. 3. Tooth of Lower Jaw of M.
tin


P1.25.
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Section of the Coast of Dorset from Lyme Reģis, to the Isle of Portland.
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VIAP of the COUNTRY adjacent to the COAST of DEVON and DORSET from TEIGNMOUTH to PORTLAND

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IN DE X.
A.
Allan, Mr. his account of osseous breccia at Nice,
151, 152.
ABINGDON, pebbles of porphyry in gravel, 198.
Alluvium of two distinct eras, 185.
bones of elephants and other animals
term applied too vaguely, 190.
in gravel at, 175.
recent, Mr. Bald's description of it,
quartzose pebbles in the valley of, and 186.
on the hills adjacent, 252.
ancient, Mr. Bald's description of it,
Abbotsbury, rolled tooth of elephant in Chesil ibid.
Bank, at 247.
Alps have been under water, 221.
Abscess, marks of, discovered on antediluvian
effects of diluvial action in them enormous,
wolf's bone by Mr. Clift, 74.
212.
Abury, Druidical temple built of grey wethers, Alpine limestone in Franconia, 124.
248.
Alternation, none of stalagmite with beds of loam
Accidents, many must concur to the discovery of and pebbles in the caves, 110.
bones in caverns, 97.
none of mud and stalagmite at Biels'
Actual causes, their effects on lake Huron, 216.
Höhle, in the Hartz, 123.
began at the period usually as- Althorp, chalk flints in gravel near, 197.
signed, 228.
America, proofs of diluvial action in, 215.
cannot have produced diluvial phe-
was inundated at the same time with
nomena, 227
Europe and Asia, 218.
Adelsberg, cave in Carniola, containing bears
North, pebbles of lead in stream works,
bones, 161.
177.
Adipocere, in human foot at Paviland, 88.
South, proofs of diluvial action in it, 218.
Ælian mentions hyænas' enmity to dogs, 23. Analogy of diluvial phenomena in all countries,
Africa, proofs of diluvial action in, 220.
227.
Agates, obtained from diluvium, in Hindoostan, Angular fragments, more abundant in fissures
ibid.
than in caves, 151.
Aikin, Mr. his acconnt of gravel at Litchfield,
in Mediterranean breccia,
195.
150.
Album
græcum,
calcareous excrement of liyænas
in caves, are of two eras,
in cave at Kirkdale, 20.
shows hyænas to have eaten
flints, on summits, in Devon and Dorset,
bones, 37.
245.
143.
OO

282
INDEX.
near, 217.
Animal matter in cave of Kühlock, 138.
Bareuth, district of caves, 124.
remains in diluvium of Dorset, 247. Barfs, ridges of diluvium in Holderness, 209.
Animals similar in Yorkshire and Italy, 182. Barnard Castle, blocks of granite from Shap, 194.
Anomalies at Kühloch, how reconciled, 140. Barrow, Mr. announces third discovery at Ply-
Anspach, Margrave of, his account of caves, 146. mouth, 68.
Antibes, osseous breccia, 148.
Basel, parallel terraces on sides of the Rhine
Antrim, valleys excavated by denudation, 207.
Arc, Valley of, at Mount Cenis, gravel of two Bat, bones in cave at Köstritz, 168.
eras, 189.
Balleye, elephant's remains in a lead mine at,
Arezzo, at upper end of Val d'Arno, 181.
A.D. 1663, 61.
Aristotle, mentions hyænas robbing graves, 23. Bauman's Höhle described, 117.
Arnheim, diluvium on bank of Rhine at, 189. Bavaria, bones in gravel at Eichstadt in, 26.
Arno, Valley of, bones of elephants, &c. 181, 182. Beaconsfield, pebbles from Warwickshire, on the
Ashdown Park, valley full of grey wethers, 248. hills near, 252.
Ashes, above stalagmitic crust at Gailenreuth, 135. Bear, remains common to caves and gravel beds,
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, remains of elephants 146.
in it, 175.
in cave at Kirkdale, 17. 35.
contains a complete bones in osseous breccia of Pisa, 150.
collection of the remains alluded to in this
lived and died in the caves, 103.
work, 116.
Bears, remains of at least 2500, in cave of Küh-
Asia, proofs of diluvial action in, 220.
loch, 139.
central, the place to look for human bones, Beaver, fossil, in Val d'Arno, 182.
170.
Bedford, gravel in vale of, 197.
Avalanches in the Hymalaya, bones brought down Bedfordshire, its gravel, 196.
by them, 223.
Beer Head, entirely composed of chalk, 244.
Axbridge, cave near it with foxes' bones, 166. Behrens, account of caves in his Hercynia Curiosa,
Axe Valley, simply of diluvial origin, 241.
104.
Axminster, section of lias quarries near it, 242. Beiling, Mr. his account and collection of bones
near Brunswick, 181.
B.
Berger, Mr. his discovery of bones near Bruns-
wick, 181.
Bagley Wood, pebbles on its highest ridge, 251. Birmingham, pebbles in red stand-stone near, 249.
Bagnes, Valley of, effect of a lake bursting in it, Bigsby, Dr. his account of diluvial action near
236.
Lake Huron, 215.
Bald, Mr. his account of two kinds of alluvium, Birds, list of bones found at Kirkdale, 15.
185.
bones at Kirkdale, chiefly wing bones, 34.
_ his account of elephants in Scotland, in the diluvium of England, 27.
179.
bones, in Paviland, and Gibraltar, 93, 155.
Bamberg, district of caves, 124.
Biel's Höhle, origin of name, and description of it,
Banca, tin in diluvium in, 220.
121.
Banbury, quartzose pebbles, 252.
Black earth, rare in cave of Gailenreuth, 136.
Banner Down, dyke of stones filling a fissure, 69.
none at Kirkdale, 12.
a
--

INDEX.
283
caves, 103.
Black earth, abundance of it at Kühloch, 137, 138. Bones of modern animals mixed with antediluvian
at Scharzfeld, from decayed bones, at Köstritz, 168.
117.
recent, in same cave with antediluvian,
Blackdown, rounded quartz pebbles on its sum- 100.
mits, 247.
mixed with ancient, at Zahnloch,
summits have chalk flints on them, 131.
245.
general state of them in German caves,
pebbles of plastic clay formation on 101.
it, ibid.
occur in caves but partially, 143.
Blade bone in cave at Paviland, 87.
recent, in cave of Gailenreuth, 135.
Blocks on the Jura, analogous to pebbles on the
open cavern near Paviland, 96.
top of the rock of Gibraltar, 157.
postdiluvian, in open fissure at Duncombe
Blorenge Mountain, effect of torrents from it, Park, 55.
188.
their position in caves of Germany, 110.
Bloxam, A. Esq. discovered hyæna at Rugby, 26. broken, but not rolled, in Mediterranean
Blumenbach, his description of bones near Os- breccia, 150.
terode, 107.
invested with stalagmite, 16.
number of elephants found in Ger-
in caves at Köstritz, near Leipsig, 167.
many, within his knowledge, 180.
not mineralised, 9.
his opinion of the origin of bones in soft, when taken from the diluvium, 175.
stamped and pounded by pebbles at Bau-
Bochart, his account of hyænas mentioned in man's Höhle, 119.
Scripture, and classic writers, 23.
from Westphalia, in the Museum at Bonn;
Bog report, Irish, quoted, 209.
112.
Bode river, near cave of Bauman's Höhle, 118. Bottle, fragment of, in breccia at Gibraltar, 156.
Bombay, agates and onyx stones in diluvium, 220. Bouache, his account of depth of English Channel,
Bones, number of and broken state at Kirkdale, 246.
12.
Boulders abound in north-west of England, 199.
fracture of them, the effect of violence, 17. -- near Lake Erie and Lake Huron, 216.
cover the bottom of cave at Kirkdale, 1,6. --- of granite in counties of Wicklow and
hard parts only have escaped fracture, ibid. Carlow, 208.
marks of teeth on them, ibid.
abound in South Wales, 206.
splinters and comminuted fragments, of,
on surface of hills in Stirlingshire, 202.
ibid.
Bowles, Mr. his account of bones in Spain, 160.
cemented to a breccia, ibid.
Box near Bath, elephant's remains, 174.
in different states of decay, and cause of Brackley, diluvial quartz pebbles, 197.
ditto, 13.
Bransburton, ridge of gravel locally called barf,
retain much of their gelatine, ibid.
209.
preserved from decay by mud and stalag- Braunston, its gravel, 196.
mite, ibid.
Breccia, definition of, 8.
of recent animals in chimney of the cave
osseous, from Kirkdale, 49.
at Paviland, 93.
in caves, 111.
0 0 2

284
INDEX.
-
-
Breccia, siliceous, near Sidmouth, 245.
Camp, British, on the hill at Paviland, 90.
in cave of Gailenreuth, 135.
Camp de Géants, mastodon at height of 7800 feet,
of bones in cave of Bauman's Höhle, 120.
222.
postdiluvian at Gibraltar, 156.
Campsey Hills, proofs of diluvial action on, 201.
- at Gibraltar coeval with that of English Campden Hills, flank the Bay of Moreton, 250.
and German cayes, ibid.
Canali, professor, his collection of bones from
of fissures coeval with that of caves, 153. Palombaro, 161.
Bridgnorth, granite blocks on the east of it, 199. Canal, Oxford, how it passes the oolite escarp-
pebbles in new red sandstone, 249.
ment, 254,
Bridlington, elephant's remains at, 173.
Canstadt, on the Necker, bones in gravel, 25.
caves of diluvium high on chalk cliffs
heap of remains found there, 180.
at, and near, 192.
bones of bear, hyæna, and elephant, in
Bridport, character of its valley, 241.
diluvium at, 101.
Brington, Great, gravel pits contain chalk flints, Canterbury, elephant's remains near, 174.
197.
Cape, animals now peculiar to it inhabited York-
Brongniart, M. his account of the action of water, shire, 44.
188. 211.
Carlow county, ridges of limestone gravel in, 209.
Brooks, Mr. his collection in osteology, 35. Carpathians, caves there described by Hayne and
Brown, Mr. his account of hyæna's habits, 22. Bruckmann, 104.
says hyænas eat one another, 28.
have been under water, 221.
his account of hyænas dragging dead
gravel of two eras, 189.
camels, 22.
Catcott, Rey. Mr. his account of Hutton cave, and
Bruckmann, his account of caves in the Carpa- specimens, 57.
thians, 100.
his account of effects of diluvial currents,
Brunswick, heap of remains found near it in 225.
diluvium at Thiede, 181.
Caverns preserve remains of antediluvian animals,
Buckingham, gravel in vale of, 197.
42.
Buckinghamshire, its gravel, 196.
of Germany, general description of them,
Buffon, his account of valleys in France, 2ļ1. 109.
Burnham, pebbles from Warwickshire in gravel exist together with fissures at Gibraltar,
at, 252.
154.
Burringdon cave, in Mendip, with human remains, Caves, their probable origin, 5.
164.
not made by the hyænas, ibid.
Burton, near Bridport, elephant's remains, 174.
their extent in England, 6.
character of its valley, 241.
connected with fissures, 142.
Busbequius, his account of the habits of hyænas,
open before the deluge, ibid.
22.
contain bones but partially, 143.
list of most remarkable on the continent,
C.
104.
Cairn Gorm, topaz in gravel, 220.
Cette, osseous breccia, 148.
Cambridge, gravel beds of compound character. Cerigo, osseous breccia, ibid.
198.
Cenis, Mont, gravel of two eras in contact, 189.

INDEX.
285
Ceuta, breccia in a cave opposite, 160.
Clwydd, vale of, elephant's teeth in ditto, with
Chalk, pebbles of, near Northampton, 197.
the lead, 174.
once extended far beyond its present limits Cliff on each side the gorge of the Bode river, 118.
in Dorset and Devon, 245,
Cliffs produced by diluvial denudation, 95.
flints in diluvium of eastern counties, 194. - perish rapidly on east coast of England, 190.
in Derbyshire, 197.
Clift, Mr. his account and drawings of Plymouth
Channel, English, its greatest depth less than bones, 75.
420 feet, 246.
his assistance in ascertaining bones, 35.
Charcoal in cave of Gailenreuth, 135.
observed marks of teeth on bones from
at Paviland, 83.
Plymouth, 73.
Chard, outlier of chalk near it, 245.
Clifton Hall, elephant's tusk found there, 179.
Charmouth, character of its valley, 241,
Climate, probably warmer before the deluge, 44.
elephants' remains near it, 174.
- state of antediluvian discussed, 45.
Charnwood Forest may have supplied the porphyry
change (if any) took place at the de-
found in Berks and Oxon, 252.
luge, 47.
supplied porphyritic pebbles, Cock, bones of domestic, in cave at Köstnitz, 168.
197, 198.
Compton-Bishop, in Mendip, cave with foxes'
Cherso, bones found there, 154.
bones, 166.
Chesil Bank, near Weymouth, its ingredients, and
Concud, bones in caves at, 160.
whence derived, 247.
Concurrence of accidents necessary to the dis-
rolled tooth of elephant in it, ibid. covery of bones, 97.
Chevalier, M. his account of bones at Gibraltar, Continent, antediluvian same as the present, 162.
148.
its gravel and animals same as in Eng-
Chellaston, character of diluvium on gypsum, 195.
land, 99.
Cherwell, quartzose pebbles in its valley and ad- Conybeare, Rev. W. D. his extract from Cat-
jacent plains, 252.
cott, 57.
valley of, its gravel, 198.
his account of gravel in central parts
Cheshire, granite blocks on its plains, 199.
of England, 195.
Chartham, elephant's remains, 174.
Rev. J. J. his discoveries in Belgic
Chert in limestone beds at Kirkdale, 4.
villages near Bath, 91.
Chimney, aperture like, in roof of the cave at Pa- Copley medal awarded for the author's account
viland, 92.
of Kirkdale, in Philosophical Transactions, 1.
Chronology, inferences from cave at Kirkdale, 48. Coral rag constitutes the rock at Kirkdale, 4.
cause of error in J. Hunter's idea of Cornwall, stream works with pebbles of tin ore,
the
age
of bones in the German caves, 147.
177.
Chudleigh, caves and fissures in the limestone Corsica, osseous breccia, 148.
,
there, 69.
Copper ore in diluvial gravel in India, 220.
Clackmannan, coal-field described by Mr.Bald, 185. Costorphine hill, its drifted boulders and de-
Clay prevails in diluvium of east coat of England, nudations, 204.
192.
Cotswold hills, valleys of denudation on them, 256.
Clwydd, vale of, lead mine worked in gravel there, Cottle, Joseph, Esq. his collections from Ply-
177.
mouth, 72.

286
INDEX
sures, 161.
Crawley rocks (near Swansea), cave with bones, 80. Cuvier, his account of deltas and actual causes,
Crete, labyrinth of, a series of natural caves, 5. 190.
Criffle mountain, pebbles from it found in Cum-
of bones in caves and fis-
berland, 199.
Crocodiles, fossil, indicate a warm climate, 45.
Croke, Sir Alexander, observed boulders in Nova
Scotia, 217.
D.
Cronebane hill, boulders of granite on it, 208.
Cross Fell, dividing Shap from Darlington, 194. Dales falling into vale of Pickering, 3.
Cul de sac, termination of cave of Kühloch, in a, Dalmatia, its osseous breccia in fissures, 148.
140.
bones found there, 154.
Cumberland, pebbles drifted to Darlington from, Dammerde of Germany, is diluvial loam, 191.
194.
Darlington, diluvium near it, 192.
Cumnor hill, quartzose pebbles on it, 248.
granite block in the street, 194.
Current, diluvian, came from the north in North
pebbles and blocks from Cumberland
America, 215.
in gravel near it, 194.
diluvial, came from the north, 193. Davy, Sir Humphrey, visits Kirkdale, 52.
in Scotland, its main direction Dawson, R. Esq. his communication on Halkin
from the north-west, 205.
lead mines, 179.
from north-east to Shipston-on- Days of Mosaic creation, reference to discussion
Stour and Oxford, 250.
thereon, 2.
diluvian, proof of its coming from the Debacle of Saussure, effect of diluvial waters,
north, 198, 199.
212.
-- its course in north of Oxon, 251. Decay, different stages of, in teeth and bones, 30.
-proof of it in Stirlingshire, 203,
of teeth and bones proportionate to ex-
evidence of it on top of rock of Gibraltar,
157.
Deer, three species at Kirkdale, 18.
Curtois, Rev. Mr. his account of tusk of elephant De la Beche, Mr. notices correspondence in the
at Tarifa, 159.
coasts of Dorset and Normandy, 246.
Curved bones, polished on one side only, 31.
his tusk of elephant from Char-
Cuvier, his old list of animals in Gibraltar brec-
mouth, 174.
cia, 149.
Deltas at mouth of Rhine, Po, and Nile, 190.
his former and present opinions of the De Luc, Mr. his account of caves in the Hartz,
age
of the breccia at Gibraltar, 149.
100.
- his recent opinion on the Gibraltar brec-
his opinion of age of Gibraltar breccia,
cia, 229.
152.
-- his opinion of the age of the bones found Deluge, proofs that it has excavated valleys, 237.
in caverns and diluvium, 230.
period of, not exceeding 6000 years
his opinion of the author's account of
Kirkdale, 231.
summary of its proofs, by Mr. Greenough,
his conviction of the fact of a recent 224.
deluge, 225.
gravel and loam referable to it, 185.
-
posure, 41.
ago, 51.
-

INDEX.
287
Deluge, has modified all valleys, 258.
Diluvial action, evidence of it in all the world, 171.
proof that it was of short duration, 256.
proved by deposits of loam and
transient, simultaneous, and not remote, gravel, 185.
146.
proofs of it on the continent, 211.
evidence of, at Gibraltar, 148.
proofs of it in America, 215.
Den of hyænas at Kirkdale, 19.
evidence of it in fissures, 150, 151.
Denmark, Prince of, his account of hyæna at
general proof of it, 207.
Paris, 28.
waters introduced mud and pebbles, 121.
Denudation, diluvial, producing cliffs, 95.
their action in cave of Gailen-
proofs of it in Devon, Dorset, and reuth, 136.
midland counties, 235.
- detritus introduced once only, 121.
valleys of, on chalk of Dorset, Wilts, Diluvium, definition of, 2.
and Berks, 248.
occurs on hills as well as in valleys, 191.
in Devon and Dorset, 199.
character of it in Norfolk, Suffolk, Lin-
proof of in Germany, 213.
colnshire, and Yorkshire, 194.
proofs of near Edinburgh, 203.
universal in caves, 143.
valley of, at the gorge of Rubeland,
in caves near Köstritz, 167.
118.
contains elephants, &c. at Lawford, 176.
near Oxford, subsequent to the in-
noticed in the Alps, 221.
troduction of the quartzose pebbles from War-
varies in quality in different places, 70.
wickshire, 254.
cliffs of, in Norfolk, Suffolk, and
not the only cause of valleys, 258. Essex, 192.
valley of the Weissent an example
composed of loam, sand, or pebbles,
of it, 133.
144.
posterior to the period when extinct
contains bones near the Hartz, 107.
species of animals inhabited the caves, 238.
exists on summit of the rock of Gibral-
proofs of, on coast of Devon, 244, tar, 156.
245.
differing from alluvium in Italy, 211.
in the Campsey hills, 201.
term applied to “old alluvial covers"
valley of, at the gorge of Rabenstein,
of Mr. Bald, 187.
139.
Dillwyn, L. W. Esq. visits cave of Paviland, 82.
valleys of, round Muggendorf, 125.
his account of two cavities with
proofs of, in Devon and Dorset, 235. human bones, 166.
Derbyshire gravel, its character, 195.
Dog, enmity with hyæna, 23.
bones in lead mines, 62.
Dorchester, Oxon, pebbles from Warwickshire at
Derdham Down, bones in a cave there, 60.
and near it, 252.
Devon coast intersected by valleys of denudation,
elephants' remains, 174.
239.
Dorset, elephants' remains near, ibid.
Devonshire, Duke of, his block of iridescent fel- Dorset coast intersected by valleys of denuda-
spar from the Neya, near Petersburg, 193. tion, 239.
Diamonds in diluvial gravel, 220.
Dover Straits shallow, and probably of diluvial
Difference of breccia in caves and fissures, 151.
origin, 44.

288
INDEX
Dover coast corresponds with that west of Calais, Elephant, fossil, its extent in England and else-
246.
where, 172.
Dragons. Bones of bears, called dragons' bones,
found in cave of Schneiderloch and
104.
Zahnloch, 106.
Drawings by Mr. Clift, Miss Morland, and Miss
fossil, on plain of Mexico, 222.
Duncombe, 15.
remains of, in lead mine, explained,
Dream cave, near Wirksworth, discovered in a 177.
lead mine, A. D. 1822, 61.
at Tarifa, near Gibraltar, 159.
Dressings, or diluvial furrows, near Edinburgh, Elephants, chiefly young ones, at Kirkdale, 18.
203.
bones long ago noticed in Britain, 172.
Dropmore, pebbles from Warwickshire in gravel
supposed to be bones of giants,
at, 252.
173.
Dry valleys on the chalk of England and France,
have been imported
257.
by the Romans, ibid.
Dudley, granite blocks on the west of it, 199.
extent of their bones in Britain, 174.
Duncombe Park, open fissure with bones, 54.
their remains prove the gravel of Europe
Charles, Esq. and Lady Charlotte, pre- and America to be of the same era, 218.
sented specimens to Oxford Museum, 14.
were eaten by hyænas, 37.
his cave at Kirby Moor-
do they occur fossil in central and
side, 53.
southern Asia and in Africa, and if so, are they
Dunstable, pebbles of porphyry, 197.
of extinct species, 170.
Durham county, character of its diluvium, 194.
number found in Germany, 180.
Dust, black animal, in cave of Kühloch, 138.
lived near where their bones are found,
Dyke of mud and stones filling fissures at Chud- 184.
leigh, 69.
found in diluvium of Scotland, 179.
Dyserth, lead mine in gravel near it, 177
Elk, abundant under Irish peat bogs, 180.
fossil, found also in diluvium at Walton, ibid.
Elster River flows in a valley of denudation, 213.
E.
-, valley of the, flanked by caves near Leipsig,
167.
Ecclesiasticus, hyænas' enmity to dogs alluded England, its antediluvian inhabitants, 96.
to in, 23.
English Channel, in part a valley of denudation,
Edinburgh, proof of diluvial action near it. 203. 246.
Museum, elephant's tusks preserved Engulfment of many rivers near Kirkdale, 6.
there, 179.
Ensham Heath, quartz crystals in its gravel, 251.
Eichstadt, bones in gravel, 26.
Entrance of caves once different from their
pre-
Elephant, fossil, or mammoth, its history, 172. sent mouths, 125.
found with flesh entire in ice, 183. Erie Lake, diluvian gravel near it, 216.
preserved in ice, 45.
Esbach River, bones in caves on both sides, 103.
fossil, characteristic of diluvium, 171. Esper, his description of Gailenreuth, 99.
common to caves and gravel beds, 146. his view of the cave of Gailenrenth, 133.
inhabited England, 42.
his plate of broken bear's bone reunited, 75.

INDEX.
289
et seq.
Essex, elephants on the coast of, 173.
Flamborough Head, cover of diluvium on chalk
Etienne, St., valley of, was a postdiluvian lake, cliffs, 192.
216.
Flints, beds of, on the ridges and summits of East
Evenlode valley, state of its gravel, 198.
Devon, 245.
quartzose pebbles in its valley, as well Floor, state of, in the caves of Germany, 110.
as on the adjacent plains, 251.
Fontainebleau, proofs of diluvial action near, 211.
Excavation evident on the coast of Dorset and Forster's Höhle, its position and description, 126,
Devon, 244.
Excavations, artificial, in undervaultings at Scharz-
beauty of its roof and stalagmite,
feld, 116.
127.
Excrement of hyænas in cave at Kirkdale, 20. Fortis, his account of bony breccia in Dalmatia
Exostosis, examples of it in fossil bones, 74.
and islands, 148. 154.
Extent of bear's bones over Germany, &c. 105. Fouvent, cave containing bones, 25.
caves and fissures in England and the Fox in cave at Kirkdale, 18.
continent, 161.
's bones in cave near Axbridge, 166.
Extinct species of elephant, rhinoceros, hippopo- Holes, cave near Wirksworth, containing
tamus, and hyæna, 41.
ochreous loam, 65,
France, proofs of diluvial action in, 211.
F.
caves containing bones, 25.
Franconia, bones found there, 24.
Farey, Mr. his account of gravel in Derbyshire,
district of caves, 124.
195.
caves described by Esper and Rosen-
Finland, granite blocks drifted into Russia, 193. muller, 104.
Fissure communicating with cave at Wirksworth, Frischmann, Mr. found elephants in Schneider-
64.
loch, 106.
sides scratched by falling in of diluvium, Frog in cave at Köstritz, 167.
ibid.
Fry, Mr. discovers caves with foxes bones near
in Duncombe Park illustrates the origin
Axbridge, 166.
of the bones at Plymouth, 78.
descent by, to cave of Scharzfeld, 113.
G.
open, with recent bones, in Duncombe
Park, 54.
Gailenreuth described, 133.
near the mouth of the cave of Gailen-
reference to descriptions of, 99.
reuth, 133.
Gell, Philip, Esq. his discovery of an entire rhi-
Fissures intersect the cave of Kirkdale, 8.
noceros aud other bones in a lead mine in
abound in Derbyshire, 66.
Derbyshire, 61.
at Plymouth connected with caverns, 68. General remarks on German caves, 142.
perpendicular, with bones, at north side Geological Society, their collection of Kirkdale
,
of Gibraltar, 154.
bones, and general collection of organic remains
at Gibraltar, containing bones, ibid. and rocks, 14.
open before the deluge, now full, 142. German Ocean, pebbles have crossed it to Eng-
coeval with caves, 142.
land, 199.
-
PP

290
INDEX.
Germany, bones in its caves like those in England, Graminivora more liable than carnivora to fall into
99.
fissures, 56.
plains in the north of, covered with
chiefly in fissures, and why, 152.
granite blocks, 193.
Granite blocks in Russia and north of Germany,
Gibson, Sir Alex. Maitland, his tusk of elephant 193.
from Scotland, 179.
Gravel considerable in East Devon and Dorset,
John, Esq. of Stratford, his collection ; 247.
first brought specimens to London, presented
pebbles and blocks can be traced to their
ditto to public collections, 14.
source, 191.
Gibraltar, osseous breccia in fissures and caves,
diluvial, its compound character, ibid.
148.
in midland counties described, 195, et
bones in same state as at Gailenreuth, seq.
153.
miscellaneous, at Shipston-on-Stour, 250.
rock 1439 feet above the sea, ibid.
partly angular, partly round, at London,
Glass bottle in breccia at, 156.
256.
Glen Roy, parallel roads or terraces near it, the
its position proves a deluge, 226.
only case in Britain, 217.
its compound character proves a deluge,
Gnawing, marks of, on bones at Kirkdale, 16. 227.
by a living hyæna, similiar to
in midland coun-
those on bones at Kirkdale, 38, and Plate ties, 196.
XXIII.
diluvian, near Lake Huron, 215.
marks of teeth on bones at Sundwick,
partly angular, partly round, at Oxford,
106.
255.
Goats Hole, cave at Paviland, 82.
of limestone in Wicklow and Wexford,
Gogmagog Hills, chalk capped with gravel, 198. 208.
Gold in gravel of South America, 218.
diluvian, near Edinburgh, 203.
obtained from stream works in England,
of two eras in Alpine regions, 189.
Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, 210.
Greenough, Mr. his summary of proofs of a deluge,
sand in Africa of diluvial origin, 220.
224.
its general dispersion, 220.
first principles of geology,
Goldfuss, his account of bones from Westphalia, 188.
113.
Grenville, Lord, finds quartzose pebbles at
caves near Muggendorf, Dropmore, 252.
100.
Grew mentions elephants in Northamptonshire,
Goose bone found at Lawford in diluvium, 27. 174.
Gorge of the Bode River at Bauman's Höhle, Grey wethers on the downs of Wilts and Berks,
118.
248.
diluvian, at Peckaw, containing caves, Grimes, Mr. his tusk of elephant from Lawford,
161.
177.
of the Arno, at Incisa, near Florence, 182. Grovant mine near Halkin, 178.
at New Malton, 43.
Guelderland, hills of diluvium crossing it, 189.
Gorges not referable to actual causes, 214. Gypsum, containing caves at Köstritz, 167.

INDEX.
291
H.
Hinckley, its gravel, 196.
Hippopotamus found in Lancashire, 176.
Hakewill, H. Esq. sends head of rhinoceros to
teeth of, at Kirkdale, 118.
Oxford, 176.
Hippopotamus inhabited England, 42.
Haldon-hill, S. W. of Exeter, probably once
Hoare, Sir Richard, finds rods and rings of ivory
covered with chalk, 245.
in barrows, 91.
Halkin, valleys of denudation in limestone hills Hog, remains in Hutton cave on Mendip, 59.
at, 178.
Höhen Mirschfeld, hill in the district of caves,
elephants' remains in lead mine at, 174.
in Franconia, 130.
Hall, Sir James, thinks the granite blocks in Tees- Holderness coast composed of low cliff of dilu-
dale came from Cumberland, 194.
vium, 192.
his proofs of diluvial action near
elephants' remains in, 173.
Edinburgh, 203.
Hölenkalk, cavernous limestone at Muggendorf,
Hamster rat in cave at Köstritz, 167.
123.
Hare-jaw in cave at Kirkdale, 19.
Holland shows alluvial and diluvial deposits in
Harmony of caves in Germany and England, 108. contact, 188.
of loam, pebbles, and bones, contained Hollman, his account of rhinoceros at Scharzfeld,
in caves, 145.
106.
Gailenreuth with other caves, 136.
bones in diluvium at
Harrison, Mr. first notices the bones at Kirkdale, Horden, 107.
14.
Hollows in Biel's Höhle filled with mud and sand,
Hartz Forest, bones of hyæna found there, 24. 122.
caves described by Leibnitz and De Luc, Home, Sir E. his description of bones from Ores-
104.
ton, near Plymouth, 67.
bones in diluvium near, at Osterode and Honiton Vale, chalk flints on ridges inclosing it,
Dorst, 26.
245.
Hawks supply birds' bones in a recent breccia at Horden, at foot of the Hartz, bones in diluvium
Gibraltar, 155.
near 107.
Heukelum, bones of elephant washed up by Horns of deer, fragments of, at Kirkdale, 19.
bursting of a dyke, 190, 191.
some fallen off by necrosis, 32.
Hearne, his description of bear's food, 33.
none of oxen found at Kirkdale, and why,
Heaps of bones, why none outside the cave at 33.
Kirkdale, 39.
rhinoceros never found fossil, ex-
Henley-hill, quartzose pebbles, 248.
cept in ice, and why, ibid.
Henley, pebbles from Warwickshire on the hills of sheep used for manure, ibid.
near, 255.
Horse, remains in cave at Kirkdale, 18.
Hertfordshire, its gravel, 196.
Houghton-on-the-hill, its gravel, 196.
Herzburg, bones in diluvium near, 107.
Hue-huetoca, in Mexico, elephants' remains,
Hieronymus mentions hyænas robbing graves, 23. there, 222.
Hills of east coast of England capped by diluvium, Human bones near Kirby Moorside, 54.
192.
remains in caves, not antediluvian, 164.
their form proves a deluge, 226.
examples of them in England, ibid.
-
PP2

292
INDEX.
caves, 146.
Human remains in cave at Paviland, 85. 87. Hyænas common to caves and gravel beds, 107.
bones at Köstritz more recent than those 146.
of rhinoceros, 169.
difference of fossil from recent species, 24.
in a cave in Spain, 160.
extent of fossil species, ibid.
to be looked for in diluvium of
discovered at Lawford in diluvium, 26.
central Asia, 170.
evidence of two or three hundred at Kirk-
Humber Mouth shows alluvium on diluvium, 190. dale, 17.
Humboldt, Baron, his account of elephants at
bones fractured equally with those of
Mexico and Quito, 183.
other animals, 16.
bones found by him at high
teeth of all ages and coaditions, 29.
levels, 222.
jaws, in what state found, ibid.
Hunter, John, his account of bones from German
fed on elephants, rhinoceros, &c. 36.
inhabited England and Europe generally
Hutchinson, Mr. his account of diluvial action,
before the deluge, 40.
225.
fossil species extirpated by the deluge, 38.
Hutton cave, with ochre and bones, in the Men-
why the skeleton of the last surviving
dips, 57.
was not found at Kirkdale, 38.
Hurley Bottom, elephants' remains, 174.
Hypotheses, several, to explain the origin of
Huron Lake, diluvial gravel, boulders, and de-
bones, 97.
nudations, 215.
three
may be proposed to explain the
Hyde Park, quartzose pebbles from Warwick-
origin of the bones at Plymouth ; two of them
shire, 198. 232.
untenable, 76, 77, 78.
Hyænas, three species of modern, 21.
three, proposed to explain the phe-
live in holes and rocks, found with
nomena at Kirkdale, 39, 40.
wolves, 22.
Hymalaya mountains, bones of horse, deer, and
eat bones and putrid flesh, 21.
bear, height of 16,000 feet, 222.
drag prey to their dens, 22.
number of their teeth, 21.
habitations and habits of modern, ibid.
I.
dig human bodies from their graves, 21,
22.
Icebergs containing mammoth bones, 46.
habits mentioned in scripture and classic Identity of time and manner of introducing dilu-
writers, 23.
vium to cave, 145.
enmity to dogs, 22, 23.
Ilford, elephants found there, 175.
strength of jaw and neck, 23, 24. Illyria, bones in caves and fissures, 148.
-- eyes formed to see in the dark, 24. Imrie, Colonel, describes birds' bones at Gibraltar,
-- eat their own species, and parts of their
93.
own bodies, 28.
his account of breccia of Gibraltar,
carry off a living man, 23.
153.
carry prey to their dens, 22.
his account of the Campsey hills,
- heaps of bones near their den, ibid.
201.
(Cape) devoured bones at Oxford, 37. Incisa, gorge of, in the Val d'Arno, 181.
--
--
-
-

INDEX.
293
Inflammation, ossific marks of, in ivory at Pavi- Kent's Hole, a cavern near Torbay, 69.
land, 86.
Kew, elephants' remains at, 174.
Inosculation of valleys proves diluvian action, Kidd, Dr. his account of Oxford gravel, 255.
226.
the action of rivers, 188.
Inundation, has covered the highest mountains,
- gravel near Oxford, 175.
223.
Kildare, ridges of limestone gravel, 209.
proofs of one near Edinburgh, 204. Kilmaurs, elephant's tusk found there, 179.
one only proved by state of the caves, King's-lines, Gibraltar, concretion containing peb-
145.
bles, 156.
-has covered the highest mountains, 221. Kingsland, elephants in diluvium, 175.
Ireland, elephants' remains there, 180.
Kirby Moorside, cave discovered in 1822, 52.
proofs of diluvial action in, 207.
Kirkdale, cave discovered in 1821, 1.
elephants' remains, 174.
situation, 3.
Isaiah mentions hyænas, 23.
entrance of cave, 6.
Ischuber, in Croatia, breccia containing bones,
form and dimensions of cave, 7.
161.
floor of cave covered with mud, 17.
Isle of Dogs, elephants' remains, 174.
cave was a den of hyænas, 19.
Italy, caves containing bones, 161.
Kirkham, position on the gorge of Malton, 4.
bones in Val d'Arno, 26.
Klaustein Cave, the same as Rabenstein, 129.
Ivory fossil in Scotland, fit for the turner's use, Klüterhöhle, caves with bones, 112.
179.
Knight, Rev. H. his conjectures on the fossil ivory
fit for the turner, at Bridlington, ib.
rings, 91.
rods and rings with human skeleton, 88.
Köstritz, bones discovered in caves there, 25.
fragments rudely cut in cave of Paviland, 89. Kotzebue, his account of icebergs, with mammoth
beads and bodkins in sepulchral barrows, 91.
bones, 46.
his account of elephants near Behring's
Straits, 183.
J.
Kremsminster Abbey, bones of bear in diluvium,
Jaw bones broken equally with the rest at Kirk- 101.
dale, 16.
Kühloch, description of cave, 137.
Jena, valleys of denudation near it, 213.
Kylos, high ridge in the Hymalaya, containing
Jeremiah mentions hyænas, 23.
bones, 222.
Johnson, his account of habits of hyænas, 21, 22.
Jones, his account of diluvial action, 225,
L.
Jura, blocks of -granite from Mont Blanc on it,
212.
Labrador felspar, in England and Russia, 193.
limestone in Franconia, 124.
Lac lunæ, in cave of Fox Holes near Wirksworth,
K.
65.
Lake, antediluvian, near Kirkdale, 19.
Kennet, grey wethers in a valley near it, 248.
in the vale of Pickering, 43.
Kensington Gravel Pits, pebbles from Warwick-
would exist in the Val d'Arno, without the
shire, 252.
gorge at Incisa, 182.

294
INDEX,
Lakes, their tendency to fill up, rather than burst, Llanrwst, gravel and diluvial scratches near it,
213.
206,
Lancashire, granite blocks on its plains, 199. Loam in caves not produced by decomposition of
Land-floods, did not introduce the mud to caves, the roof, 144.
50.
within the caves, resembles the diluvium
Land-shells in fissures, and not in caves, 151. without, 145.
in breccia of Gibraltar, 149. 154.
noticed by De Luc, Leibnitz, Esper, and
Lark bones at Kirkdale, 15—34.
Rosenmuller, 109.
Lawford, near Rugby, elephants and other re- in caves at Köstritz, 167.
mains there in diluvium, 176.
in cave at Kirby Moorside, 53.
hyæna discovered there, in cave of Scharzfeld, fills undervaultings,
26.
115.
other animals in diluvium there, 27.
in cave of Zahnloch, 131.
Lead-mine, containing an entire rhinoceros, 62.
in cave of Gailenreuth, 136.
in North Wales, containing elephants' in caves of Germany, 102.
teeth, stags' horns, &c. 177.
in fissures and caverns at Plymouth, 68.
Ledges in caves covered with diluvial sediment,
in osseous breccia of Gibraltar, 150.
123.
red in Mediterranean breccia, ibid.
Lee's Natural History of Lancashire, head of hip-
diluvial at Gibraltar, 156.
popotamus engraved in it, 176.
varies in quality with the adjacent hills,
Leibnitz, his account of caves in the Hartz, 100. 191.
Leicestershire, its gravel, 195, 196.
Loders, Dorset, elephants' remains at, 174.
Lena, islands at its mouth full of bones, 46. 183. Lombardy, torrents in the plain of, 188.
Lewisham, elephants' remains, 174.
London, remains of elephant under the streets,
Leyden, bones of elephant washed up by bursting 174.
of a dyke, 190.
Long Compton, pebbles of quartzose sandstone,
Licorne, or fossil unicorn, bones used for medicine, 250.
104.
Lucan mentions hyænas' bones as used in enchant-
Lickey Hill, near Birmingham, may have supplied ments, 23.
quartzose pebbles, 249.
Lucas, J. Esq. his femur of rhinoceros, 81.
Limestone, cavernous, round Muggendorf, 124. Lutterworth, its gravel, 196.
Lincoln, character of diluvium, 193.
Lyme Regis, elephants' remains, 174.
Lincolnshire coast, formed of diluvium, 192.
Lyme, valleys intersect the coast near, 239.
the Wash, shows alluvium on di- Lyme, valley simply of diluvial origin, 241.
luvium, 190.
Linnæus, why he overlooked the evidences of a
deluge, 225.
M.
Litchfield gravel its character, 195.
pebbles in new red sandstone, 241. Macclesfield, granite blocks on the west of it,
List of animals found at Kirkdale, 15.
199.
Llandebie, in Caermarthen. Cave with human Maidenhead, pebbles from Warwickshire on the
bones, 166.
hills round, 198. 252.

INDEX.
295
2013
-
Maghery, in Ireland, elephants' remains there, Moreton in the Marsh, pebbles accumulated in its
180.
bay, 250.
Malacca, tin in diluvium, 220.
Morland, Miss, her drawings for Cuvier, 177.
Malbay River, in valley of St. Etienne, 216.
and for the author, 15.
Malina, gravel produced by its torrents, 188. Mouth of caves, the present not the antediluvian
Malton Gorge, the only drainage to the Vale of
ones, 142.
Pickering, 4. 43.
Mountains, the highest, have been under water,
Mammoth, or fossil elephant, its history, 172. 223.
Manganese, incrusting sand in cave at Kirkdale, Mud, or loam, diluvian, in Kirkdale cave, 49.
10.
covers the floor at Kirkdale, 10.
in diluvium at Plymouth and else- introduced to caves at the deluge, 143.
where, 74.
no alternating beds of it, 50.
Manor Vale, cave near Kirby Moorside, 52.
in Bauman's Höhle, 119.
Market Harborough, its gravel, 196.
in Forster's Höhle, 128.
Maryborough, ridges of limestone gravel, 209.
found by Mr. Gell, in caves and fissures of
Mastodon, bones found at 7800 feet high, 222. Derbyshire, 65.
Meade, Dr. his account of boulders in New York, with sand in Biel's Höhle, 123.
218.
or loam, in caves of Germany, 108, 109, 110.
Meath, ridges of limestone gravel, 209.
iu veins or dykes, near Petersburg, 112.
Meduna, gravel produced by its torrents, 188.
in nearly all the cavities at Plymouth, 70.
Mexico, stream tin in its gravel, 118.
postdiluvian, in Wokey Hole, &c. 50.
- plains of, afford remains of elephants, 222. Muggendorf, district of, caves in limestone, 124.
Mice, bones of, at Kirkdale, 19.
Mumbles, near Swansea, fissure with human
Michael's, St. cave at Gibraltar, 154.
bones, 166.
Miller, Mr. discovers human remains at Wokey Mur River, in Styria, passing the
gorge
of Pekaw,
Hole, 165.
161.
his discovery of bones near Clifton, 60. Muston, drainage in Vale of Pickering, 43.
Mitchell, Mr. his account of elephants in North
America, 183.
N.
Mole, in cave at Köstritz, 167.
in cave at Paviland, 93.
Nerita shells, found in a barrow near Warminster,
Molineux, Dr. his account of elephants in Ireland, 91.
180.
found with human skeleton at Pavi-
Molpa Grotto. Containing bones of ruminantia, land, 88.
161.
Newark, gravel near, 194.
Monkeys, eat their own tails, 29.
Newcastle, much diluvium east of the town, 192.
Mont Blanc, under water when blocks were drifted New Grange, catacomb in county of Meath, 165.
from it to the Jura, 221.
Newnham in Warwickshire, elephants'bones there,
Granite transported from it to the 176.
Jura, 212.
Newton, near Bath, elephants' remains, 174.
Moreton, Mr. mentions elephants in Northampton- New red sand-stone contains quartzose pebbles,
shire, 174.
249.
-

296
INDEX.
New York, boulders and gravel described by Dr. Ossero, bones found there, 154.
Meade, 218.
Osterode, bones in diluvium near, 26. 107.
Nibbling, marks of, on bones at Oreston, 73. Otter Valley, simply of diluvial origin, 241.
Nice, its osseous breccia in fissures, 148.
Outliers of chalk in Dorset and Devon, 245.
breccia of two eras, 153.
or detached masses of strata, prove a
Nicholl, Sir John, caves in his park, 80.
deluge, 226.
Nicholaston parish, contains Crawley Rocks, ib. Owl bones in cave at Köstritz, 167.
Norfolk, character of its diluvium, 193.
Ox, two species at Kirkdale, 18.
elephants on the coast of, 173.
Oxford, Bishop of, 14.
Normandy coast corresponds with that of Dorset,
gravel, its compound character, 198. 255.
246.
elephants in gravel at, and near, 175.
Northamptonshire, elephants' remains, 174.
North latitudes, once inhabited by tropical genera
of animals, 47.
P.
North Leach, valleys of denudation near it,
257.
Pallas, his account of elephants in Siberia and
Northumberland. Character of diluvium, 193. Russia, 183.
North Wales, elephants' remains, 174.
Palombara, cave containing bones of bear, 81.
Norway pebbles, drifted to the east coast of Eng- Parallel roads, account of them in North America,
land, 192.
216.
Norwich, elephants' remains, 174.
Pargeter, Mr. his account of breccia at Gibraltar,
Nova Scotia, granite blocks on its highest hills of 158.
slate, 217.
Paris, proof of diluvial action near, 211.
Nurenberg, district of caves near, 124.
Parry, Captain, his account of animals in Mel-
Nymegen, cliff of diluvium on the left bank of the ville Island, 33.
Waal, 189.
Paviland cave, with human and antediluvian bones,
82.
0.
Pebbles mark the course of diluvial waters, 253.
their position on summits shows the re-
Ochre contains bones in cavities of limestone on cent origin of valleys, 253.
Mendip, 57.
of two classes in diluvium of east coast
in diluvium of fissures near Spa, 111.
of England, 192.
in cave near Wirksworth, 65.
drifted from Norway to east coast of
Oolite occurs at Kirkdale, 4.
England, ibid.
-pebbles, none on summits round Oxford, 253.
in caves of Germany, 108.
Oppian mentions hyæna's enmity to dogs, 23.
- on summits in Devon and Dorset, 199.
Oreston, list of animals discovered there, 75.
diluvial, in the Campsey hills, 201.
caves and fissures, description of, 68.
drifted from the North to Shipston and
caverns, near Plymouth, with bones, 67. Moreton, 250.
Organic remains prove a deluge, 227.
not rounded within the caves, 119.
Osseous breccia of caves resembles that of Gi-
in cave of Zahnloch, 131.
braltar, 144.
in cave of Bauman's Höhle, 119.

INDEX
297
Pebbles in breccia of Nice, 152.
Pigeon at Kirkdale, 15, 34.
in caves at Köstritz, 167.
Pinnacles in Biel's Höhle have mud and sand on
rare, if any, in cave at Kirkdale, 7.
their summits, 123.
none in cave of Kühloch, and why, 140. Pisa, osseous breccia, 148.
in cave of Gailenreuth, 134.
Plastic clay formation, traces of it on Blackdown,
in caves in Spain, 160.
245.
in cave and fissure at Hutton, 58.
Pliny mentions hyænas robbing graves, 23.
not introduced to cave by land-floods, 118. Plymouth, three sets of caves there, 67, et seq.
in osseous breccia of Mediterranean, &c.
Earl of, his stag's horns from Dyserth,
150.
178.
overlooked by most writers on the caves, Politz, caves with bones near it, 167.
109.
Polish, partial, on one side only of curved bones,
introduced to caves at the deluge, 143.145. at Kirkdale, 31.
did not enter by present mouth of caves, on a block of stone at Zahnloch, 131.
126.
on floor of cave at Gailenreuth, 137.
in caves and fissures near Spa, 111.
Pontypool, torrent near it, 188.
their course from Warwickshire to Lon- Porphyry pebbles near Dunstable, 197.
don, 252.
at Abingdon, and near Oxford,
of adjacent hills mixed with those from
198.
Norway, 193.
in Bagley Wood, 252.
-- on summit of Rock of Gibraltar, 157.
Portisham, Dorset, blocks resembling Hertford-
Peckaw, in Styria, caves containing bears' bones
shire puddingstone, 245.
at, 161.
Postscript, containing the opinion of M. Cuvier,
Pennant, his account of hyænas at the Cape, 23. 220.
mentions elephants' teeth in North Powder, black, in cave of Kühloch, 138.
Wales, 174.
Prescot, J. Esq. presented rhinoceros' head from
Pentland, Mr. found bones of bear in the Val Siberia, 177.
d'Arno, 110.
Prince's Lines, at Gibraltar, birds' bones found
his communication on the Val there, 154.
d'Arno, 182.
Provençal, Mr. his account of osseous breccia
his notice of bones in caves of
at Nice, 148.
Italy, 161.
Pentuan, whales' bones in stream tin mine, 186.
Periods, evidence of four in cave at Kirkdale, 48,49.
Phillips, Mr. his account and engraving of the
Siberian elephant in ice, 183.
Quartz pebbles on hills round Charmouth, &c.
notices correspondence of coast 247.
near Dover and Calais, 246.
Quartzose pebbles in midland counties, &c. 249.
Pickering, Vale of, its analogies to the Val
if not from Warwickshire,
d'Arno, 182.
came from some more distant point, 255.
geological structure and
rounded before their last trans-
boundary of, 3.
QQ
Q.
port, ibid.

298
INDEX.
--
Quito, remains of mastodon found there by Hum- Rivers, their action described by Kidd, Greenough,
boldt, 222.
and Brongniart, 188.
why they produce little effect, 236.
why they could not have made valleys,
R.
238.
Robin Hood's Bay, elephants' remains there, 173.
Rabbits, bones of, at Kirkdale, 19.
Rock basins in mouth of the cave at Paviland, 83.
Rabenstein, position and description of cave, 129.
on summit of Rock of Gibraltar, 157.
Rats. See water rats.
Rodborough, near Stroud, elephants' remains, 174.
Raven, bones of, in cave at Kirkdale, 15. 34. Rods of ivory with human bones, 88.
Ravenglass, granite drifted thence to Cheshire and Roof and sides of natural caves have no bones
Staffordshire, 199.
adhering to them, 111. 116. 134.
Red chalk pebbles at Shipston, drifted from the Rosenmuller, his description of Gailenreuth, 99.
north, 250.
- his opinion of the origin of bones in
clay and pebbles in the breccia of Nice, 152. caves, 103,
earth on top of Rock of Gibraltar, 157. Rosia Bay, Gibraltar, breccia found there, 154."
in fissures and caves at Gibraltar, Rubeland village, under the mouth of Bauman's
ibid.
Höhle, 118.
oxyde of iron on bones of a woman at Pavi- Ruddle covering human bones at Paviland, 88.
land, 88.
Rugby, bones preserved from decay by clay, 13.
Rhinoceros' flesh preserved in ice, 45.
elephants' remains near, 174. 176.
inhabited England, 42.
Ruminantia, why rarely found in caves, 105.
entire skeleton in a lead-mine, 61, 62.
bones of, in a cave near Naples, 161.
found at Plymouth, 67.
Russia, plains covered with blocks of Finland
in cave at Scharzfeld, 106. granite, 193.
in cave of Sundwick, ibid.
elephants there described by Pallas, 183.
in caves of Germany, ibid.
Rutlandshire, its gravel, 196.
teeth at Kirkdale, 18.
found at Lawford, 27.
with human bones in cave of Köstritz,
118.
S.
at Tarifa, near Gibraltar, 159.
Rhine, diluvium on its banks at Arnheim, 189. Saale river flows in a valley of denudation, 213.
Richardson, Dr. his account of denudation in the Sack, Mr., of Bonn, found bones at Sundwick, 25.
north of Ireland, 207.
his discoveries in caves of Sundwick,
Ridges of gravel on limestone plains of Ireland, 106.
209.
Salcomb Hill, angular chalk flints on it, 245.
Ridinger, his engraving of bears, 132.
Saleve mountain, granite blocks on it, 212.
Ridlington, in Rutlandshire, chalk there, 250. Salisbury Plain, elephants' remains, 174.
Rings of ivory with human bones at Paviland, 89. Salmond, Wm. Esq., of York, his collection ; mea-
Rivers, the amount of effects produced by them, sures the cave; presents specimens, 14.
185.
Sandford Hill, on Mendip, bones of elephant, 64.

INDEX.
299
a
Santa Fe de Bogota, mastodon's bones at height Shap, granite drifted to Darlington from, 194,
of 7,800 feet, 222.
Sheep in cave at Köstritz, 167.
Sardinia, osseous breccia, 148.
Shells, recent marine shells in cave at Paviland,
Saussure, his account of dilvial action in Switzer- 83 and 85.
land, 212.
Sheppy, elephants' remains found at, 174.
Saw, marks of, on a bone in the cave of Pavi- Shipston on Stour, pebbles of quartzose sand-
land, 87.
stone, &c., 250.
Saxony, caves containing bones, 25.
Siberia, elephants described by Pallas, 183.
Scarbrorough, elephants' remains, 173.
Sicily, osseous breccia, 148.
Scharzfeld cave described; contains bones, mud, Sid valley, simply of diluvial origin, 240.
and pebbles, 113.
Sidmouth, valleys intersect the coast, 239.
Schlotheim, Baron, his account of bones at Kös- Silt derived from destruction of cliffs on east
tritz, 25.
coast of England, 100.
human bones Skeletons, none at Kirkdale found entire, and
at Köstritz, 167.
why, 37.
his hypothesis to explain the
not entire in caves of the continent,
occurrence of human bones with those of rhino- 100.
ceros at Köstritz, 169.
rarely entire, 183.
his account of denudation in Skewer made from a wolf's toe at Paviland, 89.
Germany, 213.
Skinner, Rev. Mr. his examination of Burringdon
Scotland, elephants' remains in, 174. 179.
cave, 165.
Scratches on surface of rocks in Stirlingshire, 202. Skulls, none found entire at Kirkdale, and why,
near Edinburgh, 16. 101, 102.
203.
in what part found most perfect at Gailen-
Sea, its present effects small and partial, 286. reuth, 134.
and land did not change place at the de-
found at Gibraltar, 154.
luge, 162.
Smell of bones like charnel-house at Oreston,
Section of gravel beds, containing pebbles of 74.
lead, 178.
Smith, Rev. Mr. his collection at Kirby Moorside,
of lias quarries near Axminster, 242.
12.
Sedgefield, granite and greenstone boulders there, Snipe, bones of, at Kirkdale. See Plate XIII.
194.
Soëmmering, Professor, his specimen of injury
Sedgewick, Professor, his notice of bones in a
repaired in head of an hyæna, 74.
lead mines in Derbyshire, 179.
his fossil bear's head nearly similar
Cambridge
to recent brown bear, 105.
gravel, 198.
Solid bones, numbers disproportionate to that of
Sediment, why little in cave of Kühloch, 141.
softer bones, 16.
Seilberg, near Canstadt, heap of remains found Solinus, mentions hyænas as robbing graves,
there, 180.
23.
Seine, valley of, proofs of diluvial action, 211. Solway Frith, pebbles have crossed it to Cum-
Shalk, in Cumberland, pebbles of Criffle sienite berland, 199.
at, 199.
Southam, gravel near it, 196.
Qe2

300
INDEX.
Spa, caves and fissures, near Spa, contain dilu- Stirlingshire, proofs of diluvial action in, 201.
vium, 111.
Stokes, C. Esq. his communication on Halkin
Spain, bones in a cave in Arragon, 160.
mines, 174.
Sparman, his account of hyænas at the Cape, 23. Strabo, mentions importation of ivory ornaments
Species, identity of, in caves and gravel, 145. to Britain, 91.
Spencer, Earl, gravel in his Park at Althorp, 197. Strangways, Hon. William, his account of mud
Spilsby, in Lincolnshire, the nearest red chalk to veins near Petersburg, 112.
Shipston, 250.
his distinction of allu-
Splinters of bone in Kirkdale cave, 16.
vium and diluvium, near Petersburg, 187.
stamped by pebbles at Bauman's
Stream works, for procuring metals from diluvial
Höhle, 119.
gravel, 118.
Springs of Cherwell and Evenlode, without the
containing pebbles of lead, 177.
escarpment of the oolite, 254.
afford proofs of diluvial action, 218.
Squirrel, bones of, in cave at Köstritz, 167. Stockton on Tees, diluvium near it, 192.
St. Asaph, section of shaft in gravel near, 179. Stonehenge, made of grey wethers, 248.
Stafford, granite blocks on the west of it, 199. Stonehouse, caves in quarry near marine barracks
Staffordshire, granite blocks on its plains, ibid. at, 68, 69.
Stainmoor, blocks of Shap granite there, 194. Stow in the Wold, ridge affecting locally the
Stalactite, definition of, 9.
course of the diluvial waters, 251.
on roof and sides of cave at Kirkdale,
valleys of denudation near,
10.
257.
tube found in horizontal position at Stutgard, remains in the Royal Cabinet, 180.
Kirkdale, 44.
Suffolk, elephants on the coast, 173.
invests bones in German caves, 102.
character of diluvium, 193.
beautiful in Biel's Höhle, 122.
Sumatra, diluvial tin in islands near it, 220.
Stalagmite in Forster's Höhle, 127,
Summary of facts proving an universal deluge,
upper crust of it above the mud, in 226.
cave at Kirkdale, 11.
Sumner, Rev. I. B. his opinion of the force of
does not alternate with beds of mud, water, 237.
ibid.
Sundwick, bones found there, 25.
under crust of it below the mud, ibid.
caves, with bones, 112.
of different periods, at Kirkdale, 48, 49. Superga Mountain, near Turin, boulders on it,
upper crust of, at Kirkdale, 51.
211.
single crust in all the caves of Germany, Surface, affords no indication of cavities below, 70.
108.
fissures and caves at Gibraltar, communi-
crust much broken on the floor at cate with, 154.
Scharzfeld, 114.
Swallow holes, extent of them in England, 6.
cruststill perfect in Bauman's Höhle, 120.
in Derbyshire, ibid.
single crust in Biel's Höhle, 123.
or fissures, modern cattle lost in
crust and pillar at Gailenreuth, 134. them, 79.
does not alternate with mud or peb- Sywell, near Northampton, pebbles of chalk there,
bles, 144.
197.

INDEX.
301
T.
Tiger, tooth of, in breccia of Antibes, 149.
Tin, diluvial, in Malacca, Banca, and islands near
Tagliamento, gravel produced by its torrents,
Sumatra, 220.
188.
Topaz in gravel of Cairn Gorm, 220.
Talarcoch, section and organic remains at, 178.
Torre, gravel produced by its torrents, 188.
Talbot, T. M. Esq. caves on his property at Ni-
Torrents, their effect at base of mountains, 188.
Tortoises indicate warm climate, 45.
cholaston, 80.
Miss, bones from Crawley, in her col- Trap, cut by valleys of denudation in Stirlingshire,
202.
lection, 81.
Trebbia River, effect of its inundations, 188.
Talus of post-diluvian gravel resting on diluvium,
189.
Trent, gravel in valley of, 194.
Trentham, elephants' remains near, 174.
Tarifa, remains of elephant and rhinoceros, 159.
Trimmer, Mr. remains found by him at Brentford,
Tapir fossil, in Val d'Arno, 182.
176.
Taro River, effect of its inundation, 188.
Tungusia, hairy elephant found there preserved in
Teeth, number found at Kirkdale, 17.
ice, with its flesh entire, 45. 172. 183.
mixed with broken bones at Kirkdale, 16.
Tusk of elephant, in cave at Paviland, 86.
number of, disproportionate to that of the
Tynemouth, much diluvium near it, 192.
bones, 16.
first set of young hyænas, 17.
of old hyænas worn to the stumps, 29.
U.
fragments of, in breccia, 49.
in due proportion to the bones except at
Undervaultings in the floor at Scharzfeld, full of
Kirkdale, 142.
bones, 115.
Terraces, or parallel roads, left by the bursting of
Underwood, Mr. his account of the Paris hyæna
lakes in North America, 216.
eating his own feet, 28.
parallel on banks of Rhine, Salza, and
observation of diluvial action
Iser, 217.
on the rocks near Llanrwst, 206.
Terrain d'attérissement, is diluvial loam, 191.
Unicorn fossil, old name of fossil bears, 104.
Thames Mouth, affords alluvium on diluvium, 190.
drawing of fossil in Leibnitz, ibid.
Thames Valley, state of its gravel, 198.
Urn, sepulchral, in cave of Zahnloch, 131.
Theux, cave with stalagmite, and recent bones,
Urns, sepulchral, in cave at Gailenreuth, 100.
Urus, in gravel at Butterby, Derbyshire, 63.
Thiede, near Brunswick. Heap of remains found
there, 181.
Throat of cave at Kühloch, inclined upwards,
14).
V.
Thuringerwald, caves at Glucksbrun, and Lei-
benstein, 104.
Val d'Arno, bones in diluvium of, 26.
Tiger, at Kirkdale, 17.
its analogies to Vale of Pickering,
polish in his den, 32.
182.
found at Plymouth, 72.
Valleys round Muggendorf resemble gutters in
rare at Kirkdale, 35
a meadow, 126.
near, 112.

302
INDEX
Valleys, transverse and longitudinal, 189.
their form proves a deluge, 226.
excavated by the diluvian waters, 237.
why excavated since the caves were in-
habited by animals of extinct species, 238.
correspondence of opposite sides proves
denudation, 240.
of Evenlode, Cherwell, and Thames dilu-
vial, 252.
some referable to other causes than de-
nudation, 258.
Vaults, artificial, in loam and breccia at Bauman's
Höhle, 121.
Veins, mud veins, or dykes, in fissures, 112,
Verviers, caves in limestone near, ibid.
Vilhoui, rhinoceros flesh preserved in ice, 45 and
46.
Voltaire denied the possibility of a deludge, 225.
W.
Watson, Mr. his tooth of elephant from Balleye,
61.
Weasel at Kirkdale, 18.
teeth marks on bones at Oreston, 73 and
79.
Weaver, Mr. his translation of Baron Schotheim,
167.
opinion as to human bones,
170.
proofs of diluvial action in the
east of Ireland, 207.
opinion as to the diuvial origin
of gorges, 214.
Webb, Captain, bones brought by him from Hy-
malaya, 222.
Weissent River, bones on one side only, 102,
flows by cave of Gailenreuth,
133.
Wellow, sepulchral catacomb at, near Mendip, 165.
Werner, probable origin of his theory of veins,
112.
Westphalia, bones found there, 25.
caves with bones, 112.
will be described by Goldfuss
and Sack, 104.
Wexford, proofs of diluvial action in it, 207.
Whale, entire skeleton in alluvium of Frith of
Forth, 186.
bones at Pentuan, in Cornwall, ibid.
Whidby, Mr. his discovery of bones at Oreston,
67.
collected fifteen baskets of bones at
Oreston, 71.
his account of cavities at Oreston,
80.
Whin dyke, near Stockton-on-Tees, covered by
diluvium, 192.
Whitchurch, near Dorchester, Dorset, elephants'
remains, 174.
Whittlebury Forest, gravel and pebbles, 197.
Wicklow, proofs of diluvial action in it, 207.
Wirksworth, caves near it, 61.
Waal, cliff of iluvium on its bank at Nymegen,
189.
Wales, proofs of diluvial action it it, 206.
Wallingford, quartzose pebbles on the plain and
hills adjacent to, 252.
elephants' remains, 174.
Walton, near Harwich, remains in diluvium, 173.
-- bones preserved from decay by clay, 13.
Warburton, H. Esq.visits Plymouth and Kirkdale,
52.
Warwickshire, its gravel, 196.
Water, its force competent to produce valleys,
286.
effects on a small scale explain de-
nudation, 204.
rats, probably eaten by hyænas, 33.
in Mediterranean breccia, 34.
teeth abundant, 49.
teeth and bones most abundant at
Kirkdale, 18.

INDEX.
303
a
Wirtemberg, bones in gravel of Canstadt, 25.
Y.
Witchwood Forest, quartzose pebbles, 248.
pebbles on its highest point, Yeovil, elephants' remains near, 174.
253.
Yorkshire, bones of elephant in diluvium, 173.
Wokey Hole, human remains, 165.
character of diluvium, 193.
Wolf at Kirkdale, 18.
Yssel, diluvium between it and Rhine, 189.
Wolf's toe, made into a skewer at Paviland, 89.
Wollaston, Dr. his analysis of album græcum, 20.
Wombwell, Mr. hyæna in his collection biting off
z.
his own feet, 28.
Wool on fossil elephant of Siberia, 45.
Zahnloch (hole of teeth) its position and descrip-
Wrangham, Archdeacon, his specimen of hyænas tion, 130.
jaw, 29.
Zeboim, valley of, should be valley of hyænas, 23.
Wycomb, pebbles from Warwickshire on the hills Zechstein, or magnesian limestone, near Köstritz,
round, 252.
167
Wytham Hill, pebbles from Warwicks hire on its Zelline, gravel produced by its torrents, 188.
,
summit, 251.
Zuyderzee excavated by a dyke bursting, 236.
THE END.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY THOMAS DAVISON, WHITEFRIARS.





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