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Animal
Kingdom
Illustrated

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SCIENTIA
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LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
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THE GIFT OF
Dr. J. F. Breakey

Museum
45
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1881





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LOSSING..BARRIET
"What is the vaunted village of the Beaver, the most ingenious of Quadrupeds, compare
with a human city, with its slips and merchandise, its temples, churches, and dwellings,
its libraries, and its monuments of art!!!-See p. 39.
WNIL
OF
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BE
ANIMAL KINGDOM
Illustrated
by
S.E.GOOPRICH
WN
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LOSSING BARRITT

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DV O TO S.G. GOOD RICH. CONSUL OF THE UNITED STATES OF AME
IS PRESENTED BY HIS COUNTRYMEN IN THAT CITY.
9°
SOL O AUGUST IST 1853 .
SOS by Taldea
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UNIL
OF
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JOHNSON'S
NATURAL HISTORY,
Comprehensive, Scientific, and Popular,
ILLUSTRATING AND DESCRIBING THE
ANIMAL KINGDOM,
WITH ITS
WONDERS AND CURIOSITIES,
FROM MAN, THROUGH ALL THE DIVISIONS, CLASSES, AND ORDERS, TO
THE ANIMALCULES IN A DROP OF WATER;
SHOWING
THE HABITS, STRUCTURE, AND CLASSIFICATION OF
ANIMALS,
WITH
THEIR RELATIONS TO AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, COMMERCE, AND THE ARTS
BY
HON. S. Girone
,
AUTHOR OF A "HISTORY OF ALL NATIONS," ALSO HISTORY OF ENGLAND," HISTORY OF FRANCE,"
"HISTORY OF ROME," "HISTORY OF GREECE," AND OTHER BOOKS,
IN ALL NEARLY TWO HUNDRED VOLUMES.
mult
ILLUSTRATED WITH NEARLY 1,550 LIFELIKE ENGRAVINGS.
WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS FROM
PROF. E. L. YOUMANS, A.M., M.D., PRES. J. H. SEELYE, D.D., LL.D.,
AND PROF. SANBORN TENNEY, A.M.
COMPLETE IN NEARLY 1500 IMPERIAL OCTAVO PAGES.
(TESTIMONIALS AT THE END OF VOLUME II.)
VOLUME I.
W. B. STICKNEY, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN.
ALVIN J. JOHNSON & SON, NEW YORK.
(11 GREAT JONES STREET.)
MDCCCLXXXI.

Entered, according to Act of Con-
gress, in the year 1867, by
"A. J. JOHNSON,
In the Clerk's Office of the District
Court of the United States for
the Southern District of
New York.
Copyright, 1879, by
ALVIN J. JOHNSON
Lovie Del
REQUAN KENNY. N.Y.
THE JOHN A. GRAY PRESS
AND STEAM TYPE-SETTING OFFICE,
18 JACOB STREET,
NEW YORK

DEDICATION.
To
LOUIS AGASSIZ,
With his permission, the author respectfully dedicates
these pages, as a tribute of esteem for his con-
tributions to science, and still more for the
philanthropic spirit with which he
has sought to render science an
element of universal
education.
Mar 26-71-61

Museums library
CifT
Dr. J.F. Breaksy
9-30-29

a vols
cen
WA
纪​8
boy
LOSSING BARRITT
PREFACE.
ALTHOUGH I have stated the plan of this work in a full title-page, and have more-
over somewhat enlarged upon it in the Introduction, there seems to me still a propri-
ety in, if not a necessity for, a few detailed remarks, by way of Preface. A little
reflection will satisfy any one that my undertaking in these pages is a difficult, if not
a hazardous one. I seek to comprise a subject of vast, nay, boundless extent, within
the narrow compass of two volumes; I endeavor to reconcile something of the stern-
ness of science with the license of the describer, the narrator, and the anecdotist; I
place myself between the Scylla of scientific naturalists on one side, and the Charybdis
of popular taste on the other. Therefore, even if a preface be, as is generally held,
,
an author's weakness, I ask the kindly indulgence usually extended to these perform-
ances, inasmuch as they are regarded like the plea of a criminal at the bar, and the
Public would not pronounce judgment without giving him a hearing.
At the outset, then, I beg to say that this book is not designed for the benefit of
scientific naturalists, and yet I hope to obtain their approbation, however defective
and deficient it may appear in their view. It is written for the great mass of readers,
who have not the means of purchasing the hundreds and thousands of volumes in
which the History of Animated Nature is now embodied; for those who do not under-
stand the technicalities of science, and who are, as a matter of necessity, driven from
I

vi
PREFACE.
3
a
the pursuit of it by the difficulties with which it is encompassed; for those, in short,
who have not time, opportunity, or capacity for scientific research. My design is—while
maintaining a systematic arrangement, or in other words, a scientific classification-
still to present the subject in a form so simple, and so far divested of technicalities,
that any person of common education may read it, understand it, and profit by it. The
ultimate object of Natural History is not to furnish an array of hard names in the form
of a complicated classification ; these, so dear, so significant to the scientific student,
are only the means and instruments by which certain practical results are to be
attained. They are the skeleton : the blood, the flesh, the palpitating life, consist in
what is perfectly appreciable by common minds—the wonderful structure, the beau-
tiful adaptations, the amazing instincts, the admirable powers, the interesting quali-
ties, the prodigious diversities of form, to be traced in the Animal Kingdom. These are
revelations which expand the mind, elevate the heart, and inevitably lead the student
of nature up to nature's God. These are the beneficent fruits of science; they are the
practical results of the profound and toilsome researches of scientific men; and yet, but
for some such work as this now presented to the public, they must remain beyond the
reach of the million, locked up in quartos, hidden in the libraries of the learned, or at
best, seen darkly and confusedly in the dizzying mist of long Greek and Latin names.
My task, in comparison with that of those who explore and discover scientific facts, and
even of those who merely assign them to their places in the gallery of science, is a
humble
one, and yet it seems to me necessary to be accomplished, in order to make the
world at large participators in the golden fruit of scientific research. I regard myself
as a simple interpreter of the language of the gods of science, seeking to make it
familiar to this lower world of common men. In this I hope to render a practical hom-
age to science and scientific men, and not merely to make the generation of the living
and breathing present share in the fruit of their researches, but to beget a taste for
science in the rising generation, and thus-through popular exhibitions of its inter-
esting and useful facts—in the end to train up naturalists who will hereafter them-
selves contribute to the enlargement of the boundaries of science, and thus make the
stupendous labors of those who have gone before, and accumulated the immense mass
of truths now embodied in the subject, productive of a double harvest. Therefore
it is that, regarding my labors as thus subsidiary to the works of scientific naturalists,
I hope for their approbation.
There is another and still larger view of this subject. The Natural History of An-
imals is one of universal interest to mankind, alike from our constant connection with
many of the species, and the curious and interesting facts which their structure, hab-
its, and instincts unfold to the student of nature. It is a subject as full of poetry as
of philosophy, of romance as of reason; and it has, moreover, been commended to the
popular mind by two remarkable authors—Buffon, who wrote in French, and Gold-
smith, who, in translating a portion of his works into our language, even adorned the
3

PREFACE.
vii
original.* Thus Animated Nature was popularized, at least in English, at once and
forever. Even now, after the lapse of nearly a century, though science has overturned
the systems on which these authors founded their writings, and has proved a multi-
tude of their details to be either imperfect or fabulous, still their felicitous descriptions,
their lively anecdotes, their fascinating narratives, continue to be published and repub-
lished, as a never cloying feast, for generation after generation.
Nor has this subject been less fortunate in its scientific treatment. Not to speak of
Linnæus, who wrote a century ago, and whose great name can never be overshadowed
by comparison, George Cuvier, the Master Mind of his age, though by no means neglect-
ing the external qualities of animals, explored with a profound sagacity their internal
structure. The result is well known—the new science of Comparative Anatomy, that
has waked from their sleep of ages the multitudinous races of extinct animals; and
furthermore, Cuvier's example has led to the study of the structure of existing races as
the
very basis of Scientific Zoology. And what an array of great names has since fol-
lowed in his track! The general effect is an expansion of the science beyond the com-
prehension of any single mind, and hence different authors have devoted themselves
to special branches, one to insects, nay, often to a single genus of insects; another to
reptiles; another to star-fishes ; another to the infusoria, and so on.t Often has the
whole life of a great man been devoted to the study of a single family, even of the lower
forms of life; and this, after all his studies, has been found to have depths yet unsounded.
The amazing extent and wonderful developments resulting from these efforts are illus-
trated in the recent work of Professor Agassiz—two volumes, quarto, upon American
Tortoises—creatures that creep beneath our feet in the brooks and puddles, many of
them familiar to us, all objects of general indifference or contempt, and yet the whole
furnishing an example of the most profound research, the most beautiful adaptations, the
most wonderful revelations: a theme in the hands of its master, fruitful of the most
sublime and inspiring trains of thought. And what has been done in respect to this
one class of animals, has been done with more or less ability and success, in respect to
a multitude of others.
Nor is this all. Travelers in modern times are naturalists, and those especially who
have recently explored new countries, have brought to the general stock a vast mass
a
* Goldsmith's "Animated Nature” was not an express translation of Buffon; it was, to a great extent, original;
still he followed in Buffon's footsteps, and in some cases translated and in others paraphrased him. When Dr.
Johnson was informed that Goldsmith had undertaken this work, he remarked, "He will make it entertaining as
a Persian tale;" and Irving, in his life of Goldsmith, says the prediction was fulfilled.
+ As an illustration of special study in Natural History, we may mention the Oology of the Birds of North
America, by Dr. T. M. Brewer, whose name is so often mentioned by Audubon, Nuttall, &c., as having furnished
them with useful ornithological facts. This work, which will make a quarto volume of a thousand pages, is soon
to appear under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution. It will initiate a new branch of study in ornithology,
as furnishing the best possible means of determining the species and geographical range of particular genera of
birds.

viii
PREFACE.
of interesting materials for Natural History. The whole Australian world has been
made known in our day, and it has furnished its Ark of Beasts and Birds and Creep-
ing Things-curious, strange, and wonderful—its birds alone filling seven volumes
folio! The navies and armies of every civilized nation have now their corps of nat-
uralists, and even the Explorations for a Railroad to the Pacific—a stupendous project,
and worthy of great and good results-give to the world whole quartos of the most
profound scientific research in respect to our local zoology.* And hence it is that the
treatises on Natural History amount to entire libraries. The works consulted by
Professor Baird, in the compilation of his Mammals and Birds of North America,
are in every language of Europe, and comprise, I believe, over two thousand vol-
umes; and all this in addition to his examination of specimens. Such is the vast ex-
tent of this subject as presented in the books!
And yet, notwithstanding this affluence of materials, and this grandeur to which
the subject has been elevated by the combined labors of the civilized world; notwith-
standing its inherent interest, and its general popularity through traditional associa-
tions with eminent writers of the past century, it is a remarkable fact, that there is
not, in this country, a single publication which even pretends to give a popular view
of the Animal Kingdom, as science now presents it. It is to be observed, that nearly
all these works which we have mentioned are strictly scientific, and at the same time
special, and, in view of the whole science, fragmentary. It is true that in England,
France, and more particularly in Germany, there are many popular treatises on
Natural History, but these for the most part are confined to particular branches of
science—one to birds, another to quadrupeds, another to insects, and another to mol-
lusca, &c. Some of our state governments have caused works on zoology to be pub-
lished, such as that of New York, issued under the superintendence of Dr. De Kay,
that of Massachusetts, by Dr. Storer and others, and that of Ohio, by Dr. Kirtland;
but even these clever works are not only in mere outline, but they are local and
partial. No one, at least in the English language, has recently ventured upon the
attempt to present the whole subject in a comprehensive, popular form. There are
condensed scientific outlines, indeed, but these are little more than expanded cata-
logues or classifications of the whole science, and one of them—that of Dr. Chenu, for
instance, now near its completion in Paris—comprises ten volumes quarto! The cele-
brated classification of the Genera of Birds, by G. R. Gray, published in London in
1849, comprises three volumes quarto, and costs one hundred and fifty dollars !
There are also other works giving abridged skeletons or outlines of the whole field;
but one suited to the people, or even designed for the general reader, does not exist
* See the two volumes on the Mammalia and Birds of North America, by Professor Baird, of the Smithsonian
Institution, and just issued among the documents of the United States Senate; these to be followed by a third
volume on Reptiles.

PREFACE.
ix
a
a
in our language.* And yet the desirableness, nay, the necessity of such a work, is
obvious, but who shall attempt to popularize a subject so vast, so boundless ? No
one has entered upon a task so formidable, if not so hopeless. The audacity, or per-
haps the folly, as it may prove, of attempting to supply this want, seems to have been
reserved for the author of these pages.
The immense extent of the subject is not the only, nor indeed the chief difficulty
with which the compiler has to contend. The popular mind of our day—at least in
this country—is too far advanced to be content with mere descriptions of isolated spe-
cies; all know at least something of classification, and nearly all desire to know more.
It would neither satisfy the public, nor be doing justice to the opportunity, in de-
scribing animals, to neglect to show them in their relations to other animals. Every
beast and bird and reptile and fish has its place in a chain of beings, and neither these
individuals, nor the Mighty Plan of Creation, can be at all comprehended unless by
treating each in connection with its affiliated genera. Classification, therefore-or
in other words, a Systematic Arrangement-was indispensable; and inasmuch as all
systems are expressed in technical terms, a considerable array of Greek and Latin
words, so frightful to many readers, was inevitable. The scientific writer presumes
that his readers understand Latin and Greek as well as their mother tongue. I write
for a different class, and am bound to presume that they are not familiar with these
languages. While, therefore, I am compelled to use them, I have sought to mitigate
the difficulty by abundant explanations of technical terms.
Nevertheless, the skeleton of system and classification remains, and I must reconcile
with this, an abundance of details, descriptions, incidents. To hit upon a just balance
between these necessities, may demand a nicer judgment than belongs to any man.
That I have satisfied the requisitions of the scientific naturalist on the one side, and
of the lovers of narrative, anecdote, and illustration, on the other, is indeed my hope,
though hardly my expectation. If I am crushed between the two, I shall console
myself as well as I may with the consciousness that the attempt was worthy of better
a
success.
To these considerations I have little to add. I may be permitted, however, to no-
tice particularly one principal feature of the work, and that is, the abundance of the
engravings. It is admitted that pictures are the best describers of the forms of ani-
mals. A single wood-cut will give a more accurate and indelible impression of the
personal appearance and aspect of a lion, a giraffe, an eagle, or a hippopotamus, than
whole
pages of verbal description. I have known children, born and bred in the city,
*"It is not to be overlooked," says Agassiz, in the preface to his "Contributions to the Natural History of the
United States," "that while our scientific libraries are still very defective, there is a class of elementary works
upon Natural History widely circulated in Europe, and accompanied with numerous illustrations, which are still
entirely unknown in this country." *
"There has not been published in the United States) a single
text-book embracing the whole animal kingdom."

X
PREFACE.
on going for the first time into the country, and seeing the milking of the cow, the
plowing of the field, the scampering of the lambs, the gambols of the calf, the swim-
ming of the ducks and geese, immediately recognize them as things they had seen in
the humble but still speaking wood-cuts in their primers. I have frequently seen
children, on going into a menagerie, name the principal beasts, though they had never
seen one of them before; but they had become acquainted with them from the wood-
cuts in their story-books. Every person must be familiar with similar evidences,
derived from his own experience, of the effect of these unpretending illustrations.
Wood engraving, for several reasons, is, indeed, especially adapted to popular works
on Natural History. One is the greater economy, so that we are able in this work
to give more than fourteen hundred portraits of animals. Another is, that from its
nature it is very effective in the representation of feathers and hair, the integuments
of birds and quadrupeds; it is hardly less adapted to the representation of the scales
of fishes and the shells of mollusca. A still more important reason is, that these en-
gravings are now universally made from drawings on the wood, and the engraver
merely cuts out the lights, leaving the shades just as the designer drew them. There-
fore, a wood engraving is a fac simile of the original design, and hence it is that these
generally possess a spirit, life, and verisimilitude, even beyond many copper or litho-
graphic engravings. The “English Cyclopedia of Natural History" asserts that the
wood engravings in Bell's and Yarrell's Beasts and Birds of Great Britain and which,
by the way, we have extensively copied in the following pages—are manifestly supe-
rior, for the conveyance of accurate impressions of the aspects of animals, to some of
the colored engravings in the more imposing books of science. The majestic air of
the lion, the sly visage of the fox, the vivacity of the squirrel, the pertness of the
wren, the crawling gait of the spider, and indeed all the characteristics of external
,
appearance in animals, except color-all those indeed which mere words cannot
convey—are generally more successfully represented in fine wood engravings than in
a
any other.
And finally, what is more important than all in a work like this, for the house and
the home, and for daily use, these engravings-being in immediate contact with the
descriptive text-are consulted without the trouble of referring to an index and turning
over leaves, and are therefore more convenient and useful, as illustrations, than the ma-
jority of steel and copper engravings, which are, of necessity, separated from the text.
,
It is hoped, therefore, that the numerous and clever engravings of this work-more
ample than have ever appeared in any similar publication, and inserted, not as mere
embellishments, but for the most part as descriptions of animals—may render it
acceptable, even if in
any
other respects it may see
may seem defective.
It may be necessary to state the extent to which this work carries the notice of
particular species of animals. As there are a quarter of a million of species in the
Animal Kingdom, a very narrow selection for particular description must of course be

PREFACE.
xi
I
made. In the United States there are seven hundred known and described species
of birds; more than five hundred recognized species of fish; several hundred mam-
malia, and reptiles, insects, mollusca, and protozoa without number. In South Amer-
ica, Mexico, and Central America, there are three hundred kinds of humming-birds,
and according to Mr. Sclater, in the same regions there are nearly two hundred tana-
gers, &c. In respect to other parts of the world the multiplicity of species is equally
great. In choosing amid this multitudinous mass, I have endeavored to select for
description the most remarkable species; and as all could not be noticed, I have chosen
those which are representatives of large classes of analogous genera.
may indicate
the extent of particular descriptions by saying that I have noticed, with greater or less
detail, all or nearly all the species of birds and quadrupeds in Audubon's great work on
the Ornithology of North America; in the admirable works of Wilson and Nuttall ;
in the excellent work of Audubon and Bächman on the quadrupeds of North Amer-
ica; in the able reports of De Kay, Storer, and Kirtland on the zoology of New York,
Massachusetts, and Ohio ; and in the more recent publication of Cassin on the birds
of California, &c.—the only fault of which is its brevity. There is, therefore, I believe,
no very important quadruped or bird, in the United States, not noticed here. It is true
that there are some species which I have omitted, to be found in Baird's great and
important national work on the Mammalia and Birds of North America, issued under
the auspices of the government, to which I have already alluded; but these are chiefly
of the smaller kinds, and generally belong to the remote and unexplored regions of
our continent. The recent acquisitions of Texas, New Mexico, California, and Utah
have brought within the bounds of the United States a vast extent of territory, and
thus have greatly enlarged the circle of our national fauna; but all the important addi-
tions, even within these new territories, have, I believe, a place in the following pages.
In respect to other parts of the world, where the species are still more numerous and
diversified, the scale of selection is more circumscribed; but still I believe no species
of particular interest among the higher orders of animals, either in Europe, Asia,
Africa, or Oceanica, has been omitted.
That these volumes, while being primarily designed for popular reading, should also
be suited for general reference, is manifest; and this necessity has not been disregarded.
In the General Index, at the close of the second volume, references will be found,
giving the popular and scientific names, and in most cases the form, size, color, and
habitat of more than four thousand species, and these, it is hoped, will be a sufficient
key to the whole field, however boundless, of the Animal Kingdom.
Notwithstanding the multiplicity of species in the existing and living races of ani-
mals, those which geology has unfolded to our view—the Dead Kingdom of Nature,
doubtless as populous as the living—could not be overlooked. It is a stupendous
fact, that in all the bones of these extinct generations, the same plan of organization is
visible as that which governed the structure of the living races; thus showing that
a

xii
PREFACE.
the same Almighty Mind presided over Creation in ages so remote as to seem on the
verge of a past eternity, as in that Adamic Creation which peopled a new and regen-
erated world. The study of the relics of these lost races often throws great light on
the present animal kingdom, and therefore the Natural History of to-day necessarily
includes a reference to them. We have therefore, in these pages, given some general
notices on this subject, which, with the curious engravings illustrating them, we hope
may prove interesting and instructive.
One thing more. In consideration of the frequent use of the French, German, and
Italian languages in this country-owing alike to the great number of foreigners among
us, the general enlargement of our literature, and the involving of whole territories
within our bounds, to many of the people of which one or other of these is a native
a
tongue—we have given the popular names of prominent species of animals in these
several languages.
Finally, in view of the whole subject, considering its vast extent, its amazing reve-
lations, its boundless details—curious, strange, wonderful, and all immediately and
inevitably traceable to that God whom we worship, in whom we believe, hope, and
trust–I cannot but feel that it is well worthy the earnest study of the wise and the
simple, the learned and the unlearned. If I have placed it within the reach of an
enlarged circle of readers, and if I have succeeded in commending it effectively to
their attention, I shall feel that this, my patient labor of some years, has not been
in vain.
The meaning

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
INTRODUCTION.
CLASSIFICATION.
PAGE
PAGE
The Universality of Animal Life
1 DIVISION 1. VERTEBRATA
. 25
The Equilibrium maintained among Animal Tribes, 3 DIVISION II. MOLLUSCA
27
Advantages of the Study of Natural History .
3 DIVISION III. ARTICULATA
. 28
The Teachings of Natural History
4 DIVISION IV. RADIATA
29
The Mystery of Life
6 DIVISION V. PROTOZOA .
. 30
Object and Sources of the present Work
6
Geological Revelations ,
7
Preliminary Remarks upon the Classification of
Division I. VERTEBRATA .
31
Animals.
. 10
Class I. MAMMALIA
. 34
Of Certain Terms used in Natural History.
12
Modern Systems of Classification
13 Order I. BIMANA
35
Linnean System
14
Peculiar Conformation of Man
35
The Animal Kingdom arranged according to the
Physical and Moral Development of Man 37
System of Cuvier
. 16
Striking Characteristics of the Human Race 38
Analysis of the System of Classification adopted in
The Unity of the Human Race
. 40
this Work .
17
Diversity of Origin in the Human Race. 43
.

xiv
CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
PAGE
Classification of the various Races of Man-
kind.
49
1. Caucasian Variety.
50
2. Mongolian Variety
: 51
3. Ethiopian Variety .
52
4. American Variety
. 52
5. Malay Variety
53
PAGE
Division I. The Greyhound and its
Kindred
. 200
Division II. The French Matin and its
Kindred
. 205
Division III. The Shaggy or Woolly
Breeds.
206
Division IV. Hunting Dogs, Hounds
and Spaniels
. 215
Division V. Cur Dogs, Mixed Breeds, 225
Division VI. The Mastiff and Bull-Dog, 229
The Wolf
. 232
Order 2. QUADRUMANA
55
The Jackal.
237
. 238
The Fox, &c.
The Felidæ or Cat Family
The Monkey-like Animals: Simiada
55
1. The True Apes: Anthropomorpha . 60
2. The Old-World Monkeys: Catarrhinæ 76
3. The Monkeys of the New World:
Platyrrhina
. 99
The Cebida.
101
The Hapalidæ
. 110
General Remarks on the Monkey Fam-
ily
. 112
The Lemurs, Cheiromys, &c.
117
246
. 247
The Lion
258
. 264
The Tiger
The Leopard.
The Panther
The Lynx
The Cat
265
· 267
269
271
. 123
The Wild Cat.
129
273
Order 3. CHEIROPTERA
The Roussette Bats or Pteropodes .
The Vampires or Phyllostomidæ.
The Rhinolophidæ.
The Vespertilionida
. 276
. 131
132
The Jaguar
The Cougar
The Ocelot, &c. .
Fossil Felidae.
278
. 133
. 282
283
Order 4. INSECTIVORA
137
. 285
290
. 138
139
The Hyenidæ
The Hyena
The Mustelidæ
The Melidæ or Badger Kind
The Mustelins: Weasels, Martens, &c.,
The Lutrins or Otters
The Tupaias
The Hedgehogs
The Gymnures
The Tanrecs.
. 290
. 140
299
.
141
. 316
The Macroscelides
141
.
The Soricidæ or Shrews
143
Order 6. PINNIPEDIA
321
The Desmans
. 146
. 322
The Seals.
The Walrus.
147
335
147
The Chrysocloridæ .
The Talpida or Moles
The Scalops or Shrew Moles
The Condylures.
149
Order 7. RODENTIA
. 338
. 150
339
. 352
379
The Leporidæ or Hare Kind,
The Sciuridæ: Squirrels, Marmots, &c.
The Castoridæ or Beaver Kind
The Hystricidæ or Porcupine Kind
The Caviens or Caviina
152
. 388
388
. 394
Order 5. CARNIVORA
The Ursidæ or Bears,
· 154
The Viverrides
. 172
The Subursins: Kinkajous, Raccoons, &c., 172
The Viverrins: Civets, &c. .
177
The Mangoustes: Ichneumons, &c. . . 183
The Canidæ or Dog Family
187
The Dog
. 188
395
The Celogenyens or Pacas
The Dasyproctiens or Agoutis
The Hystriciens or Porcupines
The Capromyens
The Chinchilliens
398
404
409

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
XV
PAGE
412
PAGE
. 556
The Anomalures
The Cervida or Deer Kind.
The Moschida or Musk Deer
569
The Camelidæ or Camel Kind
572
The Ctenomydes
413
The Pseudostomides or Pouched-Rats. 415
The Dipodidæ
. 419
The Jerboas or Jerboidæ
419
The Pedetiens
. 421
The Ctenodactyliens.
422
The Myoxides.
422
The Muridæ
425
The Rat-Moles
. 426
The Muriens, or Rats and Mice generally, 428
Order 10. SOLIDUNGULA
582
The Equidæ or Horse Kind
. 582
The Horse
583
The Thoroughbreed or Race-Horse . 597
Other European Breeds of Horses, 599
Asiatic and African Breeds.
. 601
American Horses
607
Wild Horses
. 607
Domestic Breeds
608
The Ass.
. 613
The Mule.
617
The Zebra, &c.
. 621
Order 8. EDENDATA
· 461
.
The Bradypides or Sloths
461
The Dasypides or Armadillos
464
The Orycteropides.
470
The Myrmecophagides: Ant Eaters, &c. . 471
The Manides or Pangolins
473
Order 11. PACHYDERMATA
623
.624
Order 9. RUMINANTIA
. 479
635
The Bovida.
The Bovina .
Domestic Cattle
.640
The Elephantidæ or Proboscida.
The Rhinocerida
The Hippopotamidæ.
The Tapiridae
The Suidæ or Swine
481
. 481
642
. 644
496
. 498
The Hyracidæ
651
499
The Middling-Horns
The Polled or Hornless Cattle.
The Long-Horns.
The Short-Horns
Order 12. CETACEA
. 652
. 499
500
The Cete
653
Continental Cattle
· 501
The Balænid or Whalebone Whales
The Catodontida or Sperm Whales
The Delphinidæ or Dolphins.
The Sirenia
. 653
656
. 658
662
Other Varieties of Cattle
503
General Remarks on Domestic Cattle. 507
The Caprina or Goat Kind .
509
The Ovina or Sheep Kind
. 516
Particular Breeds of Sheep
523
The Antilopina
. 527
The Giraffida
554
Order 13. MARSUPIALIA
. 664
Order 14. MONOTREMATA
677
ATATU
WWW

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.
Frontispiece.
Engraved Title.
The Caucasian Mother...
The Hottentot Mother...
European Bear...
Angora Cats....
Sea Otters ....
To face page 42
44
66
151
270
64
320
Seals.
66
66
322
CC
64
524
Merino Sheep ...
The Giraffe.....
66
56
554
Red Deer...
66
562
CG
6 564
$ 598
The Tame Fawn..
The Scotch Pony....
The Donkey Race
Zebras..
Wild Hogs......
* 616
5 622
66
646

RA
Peleri
Inm
ILLUSTRATED NATURALILI STORY
OF THE
ANIMAL KINGDOM.
INTRODUCTION: THE UNIVERSALITY OF ANIMAL LIFE.
In whatever direction we turn our eyes, we everywhere meet the varied forms of animal life.
Earth, air, water, are all alike occupied by multitudes of living creatures, each fitted especially for
the habitation assigned to it by nature. Every wood or meadow—nay, every tree or shrub, or tuft
of grass—has its inhabitants; even beneath the surface of the ground, numbers of animals
may
be
found fulfilling the purposes for which their species were called into existence. Myriads of birds dash
through the air, supported on their feathered pinions, or solicit our attention by the charming song
which they pour forth from their resting-places; while swarms of insects, with still lighter wings,
dispute with them the empire of the air. The waters, whether salt or fresh, are also filled with
living organisms; fishes of many forms and varied colors, and creatures of yet more strange appear-
ance, swim silently through their depths, and their shores are covered with a profusion of polypes,
sponges, starfishes, and other animals.
"The sounds and seas, each creek and bay,
With fry innumerable swarm, and shoals
Of fish that with their fins and shining scales
Glide under the green wave, in sculls that oft
Bank the mid sea: part single, or with mate,
Graze the sea-weed their pasture, and through groves
Of coral stray; or sporting with quick glance,
Show to the sun their waved coats dropped with gold;
VOL. I.-1

2
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
Or, in their pearly shells at ease, attend
Moist nutriment; or under rocks their food
In jointed armor watch: on smooth the seal
And bended dolphins play: part huge of bulk,
Wallowing unwieldy, enormous in their gait,
Tempest the ocean.
To whatever elevation we attain on the mountain-sides, to whatever depth in the ocean we may
sink the lead, everywhere shall we find traces of animal existence, everywhere find ourselves
surrounded by living creatures, in a profusion and variety which may well excite our wonder and
admiration.
Nor are these phenomena confined to any region of the earth; on the contrary, the diversity of
climate only adds to the variety of objects which the zoologist is called upon to contemplate. Thus
the bold voyager of the inclement regions of the north, in losing sight of those productions of
nature which met his eyes at home, finds, as it were, a new creation in his new abode,-seals, by
the hundred, basking in the scanty rays of the Arctic sun, or diving into the deep waters in search
of their finny prey,—the whale, rolling his vast bulk in the waves, and ever and anon driving high
mto the air his curious fountain—water, be it remembered, strained from the myriads of small
animals which constitute the food of the leviathan. The air is peopled by innumerable flights of
marine birds; the sea by still more countless swarms of fishes; and the land affords a habitation to
the elk and the reindeer, the Arctic fox, and other creatures peculiar to those regions.
If we turn our regards southward, to the tropical regions of the earth, the abundance and variety
of animated beings increase more and more. Here the colossal elephant and the unwieldy
rhinoceros, crash through primeval forests ; the lion and the tiger, and other predatory beasts,
prowl through the thickets, seeking for their prey; on vast plains, countless herds of antelopes
browse in fancied security, or dash swiftly past at the approach of danger; gigantic snakes lie
coiled in horrid folds among the bushes, or hang from the trees awaiting their victims. The air
and trees swarm with birds of gorgeous plumage, and insects of strange forms and brilliant colors.
Nor are the waters less bountifully provided with inhabitants : every form with which we are
acquainted in our own seas is here represented, but with still greater profusion and variety.
a
*
*
*
"Full nature swarms with life.
Through subterranean cells,
Where searching sunbeams scarce can find a way,
Earth animated heaves. The flowery leaf
Wants not its soft inhabitants. Secure
Within its winding citadel, the stone
Holds multitudes. But chief, the forest boughs,
That dance unnumbered to the playful breeze,
The downy orchard, and the melting pulp
Of mellow fruit, the nameless nations feed
Of evanescent insects. Where the pool
Stands mantled o'er with green, invisible,
Amid the floating verdure, millions stray.
Each liquid too, whether it pierces, soothes,
Inflames, refreshes, or exalts the taste,
With varying forms abounds. Nor is the stream
Of purest crystal, nor the lucid air,
Though one transparent vacancy it seems,
Void of their unseen people."
And there is a feature in this abounding animal life of the sea, which strikes the mind as one
of the most beautiful provisions of nature. At night, the ocean sparkles with a brilliancy which
rivals the splendor even of a tropical sky; and this phenomenon, which may be witnessed, although
in an inferior degree, in more temperate climes, is due to the presence of vast multitudes of minute
phosphorescent animals, whose very existence would frequently remain unknown, but for their
powers of illuminating the waves by night.
And when we have exhausted the study of external nature, there is yet another world to which
we may turn. Within our bodies, and those of every species of animal, from the highest to nearly
the very lowest, exist various forms of parasites, preying upon our substance or our food: creatures

INTRODUCTION.
3
whose very existence and development are a mystery—a mystery, however, which, as far as it has
yet been unraveled, serves to raise our expectations as to what remains behind. As the telescope
has revealed myriads of stars beyond the reach of unassisted sight, on account of their distance,
so has the microscope unfolded countless generations of beings, as much beyond the reach of
vision, on account of their littleness. When we are told that, in addition to what has been
previously stated, eight hundred millions of living things may exist in a cubic inch of water, we
begin to have some faint conception of the scope of our subject, to which is given the name of
Zoology, or the SCIENCE OF ANIMAL LIFE.
THE EQUILIBRIUM MAINTAINED AMONG ANIMAL TRIBES.
Notwithstanding the variety in size, form, structure, and habits, amidst this profusion of animal
life, a due balance of power and number is maintained by the influence of species upon species.
They are destined to act and react upon each other by laws of destruction and renovation, through
which the proportions of animal existence are preserved in just equilibrium. Multitudes are doomed
to become the prey of others—whole races are created as though for slaughter; but, great as is
the loss, the increase is equivalent, in order to the preservation of the species. As regards indi-
viduals, the instinctive means of attack on the one hand, and of self-preservation on the other, are
such as to equalize their respective chances. Speed, caution, watchfulness, inaccessible retreats,
the nature of their clothing, and even its color, alike protect the timid and defenceless; while the
bolder
oppose
force to force. Those that are most obnoxious to destruction, are the most prolific.
Insects, for example, are the common prey of birds and beasts, reptiles and fishes, and often of
each other; yet who has ever known their numbers perceptibly diminished? How great is the
daily havoc among fishes! They are the prey of each other : the cachalot, the grampus,
the
por-
poise, the otter, and the seal, devour them in multitudes: thousands of oceanic birds find in them
their natural aliment, whilst man draws them by shoals from the deep; such, however, is their
astonishing fecundity, that all these losses are duly repaired. The number of eggs in the roe of
the codfish has been calculated to be 3,687,760; of the founder, 1,357,400; of the herring,
36,960; of the mackerel, 546,680; of the smelt, 38,280; of the sole, 100,360; of the tench,
383,250. Of an increase by numbers like these, no examples exist among the higher classes of
vertebrata, viz., birds and mammalia : still, the law of the balance of increase and decrease is not
the less established among them; hence we justly conclude, that each part of the creation depends
upon another; and though, at a single glance, all may seem confusion, it will be found, upon
mature reflection, that order and due equipoise of parts are the results of a scheme equally well
а
adapted and wisely ordained.
a
a
ADVANTAGES OF THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
The advantages attending the study of such a subject as this are obvious. So many animals are
directly or indirectly subservient to the necessities, pleasures, or luxuries of man, from so many
does he experience direct or indirect injuries, that a knowledge of them is almost indispensable to
his existence. Our table, our dress, our household furniture, and a variety of conveniences which
we enjoy, will remind us, if we reflect for a moment, of a multitude of animals, which, in one way
or other, are essential to our comfort ; and we may, with equal ease, form a catalogue of such as,
on the contrary, are injurious to our welfare. But, leaving out of the question the necessity thus
imposed upon us of gaining a general knowledge of natural objects, we may observe, that the
study of natural history is peculiarly fitted for strengthening and enlarging the mind. It disci-
plines the memory; it demands the exercise of patient investigation ; it enforces an attention to
minutiæ; it leads us to detect differences, where none but the practiced eye would perceive them,
and to trace out analogies, or affinities, which reflection alone can discover. Its aim is truth; and
so far, it must be a noble and elevating pursuit. If to correct the imagination, and strengthen the
powers of reason, be among the advantages attending the study of the exact sciences, not less
beneficial are the results attending the study of Nature. Yet, independently of this consideration,
Nature holds out other motives to excite our interest; she asserts her intrinsic value, and, while
claiming our admiration of her work, speaks of unerring Wisdom and almighty Power.

4
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL IIISTORY,
66
THE TEACHINGS OF NATURAL HISTORY.
“ To every man,” says Martin, from whom we derive some of the preceding suggestions, “whose
heart is well attuned, whose feelings are pure and undebased, Nature presents a thousand charms.
At every step she delights him with new wonders; she invites him to acquaintance, and well is he
IVAL
GARDEN OF PLANTS, PARIS : ASCENT TO THE SUMMIT. — (See p. 6.)
rewarded who obeys her call. The votary of Nature deems no object unworthy of examination,
none destitute of interest; nor does the spirit of philosophic inquiry suffer him to rest satisfied
with a casual glance at the multitudinous phenomena around him. He is not content merely to

INTRODUCTION.
wonder and admire; but, urged onward, he attempts to trace back effects to their causes; he
investigates, he discriminates, he analyzes, he combines, and, still proceeding in his course, en-
deavors to obtain a glimpse—imperfect it may be—of the mighty plan of creation,—a knowledge
of the grand scheme, by which the whole is blended into unity.
MUNIK
יהוה
W
கார் போயர்
REDNAN&KENNYIN.Y.W
GARDEN OF PLANTS : THE "SUMMIT,
AND VIEW OF PARIS. — (See p. 6.)
“So various and manifold are the subjects of Nature's empire, that, were the life of one man,
however zealous and indefatigable he might be, lengthened out twenty, nay, a hundred times
beyond the allotted term, his materials would be unexhausted; he would still have much to study,
and, after all, leave a systema natura to be enlarged and corrected by those who should como

6.
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
after him. Hence the advantage of co-operating numbers, each working in his favorite depart-
ment, and contributing his portion of labor to the public good. The result is an accumulated
mass of riches, which, transmitted to our immediate successors, may be by them assayed, refined,
and increased, and, in due order, passed on to generations following."
THE MYSTERY OF LIFE.
a
It is quite true, that after all the researches of philosophers, one question of vital interest remains
unanswered: What is Life? There is a mystery behind that little word, says Gosse, which no
one has yet been able to solve. Science, with the experience of ages, with all the appliances of
art, and with all the persevering ingenuity and skill that could be brought to bear upon it, has
ardently labored to lift the veil; but philosophy, and science, and art stand abashed before the
problem, and confess it a mystery still. The phenomena, the properties of life, are readily observ-
able. We take a bird in our hands : a few moments ago it was full of energy and animation; it
shook its little wings as it hopped from perch to perch; its eyes glanced brightly, and its throat
quivered as it poured out the thrilling song which delighted us. Now the voice has ceased, the
eye is dim, the limbs are stiffening, and we know that it will move no more. Chemical changes
have already begun to operate upon its organs ; decomposition is doing its work, and soon the
beautiful little bird will be a heap of dust. We say that its life has gone; but what is it that has
gone? If we put the body in the most delicate balance, it weighs not a grain less than when it
was alive; if we measure it, its dimensions are precisely the same; the scalpel of the anatomist
finds all the constituent parts that made the living being; and what the mighty principle is, the
loss of which has wrought such a change, alike eludes research and baffles conjecture. We are
compelled here to recognize the Great First Cause, and to rest in the reverent declaration, “ In
Him we live, and move, and have our being."
The researches of modern science, however, aided by the inventions which it has brought into
existence, though they have been unable to throw a single ray of light on the nature of Life
itself, have yet done much to make us familiar with its phenomena. It is a material part of the
design of the present volume to acquaint the reader with the more interesting portion of these
results.
OBJECT AND SOURCES OF THE PRESENT WORK.
The plan of the author is to give a popular compend of the Natural History of the Animal
Kingdom, as it is now found in publications of a professed scientific character. In doing this,
he will necessarily lay under contribution the works of the great masters in zoological science,
as Linnæus, Cuvier, and Buffon; together with those of numerous authors, distinguished in spe-
cial branches, as Gervais, Le Maout, T. Rymer Jones, Milne Edwards, Gould, Bell, Yarrell,
Forbes, Dallas, Agassiz, Bennett, Newman, Martin, Nuttall, Wilson, Audubon, Bonaparte, and
many others ; besides the productions of a multitude of travelers who have incidentally described
the animal productions of the various countries they have visited. To them, whatever there may
be of actual discovery in the following pages, must be credited. The author, however, will be
particularly indebted for many lively descriptions of animals to two recent Paris publications on
the Garden of Plants, and the two volumes on the Garden and Menagerie of the Zoological Soci-
ety of London, both illustrated by many clever, because life-like, engravings. It is to the two
noble institutions which have given birth to these works, that the world is indebted for a sort of
personal acquaintance with many of the rarest and most curious specimens of the animal kingdom,
and also for accurate descriptions of a great number of exceedingly interesting animals—birds,
beasts, and reptiles; thus, in many cases, dissipating errors which had lingered in works of natural
history for hundreds of years.*
* During my late residence in Paris, the “Garden of Plants” was my favorite resort, not only as a means of study-
ing Natural History, but for the purpose of enjoying its beautiful walks and charming views. The interest thus
excited in my mind has led me to undertake the present volume, which I shall be able to enrich by numerous en-
gravings of animals belonging to that celebrated seat of science. The establishment of a similar institution in one
of the great cities of the United States, would be worthy the exertions of our wealthy and cnlightened citizens.

INTRODUCTION.
7
GEOLOGICAL REVELATIONS.
However vast and varied may be the view suggested
to the mind by a glance at the animal kingdom, as it
exists at the present day, there is still something beyond
even this. Geology has revealed to us the startling fact
that immense numbers of animals, of species entirely dis-
tinct from those of which we are to give an account,
have once flourished upon the earth; and, having ful-
filled their destiny, have ceased to exist, leaving no trace
of their history, except their vestiges in the soils and
rocks which constitute the crust of the globe. Of these
extinct animals, there were whole races, some of strange
and uncouth forms, some of enormous magnitude, some
resembling the existing types, and others which have left
no living representatives upon the earth.
In our own country, the bones of an enormous animal,
resembling the elephant, have frequently been found, to
which the name of mastodon has been given. In the
mountains of India have been found the bones of an ani-
mal larger than the rhinoceros, having four horns and a
proboscis. On this has been bestowed the name of sivathe-
rium. In the pampas of South America, scattered over an
extent of six hundred miles, have been discovered the remains of an animal of the dimensions of an
elephant, yet combining the peculiarities of the sloth and the ant-eater. This extraordinary creature
has been called the megatherium. The dinotherium, whose bones have been met with in France and
Germany, was larger even than the mastodon, and formed a striking resemblance to the tapir.
LOSSIN ARRITI

8.
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
Among the amphibious animals, there were creatures of still more extraordinary proportions.
One of these, the ichthyosaurus, was a fish-lizard, with the teeth of a crocodile, the head of a
lizard, and the fins of a whale. The plesiosaurus was similar, but still more remarkable. Cuvier
asserts that its structure was altogether monstrous. To the head of the lizard it united the teeth
of the crocodile, with a neck of enormous length resembling the body of a serpent; it had a trunk
and tail of the proportions of an ordinary quadruped, with paddles similar to those of the turtle
or whale. Twenty species of this have been discovered, having a general structure like that of the
ichthyosaurus. A skeleton is to be seen in the British Museum, eleven feet long, and so nearly
perfect, that the form of the original creature may be readily traced. It was probably carniv-
orous, and lived in shallow seas and estuaries, and breathed the air like the ichthyosaurus and
our modern cetacea. The vertebræ of the neck are about thirty-three, equal to those of the
longest-necked bird, the swan. This neck was probably of great use in aiding it to seize upon
fish beneath the waters, and perhaps flying reptiles and insects. Its tail was so short that it
could not have been used, like the tail of fishes, to impel the creature rapidly forward, but was
doubtless employed
employed as a rudder to steer him when swimming, as well as to raise or depress him
when ascending or descending in the water. Mr. Conybeare, after considering all the character-
istics of the animai, draws the following inferences with respect to the habits of the plesiosaurus.
“ That it was aquatic, is evident from the form of its paddles; that it was marine is almost equally
so, from the remains with which it is universally associated; that it may have occasionally visited
the shore, the resemblance of its extremities to those of the turtle may lead us to conjecture; its
motion, however, must have been awkward on land, and its long neck must have impeded its
progress through the water,--presenting a striking contrast to the organization which so admi-
rably fitted the ichthyosaurus to cut through the waves. May it not, therefore, be concluded--
since, in addition to these circumstances, its respiration must have required a frequent access
of air—that it swam upon or near the surface; arching its long neck like the swan, and occasion-
ally darting it down at the fish which happened to float within its reach? It may, perhaps,
have lurked in shoal water along the coast, concealed among the sea-weed, and, raising its nostrils
to a level with the surface from a considerable depth, have found a secure retreat from the assaults
of dangerous enemies."
The iguanodon, whose bones were found in the soil of Tilgate forest, England, was of altogether
more monstrous proportions, its length having been probably nearly fifty feet. It was, in fact,
a gigantic lizard, bearing a resemblance to the iguana of Brazil. It is supposed that such an animal
could only have existed in a hot country, and hence it is concluded that a torrid climate once
prevailed in England. The large bones of the iguanodon having been evidently filled with
marrow, this, with the form of the bones of the feet, shows that the animal was adapted and
designed to move on the land. Its teeth, also, prove that they were remarkably fitted for cropping
tough vegetable food, such as the clatharia, and similar plants, which are found buried with its
bones. As the iguana lives chiefly upon vegetables, it is furnished with long and slender feet, by
which it is enabled to climb trees with facility in search of food; but no tree could have borne
the weight of the colossal iguanodon. Its movements must have been confined to the land and
water, and it is evident that its enormous bulk must have required limbs of great strength.
Accordingly, we find that the hind feet, as in the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and other large mam-
malia, were composed of strong, short, massy bones, furnished with claws,--not hooked, as in the
iguana, but compressed, as in land tortoises; thus forming a powerful support for the enormous leg
and thigh. But the bones of the hands or fore-feet are analogous to those of the iguana,—long,
slender, flexible, and armed with curved claws; thus furnishing prehensile instruments fitted to
seize the palms, arborescent ferns, and dragon-blood plants, which probably constituted the food of
the iguanodon.
Another of these fossil mammals was the pterodactyle, whose bones were of such strange con-
formation, that the first specimen discovered was classed by one naturalist as a bird, by another as
a species of bat, and by yet a third as a flying reptile. The creature, indeed, combined certain
characteristics of all three. The head, and the length of the neck, resemble those of a bird; its
wings, in proportion and form, are like those of the bat; while the body and tail approximate in

INTRODUCTION.
9
ci
82224
REDMALSO
LI
EXTINCT ANIMALS.
structure to the body and tail of the mammalia. The skull, also, is small, the head being furnished
with a beak which has not less than sixty pointed teeth. These singular characteristics, so puz-
zling to investigators, it was reserved for the genius of Cuvier to reconcile. He ranks the ptero-
dactyles among the most extraordinary of all extinct animals; and if we could see them restored
to life, they would strike us as being singularly unlike any thing that exists in the present world.
Many species have been discovered, varying from the size of a snipe to that of a cormorant. In
external form, these creatures bore a resemblance to the bat or vampire. The snout was elongated
like that of the crocodile, and armed with conical teeth. The eye, as appears from the orbit, must
have been of enormous size, thus fitting them, like the bat, to fly by night. They resembled the
bat also in having fingers, terminating with long hooks, which projected from their wings. They
were thus furnished with a powerful paw, which enabled them to creep, or climb, or hang from the
trees. It is thought, also, that the pterodactyle, like some existing species of bats in the East, pos-
sessed the power of swimming.
As this creature had wings, it was natural to look for the structure of the bird or bat in the
bones. The beak, however, had teeth, and the form of a single bone enabled Cuvier to decide
that the animal belonged to the lizard tribe, so that it was a kind of flying reptile. The vertebræ
of the neck, also, are to those of birds only as six or seven to from nine to twenty-three, while
those of the back are in the reverse proportion; the ribs, too, like those of the lizard, are thin and
thread-shaped, and thus differ from those of birds, as do the bones of the feet and toes. They are
supposed to have fed on insects, and the presence of large fossil dragon-flies and other insects in the
same quarries where the pterodactyles are found proves that they existed at the same period, and
probably formed a portion of their food. They may also have fed upon fish, and some of the
small marsupial animals, or those of the opossum kind, which then existed on the earth. The
creature was evidently capable of perching on trees, or standing firmly on the ground, and, by
folding its wings, could hop or walk like a bird.
Dr. Buckland, alluding to the peculiarities of the pterodactyle, and the age in which it lived,
says: “Thus, like Milton's fiend, qualified for all services and all elements, the creature was a fit
companion for the kindred reptiles that swarmed in the seas or crawled on the shores of a
turbulent planet.
VOL. 1.-2

10
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
The fiend,
O'er bog, o'er steep, through straight, rough, dense, or rare,
With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way,
And swims, or wades, or creeps, or flies.'
« With flocks of such creatures flying in the air, and shoals of no less monstrous ichthyosauri
and plesiosauri swarming in the ocean, and tortoises crawling on the shores of the primeval lakes
and rivers,-air, sea, and land must have been strangely tenanted in these early periods of our
infant world."
In speaking of this age of reptiles, the period of the iguanodon, Dr. Mantell says: “The country
it inhabited must have been diversified by hill and dale, by streams and torrents, the tributaries of
its mighty rivers. Arborescent ferns, palms, and yuccas constituted its groves and forests; delicate
ferns and grasses, the vegetable clothing of its soil; and in its marshes, equiseta, and plants of a
like nature, prevailed. It was peopled by enormous reptiles, among which the colossal iguanodon
and the megalosaurus were the chief. Crocodiles and turtles, flying reptiles and birds, frequented
its fens and rivers, and deposited their eggs on the banks and shoals; and its waters teemed with
lizards, fishes, and mollusca. But there is no evidence that man ever set his foot upon that
wondrous soil, or that any of the animals which are his contemporaries found there a habitation;
on the contrary, not only is evidence of their existence altogether wanting, but, from numberless
observations made in every part of the globe, there are conclusive reasons to infer that man and
the existing races of animals were not created till myriads of years after the destruction of the
iguanodon country,-a country which language can but feebly portray, but which the magic
pencil of a Martin, by the aid of geological research, has rescued from the oblivion of the past,
and placed before us in all the hues of nature, with its appalling dragon-forms, its forests of palms
and tree-ferns, and the luxuriant vegetation of a tropical clime."
These are some of the extinct animal wonders which geology presents to our view. There were,
however, almost countless species of others, inferior in size, but often no less curious in their
structure and endowments. These include whole races of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, reptiles, insects,
and still lower organizations. There is hardly a single existing animal which has not its semblance
in this field of fossil wonders. It would seem that for millions of ages the earth has been the
theater of a succession of creations of animal forms; and so multitudinous are these, that the crust
of the globe is, in great part, composed of their relics. A celebrated author says that “there is
hardly an atom of its rocks and soil which has not passed through the complex and wonderful
laboratory of life.” All the orders of animals, from the highest to the lowest, have contributed to
swell the amount of the solid materials of the earth. It is supposed that limestone constitutes one-
seventh part of the crust of the globe; and this, with the immense beds of chalk, flint, marl, gyp-
sum, sandstone, lias, and jasper, are all of animal origin. They are, in fact, the bones and shells of
the innumerable races which have lived on the carth in ages past, and which, for the most part,
have become extinct.
The subject of organic remains constitutes of itself a separate science, to which is given the
name of Paleontology. The classification of extinct animals has been pursued with great zeal, and
nearly 25,000 species have been identified. This is a field of wonders, calculated to enlarge our
view of the boundaries of creation; but we must now take leave of it, and give attention to those
animal races which constitute the living inhabitants of our globe.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.
When we consider the immense number of animals existing on the face of the earth, we are soon
convinced that an attempt to obtain a knowledge of each of them individually, and without any
acquaintance with their mutual relationships, would be a hopeless task. We
We are, in fact, compelled
to call in the aid of some system of classification, which, by bringing together those animals which
most resemble each other, and characterizing them by some common point of structure, may enable
us to form a general idea of the whole, and thus to remember more readily the peculiarities of
each. Some such classification, rough and imperfect as it may be, is, indeed, formed by every obser-
vant mind; and its terms find a place in ordinary language. Beasts, birds, and fishes, reptiles,

INTRODUCTION.
11
PARALLELISMS BETWEEN QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS.

12
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
and insects, are words familiar to every one, and convey to the minds of those to whom they are
addressed a more or less definite idea, according to the preconceived notions of the hearer.
Ingenious authors have, at different times, suggested systems of classification, based upon less
obvious analogies. Linnæus, for instance, long since remarked a curious parallel between certain
classes of quadrupeds and birds, as well in their structure as their habits and destination in the
great economy of animal life. A late writer of distinction, M. Le Maout, in his “Histoire
Naturelle des Oiseaux," has exemplified this in an engraving, which we here insert. On the left
hand, in the top of a palm-tree, is seen a monkey, and opposite, in a similar situation, is a parrot.
These are severally at the summit of their orders, by reason of their cerebral development. They
also approach each other by their capacity for climbing and their habit of living on fruit; both use
their limbs for carrying food to their mouth ; both are endowed with the instinct of imitation—the
one simulating the gestures of mankind, and the other the human voice.
The next types, seen in the top of the engraving, are flesh-eaters—the leopard and the eagle; both
subsisting upon living prey; both gifted with the keenest faculties for pursuing and seizing it; both
supplied with means to rend and devour it; both remarkable for their ferocity and their rapid and
powerful muscular action. Both are seen pursuing the same game—the antelope of the wilderness.
The next types are still flesh-eaters, but of an inferior order, and living upon carrion. One con-
sists of hyenas, the other of vultures; both cowardly, but voracious, and finding a relish in putre-
faction; both live in the vicinity of man, and serve as scavengers to remove animal matter, that, in
its decomposition, might beget pestilence; both are grouped in the engraving as feasting together
on the same carcase.
The next group consists of a tupaia-an animal resembling the squirrel—and a starling; both
feeding on insects, and living mostly upon the trees. The next consists of the field-mouse and the
sparrow, feeding upon seeds. The next presents a herd of antelopes—ruminants of complex stom-
achs, feeding on mountain pasturage, with the gallinaceous nepaul, the two horns of which form a
close analogy to these animals.
Next comes the dromedary, a ruminant without horns, and living upon herbs in the desert;
and the ostrich, with its capacious crop, also herbivorous, and making the desert its home.
Finally, we have the seal and the penguin, both possessing abortive limbs, and both plunging
under the water for their food.
These analogies are curious and striking, but they are not so obvious and useful, for the basis of
scientific arrangement, as the more common grouping to which we have alluded—that of beasts,
birds, fishes, and reptiles. The received zoological classification is, in point of fact, to a certain
extent, coincident with this popular classification. The latter being the result of observation, the
only foundation of natural history, must necessarily be more or less correct, according to the
extent to which the different kinds of animals are brought under the notice of mankind; thus we
find that tolerably clear notions exist as to the differences between a beast, a bird, and a fish, —
these being creatures that pass constantly before our eyes; although, even with respect to these
groups, we find some erroneous ideas to prevail.
But with respect to insects, and other lower animals with which mankind at large are not
familiar, the classification of ordinary language is by no means so precise ; so that while, in the
former cases, zoology can adopt the popular groups merely by submitting them to a few modifi-
cations, in the latter, science is compelled to invent a system of its own.
This scientific classification is not, however, a mere arbitrary arrangement like that of the
words in a dictionary, with the sole object of enabling us to find out all that is known of a given
animal in the shortest possible period of time: it has another and a higher purpose in view—that
of showing the mutual relations of the various members of the animal kingdom, and tracing, in a
manner, the steps taken by the Creator in the modification of the same type to suit the various
conditions in which His creatures were to be placed.
a
OF CERTAIN TERMS USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
A clear idea of the terms species, variety, genus, family, tribe, order, class, and division, which are
constantly occurring in treatises on natural history, is essential to an understanding of the subject.

INTRODUCTION.
13
.
Species is applied to the several animals of one kind; thus all the ducks, of one kind, constitute
the species. This classification is founded upon similarity of color, size, proportion, form, &c.
Variety is a term applied to animals which vary in some of their qualities from the general
character of their kindred, while they are, in fact, of the same nature and structure. Genus is
founded upon some of the less important characteristics of anatomy, such as the number and
arrangement of the teeth, claws, fins, &c., and usually includes several species. Thus the lion, tiger,
jaguar, puma, cat, &c., resemble each other in the qualities of their feet, teeth, and limbs, and
therefore constitute a genus called felis.
The term family is used to designate a group of several genera which have a resemblance to
each other. Thus, the sprat, shad, herring, pilchard, and alewives, each forming a genus, con-
stitute the family Clupeide. The jays, jackdaws, crows, and ravens constitute the family Corvidæ.
Several of these families combined form an order, and several orders constitute a class, and classes
form divisions.
Another word of great use in natural history is type, which means the general idea of some animal
which combines most fully the characteristics of the group to which it belongs. Thus the falcon
may be selected as the type of the hawks, generally; the duck may be taken as the type of the
diving birds, generally; and the mallard the type of the duck species.
The knowledge of species constitutes the foundation of all zoological knowledge; without this,
we can never arrive at sound generalizations. The species, which forms the first step in classifi-
cation, consists of an assemblage of individual animals which are supposed all to have descended
from the same parents, and exhibit the closest possible resemblance in all parts of their structure.
This definition, if definition it may be called, must not, however, be taken in the strictest sense
which might be applied to the words; for in many cases we find that individuals undoubtedly
belonging to the same species vary considerably among themselves, principally in color and size.
Variation is generally to be observed, however, in animals under the influence of domestication;
the individuals of most species of wild animals resembling each other so closely that it would be
difficult to overlook their specific identity.
A test for the specific identity of animals, upon which much stress has been laid, is founded
upon the supposed fact, that when two animals of different species breed together, their
offspring, called hybrids, are barren. This test is evidently applicable only when we can have
the animals alive, subject to our notice; while, even under the most favorable circumstances,
such observations would be very inconclusive, as hybrids between undoubtedly distinct species
have been frequently known to breed.
MODERN SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION.
The arrangement of the species of animals in genera, gives rise to the modern system of zoo-
logical nomenclature. This is called the binomial system, from the circumstance that, according
to this method, every animal receives two names,-one belonging to itself exclusively, the other
in common with all the other species of the genus in which it is included. For example, the
genus Felis, or cat, includes the lion, tiger, leopard, and cat, as species ; they all accordingly bear
the generic name Felis, with the addition of a second name specially applied to each, serving to
distinguish it from all other species of the genus : thus the lion is called Felis leo, the tiger Felis
tigris, the leopard Felis leopardus, and the cat Felis catus. This method of nomenclature has
at least this advantage over the plan of conferring only a single name upon each species—that
when we hear for the first time the name of a newly discovered animal, if we are at all acquainted
with the genus to which it belongs, the mere mention of the name puts us at once in possession of
a considerable amount of information as to its structure, form, and habits. It was first adopted
by the illustrious Linnæus, the modern founder of Natural History, in the tenth edition of his
Systema Naturæ," published in 1758.
Proceeding with our ascending scale of classification, as indicated above, we find that the genera
in their turn are sometimes united by common characters of importance into families, and these
combine to form orders. In some cases we meet with intervening steps, uniting the tribes belonging
to one order into two or three subordinate groups. The orders in their turn group themselves

14
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
into classes ; and these lead us up to certain primary divisions, which, when put together, con-
stitute the ANIMAL KINGDOM.
The classification of Linnæus was an immense improvement upon all that had gone before, and
though it is now in a great measure superseded, it is still partially retained and often referred to in
modern systems : it may therefore be useful to present it to the reader. It was as follows:
LINNÆAN SYSTEM.
According to this system, the objects comprehended within the animal kingdom are divided into six classes :
Mammalia or Mammiferous Animals, Birds, Amphibia or Amphibious Animals, Fishes, Insects, and Worms,
which are thus distinguished :
CLASSES.
Hot blood
With vertebræ..
Body
Cold red blood....
Viviparons
1 Oviparous.
With lungs.
With gills
Having antenna
Having tentacula.
I. MAMMALIA
II. BIRDS.
III. AMPHIBIA.
IV. FISTIES.
V. INSECTS.
VI. WORMS.
Without vertebræ
Cold white blood..
a
Class. I.-MAMMALIA.
The first class, or Mammalia, consists of such animals as produce living offspring, and nourish their young
ones with milk supplied from their own bodies; and it comprises both the quadrupeds and the cetacea.
This class is divided into seven orders, viz. : primates, bruta, feræ, glires, pecora, belluæ, and cetacea or whales.
The characteristics of these were founded, for the most part, on the number and arrangement of the teeth ;
and on the form and construction of the feet, or of those parts in the seals, manati, and cetacea, which supply
the place of feet.
I. PRIMATES. -Having the upper front teeth, generally four in number, wedge-shaped and parallel ; and two
teats situated on the breast, as the apes and monkeys.
II. BRUTA.—Having no front teeth in either jaw ; and the feet armed with strong hoof-like nails, as the
elephant.
III. FERÆ.--Having in general six front teeth in each jaw; a single canine tooth on each side in both jaws;
and the grinders with conic projections, as the dogs and cats.
IV. GLIRES.—Having in each jaw two long projecting front teeth, which stand close together; and no canine
teeth in either jaw, as the rats and mice.
V. PECORA. --Having no front teeth in the upper jaw ; six or eight in the lower jaw, situated at a considerable
distance from the grinders ; and the feet with hoofs, as cattle and sheep.
VI. BELLUÆ.—Having blunt wedge-shaped front teeth in both jaws; and the feet with hoofs, as horses.
VII. CETACEA.-Having spiracles, or breathing-holes on the head ; fins instead of fore-feet; and a tail flat-
tened horizontally, instead of hind-feet. This order consists of the narwhals, whales, cachalots, and
dolphins.
Class II.-BIRDS.
The second class, or Birds, comprises all such animals as have their bodies clad with feathers. This part of
zoology, being called Ornithology, is divided into six orders.
1. Land Birds.
I. RAPACIOUS BIRDS (Accipitres).-Having the upper mandible hooked, and an angular projection on each side
near the point, as the eagles, hawks, and owls.
II. PIES (Picæ).-Having their bills sharp at the edge, somewhat compressed at the sides, and convex on the
top, as the crow.
III. PASSERINE BIRDS (Passeres). --Having the bill conical and pointed, and the nostrils oval, open, and naked,
as the sparrow and linnet.
IV. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS (Gallinæ. -Having the upper mandible arched, and covering the lower one at the
edge, and the nostrils arched over with a cartilaginous membrane, as the common poultry.
2. Water Birds.
V. WADERS (Grallæ).-Having a roundish bill, a fleshy tongue, and the legs naked above the knees, as the
herons, plovers, and snipes.
VI. SWIMMERS (Anseres). --Having their bills broad at the top, and covered with a soft skin, and the feet
webbed, as ducks and geese.
CLASS III.-AMPHIBIA.
The third class, or Amphibia, included such animals as have a cold, and generally naked body, a lurid color,
and nauseous smell. They respire chiefly by lungs, but they have the power of suspending respiration for a

INTRODUCTION.
15
long time. They are extremely tenacious of life, and can repair certain parts of their bodies which have been
lost. They are also able to endure hunger, sometimes even for months, without injury.
This class was divided into two orders.
I. REPTILES. --Having four legs, and walking with a crawling pace, as the tortoises, toads, and lizards.
II. SERPENTS. -Having no legs, but crawling on the body.
Class IV.-FISHES.
This class included inhabitants of the water, which move by certain organs called fins. Those situated on
the back are called dorsal fins; those on the sides, behind the gills, pectoral fins; those below the body, near
the head, are ventral; those behind the vent are anal ; and that which forms the tail is called the caudal fin.
The fishes were divided into six orders.
I. A PODAL.-Having bony gills; and no ventral fins, as the eel.
II. JUGULAR. —Having bony gills ; and the ventral fins situated in front of the pectoral fins, as the cod, had-
dock, and whiting.
III. THORACIC.—Having bony gills; and the ventral fins situated directly under the pectoral fins, as the perch
and mackerel.
IV. ABDOMINAL. Having bony gills ; and the ventral fins on the lower part of the body below the pectoral
fins, as the salmon, herring, and carp.
V. BRANCHIOSTEGOUS. -Having gills destitute of bony rays.
VI. CHONDROPTERYGEOUS.-Having cartilaginous fins, as the sturgeons, sharks, and skate.
Class V.-INSECTS.
This class comprised the Insects; and the branch of zoology which treats of them is called Entomology.
It was divided into seven orders.
I. COLEOPTEROUS.-Having elytra, or crustaceous cases covering the wings; and which, when closed, form a
longitudinal division along the middle of the back, as the cockchafer.
II. HEMIPTEROUS.-Having four wings, the upper ones partly crustaceous and partly membraneous; not di-
vided straight down the middle of the back, but crossed, or incumbent on each other, as the cock-
roach.
III. LEPIDOPTEROUS.—Having four wings covered with fine scales almost like powder, as the butterflies and
moths.
IV. NEUROPTEROUS.—Having four membraneous and semi-transparent wings, veined like net-work; and the
tail without a sting, as the dragon-fly and ephemera.
V. HYMENOPTEROUS.—Having four membraneous and semi-transparent wings, veined like net-work; and the
tail armed with a sting, as the wasp and bee.
VI. DIPTEROUS.—Having only two wings, as the common house-flies.
VII. APTEROUS. -Having no wings, as the spiders.
Class VI.–VERMES, OR WORMS.
These are slow of motion, and have soft and fleshy bodies. Some of them have hard internal parts, and
others have crustaceous coverings.
I. INTESTINAL.- Are simple and naked, without limbs : some of them live within other animals, as the
ascarides and tape-worms; others in water, as the leeches ; and a few in the earth, as the earth-
worm.
II. MOLLUSCOUS. ---Are simple animals, without shells, and furnished with limbs, as the cuttle-fish, medusæ,
star-fish, and sea-urchin.
III. TESTACEOUS. —Are animals similar to the last, but covered with shells, as oysters, cockles, snails, and
limpets.
IV. ZOOPHYTES.- Are composite animals, and appear to hold a rank between animals and vegetables; though
a
they are in fact true animals, and possess sensation and voluntary motion. In many instances a great
number of them inhabit the same stone, but some are soft, naked, and separate. The coral, sponge,
and polypes are instances of this order.
V. ANIMALCULES.- Are destitute of tentacula or feelers, and are generally so minute as to be invisible to the
naked eye. They are chiefly found in different infusions of animal and vegetable substances.
This classification continued to be the leading one among scientific men, till the publication of
the Animal Kingdom of George Cuvier, in 1816. This admirable work, being founded upon a
profound study of the structure of animals by means of dissection, was generally adopted; and
;
though portions of it have been modified by the researches of eminent naturalists in particular
branches of zoological science, and hence new systems of classification have been proposed and
adopted, it still remains as the basis of all those which have acquired reputation with the
learned world. This classification is as follows:

16
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE SYSTEM OF CUVIER.
CLASS I.
MAMMALIA,
including Eight Orders.
CLASS II.
AVES,
including Six Orders.
DIVISION I.- VERTEBRATA,
arranged in Four Classes and Twenty-seven Orders.
ORDER 1. Bimana
II. Quadrumana
III. Carnivora
IV. Rodentia
V. Edentata
VI. Pachydermata
VII. Ruminantia
VIII. Cetacea
I. Rapaces
II. Passeres
III. Scansores
IV. Gallinæ
V. Grallæ
VI. Palmipedes
I. Chelonia
II. Sauria
III. Ophidia
IV. Batrachia
I. Acanthopterygii
II. Abdominales
III. Sub-brachiati
IV. A podes
V. Lophobranchii
VI. Plectognathi
VII. Sturiones
VIII. Selachii
IX. Cyclostomi
Man.
Chimpanzee.
Hyæna.
Rat.
Armadillo.
Hog.
Cow.
Whale.
Hawk.
Swallow.
Woodpecker.
Cock.
Heron.
Duck.
Tortoise.
Lizard.
Snake.
Frog
Sword-Fish.
Salmon.
Whiting
Eel.
Hippocampus.
Sun-Fish.
Sturgeon.
Ray.
Lamprey.
CLASS III.
REPTILIA,
including Four Orders.
Malacopterygii.
CLASS IV.
PISCES,
including Two Series.
Series I.
Osseous,
including
Cartilaginous,
Series II.
ding 3 Orders. Six Orders.
or Chondro-
pterygii, inclu-
Branchiæ fixed. {
I. Cephalopoda
Nautilus.
I. Pteropoda
Clio australis.
I. Pulmonia
II. Nudibranchia
III. Inferobranchia
IV. Tectibranchia
V. Heteropoda
VI. Pectinibranchia
VII. Tubulibranchia
VIII. Scutibranchia
IX. Cyclobranchia
I. Testacea
II. Acephala
Snail.
Glaucus.
Linguella.
Bursatella.
Carinaria.
Whelk,
Vermetus.
The Sea-Ear.
Chiton.
Oyster.
Ascidia.
I. Brachiopoda
Lingula Anatina.
I. Cirrhopoda
Barnacle.
I. Tubicola
II. Dorsibranchia
III. Abranchia
Amphitrita.
Amphinomæ.
Leech.
I. Decapoda
II. Stomapoda
III. Amphipoda
IV. Læmodipoda
V. Isopoda
Gebia stellata,
Phyllosoma.
Gammarus.
Whale-Louse.
Anilocra.
VI. Branchiopoda
VII. Pocilopoda
Branchipus (Cancer stagnalis)?
Dichelestium
I. Pulmonata
II. Trachearia
I. Myriapoda
II. Thysanoura
III. Parasita
IV. Suctoria
V. Coleoptera
VI. Orthoptera
VII. Hemiptera
VIII. Neuroptera
IX. Hymenoptera
X. Lepidoptera
XI. Rhipiptera
XII. Diptera
Phrynus. (Spider.)
Phalangium.
Centipede.
Velvet Spring Tail.
Louse.
Flea.
Beetle.
Grasshopper.
Aphis.
Ant-Lion.
Ichneumon-Fly.
Moth.
Xenos.
Gnat.
I. Pedicellata
JI. Echinoderma
Star-Fish.
Sipunculus.
I. Cavitaria
II. Parenchyma
Cerebratula. (Filaria.)
Planaria cornuta.
CLASS I.
CEPHALOPODA,
having One Order.
CLASS II.
PTEROPODA,
having One Order.
CLASS III.
GASTEROPODA,
including Nine Orders.
Division II.-MOLLUSCA,
arranged in Six Classes and Fifteen Orders.
ANIMALS,
ARRANGED IN FOUR DIVISIONS, NINETEEN CLASSES, AND SEVENTY-SEVEN ORDERS.
CLASS IV.
A CEPHALA,
including Two Orders.
CLASS V.
BRACHIOPODA,
having One Order.
CLASS VI.
CIRRHOPODA,
having One Order.
CLASS I.
ANNELIDA,
including Three Orders.
CLASS II.
CRUSTACEA,
divided into 2 Sections.
Section I.
Malacostracia,
divided into
Fire Orders.
Compound eyes
placed on pedicles
and movable.
Eyes sessile and
immovable.
DIVISION III.-ARTICULATA,
arranged in Four Classes and Twenty-four Orders.
Section II.
Entomostracia,
divided into Two Orders.
CLASS III.
ARACHNIDA,
including Two Orders.
CLASS IV.
INSECTA,
including Twelve Orders.
DIVISION IV-RADIATA,
arranged in 5 Classes and 11 Orders.
CLASS I.
ECHINODERMA,
including Two Orders.
CLASS II
INTESTINA,
including Two Orders.
CLASS IIT.
ACALEPHA.
including Two Orders.
CLASS IV.
POLYPI,
including Three Orders.
CLASS V.
INFUSORIA,
including Two Orders.
I. A calepha (simple)
II. Hydrostatica
I. Actinia
II. Gelatinosa
III. Corallina
Medusa.
Diphyes.
Green Actinia.
Cristatella.
Coral
Wheel Aninaichle.
Globe Animalcule.
I. Rotifera
II. Homogenea

INTRODUCTION.
17
talented
SPONGES AND CORALLINES: DIVISION PROTOZOA.
ANALYSIS OF THE SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN THIS WORK.
a
a
In this volume we shall adopt a system of classification suited to the present improved state of
zoological science. It may be well to indicate, at this point, the mode of analysis by which this
arrangement is reached.
But it is necessary first to state that modern investigations, aided by the wonderful powers of
the microscope, have enabled scientific men to analyze the various substances of which the bodies
of animals are composed, and to reduce them into their elements. Numerous and varied as are
these substances—bone, cartilage, sinew, nerve, muscle, hair, teeth, nails, claws, even the trans-
parent lens of the eye—all are reducible to one kind of structure, and this is a cell. All organic
substances are made up of cells. The primary organic cell is a minute pellucid globule, invisible
to the naked eye, and containing within it a smaller cell, called the nucleus, which again contains
a still more minute granule, called the nucledus, or little nucleus. Even the highest animals, in
the early development of the embryo, are composed entirely of nucleated cells, which afterward
assume the forms peculiar to the various tissues of which their bodies are composed.
At the lowest point of the animal kingdom, verging so closely on the lowest forms of plants
to leave us at first in doubt to which of the great divisions of organized nature they should be
referred, we meet with a series of creatures in which the functions of organic life are performed
by its simplest element—the cell. From this circumstance they have received from naturalists
the denomination of unicellular animals, or PROTOZOA.
These animals, though presented to us in a variety of forms, from the simple monad up to
the complicated sponges, consist entirely of elementary nucleated cells, or of aggregations of such
cells, in which each still retains, to a certain extent, an existence independent of its fellows, and
generally possesses the power, when separated from its attachments, not only of continuing its
own life, but even of producing another compound structure similar to that from which it had
been detached. These simple creatures possess no digestive cavity, their food, when solid, being
received into the substance of the body, and there gradually assimilated. The nervous and vas-
cular systems are equally deficient; in fact, the nucleus, which is an essential portion of the
elementary cell, and one or more contractile vesicular spaces, are the only traces of internal organ-
ization observable in the clear gelatinous substance of which they are composed.
Reproduction is effected in general by the division of the substance of the animal: the phenom-
ena of sexuality, which we shall meet with in all the higher animals, are here never witnessed.
From these simple creatures we pass to a group of animals, the lowest members of which exhibit
but little, if any, advance in point of organization. They do not, it is true, consist of isolated cells,
Vol. I.--3

18
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY,
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STAR-FISH: DIVISION RADIATA.
or of aggregations of similar independent cells; but in many instances their bodies and organs are
constructed entirely of a gelatinous cellular matter very like that of which the Protozoa are com-
posed, and which appears to possess almost an equal power of retaining vitality in its smallest
particles. As we advance in the group, however, we find the organization of its constituent ani-
mals growing more and more complicated, from the vital functions becoming more and more
differentiated—that is to say, performed by organs specially devoted to each; until, from creatures
roughly shaped out of a homogeneous semi-gelatinous mass, we gradually arrive at animals fur-
nished with distinct nervous and vascular systems, with organs of motion and reproduction.
,
The most striking character of the animals included in this group consists in the radiate arrange-
ment of their organs, as in the star-fish, round a central axis, which generally passes through the
mouth. From this peculiarity they have been denominated by zoologists radiated animals, and
constitute the division RADIATA. This group includes those animals which were formerly supposed
to approach very closely to plants, or indeed rather to partake of a sort of mixed nature interme-
diate between animals and vegetables, hence called zoophites, or animal-plants ; and some authors
still make use of this name in preference to that of Radiata, to indicate the present group.
The nervous system can only be recognized distinctly in the most highly organized of these
animals. In these it partakes of the radiate arrangement of the body, the nerve distributed to
each division of the body corresponding exactly with those of its neighbor, and arising from a
separate center. These centers are all placed in a circle round the mouth, and united by a cord
which forms a complete ring.
The sense of touch appears to be the only one which can with certainty be ascribed to these
animals; this resides in the general covering or integument, and is also frequently exercised by
special organs.
All the Radiata possess a mouth and intestinal cavity; but very few of them have a second
opening for the discharge of fecal matters. They generally possess a more or less distinct vascular
system: in some of the higher forms a sac-like heart occurs.
Sexual reproduction occurs in all the Radiata, and the sexes are generally on separate individ-
nals. Propagation is also very commonly effected in this division by the formation of buds or
gemmules; and these either remain attached to the parent stock, which thus goes on increasing
continually in size, or become free, and lead an independent existence.
In the two preceding divisions of the animal kingdom we find the body formed upon two very

INTRODUCTION.
19
SCORPION AND CENTIPEDE: DIVISION ARTICULATA.
different principles. In the first and lowest, it may almost be said to be amorphous. The organs,
such as they are, follow no particular arrangement; and in many cases it is impossible even to fix
their relative position. In the second, however, a certain symmetry is observable; and this is
the case also with the remaining groups, the characters of which we have yet to lay before the
reader. But this symmetry is of a very different kind : in the Radiata, the parts of the body
are all grouped around a common axis, every organ being merely a repetition of its fellows; while
in those which must now pass under consideration, the organs of the body are arranged more or
less distinctly in pairs on each side of the body, so as to produce what has been termed by zoolo-
gists a bilateral symmetry. In none do we find this mode of construction so completely exhibited
as in the animals forming the third primary division of the animal kingdom, to which we must
now direct attention.
The most striking peculiarity of these animals, by which—although the division contains an
almost infinite variety-insects of all kinds, crabs, lobsters, centipedes, &c.—they may generally
be distinguished at the first glance from all other creatures, is, that their bodies and limbs are
composed more or less distinctly of segments or rings. From this, which is their most prominent
character, they have been denominated articulated animals. They are also sometimes called
annulose or ringed animals. These constitute the division ARTICULATA.
The joints or segments of which their bodies are composed are formed essentially by a series
of transverse folds in the integument of the animal. In many of the lower forms, the skin still
remains perfectly soft and flexible ; but in by far the greater number these folds become trans-
formed into a series of horny or crustaceous rings, united to each other by a softer portion of the
integument, so as to permit a greater or less degree of flexibility. The limbs, as well as the body,
are constructed of rings of various forms; and these, taken together, may be regarded, to a certain
extent, as a sort of external skeleton, fulfilling, as they do, most of the purposes of the skeleton in
man and the animals most related to him. Like this, it gives support to all the soft parts of the
body, and furnishes points of attachment for the muscles; which again, by their action on the
,
movable pieces composing it, give rise to the various movements of the creature. In many cases,
all the segments composing the body, with the exception, perhaps, of those at the two extremities,
are exactly similar,—each presenting the same form and bearing the same organs as its neighbor.
An instance of this may be seen in the centipede, figured above ; and it is still more strikingly
exemplified in many marine worms. Generally, however, the segments present marked differences
of form and comparative size, and in the structure of their appendages : this is very distinctly
observable in the insects and crabs.

20
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
CRABS : DIVISION ARTICULATA.
Every segment is supposed to be capable of bearing two pairs of appendages or members-one
connected with the central, the other with the dorsal, portion of the segment. Both pairs of
members do in fact occur upon all or a portion of the segments, in some of these animals; but in
general, the ventral members alone are developed, and these only on certain segments. In the
insects, in addition to three pairs of ventral members or legs, we find generally two pairs of dorsal
appendages—the wings. Sometimes, as in the earthworm and leech, the limbs are entirely defi-
cient, or only represented by a few bristles; but, when present, their number is never less than six.
The nervous system of the Articulata generally exhibits the tendency to segmentary repetition,
characteristic of the group, very distinctly. In its most characteristic form, it consists of a double
nervous cord running down the middle of the ventral portion of the body, and uniting a series of
knots or ganglia which lie in its course : these ganglia give rise to nerves which are distributed
to the various organs. The more elongated the body, and the more similar the different seg-
ments of which it is composed, the more regularly do the ganglia follow one another; while,
when the segments become more or less amalgamated, the individual ganglia fuse in a correspond-
ing degree into larger masses. This ventral cord originates from one or more cephalic ganglia
of considerable size, situated in the head above the esophagus, which give off two filaments to
join the first ventral ganglion, and thus form a nervous ring surrounding the æsophagus. From
this the ventral cord takes its rise.
In the lowest animals arranged in this division we have some difficulty in referring the nervous
system to the articulate type; but when these animals present us with a distinct nervous system,
it consists of one or two ganglia situated in the neighborhood of the æsophagus, and giving off
two thin branches which run down the body.
The majority of the Articulata possess the senses in tolerable perfection. The eyes in many
cases present a highly complex structure, consisting of a great number of hexagonal facets, each of
which may be regarded as a distinct eye; this construction of the eyes is especially prevalent in
insects, and is peculiar to the annulose division. When these eyes are wanting, and even when
they are present, we frequently meet with simple eyes, which agree very closely in structure with
the individual eyes, by the aggregation of which the compound visual organs are formed. The
senses of hearing, taste, and smell appear also to be possessed by a great many of these creatures;
but the organs by which these faculties are exercised can seldom be indicated with any degree of

INTRODUCTION.
21
SPIDERS: DIVISION ARTICOLATA.
certainty. The sense of touch of course resides in the general integument; but special organs of
touch are also frequently developed.
The mouth is nearly always furnished with several pairs of jaws, placed one behind the other,
some serving for the prehension and others for the mastication of food. These jaws open later-
ally, so that the aperture of the mouth is vertical, or in the direction of the axis of the body.
Most of the Articulata have whitish or colorless blood. The only exceptions are to be met with
among the worms, some of which have red blood. In these, however, the color of the blood is
inherent in the fluid portion, and not due to the presence of red corpuscles. Their circulation
is effected by means of a dorsal vessel, which carries the blood from behind forward : it returns
to the posterior portion of the body, either through a proper vascular system, or by passing
through interstices left in the tissues of the body.
Sexual oviparous reproduction prevails throughout this division. The sexes are generally sep-
arate, although in some of the lower forms we meet with complete hermaphrodism.
In the fourth great division of animals, the bilateral type of structure is far from being so
distinct as in the Articulata. It is stiil, however, to be recognized in the general arrangement of
the external organs, especially of those surrounding the head.
Those animals of which the snail, clam, oyster, and nautilus may be taken as familiar examples,
are usually inclosed in a tough skin, to the inner surface of which the muscles are attached, and
by its contraction and dilatation the movements of the animal are effected. With the exception
of the cuttle-fishes, in which a sort of cartilaginous support is present, none of these creatures
possess any thing which can be regarded as analogous to a skeleton; the body forms a soft mass,
frequently varying greatly in form at the will of the creature. These peculiarities have led zoolo-
gists to give them the name of molluscous or soft-bodied animals: they constitute the division
MOLLUSCA.
In most of these animals the nervous system consists of a number of knots or ganglia, scattered
more or less irregularly through the body, united with each other by nervous filaments, and giving
off finer filaments, the true nerves, to the various organs. In the more highly organized Mollusca,
three or four of these ganglia are collected in the head, forming a cephalic mass, which represents
a brain; but even in its most condensed form, the cephalic ganglia may still be recognized, form-
ing a sort of ring through which the æsophagus passes.

22
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
0
€
LOG
100
SEGEL
CUTTLE-FISH: DIVISION MOLLUSCA.
Some of the lower forms, arranged with the molluscous animals by modern zoologists, possess
only a single ganglion, from which filaments are given off in all directions; and between this and
the highly complicated structure, we meet with every conceivable gradation.
As might be expected from the great differences displayed by the members of this division
of the animal kingdom, in regard to the degree of development of the nervous system, the
senses are possessed by them in very various degrees of perfection. In some of the lowest forms
the universal sense of touch appears to be the only one present; but as we ascend in the scale, we
meet with creatures more highly endowed in this respect. Tentacles, or special organs of touch,
,
frequently occur, generally in the neighborhood of the head; organs of sight, hearing, smell, and
taste make their appearance, until in the highest forms of molluscous animals we find the organs
of the senses as fully developed as in many of those belonging to the highest division.
The skin of these animals generally lies loosely about the body, so as to form a sort of cloak or
mantle. The mantle frequently possesses the power of secreting a hard substance, well known as
the shell, which serves for the protection of the creature. It increases with the growth of the ani-
mal, and varies in form according to the species which inhabits it.
The intestinal canal is very variable in its structure, but always presents two openings—a mouth
and an anus; the liver frequently attains a very great degree of development.
The circulatory system is generally very highly organized; a heart, often divided into several
compartments, with arteries and veins penetrating all parts of the body, existing in nearly all the
Mollusca. The blood is colorless, or nearly so.
The Mollusca are oviparous animals; the male and female organs are frequently in separate in-
dividuals, although many species are hermaphrodite.
In the fifth and highest division of the animal kingdom, we meet with a series of organs to
which nothing similar occurs in the groups which have already passed under review.
All these animals possess a nervous system, consisting essentially of a brain, inclosed within a
bony case, the skull, beneath which the wesophagus passes, and a single cord of nervous matter,
a

INTRODUCTION.
23
power
NAUTILUS WITH THE SHELL : DIVISION MOLLUSCA.
originating from the lower part of the brain, passing through a large hole in the base of the skull
and running down through a bony canal, formed by the vertebral column, of which the skull is, in
fact, only the anterior portion. As this set of organs—the brain and the spinal cord, the skull and
the vertebral column-while possessed by no other animals, is, with a few rare exceptions, con-
stantly present in these, its existence will always serve to distinguish them from the rest of the
animal kingdom. They are accordingly called vertebrate animals, and the division which they
form, VERTEBRATA.
These, however, are not the only characters possessed in common by vertebrate animals. The
vertebral column forms only a portion of an internal bony framework or skeleton, which serves
for the support of the soft portions of the body, and by furnishing the necessary points of attach-
ment for the muscles, assists in effecting the movements of the animal. This framework generally
consists of the vertebral column, including the skull; the jaws, which are regarded as appendages
of the vertebræ, of which the skull is considered to be composed; the ribs, a series of bony arches,
articulated at one extremity with the bones of the vertebral column, and at the other either at-
tached to a central bony piece, the sternum, or lying perfectly free in the tissues of the body; and
the limbs, which are never more than four in number. The jaws in these animals always separate
in a vertical direction, so that the opening of the mouth is transverse. They all have red blood and a
muscular heart. Their reproduction is sexual, and the sexes are never united in the same individual.
The animals constructed upon this type are the most highly organized of living beings. In no
others is the nervous matter, the seat of sensation, intelligence, and volition, presented in so con-
centrated a form ; in none are the senses so perfect, or the various functions of the animal econo-
my so completely isolated.
We thus see that animals are constructed upon Five Primary Types or Plans, of which all the
varied forms presented by these creatures are but modifications; as though the Creator, in design-
a

24
ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.
مجيد به
1560
NAUTILUS WITHOUT THE SHELL : DIVISION MOLLUSCA.
ing the animal world, had imposed upon himself, in the beginning, certain fixed rules, from which
he would not swerve.
In this manner we obtain Five Groups or Divisions, each of which leads us a step higher than
the others—although it is by no means to be supposed that we have here that gradually ascend-
ing chain of beings so much talked of, in which every species, from the lowest to the highest, is
supposed to form a link. It is merely in their most highly organized members that the mutual
superiority or inferiority of these divisions can be recognized; and, as a general rule, it may be said,
at all events in respect to the Radiata, Articulata, and Mollusca, that the highest members of each
group are considerably more perfectly organized than the lower members of the others. The Pro-
tozoa and Vertebrata appear to be exceptions to this rule; for the most highly organized of the
former can scarcely be regarded as superior even to the lowest forms of the other divisions, while
the fishes, which constitute the lowest members of the vertebrate division, still appear to be more
highly organized than the lowest Mollusca.
These five divisions are represented in the following classification, though they are presented in a
reversed order, it being more according to our habits of observation to begin the study of the animal
kingdom with the highest classes, and thence to proceed to those of a lower grade, as they follow
in the places assigned to them.
In regard to this classification, we may remark that, simplicity being a leading object, we have
only presented the divisions of Species, Genera, Orders, Classes, and Divisions, leaving out many
subdivisions of tribes, families, &c., as unnecessary in a table of this naiure. In the progress of
the work we shall have occasion to repeat, and in some instances to enlarge upon, the outline
given in the preceding pages.

ARTICULATA
RADIATA
MOLLUSCA
201
주
​quis
02
PROTOZOA
WITEBRATA
CLASSIFICATION.
The Animal Kingdom may be arranged in Five Grand Divisions, as follows:
DIVISION I. VERTEBRATA, or vertebrate animals.
DIVISION II. MOLLUSCA, or soft animals.
DIVISION III. ARTICULATA, or articulated animals.
DIVISION IV. RADIATA, or radiated animals.
Division V. PROTOZOA, or the lowest forms of animals.
These are further subdivided into Classes and Orders, as follows:
DIVISION I. VERTEBRATA:
Animals having a vertebrated backbone, serving as the basis of a bony skeleton or framework,
and divided into five Classes and numerous Orders, as follows:
Class I. MAMMALIA: animals that suckle their young, divided into fourteen Orders :
ORDER 1. BIMANA, or two-handed, including only the human species.
ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA, or four-handed, including the apes, baboons, mon-
keys, lemurs, the cheiromys or aye-aye, flying lemurs, &c.
ORDER 3. CHEIROPTERA, from the Greek, signifying a hand and a wing, in-
cluding the bats.
Vol. I.-4

26
CLASSIFICATION.
ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA, insect-eaters, as the mole, shrew, desman, hedge-
hog, tenrec, banxring, &c.
ORDER 5. CARNIVORA, flesh-eaters, including the dog, wolf, fox, jackal, Cape
hunting-dog, hyena, earth-wolf, cat, lion, tiger, leopard, jaguar, che-
tah, cougar, ocelot, lynx, &c., civet, weasel, ferret, polecat, martin,
skunk, otter, mink, badger, glutton, ratel, kinkajou, bear, raccoon,
coati, and
many
others.
ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA, animals with feet fitted for swimming, including the
seal, sea-lion, sea-bear, and walrus.
ORDER 7. RODENTIA, gnawing animals, as the hare, rabbit, Guinea-pig, capy-
bara, agouti, porcupine, beaver, coypu, musk-rat, rat, mouse, ham-
ster, lemming, sand-rat, mole-rat, chinchilla, viscacha, jerboa, dor-
mouse, squirrel, marmot, woodchuck, prairie-dog, &c.
ORDER 8. EDENTATA, animals, without front teeth as the ant-eater, pango-
lin, armadillo, sloth, &c.
ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA, ruminating animals, as the ox, musk-ox, yak, bison,
buffalo, sheep, goat, prong-buck, gnu, antelope, spring-bok, gazelle,
eland, addax, koodoo, nylghau, deer, chamois, giraffe, llama, camel,
and many others.
ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA, solid-hoofed, as the horse, ass, and zebra.
ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA, thick-skinned, as the hog, peccary, hyrax or
cony, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tapir, and elephant.
ORDER 12. CETACEA, the whale kind, as the dugong, sea-cow, grampus, nar-
whal, dolphin, porpoise, whale, &c.
ORDER 13. MARSUPIALIA, animals with a ventral pouch, including the phas-
cogale, dasyurus, pouched wolf, banded ant-eater, phalanger, yapock,
opossum, bandicoot, koala, kangaroo, wombat, &c.
ORDER 14. MONOTREMATA, including the echidna or porcupine ant-eater,
and the ornithorhynchus or duck-billed platypus.
Class II. AVES, Birds : divided into eight Orders :
ORDER 1. RAPTORES, birds of prey, as vultures, hawks, eagles, and owls.
ORDER 2. PASSERES, perching-birds, including an immense variety of species,
as the whippoorwill, swift, martin, swallow, roller, trogon, kingfisher,
bee-eater, hoopoe, humming-bird, creeper, nuthatch, wren, lyre-bird,
warbler, nightingale, redstart, titmouse, wagtail, dipper, thrush, cat-
bird, robin, fly-catcher, king-bird, waxwing, cedar-bird, shrike, jay,
magpie, raven, rook, crow, bird of paradise, bower-bird, starling, beef-
eater, honey-eater, oven-bird, friar-bird, sun-bird, finch, goldfinch,
bullfinch, linnet, sparrow, skylark, meadow-lark, oriole, grosbeak,
crossbill, hornbill, and many others.
ORDER 3. SCANSORES, climbers, including the toucan, parrot, parakeet, mac-
caw, cockatoo, wryneck, woodpecker, cuckoo, honey-guide, bar-
bet, &c.
ORDER 4. COLUMBÆ, doves and pigeons.
ORDER 5. RASORES, or scrapers, including the guan, curassow, bush-turkey,
mound-bird, peacock, common-fowl, pheasant, Guinea-fowl, turkey,
quail, grouse, partridge, &c.
ORDER 6. CURSORES, runners, including the ostrich, cassowary, emeu, rhea,
bustard, crane, trumpeter, &c.
ORDER 7. GRALLATORES, wading-birds, including the lapwing, plover, oys-
ter-catcher, killdeer, bittern, heron, adjutant, stork, ibis, spoonbill,
avocet, stilt, curlew, phalarope, coot, mud-hen, snipe, rail, jacana, &c. .

CLASSIFICATION.
27
ORDER 8. NATATORES, diving-birds, including the goose, swan, goosander,
merganser, duck, petrel, gull, flamingo, cereopsis, sea-swallow, alba-
tross, darter, gannet, frigate-bird, cormorant, pelican, diver, grebe,
puffin, auk, penguin, &c.
Class III. REPTILIA, REPTILES : divided into four Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. CHELONIA, tortoises.
ORDER 2. LORICATA, crocodiles and alligators.
ORDER 3. SAURIA, lizards.
ORDER 4. OPHIDIA, serpents.
Class IV. BATRACHIA, the frog kind : divided into five Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. ANURA, including the tree-frog, common frog, toad, Surinam toad, &c.
ORDER 2. URODELA, including the salamander, triton, &c.
ORDER 3. AMPHIPNEUSTA, including the syren, axoloti, proteus, &c.
ORDER 4. APODA, including the cæcilia.
ORDER 5. LEPIDOTA, including the lepidosiren paradoxura.
Class V. PISCES, FISHES : divided into five Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. SELACHIA, including the thornback, torpedo, ray, sting-ray, saw-
fish, and sharks, as the hammer-head, thrasher, dog-fish, sea-cat, &c.
ORDER 2. GANOIDEA, including the sturgeon, gar-pike, amia, &c.
ORDER 3. TELEOSTIA, including several sub-orders and a great variety of
species, as the balistes, sun-fish, trunk-fish, sea-horse, fishing-frog,
blenny, sea-wolf, sucking-fish, climbing-perch, mullet, sword-fish,
pilot-fish, tunny, mackerel, John Doree, blepharis, chætodon, pa-
grus, perch, stickle-back, sea-snipe, bullhead, gurnard, wrasse, garfish,
flounder, turbot, sole, halibut, plaice, haddock, whiting, ling, cod,
roach, dace, chub, bleak, barbel, carp, pike, trout, salmon, shad, bass,
tautog, white-fish, sheep's-head, weak-fish, blue-fish, alewife, grayling,
char, smelt, pilchard, anchovy, sardine, sprat, herring, white-bait,
electric eel, common eel, and many others.
ORDER 4. CYCLOSTOMATA, including the lampreys.
ORDER 5. LEPTOCARDIA, including the amphioxus lanceolatus.
DIVISION II. MOLLUSCA:
From the Latin, signifying a soft-shell nut, and including animals with soft bodies : comprised
in seven Classes and various Orders, as follows:
Class I. CEPHALOPODA: divided into two Orders :
ORDER 1. DIBRANCHIATA, including the cuttle-fish or sepia, squid, poulpe, &c.
ORDER 2. TETRABRANCHIATA, including the nautilus.
Class II. GASTEROPODA: divided into three Orders :
ORDER 1. PULMONIFERA, including the slug and snails.
ORDER 2. BRANCHIFERA, including the cowry, cypræa, scorpion-shell, peri-
winkle, limpet, elephant's tooth, doris, æolis, umbrella-shell
, bubble-
shell, &c.
ORDER 3. HETEROPODA, including the sagitta, firola, carinaria, &c.
Class III. PTEROPODA: divided into two Orders :
ORDER 1. THECOSOMATA, including the hyalea, &c.
ORDER 2. GYMNOSOMATA, including the clio australis, &c.

28
CLASSIFICATION.
.
Class IV. PALLIOBRANCHIATA: comprising one Order, which contains the
lingula anatina.
Class V. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA: divided into two Orders :
ORDER 1. SIPHONATA, including the cockle, clam, &c.
ORDER 2. ASIPHONATA, including the mussel, pearl-oyster, scallop, oyster, &c.
Class VI. TUNICATA: divided into two Orders :
ORDER 1. BIPHORA, including the salpa.
ORDER 2. ASCIDIA, including the Pyrosoma.
Class VII. BRYOZOA: divided into two Orders :
ORDER 1. LOPHOPODA, including the crystatella.
ORDER 2. INFUNDIBULATA, including the sea-
mats.
DIVISION III. ARTICULATA.
Arranged in eight Classes and various Orders, as follows:
Class I. INSECTA, or INSECTS : divided into thirteen Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. COLEOPTERA, including the cock-chaffer, beetles, wire-worm, fire-fly,
glow-worm, scarabæus, blister-fly, diamond beetle, church-yard beetle,
corn-weevil, nut-weevil, turnip-fly, lady-bird, puff-ball beetle, &c.
ORDER 2. STREPSIPTERA, bee-parasites.
ORDER 3. HYMENOPTERA, including bees, wasps, hornets, ants, ichneumon-
fly, gall-fly, saw-fly, &c.
ORDER 4. LEPIDOPTERA, butterflies, moths, silk-worms, caterpillars, &c.
ORDER 5. DIPTERA, two-winged flies, house-flies, forest-flies, daddy-long-legs,
Hessian-fly, gnat, mosquito, &c.
ORDER 6. APHANIPTERA, fleas.
ORDER 7. NEUROPTERA, including the snake-fly, scorpion-fly, ant-lion, dragon-
fly, ephemera or May-fly, stone-fly, death-watch, termites or white
ants, &c.
ORDER 8. ORTHOPTERA, including the cock-roach, ear-wig, the mantis or
walking-leaf, the walking-stick, cricket, and locust.
ORDER 9. PHYSOPODA, including the thrips cerealium.
ORDER 10. RHYNCHOTA, including the bed-bug, boat-fly, cicada, hop-fly, lantern-
flies, aphides or plant-lice, cochineal-insect, &c.
ORDER 11. THYSANURA, including the machilis, spring-tails, &c.
ORDER 12. MALLOPHAGA, insects resembling lice.
ORDER 13. ANOPLURA, louse.
Class II. MYRIOPODA, Centipedes : including two Orders :
ORDER 1. CHILOGNATHA, including the true centipede.
ORDER 2. CHILOPODA, including the scolopendra.
Class III. ARACHNIDA : including five Orders, as follows
ORDER 1, DIMEROSOMATA, including spiders of various kinds.
ORDER 2. POLYMEROSOMATA, including scorpions.
ORDER 3. ADELARTHROSOMATA, including the harvest-spider, &c.
ORDER 4. ACARINA, or MonOMEROSOMATA, including the dog-louse or harvest-
bug, cheese-mite, itch-mite, &c.
ORDER 5. PODOSOMATA, fish-parasite.

CLASSIFICATION,
29
Class IV. CRUSTACEA : divided into eleven Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. DECAPODA, including the crab, pea-crab, calling-crab, hermit-crab,
shrimp, prawn, cray-fish, lobster, &c.
ORDER 2. STOMAPODA, including the squilla, opossum-shrimp, &c.
ORDER 3. ISOPODA, including the wood-louse.
ORDER 4. AMPHIPODA, including the sand-hopper.
ORDER 5. LEMODIPODA, including the whale-louse.
ORDER 6. XYPHOSURA, including the limuli, or king-crabs.
ORDER 7. PHYLLOPODA, including the apus, trilobites, &c.
ORDER 8. OSTRACODA, including the cypris.
ORDER 9. COPEPODA, including the cyclops.
ORDER 10. PARASITA, including the argulidæ, &c.
ORDER 11. CIRRHOPODA, including barnacles and sea-acorns.
Class V. ROTIFERA : divided into two Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. NATANTIA, including the polytrocha, &c.
ORDER 2. SESSILIA, including the floscularidæ.
Class VI. ANNELIDA: divided into four Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. ERRANTIA, including the sea-mice, lob-worm, peripatus, nereis, &c.
ORDER 2. TUBICOLA, including the terebella, serpulæ, &c.
ORDER 3. SCOLECINA, including the earth-worms.
ORDER 4. SUCTORIA, including the leech.
Class VII. NEMATELMIA: divided into three Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. NEMATOIDEA, including the thread-worm, Guinea-worm, &c.
ORDER 2. GORDIACEA, including hair-worms.
ORDER 3. ACANTHOCEPHALA, including parasitic worms.
Class VIII. PLATYELMIA: divided into three Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. PLANARIDA, including the ribbon-worm.
ORDER 2. TREMATODA, including the fluke.
ORDER 3. CESTOIDEA, including the tape-worm.
DIVISION IV. RADIATA.
Divided into five Classes and various Orders, as follows:
Class 1. ECHINODERMATA: divided into four Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. HOLOTHURIDA, including the sea-cucumber.
ORDER 2. ECHINIDA, including the sea-eggs, sea-urchin, &c.
ORDER 3. STELLERIDA, including the gorgon's head and star-fishies.
ORDER 4. CRINOIDEA, including the hair-stars, sea-lilies, &c.
Class II. SIPHONOPHORA: divided into two Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. PHYSOGRADA, including the Portuguese man-of-war.
ORDER 2. CHONDROGRADA, including the velella.
Class III. CTENOPHORA: comprising one Order, and including the cestum ve
neris, and cydippe or beroë.
Class IV. DISCOPHORA: divided into two Orders, as follows:
ORDER 1. STEGANOPHTHALMATA, including various kinds of covered-eyed
medusa, called jelly-fishes, sea-nettles, sea-blubbers, acalephæ, &c.

30
CLASSIFICATION.
ORDER 2. GYMNOPHTHALMATA, including various kinds of naked-eyed
medusa.
Class V. POLYPI: divided into three Orders :
ORDER 1. HELIANTHOIDA, including the actiniæ, sea-anemones, sea-carna-
tions, or sea-flowers; also madrepores, or tree-corals, cup-corals,
brain-corals, &c.
ORDER 2. ASTEROIDA, including various kinds of zoophytes, called asteroid-
polypes, or corallines ; as the cock's-comb, sea-pen, sea-feather, sea-
fan, dead-man’s-toes, dead-man's-fingers, &c.
ORDER 3. HYDROIDA, including various kinds of branched and jointed zon-
phytes, as the halecium, sertularia, sea-bristles, sea-fir, &c.; also the
hydra, &c.
DIVISION V. PROTOZOA.
Divided into three Classes and various Orders, as follows:
Class I. INFUSORIA: divided into two Orders :
ORDER 1. STOMATODA, including the vorticella, or bell-animalcules.
ORDER 2. ASTOMATA, including the mouthless infusoria.
Class II. PORIFERA: including the sponges.
Class III. RHIZOPODA: divided into two Orders.
.
ORDER 1. POLYTHALAMIA, including the associated proteus.
ORDER 2. MONOSOMATA, including the solitary proteus, as the arcella,
amba, &c.*
There is no classification that receives universal sanction. The one here adopted serves all practical
purposes, and rests on good authorities. Other ways of classifying some of the groups are shown in the
Appendix.–See this volume for Mammals, and the second volume for the other groups.
OF SPECIES BELONGING TO THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
The preceding Classification embraces the entire animal kingdom, exclusive of fossil remains.
The number of species belonging to this has been estimated as follows: Mammalia, 2,000; Birds,
6,000; Reptiles, 2,000; Fishes, 10,000; Mollusca, 15,000; Articulata, 200,000; Radiata, 10,000:
making 245,000 in all.
It is supposed the fossil species may be equal in number to these, making nearly half a million.
It is highly probable the actual number of species in the animal kingdom is even beyond this.
All these, however, are not yet actually known. About a century ago, the whole number of as-
certained species did not exceed 8,000; but such have been the earnestness and activity of re-
search, that 60,000 species have now been made out and described. Specimens of about 1,500
mammalia, 5,000 birds, 1,500 reptiles, 6,000 fishes, 10,000 mollusca, and 50,000 insects and other
articulata are in the various collections and museums of Europe.
a
* It is proper to state that in preparing this Classification, and in various parts of the preceding Introduction, we
have been largely indebted to the excellent Natural History of W. S. Dallas, London, 1856.

NEW CLASSIFICATION.
30*
FOUNDED UPON THAT OF CUVIER, WITH THE MOST IMPORTANT MODIFICATIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS THAT
HAVE BEEN MADE BY AGASSIZ, DANA, BAIRD, OWEN, PACKARD, GILL, VERRILL, AND
OTHER MASTERS IN THE SCIENCE OF NATURAL HISTORY.
BY PROF. SANBORN TENNEY, A. M.,
AUTHOR OF MANUAL OF ZOOLOGY," "NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS," AND GEOLOGY," ETC., FOR SCHOOLS, FORMERLY
PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN VASSAR COLLEGE, N. Y., AND LATE PROFESSOR OF
NATURAL HISTORY IN WILLIAMS COLLEGE, MASS.
)
66
The Animal Kingdom may be divided into groups which are called Sub-Kingdoms or Branches, Classes,
Orders, Families, Genera, and Species. The Branches, Classes, and Orders, and the prominent representatives
of each order, are indicated in the following
TABULAR VIEW OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.
THE BRANCH OF VERTEBRATA.*
Classes. Orders.
MAMMALIA:
Viviparous or Placental Mammals.
BIMANA or Two-handed Animals, including Man only.
QUADRUMANA or Four-handed Animals, as Apes, Monkeys, Baboons, Lemurs, etc.
CARNIVORA or Flesh-eaters, as Lions, Tigers, Panthers, Leopards, Pumas, Wild Cats, Lynxes,
Hyenas, Wolves, Jackals, Dogs, Foxes, Civets, Sables, Weasels, Minks, Wolverines,
Otters, Skunks, Badgers, Raccoons, Bears, Seals, Walrus, etc. The Seals, Walrus, etc.
form a group often called Pinnipedia or Pinnigrades.
HERBIVORA or Plant-eaters, or Ungulates (including Pachydermata, Solidungula, and Rumi-
nantia), as the Elephants, Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Damans, Wild Boars, Peccaries, Hippo-
potamus, Deer, Antelopes, Goats, Sheep, Oxen, Giraffe, Camels, Llamas, Musk Deer, etc.
MUTILATA or Animals with the limbs short and paddle-like for swimming, including the
Sirenia (sometimes placed under Herbivora), as the Lamantins or Manatus or “Cow
Whale," Dugong or Halicore, etc., and the Cetacea, as the Whales, Grampuses, Porpoises,
Dolphins, Narwhal, etc.
CHEIROPTERA or Hand-winged Animals, as the Bats.
INSECTIVORA or Insect-eaters, as the Galeopithecus, Banxrings, Shrews, Moles, Hedgehogs,
Tenrecs, etc.
RODENTIA or Gnawers, as Squirrels, Gophers, Prairie Dogs, Woodchucks, Marmots, Dormice,
Beavers, Sewellel, Jerboas, Girbils, Rats, Mice, Lemmings, Muskrats, Porcupines, Agoutis,
Cavies, Chinchillas, Guinea Pigs, Couia, Capybara, Hares, Rabbits, Pikas, etc.
EDENTATA or Animals deficient in teeth, as the Sloths, Armadillos, Ant-Eaters, etc., also the
extinct Megatherium, Megalonyx, Mylodon, Glyptodon, etc.
Semi-Oviparous Mammals or Oöticoids.
MARSUPIALIA or Pouched Animals, as the Phalangers, Bear-Opossums, Kangaroos, Bandi-
coots, Opossums, Wombat, etc.
MONOTREMATA or Bird-like Mammals, as the Duck-bill or Platypus, and the Echidna or
Porcupine Ant-Eater.
AVES OR BIRDS:
RAPTORES or Birds of Prey, as the Condor, Læmmergyer, and other Vultures, the Falcons,
Hawks, Buzzards, Kites, Eagles, and Owls.
SCANSORES or Climbers, as the Parrots, Toucans, Trogons, Ani, Road-Runners, Cuckoos,
Woodpeckers, etc.
INSESSORES or Perchers or Passeres, including Strisores, as the Humming-Birds, Chimney-
Swallows, Swifts, Chuck will's Widow, Whippoorwills, Night-Hawks, etc.; Clamatores, as
Kingfishers, Sawbills, Kingbirds, Pewees, and other Fly-catchers; and Oscines, as
Thrushes, Warblers, Swallows, Waxwings, Shrikes, Vireos, Mocking Birds, Cat Birds,
Wrens, Creepers. Nuthatches, Titmice, Skylarks, Grosbeaks, Finches, Sparrows, Che-
winks, Bobolinks, Cow Birds, Blackbirds, Larks, Orioles, Grakles, Starlings, Ravens,
Crows, Magpies, Jays, etc.
RASORES or Scratchers, including the Columbue, as Doves and Pigeons; and Gallince, as
,
Crown Pigeons, Chiacalacca, Mound Birds, Turkeys, Peacocks, Guinea Fowls, Domestic
Cocks, Pheasants, Grouse, Quails, Partridges, etc.
CURSORES or Runners, as the Ostriches, Cassowaries, Apteryx, Bustard, etc.
GRALLATORES or Waders, including the Herodiones, as Cranes, Courlans, Egrets, Herons,
Bitterns, Boatbills, Storks, Ibises, Spoonbills, Flamingoes, etc.; and the Gralla, as Plovers,
Turnstones, Avosets, Stilts, Phalaropes, Woodcocks, Snipes, Willets, Sandpipers, Godwits,
Curlews, Rails, Coots, Gallinules, etc.
NATATORES or Swimmers, including Anseres, as Swans, Geese, Teal, Ducks, Coots, Mergan-
sers, etc.; and Gaviæ, as Pelicans, Gannets, Man-of-War Birds, Cormorants, Snake Birds,
Tropic Birds, Albatrosses, Petrels, Gulls, Terns, Divers, Grebes, Auks, Penguins, Puffins,
Guillemots, Sea Doves, etc.
REPTILIA:
TESTUDINATA or Chelonia or Turtles, including Amydæ, or all the Land and Fresh-water
Turtles, as Gophers, Terrapins, Box Turtles, Snapping Turtles, Matamata, Soft-shelled
Turtles, etc.; and "Chelonii, as Green Turtles, Hawkbills, Loggerheads, and Leather-
backed Turtles.
* In these volumes the terms Branch and Division are used as synonyms.
+ Bonaparte and some others divide the Class of Birds into two Sub-Classes: Altrices, comprising those whose young hatch
in a very feeble condition, such as hawks, eagles, owls, woodpeckers, thrushes, sparrows, etc.; and Precoces, whose young, like
chickens, grouse, etc., are able to run as soon as hatched.

30**
NEW CLASSIFICATION.
Classes. Orders.
REPTILIA continued :
SAURIA or Saurians, including the Dinosaurs, huge fossil reptiles, as the Megalosaurus, Hy-
læosaurus, and Iguanodon ; the Crocodilians or Loricata, as the Crocodiles, Gavials, and
the Alligators, and certain extinct genera, as the Cetiosaurus, Macrospondylus, etc.; the
Lacertians, as the Striped Lizards, Iguanas, Monitors, Green Lizards, Horned Toads,
Geckos, Chameleons, Skinks, etc., and certain extinct genera, as Thecodontosaurus,
Palæosaurus, Proteosaurus, Mososaurus, etc.; the Enaliosaurs or Swimming Saurians,
as Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, etc.; and the Pterosaurs, as the Pterodactyl.
OPHIDIA OR SERPENTS.
BATRACHIA OR AMPHIBIA:
ANOURA or Tailless Batrachians, as the Frogs proper, Tree-Frogs, Cricket-Frogs, Toads, etc.
URODELA or Tailed Batrachians, as Salamanders, Tritons," Congo Snakes," Menopomas,
Sirens, Mud-Puppies or Menobranchus, Siredon or Axolotl, Proteus, etc.
APODA or Cæcilia, or Footless Batrachians, as the "Blind-worms” or Cæcilians.
PISCES OR FISHES:
PLAGIOSTOMI or SELACHII or Elasmobranchii, including Raiæ, as the Rays or Skates, such
as Vampires, Sea-Eagles, Sting Rays, Electric Rays or Torpedoes, Rays proper, Saw-
Fishes, etc.; and the Squali or Sharks, Dog-Fishes, etc. (This order constitutes the Sub-
Class Elasmobranchii of authors.)
HOLOCEPHALI or Chimæroids.
PROTOPTERI or Lepidosirens.
GANOID EI Or Ganoids, as Sturgeons, Mud-Fishes, Polypterus, Gar-Pikes, etc.
LOPHOBRANCHII, as Pipe-Fishes, “ Sea-Horses,” etc.
PLECTOGNATHI, as Puffers, Sun-Fishes, Trunk-Fishes, File-Fishes, etc.
ACANTHOPTERI, as the Anglers, Blennies, Gobies, Flute-mouths, Lancet-Fishes, Ribbon-
Fishes, Chætodonts, Dories, Mackerels, Silver-sides, Mullets, Climbing Perch, Sheeps-
heads, Weak-Fishes, Sculpins, Surmullets, Breams, Perch, Bass, Star-Gazers, etc.
ANACANTHINI, as Flounders, Halibuts, Soles, Cod, Haddock, etc.
PHARYNGOGNATHI, as Conners, Tautog, Gar-Fishes, Flying-Fishes, etc.
MALACOPTERI, as Gonidonts, Cat-Fishes, Carps, Dace, Shiners, Pike, Salmon, Herring, Shad,
Blind-Fish, Eels, etc.
DERMOPTERI (including Marsipobranchii, Cyclostomi, Leptocardia), as the Slender-heads,
Lampreys, Hags, Mud-Lampreys, and Lancelet or Amphioxus,
THE BRANCH OF ARTICULATA.*
INSECTA:
INSECTS PROPER:
Hymenoptera, as Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumons, Gall-Flies, Saw-Flies, etc.
Lepidoptera, as Butterflies and Moths.
Diptera (including Aphaniptera), as Gnats, Musquitoes, Flies, Spider. Flies, Fleas, etc.
Coleoptera (including Strepsiptera), as Beetles, Bee Parasites or Stylops, etc.
Hemiptera (including Rhynchota, Mallophaga, and Anoplura), as Cicadas, Lantern-Flies,
Tree-Hoppers, Plant-Lice, Bark-Lice, Cochineal, Boat-Flies, Scorpion-Bugs, Water-
Measurers, Squash-Bugs, Thrips, Bed-Bugs, Lice, etc.
Orthoptera (including Thysanoura), as Earwigs. Cockroaches, Walking-Sticks, Mantes,
Crickets, Katydids, Grasshoppers, Locusts, Spring-tails, etc.
Neuroptera, as White-Ants, Book-Lice, Stone-Flies, Dragon-Flies, Corydalis, Lace-wings,
Caddice-Flies, etc.
ARACHNIDA (including Dimerosomata, Polymerosomata, Adelarthrosomata, Acarina, etc.), as
the true Spiders, Scorpions, Book-Spiders, Daddy-long-legs, Velvet-red Mites, etc.
MYRIAPODS (including Chilognatha and Chilopoda), as Galley-Worms or Julus, Centi-
pedes, etc.
CRUSTACEA:
DECAPODA, including Brachyurans, as Crabs; Macrurans, as Lobsters, Craw-Fishes, etc.;
Gastrurans or Stomapods, as Shrimps, Prawns, Sea-Mantes, etc.
TETRADECAPODA (including Isopods, Amphipods, Lemidopods, etc.), as Wood-Lice, Pill-
Bugs, Sand-Hoppers, Fresh-water Shrimps, Whale-Lice, etc.
ENTOMOSTRACA (including Copepoda, Parasita, Ostracoda, Cirrhopoda, Xyphosura, Rotifera,
etc.), as Cyclops, Argulus, Caligus, Cypris, Daphnia, Limnadia, Barnacles, Horse-shoe
Crab or Limulus, Rotifers or Wheel Animalcules, etc.
VERMES OR WORMS:
ANELLIDES including Dorsibranchiata (Errantia), as “Sea-Mice," Sand-Worms, Lob-Worms,
etc.; Tubicolæ, as the Serpulæ; and Terricolæ or Scolecina, as the Earth-Worms.
TREMATODS or SUCTORIA (including Platyelmia), as the Leeches, Planariæ, Cestoids or Tape-
Worms, etc.
NEMATOIDS or Nematelmia (including Gordiacei and Acanthocephala), as Hair-Worms,
Thread-Worms, Guinea-Worms, Trichina, etc.
THE BRANCH OF MOLLUSCA.
The Sub-Branch of Mollusca Vera.
CEPHALOPODA:
DIBRANCHIATA, as the Argonaut or Paper Sailor, Poulpes, Squids, Cuttle-Fishes, Spirulas,
fossil Belemnites, etc.
TETRABRANCHIATA, as the Pearly Nautilus, fossil Orthoceratites and Ammonites, etc.
* In the body of the work the Branch or Division of the Articulata is placed after the Division of the Mollusca. Some
naturalists have preferred this arrangement. But, on the whole, the arrangement as adopted in this table is probably the
better one.

NEW CLASSIFICATION.
30***
Classes.
Orders.
GASTEROPODA:
PECTINIBRANCHIATA, as the Cones, Pleurotoma, Terebra, Volutes, Mitre-Shells, Buccinums
or Whelks, Turbinella, Olives, Harp-Shells, Murex, Purpura, Cyclostoma, Acicula, Val-
vata, Litorina, Pyramidella, Melania, Cerithium, Vermetus or Worm-Shells, Turritella or
Tower-Shells, Bonnet-Limpets, Strombs, Cypræa or Cowries, Natica, Pyrula, Dolium, Cas-
sis or Helmet-Shells, Ranella or Frog-Shells, Triton, Ianthina or Violet Snails, Scalaria or
Wentle Traps, etc.
HETEROPODA, as Atlanta, Carinaria, and Firola.
RHIPHIDOGLOSSA, as Helicina, Nerita or Nerite-Shells, Turbo or Top-Shells, Trochus, Pleu-
rotomaria, Haliotis or Ear-Shells, Fissurella or Key-hole Limpets, Emarginula, etc.
DOCOGLOSSA, as Acmæa, Patella or Rock Limpets, Lepeta, etc.
POLYPLACOPHERA, as the Chitons.
PULMONATA, as Pupa or Chrysalis Shells, Helix, Vitrina or Glass-Snails, Limax or Slugs,
Succinea or Amber-Shells, Vaginulus, Physa, Limnæa or Pond-Snails, etc.
DIECA.
PULMO-
BRANCHIATA. NITERA.
OPISTHO-
TECTIBRANCHIATA, as Tornatella, Bulla or Bubble Shells, Aplysia or Sea Hares, etc,
NUDIBRANCHIATA, as Doris or Sea Lemons, Tritonia, Æolis, Elysia, etc.
PTERO-
PODA.
THECOSOMATA, as Hyalea, Limacina, Cymbulia, etc.
GYMNOSOMATA, as Clio, Pneumodermon, Cymodocea, etc.
PROSOPO-
•VIVH
SOLENOCONCHÆ, as Dentalium or Tooth-Shells.
CONCHIFERA OR ACEPHALA:
DYMYARIA, as Aspergillum or Watering-pot Shell, Teredo, Pholas, Solen or Razor-Shell,
Mya or Clams, Mactra, Tellina, Donax, Venus, Pisidium, Cardium, Chama, Lucina,
Solemya, Cardita, Unios or Naiades, Trigona, Nucula, Leda, Arca, etc.
METARRHIPTÆ, as Tridacna.
HETEROMYARIA, as Mytilus or Sea-Mussels.
MONOMYARIA, as Pinna or Wing-Shells, Pecten, Anomia, Ostrea, etc.
The Sub-branch of Molluscoidea.
TUNICATA:
SACCOBRANCHIA, as Ascidium, Boltenia, Clavellina, Botryllus, etc.
DACTYLOBRANCHIA, as Pyrosoma or Fire-Bodies.
TÆNIOBRANCHIA, as Salpa or the Salps, etc.
LARVALIA, as Appendicularia.
BRACHIOPODA OR PALLIOBRANCHIATA:
ARTHROPOMATA, as Terebratula, Thecidium, Rhynchonella, etc.
LYOPOMATA, as Crania, Discina, Lingula, etc.
POLYZOA OR BRYOZOA:
PHYLACTOLÆMATA, as Fredericella, Pectinella, Cristatella, Plumatella, Pedicellina, etc.
GYMNOLÆMATA, as Paludicella, Eschara, Flustra, etc.
RHABDOPLEURÆ, as Rhabdopleura.
THE BRANCH OF RADIATA.
ECHINODERMATA:
HOLOTHURIOIDS, as Sea-Cucumbers, etc.
ECHINOIDS, as Sea-Urchins.
ASTERIOIDS, as Star-Fishes.
OPHIURIOIDS, as Serpent-Stars, “Basket-Fish," etc.
CRINOIDS, as the Comatula or Rosy-Feather Star, Pentacrinus caput-medusæ, and the fossil
"Stone Lilies.”
ACALEPHÆ:
CTENOPHORÆ, as Bolina, Pleurobrachia, Beröe, Idya, etc.
DISCOPHORÆ (including Steganophthalmata), as Rhizostoma, Aurelia or the “Sun-Fish,”
Cyanea, Pelagia, etc.
HYDROIDÆ (including Gymnophthalmata and Siphonophorce), as Melicertum, Plumularia,
Sertularia, Sarsia or Coryne, Tubularia, Hydra, Hydractinia, Physalia, Vellela, etc.
POLYPI :
ALCYONARIA, as Pennatula, Ranilla, Gorgonia, Corallium or Red Coral, Tubipora or Organ-
pipe Coral, etc.
ACTINARIA, as Sea-Anemones.
MADREPORÁRIA, as Astreæa or Star-Corals, Mæandrina or Brain Corals, Porites, Madrepores,
etc. (Alcyonaria, Actinaria, and Madreporaria include Helianthoida and Asteroida of
the text.)
THE BRANCH OF PROTOZOA.
INFUSORIA POLYGASTRIA :
as Vorticella or Bell-shaped Animalcules, Stentor or Trumpet-Animalcules, Actino-
phrys, etc.
PORIFERA: as the Sponges.
RHIZOPODA: as Foraminifers (Polythalmia), Amoeba, etc.

30****
KEY TO ORDERS. *
MAINLY DERIVED FROM
CLASSIFICATION,
BY THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S., ETC., ETC., ETC.
Division PROTOZOA.-An artificial branch, with no common type ; animals simple, minute,
and aquatic.
CLASS I. Monera.- Homogeneous in structure throughout: as Bathybius, Sea-Ooze-supposed
border-line of vegetable. (?)
CLASS II. Gregarinida.–Of one cell, and parasitic: Gregarina. (See ASTOMATA, OPALINIDÆ.)
CLASS III. Rhizopoda.—With power to throw out parts of the body for prehension. (See Ibid.)
Order 1. AMCBEA.–Naked : Amoeba, Actinophrys. (See MONOSOMATA.)
Order 2. FONAMINIFERA. —Calcareous shell ;{ compound! Nummulites. } (See POLYTHALAMIA.)
:
Order 3. RADIOLARIA.—Siliceous shell: Polycystina. (See ASTOMATA, PERIDINIDÆ.)
CLASS IV. Infusoria.-Having mouth and cilia. (See Ibid.)
Order 1. FLAGELLATA.--With long, lash-like filaments : Monad.
Order 2. CILIATA. —Covered with vibratile cilia ; free: Paramecium.
fixed:
(See STOMATODA.)
CLASS V. Spongida.- Amoebiform bodies united into a composite mass, generally secreting a
common skeleton. (See PORIFERA.)
Order 1. MYXOSPONGIA.—Gelatinous; no skeleton: Halisarca.
Order 2. FIBROS PONGIA.— With fibrous skeleton;
ſhorny: Spongia.
siliceous : Euplectella. (See Porifora.)
Order 3. CALCISPONGIA.—Skeleton calcareous, not fibrous: Sycon.
Division CELENTERATA. —Animals radiated, with distinct body-cavity, tentacles, and
nettling thread-cells. (Inc. SIPHONOPHORA, CTENOPHORA, DISCOPHORA, and POLYPI.)
CLASS I. Hydrozoa.–One digestive cavity, with which the mouth communicates freely.
Order 1. HYDROIDA.–Fixed by adherent disk ;
.
compoundSertularia.} (See Hydroida.)
Order 2. SIPHONOPHORA.— Free and oceanic, swimming by crested air-sac: Physalia. (See Ibid.)
Order 3. LUCERNARIDA.—Cup-shaped, with marginal tufts of tentacles, and eight or more radiating
canals; attached; single: Lucernaria. (See Ibid.)
)
Order 4. DISCOPHORA.–Free and oceanic; disk-shaped, with marginal fringe of tentacles and “veil;"
four canals; single: Aurelia, Jelly-Fish. (See Ibid.)
CLASS II. Anthozoa.-Double digestive cavity, with radiating septa. (Same as POLYPI, excepting
LUCERNARIDA and HYDROIDA.)
soft-bodied; single; slightly locomotive: Actinia.
Order 1. ACTINARIA.-Parts in some
sclerodermie, rough, calcareous
multiple of six;
composite; fixed; secreting coral: Madrepore.
sclerobasic, smooth, horny coral: Isis.
Order 2. ALCYONARIA.— Parts in some multiple of four; soft-bodied : Alcyonium.
composite; fixed;
secreting furrowed sclerobasic coral: Corallium.
CLASS III. Ctenophora.-Soft-bodied ; transparent; free, moving by eight rows of tiny paddles;
two tentacles; digestive cavity with anal outlet: Pleurobrachia, Cydippe. (See Ibid.)
(
Division ECHINODERMATA.—Animals radiated, with distinct alimentary canal and well-
developed nervous system; body-walls secreting calcareous plates ; parts in multiple of
five. (See Ibid.)
CLASS I. Crinoidea.-Body cup-shaped; fixed by jointed stalk; mouth uppermost: Pentacrinus.
CLASS II. Asteroidea.- Body star-shaped; moving by long slender arms: Ophiura, Sand-Star.
-
moving by suckers under the hollow lobes of the
free; mouth underneath ;
body: Asterias, Star-Fish. (See STELLERIDA.)
-
CLASS III. Echinoidea.— Body enclosed in a spinous shell ; free: <sphericalbeasieris. Echtera.)
, :
; teeth; : .
CLASS IV. Holothuroidea.-Body cylindrical and soft; free, moving by suckers; mouth forward,
surrounded by tentacles : Pentacta, Sea-Cucumber. (See HOLOTHURIDA.)
* This, it will be seen, is arranged upon the geological or development plan, with the lowest first. A comparison of the
several systems in the work will enable the student to note the difference in the methods and the growth of the science;
and we trust this table will enable the learner to determine the location of any specimen he may find.
+ Divisions Calenterata and Echinodermata are included in Radiata in the preceding classifications.
NOTE.-Reference has constantly been made to the classification in the body of the work, and most of the differences
indicated. No work ever published in this country contains such a complete reference to the different modes of classifi-
cation as is found here.

KEY TO ORDERS.
30*****
-
Division MOLLUSCA.—Animals, soft-bodied, unjointed, with muscular skin (“mantle”), gen-
erally protected by a calcareous shell ; nervous system scattered.
8 1. Destitute of masticatory apparatus, feeding by ciliary action.
CLASS I. Polyzoa.-Minute ; composite; fixed; mouth with tentacles : Flustra, Sea-Mat. (See
BRYOZOA.
CLASS II. Tunicata.-Inclosed in a leathery, contractile bag, single and fixed : Ascidia.
with two openings; marine;
single or compound; free: Salpa.
CLASS III. Brachiopoda.-With equilateral but un- with hinge-line: Terebratula, Lamp-Shell.
equivalved bivalve shell; no gills; two with no hinge-line: Lingula. (See PAL-
ciliated arms; fixed; marine;
LIOBRANCHIATA.)
no pallial sinus, siphons, or foot; one mus-
CLASS IV. Lamellibranchiata. With unequilat- cular impression; unequivalved: Ostrea,
eral bivalve shell; two pairs of gills; Oyster.
distinct heart; three nervous ganglia; pallial sinus, siphons, and foot; two muscular
impressions; equivalved: Venus, Clam.
32. With distinct head and rasping tongue.
CLASS V. Gasteropoda.-Generally with univalve, unchambered shell; two-chambered heart;
three nervous ganglia ; two tentacles.
* Swimming by wing-like appendages.
Order 1. PTEROPODA.— Free and oceanic; small; with shell: Hyaleu.
; ; without shell cleos} (Inc. Heteroroda and Prenoroda.)
** Craneling by ventral disk.
Order 2. OPISTHOBRANCHIATA.—Naked, with external gills toward the rear of the
body; marine: Doris, Sea-Lemon.
(See BRANCHIF-
ERA and ibid.)
Order 3. PROSOBRANCHIATA.—Gills in front; with shell; aperture entire: Natica.
aperture notched: Strombus.
naked : Limax, Slug.
Order 4. Pulmonata. – Air-breathing; with shell ; { freshwater : Limnxo, Pond-Snail.
?
: Helix, .
(See PULMONIF-
ERA.)
CLASS VI. Cephalopoda.-Symmetrical body; with arms around the mouth; walk and swim ;
marine; three-chambered heart.
Order 1. TETRABRANCHIATA.-Having four gills, many tentacles, and an external, chambered shell: Nautilus.
Order 2. DiBRANCHIATA. —Two gills ; naked ; ink-bag ; { con la ranges separate pou cuttle-Fish.
ten : , Squid.
Division ARTICULATA.—Animals symmetrical, jointed; skeleton external; nervous cord
ventral; tubular heart dorsal.
§ 1. Aquatic.
CLASS I. Annelida.-Soft body; segments similar; no jointed legs.
Order 1. ANNULOIDA.-Parasitic: Tænia, Tape-Worm.
Order 2. ABRANCHIATA.-- Breathe by skin: Lumbricus, Earth-Worm. (Inc. ANNELIDA, NEMATELMIA, and PLATY-
ELMIA.)
Order 3. BRANCHIATA.-Breathe by gills: Nereis.
CLASS II. Crustacea.-Having gills and more than eight jointed legs; twenty-one segments, with
head and thorax united; four antenne.
Order 1. CIRRIPEDIA.-Fixed; shelly covering; feathery arms: Balanida, Barnacle. (See CIRRHOPODA.)
Order 2. ENTOMOSTRACA.-Horny carapax : joints of abdomen and thorax more or less than fourteen; no abdominal
legs: Limulus, King-Crab. (Including XYPHOSURA, PHYLLOPODA, OSTRACODA, COPEPODA, PARASITA,
and ROTIFERA.)
Order 3. TETRADECAPODS.-Carapax of mingled lime and chitine; fourteen-footed; small: Oniscus, Wood-Louse.
(Including ISOPODA, AMPHIPODA, LÆMODIPODA.)
Order 4. DECAPODS.--Carapax of mingled lime and chitine; ten-footed; large: Astacus, Lobster. (Inc. STOMAPODA.)
2. Air-breathing.
CLASS III. Arachnida.-Eight thoracic legs; cephalo-thorax; antenna modified.
Order 1. ACARINA.-Minute; no marked articulations; tracheal respiration; suctorial: Acarus, Mite. (Inc. MONO-
MEROSOMATA and PODOSOMATA.)
Order 2. PEDIPALPI.-Long, jointed abdomen; pulmonary sacs; lobster-like claws: Scorpio, Scorpion. (Inc. POLYME-
ROSOMATA and ADELARTHROSOMATA.)
Order 3. ARANEINA. -Soft, short, unjointed abdomen ; spinnerets; pulmonary sacs : Epeira, Spider. (See DIMERO-
SOMATA.)
CLASS IV. Myriapoda.-Segments similar; worm-like; chitinous skin; tracheæ; two antennæ.
Order 1. CHILOGNATHA.-Cylindrical; four legs to each joint: Iulus.
Order 2. CHILOPODA.-Flattened ; two legs to each joint: Scolopendra.
CLASS V. Insecta.-Head, thorax, and abdomen distinct; chitinous crust; six thoracic legs;
winged; two antennæ; trachea.
Order 1. NEUROPTERA.-Slender abdomen; four equal, large, transparent wings; biters: Libellula, Dragon-Fly.
Order 2. ORTHOPTERA.-Four wings, front pair slightly thickened, narrow, and overlapping, hind pair transparent,
broad, and folded ; biters: Gryllus, Grasshopper. (Including THYSANURA.)
Order 3. HEMIPTERA.-Suctorial; legs slender; {Founsleines cimeca Bed-Bug.} (Including RAY CLOTA, MALLOPHAGA,
four : Cicada.
.)
Order 4. COLEOPTERA.-Four wings, front pair horny, united by straight edge; biters: Scarabæus, Sacred Beetle.
(Including STREPSIPTERA.)
Order 5. DIPTERA.-Two transparent wings; slender legs; suctorial: Musca, House-Fly. (Including APHANIPTERA.)
Order 6. LEPIDOPTERA.- Four large scaly wings; legs not locomo-J antennae feathery Attacus, Moth.
tive; spiral proboscis for suction;
antenne spindle-shaped: Sphinx, Sphinx-Moth.
antenne knobbed: Papilio, Butterfly
Order 7. HYMENOPTERA.- Four transparent wings; mouth fitted for both biting and suction; social: Apis, Honey-
Bee.

30******
KEY TO ORDERS.
Division VERTEBRATA.-Internal, jointed skeleton ; nervous cord dorsal and separated
from body-cavity ; circulation complete ; limbs not more than four.
21. Cold-blooded.
CLASS I. Pisces.--Permanent gills; embryo without amnion and allantois; heart with two cavities.
Order 1. PHARYNGOBRANCA.- Amphious. (See LEPTOCARDIA.)
Order 2. MARSIPOBRANCHII.-Body naked; eel-like; limbless; skeleton cartilaginous; mouth circular:
Petromyzon. (See CYCLOSTOMATA.)
Order 3. TeLcOSTEI.—Having scales, fins, and bony skeleton ; tail homocercal; { spitfimed Salmo Salmon.
Order 4. GANOIDEI.—With enamelled plates or scales; skeleton partly cartilaginous; tail heterocercal;
gills free: Acipenser, Sturgeon.
Order 5. ELASMOBRANCHII. --Shagreen skin; cartilaginous skeleton; tail heterocercal; gills fixed and
uncovered: Squalus, Shark. (See SELACHIA.)
Order 6. Dipnoi.—No vertebral centra ; filiform fins; heart with three cavities : Lepidosiren. (See LEPIDOTA.)
CLASS II. Amphibia.—Temporary or permanent gills, but true lungs when adult; amnion and
allantois wanting; develop through tadpole state; two occipital condyles; heart of
three cavities; skin soft. (See BATRACHIA.)
Order 1. OPHIOMORPHA.-Snake-like; no limbs : Cæcilia, Blind-Worm. (See A PODA.)
Order 2. Unodela. — Tailed ; { fills temporary : Salamandra, Salamander.
7 (Inc. URODELA and AMPHI-
.
. S PNEUSTA.)
Order 3. ANOURA.—Tailless; gills temporary ;
.—; {
upper teeth only: Rana, Frog.} (Sec Asura.)
.
)
CLASS III. Reptilia.-Having lungs and scales; one occipital condyle; heart with three cavities;
embryo with amnion and allantois.
Order 1. OPHIDIA.-Body elongated, scaly, and limb-head with scales; venomous: Crotalus, Rattlesnake.
less; numerous vertebræ and ribs; no eye-head with plates; harmless: Coluber, Common
lids; lower jaw loosely united in front; Snake.
Order 2. LACERTILIA.—Scaly: lower jaw firmly united no limbs: Anguis, Slow-Worm.
in front; eyelids; (See SAURIA.)
four limbs : Lacerta, Lizard.
Order 3. CHELONIA.--Horny and bony carapax; no
natatory: Chelone, Turtle.
teeth; eyelids; four legs;
amphibious: Chelydra, Snapping Turtle.
terrestrial: Testudo, Land Tortoise.
Order 4. CROCODILIA.—Covered with scales and bony plates; (long snout: Gavialis.
-
teeth in distinct sockets; heart with four cavi-lower canines fitting into a notch: Crocodilus.
ties; eyelids and earlids ; (See LORICATA.) lower canines fitting into a pit: Alligator.
22. Warm-blooded.
CLASS IV. Aves.-Feathered; four limbs, hind pair for progression on land or water, front for flight;
no teeth; three eyelids; one occipital condyle; heart with four cavities; lungs.
* Hind toe wanting or elevated.
Order 1. NATATORES.-Swimmers; webbed toes; legs short: Anser, Goose.
Order 2. GRALLATORES.—Waders; long necks, legs, and toes : Ardea, Heron.
Order 3. CURSORES.--Runners; short wings; strong legs: Struthio, Ostrich.
Order 4. RASORES.-Scratchers; strong, blunt claws; three toes front, one behind; arched bill: Gallus,
Common Fowl. (Including COLUMBÆ.)
** Hind toe on a level with the rest.
Order 5. SCANSORES.—Climbers; two toes in front and two behind: Picus, Woodpecker.
Order 6. RAPTORES.-Birds of prey; sharp, curved beak and talons; strong legs; three toes front, one
behind: Falco, Falcon.
Order 7. INSESSORES.- Perchers; short, slender legs; three toes front, one behind : Turdus, Thrush. (See
PASSERES.)
CLASS V. Mammalia.-Suckle their young; red corpuscles double-concave; heart with four cavi-
ties; lungs; diaphragm ; body hairy ; two occipital condyles.
* Implacental.
Order 1. MONOTREMATA.-Duck-billed; webbed feet: Ornithorhynchus.
Order 2. MARSUPIALIA.-With pouch for immature young: Didelphys, Opossum.
* Placental; with fins.
Ordler 3. Cetacea.- Hind limbs wanting, front pair for swim- Steeth wanting : Balæna, Greenland Whale.
CETACEA
ming; nostrils on top of the head; carnivorous ;
teeth in lower jaw: Physeter, Sperm Whale.
teeth in both jaws: Delphinus, Dolphin.
Order 4. SIRENIA.—Herbivorous cetaceans; nostrils at the end of the snout; molars in both jaws: Manatus,
Sea-Cow. (Included in CETACEA.)
*** Placental; with hoofs.
Order 5. UNGULATA.—Vegetarian; Seven-toed; fourfold stomach: Bos, Ox. (See RUMINANTIA and
large, flat molars; odd-toed; single stomach: Equus, Horse.) SOLIDUNGULA.)
**** Placental; with claws.
Order 6. EventATA.— Incisors wanting : Bradypus, Sloth.
Toothless: Myrmecophaga, Great Ant-Eater.
Order 7. RODENTIA.-Canines wanting; incisors highly developed: Mue, Mouse.
Order 8. INSECTIVORA.—Molars with sharp points: Scalops, Shrew- Mole.
Order 9. CHETROPTERA.-Fore limbs webbed for flight : Vespertilio, Bat.
Order 10. PROBOSCIDEA.—Mammoth quadrupeds, with tusks and proboscis: Elephas, Elephant. (See
PACHYDERMATA.)
Order 11. CARNIVORA.- Flesh-eaters; canines well (pinnigrade: Phoca, Seal.
plantigrade: Ursus, Bear. Including PINNIPEDIA.
developed; molars trenchant;
digitigrade: Felis, Cat.
Order 12. PRIMATES.Four in- hands on four nostrils twisted: Lemur.
(Including
cisors in each jaw; limbs; teeth nostrils apart: Cebus, American Monkey. BIMANA and
great toe with flat
uneven; I nostrils close: Simia, Old-World Monkey. QUADRU-
nail;
hands on fore-limbs only; teeth even; erect: Homo, Man. MANA.)
"
-

VERTEBRATA.
31
illuraaN
OR
de
ETA
DIVISION I. VERTEBRATA.
a
This division of the Animal Kingdom, including the five im-
portant classes of Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes,
is denominated Vertebrata, all the species having a vertebrated
column, called the backbone, constituting the basis of the entire skeleton. They are distinguished
for having the nervous matter, the instrument of all intelligence, concentrated in a single mass,
which may, however, be considered as consisting of two parts—viz., the spinal marrow, running
through the length of the body, and a greatly enlarged mass in the head, called the brain. To
protect this most delicate and precious substance from external violence, it is incased in a strong
bony covering. That part which defends the spinal marrow consists of a number of perforated
bones, called vertebræ, joined to each other by cartilage, so as to make a continuous tube; while
the casing of the brain consists of a box, more or less globular, called the skull.
Through orifices at various points in these bones, ramifications of nervous matter proceed to all
parts of the body, these being the medium of sensation. The organs of the higher senses, as
sight, hearing, taste, and smelling, are situated in the immediate vicinity of the brain : the organs
of the sense of touch are usually distributed over the surface of the body, being more particularly
active, however, in certain parts of the skin.
For voluntary change of situation, or power of motion, most animals of this division are fur-
nished with limbs, usually four in number, and ranged in pairs on the two sides. These, how-
ever, vary in form and function in the different classes. In man, the limbs consist of two legs and
two arms, the latter terminated by hands; in the monkey tribes, the arrangement is similar, but
all the four limbs are used for progression. In the bats, the arms and fingers are prolonged into
wings. In the cetacea, the limbs are used for swimming only; in the seal tribe, for swimming
chiefly, though they also serve for moving on the land in an awkward manner. In quadrupeds,
the four limbs are legs only; in birds, there are two legs and two wings. In serpents, the limbs
are wanting. In fishes, the limbs consist of fins. It will be observed that in all these species,
without exception, this vertebral column, or backbone, is present, though in a few cases among
the lower members of the division, as the skate, for instance, it becomes cartilaginous, and in a few
others it is membraneous. In many species it is prolonged into a tail, which frequently seems
only an ornament, while in most cases it is useful, especially among climbing quadrupeds, as a
balance-pole in running along the limbs of trees, or as a hand to lay hold of them in swinging

32
VERTEBRATA.
Frontal Bone.
Parietal Bone.
Orbit.
Temporal
Bone.
Clavicle.
Lower Jaw.
Cervical
Vertebræ.
Shoulder
Blade.
Humerus.
Lumbar
Vertebræ.
Ilium.
Ilium.
Ulna.
Radius.
Carpus.
Metacarpus.
Phalanges.
Femur.
Patella.
Tarsus.
Metatarsus
Phalanges
Tibia.
Fibula.
from one branch to another. Among swimming
animals, the tail is both rudder and oar. With
these exceptions and modifications, it will be re-
marked that the framework of the numerous
races belonging to this division are still formed
on one general plan, denoting a striking unity of
design. That this unity should be combined with
such infinite variety, is calculated to exalt our ideas
of the amazing resources of the Creative Mind.
In the members of this division food is received,
and in some degree prepared for digestion, by the
action of the jaws, the lower of which opens
perpendicularly. In general, these are armed
with bony projections, called teeth, which cut or
grind the food. These are of great importance,
not only in the economy of animals, but they are
an essential guide in classification. The cutting
teeth, called incisors, occupy the front of the
mouth : the canines, or carnivorous teeth, are
conical, four in number, two on each side of the
mouth. The molars, or grinding teeth, are set
back in the jaw, and are extremely various in
form. They are very important, however, in in-
dicating the habits and internal structure of ani-
mals. It is said that Cuvier could instantly de-
termine the character of any animal—its habits,
food, structure of the stomach, form of the limbs-
of which he could be furnished a set of the teeth.
In this way the nature of many fossil animals has been determined. In general, it may be said
that the molars of flesh-eating animals are pointed or conical at the summit, while those of rumi-
nants and rodents are more flat and even. In man, we find examples of all these kinds of teeth:
in some animals, as the ox and horse, the canines are entirely wanting. While some classes of
vertebrata are thus furnished with teeth, they are not found in others, birds and tortoises having
their jaws incased in a horny beak. The food received into the body of the animals we are de-
scribing passes from the mouth through a tube into a sac, called the stomach, where it undergoes
certain chemical changes, and receives various secretions from the body. It then enters into a
lengthened membraneous tube called the intestine, the sides of which are studded with innumer-
able little vessels, by which the nutritious portion of the food is taken up and conveyed into the
veins to form blood, the useless portion being rejected.
.
Before the supply of nutritious matter which we have just seen poured into the veins can be
made available for the support of the body, it must undergo some important changes. These are
effected by the admixture of oxygen, derived generally from the atmosphere; but in the case of
fishes, from the water. To understand in what manner this admixture takes place, we must glance
a moment at the circulatory system. All the animals of this division are copiously supplied with
a fluid essential to their existence, called blood, from which it is believed all other parts of the
body, even the most solid, are originally formed, and by which they are increased and supported.
This fluid ceaselessly circulates through two series of vessels, ramifying with inconceivable minute-
ness to every part of the animal. In the one set, called veins, receiving the blood after it has
per-
formed its renovating office, we have said that it mixes with foreign matter from the digested
food; thus supplied, it is carried to the heart, a large hollow muscle, which alternately contracts
and expands without intermission, by which motions it is received and thrown forward in regular
pulsations.
Hence, in whole or in part, it is carried, in those animals which breathe air, to the lungs-- a
SKELETON OF A MAN.

VERTEBRATA.
33
Brain.
Facial Nerve.
Little Brain.
Brachial Plexus.
Spinal Marrow.
Internal Cutaneous
Nerve.
Median Nerve.
Cubital Nerve.
Radical and
Ausculo-Cutaneous
Nerve.
Intercostal Nerves.
Temoral Plexiis.
Sciatic Plexus.
External Peroneal
Nerve.
External Peroneal
Nerve.
Tibial Nerve
External Saphenous
Nerve.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN MAN.
spongy mass of minute cells
communicating with the ex-
ternal air. Over the surface
of these cells the blood-vessels
ramify, and their coats become
so thin as to admit the union of
the oxygen with the contain-
ed blood, the result of which
is an instant change of its color
from dark red to vivid scarlet.
The gills of fishes perform the
same office as the lungs, water
being used instead of air. The
blood thus renewed is return-
ed by being carried to another
chamber of the heart, whence
it is ejected into the other set of
vessels, called arteries, which,
large at first, but branching in-
to innumerable ramifications,
convey it to every part, and at
,
last, in a manner not thorough-
ly understood, transfer it into
the extremities of the veins,
which, as we have seen, carry
it back to be renewed again.
This is what is meant by the
well-known expression, the cir-
culation of the blood, and which
is carried on not only in man,
but in all the other vertebrata.
The young are produced in
all cases from ova, or eggs,
which exist in the body of the
female. In most cases, the
young animal is excluded from
the egg while it is within the
body of the mother; in others
the
egg itself is produced, and
the young hatched some time
afterward. The animals of the
former class are ealled vivipu-
rous; of the latter, oviparous.
A curious and remarkable
departure from both of these
systems is found in the marsu-
pialia, as the opossum, kanga-
roo, and others, which have a
pouch under the belly, into
which the young, born in an
immature state, are received
and nursed till they are able
to take care of themselves.
VOL. I. -5
Temporal Artery.
Carotid Artery.
Vertebral Artery.
Subclavian Artery.
Axillary Artery.
Brachial Artery.
Aorta.
Celiac Artery,
Renal Artery.
Iliac Artery.
Radial Artery.
Femoral Artery.
Posterior Tibial Artery.
Anterior Tibial
Artery.
Peroneal Artery.
Art. Pediosa.
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM IN MAN.

34
VERTEBRATA.
INC. BARRITUNA
Class I. MAMMALIA.
The highest boon conferred upon the lower animals
is parental affection. The cold blooded ovipara, reptiles
and fishes, unable to assist in the maturation of their off-
spring, are compelled to leave their eggs to be hatched by
the agency of external circumstances, and their progeny, even from the moment of their birth, are
usually abandoned to chance and their own resources for protection and nourishment. In birds, the
duties and the pleasures inseparable from the necessity of incubating their ova, and of providing
nutriment for their callow brood, are indeed manifested to an extent altogether unparalleled in the
lower order of vertebrate animals; but it is to the mammals alone, the most sagacious and intelli-
gent of all the inhabitants of the earth, that the Creator has permitted the full enjoyment of pater-
nal and maternal love. It is in respect to these alone that he has cast the offspring absolutely
helpless and dependent on a mother's care and solicitude, thus conferring upon the parent the joys
and comforts that a mother only knows, the dearest, purest. and sweetest bestowed upon the ani-
mal creation.*
The grand circumstance, therefore, by which this class of beings, designated under the title of
Mammalia, may be distinguished from all other members of the animal kingdom is, that the
females of every species are furnished with mammary glands-organs designed to supply a secre-
tion called milk, whereby the young are nourished from the moment of their birth, until they
have reached a sufficient age to enable them to live upon such animal or vegetable food as may be
adapted to their mature condition. The possession of these lactiferous glands is the great and
decisive characteristic of the class; to this, however, it may be added, that their visceral cavity is
separated into a thorax and abdomen by a muscular diaphragm, and that they breathe by means
of lungs similar to our own. Of their internal structure, we shall give a more detailed example
when we come to describe the human specie
The mammalia are very widely distributed over the earth. Most of them are terrestrial in their
habits, cither browsing the herbage from the ground, or, if carnivorous, leading a life of rapine, by
carrying on an incessant and destructive warfare against animals inferior to themselves in strength
a
* Jones's "Structure if the Animal Kingdom."

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA.
35
and ferocity. Many inhabit the trees; some burrow beneath the soil; a few raise themselves
into the air, and flit about in search of their insect prey. The otter and the seal persecute the
fishes in their own element, while the gigantic whale wallows upon the surface of the sea, or
plunges into its fathomless depths. With such diversity of habits, we might expect great variety
,
in their structure; and this will be fully realized in the ensuing description of the various orders.*
f
THE SUPREMACY OF MAN OVER THE ANIMAL CREATION.
ORDER 1. BIMANA.
Genus HOMO: Species Man: Homo sapiens.—Man is regarded by naturalists as constituting the
Genus Homo, he being its sole representative. The various tribes and races of mankind are em-
braced in one species, Homo sapiens : that is, man endowed with reason. His zoological character-
istics, as given by Blumenbach, are as follows: “ Erect; two-handed; unarmed; rational; endowed
with speech; a prominent chin; four incisor teeth above and below; all the teeth equally approxi-
mated; the canine teeth of the same length as the others; the lower incisors erect.” He is the
highest being in the animal series. That he was made to be the lord of creation is alike evident
from physiology, revelation, and history: he has mastered the horse, the whale, the ox, the lion,
and the tiger-either subjecting them to his use, or sweeping them from his path.
PECULIAR CONFORMATION OF MAN.
Attempts have been made to assimilate man in his structure to some of the mammalia, and es-
pecially the apes, but a careful examination proves him to be essentially different.
The foot of man is very different from that of apes: it is large, the leg bears vertically upon
it; the heel is expanded beneath ; his toes are short, and but slightly flexible; the great toe,
longer and larger than the rest, is placed on the same line with and cannot be opposed to them.
This foot, then, is proper for supporting the body, but cannot be used for seizing or climbing; and
as the hands are unfitted for walking, man is the only animal truly bimanous and biped.
The whole body of man is modified for the vertical position. His feet, as we have already seen,
furnish him with a larger base than those of other mammalia ; the muscles which retain the
foot and thigh in the state of extension are more vigorous, whence results the swelling of the calf
and the part above the thigh; the flexors of the leg are attached higher up, which permits a
complete extension of the knee, and renders the calf more apparent. The pelvis is larger, and it
* See Appendix.

36
VERTEBRATA.
separates the thighs and fect, and gives to the trunk that pyramidal form favorable to equilibrium :
the necks of the thigh-bones form an angle with the body of the bone, which increases still more
the separation of the feet, and augments the basis of the body. Finally, the head, in this vertical
.
position, is in equilibrium with the trunk, because its articulation is exactly under the mildle of its
mass.
a
Were he to desire it, man could not, with convenience, walk on all-fours : his short and nearly
inflexible foot, and his long thigh, would bring the knee to the ground; his widely separated
shoulders and his arms, too far extended from the median line, would ill support the fore-part of
his body. The great indented muscle which, in quadrupeds, suspends the trunk between the blade-
bones as a girth, is smaller in man than in any one among them : the head is heavier, on account
of the magnitude of the brain, and the smallness of the sinuses or cavities of the bones; and yet
the means of supporting it are weaker, for he has neither cervical ligament, nor are the vertebræ
so modified as to prevent their flexure forward; he could therefore only maintain his head in the
same line with the spine, and then, his eyes and mouth being directed toward the ground, he
could not see before him: the position of these organs is, on the contrary, quite perfect, supposing
that he walks erectly.
The arteries which supply his brain not being subdivided as in many quadrupeds, and the blood
requisite for so voluminous an organ being carried to it with too much violence, frequently apo-
plexies would be the consequence of a horizontal position.
Man, then, is designed to be supported by the feet only. He thus preserves the entire use of
his hands for the arts, while his organs of sense are most favorably situated for observation.
These hands, which derive such advantages from their liberty, receive as many more from their
structure. Their thumb, longer in proportion than in the apes, increases the facility of seizing
small objects; all the fingers, except the annularis, and this to a certain extent, have separate
movements, which is not the case in any other animal, not even in the apes. The nails, covering
only one side of the extremities of the fingers, form a support to the touch, without in the least
depriving it of its delicacy. The arms which support these hands have a solid attachment by
their large blade-bone, their strong collar-bone, &c.
Man, so highly favored as to dexterity, is not so with regard to strength. His swiftness in
running is much inferior to that of other animals of his size : having neither projecting jaws, nor
salient canine teeth, nor crooked nails, he is destitute of offensive armature; and the sides and
upper part of his body being naked, unprovided even with hair, he is absolutely without defensive
weapons ; lastly, he is of all animals that which is latest to acquire the power necessary to pro-
vide for himself.
But this weakness even has been for him another advantage, in obliging him to have recourse
to his internal resources—to that intelligence which has been awarded to him in so high a de-
gree; a fact which sufficiently proves that man's intellect was designed by nature to be the great
instrument of his power.
No quadruped approaches him in the magnitude and convolutions of the hemispheres of the
brain, that is to say, of that part of this organ which is the principal instrument of the intellectual
operations: the posterior portion of the same organ extends backward, so as to form a second
covering to the cerebellum: even the form of the cranium announces this great size of the brain,
as the smallness of the face shows how slightly that portion of the nervous system which influ-
ences the external senses predominates in him.
These external senses, however, moderate as they all are in man, are yet extremely delicate and
well balanced.
His two eyes are directed forward: he does not see on two sides at once, like many quadru-
peds; which produces more unity in the result of his vision, and concentrates his attention more
closely on objects of this kind. The ball and iris of his eye vary but little, which restrains the
activity of his sight to limited distances, and to a determined degree of light. The conch of his
ear, possessing but little mobility or extent, does not increase the intensity of sounds : notwith-
standing which, of all animals, he best distinguishes their intonation. His nostrils, more compli-
cated than those of apes, are less so than those of all other genera; and yet he appears to be the
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA.
37
a
only animal whose sense of smell is sufficiently delicate to be offended by unpleasant odors. Deli-
cacy of smell must influence that of taste; and man must have a further advantage, in this re-
spect, at least over those animals whose tongues are covered with scales. Lastly, the nicety of his
touch results both from the delicacy of his teguments and the absence of all insensible parts, as
well as from the form of his hand, which is better adapted than that of any other animal for suit-
ing itself to the small inequalities of surfaces.
Man has a particular pre-eminence in his organ of voice: of all mammalians, he can alone artic-
ulate sounds; the form of his mouth and the great mobility of his lips being probably the cause
of this. Hence results his most invaluable mode of communication ; for of all the signs which can
be conveniently employed for the transmission of ideas, variations of sound are those which can
be perceived at the greatest distance, and in the most various directions, simultaneously.
It seems that even the position of the heart and of the great vessels bears reference to the ver-
tical carriage. The heart is placed obliquely on the diaphragm, and its point inclines to the left,
thereby occasioning a distribution of the aorta differing from that of most quadrupeds.
The natural food of man, judging from his structure, appears to consist principally of the fruits,
roots, and other succulent parts of vegetables. His hands afford every facility for gathering them;
his short and but moderately strong jaws on the one hand, and his canines being equal only in
length to the other teeth, together with his tuberculated molars on the other, would scarcely per-
mit him either to masticate herbage or to devour flesh, were these articles not previously pre-
pared by cooking. Once, however, possessed of fire, and those arts by which he is aided in seiz-
ing animals or killing them at a distance, every living being was rendered subservient to his nour-
ishment, thereby giving him the means of an indefinite multiplication of his species.
His organs of digestion are in conformity with those of manducation : his stomach is simple;
his intestinal canal of mean length ; his great intestines well marked; his cæcum short and thick,
and augmented by a small appendage; and his liver divided only into two lobes and one small one.
To complete this abridged statement of the anatomical structure of man, necessary for this In-
troduction, we will add that he has thirty-two vertebræ, of which seven belong to the neck, twelve
to the back, five to the loins, five to the sacrum, and three to the coccyx. Of his ribs, seven pairs
are united to the sternum by elongated cartilages, and are called true ribs; the five following pairs
are denominated false ones. His adult cranium consists of eight bones: an occipital; two tempo-
ral; two parietal; a frontal; an ethmoidal, and a sphenoidal. The bones of his face are fourteen
in number: namely. two maxillaries; two jugals, each of which joins the temporal to the maxil-
lary bone of its own side by a sort of handle named the zygomatic arch; two nasal bones; two
palatines, behind the palate; a vomer, between the nostrils; two turbinated bones of the nose in
the nostrils; two lachrymals in the inner angles of the orbits, and the single bone of the lower
jaw. Each jaw has sixteen teeth : four cutting incisors in the middle, two pointed canines at the
corners, and ten molars with tuberculated crowns, five on each side—in all, thirty-two teeth. His
blade-bone has at the extremity of its spine or projecting ridge a tuberosity, named the acromion,
to which the clavicle or collar-bone is connected, and over its articulation is a point termed the
coracoid process, to which certain muscles are attached. The radius turns completely on the cu-
bitus or ulna, owing to the mode of its articulation with the humerus. The wrist has eight bones,
four in each range; the tarsus has seven; those of the remaining parts of the hand and foot may
be easily counted by the number of digits. (See figure, p. 32.)
PHYSICAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF MAN.
The ordinary produce of the human species is but one child at a birth ; for in five hundred
cases of parturition, there is only one of twins, and more than that number is extremely rare.
The period of gestation is nine months. A fetus of one month is ordinarily an inch in height;
at two months, it is two inches and a quarter; at three months, five inches; at five months, six
or seven inches; at seven months, eleven inches; and at nine months, eighteen inches. Those
which are born prior to the seventh month usually die. The first or milk teeth begin to appear
a few months after birth, commencing with the incisors. The number increases in two years to
twenty, which are shed successively from about the seventh year, to be replaced by others. Of

38
VERTEBRATA.
a
a
the twelve posterior molars, which are permanent, there are four which make their appearance at
four years and a half, four at nine years; the last four being frequently not cut until the twentieth
year.
The foetus grows more rapidly in proportion as it approaches the time of birth. The infant, on
the contrary, increases always more and more slowly. It has upward of a fourth of its height
when born, attains the half of it at two years and a half, and the three-fourths at nine or ten years.
By the eighteenth year the growth almost entirely ceases. Man rarely exceeds six feet, and sel-
dom remains under five. Woman is ordinarily some inches shorter.
Scarcely has the body attained its full growth in height before it commences to increase in
bulk; fat accumulates in the cellular tissue. The different vessels become gradually obstructed;
the solids become rigid; and after a life more or less prolonged—more or less agitated—more or
less painful-old age arrives, with decrepitude, decay, and death. Man rarely lives beyond a hun-
dred years; and most of the species, either from disease, accidents, or merely old age, perish long
before that term.
The child needs the assistance of its mother much longer than her milk, whence results an ed-
ucation intellectual as well as physical, and a durable mutual attachment. The nearly equal num-
ber of individuals of the two sexes, the difficulty of supporting more than one wife, when wealth
does not supply the want of power, intimate that monogamy is the natural condition of our
species; and as, wherever this kind of union exists, the sire participates in the education of his
offspring, the length of time required for that education allows the birth of others, whence the
natural perpetuity of the conjugal state. From the long period of infantile weakness results do-
mestic subordination, and, consequently, the order of society at large, as the young persons which
compose the new families continue to preserve with their parents those tender relations to which
they have so long been accustomed. This disposition to mutual assistance multiplies to an almost
unlimited extent those advantages previously derived by isolated man from his intelligence; it has
assisted him to tame or repulse other animals, to defend himself from the effects of climate, and
thus enabled him to cover the earth with his species.
In other respects, man appears to possess nothing resembling instinct—no regular habit of in-
dustry produced by innate ideas; all his knowledge is the result of his sensations, his observations,
or of those of his predecessors. Transmitted by speech, increased by meditation, applied to his
necessities and his enjoyments, they have given rise to all the arts. Language and letters, by
preserving acquired knowledge, are a source of indefinite perfection to his species. It is thus that
he has acquired ideas, and made all nature contribute to his wants.*
STRIKING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HUMAN RACE.
It is a remarkable fact, and worthy of particular notice, that in the economy of his body
man is endowed with the ability to live on almost any part of the globe, and of thriving alike in
either extreme of natural temperature. Thus the Greenlanders and Esquimaux have reached
between 70° and 80° N. latitude, while the negro of Africa and the red man of America live
under the cquator. But even Europeans, accustomed to a temperate climate, can bear either of
these extremes of cold and heat, as has been sufficiently proved by the numerous instances in
which those who have gone on the Arctic expeditions have been obliged to winter in high north-
ern latitudes; and, on the other hand, by the slight degree in which European settlers in the
hottest parts of Africa are influenced by the temperature.
Man subsists with equal facility under various degrees of atmospheric pressure—as well in the
deepest valleys as upon the most elevated table-lands. In correspondence with his ability to in-
habit every zone, he is able to subsist on the most varied food. In these respects he stands alone.
But however widely he may be distinguished from other animals in the peculiarities of his struc-
ture and economy, yet the sentiments, feelings, sympathies, internal consciousness, and mind, and
the habitudes of life and action thence resulting, are the real and essential characteristics of hu-
manity. The difference in these respects between man and all other animals is indeed so great
* Cuvier's Animal Kingdom.'

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA.
39
that a comparison is scarcely possible. The highest moral endowments of animals are shown in
their attachment to their offspring; but this ceases when the period of helplessness is past, and
there is no evidence of attachment between individuals, except in the associated labors of some
species, and the consentaneous actions of the male and female for the safety of the offspring. The
arts of which animals are capable are limited, and peculiar to each species; and there seems to be
no evidence of a power of invention, or of construction for any purpose beyond that to which the
original and instinctive powers are adapted. What is the vaunted village of the beaver, the most
ingenious of quadrupeds, in comparison with a human city, with its ships and merchandise, its
temples, churches, and dwellings, its libraries, and its monuments of art!
In intimate connection with his exalted mental endowments is man's peculiar possession of lan-
guage, already alluded to, the immense results of which, in the accumulating, recording, and dis-
tributing of knowledge, it is scarcely possible to conceive. Other animals are naturally speechless,
not from any material difference in the structure of their organs—for man can teach some of them
to imitate him—but from their inability to form those associations of ideas which are essential to
the construction and utterance of words.
Among the monkeys, the adults exercise all-
thority over the young, and it is said maintain it
even by chastisement; but there is no instance
in which the stronger species has exercised au-
thority over the weaker, or brought it into a state
of servitude. Even when made the associates
of man, and instructed by him, how little have
animals learned !--a few unmeaning tricks, unwil-
lingly performed, a few words uttered and con-
stantly repeated, without choice or a conception
of their meaning, and sullen passive submission,
are in general the best results that can be found.
There is not a proof in the whole history of ani-
mals that any species or individual has ever made
an advance toward an improvement, or an altera-
tion in its condition. Whether solitary or living
in herds, the habits of all remain the same; all of
the same species appear endowed with the same
faculties and dispositions, and each is in mental
power the same throughout its life.
Contrast with these the progress of man. In
his origin weak, naked, and defenceless, he has
not only obtained dominion over all the animate
creation, but the
very
elements are made to serve
his
purpose.
Of the earth he has built his houses,
and constructed weapons and the implements of
art; he uses the wind to carry him in ships and
to prepare his food; and when the wind will not
suit him, he employs fire and water to replace or to
resist it. By artificial light he has prevented the
inconveniences of darkness; he has stopped and
made rivers, and has forced deserts, marshes, and
forests alike to produce his food. He has marked
out and measured the course of the celestial
bodies, till he has discovered from them the size and form of the earth that he himself inhabits.
And besides all this, man extends his views beyond this life. He knows and anticipates death,
and instructed alike by the inductions of Reason and the teachings of a divine revelation, he, and
he alone, aspires to Immortality.

40
VERTEBRATA.
LOSSING.BARRITT
NEGRO OF CONGO.
CÆSAR.
THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.
While thus the immense difference between man and all other animals is manifest, another
question of great interest arises, and that is as to the specific unity of the various races of which
the great human family is composed. This has been put by an eloquent writer in the following
form :
" Does the Bosjesman, who lives in holes and caves, and devours ants' eggs, locusts, and snakes,
belong to the same species as the men who luxuriated in the hanging gardens of Babylon-or
walked the olive-grove of Academe—or sat enthroned in the imperial homes of the Cæsars-or
reposed in the marble palaces of the Adriatic-or held sumptuous festivals in the gay salons of
Versailles? Can the groveling Wawa, prostrate before his fetish, claim a community of origin
with those whose religious sentiments inspired them to pile the prodigious temples of Thebes and
Memphis—to carve the friezes of the Parthenon-or to raise the heaven-pointed arches of Cologne ?
That ignorant Ibo, muttering his all but inarticulate prayer—is he of the same ultimate ancestry
as those who
sang deathless strains in honor of Olympian Jove or of Pallas Athenèor of those
who, in a purer worship, are chanting their glorious hymns or solemn litanies in the churches of
Christendom?
"That Alfouro woman, with her flattened face, transverse nostrils, thick lips, wide mouth, pro-
jecting teeth, eyes half-closed by the loose swollen upper eyelids, ears circular, pendulous, and
flapping, the hue of her skin of a smoky black, and—by way of ornament!—the septum of her nose
pierced with a round stick some inches long—is she of the same original parentage as those whose
transcendent and perilous beauty brought unnumbered woes on the people of ancient story, con-
vulsed kingdoms, entranced poets, and made scholars and sages forget their wisdom? Did they
all spring from one common mother?
“ Were Helen of Greece, and Cleopatra of Egypt, and Joanna of Aragon, and Rosamond of
England, and Mary of Scotland, and the Eloises, and Lauras, and Ianthes-were all these, and our
poor Alfouro, daughters of her who was fairer than any of them—Eve? The Quaigua, or Saboo,
whose language is described as consisting of certain snapping, hissing, grunting sounds—all more
or less nasal--is he too of the same descent as those whose eloquent voices 'fulmined over Greece,'

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA.
41
o
වටවට
OSSINO.BARBITT
PAPUAN.
EUGENIE.
or shook the forum of Rome—or as that saint and father of the Church, surnamed the Golden-
mouthed—or as those whose accents have thrilled all hearts with indignation, or melted them
with pity and ruth, in the time-honored halls of Westminster ?"
It will be perceived that the argument implied in this interrogation is simply this: It is impossi-
ble that beings of such diverse characteristics—mental, moral, and physical-can be the offspring of
the same parents; or, in other words, they cannot be of the same species, using the term in its scien-
tific sense. The reply has been in the first place, that these diversities are less radical than
might appear from a superficial examination. Among all these different tribes, it is found that
the deviations of size, form, complexion, and character are not much greater than are perceived
between the acknowledged members of the same race. Among the dark races of hot climates,
albinos, with a milk-white skin and silken hair of a yellow hue, are not uncommon. Light-com-
plexioned children have often been born of the black-haired and swarthy Jews. There is abundant
historical evidence of instances of this variety of complexion springing up among the Greeks,
Romans, Assyrians, Laplanders, Tartars, and other families of the less swarthy type, as well as among
the Negroes, Egyptians, and Malays.
There are some differences of structure observed in the different races of mankind; there is
also great diversity in the texture of the skin and the character of the hair. It is, however, to be
here observed, that in the same nations there are similar varieties, and this may be accounted for
by the influence of situation and climate. If we turn for analogies to the animal tribes, we shall
discover abundant evidence of the transforming influence of circumstances upon the physical and
moral character of animals.
The races of swine present, for example, even more remarkable instances of variation, which
have been particularly described by Blumenbach. It is certain that these have all descended from
the wild-boar; and it is equally certain that swine were unknown in America till carried there by
the Spaniards. Yet in that country they have already degenerated into breeds very different from
each other and from their original. Those taken to Cubagua became a race with toes half a span
long, and those of Cuba became more than twice as large as their progenitors. In Normandy,
the swine are remarkable for the length of the bone of the hind-leg. Swine with solid hoofs were
VOL. I.-6

42
VERTEBRATA.
of men.
,
races.
known to the ancients, and large breeds of them are found in Hungary and Sweden. In some,
also, the hoof is divided into five clefts. In Guinea, they have long ears couched upon the back;
in China, a large pendent belly and very short legs; at Cape Verd and other places, very large
curved tusks. Thus, then, in one species we find changes even greater than those which occur
among men; and as to the most important, Blumenbach says that the whole difference between
the cranium of the negro and that of a European is by no means greater than that which exists
between the cranium of the wild boar and that of the domestic swine. An examination of the
different breeds of sheep, horses, oxen, goats, cats, rabbits, doves, and still more of the domestic
fowl, would in like manner show that all these species, even while under observation, are subject
to greater variations than are found in the different races of men. The various breeds of dogs are
believed to have all descended from one parent stock; yet what greater diversity is there in the
tribes of mankind than in these animals, from the robust and adventurous Newfoundland dog to
the soft and silken lap-dog?
In respect of color, a perfect analogy holds between the varieties of domestic animals and those
In all those enumerated above, examples occur of the melanocomous, leucous, and
xanthous varieties springing up casually or existing constantly in particular breeds. Thus even
in England the cattle of different counties may be recognized by their color as well as by their
forms. Azara remarks of the oxen and horses of Paraguay, where both species have run wild
and multiplied very rapidly, that while all those that are domesticated vary considerably in color,
those that are wild have all the same color;—the horses a chestnut or bay-brown; the oxen red-
dish-brown on the back, and black on the rest of the body.
This analogy between the variations to which domesticated, and more rarely wild animals, are
subject, and those which are observed in men, is a strong argument for the unity of the human
species. Another, which possesses much weight, is drawn from the propagation of the several
It is well known that among all other animals, the hybrid productions of parents of differ-
ent species are either quite barren, or so little prolific that they soon become extinct, and that an
intermediate race cannot be maintained even to the second generation without a return to the
pure blood of one or other parent. On the other hand, it is observed among domestic animals
that the progeny of different varieties of the same species exceed in vigor, and are even more
prolific than their parents; so that intermediate races are apt very soon to become more numer-
ous than the originals from whence they sprung. It is asserted that exactly the same principle
holds in the human race. All nations, it is said, propagate together with equal facility, and it is
,
contended that the progeny of parents of different nations have in many instances exceeded those
from whom they sprung in vigor and in the tendency to multiplication.
What may be the precise nature of the influences which have caused so much difference to
exist between the individuals of the human race, we are unable to say; but instances are con-
stantly occurring which seem to show us how possible it is that all the varieties of human beings
have occurred in a common family. It is remarked by high English authority, that “even among
the races of our own island, when exposed to circumstances which deprive them of their usual
nutriment and means of developing the civilizing instincts of mankind, we find that they sink in
character, and become physically degraded to a level with races whose features at first sight are
very
far removed. We need but to travel across the Irish Channel to see many groups of our
Celtic fellow-subjects who have been reduced by famine and disease to a degraded condition
closely bordering on that of these savages."
Although the color of the skin and the character of the hair give so very decided an appearance
to many of the races of man, yet, as before remarked, there are on record a great number of cases
in which individuals, with hair and skin of one color, have given birth to children with hair and
skin of another color and character. Dr. Prichard meations numerous instances of individuals
with yellow hair and fair skin, among tribes with dark hair and skin; and in the temperate regions
of Asia, whole tribes, evidently descended from dark-colored races, present the light color. The
Jews appear to have been originally a dark-skinned and woolly-haired race; but it is well known
that the Jews of Europe very frequently possess the characteristics of the lightest-colored races.
On the other hand, we constantly see individuals born of white parents having woolly hair, a

THE CAUCASIAN MOTHER.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA. .
43
dark skin, and other approaches to the black varieties of men. Even whole nations, as the Ger-
mans, for instance, have presented a tendency to become darker.
There is also evidence to prove that even the forms which the bones of the head assume among
different nations is not fixed. Among the most highly developed races, having the most perfect
forms of skull, we constantly see individuals with the projecting maxilla which is prevalent among
the lowest tribes; while, on the other hand, individuals are often seen among the least civilized
races presenting forms of the skull approaching those of the most cultivated nations. Facts such
as these are constantly accumulating, and clearly point to the derivation of the human race from
one pair.
While thus it appears that in the physical organization of mankind there are no fixed differ-
ences, or at least none in which the variation is greater than is shown to be the effect of climate
and situation upon other races, it is still a striking fact that the same psychological nature prevails
among all nations and tribes of the earth. However great may be the distance between the
degrees of intellectual and moral elevation possessed by civilized and uncivilized nations, yet there
is sufficient evidence to prove that in all there may be traced the same mental endowments, simi-
lar natural prejudices and impressions, the same consciousness, the same sentiments, sympathies,
propensities,-in short, a common physical nature, or a common mind.
After an exceedingly careful survey of the various nations of the earth, Dr. Prichard remarks
on this point with great force : “We contemplate among all the diversified tribes who are en-
dowed with reason and speech, the same internal feelings, appetences, aversions; the same inward
convictions; the same sentiments of subjection to invisible powers, and, more or less developed, of
accountableness or responsibility to unseen avengers of wrong and agents of retributive justice,
from whose tribunal men can not even by death escape.”
This accordance in the physiological and psychical properties of all nations affords a powerful
argument in favor of the whole human race being but one species; for, as Dr. Prichard observes,
" the physiological characters of race are liable to few and unimportant variations;" and therefore
when we find that in a great number of races spread over the surface of the globe no other differ-
ences occur, either in the average length of life, or the extreme length occasionally attained in
the periods of gestation, of infancy, of puberty, and of other changes in the economy, or in the
habits, instincts, affections, and intellectual faculties—than may be fairly attributed to the differ-
ences of external circumstances, it may be safely concluded that they are all members of the same
family, and the offspring of one common stock.
a
DIVERSITY OF ORIGIN IN THE HUMAN RACE.
We have thus given, very briefly, the argument chiefly derived from the learned and profound
work of Prichard, in behalf of the unity of the human race. The conclusion, in harmony with the
commonly received interpretation of the Mosaic record, which traces all mankind to one parentage,
that of Adam and Eve, though it has been and still is the prevailing one, is not adopted by all
naturalists of the present day. There are many philosophers of great eminence, and whose opin-
ions are always entitled to respect, who maintain that mankind were created in pairs or in nations
in different parts of the earth to which their descendants are constitutionally adapted, and to which
they have an instinctive attachment.
The arguments to sustain this view, derived from history and various analogies with the vege-
table and animal kingdoms, may be thus briefly stated : It is an undoubted fact that every geo-
graphical division of the globe has its peculiar vegetation. Even where there is a general resem-
blance, there are still specific differences. Thus, although we find in America and Europe, in the
same parallels of latitude, trees which bear the same names—the oak, ash, chestnut, beech, maple,
&c.—they are, for the most part, specifically different; and this is equally true of all other plants
—very few instances being found in which indigenous vegetable products of one continent are
identical with those of another.
While thus the vegetable world presents the remarkable fact of special kinds of trees and plants
established by nature in particular localities, a similar arrangement appears to exist in regard to
animals. Every considerable geographical district throughout the globe seems to have its pe-
a

44.
VERTEBRATA.
а
culiar fauna, in some instances totally distinct from that of every other region of the carth. In
the northern polar regions of both continents, we find the white bear, the rein-deer, the musk-ox,
the walrus, and various species of seal; in Africa, we find the giraffe, zebra, chimpanzee, and
hippopotamus; in Madagascar, the lemurs and the cheiromys; in Tartary, the yak and the musk-
deer; in Southern Asia, the hippopotamus, the tiger, and the gibbon; in the great Asiatic
islands, the orang-outang, the roussette-bat, and the cassowary; in Australia, the kangaroo, the orni-
thorhynchus, and the echidna; in North America, the grizzly bear, the bison, and the raccoon;
in South America, the tapir, the lama, the sloth, the armadillo, and condor. These animals, which
are but indications of large circles of fauna associated with them, are all peculiar species, appa-
rently fixed by a controlling instinct in special localities, and hence are supposed to have originated
in the places they inhabit.
In illustration of this subject—the geographical distribution and localization of animals—Milne
Edwards
says: “If a naturalist, familiar with the fauna of this country-France-visits distant re-
gions, he sees, in proportion as he advances, the earth peopled with animals new to him, and these
species next disappear in their turn to make room for other species, equally unknown to him. If,
quitting France, he lands in South Africa, he will find but a very small number of animals similar
to those he had seen in Europe, and he will observe, especially, the large-eared elephant; the hip-
popotamus; the double-horned rhinoceros; the giraffe; innumerable flocks of antelopes; the zebra ;
the Cape buffalo, whose horns cover by their large base all the forehead; the black-maned lion;
the chimpanzee, which, of all animals, most resembles man; the cynocephalus, or dog-faced ape;
peculiar species of vultures ; a number of bright-plumed birds, strangers to Europe; insects equally
different from those of the north—the fatal termites, for example, which live in numerous societies,
and build of the soil habitations of considerable elevation and most singular construction.
" If our zoologist quits the Cape of Good Hope and penetrates into the large island of Madagas-
car, he will find a still different fauna. There he will no longer observe the large quadrupeds
he found in Africa, and the family of the apes will be replaced by other mammals, equally well
formed to climb trees, but more resembling the carnivora, and called by naturalists the Makis:
he will meet with the Aye-aye, an animal of the most singular nature, which seems to be the ob-
ject of a sort of veneration on the part of the inhabitants, and which partakes at the same time of
the nature of the squirrel and of the monkey; the tenrecs, small insectivorous mammals, which
have the back protected with spines or quills, like our hedgehogs, but which yet do not roll them-
selves
up into a ball; the cleft-nosed chameleon, and several curious reptiles not found elsewhere,
as well as insects no less characteristic of this region.
“ Still proceeding onward and arriving in India, our traveler will find an elephant distinct from
that of Africa; oxen, bears, rhinoceroses, antelopes, stags, equally different from those of Europe
and of Africa; the orang-outang, and a number of other apes peculiar to these countries; the
royal tiger, the argus, the peacock, the pheasant, and an almost innumerable multitude of birds,
reptiles, and insects unknown elsewhere.
“Should he afterward visit New Holland, still every thing will be new to him, and the aspect
of this fauna will appear to him still more strange than that of the various zoological populations
he has already passed in review. He will there no longer find animals analogous to our oxen,
horses, bears, and to a great number of our large carnivora : the quadrupeds of great stature will
be found totally wanting, and he will discover the kangaroo, the flying phalanger, and the orni-
thorhynchus.
" Finally, ií our traveler, in order to return to his native country, should traverse the vast con-
tinent of America, he will discover there a fauna analogous to that of the Old World, but com-
posed almost entirely of different species : he will there find apes with prehensile tails; large car-
nivora, somewhat resembling the lions and tigers of the eastern continent, with bisons, lamas,
tapirs; and finally birds, reptiles, and insects, equally remarkable, and equally new to him.
“Differences no less striking in the species of animals peculiar to different regions of the globe
are observable, when, instead of confining our observation to the inhabitants of the land, we ex-
amine the myriads of living beings which dwell in the midst of the waters. In passing from the
coast of Europe into the Indian Ocean, and from this last into the seas of America, we meet with
a

22
ΤΙ,
LOSSING-BARRITTA
Τ Η Ε Π Ο Τ Τ Ε Ν Τ Ο Τ Μ Ο Τ Η Ε R.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA.
45
fishes, molluscs, crustacea, and zoophytes peculiar to each of these parts of the sea. This localiza-
tion of species, whether aquatic or terrestrial, is so well marked, that a naturalist a little experi-
enced cannot mistake, even at first sight, the origin of zoological collections made in one or
other of the great geographical divisions of the globe which may be submitted to his examination.
The fauna of each of these divisions presents a peculiar aspect, and may be easily characterized by
the presence of certain species, more or less remarkable.
“ Naturalists have imagined several hypotheses to explain this mode of distribution of animals
on the surface of the globe; but in the actual state of science it is impossible to give a satisfactory
explanation, unless we admit that from the beginning of the actual geological period, the various
species have been distributed in the different regions, and that by degrees they have afterward
spread to a distance, so as to occupy a more or less considerable portion of the surface of the
globe. In the actual condition of the earth, it is impossible for us to discover all the zoological
focuses; for one may imagine the possibility of exchange so multiplied between two regions,
the fauna of which were primitively distinct, that they can only offer at the present moment
species common to both, and thus nothing can reveal to the eyes of the naturalist their original
separation; but when a country is found to be peopled with a considerable number of species not
to be found elsewhere, even when the local circumstances are most similar, we shall be authorized
to think that such a portion of the globe has always been a distinct zoological region."
In respect, then, to vegetable and animal products of the earth, there appear to be certain
centers or circles in which the different kinds originated. In other words, as these species are
originally found in these circles; as history places them here in the very earliest periods to which
it carries us; and as we see them age after age confining themselves to their several localities as
by a controlling law, it is deemed a logical inference that these were created in the places which
they thus severally inhabit.
It is maintained that in the various races of the human family, a close analogy is found with
these facts in the vegetable and animal world. It is remarked that in the polar regions, associated
with the white bear, the walrus, and the rein-deer, we find the Esquimaux, the Lapps, and the
Samoiedes, all of one race, and all from time immemorial inhabiting these Arctic realms. Here
they remain as by some necessity, and here they have remained with little change since history
first introduced them to our notice. So in Africa, we find the negroes of Congo in their places
as truly as the hippopotamus and the chimpanzee : in the South, we find the Hottentot; in the
Southeast, the Caffre; in the North, the Berber; in Madagascar, the Madecasses; in the valley
of the Nile, the Egyptian ; in Ethiopia, the Nubian,—and all these races confined to, or per-
manently associated with, their localities from the earliest records of time.
In a similar manner we find the Mongols in Central and Eastern Asia, the Hindoos in India,
the Malays in the islands of the Pacific, the Papuans in New Guinea and New Holland, and finally
the Indians in America, and all, so far as history furnishes us with any light on the subject, the
primeval races of the several countries they inhabit, and all continuing from age
in these
their original domains. The Caucasian, or European race, as it is generally called, is held to con-
sist of several mixed tribes or nations, originating in remote periods anterior to historical records,
in the temperate portions of the eastern continent; and which, being of superior endowments, have
broken from their original limits, and, like many animals and plants of a hardy and prolific nature,
have spread themselves over various portions of the globe.
While it is thus assumed that a striking analogy exists between the tribes of men and the tribes
of the vegetable and animal kingdom, as viewed in their geographical position and distribution, it
is still further said that archæology enforces in a remarkable manner the same views. It is now
known that the monuments of Egypt contain inscriptions which carry back the history of that
remarkable people to a period at least four thousand years before the Christian era, and that at
that time the nation was far advanced in civilization.* The sculptures and pictures upon the tem-
age to
a
a
* The recent careful and profound study of the monuments of Egypt by Lepsius, Rossellini, and others, has
established beyond a reasonable doubt the historical validity of Manetho's chronological list of the kings of
Ancient Egypt, from Menes, the founder of the first dynasty. The date assigned to this monarch by late learned

46
VERTEBRATA.
ples and tombs are found to represent the Egyptian people through the whole period within the
scope of history—a space of nearly six thousand years—as of the same physiological formation,
and that of a distinct and peculiar type, represented by the Fellahs or true Egyptians of the present
day. It appears, in fact, that the black, white, red, and yellow races were known and recognized
as distinct types* 3300 years ago. The inference is, that not only the Egyptians, but the negroes
(IMI
VO
0
。。
ООО
00
No о
ООО
ОО
o
O
THE FOUR RACES OF THE EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS.
as well as the other races, however they may in some cases be modified by circumstances, are per-
manent types, extending through all time as far as they can be traced. Hence it is concluded that
they are primordial races, or, in other words, original and distinct nations, created in their partic-
ular geographical centers, and, guided by a controlling law of nature, have remained from genera-
tion to generation, like the animal and vegetable tribes with which they are associated, in their
original sites. The persistence of other historical nations in their physical characteristics, if not in
their original habitats—as the Jews, Chinese, Mongols, Romans, Greeks, Huns, and others—is
regarded as confirming this view of the subject. The late Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, after a
most elaborate examination of a vast number of skulls of different nations, including several from
the ancient tombs of Egypt, came to the same general conclusion--viz., that mankind, from the
dawnings of history, appear to have been divided into several races of distinct types as at the
present day, and hence he concludes that they were, in the beginning, distinct creations.
It is obvious that this inquiry spreads over a vast field, which, however, has been explored
with immense learning and research. We cannot pretend to do more than indicate the nature
authors, differs somewhat, but they all fix the period nearly as far back as 4000 B. C. The following are the eras of
Menes, according to the most reliable authorities :
Böch
5702 Champollion-Figeac...
.. 5867
Barucchi...
4890 Bunsen
.. 3643
Lesueur.
5773 Lepsius...
.. 3893
Rev. Dr. Hincks.
3895 Rev. J. Kenrick ..
.. 3892
Dr. Pickering
4400 Henry
.. 5803
Whatever views may be taken of the origin of the human race, there is conclusive reason to believe that the com-
mon date of 4004 years B.O., derived from Archbishop Usher's Bible Chronology, for the period of the Mosaic crea-
tion and the beginning of mankind, is much too recent. It is probable that the actual date of man's creation is
one of those secrets which will ever baffle human scrutiny; but that it is much further back in the records of time
than has been usually supposed, is now regarded as certain by leading authorities.
* The above figures, copied from the Egyptian monuments, may be seen in the works of Lepsius, Rossellini
and Champollion.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA.
47
of the investigation, and the leading trains of argument. Many of the allegations of those who
maintain the unity of the human race are of course contradicted by their opponents. These
admit that climate and situation may modify the physical as well as the moral character of races;
but they insist that, inasmuch as the very organizations differ in essential points—such as the
structure of the hair and skin, the shape of the legs, the position of the pelvis, the formation of
the skull, the volume of the brain, &c., to say nothing of the differences in moral and mental
qualities, which have been permanent for thousands of years—they cannot thus have transformed
one type into another.
It has been argued for the specific unity of man, that the offspring of different species are hy-
brids, and incapable of continuous propagation, and hence, as the various races of men are
prolific with each other, they must be of one species. To this it is replied, in the first place, that
some hybrids among animals are, in fact, fertile to a certain extent; and, in the second place, it is
asserted that the offspring of white and negro parents are so far unprolific, that if they continue
to breed together, the race gradually becomes extinct.
It is further maintained, that by no influence either of moral or physical condition can the Cau-
casians be converted into negroes or the negroes into Caucasians. As the leopard cannot change
his spots, so the Ethiopian cannot change his skin. The last was as much created with a certain
type-physical, moral, and intellectual—as the other; and this, however it may be modified, can
never be essentially changed, unless indeed by adulterations of blood.
* What the negroes are now," says Martin, “they were three thousand years ago. The period
in which the change took place eludes investigation ; nor can it be traced to the influence of
climate or soil. A European, exposed to the fervid rays of the inter-tropics, will indeed become
swarthy, tanned, and sunburnt, but not changed into a negro. The parts of his body not exposed
will not be affected; his swarthiness is accidental and temporary; and his children will be of the
ordinary degree of fairness. But the children of negroes, born in North America or Northern
Europe—their children and their children's children—are still genuine negroes. If the color and
form of the negro were conditions thus acquired, such conditions would not be fixed and perpet-
uated; for, though like produces like—though the race-horse, breeding with the race-horse, pro-
duces a race-horse, or the bull-dog, with its like, produces a bull-dog-still, the mere influence of
climate, effecting, as it would seem, only superficial and transitory impressions, does not establish
them
upon the organization. No people, within the records of history, have been changed into a
race of negroes.
While, however, the negro retains his fixed and distinguishing characters, he is not only sur-
rounded by the descendants of the European colonists, retaining theirs, but by African tribes, not
negroes, differing in tint of skin, physiognomy, hair, and general contour. The Abyssinians,
within ten degrees of the equator, and surrounded by negroes, have a dark olive-color, large,
expressive eyes, and long hair. The Gallas, of the same latitudes, a nation of considerable
extent, have also a brown skin and long hair. The natives of Timbuctoo are not negroes. In
Madagascar, two or three distinct races exist–a true negro race, and an olive-colored, or yellowish-
brown race, with crisp hair, termed by Lesson Madecasses, apparently of the Papuan stock; and
besides these, what appears to be an aboriginal race, inhabiting the interior, with dark skins and
lank hair, called Virzimbers, a branch of the great Alfouro nation, which is spread over the Moluc-
cas, New Guinea, and which also inhabits the interior of the islands of the Indian Archipelago. That
the negroes, then, do not owe their peculiarities to the mere effects of the heat of the torrid zone,
need not be insisted on. The question then arises, whether their origin is to be attributed to that
tendency to variation of form which obtains, more or less, throughout the animal kingdom, result-
ing from circumstances which elude our scrutiny, or whether they are aboriginal, and in this sense
a distinct race ? Could we pierce the darkness of antiquity, the obscure of by-gone time-could
we work out a history of our species, commencing with man's first existence on the globe, we
right solve a question on which many are divided, and to which cach party brings plausible ar-
guments. As it is, we must on many points remain in conjecture, or with only analogy to guide
us. One thing is clear, that no external or physical causes with which physiologists are acquainted
can change a nation of the Celtic or the Teutonic race into the negro, the Papuan, or Alfouro.
66

48.
VERTEBRATA.
Formed for the regions they inhabit, and not by them, the truc circumstances of their primordial
rise are lost in the night of unrecorded ages.
.
“But supposing that the negroes, or that any well-defined races of mankind, be aboriginal, it
does not follow that their specific identity with other races is therefore nullified. That they are
of the same species with the other families of mankind, according to the received ideas of species,
every circumstance tends to establish ; nor does this admission interfere in one way or another
with the question either as to their aboriginal creation, or as to their assumption at some unknown
period of their distinguishing characteristics. If, by the command of the Creator, the earth be-
came covered with grass and herbage—if forests sprung up on the hills—then must millions of
the same species of the vegetable kingdom have simultaneously acquired existence; there is there-
fore little to startle us in the admission that such may have been the case also with respect to the
animal kingdom."*
Finally, we may remark, that the important assumption, so powerfully argued by Prichard, that
the psychological nature of all races is essentially the same in all nations and tribes, is flatly
denied. “There exists," says Dr. Nott, "not the slightest unity of thought on these recondite
points,"—the existence of God and a future state. “Some believe in one God; the greater num-
ber in many: some believe in a future state, while others have no idea of a Deity, nor of the life
hereafter. Many of the African and all Oceanic negroes possess only the crudest and most grovel-
ing superstitions."
Such is a brief outline of some of the leading arguments in favor of the diversity of origin in
the human race. It is not to be denied that there is great force in these suggestions. It is due
to truth also to say, that this doctrine is already maintained by some of the ablest naturalists and
archæologists of the age, while the opinion of its correctness is doubtless becoming more and more
extensive.
The friends of Christianity have regarded this state of things with some alarm, as it seems to
be antagonistical to the Bible, which asserts the descent of all mankind from a single pair.
In reply to this, on the part of those who hold the contrary opinion, it is said that they by no
means attempt to undermine the religious force of the sacred writings. They hold that it was not
the purpose of Revelation to instruct mankind in natural science. In respect to subjects of this
nature, they conceive that the authors of the Bible spoke as things appeared to their minds, within
the range of their knowledge and experience. As the writer of the Pentateuch was acquainted
only with the geography of a very limited portion of Asia and Africa, it was the whole world to
him, and to this, therefore, we are to suppose his historical and descriptive passages refer. This, it
is urged, is in fact no new opinion, it having been held by some of the early fathers of the church,
and even by theologians of more modern date. Thus, in respect to the deluge, they regarded
it as confined to that portion of Asia known to the patriarchal ages. These deemed it incredible
that Noah could have brought into the ark a pair of every species of animals, including those of
America, Oceanica, Europe, and Africa-countries wholly unknown to him and to the people of
and nation. They held that the ark could by no possibilityf have contained the countless
species of the animal kingdom, and hence it is asserted that the Scriptures rather derive strength
from an interpretation which confines the animals that the ark contained to those known in the
region of the Euphrates, as any other view renders the whole account alike incredible and impos-
sible. In short, the propagators of these new doctrines hold that the question under discussion is
not theological, but scientific, as either conclusion leaves the great moral and religious doctrines
of the Bible equally binding upon the consciences of mankind.
his age
* Martin's "Natural History of Man and Monkeys."
+ See "Types of Mankind,'' p. 462.
† Some persons have attempted to explain the Mosaic account of the preservation of every species of animal in
the ark, by supposing that only types of the several kinds were saved, and that the present diversity is the result
of a principle of development inherent in the nature of all created things, animal and vegetable-a system of philos-
ophy which was popularized in some degree by the author of "Vestiges of Creation," a few years since. Besides
other fatal objections to this theory, there is this, in respect to animal and vegetable life, that during the five or six
thousand years in which history instructs us, we have not a single instance or example in which a plant or animal
has permanently changed its species, or shown any tendency to such a result.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA.
49
a
The general results to which the new school of naturalists has arrived on this subject, are
thus stated :
1. That the surface of our globe is naturally divided into several zoological provinces, each of
which is a distinct center of creation, possessing a peculiar fauna and flora, and that every species
of animal and plant was originally assigned to its appropriate province.
2. That the human family offers no exception to the general rule, but fully conforms to it-
mankind being divided into several groups of races, each of which constitutes a primitive element
in the fauna of its peculiar province.
3. That history affords no evidence of the transformation of one type into another, nor of the
origination of a new and permanent type.
4. That certain types have been permanent through all recorded time, and despite moral and
physical influences.
5. That permanence of type is accepted by science as the surest test of specific character.
6. That certain types have existed, the same as now, in and around the valley of the Nile, from
ages anterior to 3500 years before Christ, and consequently long prior to any alphabetic chroni-
cles, sacred or profane.
7. That the ancient Egyptians had already classified mankind, as known to them, into four
races, previously to any date assignable to Moses.
8. That high antiquity for distinct races is amply sustained by linguistic rescarches, by psycho-
logical history, and by anatomical characteristics.
9. That the primeval existence of man, in widely separate portions of the globe, is proven by
the discovery of his osseous and industrial remains in alluvial deposits and in alluvial drifts, and
more especially of his fossil bones, imbedded in various rocky strata along with the vestiges of ex-
tinct species of animals.
10. That prolificacy of distinct species, inter se, is now proved to be no test of common
origin.
11. That those races of men most separated in physical organization, such as the blacks and
the whites, do not amalgamate perfectly, but obey the laws of hybridity. Hence,
12. It follows, as a corollary, that there exists a Genus Homo, embracing many primordial types
or species."*
While we have given the arguments of Agassiz and others who have maintained that there were different centres
of creation, we remain in the belief of the unity of the human race, and the tendency of opinion seems to be in this
direction; but with the advance of knowledge this subject has taken on a new interest, and there remains a deeper
question than those above discussed.
THE DEVELOPMENT OR EVOLUTION HYPOTHESIS, POPULARLY CALLED “THE DARWINIAN THEORY.”
The old school of naturalists held that man and all the other animals, whether we trace their origin to one or
various centres, were directly created; the new school of younger scientific men and naturalists accept the theory of
evolution to account for the development of the universe and all that it contains. This was suggested by Buffon,
and distinctly announced as applied to animals by Dr. Erasmus Darwin in 1794, and was popularized by Vestiges
of Creation. Later, Charles Darwin, in his Origin of Species, familiarized the public with some phases of it, but
the most masterly exposition of the theory is to be found in the writings of Herbert Spencer. His works give a com-
plete elaboration of the idea, and apply the philosophy to the evolution of the universe, the development of the inor-
ganic and organic world, mind, society, and morality. It is, perhaps, but just to say that the theory of evolution
is accepted by a large and increasing number of scholars in Germany and France, by Huxley, Tyndall, Wallace,
Lubbock, and others in England, and wholly or in part by Marsh, Cope, Gray, Dana, Gill, and a constantly-increasing
number of philosophers and naturalists in the United States. It is adopted by many who do not apply it to the
creation of man, and it claims a large share of attention, since its acceptance will profoundly modify our views of
nearly every department of human activity. This is exceedingly interesting, but we can only refer our readers to
the article of Prof. E. L. Youmans of New York, at the close of this volume, for a fuller account of the claims of
the new school of naturalists, and also to the able criticism upon the theory, at the end of the second volume, by Pres.
Julius H. Seelye of Amherst College.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS RACES OF MANKIND.
Zoologically considered, man is an animal belonging to the division Vertebrata, the class
* See “Types of Mankind," p. 465.
VOL I.-7

50
VERTEBRATA.
CAUCASIAN TYPE.
Blumenbach
Mammalia, the order Bimana or Hominidoe, genus Homo, and species Sapiens.
divides the species into five varieties, whose characters are as follows:
1. CAUCASIAN VARIETY.
A white skin, either with a fair rosy tint, or inclining to brown; red cheeks; hair black, or of
the various lighter colors, copious, soft, and generally curved or waving. Irides dark in those
with brown skin ; light in the fair or rosy complexioned. Large cranium with small face; the
upper and anterior regions of the former particularly developed, and the latter falling perpendicu-
larly under them. Face oval and straight, with distinct features ; expanded forehead, narrow and
rather aquiline nose, and small mouth; front teeth of both jaws perpendicular ; lips, particularly
the lower, gently turned out; chin full and rounded. Moral feelings and intellectual powers most
energetic, and susceptible of the highest development and culture.
" The Caucasian,” says an eloquent writer, " differs from all other races : he is humane, he is
civilized, and progresses. He conquers with his head as well as with his hand : it is intellect, ,
after all, that conquers—not the strength of a man's arm. The Caucasian has been often master
of the other races-never their slaves. He has carried his religion to other races, but never taken
theirs. In history, all religions are of Caucasian origin. All the great limited forms of monar-
chies are Caucasian : republies are Caucasian. All the great sciences are of Caucasian origin : all
inventions are Caucasian : literature and romance come of the same stock. All the great poets
are of Caucasian origin : Moses, Luther, Jesus Christ, Zoroaster, Buddha, Pythagoras, were Cauca-
sian. No other race can bring up to memory such celebrated names as the Caucasian race. The

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA.
51
000
wms
MONGOLIAN: GENGHIS KIIAN.
Chinese philosopher, Confucius, is an exception to the rule. To the Caucasian race belong the
Arabian, Persian, Hebrew, Egyptian ; and all the European nations are descended of the Cau-
casian race."
This variety includes all the ancient and modern Europeans except the Finns; the former and
present inhabitants of Western Asia, as far as the river Oby, the Caspian Sea, and the Ganges,
that is, the Assyrians, Medes, and Chaldeans; the Sarmatians, Scythians, and Parthians; the
Philistines, Phenicians, Jews, and the inhabitants of Syria generally; the Tartars, properly so
called ; the tribes actually occupying the chain of Caucasus; the Georgians, Circassians, Mingre-
lians, Armenians; the Turks, Persians, Arabians, Afghans, and Hindoos of high castes; and the
northern Africans, the Egyptians, Abyssinians, and Guanches.
2. THE MONGOLIAN VARIETY.
broad;
Characterized by olive-color, which in many cases is very light, and black eyes; black, straight,
strong, and thin hair; little or no beard; head of a square form, with small and low forehead;
broad and flattened face, with the features running together; the glabella flat and very
nose small and flat; rounded cheeks, projecting externally ; narrow and linear aperture of the
eyelids ; eyes placed very obliquely; slight projection of the chin; large ears; thick lips; stature,
particularly in the countries near the north pole, inferior to that of Europeans.
It thus includes the tribes of Central and Northern Asia, as the Mongols, Calmucks, and Buriats ;
the Mantchoos, Daürians, Tungooses, and Coreans; the Samoiedes, Yukagers
, Tschuktschi, Kori-
acs, and Kamtchatkadales; the Chinese and Japanese; the inhabitants of Tibet and Bootan, of
Tonquin, Cochin China, Ava, Pegu, Cambodia, Laos, and Siam; the Finnish races of Northern
Europe, as the Laplanders and the tribes of Esquimaux.

52
VERTEBRATA.
AFRICAN NEGRO: KING OF ASHANTEE.
3. THE ETHIOPIAN VARIETY.
Skin and eyes black; hair black and woolly; skull compressed laterally, and elongated toward
the front; forehead low, narrow, and slanting ; cheek-bones prominent; jaws narrow and pro-
jecting; upper front teeth oblique ; chin receding. The eyes prominent; the nose broad, thick,
Hat, and confused with the extended jaw; the lips, and particularly the upper one, thick.
All the natives of Africa, not included in the first variety, belong to this.
4. THE AMERICAN VARIETY.
Skin dark, and more or less of a red tint; black, straight, and strong hair; small beard ; and
a countenance and skull very similar to the Mongolian. The forehead low; the eyes deep; the
face broad, particularly across the cheeks, but not so flattened as in the Mongols; mouth large,
and lips rather thick.
This variety includes all the aboriginal Americans except the Esquimaux. Nevertheless, there
seems to be some difference between the Toltec family which founded Mexico and Peru and the
great mass of inferior tribes which remained in a barbarous state. “One of the most singular
features in the history of the American continent," says Cuvier, “ is, that the aboriginal races, with
few exceptions, have perished, or constantly receded, before the Anglo-Saxon race, and have in no
instance either mingled with them as equals, or adopted their manners and civilization."
“ The barbarous races of America," says Dr. Nott, “excluding the Toltecs, are essentially un-

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 1. BIMANA.
53
AMERICAN INDIAN: LOGAN, THE MINGO CHIEF.
tamable, not merely because all attempts to civilize them have failed, but also every endeavor to
enslave them. Our Indian tribes submit to extermination, rather than wear the yoke under which
our negro slaves fatten and multiply. It has been falsely asserted that the Choctaw and Cherokee
Indians have made great progress in civilization. I assert positively, after most ample investiga-
tion of the facts, that the pure-blooded Indians are everywhere unchanged in their habits. Many
white persons settling among the above tribes have intermarried with them, and all such trumpeted
progress exists among these whites and their mixed breeds, alone. The pure-blooded savage still
.
skulks untamed through the forest, or gallops athwart the prairie. Can any one call the name of
a single pure Indian of the barbarous tribes, who-except in death, like a wild-cat-has done any
thing worthy of remembrance ???
a
5. THE MALAY VARIETY.
dant;
Brown color, from a light tawny to a deep brown. Hair black, more or less curled, and abun-
head rather narrow; bones of the face large and prominent; nose full, and broad toward
the
apex; mouth large. In this are included the inhabitants of Malacca, of Sumatra, Java, Bor-
neo, Celebes, and the adjacent Asiatic islands; of the Molucca, Ladrone, Philippine, Marian, and
Caroline groups; of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Zealand, and of all the
islands of the South Sea.
The epithet Oceanic is sometimes applied to this group, because, with the exception of the pen-
insula of Malacca, the tribes belonging to it are the inhabitants of islands exclusively. With the ex-
ception of Mauritius, the Isle of Bourbon, Ceylon, the Seychelles, the Maldives, and the Laccadives

54
VERTEBRATA.
www.am
Münly
ph
W
MALAY
in the Indian Ocean, and the Japanese empire, with the islands to the north thereof in the Chinese
Sea, every inhabited spot of land in the Indian and Pacific Oceans is occupied by tribes of one
and the same race which is embraced by this division. Not only is this race to be found spread
over these islands, but apparently nowhere else. “In the peninsula of Malacca," says Dr. Latham, ,
" and on no other part of the main-land of Asia, is an Oceanic tribe to be detected.” Although
united by naturalists, the Oceanic races exhibit two types. One class is yellow, olive, brunette, or
brown, with long, black, and straight hair. Another class is black rather than yellow; the hair
is sometimes long and straight, but in other cases crisp, curly, frizzy, or even woolly. The social,
moral, and intellectual difference between these two classes is not less than their physical. The
black division inhabits New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, New Ireland, and the islands between it
and New Caledonia. The brown division occupies all the rest of the Oceanic area, Sumatra, Bor-
neo, Java, the Moluccas, the Philippines, the South Sea Islands, the Carolinas, &c. The names
given to these divisions are as follows:
1. For the lighter-complexioned straight-haired type-Malay.
2. For the type that partakes of the character of the African negro inhabiting New Guinea,
Australia, and what may be called the continuous localities for the unmixed black-Negrito.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
55
REDMAN & KENNYENGR NYE
ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
The Quadrumana embrace four sections—the Monkey-like family, the Lemurs, the Cheiromys,
or Aye-aye, and the Flying-lemurs. These differ in many important respects, yet they all agree
in having four hands, fitting them peculiarly for an arboral existence. In many of the species the
anterior limbs have but four fingers, with the thumbs confined to the hind feet. Notwithstand-
ing their conformation, they are all as true quadrupeds as most of the clawed mammalia, for in a
state of nature they appear never to walk on the hind legs, which are in fact too weak to be em-
ployed, as in the human subject, for the sole organs of locomotion; and besides, the structure of
the foot, even in those most resembling man, is such that when on the ground it treads on the
side, and not on the palm. The legs also are set in such a manner as to tread outward, and thus
to be incapable of bearing a great weight.
THE MONKEY-LIKE ANIMALS: SIMIAD Æ.
These, which are greatly diversified in form, are exceedingly numerous in species. They in-
clude the Apes, Semnopithecs, Colobes, Guenons, or Cercopithecs, Mangabeys, Macakes, Magots,
Cynopithecs, and Baboons, belonging to the Eastern Continent, and, with the exception of a few
Barbary apes at Gibraltar, confined to Asia and Africa; and the Howlers, Lagothrix, Eriodes,
Ateles, Sajous, Callithrix, Saimiri, Nyctipithecs, Sakis, and Ouistitis, belonging to the Western
Continent. All are natives of hot countries, and are incapable of subsisting in cold and tem-
perate climates, except by the aid of man.
In addition to the hands on the posterior as well as anterior members, with long and flexible
fingers and opposable thumbs, which constitute the primary characters of the order, the monkey
tribe in general is distinguished by the following peculiarities. Their incisor teeth are invariably
four in each jaw; and their molars, like those of man, are flat, and surmounted by blunted tuber-
cles. The latter are five in number on each side of either jaw, in all the monkeys of the old con-
tinent, and in one very distinct tribe belonging to the new; but most of the American species are
furnished with a sixth. Their canines vary considerably in size, and form a trifling projection beyond
the remaining teeth, to a long powerful tusk, almost equaling those of the most formidable car-
nivora; and from this structure it necessarily follows that a vacant space is left between the incisors
a

56
VERTEBRATA.
trans
BRAZILIAN FOREST : THE MONKEYS AT HOME.
and the canines of the upper jaw, and between the canines and the molars of the lower, for the
reception and lodgment of those organs when the mouth is closed. The nails of all their fingers,
as well as those of the thumbs, are invariably flat and expanded.
In almost every other point, they are subject to infinite variations of form and structure. The
shape of the head, which in one or two species offers a close approximation to the human form,
passes through numerous intermediate gradations, until it reaches a point at which it can only be
compared with that of the hound. The body, which is in general slight and well-made, is in some

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
57
GARDEN OF PLANTS, PARIS : THE MONKEYS ABROAD.
few instances remarkably short and thick-set, and in others drawn out to a surprising degree of
tenuity. Their limbs vary greatly in their proportions, but in most of them the anterior are longer
than the posterior : in all, they are admirably adapted to the purposes to which they are applied
in climbing and leaping, by the slenderness of their form, the flexibility of their joints, and the
muscular activity with which these qualities are so strikingly combined. But of all their organs,
there is perhaps none which exhibits so remarkable a discrepancy in every particular as the tail,
which is entirely wanting in some, forms a mere tubercle in others, in a third group is short and
VOL 1.-8

58
VERTEBRATA.
a
tapering, in a fourth of moderate length and cylindrical, in a fifth extremely long, but uniformly
covered with hair; in others, again, of equal length, divested of hair beneath and near the tip,
and capable of being twisted round the branch of a tree, or any other similar substance, in such a
manner as to support the whole weight of the animal, even without the assistance of its hands.
In none of them, it may be observed, are the hands formed for swimming, or the nails con-
structed for digging the earth; and in none of them is the naked, callous portion, which corre-
sponds to the sole or the palm, capable of being applied, like the feet of man or of the bear, to the
flat surfaces on which they may occasionally tread. Even in those which have the greatest pro-
pensity to assume an upright posture, the body is, under such circumstances, wholly supported by
the outer margins of the posterior hands. The earth, in fact, is not their proper place of abode;
they are essentially inhabitants of trees, and every part of their organization is admirably fitted
for the mode of life to which they were destined by the hand of nature herself.
Throughout the vast forests of Asia,* Africa, and South America, and more especially in those
portions of these continents which are comprehended within the tropics, they congregate in nu-
merous troops, bounding rapidly from branch to branch, and from tree to tree, in search of the
fruits and eggs which constitute their principal means of subsistence. In the course of these pere-
grinations, which are frequently executed with a velocity scarcely to be followed by the eye, they
seem to give a momentary, and but a momentary, attention to every remarkable object that falls
in their
way, but never appear to remember it again, for they will examine the same object with
the same rapidity as often as it occurs, and apparently without in the least recognizing it as that
which they had seen before. They pass on a sudden from a state of seeming tranquillity to the
most violent demonstrations of passion and sensuality, and in the course of a few minutes run
through all the various phases of gesture and action of which they are capable, and for which
their peculiar conformation affords ample scope. The females treat their
young
with the greatest
tenderness until they become capable of shifting for themselves, when they turn them loose upon
the world, and conduct toward them from that time forward in the same manner as toward the
most perfect strangers.
The degrees of their intelligence, which in general is very limited, and is not capable of being
made subservient to the purposes of man, except as a show in a menagerie, vary almost as much
as the ever-changing outline of their form. From the grave and reflective orang-outang, whose
docility and powers of imitation in his voung state have been the theme of great wonder and
equal exaggeration, to the coarse and brutal baboon, the gradations are gradual and easy. А
remarkable circumstance connected with the development of the faculty of being educated, or
perhaps we should rather say, with its gradual extinction, consists in the fact, that it is only in
young animals which have not yet attained their full growth that it is capable of being brought
into play,—the older individuals, even of the most tractable races, entirely losing their gayety, and
with it the docility of their youth, and becoming at length nearly as stupid and as savage as the
most barbarous of the tribe.
Although, as we have said, nearly all the monkeys, as well as the apes, live on fruits and the
eggs of birds, still many of them devour small birds and quadrupeds, and some occasionally feed
on fish. We are told that certain species display great address in getting at the flesh of shell-fish.
The oysters of the tropical climates being larger than ours, the monkeys, when they reach the
sea-side, pick up stones and thrust them between the open shells, which being thus prevented
from closing, the cunning animals eat the fish at their ease. In order to attract crabs, they put
their tails before the holes in which they have taken refuge. When they have fastened on the
bait, the monkeys suddenly withdraw their tails, and thus drag their prey on shore.
It is to be remarked that our acquaintance with the monkey tribe is chiefly founded upon
* In the Garden of Plants, at Paris, there is a large circular rotunda, inclosed by wire, within which the numer-
ous monkeys of the establishment are permitted to go at large. Here may be seen almost every variety, from the
large and grave chimpanzee to the ouistiti, little and lively as a squirrel. This gallery is the favorite resort of spec-
tators, and especially of children. Nothing can exceed the tricks, caprices, frolics, and grimaces of these four-handed
people-many of their actions being exceedingly ludicrous from their resemblance to things we have all seen in cer-
tain people of our acquaintance. (See engraving, p. 57.)

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
59
id
species in a state of confinement. We are liable, therefore, to view them in a false light. As in-
habitants of the wild overgrown forests of tropical countries, living without care on the sponta-
neous products of nature, gifted with amazing powers of leaping, climbing, and swinging amid
the leafy branches of the trees-en-
dowed with a ceaseless spirit of activity
-inspired with an irresistible love of
frolic and fun—they seem happily de.
signed, in companionship with bright-
winged birds and gorgeous flowers, to
embellish the pathless wilderness, their
home. Taken from this, and brought
into the society of man, they are not
only in situations altogether at vari-
ance with their nature, but they are
apt to be regarded as disgusting cari-
catures of him who claims to be the
lord of creation. Men hate carica-
tures, especially those which reflect
their follies and their weaknesses in a
manner to make them ridiculous, and
See page 58.
hence there is a standing grudge on
the part of man against the monkey. This spite is well displayed in the attempt of certain the-
ologians to prove the Serpent of Paradise to have been an ape.
Nevertheless, caricatures as they may be, monkeys are exceedingly diverting creatures, and
are the great attraction of all menageries. At Barnum's Museum, in New York, there is a collec-
tion of incongruous animals—monkeys of various kinds, a cat, a dog, several rats, a peccary, a hen,
a rooster, a hawk, a capybara, a coati, &c.—all living peaceably together, and called the “Happy
Family." Though somewhat subdued by their situation, these creatures severally indicate some-
thing of their natures. Pussy sleeps; the peccary is restless, and utters impatient grunts; the rats
crawl and nestle together; the coati rushes from side to side, seeking to find a place in the grat-
ing by which he may escape; and in the midst of all this, the monkeys rollick with one another,
making an occasional dash, like mischievous boys, at the other animals, to tease and irritate them.
Children spectators always regard these monkeys as the heroes of the play.
The Monkeys of the Old and the New World differ from each other in several remarkable
points, some of which are characteristic of all the species of each ; while others, although afford-
ing good and tangible means of discrimination, are but partially applicable. Thus the nostrils of
all the species inhabiting the Old World are anterior, like those of man, and divided only by a
narrow septum : in those of the New World, on the contrary, they are invariably separated by a
broad division, and consequently occupy a position more or less lateral. It is from this difference
of structure that the former are denominated Catarrhina, from the Greek kata, downward, and
rhin, nose ; and the latter Platyrrhinc, from the Greek platus, flat, and rhin, nose : these terms
being descriptive of the two families.
The tails of all the American monkeys are of great length, but they differ more or less from
each other in the power of suspending themselves by means of that organ-a faculty which is
nevertheless common to the greater number of them, and of which those of the Old World are
entirely destitute. On the other hand, the American species never exhibit any traces of two
remarkable provisions—the callosities on the haunches or of the cheek-pouches; both of which
are nearly universal with the monkeys proper of the Asiatic and African races. For the for-
mer of these peculiarities, no use is known; the cheek-pouches, which are membraneous sacks
on each side of the mouth, are employed to carry food, and some are sufficiently capacious to hold
a supply for two days. These characteristics do not belong to the higher apes.
We shall embrace our description of the monkey family under the following divisions : 1st, The
TRUE APES; 2d, THE OLD-WORLD MONKEYS; 3d, THE AMERICAN MONKEYS.

60
VERTEBRATA.
ill
The
THE CHIMPANZEE, CALLED JACQUELINE, AT THE GARDEN OF PLANTS, PARIS.
1. THE TRUE APES: ANTHROPOMORPHA.
The leading group of the quadrumana is that in which the animals are destitute alike of tails
and cheek-pouches. These are called the anthropomorphous apes, as they possess the highest in-
telligence, and the greatest resemblance to man in their structure. Of these, there are three
genera—those of the Chimpanzee, the Orang, and the Gibbon. In regard to the species belonging
to these, there has been until recently great confusion. Buffon considered the chimpanzee as
identical with the orang, but it is ascertained to be distinct. The gorilla was also supposed to
be the same as the chimpanzee: it is now known to be a separate species. The pongo was
regarded as a distinct species, but has proved to be the adult orang.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
61
voor
6
Genus CHIMPANZEE, or Kimpanze, Troglodytes.—Of this genus there are two species—the
common Chimpanzee and the Gorilla.
The CHIMPANZEE, Troglodytes niger—sometimes called the Black Orang—is a native of Guinea
and the adjacent country, and has been long known in Europe. It is more like the human
species than any other of the animal tribes. “Indeed, every one," says M. Boitard, “ on observing
a chimpanzee for the first time, is struck with his great
resemblance to mankind, not only in his form, but in
his actions, his gestures, and even some of his habits.
The various names he has received in his native coun-
try are proofs of this fact. The negroes call him Pongo,
which is also the name of one of their great fetiches, a
sort of forest genius; in Angola, they call him cojas
morros, which in their language signifies Man of the
forest; in Congo, he is called the Eujoko, which in the
language of the country is the imperative of the verb
to hold one's tongue—that is, Eujoko, hold your
tongue! We conceive the origin of the name, in the
fact that the negroes of Congo imagine that the chim-
panzee does not speak because he does not wish to do
so, for he fears he should be made a slave, and forced
to work. But all these words are merely epithets added
to the word kimpanze, under which title he is known to
all the natives on the coast of Guinea. The traveler
Lecat calls the name kimpézey, and G. Cuvier chim-
panzé." We
may
further remark, that the chimpanzee
is the only one of the quadrumana that can walk erect
with tolerable ease.
Its nose is quite flat, and the nostrils open upward.
The mouth is wide, and the lips thin. The cars are
large, thin, and naked. Its height is about four and
SKELETON OF CHIMPANZEE.
a half or five feet, when it stands up; its body is cov-
ered with black hair, except the face, which is nearly naked, and approaches the color of flesh,
In youth, the shape of its skull greatly resembles that of man, but as it advances in age, the facial
angle grows more acute, until at full maturity it resembles that of the baboon. Its character
seems to undergo corresponding changes, for while young it is gentle and docile, yet becomes
fierce and intractable when it has attained its full growth,—a remark that is equally applicable
to the other apes. Most of the accounts which we have had of the chimpanzee, giving it a high
character for docility and amiableness, have reference to young specimens.
The habits of this species in a state of nature have been imperfectly known, and hence the sub-
ject has been embellished with a multitude of curious marvels. It appears that they live in small
troops in the deep forests, and subsist mainly on vegetable food. They construct for themselves huts
of branches and leaves, in the trees. These are, however, very slight and rude, and are not roofed
over,—a circumstance which subjects them to the scoffs of the negroes. These cabins are only
occupied during storms and in cases of sickness. At other times, these creatures sleep in the open
air
upon the branches of trees, sitting on their hind-legs, the body bent forward and the head
resting on the breast. They are, in fact, like other members of the family, arboral animals,
though it may be said that the chimpanzee is more at home on the ground than any other
species. They run on their lower extremities without difficulty, holding up the arms, or grasping
the thighs with their hands, though this is not their usual mode of progression. They are said to
unite in pairs. The female is very careful of her young, caressing it with the utmost tenderness.
She carries it on her arms, in the manner of a nurse, when she has but a short distance to go;
but if she has a journey to perform, she places the little one on her back, where it clings to its
mother precisely in the manner of the little negroes. She is fondly attached to her young ones,

62
VERTEBRATA.
and keeps them with her long after they are weaned. The male, on the contrary, chases them
away as soon as they are capable of obtaining a living.
So much appears to be well authenticated. The natives of the Gaboon country, where they
seem to be most common, assert that these animals frequently unite to attack the elephant, lion,
and other beasts of prey, with clubs and stones, especially if they approach their cabins. It is
also said to be dangerous for individuals to venture alone into their domains. So far, the story is
probable; but when we are told that these animals bury their dead, and cover them in a manner
to defend them from the hyenas; that they dress gun-shot and other wounds with pounded herbs,
and bind up the parts with strips of bark; and, finally, that the males frequently carry off and
make companions of young negresses, whom they treat with great tenderness, so that some of them
who have returned from this captivity expressed themselves extremely well satisfied with their
adventures ;—we may well conclude that we have entered the regions of romance.
The accounts of the chimpanzee in a state of captivity are full of interest. Buffon describes
one which he saw, and which at that time he supposed to be the same as the orang, as follows:
* I have seen this animal give his hand to people who visited him, walking gravely with them as
if one of them; I have seen him seat himself at the table, unfold his napkin, wipe his mouth with
it, use his knife and fork to eat with, and pour water into his glass and drink the health of those
who visited him; I have seen him take a cup and saucer, bring them to the table, put in the
sugar, pour in the tea, allow it to cool before he drank it, and all this without any other motion
than a word or sign from his keeper, and often of his own accord. He was extravagantly fond of
bonbons : he drank wine in small quantities, but preferred milk, or tea, or other mild drinks.
“ In captivity,” he adds, “ the chimpanzee, if one can believe what travelers say, can be as use-
ful as the negroes. At Loango, a female chimpanzee had been seen to fetch water in a pitcher,
and to bring wood from the forest; she would also make beds, sweep, and assist the cook to turn
the spit, &c. She once fell sick; a physician bled her, and by so doing saved her life. A year
after, being threatened with inflammation of the lungs, she was confined to her bed. When the
same physician was called to attend her, she held out her arm to him, and made signs to him to
bleed her."
M. De Grandpré, an officer in the French marine, nearly a century since, having lived in
Angola two years, gives us the following particulars : “The intelligence of the chimpanzee is truly
wonderful : he sometimes walks upright, and leans upon the branch of a tree in the manner of a
The negroes are in great fear of him in his wild state; and not without reason, for he
often ill treats them when they meet him. They say that it is only from idleness that he re-
frains from speaking, or perhaps from the fear of being made to work; as they are confident
that these animals can both talk and work like men, if they will. Of this the negroes are so
strongly persuaded, that when they meet them they generally address them as if they were
human beings.
“ Notwithstanding all my efforts to procure an individual of this species, I have met with no
success; but I have seen a female on board a vessel, and wishing to measure and examine her,
she allowed me to do it with great complaisance and evident interest.
complaisance and evident interest. As it would be tedious to
recount all that I learned of the intelligence of this animal, I will give only the most remarkable
instances. She had been taught to heat the oven, using great discretion in her manner of putting
in the wood, and watching narrowly that the coals should not fall and set the vessel on fire. She
waited until she thought the oven sufficiently hot for baking, and then ran to tell the cook, who,
sure of the sagacity of his assistant, hurried to put in his bread or cake, the animal never failing
in a single instance to warn him at the proper
time.
“ In turning the capstan, she assisted the sailors, and performed her part with more skill and
strength than were showed by any of them. When the sails were to be unfurled, she went aloft
with the sailors and assisted them in the work : she would have insisted upon performing the
most dangerous services, if the men had allowed it. She tied the ropes as well as any of them;
and observing that the ends were tied to prevent their hanging down, she did the same to the
ropes of which she was in charge. Her hand one day being caught between the bolt-rope and
the yard, she disengaged it without making either outcry or grimace: when the work was fin-
cane.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
63
ished, she showed her superiority in agility by passing over the bodies of the men and descending
to the deck in the twinkling of an eye.
“This interesting animal died on the passage to America, owing to the brutality of the mate,
who treated her with great unkindness. She submitted to his violence with a mildness and resig-
nation that were truly affecting, holding out her hands with a suppliant air, as if to beg him to
cease from striking her. From that moment she constantly refused nourishment, and died of
hunger and grief on the fifth day, regretted by the sailors as if she had been a human being.”
Among the most recent accounts is that of Captain Payne, who thus describes the manners of
a young chimpanzee which he carried from the African coast to England a few years since :
* When our animal came on board, it shook hands with some of the sailors, but refused its hand
with marks of anger to others without any apparent cause. It speedily, however, became familiar
with the crew, except one boy, to whom it never was reconciled. When the seamen's mess was
brought on deck, it was a constant attendant; would go round and embrace each person, while it
uttered loud yells, and then seat itself among them to share the repast. It sometimes expressed
its anger by a barking noise like a dog; at others it would cry like a froward child, and scratch
itself most vehemently. When any favorite morsel was given to it-sweetmeats more especially
-it expressed its satisfaction by a sound like 'hem,' in a grave voice. The variety of its tones
seems to have been small. It was active and cheerful in warm latitudes, but languor came on as it
left the torrid zone; and on approaching our shores it manifested a desire for warm covering, and
would roll itself carefully up in a blanket when it went to rest. It generally progressed on all-
fours, but closing its fists, rested on the knuckles. It did not seem fond of the erect posture, which
it rarely affected, though it could run nimbly on two feet for a short distance. In this case it
appeared to aid the motion of its legs by grasping the thighs with its hands.
“ It had great strength in the four fingers of its superior extremity, for it would often swing by
them on a rope upward of an hour without intermission. When first procured, it was so thickly
covered with hair that the skin of the trunk and limbs was scarcely visible until the long black
hair was blown aside. It ate readily every sort of vegetable food; but at first did not appear to
.
relish flesh, though it seemed to have pleasure in sucking the leg-bone of a fowl. At that time it
did not relish wine, but afterward seemed to like it, though it never could endure ardent spirits.
It once stole a bottle of wine, which it uncorked with its teeth and began to drink. It showed a
predilection for coffee, and was immoderately fond of sweet articles of food. It learned to feed
itself with a spoon, to drink out of a glass, and showed a general disposition to imitate the actions
It was attracted by bright metals, seemed to take a pride in clothing, and often put a
cocked hat on its head. It was dirty in its habits, and never was known to wash itself. It was
afraid of fire-arms, and on the whole appeared a timid animal.”
It lived with Captain Payne seventeen weeks, two of which were spent in Cork and Liverpool.
At the former place it was exhibited for the benefit of the soup-kitchen for a few days, but seems
to have been there neglected. On coming to Liverpool it languished for a short time, moaned
heavily, was oppressed in its breathings, and died with convulsive motions of the limbs.
A few years since, the Parisians flocked to the Garden of Plants to see a young female of this
species, called Jacqueline. She was good, mild, and affectionate. She recognized perfectly the
people who often visited her, and showed her pleasure by caressing them. If any one teased
her, she would sob and cry like an infant, go into the corner of her cell, and pout for some
moments in silence. But her anger gave way before the least sign of kindness; she then wiped
her eyes, and came back without vexation to those who had offended her. M. Boitard thus
describes this animal :
“ Although she was very young, being only two years and a half old, her intelligence was
already quite developed. Of this, I will give two examples, which I think remarkable, and of
which I was an eye-witness. One of my friends having taken off his gloves, laid them on the
table. Jacqueline immediately took them and tried to put them on, but she could not succeed in
her wish, because she put the right hand into the left-hand glove. She was shown her mistake,
and she comprehended so perfectly, that, although she has often been tried since, she has never
failed to put the right hand in the right glove.
a
of men.

64
VERTEBRATA.
a
“M. Werner, a celebrated painter of natural history, wished to make a sketch of her. Jacqueline
showed great surprise on seeing her image on the paper, and made signs that she wished to draw
also. They gave her a pencil and paper, and seating herself gravely at the table of the artist,
.
traced with great joy some large figures and lines. As she bore on heavily, the point of her
pencil broke, and she was very much vexed. To console her, the drawing-master cut her pencil,
and, learning by experience, she did not bear on so heavily the next time. Having observed M.
Werner put the point of the pencil into his mouth, she did the same, but in so doing she always
broke the point with her teeth. It was impossible to prevent this, and so they were obliged to
put an end to her artistic studies. She tried to sew, in imitation of the woman who took care of
her, but she constantly pricked her fingers. She therefore threw her work away, and jumping
,
upon a rope that had been stretched across the room for her amusement, she made some turn-
overs that would have astonished the boldest rope-dancer.
“ Jacqueline had a dog and cat that she was very fond of. She allowed them to sleep with her,
one on each side; but notwithstanding this apparent familiarity, she knew how to preserve the
place due to her on account of her superior intelligence, and when she judged it necessary, chas-
tised them severely to make them obedient to her, and to force them to live together without
quarreling
"Poor Jacqueline was in the habit of washing her hands and face every morning with cold
water. These ablutions, added to the rigors of a climate so different from that of Africa, probably
caused the consumption of which she died. Jack, the orang-outang that had lived in the cell
before her arrival, and also the chimpanzees formerly owned by Buffon and the Empress Josephine,
died of the same disease.”
Many other accounts have been furnished of the chimpanzee, from which we select the follow-
ing description of a young male of this species : it was read before the Zoological Society of Lon-
don, October 27th, 1835, by Mr. Broderip. Its habits, in a state of confinement, are drawn with
graphic power and a spirit truly delightful :
The interesting animal whose habits in captivity I attempt to describe, was brought to Bristol
in the autumn of this year, by Captain Wood, from the Gambia coast. The natives, from whom
he received it, stated that they had brought it about one hundred and twenty miles from the
interior of the country, and that its age was about twelve months. The mother was with it, and,
according to their report, stood four feet six inches in height. Her they shot, and so became
possessed of her young one. During the period of his being on ship-board, in coming to England,
he was very lively. He had a free range, frequently ran up the rigging, and showed great affec-
tion for those sailors who treated him kindly.
“I saw him for the first time on the 14th instant, in the kitchen belonging to the keeper's
apartments. Dressed in a little Guernsey shirt, or banyan jacket, he was sitting, child-like, in the
lap of a good old woman, to whom he clung whenever she made a show of putting him down.
His aspect was mild and pensive, like that of a little withered old man; and his large eyes, hair-
less and wrinkled visage, and manlike ears, surmounted by the black hair of his head, rendered
the resemblance very striking, notwithstanding the depressed nose and the projecting mouth. He
had already become very fond of his good old nurse, and she had evidently become attached to
her nursling, though they had been acquainted only three or four days; and it was with difficulty
that he permitted her to go away to do her work in another part of the building. In her lap he
was perfectly at his ease; and it seemed to me that he considered her as occupying the place of
his mother. He was constantly reaching up with his hand to the fold of her neckerchief, though
when he did so she checked him, saying, “No, Tommy, you must not pull the pin out. When
not otherwise occupied, he would sit quietly in her lap, pulling his toes about with his fingers
with the same pensive air as a human child exhibits when amusing itself in the same manner.
I wished to examine his teeth ; and when his nurse, in order to make him open his mouth, threw
him back in her arms and tickled him, just as she would have acted toward a child, the caricature
was complete.
“ I offered him my ungloved hand. He took it mildly in his, with a manner equally exempt
form forwardness and fear : examining it with his eyes, and perceiving a ring on one of my fingers,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMA NA
65
១)
1991
TOMMY
submitted that, and that only, to a very cautious and gentle examination with his teeth, so as not
to leave any mark on the ring. I then offered him my other hand with the glove on. This he
felt, looked at it, turned it about, and then tried it with his teeth. His sight and his ordinary
touch seemed to satisfy him in the case of a natural surface; but, as it appeared to me, he required
something more to assure his senses when an artificial surface was presented to him, and then he
applied the test of his teeth.
"At length it became necessary for his kind nurse to leave him, and, after much remonstrance
on his part, she put him on the floor. He would not leave her, however, and walked nearly erect
by her side, holding by her gown, just like a child. At last she got him away by offering him a
peeled raw potato, which he ate with great relish, holding it in his right hand. His keeper, who
is
very
attentive to him, and whom he likes very much, then made his appearance, and spoke to
him. Tommy—for by that name they called him-evidently made an attempt to speak, too,
gesticulating as he stood, nearly erect, protruding his lips, and making a hoarse noise, 'hoo-hoo,
somewhat like a deaf and dumb person endeavoring to articulate. He soon showed a disposition
to play with me, jumping on his lower extremities opposite to me, like a child, and looking at me
with an expression indicating a wish for a game of romps. I confess I complied with his wish,
and a capital game of play we had.
“On another occasion, and when he had become familiar with me, I caused, in the midst of his
play, a looking-glass to be brought, and held it before him. His attention was instantly and
strongly arrested; from the utmost activity he became immovably fixed, steadfastly gazing at the
mirror with eagerness, and something like wonder depicted on his face. He at length looked up
at me, then again gazed at the glass. The tips of my fingers appeared at one side as I held it: he
put his hands and then his lips to them; then looked behind the glass; then gazed again at its
VOL. I.--9
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66
VERTEBRATA.
a
surface; touched my hand again ; and then applied his lips and teeth to the surface of the glass;
looked behind again, and then returning to gaze, passing his hands behind it, evidently to feel if
there was any thing substantial there. A savage would have acted much in the same way, judg-
ing from the accounts given of such experiments with the untutored natives of a wild and newly
discovered land.
" I broke a sugared almond in two, and as he was eating one half, placed the other, while he was
watching me, in a little card-box, which I shut in his presence: as soon as he had finished the
piece of almond which he had, I gave him the box. With his teeth and hands he pulled off the
cover, took out the other half, and then laid the box down. He ate the kernel of this almond,
rejecting the greater part of the sugary paste in which it was incased, as if it had been a shell;
but he soon found out his error, for, another almond being presented to him, he carefully sucked
off the sugar, and left the kernel.
“ I then produced a wine-glass, into which I poured some racy sherry, and further sweetened it
with sugar. He watched me with some impatience, and when I gave him the glass, he raised it
with his hands to his lips and drank a very little. It was not to his taste, however, for he set
down the glass almost as full as he had taken it up; and yet he was thirsty, for I caused a teacup,
with some sugared warm milk and water, to be handed to him, and he took the cup and drained
it to the last drop.
"I presented him with a cocoa-nut, to the shell of which some of the husk was still adhering :
the tender bud was just beginning to push forth ; this he immediately bit off and ate. He then
stripped off some of the husk with his teeth, swung it by the knot of adhering husk-fibers round
his head, dashed it down, and repeatedly jumped upon it with all his weight. He afterward
swung
it about, and dashed it down with such violence, that, fearing his person might suffer, I
had it taken away. A hole was afterward bored through one of the eyes, and the cocoa-nut was
again given to him. He immediately held it up, with the aperture downward, applied his mouth
to it, and sucked away at what milk there was with great glee.
“As I was making notes with a pencil, he came up, inquisitively looked at the paper and pencil,
and then took hold of the latter. Before I gave it up, I drew the pencil into the case, foreseeing
that he would submit the pencil-case to examination by the teeth. Immediately that he got it
into his possession, he put the tip of his little finger to the aperture at the bottom, and, having
looked at it, tried the case with his teeth.
" While his attention was otherwise directed, I had caused a hamper containing one of the
Pythons, or great serpents, to be brought into the room, and placed on a chair not far from the
kitchen-dresser. The lid was raised, the blanket in which the snake was enveloped was opened,
and soon after Tommy came gamboling that way. As he jumped and danced along the dresser
toward the basket, he was all gayety and life. Suddenly he seemed to be taken aback, stopped,
then cautiously advanced toward the basket, peered, or rather craned over it, and instantly, with a
gesture of horror and aversion, and the cry of Hoo! hoo! recoiled from the detested object,
jumped back as far as he could, and then sprang to his keeper for protection. He was again put
down, his attention diverted from the basket, and after a while tempted to its neighborhood by
the display of a fine rosy-checked apple, which was at last held on the opposite rim of the ham-
per. But, no!—he would evidently have done a good deal to get at the apple; but the gulf
wherein the serpent lay was to be passed, and, after some slight contention between hunger and
horror, off he went, and hid himself. I then covered up the snake, and after luring him out with
the apple, placed it on the blanket. No! I then shut down the lid : still the same desire and
the same aversion. I then had the hamper, with the lid down, removed from the chair on which
it had been placed to another part of the room. The apple was again shown to Tommy, and
placed on the lid. He advanced cautiously, looking back at the empty chair, and then at the
hamper : he advanced further with evident reluctance, but, when he approached near, he peered
forward toward the basket, and, as if overcome by fright, again ran back, and hid himself under
his cage.
"I now caused the hamper with the serpent to be taken out of the room. Our friend soon
came forward. I showed him the apple, and placed it on the chair. He advanced a little, and I

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
67
a
patted his head and encouraged him. He then came forth, and went about the room, looking
carefully, as if to satisfy himself that the snake was gone; advanced to the chair more boldly ;
looked under it, and took the apple, and ate it with great appetite, dancing about, and resuming
all his former gayety.
* We know that there are large constricting serpents in Africa; and, as the animal must have
been very young when separated from its parents, I made this experiment in particular to try his
instinct: it succeeded, to the entire satisfaction of the witnesses who were present.
“He manifested aversion to a small living tortoise, but nothing like the horror which he be-
trayed at sight of the snake.
* Tommy, among other exercises, is very fond of swinging. He places himself on the swing,
“
,
generally in a sitting posture, holding on each side with his hands. He not unfrequently puts up
his feet, and grasps the cord on either side with them too, apparently more at home on his slack-
rope
than Il Diavolo Antonio himself.
* James Hunt, one of the keepers, has observed him frequently sitting and leaning his head on
his hand, attentively looking at the keepers when at their supper, and watching, to use Hunt's
expression, every bit they put into their mouths. Fuller, the head-keeper, informs me that our
chimpanzee generally takes his rest in a sitting posture, leaning rather forward, with folded arms,
and sometimes with his face in his hands. Sometimes he sleeps prone, with his legs rather drawn
up, and his head resting on his arms.
“Of the black orangs or chimpanzees which I have seen, Tommy is by far the most lively. He
is in the best health and spirits, and is a very different animal from the drooping, sickly ones that
I have hitherto seen. A good deal of observation made on the Asiatic orangs which have been
exhibited in this country, satisfies me that the intelligence of the African orang is superior to that
of the Asiatic. This intelligence is entirely different from that of a well-educated dog, or a mere
mimic, and gives me the idea of an intellect more resembling that of a human being than of any
other animal, though still infinitely below it.
“ Tommy does not like confinement; and when he is shut into his cage, the violence with which
he pulls at and shakes the door is very great, and shows considerable strength ; but I have never
seen him use this exertion against any other part of the cage, though his keeper has endeavored
to induce him to do so, in order to see whether he would make the distinction. When at liberty,
he is extremely playful; and in his high jinks I saw him toddle into a corner where an unlucky
bitch was lying with a litter of very young pups, and lay hold of one of them, till the snarling of
the mother, and the voice of his keeper, to which he pays instant respect, made him put
the
pup
down. He then climbed up to the top of the cage where the marmosets were, and jumped furi-
ously upon it, evidently to astonish the inmates; who were astonished accordingly, and huddled
together, looking up in consternation at this dreadful pother o'er their heads. Then he went to
a window, opened it, and looked out. I was afraid that he might make his escape; but the words
“ Tommy, no! pronounced by his keeper in a mild but firm tone, caused him to shut the window
and come away. He is, in truth, a most docile and affectionate animal, and it is impossible not
to be taken by the expressive gestures and looks with which he courts your good opinion, and
throws himself upon you for protection against annoyance.”
The GORILLA, Troglodytes gorilla, is also found on the western coast of Africa, especially in the
vicinity of the Gaboon. Though larger and fiercer than the chimpanzee, it appears in other respects
to resemble it. The recent discovery and description of this animal has revived one of the curious
legends of ancient history, which is as follows: At an era of some five hundred years before Christ,
Hanno, a Carthaginian admiral, sailed out of the Mediterranean by way of the Pillars of Hercules,
or Straits of Gibraltar, and founded cities on the Libyan coast. After a great variety of adven-
tures, having proceeded as far south as the Gulf of Guinea, he came to an island in this quarter in
which there was a lake, and in this lake another island, filled with savages all covered over with
hair. There were a great many more females than males. The Carthaginians pursued these
strange people, but they fled with precipitation, and the males, climbing up the steep rocks
with astonishing agility, all escaped. Three of the females, however, fell into the hands of the
invaders. These were very furious, biting and scratching, and refusing to follow their captors.
a
6

68
VERTEBRATA.
Het
THE GORILLA.
Consequently, they were killed. Their skins being taken off, were carried to Carthage, and hung
up in the temple of Saturn. Here, according to Pliny, two of them remained as late as 146 B.C.,
when Carthage was taken and destroyed by the Romans.
The name given by Hanno to the savages of which we have been speaking was Gorilla, and as
it is now believed that he referred to the animal which we are describing, that title has been be-
stowed upon it. Our knowledge of it is yet very imperfect. This is chiefly derived from Dr. Sar-
age, an American Protestant missionary, stationed on the Gaboon River, in Western Africa. From
his account, it appears that they live on vegetables, and build huts of sticks and leaves, supported
by the branches of trees. Their habits are ferocious, and instead of flying from man, as is gener-
ally the case with the chimpanzee, they boldly give him battle. They are said to utter a cry of
kha-ah, kha-ah, sharp and prolonged. Their huge jaws open widely at each expiration: the lower

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
68*
Q000
THE GORILLA.
Engraved from a Photograph of the original expressly for “ JOHNSON'S NATURAL HISTORY," and the
description (see the next page) is by Prof. Chas. H. Hitchcock, A.M., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy,
Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., and Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.; State Geologist for New Hamp-
shire, and late Professor at Amherst College, Mass. ; and, with the late Rev. Edward Hitchcock, D.D.,
LL.D., Author of " Hitchcock's Geology."
C

68**
VERTEBRATA.
THE GORILLA.
BY PROF. C. H. HITCHCOCK, AMHERST, MASS.
(WRITTEN EXPRESSLY FOR " JOHNSON'S NATURAL HISTORY.'')
Of all the Apes the Gorilla approaches nearest to man. In brute strength he is a match for a
Samson ; but does not exhibit so much mental capacity as a monkey or a dog. He is a genuine
quadruped-running on all-fours—and the erect posture is unnatural. This is shown by his four
hands like those of the other quadrumana, by the curved bow-like spine, and by the wearing of the
hair of the thighs against the body, just as in the case of a horse or cow. Besides these quadrupedal
features, he is further distinguished from man by the elongated arms, four hands instead of two,
protuberances on the back of the cervical vertebræ so as to give attachment to powerful muscles,
by extended canine teeth, by bony ridges over the eyes and top of the skull, by smaller brain and
limited intellectual power.
His home is in Western Africa, near the equator. [The first notice of such an animal in history
is in the Periplas of Strabo. Hanno the Carthaginian was sent by his countrymen, about 400 B.O.,
to found Syro-Phænician cities along the west coast of Africa. During his travels several of these
animals were killed, and their skins hung up in a temple and called gorillas or gorgons. Its name
in the Mpongwe dialect is Ingeena. The first scientific description of this ape was by Savage and
Wyman, in 1847, who had access to only a part of the skeleton.] By various travellers it had been
stated that the gorilla infested trees by the highway, watching for unwary travellers who were de-
stroyed without mercy; also that the women were carried off and ravished by them. Such reports
were dissipated by the explorations of P. B. Du Chaillu, published in 1861, who has given the
world much additional information about this animal.
He appears to live upon fruits and vegetables, notwithstanding his enormous canines, and to
keep company with several females. They construct no dwelling, though they may frequent the
same tree, generally using the trunk for both bed and pillow. None have been tamed, as if the
very nearness of the relationship to man precluded intimate association.
While averse to human society, the male gorilla meets the hunter courageously when followed
up to his lair. Man's presence is first perceived, and a savage frown gathers over the rough feat-
He slowly rises upon his hind feet, lifts up his head, beats upon the breast, and utters a
frightful roar. Advancing a few steps toward his enemy, the reverberating forest is filled with roll-
ing thunders from his voice that can be heard for miles. The hunter anxiously awaits his approach,
carefully priming the rifle. When but a few paces distant the trigger is pulled, and the savage
beast is quickly killed. Should the bullet miss its mark, the enraged animal rushes forward, seizes
the gun, crushes it in his teeth or bends it like a reed with his hands, and brings down his ponder-
ous fist upon the head of the hunter. One blow is sufficient to crush all the bones of the skull and
chest.
The preceding figure is copied from a photograph of a specimen in the museum of Amherst Col-
lege, presented by Rev. William Walker, formerly a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. in Western
Africa. He is represented with the bent gun in his hand, after the failure of the hunter to kill him.
The bones of the same animal were preserved, and have been mounted to illustrate the differences
between the ape and human skeleton. The original seems to have been a male, quite advanced in
life, perhaps sixty years old. The hair is partly gray; some of it was lost on account of injury to
the skin before it was mounted. He had suffered several injuries in his younger days: three ribs
with the adjacent clavicle broken and repaired; one of the lumbar vertebræ damaged ; two of the
toes sprained, and the long canine fractured. These mishaps were probably the results of battling
with his rivals.
Several skins and skeletons of the gorilla are exhibited at the British Museum, in London ; but
ican museum, except that at Amherst, yet possesses the stuffed skin and the skeleton of the
same individual. They were procured in 1863.
ures.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
69
ülki
FEMALE ORANG-OUTANG.
lip hangs upon the chin. The skin is wrinkled and contracted over the eyes, which gives them
an aspect of inconceivable ferocity. The killing of one of these formidable creatures is esteemed
a great achievement among the negroes.
After his return to America, Dr. Savage placed several skulls and parts of skeletons which he
had collected, belonging to the gorilla, in the hands of the celebrated anatomist, Dr. Wyman, of
Boston, who published an interesting paper on the subject, assigning to it a place as a species
distinct from the common chimpanzee, under the name we have adopted. To this distinction it
is manifestly entitled by its greater size and the peculiarities in its anatomical structure.
The gorilla is known often to reach the height of six or even seven feet, and being of a fierce
and ferocious disposition, is altogether the most formidable of the ape kind. We may doubt
the stories of the inhabitants of the country occupied by the chimpanzee and the gorilla, as to the
carrying off the negresses and holding them in bondage; but if such deeds are perpetrated, it is
probably rather by the latter, the larger and more powerful species, than the former. It is highly
probable that in former ages these animals were far more numerous than at present, and one may
readily believe that in the age of Hanno they actually held possession of particular portions of
the African coast, and exercised dominion over the elephant, the hippopotamus, and other animals.
We may even suppose that they sometimes made war on the timid and feeble human inhabitants,
and impressed their imaginations with such vivid terrors as to give rise to the tales alluded to.
Genus ORANG-OUTANG: Simia satyrus.—Of this there is but one species, which has a
general resemblance to the chimpanzee, and until recently the two were confounded, one with the
other. Several young specimens were carried to Europe, and upon these its character was drawn.
Subsequently, much larger apes being discovered in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, in-
habited by the orang, these were supposed to be a distinct species, and received the name of pongo.
The first accurate description of the latter was furnished by the Baron de Wurmb, in a disserta-
tion presented to the Batavian Society of Holland. Other and still more detailed accounts have
since been furnished, by which it is satisfactorily proved that these are in fact true orangs,
arrived
at maturity.
We are in possession of full descriptions of the orang-outang. It is a native of Borneo and

70
VERTEBRATA.
1-C5
}
GP TOP
MART
ULTI
REDMAN KENNY SUMY
THE PONGO OF WURMB.
a
a
Sumatra only. Its height is about four and a half feet, though it sometimes exceeds six feet. It
is covered with dark brown hair, the skin seen through it having a bluish tint. The face is
nearly bare. The body is large and strong, the belly full, and the movement oscillating. The
eyes are fringed with lashes; the nose is on a line with the face; the mouth is projecting; the
lips thin, capable of great elongation, and endowed with a peculiar mobility; the ears small,
and resembling those of man. The muzzle grows more acute with age, and the disposition of
the animal often becomes fierce and savage at maturity. It is incapable of walking erect, but
moves in a hobbling manner by putting the knuckles of its hands to the ground, and drawing its
body forward between them. In a state of nature it probably seldom moves along on the
ground—its whole configuration showing its fitness for climbing trees and clinging to the
branches. In sitting on a flat surface it turns its legs under it; in sitting on a branch of a
tree, it rests on its heels, its body pressed against its thighs.
The orangs generally occupy the marshy districts, covered with dense forests and rank vegeta-
tion. They are solitary in their habits, living inactive in the wilds, away from the resorts of man.
During the day they move about in the upper branches of the forest; toward evening they de-
scend and find shelter from the cold and wind in the thick foliage of the palms and other similar
trees. Sometimes they make a sort of platform of sticks, and cover it with leaves, which becomes
their resting-place. The old males are especially dreaded by the inhabitants, as each one appro-
priates a district to himself, and attacks with fury any one who invades it. Their food consists
chiefly of vegetables, though they devour eggs
and
young
birds.
The earliest detailed account of the orang-outang that we possess is given by Vosmaer, describ-
ing one brcught to Holland in 1776, and presented to the menagerie of the Prince of Orange:
“ This animal was in height about two Rhenish feet and a half, of a chestnut color. It showed
no symptoms of fierceness or malignity, and was even of a melancholy appearance. It was fond
of being in company, and showed a preference for those who took daily care of it, of which it
seemed to be very sensible. Often when they retired it would throw itself on the ground as if in
despair, uttering lamentable cries. Its keeper having been accustomed sometimes to sit near it on
the ground, it would take the hay of its bed, and spreading it in the form of a cushion or seat, in-
vite, by every demonstration, its keeper to sit with it. Its usual manner of walking was on all-
fours, but it could also walk on its two hind-feet. One morning it got unchained, and we beheld

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
71
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it with wonderful agility ascend the beams and rafters of the building. It was not without some
trouble that it was taken, and we then remarked the prodigious strength of the animal; the assist-
ance of four men being necessary in order to hold it in such a manner as to be properly secured.
During its state of liberty, it had, among other things, taken the cork from a bottle of Malaga
wine, which it had drunk to the last drop, and had set the bottle in its place again. When pre-
sented with strawberries on a plate, of which it was extremely fond, it was very amusing to see it
take them up one by one with a fork and put them into its mouth. Its common drink was water,
but it also willingly drank all sorts of wine, preferring Malaga. After eating, it always wiped its
mouth, and when presented with a toothpick, used it in a proper manner.
This animal lived
seven months in Holland, whither it had been sent from the island of Borneo.""
The following account from Dr. Clarke Abel, of one which lived some time in his possession, is
additionally interesting from the circumstance of the observations having been made upon it in its
own climate, while enjoying a state of comparative liberty:
" While at Java,” says Dr. Abel, “he lodged in a large tamarind-tree near my dwelling, and
formed a bed by intertwining the small branches, and covering them with leaves. During the
day he would lie with his head projecting beyond his nest, watching whoever might pass under,
and when he saw any one with fruit, he would descend to obtain a share of it. He always retired
for the night at sunset, or sooner if he had been well fed, rose with the sun, and visited those
from whom he habitually received food.
“On board ship he commonly slept at the mast-head, often wrapping himself up in a sail.
Sometimes I preoccupied his bed, and teased him by refusing to give it up. On these occasions
he would endeavor to pull the sail from under me, or force me to quit it, and would not rest until
I resigned it. If all the sails happened to be set, he would hunt about for some other covering,
and either steal one of the sailor's jackets, or empty a hammock of its blankets. His favorite
amusement in Java was swinging from the branches of the trees, or climbing over the roofs of the
houses; on board, in hanging by the ropes, or romping with the boys of the ship. He would en-
tice them to play by striking them with his hand as they passed, and then bounding from them,
but allowing them to overtake him, and then engage in a mock scuffle, in which he used his
hands, feet, and mouth. If any conjecture could be formed from these frolics of his mode of at-
tacking an adversary, it would appear to be his first object to throw him down, then secure him
with his hands and feet, and then wound him with his teeth. Of some small monkeys on board
he took little notice while under the observation of the persons of the ship. Once, indeed, he
openly attempted to throw a small cage, containing three of them, overboard; but I had reason to
believe that he was not so indifferent to their society when free from observation. On one occa-
sion I observed him lying on his back, partially covered with a sail, contemplating with great
gravity the gambols of a young monkey, which was bounding over him; at length he caught him
by the tail, and tried to envelop him in the covering. The monkey seemed to dislike the confine-
ment, and broke from him, but again renewed his gambols, and though repeatedly caught, always
escaped. The intercourse, however, did not seem that of equals, for the orang-outang never con-
descended to romp with the monkeys as he did with the boys of the ship. Yet the monkeys had
evidently a great predilection for his company, for whenever they broke loose, they took their
way to his resting-place. But though so gentle when not irritated, the orang-outang could
be excited to violent rage, and on one or two occasions committed acts which, in a rational
being, would have been called the threatening of suicide. If repeatedly refused an orange, when
he attempted to take it, he would shriek violently, and swing furiously about the ropes, then re-
turn and endeavor to obtain it. If again refused, he would roll for some time like an angry child
upon the deck, uttering the most piercing screams, and then suddenly starting up, rush furiously
over the side of the ship and disappear. On first witnessing this, we thought that he had thrown
himself into the sea, but on searching found him concealed under the chains.
“I have seen him exhibit violent alarm on two occasions only, when he appeared to seek for
safety in gaining as high an elevation as possible. On seeing eight large turtles brought on board
off the Isle of Ascension, he climbed with all possible speed to a higher part of the ship than he
had ever before reached, and looking down upon them, projected his long lips into the form of a

72
VERTEBRATA.
hog's snout, uttering at the same time a sound which might be described as between the croaking
of a frog and the granting of a pig. After some time he ventured to descend, but with great
caution, peeping continually at the turtles, but could not be induced to approach within many
yards of them. He ran to the same height, and uttered the same sounds, on seeing some men
bathing and splashing in the sea, and since his arrival in England has shown nearly the same
degree of fear at the sight of a live tortoise."
The same writer has given a very interesting narrative of the capture of an adult orang-outang,
which was of gigantic proportions. This animal was discovered by the boat's crew of a merchant
ship, at a place called Ramboom, near Touraman, on the northwest coast of Sumatra, on a spot
where there were a few trees on a piece of cultivated ground. It was evident that he had come
from a distance, for his legs were covered with mud up to the knees, and the natives were entirely
unacquainted with him. On the approach of the boat's crew, he came down from the tree in
which he was discovered, and made for a clump at some distance, exhibiting as he moved the ap-
pearance of a tall, man-like figure, covered with shining brown hair, walking erect, with a wad-
dling gait, but sometimes accelerating his motion with his hands, and occasionally impelling him-
self forward by the bough of a tree. His motion on the ground was evidently not his natural
mode of progression, for even when assisted by his hands, or a stick, it was slow and vacillating.
It was necessary to see him among the trees to estimate his strength and agility. On being
driven to a small clump, he gained by one spring a very lofty branch, and bounded from one
branch to another with the swiftness of a common monkey. Had the country been covered with
wood, it would have been almost impossible to prevent his escape, as his mode of traveling from
one tree to another was as rapid as the progress of a swift horse. Even amid the few trees that
were on the spot, his movements were so quick, that it was very difficult to obtain a settled aim;
and it was only by cutting down one tree after another, that his pursuers, by confining him within
a very limited range, were enabled to destroy him by several successive shots. Having received
five balls, his exertions relaxed, and reclining exhausted against a branch, he vomited a quantity
of blood. The ammunition of the hunters being by this time exhausted, they were obliged to fell
the tree in order to obtain him; but what was their surprise to see him, as the tree was falling,
effect his retreat to another, with seemingly undiminished vigor! In fact, they were compelled
to cut down all the trees before they could force him to meet his enemies on the ground; and
when finally overpowered by numbers, and nearly in a dying state, he seized a spear made of
supple wood, which would have withstood the strength of the stoutest man, and, in the words of
the narrator, broke it "like a carrot.” It was stated by those who aided in his death, that the
human-like expression of his countenance, and his piteous manner of placing his hands over his
wounds, distressed their feelings so as almost to make them question the nature of the act they
were committing. He was more than seven feet high, with a broad expanded chest, and narrow
waist. His chin was fringed with a beard, that curled neatly on each side, and formed an orna-
mental rather than frightful appendage to his visage. His arms were long even in proportion to
his height, but his legs were much shorter. Upon the whole he was a wonderful beast to behold,
and there was more about him to excite amazement than fear. His hair was smooth and glossy,
and his whole appearance showed him to be in the full vigor of youth and strength. This speci-
men is preserved in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of London.
We could add still other accounts of the orang-outang, but these will doubtless satisfy the
reader. We have seen the gorilla to figure in the history of Hanno, the Carthaginian: it appears
that the orang is connected with that of Alexander of Macedon. At the present day it is con-
fined to Borneo and the adjacent island of Sumatra ; but at an earlier date it was doubtless
spread over much wider territories. Strabo tells us that when the Macedonian conqueror pene-
trated into India with his victorious troops, he encountered a multitudinous band, which he con-
ceived to be a hostile army. He made immediate preparations to attack this force, upon which
he was informed by King Taxilla that these beings were only pacific apes, entirely destitute of the
spirit of conquest. It is by no means impossible that animals of this species were spread over the
tropical portions of Asia, and perhaps even the warm parts of Europe. These, in the early ages
of the world, doubtless made impressions upon the vivid imaginations of the human inhabitants,
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
73
DEDI. AN-KENNVENC.N.Y.
ORANG-OUTANG-OLD AND YOUNG.
which were ultimately woven by the poets into fawns and satyrs and other divinities of the field
and the forest.
Vol. I.-10

74
VERTEBRATA.
N.
Genus GIBBON: Hylobates, or Wood-walkers.—These approximate the monkeys by the
naked callosities on their rumps, but the absence of tails and cheek-pouches places them
among
the apes. They are rarely more than four feet in height, and are distinguished by
their long arms, which reach the ground when they are in an erect posture. There are several
species, which are found all over India and the
adjacent islands, to which they are confined.
The forests are their haunts, and they are rarely
seen at a distance from them. Gregarious, but
shy and timid, they keep up a noisy concert,
resembling in this respect the Howling Monkeys
of America, and some of them having guttural
sacs like that tribe. In the forest the activity of
certain species is great, and they make way on
the trees with their long arms and lengthened
feet, most rapidly; but when surprised in open,
plain ground they are almost helpless. Some
species appear to be more sluggish ; but even
these make good use of their acute eyes and ears,
and are generally off before an enemy approaches
near enough to capture them.
The Wou-Wou, or ACTIVE GIBBON, H. agilis,
may be taken as an example of the genus. It
has the forehead very low; orbital arches very
projecting ; face blackish-blue in the male, and
brown in the female; in the former a white band
over the eyes, which unites with the whitish
whiskers; hair of the body fine, except about
the neck, where it is longer, and inclined to be
woolly and curled; upper part chocolate-brown;
back and fore part of the thighs yellowish-
brown, but the color varies a good deal, according to the sex and age—the young being paler than
the adults and aged, and the very young uniformly of a yellowish-white; height about two feet
seven or eight inches. This species are very agile in their habits. As soon as they reach the
forest they set pursuit at defiance, swinging, leaping, and throwing themselves from tree to tree
with a rapidity which seems like flying. Notwithstanding the want of the guttural sac, they
howl in a manner very nearly resembling the siamang, which has one. In captivity they are not
very lively—as might indeed be expected, from the impossibility of their exerting that freedom of
motion on which their vivacity in a state of nature depends; but though timid they are soon
reassured, take pleasure in being caressed, and become familiar and even playful. They have
great curiosity, and a greedy appetite. This species is found in the forests of Sumatra, where it is
named Ungaputi.
The HOOLOCK, H. hoolock, is little known. We are chiefly indebted to Dr. Borroughs for what
knowledge we have on the subject. He has furnished a most interesting account of three individ-
uals of the species which he had an opportunity of observing in a state of confinement. One of
them, a male, showed a most amiable and docile disposition; and a young female, which died
early, was equally gentle and pacific.
The SIAMANG, H. syndactylus. The animals of this species are black, and have two naked
folds of skin on the neck, which are occasionally inflated. The hair is long and soft. They
are very common in Sumatra, and are generally found gathered in large troops, conducted, it is
said, by a chief, whom the Malays believe invulnerable. Thus assembled at sunrise, and again at
sunset, they vie with each other in making the most dreadful cries, perfectly stunning to those
accustomed to them, and frightful in the highest degree to strangers. At other times they ap-
pear to be perfectly quiet-so long, at least, as they are undisturbed. Among them, maternal
MOURNING GIBBON.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
75
Ban
REDMAN-ENGANY
ACTIVE GIBBON, OR OUNGHA.
affection triumphs over every other passion, and the mother of a young one that has been
wounded will immediately throw away her life in an attack on an enemy. This affection is also
displayed under more pleasing circumstances; and their care of the persons of their young, by
washing, rubbing, and drying them, in spite of the pettish cries and resistance of the infant
siamang, is highly ludicrous and amusing.
This species is easily tamed, or rather reconciled to bondage, but unconquerably timid: it never
displays the familiarity found in other monkeys, and its submission seems rather the result of
extreme apathy than of confidence and affection. The siamang, in short, displays very little of the
intellectual faculty, generally squatting, enveloped in its long arms, and the head brought down
between the legs, in which position it sleeps. It passes the greater part of its time in sullen re-
tirement, and seldom breaks its silence except by disagreeable cries, like those of the turkey. In
confinement it takes its food with leisure and indifference : its mode of drinking is equally meas-
ured with its other habits—that is, by placing the fingers in water and then sucking them.
Mr. Bennet, in his “ Wanderings," gives us an interesting account of a siamang which he kept
for a time, as follows: In the cabin there was a piece of soap, which had excited the creature's
cupidity, and for the abstraction of which he had been several times scolded. One day Mr. Ben-
net, while occupied in writing, happened to see the siamang engaged in his thievish practices. “I
watched him," says the observer, “ without his perceiving that I did so, though he occasionally
cast a furtive glance toward the place where I sat and pretended to write. He, seeing me busily
engaged, took
up
the
soap,
and moved away with it in his hand. When he had walked half the
length of the cabin, I spoke quietly, without frightening him. The instant he found I saw him,
he walked back again, and deposited the soap nearly in the same place whence he had taken it;
thus betraying, both by his first and last actions, a consciousness of having done wrong."
The Mourning GIBBON, H. funerus, is a rare species, of which a single specimen was brought
to Europe from the Sooloo Isles, and placed in the Garden of Plants at Paris. Here it lived for
six months, displaying wonderful agility and a good degree of intelligence, but still inferior to
that of the higher apes. It recognized its keeper and others who visited it frequently, and received
their caresses with pleasure, but formed no attachment to any one.
There are still several other species, as the GIBBON LAR, H. lar, which is the GREAT GIBBON of
Buffon, the WHITE-HANDED GIBBON and Long-HANDED GIBBON of other authors, found in Malacca ;
the WHITE-FACED GIBBON, H. leucogenys, its country not known; the H. concolor, or H. Mulleri,
of Borneo ; the Ash-COLORED GIBBON, H. leuciscus, or Wou-Wou, of Camper, found in Java; the
COROMANDEL GIBBON, distinguished by a long beard and black mustaches; RAFFLES' GIBBON, H.
Rafflesii, of Sumatra, often confounded with the gibbon lar; and the H. entelloides, of India.

76
VERTEBRATA.
2. THE OLD-WORLD MONKEYS:
CATARRHINÆ.
The terms Ape and Monkey are loosely applied, in common
language, to all or either of the monkey-like species. Ape, how-
ever, more properly belongs to those which are destitute of tails,
and monkey to those which have them. We now come to the
Catarrhine portion of the latter division, embracing the numer-
ous species of the Eastern Continent.
Genus SEMNOPITHECUS.—This term is derived from the
Greek semnos, venerable, and pithekos, an ape-one prominent
species, the Entellus, being held sacred by the Hindoos. The ani-
mals of this genus are confined to Southern Asia and the Asiatic
islands. They are marked by cheek-pouches, and callosities on
their haunches. The form of their body is slender and elongated: the extremities are also of
great length, as in the Gibbon—the hinder ones, however, being the longest. The tails are much
longer in the semnopithecs than in any of the ordinary monkeys. Though slender, these possess
a very considerable degree of muscular power, and enter as an important constituent into the
motions and progression of the animals. When they are at rest, the tails are allowed to hang
down perpendicularly, and, from their great length, which considerably exceeds that of the
animal's body, have a very droll effect, which is heightened by the air of imperturbable gravity
belonging to the creatures themselves. When they are unemployed, this is their general aspect :
they exhibit the very picture of sadness and melancholy, and appear as if perfectly regardless of
every thing that passes around them; but when roused or excited, they are capable of the most
surprising exertions, and astonish the spectator by a rapidity, variety, and precision of move-
ments, which could scarcely be anticipated from creatures apparently so apathetic in mind and
delicate in body. They are in reality far from meriting the name of Slow Monkeys, which some
zoologists have given them. Their slowness is exhibited in disposition more than in action, and
is an attribute of character rather than of structure. When young, they are readily domesticated;
but being less petulant, curious, and restless than the Cercopithecs, Baboons, and some others, they

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
77
ENTELLUS, OR SACRED MONKEY,
are supposed to exhibit less intelligence; though their mental qualities, as well as their physical
structure, closely assimilate them to the real apes. The old males become morose, sullen, and
mischievous.
The ENTELLUS, HOONUMAN, or SACRED MONKEY, S. entellus, the type of the genus, is of a rusty-
brown color, the head and body being over two feet in length. It is a native of Bengal, the
Himalayan Mountains, Nepaul, and Bootan, and is remarkably interwoven with the religion of the
countries where it is found, especially among the Hindoos. These people believe that the entellus
is a metamorphosed prince, and to kill one is a deadly sin. As might be expected, this treatment
has been favorable to the increase of these creatures, and hence they absolutely swarm in many
places, and especially in the vicinity of the temples. In some parts they are a complete pest, as
they destroy vast quantities of fruit in the gardens and plantations. M. Duvaucel has given an
interesting account of the careful watch which the Bengalese kept over him to prevent his killing
this sacred animal, holding a high place among the thirty millions of Indian gods, and to save
himself from dying within the year, which, according to popular belief, is sure to be the fate of
one who puts an entellus monkey to death. He was harangued by the Hindoos upon the danger
of injuring animals which were no other than princes and heroes under the operation of the me-
tempsychosis. Unmoved by their eloquence, and eager to possess a specimen, he leveled and
brought down a "princess!" But the acquisition was dearly bought. The ill-fated creature had
a young one on her back, and, though shot through the heart, the mother exhausted her remains
of life in throwing it into the branches of a neighboring tree, then fell and expired at the feet of
her destroyer. It is but just to add, that he mourned over the deed he had done.
The following account from a late traveler in India will give some idea of the immense num-
bers, as well as the habits of these “sacred monkeys:"
“On another occasion,” says the narrator, “in company with the assistant magistrate of the
district, I started in a buggy for a morning's drive to Deobund, from which we were some twelve
miles distant. We were attended by two sowars-native horsemen, or mounted police—and
having a swift mare, we got over the ground at a rapid pace. When about two miles from the
bungalow, we overtook a tribe of large monkeys. I should say there were as many as four hun-
dred, and each carried a stick of uniform length and shape. They moved along in ranks or com-
,
panies-just, in short, as though they were imitating a wing of a regiment of infantry. At the
head of the tribe was an old and very powerful monkey, who was no doubt the chief. It was a
very odd sight, and I became greatly interested in the movements of these creatures. There could
a

78
VERTEBRATA,
با ما
Please
REDMAN & KENNEY.SC.NY
M. DUVAUCEL SHOOTING MONKEYS IN INDIA.
a
be no question that they had cither some business or pleasure on hand; and the fact of cach
carrying a stick, led us to conclude that it was the former upon which they were bent. Their
destination was, like ours, evidently Deobund, where there are some hundreds of monkeys fed by
,
a number of Brahmins, who live near a Hindoo temple there, and perform religious ceremonies.
They—this monkey regiment—would not get out of the road on our account, nor disturb them-
selves in any way; and my friend was afraid to drive through their ranks, or over any of them,
for when assailed they are most ferocious brutes, and armed as they were, and in such numbers,
they could have annihilated us with the greatest case. There was no help for us, therefore, but
to let the mare proceed at a walk in the rear of the tribe, the members of which, now that we
were nearing Deobund, began to chatter frightfully. Just before we came to the bungalow, they
left the road and took the direction of the temple. Fain would we have followed them, but to do
so in the buggy would have been impossible, for they crossed over some very rough ground and
two ditches. My friend, therefore, requested the sowars to follow them, and report all they might
observe of their actions. Meanwhile, we moved off to the bungalow; on arriving at which, we men-
tioned to the proprietor, a very old but active and intelligent man, the sight we had seen on the
road—the regiment of monkers.
"Ah ! exclaimed the old man, it is about the time.
16. What time?'
Well, Sahib, about every five years that tribe comes up the country to pay a visit to this
place; and another tribe comes about the same time from the up-country—the hills. They meet
in a jungle behind the old Hindoo temple, and there embrace each other as though they were
human beings and old friends who had been parted for a length of time. I have seen in that
jungle as many as four or five thousand. The Brahmins say that one large tribe comes all the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
79
6
66
a
way from Ajmere, and another from the southern side of the country, and from Nepaul and Tirhoot.
There were hundreds of monkeys here this morning, but now I do not see one. I suppose they
have
gone to welcome their friends.'
“The sowars who had been deputed to follow the tribe now rode up, and reported that, in the
vicinity of the old temple, there was an army of apes—an army of forty thousand! One of the
sowars, in the true spirit of oriental exaggeration, expressed himself to the effect that it would be
easier to count the hairs of one's head than the number there assembled.
" "Let us go and look at them,' I suggested.
" " But we will not go on foot,' said my friend; we will ride the sowars' horses. In the first
place, I have an instinctive horror of apes, and should like to have the means of getting away from
them speedily, if they become too familiar or offensive. In the second place, I do not wish to
fatigue myself by taking so long a walk in the heat of the day.'
“We mounted the horses, and were soon at the spot indicated by the sowars.
the sowars. There were not
so many as had been represented; but I am speaking very far within bounds when I state that
there could not have been fewer than eight thousand, and some of them of an enormous size. I
could scarcely have believed that there were so many monkeys in the world, if I had not visited
Benares, and heard of the tribes at Gibraltar. Their sticks, which were thrown together in a
heap, formed a very large stack of wood.
" What is this? my friend said to one of the Brahmins; for since his appointment he had
'
never heard of this gathering of apes.
" " It is a festival of theirs, Sahib,' was the reply. "Just as Hindoos, at stated times, go to Hurd-
war, Hagipore, and other places, so do these monkeys come to this holy place.'
" • And how long do they stay ??
“Two or three days; then they go away to their homes in different parts of the country;
then attend to their business for four or five years; then come again and do festival; and so on,
sir, to the end of all time. You see that very tall monkey there, with two smaller ones on either
side of him?'
"Yes.
** Well, sir, that is a very old monkey. His age is more than twenty years. I first saw him
fifteen years ago. He was then full-grown. His native place is Meerut. He lives with the Brah-
mins at the Soorj Khan, near Meerut. The smaller ones are his sons, sir. They have never been
here before; and you see he is showing them all about the place, like a very good father.'
“ Having at length seen enough of these sacred animals,' we returned to the bungalow.”
It
appears that the entellus is an expert serpent-killer. It will steal upon a snake when asleep,
grasp it around the neck, and then run to the nearest stone, where it deliberately grinds off the
reptile's head till his poisonous fangs are destroyed. This monkey seems to be a humorist, as he
is said frequently to take a quizzical look at the serpent during this process, and to grin with satis-
faction at his impatient writhings. When its victim is rendered harmless, the monkey throws it
to his young ones, who amuse themselves by tossing it about, like a parcel of children, until it is
quite dead, and its convulsions can afford no further amusement.
The pythons, which multiply in numbers, and grow to an enormous size in tropical countries,
are great destroyers of monkeys. Winding and stealing with a noiseless progress among the
branches of the trees, they suddenly dart upon these animals, and crush them in their folds.
Alike by instinct and experience, the monkeys have a horror of these creatures, and usually fly at
their approach. Sometimes, however, they attack and kill them. Mr. Owen, when in the forests
of India, on a certain occasion, heard a great hubbub among a party of monkeys over his head.
Pretty soon a python, six or seven feet long, fell to the ground, nearly dead from the bites that
had been given him by the monkeys.
The BUDENG, S. Maurus, has a long body, broad and robust about the shoulders; the upper
part of the face nearly naked; the callosities large and rough; tail the length of the body. There
are two species-one black and one red—the latter being called LUTUNG, S. Pyrrhus. Both
are found in Java and Sumatra. Dr. Horsfield tells us that the budeng is found in abundance in
the extensive forests of Java. It forms its dwellings on trees, and associates in numerous societies.
a

80
VERTEBRATA.
THE KAHAU, OR LONG-NOSED MONKEY.
Troops, consisting of more than fifty individuals, are often found together. If a person meets
them in the forests, it is prudent to observe them at a distance. They emit loud screams on the
approach of man, and by the violent bustle and commotion excited by their movements, branches
of decaying trees are not unfrequently detached, and precipitated on the spectators. They are
often hunted by the natives for the purpose of obtaining their fur. In these pursuits, which are
generally ordered and attended by the chiefs, the animals are attacked with cudgels and stones,
and cruelly destroyed in great numbers. The skins are prepared by a simple process which the
natives have acquired from the Europeans, and they conduct it at present with great skill. It
affords a fur of a jet-black color, covered with long silky hairs, which is usefully employed both
by the natives and Europeans in preparing riding equipages and military decorations. The budeng,
during its young state, feeds on tender leaves of plants and trees; and wher, adult, on wild fruits
of every description, which are found in great abundance in the forests which it inhabits.
The Kahau, or ProBOSCIS MONKEY, S. nasalis, or S. larvatus, is chiefly distinguished by its
enormous nasal organ, which gives it a ludicrous resemblance to a large-nosed old man. This
protuberance is of a flabby substance, and is capable of being enormously inflated. The form of
the body is stout, the length being about three feet. The general color is reddish-brown. This
species is a native of Borneo, and would seem sometimes to be found in Southern India. As there
is no part of the world more rich in animal curiosities than this, so the kahau among these is one
of the most extraordinary. Figure to yourself an old man three feet and a half high, with a bent
a
back, an aspect of decay, and a crabbed look, yet possessing all the petulance and vivacity of
youth, and you have the portrait of one of these eccentric creatures. You must add, however, a
nose six inches long, and black as a coal, in order to render the image complete.
Mr. Adams gives us the following additional sketch, including a portrait of the gentler sex :
“When excited and angry, the female of this species resembles some tanned and peevish hag,
snarling and shrewish. When walking on all-fours, they often raise themselves upright and look
about. When they sleep, they squat on their hams, and bow their heads on the breast. When
disturbed, they utter a short, impatient cry, between a sneeze and a scream: when they emit
this wheezing, hissing sound, they twist and wrinkle the nose, and open the mouth wide."

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
81
THE TRUE COLOBE: COLOBUS VERUS.—(See p. 82.)
a
These creatures live in large companies in the forests, along the banks of rivers, where it is
their custom to make an excursion, morning and evening, bounding, chasing, frolicking, and giving
themselves
up to the most tumultuous sport. Their constant noisy outcry of Kahau, kahau, fre-
quently attracts the hunter, and results in their destruction. Their disposition is savage and mis-
chievous.
The Dyacks declare that this monkey is a human being that lives retired in the woods in order
to avoid taxation. M. Geoffroy tells us that a short time before the French revolution of 1789,
Tippoo Sahib's ambassadors at Paris were greatly delighted at seeing one of these creatures in the
Garden of Plants, whom they recognized as a countryman, and to whom they imputed a high
moral and mental intelligence. Napoleon insisted that a big nose was evidence of talent in a man,
and Tippoo's diplomats evidently thought the rule applicable to monkeys.
The Douc, S. nemæus, is a native of Cochin China, and is noted alike for its vivacity and the
striking contrasts in the color of its fur, the upper part of its body being gray, speckled with black ;
the thighs and fingers, black; the legs and tarsus of a bright russet; the fore-arms, thumb, lower
part of the legs, haunches, and tail of a pure white. These animals live in large troops, and are
of inoffensive habits, if not molested.
The preceding are the best known and most interesting species of Semnopithecs. Many
others, however, are described by naturalists, among which are the WHITE-RUMPED MONKEY of
Ceylon, S. leucoprymnus ; DUSSUMIER's MONKEY, of Malabar, S. Dussumieri; the HOODED Mon-
KEY, also of Malabar, S. cucullatus ; the S. obscurus, of Malacca; the WHITE-FOOTED MONKEY of
Manilla, S. albipes, the Snowy Monkey, S. pruinosus ; the Negro, or TCHINCOU MONKEY, of
Java, S. Maurus ? the CRESTED MONKEY of Sumatra and Borneo, S. cristatus; the FEMORAL
MONKEY of Borneo, S. femoralis; the Golden MONKEY of Java and the MOLUCCAS, S. auratus,
the CROWNED MONKEY, S. frontatus, the S. rubicundus of Schlegel, and the GOLD-HAIRED
Vol. I.-11

82
VERTEBRATA.
2
30
Cusso
REDMAN SC NY
MALBROUCK : GENUS CERCOPITHECUS. — (See p. 88.)
MONKEY, S. chrysomela, all of Borneo; the BLACK-CRESTED MONKEY, S. melalophos, and the
YELLOW-HANDED MONKEY, S. flavimanus, of Sumatra; the SIAM MONKEY, S. Siamensis of Muller,
or BLACK-HANDED Monkey, S. nigrimanus of Geoffroy, found in Siam and Southern Asia; and
the MITERED MONKEY of Java, S. comatus, called Croo by the natives.
Among these numerous species there are certain distinctions of structure which have led some
naturalists to range them under different divisions. They are, however, so nearly allied as to ren-
der them a natural and homogeneous group in the great and diversified family of monkeys.
Genus COLOBE, Colobus.—The monkeys of this genus are almost destitute of thumbs on the
anterior limbs, and hence their name, derived from the Greek, kolobos, mutilated. They resemble
the preceding in their intelligence and in their habits, living like them in forests, and feeding upon
vegetable substances. The known species all belong to Africa.
The GUEREZA MONKEY, Colobus Guereza, is found in Abyssinia, and is distinguished for the
beauty of its skin, the greater part of the body being black; its forehead, and a circle around the
face, with the sides, neck, and throat, are pure white. A sort of mantle of long white hair starts
from the sides, near the back, and descends in flowing masses along the after part of the body.
These animals live in small families, dwelling in the tops of large trees in the neighborhood of
flowing waters. They are exceedingly nimble and lively, without being boisterous. They feed on
fruits, grain, and small insects. The inhabitants of some parts hunt them, and it is a mark of dis-
tinction among the soldiers to possess a shield covered with the skin of this monkey, displaying
the full flying mantle we have described.
The Colobus polycomos of Sierra Leone goes by various names, as KING OF THE MONKEYS, BEAR
MONKEY, FULL-BOTTOMED MONKEY, &c. The color is generally black, tinged with yellow on the
fore parts. The hair of the head is long, and falls in such a manner as to appear like a camaila
small cloak, covering the upper part of the body; hence the French call this animal C. à camail.
The other species of this genus are the C. satanas, of the island of Fernando Po; the FURRED
Monkey, C. vellerosus , the Bay MONKEY, C. ferrugineus, of Sierra Leone; the C. fuliginosus,
of Senegambia; and the TRUE COLOBE, C. verus, of Western Africa.
Genus CERCOPITHECUS.—This term is derived from the Greek kerkos, the tail, and pithekos,
an ape. The genus embraces the Guenons of French naturalists. Nearly thirty species are known,
all belonging to Africa. They are distinguished from the genus Semnopithecus by a less slender
form, a longer face, and larger cheek-pouches, in which they often preserve their food for a time.
They are between one and two feet in length, and are generally marked by a certain elegance of
form. They are covered with fine hair, and this is often distinguished for the brilliancy of its
color. The tail is generally the length of the body, and carried over the back. They do not

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
83
9. he
lack intelligence, but they are variable, and often petulant. The term Cercopithecus, meaning
Tailed
apes, is derived from the ancients, and is supposed to have a certain propriety, as these
approach the apes more nearly than any other monkeys in the shortness of the muzzle.
It is probably to some species of cercopithecus that Ludolf refers in his history of Ethiopia, in
the following amusing description :
6 Of apes, says,
“there are infinite flocks up and down in the mountains-a thousand and
more together: there they leave no stone unturned. If they meet with one that two or three
cannot lift, they call for more aid, and all for the sake of the worms that lye under--a sort of dyet
which they relish exceedingly. They are very greedy after emmets. So that having found an
emmet-hill
, they presently surround it, and laying their fore-paws with the hollow downward
upon the ant-hcap, as fast as the emmets creep into their treacherous palmes, they lick 'em off
with great comfort to their stomachs: and there they will lye till there is not an emmet left.
They are also pernicious to fruit and apples, and will destroy whole fields and gardens, unless they
be carefully looked after; for they are very cunning, and will never venture in till the return of
their spies, which they send always before, who giving information that all things are safe, in they
rush with their whole body, and make a quick dispatch. Therefore they go very quiet and silent
to their prey; and if their young ones chance to make a noise, they chastise them with their fists;
but if they find the coast clear, then every one hath a different noise to express his joy. Nor
could there be any way to hinder them from further multiplying, but that they fall sometimes
into the ruder hands of the wild beasts, which they have no way to avoid but by a timely flight,
or by creeping into the clefts of the rocks. If they find no safety in flight, they make a vertue of
necessity, stand their ground, and filling their paws full of dust or sand, fling it full in the eyes of
their assailant, and then to their heels again.”
The Patas or RED MONKEY, C. ruber, is one of the species best known, and is mentioned in the
writings of the earliest naturalists. Like the rest of its genus, it has the head rounded, the nose
flat, the nostrils opening in grooves; cheek-pouches outside of the teeth ; naked callosities on the
;
haunches. The body is seventeen inches long; the upper part of the form of a bright reddish fawn-
color. The face is marked by a black band, which appears like eyebrows. It is a native of Senegal.
This is a very active and lively species, darting about, while in confinement, in a very peculiar
manner. It is exceedingly irascible, and is liable to do mischief, if provoked. It inhabits a coun-
try where there are detached trees, and in walking from one to the other, though its motions are
leaping and inelegant, it progresses with tolerable celerity.
The VARIED Monkey, C. mona, has been celebrated for its beauty. The top of the head is
of a greenish yellow, with a tinge of black; the cheeks are of a bluish purple. The lips and part
of the chin are without hair, and flesh-colored. On the sides of the face are large bushy whiskers
of a yellowish tinge. The neck, back, and sides are deep chestnut brown; the lower parts are of
a slaty hue. The under surface of the body and the inside of the limbs are pure white. Alto-
gether, this creature is a fop of the first order. It is a native of the Atlas Mountains, in Northern
Africa, and hence, from its colder climate, it is more hardy than most other monkeys.
It is naturally timid in its wild state, rarely approaches inhabited regions, and never enters the
plantations. In a time of famine—that is to say, when fruits become scarce in the forests—they
descend in troops upon the plains, and there they turn over the stones with the zeal of entomolo-
gists to collect the insects found beneath them. Unlike the naturalists who chase after flies, they
do not use a box, with pins, but the two bags provided for them by nature, which are placed by their
mouths on each side, under the cheeks. These membraneous pouches are so large in the mona,
that it can contain provisions for two days.
It is docile in its nature, and is capable of considerable education in a domestic state. It is ad-
dicted to cunning, and is a most expert pickpocket, when it has had lessons among mankind. It
learns to turn keys and rob drawers of their contents with a slyness and dexterity altogether
wonderful. It readily learns to play various tricks, and if conciliated by kindness, shows strong
attachment. On account of these various gifts and recommendations, qualified only by the
pardonable fact that it gets cross as it grows old, the mona monkey has been more frequently a
favorite than almost any other species.

84
VERTEBRATA,
THE VARIED, OR MONA MONKEY.
The following interesting account of one of this family is furnished by the keeper of the Garden
of Plants, Paris :
“ Contrary to the usual custom of monkeys, the mona makes no grimaces, and she has an ex-
pression of mildness and gravity of countenance quite extraordinary. She eats willingly of every
thing offered to her-cooked meat, bread, fruits, and some species of insects. She is particularly
fond of ants and spiders, which she eats in the manner of an epicure. Her agility and rapidity of
motion are remarkable, yet she is always gentle and graceful. She is very tenacious in her desires,
but she is never violent; and when she has solicited an object that she is very anxious to obtain
for a length of time, if she is still refused, she suddenly ceases her importunity, turns head over
heels, and seems to think no more about it.
“She is not very particular in her ideas of property. She has, in fact, such a fancy for pilfer-
ing, that no correction bestowed upon her is of any avail against it. When any one caresses her,
she slips her hand quietly into his pockets, and takes out its contents with the skill of a regular
thief. If she wishes to take bonbons or fruit out of a closet, she turns the key without making
any noise, and has often been seen to untie a parcel.
“There can be nothing more amusing than the face of this monkey when her cheek-pouches
are full. Her head looks double the usual size, resembling very much the puffed and bloated
countenances drawn by the old painters to represent the winds. When she wishes to empty her
provision-bags, she slily leaves her companions, and seeks a tree standing apart, and sufficiently
umbrageous to hide her in the foliage; for she fears that her associates, seeing her so well stocked
with provisions, may, as sometimes happens, attack and beat her to make her open her mouth.
In her hiding-place, tranquilly seated in the fork of a branch, she delivers the insects, one by one,
from her pouch, looks at them eagerly, skins them with her little fingers, breaks off and throws
away their wings and claws, then touching them with her teeth several times in a gastronomic
manner, she finally eats them with the greatest satisfaction. She then recommences the operation,
until her provisions are exhausted, when she rejoins her friends."
The DIANA MONKEY, C. Diana—the Roloway of the French. This animal received its title of
Diana from Linnæus, on account of a fancied resemblance in the coronet-shaped bow which orna-
ments its brow, to the silver bow of the goddess. Its body is variously marked with black, white,
gray, yellow, and reddish-brown. The length of the form is sixteen inches, and the tail two feet.
It is found in large troops in the deep and silent forests of Congo and Guinea. In a savage state,
they feed on fruits and the eggs of birds and insects. As they are easily tamed, the negroes catch
them in numbers, and sell them to the Europeans who trade upon the coast of Africa. M. Boitard
gives us the following:
“ The character of the roloway is very gentle. It becomes very fond of its master, will follow
him wherever he goes, and will allow itself to be taken without difficulty. A friend of mine had

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
85
ttsں ،اسد
DIANA MONKEYS
a
a
a
one that was very affectionate, which accompanied him often from the city to his country-house,
a distance of nine miles. The road was bordered with trees, and as she was very curious, she
climbed up every one to see what she could find. When the trees were quite close together, she
jumped from one to the other with a rapidity and lightness truly remarkable. But this soon
became fatiguing, and then she bethought herself of making a horse of a little spaniel. The first
time she mounted upon him, the dog was terribly alarmed, and tried to shake off the unwelcome
intruder. But she seized his long hair with her fore-paws, and clung to him in such a manner
that neither running, jumping, nor turning round was of any use. When he tried to get her off
by rolling over upon the earth, or in a ditch, she jumped lightly to the distance of a few paces,
sat down, and observed him; but the moment he rose up again, with another jump she seated
herself on his back. At last, the poor dog, weary of so useless an opposition, resigned himself to
his fate, and, philosopher-like, making a virtue of necessity, became the constant servant of the
wilful roloway.
“Good and affectionate as was this little animal, she went frequently into violent fits of anger,
which, however, were generally caused by fear. For instance, if she accidentally broke a glass
tumbler, or a porcelain cup, she immediately fell into a furious passion, and screamed violently,
expecting a correction, which, however, she did not often receive.
“ Like the mona, she was a little thievish, and had the habit of hiding what she stole in the
beds and between the sheets. She often slid into the poultry-yard, and taking an egg in each
fore-paw, ran off upon her two hind-legs, presenting in this attitude a most grotesque appearance.
She was very fond of raw eggs. She would take one and strike the end gently upon a pane of
glass to break the shell; she would then enlarge the hole a little with her finger, put it to her
mouth, and suck out the contents with laughable satisfaction. She was very fond of coffee, and
each time that she succeeded in entering the kitchen, she looked into the coffee-pots to eat the
grounds that remained within them. She loved strong liqnors, but in a peculiar way; for she did
not drink them, but used them as perfumes, dipping her paws into them, and then rubbing over
the whole of her body. Would that the example of this little quadruped might be followed by
inankind!
“She ate of nearly every thing that came within her reach—cooked meat, bread, little birds
when they were given her alive, fruit, sugar-plums, borbons, &c. She used a stone to crack her
nuts and almonds with, and showed in most things wonderful intelligence. There is, however,
one fact which proves how little memory the creature possesses, and how it acts without reflection.
When a candle was placed on the table in the evening, she immediately approached, and fancying
the flame of the candle was something good to eat, she reached her head out and touched it with
her tongue. She burned herself of course, and shrieking piteously, ran away in terror; but all
a

86
VERTEBRATA.
1.5L
90
REDMANRENNVSMV
THE DIADEM MONKEY.
this sad experience was lost upon her, as the next day, if tempted in the same manner, she was
sure to commit the same foolish act.
" When she was first purchased, the character of this animal was very mild. She had been in
captivity three years, and as she grew old, it was easy to see that she became mischievous and
cruel. She made a poor cat that belonged in the house with her, the victim of her cruelty. She
carried or dogged her round everywhere she went, caressing and beating her by turns. She
would sometimes fill her mouth with raisins and pieces of apple, and by means of blows and vio-
lence forced poor pussy to swallow a nourishment that was distasteful to her. In short, she at
length caused her death by abuse and violence. After that time she was not permitted to tyran-
nize over any other living animal.”
The WHITE-EYELID MONKEY.—This animal is doubtless of the genus Cercopithecus, though
Buffon called it a Mangabey, and M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire denominates it Cercocebus fuliginosus. It
is probably a native of Western Africa. Its general color is a grayish black. It is not deficient
in intelligence, and can be taught various tricks. It is petulant and capricious in captivity, but
otherwise is well-behaved. A specimen in the London Zoological Gardens was remarkably active,
and caused great amusement by its grimaces, to which its countenance gave peculiar effect.
The COLLARED WHITE-EYELID Monkey, C. Ethiops of Geoffroy, resembles the preceding in its
character and in its general color, though it is marked with chestnut brown upon the upper part
of the head, and the fore part of the neck is crossed with a band of pure white. It has also long
white mustaches. It appears to be a native of Western Africa.
The TALAPOIN, C. talapoin, is a well-known species from Western Africa, and is a favorite, on
account of its gentle character, its intelligence, and its small size. The general color of the body
is green above and white below.
The DIADEM MONKEY, C. diadematus, is nearly black, the lower parts being mottled with
green. It is marked with a circular white spot upon the forehead, from which it derives its name.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
87
With
SOOS
BEDMAY
THE WHITE-NOSED MONKEY.
The WHITE-NOSED MONKEY, C. nictitans, is sometimes called the Hocheur, and was denominated
the Long-nosed Guenon by Buffon. The nose is not only white, but is more prominent than in
most monkeys. Its general color is black, spotted with olive. It is a native of Guinea.
The Lesser WHITE-NOSED MONKEY, C. petaurista, has a very flat nose, but still marked with a
distinct
spot of white at the extremity. The general color is brown, mixed with gray, deeper on
the back and tail and the outer sides of the limbs; the hands are nearly black. It is a very small
species, the body being only ten or twelve inches long, and the tail half as much again. It is a
native of Guinea, and peculiarly sensitive to cold. A specimen in the London Zoological Gardens
was lively and good-tempered, very shy and anxious to conceal its form, and kicking and crying
out if handled for inspection.
The Griver, C. grivet, is from the upper regions of the Nile, and was known to the ancient
Egyptians as well as the Greeks. Its size is small, and its color a greenish gray. It is supposed
by some authors to be the animal spoken of in the Bible, 2 Chronicles, ix. 21: "For the king's
Solomon's—ships went to Tarshish with the servants of Huram: every three years once came the
ships of Tarshish bringing gold and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks." Others suppose the
ape referred to was the magot. There is little doubt that the grivet is one of the morkeys repre-
sented on the Egyptian monuments.
The Green MONKEY, or CALLITRIX, C. sabæus, a well-known African species, is of a greenish-
yellow color, the body about sixteen inches long. Adanson, in his travels in Senegal, gives an
account of these animals in their native state, as follows:
"I perceived the monkeys only by the branches which they broke from the tops of the trees to
throw down upon me; for they were so light and silent in their movements, that it was difficult
to hear them. I first shot one and then another, without their seeming at all alarmed. How-
ever, when most of them were killed or wounded, the rest began to shelter themselves: some of
them by hiding behind the large branches; others by descending to the earth ; others still, and
by far the greater number, jumped from one tree to another. I continued to fire upon them, and
killed twenty-three in less than half an hour, and within a short space. During this time they
a

88
VERTEBRATA.
SZER
282
Bw.asc.
THE SOOTY MONKEY.-(See p. 89.)
a
did not utter a single cry, although they several times assembled together in groups, frowning and
grinding their teeth, and evidently preparing to attack me.
It is to be regretted that they did not inflict some chastisement upon this wanton and shameless
monkey murderer.
The MALBROUCK, C.cynosurus, is an African species, and is of a grayish-green hue, with a white
band on the forehead. Like other monkeys, it inhabits the forests and lives almost exclusively
amid the branches of trees, where it unites in troops, and with the birds seems to hold a con-
stant revel of sport and gayety. It is extremely irritable, and is wary and subtle in its revenges,
inaking a sudden attack when not observed. It uses its hands with great address to eat, play, or
fight; it seizes small objects with infinite dexterity between the thumb and short fore-finger, and
readily peels the fruit on which it feeds, with its teeth. All its senses, and especially the sight,
seem to be very perfect.
The Nisnas MONKEY, C. pyrrhonotus, found in Nubia, has been deemed by some naturalists
only a variety of the Red Monkey; but is doubtless a distinct species, being stouter than the C. ruber,
and somewhat differently marked. It is figured on the ancient monuments of Memphis.
The MUSTACHED MONKEY, C. cephus, has been long known and often described. It bears a
great resemblance to the mona, save that its skin is differently marked in its colorings. It is a soft
and gentle creature in its manners, and is exceedingly fond of being caressed.
Other known species of this genus are the WHITE-LIPPED MONKEY, C. labiatus, found in Port
Natal; the ROLOWAY or PALATINE MONKEY, C. roloway, found in Guinea, and often confounded
with the Diana monkey; the BEARDED MONKEY, C. Pogonias, found in Fernando Po; the RED-
EARED MONKEY, C. erythrotis, found in the same locality; CAMPBELL'S MONKEY, C. Campbelli,
found in Sierra Leone; MARTIN'S MONKEY, C. Martini, and TEMMINCK'S MONKEY, C. Temminckii,
found in Guinea; the WHITE-THROATED MONKEY, C. albogularis, said to be found in Madagascar,
though without sufficient proof; the Vervet MONKEY, C. pygerythrus, found in Africa, yet its
locality unknown; BURNETT's Mona, C. Burnettii ; the RED AND GREEN MONKEY, C. rufo-viridis,
probably of Western Africa; and WERNER'S MONKEY, C. Werneri, greatly resembling the preceding.
To this list we must add DELALANDE'S MONKEY, C. Delalandi. The celebrated Kees, of which
the African traveler Levaillant has given such exceedingly curious and interesting details, was
probably of this species. This intelligent animal, attending its master during his expeditions in the
wilderness, was accustomed to hunt for roots, which he dextrously drew out of the ground. He
also climbed the trees and ranged among the rocks, for the purpose of discovering honey. His
fidelity was not, however, equal to his skill, for he often slily devoured what he found before his
employer could take possession of it.
Genus MANGABEY, Cercocebus, from the Greek kerkos, the tail, and kebos, a species of monkey,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
89
1170
MSZLE
name!
R.DEL.E.SC.
THE WANDEROO MONKEY, OR NIL BANDAR.
The monkeys of this genus, sometimes arranged with the Macakes, resemble the Guenons, which
we have described ; they are, however, somewhat heavier in their form. They are of about the
same size, and, like them, confined to Africa. Their name of Mangabey was given by Buffon,
who imagined that they were found near Mangabey, in Madagascar.
The Sooty MONKEY, C. fuliginosus, has the upper parts of the body generally of a smoky gray ;
the lower parts white. F. Cuvier, who had seen some of them in confinement, describes them as
docile and familiar, though often petulant. Constantly in motion, they assumed every variety of
attitude, sometimes the most grotesque. In their incessant and vivacious leaps, they grinned con-
stantly, as in a ludicrous laugh, always showing their long incisor teeth. The females were more
calm and affectionate than the males. M. Is. Geoffroy considers the animal which had been called
the GREAT WHITE MONKEY—the C. atys of some authors-a specimen of which was in the Garden
of Plants, as an albino of the C. fuliginosus.
The WHITE-CROWNED MONKEY, C. æthiops, its locality not ascertained, and the WHITE-COLLARED
MONKEY, C. collaris, are the other best-known species of this genus.
Genus MACACUS.—This term is said to be derived from the negroes of Congo, who denomi-
nate a species of monkey by the name of Macaco. It seems to have been applied to an Asiatic
species by Buffon through mistake. The genus has been the theme of dispute with naturalists,
but it is now recognized as including several well-defined and distinct species. Their character-
istics are a thick, bony arch over the eyes, an elongated snout, nostrils opening obliquely on the
upper part of the muzzle, and the canine teeth strong and large. Some of the species are distin-
guished by crests or manes. They seem to approach the baboons. Swainson calls them Ape-
baboons; and Pennant, the Lion-tailed baboons. Gervais divides them into three kinds, according
to their tails—some being as long as the body, some middling, and some short.
The WANDEROO MONKEY, M. silenus, has its hair deep black throughout, with the exception
of the long beard or mane, which descends on each side of the face in the form of a ruff, extend-
ing downward over the chest, and varying from an ash gray to a pure white. The upper part of
the face between the eyes is naked and flesh-colored; the muzzle perfectly black; check pouches
large; callosities of considerable size, and flesh-colored; tail about half as long as the body, and
when perfect, which in captivity is not often the case, terminating in a brush of tufted hairs. It
is an inhabitant of the peninsula of India and Ceylon. M. Duvaucel saw the animal in the mena-
gerie at Barracpore, and states that the Indians give it the name of Nil Bundar. It lives in the
depths of the solitary forests, and feeds on leaves and vegetables. A young female in the Paris
Garden of Plants was gentle and affectionate, but some males were very mischievous. Father
Vincent Maria gives the following quaint account of this species : “ There are found four sorts of
VOL. I.-12

90
VERTEBRATA.
DELET SC
ترمه
THE MAGOT, OR BARBARY APE. — (See p. 92.)
-
their ages.
monkeys on the coast of Malabar ; the first is quite black, with glossy hair and a white beard
round the chin, measuring rather more than a palm in length. The other monkeys pay to this
so profound a respect, that they are humble in his presence, as though they appreciated his supe-
riority. The princes and mighty lords hold him in much estimation for his endowments of gravity,
capacity, and the appearance of wisdom above every other monkey. He is readily trained to
enact a variety of ceremonies and affected courtesies, which he goes through with so grave a face
and so perfectly, that it is a most wonderful thing to see them so exactly performed by an irra-
tional creature."
The general posture of the species is on all-fours or seated, in which positions it generally takes
its food, cither by the hands or by bringing the mouth to it. Its first operation in feeding is gen-
erally to fill the cheek-pouches. It sleeps either on its side or sitting, bent forward, and with the
head on the breast. In captivity they have exhibited varied temperaments. One in England was
all life, spirit, and mischief, while another was melancholy and staid in its deportment; and yet
the health of both these animals appeared to be equally good, nor was there much difference in
ages. Its usual length is eighteen inches.
The wanderoo was known to the ancients, and is supposed to have been first made known to
Europe by the conquests of Alexander. Ctesias had previously spoken of “a race of men inhabit-
ing the mountains of India, having heads like dogs, but with larger teeth. They also have nails, but
larger and more rounded. They bark, but do not talk: they have tails like dogs, but more hairy.
These are supposed to have been wanderoo monkeys, it not being difficult in an ignorant age,
when every thing remote and strange is exaggerated, for the common rumor to convert these crea-
tures into men.
BUFFON'S MACACUS, M. cynomolgus, is also the Egret Monkey of Buffon and Daubenton, and
is a native of India, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and some of the adjacent isles. The hair of this
animal is short, of a brown olive, spotted with black on the body, and gray on the lower parts.
It is about eighteen inches in length, and is strong and robust, bearing the winter of a temperate
climate better than most monkeys. Nevertheless, in the museums of Europe, like nearly all the
species of this great four-handed family, it often dies early from pulmonary consumption. In con-
finement it is usually discontented, and of filthy moral and physical habits. Though not deficient in
intelligence, such are the force and brutality of its passions that little education can be bestowed
upon it. Nevertheless, some of the females have produced in captivity, though frequently they
have taken no care of their offspring. In other cases, the young ones have remained attached to
the breast of the mother for several weeks, she leaping and climbing about as if not thus encum-
bered. When the infant is a little older, it is permitted to try walking, yet the parent always

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
91
Blo
مل کر باہر
BUFFON'S MACAKE.
taking the most vigilant care of it. This tender solicitude of maternity in so coarse a brute is
still admirable.
The MungA, or CHINESE BONNET MONKEY, M. sinicus—Simia sinica of Linnæus—is a native
of India, has a long, naked, wrinkled face of a livid flesh-color, with a mass of long hairs, like
the rays of a circle, above its head. The general color of the body is a greenish gray. It is
found in Southern India, where popular superstition bestows upon it. the same privileges as are
enjoyed by the entellus monkey in Bengal. The priests believe and teach that some dozen god-
monkeys, which figure in their theogony, will inflict the direst vengeance on those who happen,
even by chance, to kill one of these brutes. Hence they multiply to an enormous extent, and
become a pest to mankind, plundering the gardens of fruit and making sad havoc in the sugar
plantations. The inhabitants of the towns and villages are obliged to build trellises to keep them
out of their houses. The old authors tell us that these creatures watch the natives who tap the
palm-trees in order to get the juice, of which they make a favorite beverage called zari. When the
people are gone, the monkeys come and drink the sap which has collected in the vases. This,
however, intoxicates them, and thus, having lost their wits, they are easily captured. This story
needs confirmation.
The monkey we have been describing is the Toque of some French authors, which, although it
has been considered a distinct species, is identical with the Chinese bonnet monkey, or at most a
variety of that species. The two are of the same locality and habits, with only accidental dis-
tinctions.
The BLACK-FACED MONKEY, M. carbonarius, found in Sumatra, is held by some naturalists to be
the same as the preceding, which it resembles.
The Maimon, or PigTAILED MACAKE, M. nemnestrinus, is a large and robust animal, of a savage
disposition, found in Borneo and Sumatra.
Besides these species, there are the Macacus aureus of Bengal and Sumatra; the Tawny Mon-
KEY of Pennant, Simia mulatta, perhaps only a variety of the M. aureus, M. Philippinensis,
which is white, and probably an albino of some of the species we have described; the Short.
TAILED MONKEY, M. erythræus, found in Continental India; the URSINE MACAKE, M. ursinus, of
Cochin China; and the RED-FACED MACAKE, M. speciosus, of Japan.

92
VERTEBRATA.
bis
THE BLACK MACAKE.—(See p. 93.)
Genus MAGOT: Magus-pithecus of the ancients. The magots greatly resemble the macakes,
the chief difference being that the former have only a rudimental tail, two or three inches long.
The Magot, Magus sylvanus, or Macacus inuus, called the Barbary ape, is the only species of the
genus. It is about eighteen inches long; its head is large, its snout large and long, its nose flat,
its face and cars of a livid flesh-color, its body thick, and its limbs well knit. Its cheek-pouches
are capacious, and its teeth large and strong. The upper parts are of a golden yellow, traversed
by slight black bands; the lower are yellowish gray. It is a native of Barbary, and is among
the most robust of the monkeys, bearing transportation to temperate climates with little injury.
It is one of the monkeys most commonly taken to Europe, and is an indispensable accompaniment
of perambulating menageries. Its turn for mimicry is well known.
Caubasson relates a laughable anecdote of one of these animals, which he brought up tame, and
which became so attached to him as to be desirous of accompanying him wherever he went:
when, therefore, he had to perform divine service, he was under the necessity of shutting him up.
One day, however, the animal escaped, and followed the father to church, where, silently mount-
ing on the top of the sounding-board, above the pulpit, he lay perfectly quiet till the sermon
began. He then crept to the edge, and overlooking the preacher, imitated his gestures in so gro-
tesque a manner that the whole congregation were unavoidably excited to laughter. Caubasson,
surprised and displeased at this ill-timed levity, reproved his auditors for their inattention; and on
the obvious failure of his reproof, he, in the warmth of zeal, redoubled his actions and his vocifera-
tions. These the ape so exactly imitated, that all respect for their pastor was swallowed up in the
scene before them, and they burst into a loud and continued roar of laughter. A friend of the
preacher at length stepped up to him, and on pointing out the cause of this improper conduct, it
was with the utmost difficulty he could command a serious countenance while he ordered the apo
to be taken away.
In their native state, the magots are among the liveliest and most intelligent of monkeys. They
have the wit and courage to frighten and in some degree to command the huger animals of the
forest, as the elephant and rhinoceros, by pursuing them with hideous cries and throwing down
branches of trees upon them. When living near the abodes of man, they make great depreda-
tions by stealing the fruit. When engaged in their thefts, they station sentinels on high places,
which give the alarm by loud cries, in cases of danger. Their most dangerous enemies are those
which steal upon them at night, as the lynx, cerval, and other animals that seek their
darkness upon the trees. They are social in disposition, and live in large companies. The mothers
are tender of their young, rearing them with care, loving and caressing them, and defending them
unto death.
prey in

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA
93
ww
043
mm
THE CHACMA.— (See p. 94.)
In a state of nature the magot lives on fruits, but when domesticated he eats all kinds of food.
He puts nothing into his mouth, however, without having examined it carefully. He generally
begins by first filling his huge cheek-pouches. He has great reputation as a maker of faces: it is
thought he knows his talent, and cultivates it. When angry, his jaw chatters, his lips quiver, his
motions become fierce and threatening, and his mouth utters hideous cries.
A few of this species are found among the rocks of Gibraltar, where the soldiers sometimes put
tricks
upon them by placing calabashes of wine in their way. The monkeys squeeze their heads
in, but the calabashes adhere to their necks, and the wine swashes in their faces, blinding and
stifling them, so that they are easily caught.
This animal was known to the ancients, and is that described and dissected by Galen. It is
thought to have been once common in Europe, and the colony at Gibraltar is regarded as a ves-
tige of the race probably once spread over the warm parts of that continent.
Genus CYNOPITHECUS: from the Greek kuon, a dog, and pithekos, a monkey.—Of this
genus there is but one species, the BLACK MACAKE, Cynopithecus niger—the Macacus niger of
some authors. This has no tail, is a little smaller than the magot, and is entirely black. Several
specimens have been in the Garden of Plants at Paris and the Zoological Gardens of London, where
they seemed familiar and playful. They are natives of Borneo and the adjacent islands.
Genus BABOON, Cynocephalus : from the Greek kuon, a dog, and kephale, the head.—We
now come to some of the most remarkable of the monkey species—the Baboons. They have less
of the human-like form and aspect than other members of the family, and more that of the mere
brute. The most marked and prominent of the characters which more immediately distinguish
the baboons from the other Simiadæ consist in the great prolongation of the face and jaws, and
in the truncated form of the muzzle, which gives the whole head a close resemblance to that of a
large dog, and from which the Greeks and Romans very appropriately denominated them Cyno-
cephali, or Dog-headed Monkeys. In the ordinary Quadrumana, which have the head and face

94.
VERTEBRATA.
round, as in the human species, the nose is flat, and the nostrils situated about half-way between
the mouth and the eyes, the whole bearing no unapt resemblance to that of a man who has lost
the greater part of his nose: but in the baboons this organ is prolonged uniformly with the jaws;
it even surpasses the lips a little in length, and the nostrils open at the end of it exactly as in the
dog.
The different species of this remarkable genus are widely disseminated over Central and Southern
Africa. In their native haunts, their ordinary food is berries and bulbous roots, but in the vicinity
of human habitations they make incursions into the cultivated fields and gardens, and destroy a
still greater quantity of grain and fruits than they carry away with them. In well-inhabited
countries, where they are likely to meet with resistance, their predatory incursions are usually
made during the night: and travelers assure us that, taught by experience of the risks to which
they expose themselves during such expeditions, they place sentinels upon the surrounding trees
and heights to give timely warning of the approach of danger; but in wilder and more solitary
districts, where the thinness of the population and the want of fire-arms place them on some
degree of equality with the inhabitants, they make their forays in the open day, and dispute with
the husbandman the fruits of his labor.
“I have myself," says Pearce, in his “Life and Adventures in Abyssinia," " seen an assembly of
baboons drive the keepers from the fields of grain, in spite of their slings and stones, till several
people went from the village to their assistance; and even then they only retired slowly, seeing
that the men had no guns."
Some travelers assert that if the troop happens to be surprised in the act of pillaging, the
sentinels pay with their lives for their neglect of the general safety. Others assure us that the
troop sometimes form a long chain extending from the vicinity of their ordinary habitation to the
garden or field which they happen to be engaged in plundering, and that the produce of their
theft is pitched from hand to hand till it reaches its destination in the mountains. By this means,
they are enabled to carry off a much larger booty than if every individual labored for his own
particular benefit; but notwithstanding this attention to the general interest, each takes care before
retiring to fill his cheek-pouches with the most choice fruits or grains which he can procure, and
also, if not likely to be pursued, to carry off quantities in his hands. After these expeditions, the
whole troop retire to the mountains to enjoy their booty. They likewise search with avidity for
.
the nests of birds, and suck the eggs; but if there be young, they kill them and destroy the nest;
as, notwithstanding the evident approximation of their organization and appetites to carnivorous
animals, they are never known to touch a living prey in a state of nature, and even in captivity
will eat no flesh but what has been thoroughly boiled or roasted. In this state, we have seen
various baboons enjoy their mutton-bone and pick it with apparent satisfaction; but it was evi-
dently an acquired habit, like that of drinking porter and smoking tobacco, which they had been
taught by the example of their keepers.
Of all the Quadrumana, the baboons are the most frightfully ugly. Their small eyes deeply
sunk beneath huge projecting eyebrows, their low contracted forehead, and the very diminutive
size of their cranium, compared with the enormous development of the face and jaws, give them
a fierce and malicious look, which is still further heightened by their robust-and powerful make,
and by the appearance of the enormous teeth, which they do not fail to display upon the slightest
provocation. The fierceness and brutality of their character and manners correspond with the
expression of their physiognomy. These characteristics are most strongly displayed by the males;
but it is more especially when, in addition to their ordinary ferocity, they are agitated by the
passion of love or jealousy, that their natural habitudes carry them to the most furious and brutal
excess. In captivity, they are thrown into the greatest agitation at the appearance of young
It is a common practice among itinerant showmen to excite the natural jealousy of
their baboons by caressing or offering to kiss the young females who resort to their exhibitions,
and the sight never fails to excite in these animals a degree of rage bordering upon phrensy.
The CHACMA, or CHOAK-KAMA, C. porcarius, is of a uniform dark brown, almost black, mixed
throughout with a dark-green shade, deepest on the head and along the ridge of the back, and
paler on the anterior part of the shoulders and on the flanks. The hair over the whole body is

CLASS I. MAMMALIA. ORDER 2, QUADRUMANA.
95
a
long and shaggy, more particularly on the neck and shoulders of the males, where it forms a dis-
tinct mane; each hair is of a light-gray color for some distance from the root, and afterward an-
nulated throughout its entire length with distinct rings, alternately black and dark green-some-
times, though but rarely, intermixed with a few of a lighter and yellowish shade. The nose pro-
jects a little beyond the upper lip, the nostrils are separated by a small depression or rut, as in
the dog and other carnivorous animals, and the callosities are less strongly marked than in most
other species of this genus.
The Chacma, so called from the Hottentot word T" Chac-kamma, the aboriginal name of this
baboon in South Africa, is one of the largest species of the present genus, and when full grown
is equal in size, and much superior in strength, to a common English mastiff. It inhabits the
mountains throughout the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, and associates in families more or
less numerous. They are found on the Table Mountain above Cape Town, though they do not
exist in such numbers as they appear to have done formerly. Still, they pay occasional visits to
the gardens at the base of the mountains, and with such skill and caution, that even the most
watch ful dogs cannot always prevent them from committing extensive ravages.
M. Boitard furnishes us with the following account of one of these animals, confined in the Gar-
den of Plants at Paris :
“All the Cynocephales are wicked and brutal, but nothing can equal the ferocity of the choak-
kama, whose strength man is utterly unable to resist. I witnessed an instance of this some years
ago at the menagerie. A man by the name of Pichard, of a robust frame, and five feet eight inches
in height, was at that time keeper of the monkeys, and his kitchen was exactly opposite the room
where a choak-kama was confined. During his absence, one day, the monkey managed to open
the door of his cage: he went into the kitchen, jumped upon a bench where there was a quan-
tity of carrots for the nourishment of the animals, and began to tear up and devour the food of his
companions in slavery.
“ At this moment the keeper returned: he tried at first to get the animal back to his cage by
coaxing him, but the saucy brute simply made faces at him, and continued his meal. Richard
then raised his voice; but this only produced redoubled grimaces, accompanied with grindings of
his teeth, and other menacing demonstrations. An unlucky idea then made the keeper take up
a stick, which he had no sooner brandished in the air, than the monkey rushed upon him and
thrust his two fists into his breast with such force that the powerful man reeled and nearly fell
to the earth. The furious animal now returned to the charge, and before the astonished keeper
could do any thing in self-defense, he threw him down with violence, pommeled him with his
paws, and bit him so violently with his sharp teeth in his thigh, that fears were entertained for
his life.
“ As neither entreaty nor force prevailed to make the animal re-enter his cage, recourse was
had to other means. Richard had a daughter who was a favorite with the choak-kama, for it was
she who generally fed him. She suddenly conceived the idea of enticing him back to his cage by
exciting his jealousy. She therefore placed herself at the other side of the cage, so that he could
see her through the wires, and calling to her a young lad at work on the place, bade him attempt
to kiss her. This excited the brutal jealousy of the monkey to such a pitch that he screamed
furiously, and rushing into the cage in order to punish the lad for his indiscretion, the people
around suddenly shut the door, and made him again a prisoner. You may suppose that any
future attempts for liberty on his part proved futile."
The TARTARIN, C. Hamadryas, the most celebrated of all the baboons, and probably the only
species of this genus known to the ancients, inhabits the mountains of Arabia and Abyssinia, and
measures upward of four feet when standing erect, and two and a half feet in a sitting posture.
The face of this species is extremely elongated, naked, and of a dirty flesh-color, with a lighter
ring surrounding the eyes; the nostrils, as in the dog, are separated by a slight furrow; the head,
neck, shoulders, and all the fore-part of the body as far as the loins, are covered with long shaggy
hair; that on the hips, thighs, and legs is short, and, contrasted with the former, has the appear-
ance of having been clipped, so that the whole animal bears no unapt resemblance to a French
poodle. While
young, it is gentle, docile, and playful; but as soon as it has acquired its full
a

96
VERTEBRATA.
plus
Shell
harming
B CELET SC.
COMMON BABOON AND MONKEY.
development, it becomes sulky, malicious, and morose. It is not found either in Egypt or Nubia,
though its figure is often sculptured on the ancient monuments of both these countries. We
learn from Salt and Pearce that they are extremely common upon the high lands of the Abys-
sinian province of Tigré. They are usually seen in troops composed of ten or twelve adult males,
and about twenty adult females; the remainder of the band is made up of the young of the four
or five preceding years. When seen at a distance, approaching a small stream for the purpose of
quenching their thirst, they bear a close resemblance to a flock of wild hogs. It has been observed
that the young ones always lead the van, and the old males bring up the rear, probably for the
purpose of having the whole family continually under their immediate observation.
The name of this species in the ancient Ethiopic or Geez, the learned language of the Abyssin-
ians, is Tot or Tota. Its figure in a sitting posture is common upon the ancient monuments of
Egypt and Nubia: small metal images of it have been dug up among the ruins of Memphis and
Hermopolis, and mummies containing the embalmed body of the animal are still found among the
catacombs. It is believed to be the emblem of the second Hermes, or Toth, the deified inventor
of letters and the art of writing.
The Common BABOON, C. papio, is of a uniform yellowish-brown color, slightly shaded with
sandy or light red upon the head, shoulders, body, and extremities; the whiskers alone are of a
light fawn-color; the face, ears, and hands are naked and entirely black, the upper eyelids white,
and also naked, and the tail about half the length of the body.
This species inhabits the coast of Guinea, and is that most commonly seen about the streets, and
in menageries and museums. In youth it is gentle, curious, gluttonous, and incessantly in motion,
smacking its lips quickly, and chattering when it wishes to beg contributions from its visitors, and
screaming loudly when refused or tantalized. As it grows older, however, it ceases to be familiar,
and assumes the morose look and repulsive manners which characterize the baboons in general.
The specimen observed by Buffon was full grown, and exhibited all the ferocity of disposition
and intractability of nature common to the rest of its kind. “It was not," says he, “ altogether
hideous, and yet it excited horror. It appeared to be continually in a state of savage and rest-
less ferocity, grinding its teeth, as if agitated by unprovoked fury. It was obliged to be kept
shut up in an iron cage, of which it shook the bars so powerfully with its hands as to inspire
the spectators with apprehension. It was a stout-built animal, whose nervous limbs and com-
pressed form indicated great force and agility; and though the length and thickness of its shaggy
coat made it appear to be much larger than it was in reality, it was nevertheless so strong and
active that it might have readily worsted the attacks of several unarmed men.”
It would appear that individuals of this species are sometimes of a cheerful temper. In the
British Museum, there is a stuffed specimen of a baboon that formerly flourished in the Exeter
Change Menagerie, under the title of “Happy Jerry.” He was, in fact, one of the celebrities of

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
97
London, not only being a favorite with all visitors, but he once had the distinguished honor of
being invited to visit his majesty George IV. at Windsor. He was nearly five feet high when
standing on his hind-legs; he sat in a chair, drank porter from a pewter mug, and smoked his
pipe, like a respectable John Bull.
Mr. Mathews gives the following account of a tame baboon in the possession of a Koranna in
South Africa. Its master, knowing its intense dread of serpents, out of mere sport once put a
dead snake around its neck. The creature sat for some time, quite stupefied by fear : when the
object of its dread was removed, he slunk away into the hut. From this time he refused to obey
his master, and when chastised with a stick, sprung upon him and bit him severely. Then, as if
having thoroughly broken his bonds, he fled to the mountains. The Koranna, having recovered
from his wound, and being determined on revenge, went in pursuit of the baboon. At last
he descried him, peeping over a precipice. He took aim and fired, but the cunning creature
had held another monkey forward which received the ball, while he himself scampered off to
the woods,
REDA
JANSKENNY ENGRNY
imavist Fan
Tum
THE BABOON MOTHER AND HER INFANT.
M. Boitard furnishes us with the following: “There have been, and still are, in the menagerie
of the Garden of Plants, a number of baboons, and four years ago a female who had a young one
furnished one of the most amusing and singular spectacles I ever witnessed. She was placed with
it in a cage, near the one she formerly occupied with several other animals of the same species.
The infant baboon was hideously ugly, but she lavished upon it the most tender caresses. When
it was eight days old, the door of communication was opened, and her mate entered. The mother,
seated in the middle of the cage, held the young heir in her arms, precisely as a nurse would do
under similar circumstances. The happy father approached, and embraced his mate with French
gallantry upon each side of the face; he then kissed the little one, and sat down opposite the
mother, so that their knees touched each other. They then both began to move their lips with
rapidity, taking the young one from each other's arms, as if they were having a most animated
conversation concerning it.
“The door was again opened, and the baboon friends entered one after another, each embracing
Vol. I.-13

98
VERTEBRATA.
a
a
a
the mother, who, however, would not allow them to touch the young one. They scated them-
selves in a circle, and moved their lips as if felicitating the happy couple on the arrival of the son
and heir, and perhaps finding in it a marvelous resemblance to either the father or mother. This
scene was very much like what often takes place in the human family on similar occasions, except
that we suspect the felicitations were more genuine and heartfelt on the part of the brutes than
on that of their more favored prototypes.
* All the baboons wished to caress the young one; but no sooner did one of them put forward
his hand, than a good slap from the mother warned him of his indiscretion. Those who were
placed behind her stretched their hand out slily, slid it under her arm, and succeeded sometimes,
to their great joy, in touching the little one without the mother perceiving it, particularly when
she was engaged in conversation. But a smart correction soon taught them that their indiscretion
was observed, and they quickly retreated. It was evident that the monkey mother, thoroughly ac-
quainted with the requirements of her position, knew perfectly well how to divide her attention
between her guests and her infant charge.
“ When the young babcon became old enough to exercise his infant limbs in climbing the iron
trellis of the cage, the mother's eyes followed him with anxiety, watching him as he ascended and
descended, and stretching her arms out to catch him in case of a misstep. At the same time she
evidently encouraged him to effort, and applauded his success. From that time she did not cease
to extend her care over him, until he was large enough to try his fortunes in the world alone.”
The MANDRILL, C. Mormon or C. Maimon, is the largest of the whole genus, and may be
readily distinguished from all the other baboons by the enormous protuberance of its cheeks, and
the bright and variegated colors which mark them, as well as by its short, stumpy tail. The full-
grown mandrill measures above five feet when standing upright: the limbs are short and
power-
ful, the body thick and extremely robust, and the head large and almost destitute of forehead;
the tail not more than a couple of inches in length, and generally carried erect; the callositics
large, naked, and of a blood-red color. The general complexion of the hair is a light olive-brown
above, and silvery gray beneath. The muzzle and lips are large, swollen, and protuberant: the
former is surrounded above with an elevated rim or border, and truncated like the snout of a
hog—a characteristic more conspicuous in this than in other baboons, and which leads us to sus-
pect that the mandrill is the species that Aristotle incidentally mentions by the name Chæro-
pithecus, or Pig-faced Baboon. Altogether, the mandrill is a hideous combination of brutalities,
,
rendered exceedingly striking by its strength, intelligence, ferocity, and gaudy coloring.
The mandrill is a native of Northern Africa : it is often mentioned by travelers, and bears the
different names of Smitten, Choras, Boggo, Barris, &c., according to the language or dialect of
the tribes in whose territories it is found. In a state of nature, his great strength and malicious
character render him a truly formidable animal. As these creatures generally march in large bands,
they prove more than a match for any other dwellers in the forests, and are even said to attack
and drive the elephants away from the districts in which they have fixed their residence. The
inhabitants of those countries are themselves afraid to pass through the woods unless in large
companies and well armed; and it is said that the mandrills will even watch their opportunity,
when the men are in the fields, to plunder the negro villages of every thing eatable, and some-
times attempt to carry off the women into the woods.
The Drill, C. leucophæus, is a native of the coast of Guinea, and like the mandrill is distin-
guished by a short, erect, stumpy tail, scarcely two inches in length, and covered with short
bristly hair. The cheeks are not so protuberant as in that species, neither are they marked with
the same variety of colors, and the size and power of the animal are much inferior. Nevertheless,
it is frequently confounded with the mandrill in its native country.
The Wood BABOON, the CINEREOUS Baboon, and the YELLOW BABoon, are all referable to
this species, and differ only from the difference of the age and sex of the specimens from which
descriptions of them have been drawn.
The other species of baboons are the C. Gelada of Abyssinia; the PAPION, C. sphinx, of Western
Africa—a very intelligent and interesting species, frequently seen in menageries; the C, babouin,
whose natural history is little known; the C. Anubis of Nubia; and the C. olivaceus of Guinea.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
99
3. MONKEYS OF THE NEW WORLD: :
PLATYRRHINÆ.
These, which embrace a great variety of species, are divided by
naturalists into two tribes or families—Cebido, from the Greek,
kebus, a monkey; and Hapalidæ, from the Greek, hapalos, tender-
each embracing numerous genera. By most naturalists the Pla-
tyrrhinæ are not considered as true monkeys, and hence the term
Simia is restricted by them to the apes and monkeys of the Old
World; while Simiado includes those of both hemispheres.
The monkeys of the family Cebide have thirty-six teeth in all, the molars being six in number
on each side of each jaw, instead of five as in the apes and monkeys of the other continent. The
face is usually naked, but frequently surrounded by tufts or bushes of long hair, which give these
creatures a singularly whiskered appearance. They have neither check-pouches nor posterior
callosities, which are usually possessed by the Old-World monkeys. Their fingers are all fur-
nished with flat nails, but the thumbs are sometimes deficient on the anterior members: their
tails are always long, and generally prehensile. They are light and elegant in their forms, and
exhibit wonderful agility in their movements, although they are inferior in strength to the mon-
keys of the eastern hemisphere. Their food is various; that of some species consisting almost
entirely of insects, while others feed principally on fruits. The majority, however, appear to de-
vour indiscriminately almost any thing that comes in their way—such as fruits, seeds, insects,
eggs, and small birds. They are generally of diminutive size, and appear to be of a milder and
more tractable disposition than their Old-World brethren.
In climbing about in the trees, the prehensile tails are of the greatest service to them; they
serve, in fact, as a kind of third hand. This is especially the case with the Spider Monkeys, in which
the tail appears to possess the greatest amount of prehensile power. They often suspend the
whole weight of the body upon the tail alone, and its delicacy is so great that the animals can
small objects with it. The Spider Monkeys are destitute of thumbs on the anterior limbs.
The Howling Monkeys are remarkable members of this family. In these the hyoid bone and
thyroid cartilage are of immense size, and the former constitutes a bony case, which receives a
large pouch communicating with the larynx. It is by the reverberations caused by this appa-
ratus that the Howling Monkeys produce those tremendous sounds from which they have received
their name, and which, when heard in the heart of the forest, are said to have a most appalling
effect.
In the Hapalidæ, or Marmosets, there is the same number of teeth as in the Old-World apes;
but the tubercles of the molars are acute, indicating the insectivorous habits of the animals. Not-
withstanding this peculiarity in the dentition, however, they resemble the ordinary American mon-
keys their general structure. They are all small, about the size of a large squirrel; their heads
are rounded, and their ears, usually furnished with a tuft of hair, stand out on cach side. The
hind-feet are provided with an opposable thumb, which bears a flat nail; but all the other fingers
of both pairs of extremities are armed with sharp claws, and the thumb of the anterior members
pick up
a

100
VERTEBRATA.
is scarcely opposable. The tail is long and usually bushy, but never adapted for preheusion: the
whole body is clothed with a soft woolly fur.
These elegant little creatures are found in great abundance in the forests of Brazil, where they
run about the trees in a manner very similar to that of squirrels, which they resemble in appear-
ance. They feed on insects and fruits, and also on birds and their eggs. Indeed, they seem to be
very predaceous : notwithstanding which they may be easily tamed, and were formerly favorite
pets with fashionable ladies. There are numerous species, twenty-five or thirty being already de-
scribed; while, from the reports of travelers, there are doubtless many more which are still un-
known to naturalists.
THE CEBID Æ.
Buffon embraced the genus HowlER, LAGOTHRIX, ATELES, and Sajou, under the title Helopithecus;
the genus CALLITHRIX, Aotes, and Saki, under the term Geopithecus; and under the term Arcto-
pithecus, the Ouistitis; and TAMARINS. We shall notice the principal genera, without entering
65
ENG.
REDMAN
THE GOLD-TAILED HOWLER.
into the subdivisions which naturalists have made in this extensive family of monkeys. It may
be
well to remark, however, that the species with prehensile tails have been denominated Sapajous,
and those without, Sagoins. These terms, once in popular use, are now generally discarded, as
they are not founded upon a natural division of species.
Genus HOWLER, Mycetes: from the Greek, bellowing.–Of this genus, which are the largest
of the American monkeys, there are several species remarkable for the powerful development of
the
organs of the voice. The horrible yells sent forth by these animals from the depths of the
forest, are described by those who have heard them as surpassingly distressing and unearthly.
Humboldt and Bonpland heard them at the distance of half a league. It seems that their cries
are chiefly uttered at night. Waterton, in his wanderings in the forests of Guiana, speaks of
hearing these appalling sounds, at intervals, from eleven o'clock till daybreak. He says: "You
would
suppose
that half the wild beasts of the forest were collecting for the work of carnage :
now it is the tremendous roar of the jaguar, as he springs on his prey; now it changes to his

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2 QUADRUMANA.
101
DANKE
win
Use
WERNER DLL
THE GOUARIBA, OR URSINE HOWLER.
a
deep-toned growlings, as he is pressed on all sides by superior force; and now you hear his last
dying moan beneath a mortal wound.”
The STENTOR, or URSINE HOWLER, Mycetes ursinus, has been confounded with other species, and
had a variety of names, as the Ouarine Monkey, the Beelzebub Monkey, the Gouariba, Choro, &c.
These titles indicate a marked character, which it indeed possesses.
It is found in Brazil and Co-
lombia, and the adjacent provinces. It has thick fur, of a dark-brown color, much prized by the
natives. Its body is eighteen inches in length; the tail long and prehensile. It lives in troops in
the most solitary forests. While most monkeys avoid the water, and are incapable of swimming,
this species dwells along the marshy borders of rivers, frequenting the small islands and spaces par-
tially inundated, and sometimes even swimming streams of considerable width. In aspect this crea-
ture is sad, and in disposition savage and mischievous. It can neither be tamed nor subdued. It
bites severely; and although it is not carnivorous, it inspires fear by its harsh voice and impudent
air. When a troop of these animals are attacked by hunters, they assemble in a phalanx, and
seek to frighten the intruder by their infernal din. They throw down upon the enemy the dried
branches of trees, and even eject their excrements upon them. If all this fails, they usually retire,
but in good order. If one is shot, and mortally wounded, he will often remain suspended by his
tail. In some cases the monkeys gather around a wounded companion, examine the injury, draw
out the lead, and stop the blood with their hands till one of the number brings some leaves, which
are chewed and then thrust into the place.
The GOLD-TAILED HOWLER, Mycetes chrysurus—called Araguato by the natives—is found upon
the borders of the Magdalena, in New Grenada, and is marked by a golden-yellow hue along the
back, and spreading over one half the tail. The rest of the body is of a deep maroon-color. It
lives in bands in the forest ; and M. Roulin tells us that in their migrations they all follow a
leader, each one imitating him exactly, even leaping or climbing as he has done, and putting his
feet exactly in the same places. The name of Araguato is given by Humboldt, erroneously, to tho
preceding
Besides these species, there is the RED HOWLER, M. seniculus, of Guiana, or ALOUATE of Buffon
and Mono COLORADO of Humboldt; the RussET-HANDED HOWLER, M. rufimanus, of Brazil;

102
VERTEBRATA.
FEDMANA KENDV.SC.NY.
THE MIRIKI, OR ERIODE ARACHNOIDES.
and the Black HOWLER, M. niger, found in Paraguay, Bolivia, and Brazil. Four other species
are mentioned by Gray, M. laniger, M. bicolor, M. auratus, and M. villosus. Still one other is
spoken of by Tschudi, as existing in Peru.
Genus LAGOTHRIX.—These monkeys are somewhat less robust and less noisy than the
howlers; they are also of a milder character. Their tail is long and prehensile, and their fur
very thick and soft. CASTELNAU’S LAGOTHRIX, L. Castelnaui, is found on the borders of the Ama-
zon and in Peru. It is very sagacious, thievish, and gluttonous. When domesticated, it readily
becomes obedient and affectionate to its keepers. Like the spider monkeys, it uses its long tail
to seize things at a distance, which it afterward takes with its hands. It walks on its hind-legs
easily when a person leads it by one of its arms. When teased, it utters a growling noise, and
sticks out its lips like the orangs.
The other species are the CAPARRO or NEGRO MONKEY, L. Humboldtii, found along the Orino-
co, in Colombia and in Peru; the L. infumatus, and the L. canus, found in Brazil.
Genus ERIODES.—These have long prehensile tails, with a callosity under the extremity, as in
the preceding genus and that of the ateles. The species are intermediary between the howlers and
spider monkeys, in size, form, and character. The thumb of the fore-hand is wanting, or merely
rudimentary. They make the woods ring during the day with their chattering cries. At the
sight of the hunter they save themselves by flight, or hide in the tops of the trees. Three species,
called Mirikis, are known—the E. hemidactylus, E. tuberifer, and E. arachnoides. Their particular
habits, however, have not been well ascertained.
Genus SPIDER MONKEYS, or ATELES.—The Greek word ateles signifies imperfect, and
is applied to this genus in allusion to the absence of the thumb on the hands, which character-
izes them. The tail, however, by its extraordinary power, abundantly supplies this defect. So
dextrous is it, as to be used on many occasions in preference to feet and hands, and hence is called
a third hand. This animal usually carries it wound around the body, as if to preserve it, but it
is uncoiled with amazing celerity when it is wanted. Buffon says: "In the use of their tail these
animals are singularly dextrous. They can pick up with it even straws and bits of wood. M. Au-
debert tells us, that he saw one of the species carry hay in its tail to make its bed, and move and
spread it about as easily as an elephant could have done with his trunk. In climbing, too, this
member is of great use."
“ There are,” says Dampier, " in the Isthmus of America numbers of monkeys, some of which
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
103
REDMAN AV. ENNY. SENY
THE ATELES, OR SPIDER MONKEY.
are white, but the most part black—some have beards, others none. These monkeys are very
droll, and performed a thousand grotesque postures as we traversed the woods. When they
are unable to leap from one tree to another, on account of the distance, or the tree being separated
by a river, their dexterity is very surprising. The whole family form a kind of chain, locking tail
in tail, or hand in hand ; and one of them holding the branch above, the rest swing down, balan-
cing to and fro like a pendulum, until the undermost is enabled to catch hold of the lower branches
of some neighboring tree. When the monkey below has fixed his hold, the one above lets
go, and thus comes undermost in turn; but, creeping up along the chain, attains the next
branches of the tree like the rest; and thus they all take possession without ever coming to the
ground."
This account has been doubted by some naturalists, but we are told by Mrs. Loudon that a
similar feat is often performed by these monkeys in the menagerie of the Zoological Gardens at
London. Modern travelers tell us that monkeys of this kind do actually cross rivers by forming
a chain attached to the overhanging branches of the trees on one side. When the chain is long
enough, they give it a swinging motion, which enables the lowest monkey to catch hold of the
limbs on the other side. He mounts till the chain is drawn straight from tree to tree, when the
opposite monkey lets go, and the whole group are transported across the stream without touching
the water.
The ateles are generally very slender, the body not being more than a foot in length. They
generally feed on insects, but they also catch small fishes and shell-fish, such as mussels and oys-
ters: they crush the shells of the latter by pounding them between two stones. They are remark-
ably intelligent, gentle in their manners, and exceedingly light and graceful in their movements.
The manner in which they put forth their long slender claws has given them the title of Spider
Monkeys-a name which has sometimes been erroneously applied to the eriodes. They are fond
of the society of man, and though sad of aspect, are confiding and affectionate. Their voice is a
sort of flute-like whistle, often compared to the notes of birds. They are great favorites in the
menageries.
Mr. Gardiner gives the following account of this species : “Those that live in the vicinity of the
Brazilian plantations make sad havoc in the fields of Indian corn. Their want of a fore-finger or
thumb seems to be made up by the handiness of another member, for in carrying off their plunder,
they will take an ear of corn in the mouth, one in the arms, and a third in the prehensile tail!"

104
VERTEBRATA.
Mr. Gardiner had a tame animal of this kind called Jerry, which lived very much like one of the
family, taking his regular meals, and always insisting upon his cup of tea before he went to bed.
He ate raw eggs by making a hole in one end of them, then throwing back his head, and taking
ww
SAJOU STEALING BIRDS' EGGS.-(See p. 105.)
them down at a gulp. He cracked nuts with his teeth, and cocoa-nuts by lifting them up and letting
them fall. Being tied by a string, he would get objects that lay beyond his reach by the use of
be
THE WHITE-THROATED SAI, OR SAJOU.-(See p. 105).
a stick. He traveled with his master several thousand miles on the back of a large mastiff dog.
Sometimes he would ride with his face toward the tail, by way of change. In going down a steep
hill, he coiled his prehensile tail around that of the dog, as a crupper. The dog was fond of his

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
105
REDMAN & KENNY.ENGR.N.Y.
THE SAI, OR WEEPER.
rider, and always before starting went to the place where the monkey was tied, and waited till he
was put on and his cord tied to his collar.
Nearly a dozen species of ateles have been distinguished by naturalists, all bearing a close
resemblance to each other. Most of them are found in the forests of Brazil and Guiana, and in
the vicinity. The most remarkable of them are the CHAMECK, A. pentadactylus ; the A. paniscus,
or Coaita of Buffon; the A. ater; A. marginatus; the MARIMONDA, or A. Brissonii; the A. mela-
nochir; and A. hybridus.
Genus SAJOU, Cebus.—These creatures are somewhat smaller, but less slender than the
ateles : the tail is also less flexible. They are nimble in their movements and mild in their dispo-
sition. They have a familiar yet unobtrusive curiosity. There are numerous species in the wilds
of Brazil, Guiana, and Peru, all living in troops, and feeding on fruits, grain, emmets, birds'-eggs,
&c. Many of them fall a prey to the ocelot and other felidæ. They are known under the various
names of Sajous, Sapajous, Weeping Monkeys, Musk Monkeys, &c. They are much used in
Europe as well as in America by itinerant musicians, for climbing up to the windows to receive
contributions. In France I have often seen them perform as mimic soldiers, ride upon dog's
with the air of jockeys, and execute a thousand other tricks of the kind. This they did with a
ludicrous calmness of manner, as if they actually regarded their drolleries as the most serious
business in the world.
A specimen of this monkey in the Garden of Plants, by the name 0. Jack, attracted much atten-
tion by his intelligence. If nuts were given him, the shells of which he could not break with his
teeth, he cracked them with a stone. One day as he sat aloft in his cage, some nuts were pre-
sented to him, all of which he cracked with his teeth save one : this was so large he could not
put it into his mouth ; so he began to descend in order to get a stone. On his way he met with
a large nail sticking out of a post: he instantly struck the nut smartly against the nail and broke
. it. All this was done as if it was a matter of course.
The most remarkable species of sajou besides the above are the following: The Brown SAJOU,
C. apella, C. robustus, and C. variegatus, all of Brazil. The TUFTED CAPUCHIN, C. cirrifer,
of Guiana, C. vellerosus, C. frontatus, C. elegans, C. barbatus, C. flavus ; the Sai, or WEEPER.
C. capucinus; C. castaneus, C. versicolor, C. chrysopus, C. hypoleucus, are found in various

106
VERTEBRATA.
339
PLUSMASI
THE COLLARED TEC-TEE, OR CALLITHRIX.
a
parts of tropical South America. They are generally about twelve or fourteen inches in length,
and bear a great resemblance to cach other.
Genus CALLITHRIX, Callithrix.—The monkeys of this genus are called Sajous by some
authors. Several of the species are also called Ti-ti, or Tee-tee. They are found in Brazil and the
.
vicinity. They have thick fur, and a long tail entirely covered with hair, but not highly prehen-
sile.
In size, and also in general character, they resemble the sajous.
The OU APPO, or OUAPOUSSA, C. discolor, is found on the borders of the Amazon and in Peru.
Its color is of a reddish gray, spotted with maroon. In running about among the branches of the
trees, they display admirable grace and agility. The females carry their young ones on their
backs, and even thus encumbered seem to have the lightness of birds. During the day they
remain rolled up in balls, uttering from time to time a kind of internal cry, whence they are called
Ventriloquial Monkeys and Singing Monkeys. When evening comes they resume their activity,
.
and
go forth to obtain their food, which consists of fruits and insects. They are gentle, but not
very intelligent. They readily submit to domestication, in which state they eat cooked meats,
sweetmeats, and other food.
The other species of callithrix are the C. amictus ; the COLLARED CALLITHRIX, C. torquatus ;
the MASKED CALLITHRIX, C. personatus ; C. gigo; the BLACK-HANDED CALLITHRIX, C. melanochir;
the MITRED CALLITHRIX, C. infulatus ; C. donacophilus, C. moloch, and C. cupreus.
Genus SAIMIRI, Saimiris.—The animals of this genus are but about ten inches in length, and
are the most siender, graceful, and interesting of the whole monkey family. The large develop-
ment of the brain is one of their most striking characteristics. The tail is but slightly prehensile,
yet is used in climbing trees. Humboldt tells us they are very sympathetic, and that when they
have any cause of sadness their eyes fill with tears. When a person is talking to them, they
seem greatly interested, and try to seize the words as they issue from the mouth. They recognize
the objects represented by engravings, as fruits and insects, and approach and attempt to seize

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
107
them. They live on insects, and especially spiders, which they catch with admirable dexterity
alike with their hands and their lips.
The species of this genus are the TEE-TEE, or SQUIRREL MONKEY, S. sciureus, of Guiana and
Brazil; the S. ustus, of Brazil; and the S. entomophagus, found in troops in Bolivia and Peru.
M. Geoffroy mentions another species under the name of the Orinoco TI-TI, S. lunulatus.
CITO
a
Genus NYCTIPITHECUS: Nyctipithecus.—These are about ten to twelve inches long, and are
distinguished by a large round head, and eyes that give out phosphorescent light in the darkness.
They sleep by day and are active at night, and hence are called Nocthores, or Night Monkeys, by
French authors. They live in hollow trees, and do not gather in bands. They are found in Brazil.
,
nach
en
w
kan
man
THE DOUROUCOULI.
The best known of this genus is the DOUROUCOULI MONKEY, N. trivirgatus. Its general color is
gray: its body and head measure ten inches. It lives on the borders of the Orinoco, and is noc-
turnal in its habits. It is sad of aspect, and solitary in its disposition. It passes the day in sleep, and

108
VERTEBRATA.
REBUSAN FENNY, SC
asjon,
TRY
THE WHITE-HEADED SAKI.-(See p. 110.)
at night goes forth in quest of food, which consists of sweet fruits and eggs, though small birds do
not come amiss. One of them in the Garden of Plants lived on milk, biscuit, and fruits.
THE RED SAKI, OR BRACHYURE.
THE BALD SAKI, OR BRACHYURE.-(See p. 110.)

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
109
HUM
THE MONK SAKI: P. MONACHUS.---(See p. 110.)
The BELLOWING MONKEY, N. vociferans, is found on the borders of the Paraguay and in
Brazıl. Like the douroucouli, with which it is often confounded, it has a cry at night resembling
that of the jaguar, and hence has been called the Mona-tiger and Titi-tiger. Travelers are fre-
quently put in a state of trepidation by the cries of these innocent little creatures.
lui
Vir
SIK
BEDAAN & KENNY.SC. NV
SATANIC SAKI.—(See p. 110.)
The N. Oseryi inhabits the borders of the Upper Amazon and Peru: the N. lemurinus is found
in the mountainous parts of New Grenada. They live in small families, sleeping in nests of leaves
by day, and going forth only at night for food. They utter a frequent cry of douroucou, which
has doubtless given rise to the name of one of the species, the douroucouli. The VITOE, or N.
felinus, is found in Polivia and Brazil.
Genus SAKI, Pithecia.—The monkeys of this genus are marked by a short head, an angular
muzzle, and a non-prehensile tail. They are gentle, intelligent, slender of form, and partially noc-

110
VERTEBRATA.
turnal in their habits. They generally live by couples or in small families. The males share with
the females the care of rearing the young; but when these have arrived at years of discretion,
the fathers drive them away. The genus is divided into two branches—the Brachyures, which
have very short tails, and the Sakis proper, with long, large tails.
The RED SAKI, Brachyurus rubicundus, is about fifteen inches long, the tail having the appear-
ance of a large hairy ball. The fur is reddish, the face vermilion, and the top of the head nearly
bald. It is found in the valleys of the Upper Amazon.
The Bald Saki, Brachyurus calvus, resembles the preceding, and is found in Brazil and Peru.
The B. ouakary and the B. cacajo, or Pithecia melanocephala of E. Geoffroy, are found on the bor-
ders of the Orinoco.
The WHITE-HEADED Saki, Pithecia leucocephala, is one of the long-tailed species. Its body
measures fifteen inches, and its tail seventeen. It is found in Guiana, where it is called Yarkee.
Some other species are called Yarkee by the natives.
The GOLD-HEADED Saki, Pithecia ochrocephala, the P. chrysocephala, P. monachus, P. mari-
quoina, P. inusta, P. albinasa P. satanas, P. hirsuta, P. cheiropotes, are the other species.
THE QUISTITI, OR MARMOSET.
THE HAPALIDÆ.
This family, as already stated, embraces the OUIstitis and the TAMARINS.
Genus QUISTITI.— Hapale :—These animals are called Squirrel Monkeys, because in size,
sprightliness, and manner of running along upon the trees, they resemble squirrels. They are six
or eight inches in length; their fur is thick, and of various colors; the tail long, covered with hair,
and non-prehensile; their nails are long and sharp, enabling them to run along upon the smallest
and most flexible branches of the trees. They inhabit wooded districts, and live in small bands.
Both male and female assist in rearing the young, though the mother occasionally eats off the
head of one of her offspring. She usually carries the young on her back, but when she gets
tired, does not hesitate to rub them off against a tree. These are less intelligent than other
monkeys, and have neither the cunning, nor the strength, nor the love of liberty which marks the
other species. Nevertheless, they are so small, soft, gentle, and graceful, as to be pets
with
many
persons. Ladies of quality, a century ago, held them in great estimation. They are found in dif-
ferent parts of tropical South America.
The Ti-ri, or JACCHUS, Hapale jacchus, or Simia jacchus, described by Buffon, is generally of
an ash color, and has long gray hairs standing out from the side of its head. The face is of a flesh

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA. 111
color; the tail is ringed with black and gray. It is not more than seven inches in length, and is
a general favorite, though in captivity it is lazy and indifferent in its demeanor. In its native
woods it is more active, killing insects and small birds with admirable dexterity. It often de-
scends from the trees and makes a meal of snails and lizards. The male and female seldom sep-
arate, though they manifest little affection for one another.
There are many other species, as the WHITE-NECKED OUISTITI, H. albicollis, H. aurita, H. hu-
meralifer; the WHITE-HEADED OUISTITI, H. leucocephala; the Mico, H. melanurus and H.
—the smallest of the genus, not being over six inches long.
pygmea
REDHAAN
THE PINCHE.
Genus TAMARIN: Midas.—These resemble the above, and many of them are called Ouis-
titis. The species are numerous.
The MARIKINA, Silky MONKEY or Lion MONKEY, H. rosalia, is a beautiful little creature,
covered with golden yellow fur. It was formerly a great favorite with ladies of rank in France,
and one of them, belonging to Madame Pompadour, was described by Buffon. The PINCHE, H.
Edipus, is of a yellowish-brown color, and is found in Guiana, Brazil, and Peru. In domesticity
it sleeps during the day, and at night becomes exceedingly active. The other species are the
H. chrysomelas, H. leonina; H. Geoffroyri, found on the Isthmus of Panama; the NEGRO TAMA-
RiN of Buffon, Tamarin niger; H. bicolor ; the Midas MONKEY, H. Midas; H. rufoniger, H.
Devillei, H. flavifrons, H. Weddellii, H. Illigeri, H. nigrifrons, H labiata, H. pileata, and H.
mystax.

112
VERTEBRATA
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE MONKEY FAMILY.
We have thus devoted a large space to the Monkey Family, for although in some respects repul-
sive, they are still ceaseless objects of interest, as well on account of their own peculiarities as the
curious manners and customs of different nations connected with them. They are also inhabitants
of the tropical regions of the earth, and hence are associated with the most gorgeous and won-
derful displays of animal and vegetable life. Thoughtless, playful, given up to an existence in
which even the cares of life seem a perpetual round of gambols ; in the midst of undying verdure
and bloom; gay as the birds, careless as the winds, often variegated in color as the flowers, they
seem—if we leave out the graver species, the apes and baboons—to be the very personification of
mirth, frolic, and fun. Subsisting, at least in part, upon insects and the eggs of birds, or the birds
themselves, they in turn furnish a perpetual feast to the prowling leopards, panthers, jaguars, and
ocelots, and the still more subtle and treacherous boas and anacondas, that lurk in the tropical
forests, thus supplying a link in the great chain of renovation and destruction, which sums up
the history of animal life. If mankind are disposed to criticise either their looks or their man-
ners, by applying standards of personal beauty or rules of moral conduct not made for monkeys,
we should still not overlook the fact, that in their native haunts they seem as perfectly to fulfill
their destiny as any other of the works of nature.
Those who are in the habit of satirizing the monkey creation, should reflect upon the infinite
pleasure which children in all countries derive from the pranks and gambols of these creatures.
Mary Howitt, with the cheerful eyes which happily find beauty and pleasure everywhere, seems
to see this subject in its true light, when she says-
"Monkey, little merry fellow,
“Look now at his odd grimaces-
Thou art Nature's Punchinello:
Saw you e'er such comic faces ?
Full of fun as Puck could be,
Now like learned judge sedate,
Harlequin might learn of thee.
Now with nonsense in his pate.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
113
Nature, in a sunny wood,
Must have been in merry mood,
And with laughter fit to burst,
Monkey-when she made thee first.
How the world's first children ran
Laughing from the monkey-man l-
Little Abel and his brother,
Laughing, shouting to their mother.
“And could you keep down your mirth
When the floods were on the earth?
When, from all your drowning kin,
Good old Noah took you in?
"How you leaped and frisked about
When your life you first found out!
How you threw, in roguish mirth,
Cocoa-nuts on mother earth!
" How you sat and made a din,
Louder than had ever been-
Till the parrots, all a-riot,
Chattered, too, to keep you quiet!
"In the very ark, no doubt,
You went frolicking about ;
Never keeping in your mind
Drowned monkeys left behind."
After all, what could we do without the monkeys? How much of our pleasant literature would
perish if they were to be struck out of existence! Certainly they are the heroes of many of the
best fables of Lafontaine, and other moralists of his school. Who has not been instructed and
amused by Trumbull's epigrammatic story of the monkey who, having lathered himself in imita-
tion of his master-
“Drew razor swift as he could pull it,
And cut from ear to ear his gullet!"
a
The following is an example of a graver satire, for which we are indebted to the monkeys:
“ A traveler in Africa was one day astonished to observe a vast procession of monkeys marching
over a plain, with countenances indicative of the deepest sorrow. There was the little frisky green
monkey—but his countenance was grave and woe-begone; there was the red monkey, and the
baboon, and the chimpanzee, and all seemed full of grief, as if some great calamity had befallen
them. Instead of the leaps, and frolics, and grimaces usually seen among this four-handed family,
they marched forward with long and regular steps, to a grave and solemn tune, sung by a choir of
appointed howlers.
“ After marching a considerable distance, the vast procession, consisting of many thousands,
approached a low mound of carth. Here the head of the train halted, and the rest came up and
arranged themselves around the mound. Then the whole troop set up a most piteous wail; then
some of them began to dig into the mound of earth, and pretty soon they disclosed the half-
decayed skeleton of a monkey. This was raised upon an altar, and then all the monkeys bowed
down to the bones, and paid them reverence. Then one of the most noted of the monkeys, a
famous lawyer among them, stood up and made an eloquent address. The monkeys, apes, and
baboons sobbed, and sighed, and howled, as the orator proceeded. At length he finished with a
pathetic and sublime flourish, and the congregation shed tears, and wiped their eyes, and then
they laid the bones in the ground again, and then they heaped up the earth over it to a vast
height; and they reared a monument upon it, with an inscription setting forth the virtues and
services of the dead monkey, and then they all went away.
“ After the multitude had dispersed, the traveler went to the orator, and asked him what all
this meant : whereupon he said, that it was the custom with the monkeys, when any one rose up
among them of supreme sagacity, or superior excellence, to envy and hate him—to persecute him
and to put him to death ; but after many years they always dug up the decayed bones and wor-
shiped them, to testify their gratitude and repair their injustice, by honoring the memory of the
monkey they had reviled while living.
“This sounded so ridiculous to the traveler that he laughed outright; but he was soon rebuked
by the monkey, who spoke gravely as follows: 'Your mirth, sir traveler, is ill timed, and shows a
want of due reflection. We monkeys are great imitators, and in this matter we do but follow the
fashion of our betters. Some monkeys have traveled as well as you, sir, and they tell us mankind
usually revile those who are remarkable for goodness or greatness while they are living, and often
bring them to a premature grave, either by persecution or neglect; but afterward, when their
bones are decayed, they make up for their folly and injustice by paying great honor to their
memory, digging up their remains, singing hymns, delivering orations, and erecting monuments
over their ashes !!!
VOL. I.-15

114
VERTEBRATA.
B.
The following “ ESTIMATE OF THE MORAL CHARACTER OF MONKEYS,” by a clergyman, Rev.
W. Jones, designed as a satire on men-monkeys rather than on the true simia, is not only very
lively and witty, but an excellent moral application of the subject we are discussing:
“A gentleman whose premises were infested by a large breed of sparrows, said they were birds
of no principle. Of all monkeys it may be said, with much more propriety, that they are beasts of
no principle, for they have every evil quality, and not one good one. They are saucy and inso-
lent, always making an attempt to bully and terrify people, and biting those first who are most
afraid of them. An impertinent curiosity runs through all their actions; they never can let things
alone, but must know what is going forward. If a pot or a kettle is set on the fire, and the cook
turns her back, the monkey whips off the cover to see what she has put into it, even though he
cannot get at it without setting his feet upon the hot bars of the grate.
“Mimicry is another of the monkey's qualities. Whatever he sees men do, he must affect to
do the like himself. He seems to have no rule of his own, and so is ruled by the actions of men
or beasts—as weak people follow the fashion of the world, whether it be good or bad. No mon-
key has any sense of gratitude, but takes his victuals with a snatch, and then grins in the face of
the person that gives it him, lest he should take it away again; for he supposes that all men will
snatch away what they can lay hold of, as all monkeys do. Through an invincible selfishness, no
monkey considers any individual but himself, as the poor cat found to her cost, when the monkey
burned her paws with raking his chestnuts out of the fire. They can never eat together without
quarreling or plundering one another.
“Every monkey delights in mischief, and cannot help doing it when it is in his power. If any
thing he takes hold of can be broken or spoiled, he is sure to find the way of doing it; and he
chatters with pleasure when he hears the noise of a china vessel smashed to pieces upon the
pave-
ment. If he takes up a bottle of ink, he empties it upon the floor. He unfolds all your papers,
and scatters them about the room, and what he cannot undo he tears to pieces; and it is wonder-
ful to see how much of this work he will do in a few minutes, when he happens to get loose.
Everybody has heard of the monkey whose curiosity led him to the mouth of a cannon to see
how it went off, when he paid for his curiosity with the loss of his head.
" In a ship where a relation of mine was an officer, while the men were busy in fetching powder
from below, and making cartridges, a monkey on board took up a lighted candle, and ran downl
to the powder-room to see what they were about ; but happily was overtaken just as he got to
the lantern, and thrown out at the nearest port-hole into the sea with the lighted candle in his
hand. Another lost his life by the spirit of mimicry: he had seen his master shaving his own
66
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
115
THE BELLOWING MONKEY.—(See p. 109.)
face, and at the first opportunity took up the razor to shave himself, and made shift to cut his
own throat. When the wild monkeys have escaped to the top of trees, the people below who
want to catch them show them the use of gloves, by putting them on and pulling them off repeat-
edly; and when the monkeys are supposed to have taken the hint, they leave plenty of gloves on
the ground, having first lined them with pitch. The monkeys come down, put on the gloves, but
cannot pull them off again ; and when they are surprised, betaking themselves to the trees as
usual, they slide backward and are caught. A monkey who had seen his mistress upon her pillow
in a nightcap, which at her rising she pulled off and hung upon a chair, put on the cap, laid his
head upon the pillow, and, by personating the lady, made himself ten times more frightful and
ridiculous, -as awkward people do, when they upe their superiors, and affect a fashion which is
above their sphere.
" A mischievous disposition is always inclined to persecution. There are minds whose greatest
pleasure it is to ride and tease the minds of other people. A late friend and neighbor of mine in
the country kept a monkey who took to riding his hogs, especially one of them, which he com-
monly singled out as fittest for his use; and leaping upon its back, with his face toward the tail,
he whipped it unmercifully, and drove it about till it could run no longer. The hogs lived under
such continual terrors of mind, that when the monkey first came abroad in the morning, they
used to set up a great cry at the sight of him.
" A well-known nobleman once had a wild horse whom nobody could ride. 'I know not what
your lordship can do with him,' said one, “but to set the monkey upon his back.' So they put a
pad to the horse, and set the monkey upon it with a switch in his hand, which he used upon
the
horse, and set him into a furious kicking and galloping; but Pug kept his seat and exercised his
switch. The horse lay down upon the ground; but when he threw himself on one side, the mon-
key was up on the other : he ran into a wood with him, to brush him off ; but if a tree or bush
occurred on one side, the monkey slipped to the other side; till at last the horse was so sickened,
fatigued, and broken-spirited, that he ran home to the stable for protection. When the monkey
was removed, a boy mounted him, who managed the horse with ease, and he never gave any
trouble afterward.
"In all the actions of the monkey, there is no appearance of any thing good or useful, nor any
species of evil that is wanting in them. They are, indeed, like to mankind : they can ride a pig

116
VERTEBRATA.
as a man rides a horse, or better, and are most excellent jockeys; but, after all, they are only like
the worst of the human species. If all the qualities of the monkeys are put together, they consti-
tute what is called ill-nature; and if any person would know what an ill-natured man is, that man
is a monkey to all intents and purposes, with the addition of reason, which makes his character
much worse, with the loss of religion and conscience, which is worst of all; for without these,
reason is rather a disadvantage."
In the light in which we regard this sermon on monkeys by the preacher, it is, as we have said,
alike significant and instructive. If it were to be taken as a serious homily against the four-
handed family who are the subject of it, it would be both unjust and injurious. We must receive
Nature's works as she made them, and judge them accordingly. The baboon with his snout
painted sky-blue, and declaring it to be “neat, not gaudy," had just as good a right to insist
upon his pre-Raphaeliteism as Mr. Ruskin has upon his—the whole thing being a mere matter of
taste.
Let us always start fair in our estimates of the brute creation, taking good Dr. Watts for a
guide:
"Let dogs delight to bark and bite,
For God hath made them so ;
Let bears and lions growl and fight,
For 'tis their nature too."
If, indeed, we persist in denouncing the monkeys as a thievish, fickle, and disgusting race, and
thus bring them to trial under a code which they cannot comprehend, let us see how the tables
may be-nay, perhaps are—turned upon us.
We are told that some of the tribes of South American howlers which we have described in the
preceding pages hold mass meetings, in which one of the monkeys takes an elevated position,
from which, as from a desk or a rostrum, he harangues the assembly. Travelers who have wit-
nessed these scenes, all speak of the ludicrous resemblance in such cases to certain human exhi-
bitions, as well on the part of the orator as the listeners. It would not require a great stretch of
imagination to suppose that human beings are sometimes the theme of their discourses; nor would
it be difficult to imagine the figure they would make in these “MORAL ESTIMATES OF MEN IN A
MONKEY POINT OF VIEW.” To these creatures mankind must be chiefly known as shooting them
'
down-wounding, mangling, destroying them—often in mere wantonness of sport, often for the
cannibal desire of devouring them, often for the purpose of carrying them into captivity, and
often in vindication of that hereditary contempt and spite which every race of man indulges
against all other races that resemble it and yet are not of it. To the monkeys, man must be a
butcher, a cannibal, a thief, a robber, a disturber of the peace, a tyrant, an enslaver,-in short, the
incarnate devil; and we may therefore easily fancy that, in the howling eloquence of monkey
stump-orators, he is often used as a climax to “point a moral or adorn a tale.” The intense agita-
tion, the uncontrolable terror, the bitter hate, displayed by howling's and hissings, groanings and
gruntings, on the part of a community of monkeys, when a man happens to invade their forest
sanctuaries, sufficiently attest the instinctive horror they entertain of a family that, of all the
world, have the greatest resemblance to themselves.
One thing more, as faithful historians, we are bound to state, showing that the ancestry of the
monkeys takes precedence of that of Man. Mrs. Howitt, in the lines we have quoted, seems to
imagine that the monkeys were created about the time of Adam and Eve; but this is a mistake.
Long, long ages before man became an inhabitant of the earth, apes and monkeys-diversified in
form, and multitudinous in number—had frisked and frolicked upon its surface. The fossil re-
mains of these creatures are found abundantly in different quarters of the globe-not in present
tropical countries only, but even in England and France, and in situations which carry back their
existence to the dim and distant eras of the world when these countries were covered with a tropi-
cal vegetation, and monsters now extinct sported in their forests and in their waters,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
117
GALAGOS. — (See p. 118.)
THE LEMURS, CHEIROMYS, &c.
Under this head we shall notice several very curious animals, as the Loris, GALAGO, TARSIER,
INDRI, MAKI, and CHEIROGALE, all of which may be considered as Lemurs, with the CHEIROMYS
or AvE-AYE, and the GALEOPITHEC or Flying LEMUR. These are dissimilar in certain respects,
yet they all possess characteristics which entitle them to a place next the monkeys—viz., they
are all four-handed, and have thumbs on their hinder feet, opposable to the fingers. The greater
part of them are confined to Madagascar; some live in Africa, and some in India and the adja-
cent islands. None are found either in Europe or America.
Genus LORIS: Loris.—Of this genus there are two species—one called the SLENDER Loris,
Loris gracilis, and the other the Lazy LORIS, Loris tardigradus. These are small animals, about
the size of the ouistiti, and covered with hair. The legs are rather short, the head rounded, the
cars small and covered with hair, and the face long and pointed. They have no external trace of
a tail. Their movements are peculiarly awkward, slow, and cautious, resembling those of the cha-
meleon: they live on trees, and are nocturnal in their habits, feeding on fruits, mice, insects,
small birds, and eggs. Specimens have been taken to Europe, where they appeared to be gentle,
,
inoffensive, and rather intelligent. They are often described under the name of Slow Lemurs, or
Slow-paced Lemurs.
The Slender Loris is about a foot in length, of a russet color, with a white band on the face
and nose.
It is found in the island of Ceylon and the adjacent parts of the continent. The Lazy
Loris is somewhat larger and more robust than the preceding. It is covered with long, coarse,
woolly hair, of a reddish tinge on the upper parts of the body, with a line of brown running along
the back. Each of the eyes is surrounded by a ring of dirty black. It is a native of Sumatra,
Java, and Borneo, and perhaps of Bengal. It is sometimes called the Poucan.
Genus PERODICTICUS. —Of this, ranged by some authors with the galagos, there is but a
single species, the Porto, Perodicticus potto. It has greatly puzzled the naturalists, as it seems
to partake of several nearly allied species. It is a native of Africa, in the country around Sierra
.
Leone, where it is called the Bush-DOG. It is smaller than a cat, being only ten inches long. It
a

113
VERTEBRATA.
w
WA
lisay
a
vey
suu
lives on the trees, and is slow in its move-
ments. It has an opposable thumb on each
of the hands; the fore-hands, however, want
the forefinger, and the other fingers are set
in such a manner that the hands appear
like
pairs of pincers. The body is thick-set,
and of a reddish-gray color; the tail is
;
short. Though specimens have been seen
in London and Paris, its habits in a state
of nature are little known. It is said, how-
ever, to feed on vegetables, and chiefly the
cassada.
Genus GALAGO: Galago.—There are
several species of this exceedingly pretty
animal,—some natives of the woods of Sene.
gal, where one kind receives the name of
Khoyah; others are found in Southern Af-
rica. They have the organization of the
primates, with the graceful appearance of
the squirrels. The head is large and round ;
the membranaceous ears remarkably large,
and closed when the animal is sleeping; the
eyes are large, and of a soft expression; the
fur soft, the tail long; the teeth twenty-
six, as with the maki, loris, and sapajou.
They are mostly nocturnal, sleeping in
grassy nests in the trunks of trees during
the day : are of an inoffensive disposi-
tion, and live among the trees, feeding on
insects, small birds, fruit, and gum. They
are very active, and in their grimaces and
gesticulations resemble the monkeys.
The species are the SENEGAL GALAGO,
G. Senegalensis ; the BLACK GALAGO, G.
Alleni ; G. crassicaudatus, the largest spe-
cies; and G. Demidoffii, or LITTLE GALAGO,
the smallest of the family.
Genus TARSIER: Tarsius.—The SPEC-
TER TARSIER, T. spectrum, called Podje by
the natives, is the only species of this genus,
and is found in Borneo, the Celebes, and
Banca. From the latter it is sometimes
called T. Bancanus. The naturalists have
been greatly embarrassed as to the family
it belongs to: some have called it a jer-
boa, some a lemur, and some a relation of
the marsupial animals of New Holland.
It is at last wisely determined to make it
a genus by itself.
It is an exceedingly
graceful little creature, about the size of a
common rat, yet resembling the monkeys
in form. It is gentle and tranquil, and
feeds on insects. Its fur is soft, and the
THE SLENDER LORIS.
TARSIER

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2 QUADRUMANA.
119
21
톱
​VIK
W
MUW
2
Cuid
BEDMANOVENMY.SC.N.Y.
THE INDRI.
general color a grayish brown; the
hands are very delicate, naked within
and furred without.
Genus INDRI: Indris.—This genus
includes only a single species, the SHORT-
TAILED INDRI of Madagascar, I. brevicau-
datus. It is the largest of the lemuridæ,
being three feet high when it stands on
its hind-legs. It is covered with soft,
thick fur, mostly black, but whitish on
the face, and reddish white on the sides.
Though its general look is like that of
a small bear, it is a gentle creature, and
capable of some education. The natives
think it has the form of a man, and call
it the Man of the Woods. It is cer-
tainly the most anthropomorphous of
all the lemuridæ.
Genus PROPITHECUS.— Of this
there is but a single known species, the
P. diadema, of Madagascar, resembling
the indri, but somewhat smaller. Spe-
cimens have been seen in the menage-
ries of the Garden of Plants and of the
Zoological Gardens.
Genus AVAHI: Avahis.—One spe-
cies only is known, the Wooly AVAHI,
A.laniger, of Madagascar,and called Am-
pongue by the natives. It is about a
foot long, and has a tail half the length
of its body. Some naturalists call it the
Long-tailed Indri. Little is known of
its habits.
Genus MAKI: Lemur.—The makis
are the proper lemurs, and are distin-
guished by thick, soft fur, a slender body
about two feet long, a very long bushy
tail, and a pointed nose.
sion of the face has given them the title
of Fox-nosed Monkeys. They are intel-
ligent, and capable of some education.
They have frequently been in the mena-
geries of London and Paris, where they
bear the climate tolerably well, taking
great comfort, however, in sitting by
the fire in the winter. One of them
lived in the latter city nineteen years.
Several species have bred in the Euro-
pean menageries. At Malmaison, one
of these creatures, kept by the Empress
Josephine, produced a young one which
she treated with great tenderness: dur-
ing its infancy it was almost naked, and
The expres-
REUMMA-KENY.SC.MY.
WHITE-FRONTED LEMURS.

120
VERTEBRATA.
she carried it on her back, imbedded in the deep fur, nearly the whole day. In their general
mode of living the lemurs greatly resemble the monkeys, their food consisting of fruits. Some
fourteen species are known, all confined to Madagascar.
究
​THE RED LEMUR.
The RING-TAILED MACAUCO, Lemur catta, is of an ashy-gray color, the tail being annulated with
black bands. The RUFFED LEMUR, L. macaco, is marked by irregular black and white spots. It
is sometimes called the Magpie Maki. The Red LEMUR, L. ruber, is noted for its brilliant
colorings, the greater part of the body being covered with a vivid russet: the hands, face, and tail
are black; on the back of the neck there is a large patch of white.
CHEIROGALE.
The RED-BELLIED LEMUR, L. rubriventer ; the YELLOW-BELLIED LEMUR, L. flaviventer ; the
STRAWBERRY LEMUR, L. collaris; the RussET LEMUR, L. rufus; the WHITE-HANDED LEMUR, L.
albimanus; the WHITE-FRONTED LEMUR, L. albifrons; the BLACK-FACED Macauco, L. nigrifrons ;

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 2. QUADRUMANA.
121
and the Mongous, L. mongoz, are well-known species. The latter is one of those most fre-
quently brought to Europe. The other species are the L. Anjuanensis, L. coronatus, and L.
chrysampix.
Besides these there are the LITTLE GRAY MAKI of Buffon, L. griseus, and the Lepilemur mus-
telinus, both resembling the true lemurs, but probably constituting a distinct
genus.
Genus CHEIROGALE.—These animals have round heads, like the cats, the snout short, the
lips garnished with mustaches, the ears small and oval, the eyes large, staring, and close together,
The tail is long and thickly furred, and is frequently carried coiled round the body of the animal.
The DWARF MAKI of Cuvier, Cheirogaleus Milii, is the smallest of the genus, the body being
only a foot long, and the tail of equal length. The color is a yellowish gray. A specimen in the
Garden of Plants kept himself in a nest of hay—which he made for himself, from materials furnished
by the keepers-during the day, and at night he went forth and displayed great activity until the
morning. His big eyes were much distressed by the light of a lamp or candle. His food consisted
of fruits, bread, and biscuit.
The other species are the C. furcifer, and the LITTLE MACAUCO, C. murinus.
a
-
10
CHEIROMYS.
Its large
a
Genus CHEIROMYS.—Of this genus a single species only is known, the AYE-AYE, C. Mada-
gascariensis, which has excited much curiosity by its singular formation and habits. A specimen
was obtained by the French naturalist Sonnerat at Madagascar, and from his account our knowl-
cdge on the subject is mostly obtained. He says the animal is found chiefly, if not exclusively, on
the western part of the island, and resembles alike the maki, the squirrel, and the ape.
.
and flat ears are like those of a bat; its principal peculiarity of structure is the middle toe or
finger of the fore-foot, the two last joints of which are very long, slender, and denuded of hair.
This member is useful to it in drawing worms out of holes in the trees, and it seems also to be of
service in holding on to the branches of trees. It appears to be a subterranean animal, and does
not see during the day; its eye resembles in color that of the owl. It is very slothful, but good-
tempered, remaining generally at rest, and requiring a good deal of shaking to make it move. Its
body is about a foot long. The subject of Sonnerat's observations he kept two months upon no
other nourishment than cooked rice, and it fed itself with its two fingers, like the Chinese with
their chopsticks. It never carried its tail elevated like the squirrel; it always hung dragging be-
hind. The animal is rare, and seems to be regarded with a kind of superstition by the natives.
Genus GALEOPITHECUS.—The animals of this genus resemble the lemurs and the bats,
having the general form of the first, and some of the qualities of the last. They have been called
Flying-lemurs, Flying-cats, and Flying-foxes. They are found in the islands of Java, Sumatra,
and Borneo, and live on trees, feeding on fruits, insects, and small birds. Swainson, speaking of
Vol. I.-16

122
VERTEBRATA.
THE FLYING LEMUR, OR KABUNG.
one of these animals, observes: “To give its most striking characteristics in a few words, it is a
lemur, with the limbs connected by a bat-like membrane, or, in other words, surrounded by a
thin skin which they support, as the framework of an umbrella supports its covering. By this
singular structure the animal is supported in the air; yet without the power, like the bats, of sus-
taining a continued flight." Like the flying-squirrels, it can sail a great distance from one tree to
another, spreading out its membrane to serve as a parachute, but not as wings. It manifests great
skill and energy in dropping from the upper limbs of the trees upon
its
prey
below. It makes
great havoc among the colibris, and other small birds, which throng the forests. Like the bats,
it is nocturnal and insectivorous. The mammæ are pectoral. This animal sleeps suspended by
the hind-legs, with its head downward.
Three species have been recorded, but recent investigations reduce them to one, Galeopithecus
volans, called Kabung by the natives. The body is about twelve inches long. The female pro-
duces one young one at a time. This she places in a soft nest for four or five days; then it clings
to her breast, and accompanies her in all her wanderings, till it is able to take care of itself.
Many naturalists now class the Galeopithecus with the Insectivora.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 3. CHEIROPTERA.
123
HEAD OF ROUSSETTE BAT, THE KALONG-SIZE OF LIFE.
ORDER 3. CHEIROPTERA.
We now come to one of the most remarkable
groups in the whole circle of animated nature-
the Cheiroptera.
This order embraces the Bats, consisting of a
great variety of species, spread over nearly every
portion of the globe. In different countries they
have different designations—all somewhat descrip-
tive of their character and appearance.
In Eng-
land, they are sometimes called Flitter-mice ; in
France, their name is Chauve-souris, or Bald-mice;
in Germany, they are called Fleder-mauser, or
Flying-mice. They constitute the Hand-winged
family, denominated Vespertilio by Linnæus-
a name derived from the Latin, and signifying
bat. Though possessed of a skeleton like that
HEAD OF SPECTRE BAT-SIZE OF LIFE. (See p. 131.)
of quadrupeds, their fore-paws, or hands, are de-
veloped into long fingers, sustaining an exceed-
ingly fine, thin, hairless, and semi-transparent membrane, on
both sides of the body, which serves them as wings. Their
flight is light, noiseless, and wavering, and less vigorous than
that of birds; yet they turn hither and thither with great
facility, and are thus able to pursue and catch insects—like
themselves on the wing—which constitute their chief suste-
All the family have four canine teeth, and some of
them feed on small birds and small quadrupeds. Some kill
and suck the blood of smaller bats; and Mr. Blythe says that
in India the megaderms may be heard on quiet evenings
crunching the heads and bones of frogs. Their legs, by means
TELUT
nance.
JAVELIN BAT-SIZE OF LIFE.

124
VERTEBRATA.
of which they move easily on the ground, terminate in
strong claws, which they use in clinging to the crevices
of walls, rocks, and buildings: the thumbs are each
furnished with a hook, which also answers the pur-
pose of support in the hidden places they select for
their abodes. In one large division of the family
there is a curious leaf-like appendage on the nose,
variously developed in the different species, whence
they are called Leaf-nosed Bats. Some have the ears
enormously expanded, and some have a prehensile
power in the tail.
Though the bats are, upon the whole, useful rather
than hurtful to man, they are creatures to which po-
etry and superstition have in all ages had recourse to
deepen the feelings of loathing and horror. They are
not only of strange forms, but they are things of the
doubtful light—the dim twilight—which in ages of
ignorance converts white stones into ghosts and bushes
into specters. They dwell in the ruined wall, or riven
earth, or gloomy cavern : in Eastern countries they
often find their way into the sepulchres and catacombs
of the ancients. They have been observed, therefore,
as dwellers with desolation and death ; and it was
stretching the imagination but a little further to sup-
pose that they were in league with these loathed and
LONG-EARED BAT-SIZE OF LIFE.
a
RHINOLOPHUS NOBILIS-SIZE OF LIFE.
dreaded powers.
DEL
The rapacity of the larger bats, such as are found
in the warm countries, feeding during the twilight
gloom, gave color to these suppositions. Hovering
about the Pagan temples, they ate greedily the blood
and other remains of the sacrifices. When famine or
pestilence, which were then of frequent occurrence,
strewed the earth with the bodies of the dead, or when
night closed upon the horrors of the battle-field, the
bats thronged to the nocturnal feast. As in all cases
they came dim and apparently formless, with wing
most unlike any organ bearing the same name which
is spread to the light of day, they perfected their claim
of poetical alliance with the infernal regions, and the
powers which hold dominion over them. Hence, as
the peacock was the bird sacred to Juno, the queen
of
Heaven, so the bat became the creature sacred, or ac-
cursed, as it may be, to Proserpine, the empress
of Hell.
The use of bats for these purposes is as old
as Homer, who very skillfully manages them in
heightening the graphic effect of the splendid
passage in which he describes the shrieks and
wailings of the ghosts in the regions of woe;
and after Homer, all poets and painters who have
ventured upon similar delineations have made
use of the bats for the purposes of effect. Even to this day, painters must borrow the wings of
bats for their devils, in the same way that they borrow the wings of doves for their angels; and
HEAD OF MEGADERM-SIZE OF LIFE.
育
​SKELETON OF BAT.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 3. CHEIROPTERA.
125
பாப்பா ப
INDREW. BEST. LELOIR.
BATS OF EGYPT.
one has only to throw a deep Rembrandt shade over a piece of canvas, and show a bat's wing
partly displayed from a cave, in order to give an infernal air to it, and make it, with very little
painting, a good poetical representation of the gates of hell. It is easy to see how a race which
is linked with such associations, should have had but a scanty measure of justice meted out to it
by the half-superstitious naturalists of the Middle Ages; and a remnant of the same superstition
is, no doubt, the cause of much of the horror which is still connected with some of the larger spe-
cies of warm countries.
When we come to study the family of bats, however, in the light of natural history, not only
does the traditional horror to which we have alluded vanish, but in their structure and habits we
find much that is exceedingly curious. Their organs of sense are variously developed. The ears
are in general large, and in some of the species they have a duplicature or second concha, as if
there were one ear within the other. It is hence presumed that the sense of hearing is acute;
and it may be that those which have the duplicature to the ears, have thus the means of closing
up the auditory passage, so that they may not be disturbed in their repose during the day.
The eyes are very small
, and deeply imbedded, something like those of moles; and though
they must have the power of vision, it does not appear that they are essential to the animal in
finding its way, even when it is intricate. Spallanzani suspended willow rods in a room in
a
which he turned loose some bats which he had blinded; but though he frequently shifted these,
so as to make the passage between them as varied and as intricate as possible, these creatures
never struck against one of them, though they kept flying about in all directions. The same ex-
periments have been made by others, and with a like result. The question has hence been raised
as to the means by which bats contrive to avoid obstacles, and the same inquiry may be extended

126
VERTEBRATA.
www.
BUITEN
REOHAN & KENNYENGRS.NY.
BATS IN A CAVERN.
to very many other animals. A horse, in the dark, pauses when he comes to a closed gate,
though he never was on the road before. Nocturnal beasts do not more frequently fall into pits
and over precipices than beasts which are abroad during the day, and have their eyes to guide
them; and nocturnal birds do not fly against trees any more than daylight birds. People, too,
will keep a well-known path, though the night be pitch dark. The explanation of these cases
has been sought in the supposition of a sixth sense, but as yet no satisfactory solution of such
phenomena has been found.
The breeding of bats takes place at the very hottest time of the year. The young, which are
usually two in number, are naked and helpless at their birth-capable only of clinging to the teats
of their mother, which, however, they do with the greatest firmness and pertinacity. This habit
to them is necessary, for the mother does not lie down, or even stand on the ground, when she
suckles her young, as is the case with most of the mammalia. She hangs suspended by the nails
of her thumbs, or more generally by those of her hind feet, to the branch of a tree, or some cranny
or irregularity in a ruin or cavern. There is no nest in which she can leave the young ones when
she goes out to feed, and thus she must bear them about attached to her body till they are capa-
ble of flight. The female has no marsupium; but this habit resembles somewhat that of the mar-
supial animals. The young are very immature when produced, and their nest and place of safety
and repose is the body of their mother.
Some of the species occasionally fly during the day, but this practice is by no means common,
and is confined to some of the foreign species, which are in part vegetable-feeders. In temperate
climates, they conceal themselves during the day, even in the season of their greatest activity.
Caverns, holes of trees, and walls and ruined buildings, are their retreats, and from these they
issue forth as dusk begins to set in, flutter about in their laborious flight, and capture such insects
as are then on the wing-gnats, musquitos, moths, and beetles,—their wide gape, with its formida-
-
ble teeth, being an excellent trap for the capture of such prey.
The service which they render to vegetation by the destruction of insects, which in the larva
state prey upon it, is very considerable, even in temperate climates. Some of the hot countries,
in which these swarm by myriads, could not, but for them, be inhabited. In humid places, on the
margins of tropical forests, musquitos are troublesome enough as it is, but if the bats did not

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 3. CHEIROPTERA.
127
REDWAREKENIYENGAS
HORSE-SHOE BATS IN THE HOLLOW OF A TREE.
reduce their numbers, they would be utterly unbearable. Those species, too, which frequent the
towns and settlements are useful in other respects. Most of the race are miscellaneous in their
feeding, and not very delicate in their taste. They devour indiscriminately all animal substances,
whether raw or dressed, and whether in a fresh or putrid state, thus removing a great deal of
noxious and dangerous matter.
KALONG, OR ROUSSETTE BAT.-(See p. 129.)
So far, our account having reference to the bats with which we are acquainted in temperate
climates, we have spoken of them as a gentle and useful race; but truth compels us to declare
that there are, in far-off tropical countries, larger and more formidable creatures of this family.

128
VERTEBRATA.
cha
BIG-EARED BAT.
In the island of Java, there are several species known by the name of Roussette ; of one of them a
portrait is given in the preceding page. They are very abundant, hanging in black rows or groups
during the day, with their heads down and wings folded, on the trees. At evening, they take to
their wings, and, guided by unerring instinct, resort to the gardens and plantations, where they
seek the delicate fruits, such as melons, oranges, and even cocoa-nuts. In this way they do im-
mense damage. So troublesome are they, that the inhabitants, in some places, are obliged to pro-
tect their fruit by loose nets or baskets of split bamboo.
In South America, there are several species of bat which have acquired the horrid name of
Vampire. They live on the blood of animals, and usually suck while their victims are asleep.
They are said to fan the unconscious sufferers with their wings, so as to lull them into more pro-
found repose by a soothing coolness. The ears of horses and cattle, the combs and wattles of
fowls, and the toes of men, are said to be their favorite points of attack. Nevertheless, the bodies
of these creatures do not exceed six inches in length, though their wings stretch out to two
feet; therefore the legends of their dangerous and destructive character are no doubt somewhat
exaggerated.
It is probable that the larger bats, however, have given rise to some of the superstitions which
appear in classical literature, as already suggested. The Harpies, which were flying creatures,
with the faces of women, and the bodies, wings, and claws of birds, at the same time emitting
a noisome stench and polluting whatever they touched, might very easily have been formed by
popular imagination out of the more formidable species which no doubt once inhabited the south-
ern portions of Europe, as well as the contiguous countries of Asia and Africa. The still more
terrible myth of a demon which sucked the blood of persons during the night, and which acquired
the name of Vampire, is very likely to have sprung from the stea
from the stealthy performances of bats resem-
bling those of South America. By a similar process, no doubt, the Dragons, Basilisks, Wiverns,
and Griffins, which figure in the legends of the Middle Ages, were created from the crocodiles, ser-
pents, and other animals which the Crusaders saw for the first time in their visits to the East. In

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 3. CHEIROPTERA.
129
a rude age, the imagination needs little encouragement to convert objects so really curious and
strange as those we have been describing, into hideous monsters, endowed with supernatural
powers. It is the province of education and enlightened reason to reduce these horrid creations
of fancy to the comparatively simple and innocent dimensions of truth.
The Cheiroptera may be divided into four families: First, the Pteropodes, or Roussettes, some-
times called Fox-bats, from the shape of the head ; second, the Phyllostomides, or Vampires ;
third, the Rhinolophides, or Horse-shoe Bats; and finally the Vespertilionides, or Common Bats of
Europe and North America.
THE ROUSSETTES, OR PTEROPODES.
The zoological name of the bats of the family Pteropus is derived from the Greek pteron, a wing,
and pous, a foot. They are entirely confined to the warmer parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. They
are most abundant in the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, whence the greater part of the species
are derived; but they occur also on the main-land of Asia, in the tropical islands of the Pacific,
in Africa, and even in Australia. They are the largest of the bats, the kalong of Java measuring
FOX, OR ROUSSETTE BATS.
no less than five feet in extent of wing, and the body two in length. They are frugivorous in their
habits, and do great damage in gardens and plantations; but in confinement they have been
known to eat the flesh of birds, so that it is possible they may vary their diet in a similar manner
in a state of nature. They have a disagreeable odor, described by some observers as musky, by
others as “mildewy." The flesh of some species is, however, eaten by the inhabitants of the
places where they occur. It is probable that the bat which figures among the articles of food for-
bidden to the Jews, belonged to this group. Like the other bats, they are nocturnal animals, and
pass the day suspended by the hind-feet from the branches of trees or the crevices of rocks; but
some are known also to fly at noonday.
Genus ROUSSETTE: Pteropus. Of this there are several species, generally destitute of tails.
The Kalong, or EDIBLE ROUSSETTE, P. edulis, is so called because it is frequently used as food,
being hunted for that purpose, and tasting, it is said, like rabbit. It is the largest of the bat
family, the body being of the size of a small dog. Its color is nearly black. The museum of
Leyden has possessed several specimens, sent from Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. These chiefly
VOL. I.-17

130
VERTEBRATA.
ma
MACROGLOSSUS.
distinguished themselves by ravenous appetites. A head of this extraordinary species is figured
at p. 124. See also
p.
127.
The Common ROUSSETTE, P. vulgaris, half the size of the preceding, is of the Isle of France
and of Bourbon. They live chiefly on fruits, yet occasionally devour small quadrupeds and birds.
They often fly by day, though the night is the usual period of their activity. They choose
their abodes in the gloom of the thick forests, and only in the still watches of the night approach
the habitations of man, when they devour large quantities of fruits in the gardens and plantations.
Besides these species, we may mention the following: The P. funereus, found in the same islands
as the kalong; the P. phaiops, of Macassar; P. chrysoproctus, of Amboyna; P. Mackloti, of
Timor; P. alecto, of Celebes; P. pallidus, of Sumatra and some of the adjacent islands; P. per-
sonatus, of the Moluccas; P. griseus, of Timor and Amboyna; P. jubatus or P. Keraudrenii, of
the Philippines; P. Tonganus, of the Friendly Isles; P. ursinus and P. dasymallus, both of Japan;
P. Vanikoriensis, of New Hebrides; P. polyocephalus, of Van Diemen's Land; P. conspicillatus, of
Australia; P. Dussumieri and P. Edwardsii, of India; and P. Stramineus, of Sennaar and Senegal.
Genus MACROGLOSSUS: Macroglossus.--Of this there is only a single species, the KIODOTE,
or P. minimus, of Java and the adjacent islands. It is but three inches long, and is remarkable
for the length of its protrusile tongue, which may be extended to two inches. It is called
Lowo-dssu by the natives, and as it exists in large flocks, is much dreaded on account of its devas-
tations among the fruits of the gardens and plantations.
-Genus EPOMOPHORUS: Epomophorus.—Of this there are two species, P. Whitei and P.
labiatus.
Genus ELEUTHERURA: Eleutherura.—Of this the most noted species is the P. Egyptiacus,
which has an expanse of wing of eighteen inches. It is doubtless the species figured on the
monuments, and copied in the great work of Rosellini. It abounds in the ruins and is found even
in the chambers of the pyramids of Egypt. The P. Hottentotus is another species of this genus,
found in Southern Africa.
Genus CYNOPTERUS: Cynopterus.—Of this there is only the P. marginatus of Java and
other Asiatic islands The four preceding genera are still included in Pteropus by many naturalists.
Genus MEGERA, Megera, offers only the species M.ecaudata.
Genus HYPODERMA, Hypoderma, includes but the species H. Peronii, of Timor and Amboyna.
Genus HARPYA, Harpya, includes only the species H. cephalotes, found in Celebes and Amboyna,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 3. CHEIROPTERA.
131
MEGADERM.—(See p. 132.)
THE VAMPYRES: PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ.
The term Phyllostomido is derived from the Greek phullos, a leaf, and stoma, the mouth, and
in application to the bats of this family, means the Leaf-mouthed. They are, in fact, of that class
which have a membraneous or leaf-like appendage upon the nose, as already described. The
French call them Fers de lance, or Spear-head or Javelin Bats. The body of the largest of these
animals is about six inches long; the wings have an expanse of two feet. They are peculiar to
the tropical portions of South America, in some parts of which they are met with very abundantly.
Their favorite food appears to be the blood of the larger mammalia and birds, which they attack
during sleep, and biting a small hole in the skin, suck the blood through it. Cattle and horses
are very subject to their attacks, and appear frequently to lose a good deal of blood from the
wound after the bats have taken their fill; but it seems probable that, unless an animal has been
bitten severely in several places, the bite is rarely attended with ill consequences. Fowls, how-
,
ever, are said often to die from the effects of the bite.
Such animals as these, hovering about in the darkness, and drinking the blood of those they
make their prey, and sometimes even leaving their victims to bleed to death, are calculated to in-
spire the imagination with horror. Hence exaggerated accounts of these creatures have been cir-
culated. It has been said, as before stated, that they often attack men during the night by open-
ing an artery and sucking the blood, lulling their victims the while with their long wings, until the
loss of blood terminates in utter exhaustion. According to Azara, however, the inhabitants of
Paraguay have no dread of these animals, although they frequently enter the houses, and suck
the blood of those who may incautiously expose any part of their bodies; but he adds that, be-
yond a painful sensation, which lasts for some days, he never found any ill effects from their
attacks. He states that they do not open any of the larger vessels, but merely make a small in-
cision in the skin. Tschudi, the traveler and naturalist, however, mentions the case of an Indian
who was bitten in the face by a species of this family, while sleeping in the woods in a state of
intoxication; the wound, although apparently very slight, was followed by so much inflammation
and swelling, that the man's features became quite unrecognizable.
Genus PHYLLOSTOMA: Phyllostoma.–Of this genus there are three species. The SPECTRE
Bat, P. spectrum, the true type of the vampires, is six inches long, with two feet spread of wings.
A head of the size of life is given at p. 123. The JAVELIN BAT, P. hastatum, and Lophostoma syl-
vicolum, are smaller. They are all addicted to the sucking of blood, but the spectre bat is the
,
largest and most formidable.
Genus GLOSSOPHAGA: Glossophaga.—This term is derived from the Greek, glossa, the tongue,
and phago, to eat, and is expressive of a peculiarity of the animals of this genus. They have a

132
VERTEBRATA.
i
THE RHINOPOMUS MICROPHYLLUS WALKING.
long, slender, and extensile tongue, thinly covered with hair, which they use in sucking the blood
of their victims, by rapidly extending and retracting it in the incision they have made, thus vindica-
ting their scientific name, which is equivalent to tongue-eaters. They are insectivorous, but yet are
said to suck the blood of men and animals, as already described. They are found in Guiana and
Brazil. The principal species are the Glossophaga soricina; G. amplexicaudata; G. caudata ;
and G. ccaudata.
Genus STENODERMA, Stenoderma, are noted for short or nearly rudimentary tails, a large
short head, lips studded with warts, and a tongue adapted for suction. They are accustomed to
suck the blood of sleeping animals. The best-known species are the S. rufum; S. perspicillatum ;
S. lilium; S. lineatum ; S. rotundatum ; S. cavernarum ; and S. Chilienses.
Genus DESMODUS, Desmodus, have powerful incisor, as well as sharp cutting canine teeth :
they have no visible trace of a tail. Their habits are little known, but they are supposed to re-
semble the preceding genus. The Desmodus rufus, extending across the warm parts of the
South American continent, is the only known species.
THE RHINOLOPHIDES
a
This name, from the Greek rhin, the nose, and lophos, a crest, signifies nose-crested, and is ap-
plied to this family because of the membraneous appendages on their nose, giving them a singular
and often forbidding appearance. They are peculiar to the Eastern Continent and Australia, and
are very widely distributed. In England, where they are called Horse-shoe Bats, there are two
species. They all have the anterior appendage surrounding the nostrils, this being somewhat of
the shape of a horse-shoe. There are several species, which are of various sizes, the largest, the
Great Horse-shoe Bat, being about two and a half inches long in the body. They are insectivo-
rous, some of them feeding on cock-chaffers.
Genus MEGADERMA: Megaderma.—The animals of this genus are destitute of tails; the ears
are so large as to unite in the middle; the nasal appendages have also a great development.
Some of the species suck the blood of other bats, and some occasionally take a sip of the blood of
frogs. The species are the M. lyra, found in India; the M. frons in Gambia; and the M. spasma
in Java.
Genus RHINOPOMA: Rhinopoma.—The bats of this genus have a long, slender tail, without

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 3. CHEIROPTERA.
133
ON
NYCTERIS THEBAICA.
hair, looking like a sharp, jointed bone, which gives them a very curious appearance. The species
are R. microphyllus, found in Egypt, and the R. Hardwickii.
Genus NYCTERIS: Nycteris.-In this genus both the tail and the interfemoral membrane are
greatly developed, the ears are large but separate, and the nasal appendages are concealed. These
bats have the skin of the body very loose, forming a sac, which communicates with the mouth by
a small opening in each cheek: through these apertures the animal is able to puff out the body
into the form of a ball; but the object of this arrangement is not known. The species are confined
to Africa, except that they are found in Java. They are the N. hispida, of Senegal, N. Thebaica,
of Egypt and Sennaar, and N. Javanica.
Genus RHINOLOPHE: Rhinolophus.—This is rather a numerous genus, scattered over Europe,
Asia, and Africa; but none of them have been found in America. They are generally small,
the largest having but fifteen inches of expanse of wing. The following are the principal species :
R. nobilis ; R. diadema ; R. insignis ; R. speoris ; R. bicolor ; R. tridens ; R. tricuspidatus ;
R. luctus ; R. euryotis ; R. trifoliatus ; R. affinis ; R. minor ; R. pusillus ; R. clivosus; R. uni-
hastatus, this being the GREAT HORSE-SHOE BAT; R. bihastatus, and R. Commersonii.
Genus NYCTOPHYLUS: Nyctophylus. Of this there is but a single species, N. Geoffroyi,
found in Australia. It is very small, and has two large ears, with a rudimental tail.
a
VESPERTILIONIDÆ.
We now come to a very numerous family of bats, including those with which we are familiar
in our own country. Their generic name is derived from the Latin vespertilio, a bat. They are
less formidable in appearance and habits than the roussettes, vampires, and others, which excite a
species of disgust, if not of horror. They are destitute of the leaf-like appendage on the nose,
which imparts such an aspect of ferocity. They are, in fact, small, harmless creatures, sleeping all
the day in ruined walls, in caverns, and in the hollows of trees, and going forth at night to feast
on insects, whereby they destroy many that are injurious to man. Those which live in tem-

134
VERTEBRATA.
اور اس سے مالا
REDMAN • EN1Y
THE GREAT HORSE-SHOE BAT.
a
perate climates go to sleep on the approach of winter, and hibernate till the warm season recalls
them to activity.
Genus TAPHOZOUS: Taphozous.—Of this, the only well-established species are the T. per-
foratus and T. longimanus, both confined to the Eastern Continent.
Genus SACCOPTERYX: Saccopteryx.—This includes only the S. lepturus, found in Guiana.
Genus DICLIDURUS, Diclidurus, resembles the preceding.
Genus NOCTILIO: Noctilio.—These bats are of middle size, and are found in Central and South
America. The HARE-LIPPED BAT, N. leporinus, and N. lineatus, are the only established species.
Genus VESPERTILIO: Vespertilio.—The species of this genus, though small, are very numerous.
They are voracious, and devour an immense quantity of insects. A hundred flies and a dozen beetles
are not more than the usual evening meal of one of the smallest kinds. They usually take their
game on the wing; but sometimes they alight on the ground, where they walk very well, picking
up grubs and caterpillars. They live in societies, gathering into dark places, such as crevices in
walls, holes in trees, excavations in rocks, and dark and sheltered places in the eaves of houses
and public buildings; they also inhabit chimneys where no fire is made. In the old stone edi-
fices of Europe they often congregate by thousands. Their cry is sharp and feeble, and they are
distinguished by a disagreeable musky smell. In captivity they become tame, and devour raw
meat with avidity.
The Oello Cuvieri, Vespertilio alecto, and Emballonura monticola, are all of Eastern countries;
the Mystacina tuberculata is of New Zealand. The V. nigrita, found in Western Africa, is a large
species, having a body six inches long, and a spread of wing of eighteen inches. It was called the
FLYING MARMOT by Daubenton. The V. leucogaster is of Kordofan, where it lives in the holes of
the immense baobab-trees; the Nycticeus viridis, found in Mozambique, is of a green color; the
V. Borbonicus is found both in the isles of Bourbon and Maurice; the V. Belangeri is of India;
the V. Temminckii, of Java ; the V. noctulina, of Bengal.
The V. nigricans is common in Italy; the V. discolor, in Austria. The V. serotinus is one of
the largest of the European species. It dwells alone or in pairs in the forests, and in the country
in the vicinity of water, finding shelter in the holes of trees. It does not issue forth till the dark-
ness of night is complete. The V. Barbastellus and V. noctula are European species : the latter
flies in small bands, and is noted for its disagreeable odor. The PIPISTRELLA, V. pipistrellus, is a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 3. CHEIROPTERA.
135
VESPERTILIO LIMNOPHILUS.
small and familiar European species, which the English call Flitter-mouse. It lives in towns and
villages, and greatly resembles the common species of New England and the Middle States.
The V. auritus, or LOP-EARED BAT, is a small species found in France, which lives apart in
gardens and inhabited places. The V. murinus is a large species, found in Europe and also in
Algeria. Other known species are as follows: V. Beschteinii, V. Nattereri, V. mystacinus, V. emar-
ginatus, and V. limnophilus, besides some others not well established. Several Australian species,
not well defined, are omitted.
The BIG-EARED BAT, V. macrotis, the V. Euryotis, V. Blossevillei, V. Chiliensis, V. Brasiliensis,
V. hypothrix, V. Isidori, V. lepidus, and the Plecotus volatus, or V. Maugei, are South American
species.
HOARY BAT.
The bats of our Middle States are all of the genus Vespertilio. In winter they retreat to holes
in trees and rocks, and become perfectly torpid. They bring forth three to four at a birth. The
New York Bat, V. Noveboracensis, is the most common species, extending its range from Massa-
chusetts to Carolina, and from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains. It is covered with tawny
hair, varied with white on the sides. The length of the body is three to four inches.
The HoAry Bar, V. pruinosus, is somewhat larger and more robust; the head is yellowish, and

136
VERTEBRATA.
the body blackish brown, with a grayish tinge given by long hairs tipped with white. It is the
largest species of the Middle States, and often flies by day. It is thinly scattered over a very wide
range. The other species of this region are the LITTLE Brown Bar, V. subulatus, SILVER-HAIRED
BAT, V. noctivagans, and CAROLINA BAT, V. Carolinensis. The V. monticole and V. Virginianus are
found in Virginia and further South. There are several other bats found in the Southern States,
but not of this genus. They are the Molossus cynocephalus and M. fuliginosus; the Plecotus
Lecontei and P. Townsendi.
트
​REDWAN KENNY K.Y.
しいん
​VESPERTILIO DISCOLOR. — (See p. 131).
Genus MOLOSSUS: Molossus.—The bats of this genus are remarkable for their large heads,
round ears, thick lips, the upper one more or less fringed, and the saw-like form of their hinder
fingers. They are hideous-looking creatures, flying with rapidity, and walking with more facility
than most other bats. They are of middling size, and inhabit both torrid and temperate regions.
VESPERTILIO MURINUS.—(See p. 134.)
The species are as follows: The COLLARED Bat, M. torquatus, which has the external finger of its
hinder feet set like an opposable thumb, found in Borneo; the M. Daubentonii, called the FLYING
Rat, in Senegal; the M. mops, in Sumatra; the M. plicatus, in Bengal; the M. Ægyptiacus, in
Egypt and the vicinity; and the M. acetabulosus, in the Isle of France. The M. Cestoni is found
in Italy; the M. ursinus, M. rufus, M. velox, M. obscurus, and M. nasutus are of South America.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA.
137
SLAUTARIO
2007
College
AREST5
ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA.
The order of Insectivora, or Insect-Eaters, in-
cludes several families, as follows: the Tupaia,
the Hedgehog or Erinaceus, the Gymnure, the
Tanrec, the Elephant-mouse or Macroscelide, the
Rhynchocyon, the Shrew or Sorex, the Soleno-
donte, the Desman or Mygale, the Chrysoclore, the
Mole or Talpa, the Scalops, and the Condylure.
The Insectivorous Mammalia, some of which
are of exceedingly curious structure and habits,
are readily distinguished from the Carnivora, with
which, however, they are nearly allied, by the
structure of their teeth. The skull is slighter
and more elongated, the bones of the face and
jaws being usually produced so as to form a
muzzle of considerable length; the jaws are gen-
erally inferior in strength to those of the Car-
nivora. The form of the body, its clothing, and
the development of the tail, vary considerably,
but the legs are always short, so that the belly of
the animal is raised but little above the ground;
the feet are plantigrade, and generally furnished
HEAD OF PETRODROME.—(See p. 142.)
with five toes, of which the innermost is never
opposable. The animals usually run upon the ground, sometimes dig beneath its surface, and
sometimes ascend trees. An important distinction between them and the Carnivora is furnished
by their possession of complete clavicles, which are always wanting or rudimentary in the latter.
The mammæ are generally numerous, and always situated on the belly.
In the development of the brain and organs of the senses, they closely resemble the Rodentia,
and this similarity is also frequently recognizable in their external form ; so close is it, in fact,
that many members of the present order are popularly confounded with the Rodentia, and the
VOL. 1.-18

138
VERTEBRATA.
same mistake has often been made by the older naturalists. Their food consists not only of in-
sects and their larvæ, as might be supposed from the name given to the order, but also of worms
and mollusca, and some of the larger species even devour the smaller vertebrate animals. They
are generally—though not always slow in their movements and nocturnal in their habits, and
many of them pass the winter in a state of torpidity.
Vinson
har
32017
Mince
lang
unde
만
​란
​CO THEBANE
لوله کنید
TUPAIAS.
THE TUPAIAS.
Genus TUPAIA: Tupaia.—These are small animals, having somewhat the form and agility of
squirrels. The head is long, the snout attenuated, eyes large and prominent, the claws sharp
and hooked, the sole naked, the tail long, the body long and cylindrical, and covered with close,
soft fur. These animals are the most elegant and graceful of all the insectivora : they are found in
the great islands of Asia, and some are also met with in India.
The T. Javanica, called BANXRING and Sinsking, seems most common at the eastern extremity
of Java. It is of the size of a common squirrel, and greatly resembles it; its fur is close, silky, and
delicate, with a few coarse hairs dispersed along the back, sides, and extremities: the upper parts
are brown, slightly diversified with different shades of gray; the lower parts are a dirty white.
The T. ferruginea, almost wholly of a reddish-brown color, is fourteen inches long, including the
tail, which is longer than the body. It is common in Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. Sir Stamford
Raffles describes one that was tamed and allowed to go freely about the house, never failing to
present itself at meal-time, when it partook of fruit and milk. Another species, the T. tana, found
in the same region, is of a somewhat larger size. The T. peguana, found in the Birman Empire,
and the T. Elliotii, found in Madras, are the other species.
Genus HYLOMYS: Hylomys. Of this there is but a single species, the H. suillus, of Borneo.
It is a small tupaia, with a rudimentary tail, nearly naked.
Genus PTILOCERCUS: Ptilocercus.—This also presents but a single species, the P. Lowii,
which is found in Borneo, and has somewhat the face of the marsupials of Australia, with a very
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA.
139
PTILOCERQUE LOWII.
long tail, the first half naked, and the rest furnished with hairs like the barbs of a feather. It
differs from the other tupaia in several points of its structure.
THE HEDGEHOGS
Genus HEDGEHOG: Erinaceus.—Although the hedgehog is not found in America, we have so
often read accounts of it that it is as familiar to us as one of our own animals. The body is short,
thick, and stout; the nose pointed, the tail short or entirely wanting, and the upper surface more
or less covered with short spines, which, when the animals roll themselves up into a ball, as they
KALNE
de
THE HEDGEHOG.
always do when alarmed or threatened, present an almost insuperable obstacle to any preda-
ceous animal that might attack them. They are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, where they
are principally found in the milder regions, though they are common in England. They are noc-

140
VERTEBRATA.
turnal animals, sleeping during the day in holes under the roots of trees or stones, and coming
forth at night in search of insects, fruits, and roots. Those which inhabit cold climates
pass
the
winter in a state of torpidity. The female produces from four to six at a birth, in the month of
June: these at first are of a rose-white. When of the size of a hen's egg, their prickles are well
developed. The mother nurses them for a short time, and then leaves them to seek their for-
tune, which they are well able to do.
The common European hedgehog, Erinaceus europæus, is found in woods and hedgerows, and
in England is not unfrequently kept in kitchens for the purpose of destroying cockroaches. It
feeds freely upon almost all kinds of animal and vegetable matter, and kills and devours animals
which none of the other insectivora would venture to attack, such as snakes, which it eats, accord-
ing to Mr. Broderip, " as one would eat a radish,” commencing at the tail and eating upward. It
will even eat the insects called Cantharides, or Spanish flies, which would kill almost any
other
animal; but the hedgehog suffers no inconvenience from them. In illustration of the strength of
the prickles in its skin, Professor Bell states that he has repeatedly seen a hedgehog belonging to
himself precipitate itself down an area twelve or fourteen feet deep, and, by rolling itself
ball, arrive at the bottom without the least injury.
The other species are the LONG-EARED HEDGEHOG, E. auritus, and the E. concolor, found on the
borders of the Black Sea; the E. Grayi and the E. spatangus of the Himalaya Mountains; the
E, nudiventris, of Madras; the E. collaris, of India; the E. Algirus, of Barbary, and the E. fron-
talis and E. Capensis, of Southern Africa. The bones of hedgehogs are found largely in the fossil
remains of Europe.
up into a
a
Glumilia
new
Meer
ERBESAR
RAFTLE'S GYMNURE.
THE GYMNURES.
а
Of this family there is but a single genus, GYMNURE, Gymnura, and a single species, Gymnura
Rafflesii, found in Sumatra. It is little known, but seems to possess more teeth than the hedge-
hog—that is, forty-four in number. It is nearly of the same size as that animal, but its body is
more elongated. Its fur is soft, and of a grayish color: its tail is long, and nearly naked. Its
formation is in several respects peculiar, and hence it has been placed among the viverrins by some
naturalists, and among the marsupials by others. We follow Gervais in placing it next the hedge-
,
hogs, with which it seems to have the closest affinity.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA.
141
Zareste
THE TENDRAC.
THE TANRECS.
This family includes two genera, the Tendracs and the Tanrecs, both resembiing the hedgehog,
but not being capable of rolling themselves into a ball. They have no tail, are mostly nocturnal
in their habits, and feed on insects. It is said that they lie dormant a considerable portion of the
year, even though living in hot countries; but this is doubtful. M. Coquerel, surgeon in the
French marine, says that he kept several of these creatures at Madagascar, during the hottest
months of the year, the supposed period of their hibernation, and they remained active the whole
time. Their spines are like stiff pointed bristles, and are by no means so strong as those of the
hedgehog. It appears that they belong exclusively to Madagascar, and have not been found,
even in a fossil state, in any other part of the world.
Genus TENDRAC: Ericulus.—Of this we know but a single species, Ericulus spinosus, which
is about five inches long, and covered with spines resembling bristles. It is called Tendrac by the
natives of Madagascar.
Genus TANREC: Centetes.—The true tanrecs have the body more elongated than the hedge-
hogs, and their bristles are less rigid, the spines being covered with soft, silky hair. The head is
shaped like that of the marsupials. The C. setosus is found in Madagascar, and also in the
islands of Bourbon and Maurice, but it was probably carried to the latter island by the colonists.
It is tailless, about twelve inches long, and of a fawn color. The C. armatus has rather strong
prickles, and is of a grayish-black color. The C. spinosus is little known. Other species have been
mentioned, but they are not well established.
a
THE MACROCELIDES.
The animals of this family are confined to Africa, and consists of two genera. They are cer-
tainly very different from any of the preceding species, nor do they greatly resemble those that
follow, but their insectivorous habits entitle them to a place here. They have long hind-legs,
somewhat like the gerboas, rather large ears, long tails, and a remarkable long, proboscis-like nose.
Some of the species are called Elephant-mice by the English, and the Rat à trompe, or Proboscis-
rat, by the French. They inhabit dry, rocky places, and feed mostly on insects, but some devour
other small animals, and even vegetables.
Genus MACROCELIDES: Macrocelides ; called Rhynchocyon by some naturalists.-Of this

142
VERTEBRATA.
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Pinay
ELEPHANT-MICE.
there are several species. The best known is the M. Rozeti, found in Algeria. It is about four
inches long, and has soft fur of a fawn color. It is easily tamed, and has frequently been carried
to France, where it excited interest by its gentle manners and disposition.
Several other species are mentioned, as M.rupestris, M. intufi, M. brachyrhynchus, M. Edwardsiä,
and Rhinomys jaculus. These are all of Southern Africa, in the region of the Cape and the Hot-
tentot country. The M. fuscus is found in Mozambique.
REDMAN & KENNX.N.Y.
RHYNCHIOCYON.
Genus PETRODROME: Petrodromus.—Of this there is a single species, the P. tetradactylus,
found in Mozambique. It is rather larger than the preceding, and has but four toes on the hinder
feet. In other respects it resembles the true macrocelides.
Genus RHYNCHOCYON: Rhynchocyon.—Of this genus Gervais makes a separate family. The
only species is the R. Cernei. This has but four toes on each foot, is nine inches long, has an
elongated body, and a proboscis nose covered with flexible hair. It is of a reddish-brown color,
and is found in Mozambique.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA.
143
BELAIFE
L.L. W.
SHREWS.
THE SHREWS: SORICIDÆ.
a
The family of Shrews, which is very numerous in species, have the feet all formed for progression;
that is to say, the anterior members are never converted into organs appropriated for digging.
The eyes are always perfect and readily distinguishable, and the external ears, though small, are
always present. In other respects, the different animals composing this group exhibit a remark-
able variety of character; the dentition presents considerable differences even in closely allied
species: the length of the legs and tail, and the clothing of the body, are also very variable.
They all, however, agree in living either on the surface of the ground or upon trees, and never in
a complicated system of burrows, such as that of the moles; their jaws are always more or less
elongated, and the nose is usually prolonged into a movable snout. The soricidæ are found in
all parts of the world; they are of small size, and their nourishment consists principally of insects,
although some species also feed on vegetable matter.
Genus SHREW: Sorex.—In the typical shrews, forming the genus Sorex and its allies, the form
of the body presents a close resemblance to that of the mice and rats, whence the name of shrew-mice
is frequently applied to the common species. Their legs are of nearly equal length, and terminate
in five toes, which are armed with small claws, and usually free, though not unfrequently united
by a swimming membrane. The nose is more or less produced, and the tail is elongated, usually
tapering, covered with scales like that of the mice, and with a greater or less number of bristles.
The skin is clothed with short fur. Some of these are among the most diminutive of the mam-
malia, and the largest of them are about the size of a rat. They are generally furnished with
peculiar glands, secreting a fluid of a disagreeable odor, which prevents cats and dogs from eating
them, although they will not unfrequently kill them, probably mistaking them for mice. They
live for the most part upon insects, worms, and small mollusca; the larger species also prey on
small vertebrata.
The Common SHREW, S. araneus, the most familiar European species, is about two and a half inches
long, and of a gray fawn-color. Its food consists of insects and worms. It inhabits the woods,
the country, and gardens, making its retreats in old walls, heaps of stones, and holes in the earth,
and is frequently found near hay-ricks, dung-hills, and similar places. On the approach of winter,
it gathers near the abodes of man. It is subject to an annual mortality; about August, they are
found dead in great numbers-a fact not satisfactorily accounted for. Though dogs and cats will

144
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WATER-SHREWS.
a
not eat these animals, on account of their musky smell, kestrels and owls are known to prey upon
them.
Shrews are very pugnacious: if two be confined in a box together, but a very short time elapses
before the weaker of the two is killed and partly devoured. Their nest, which is formed of soft
grasses and other plants, is generally found in a hole more or less shallow, in the ground, dry
bank, and is entered at the side, being, so to speak, roofed over. Here the female produces in
the spring from five to seven little shrews.
Among the ancients, the shrew-mouse had a very bad reputation. Thus Aristotle declares that
its bite is dangerous to horses and other beasts of burden; and that it is more dangerous if the
animal be with young. The bite, he says, causes boils, and these burst, if the shrew-mouse be
pregnant when she inflicts the wound; but if she be not, they do not burst. Pliny states that
the bite of the Italian shrew-mouse is venomous. Agricola tells us that its bite in warm regions
is generally pestiferous, but that in cold climates it is not,-consoling those who may suffer by it
that the animal itself, torn asunder or dissected and placed upon the wound, is a remedy for its
own venom. It is difficult to account for such widely extended prejudices. It appears that even
to our English ancestors this graceful and harmless little animal was also an object of fear and
superstition.
The S. crassicaudus is of a larger size than the preceding, and found in Egypt. It seems to
have been one of the sacred animals of Ancient Egypt, for it is found among the preserved mum-
,
mies in great numbers. As these are at least three thousand years old, and the skeletons are pre-
cisely similar to those of the species now existing, and as this fact coincides with others, natural-
ists draw the inference that the form and structure of most animals are permanent, or at least
subject to small modifications. There were probably several other species of sorex thus religiously
preserved by the Egyptians.
The S. flavescens, of the Cape of Good Hope, is white, tinged with fawn; the S. herpestes, S.
cyaneus, S. capensoides, and S. gracilis, are of the same locality; the S. Etruscus is found in Italy
and France, and is a very diminutive species, not over an inch and a half long. A similar species
is found in Algeria. The S. Perrottetii, very small, is found in the lofty plateaux of India, near
Pondicherry. A similar one, S. Madagascariensis, is found in Madagascar. The S. myosurus,
or RAT-TAILED SHREW of India, is differently named by different authors; it is noted for its in-
tense musky odor. In India there are other species of shrew, of which little is known. One
is called S. giganteus by Geoffroy, and F. Cuvier speaks of one under the name of S. Montjourou.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA.
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Of the Water Shrews—embraced under the generic name of Hydro-sorex by some authors—
there are several species. The S. fodiens, the COMMON WATER-SHREW of Europe—the Musaraigne
d'eau of the French-is of a dark chestnut-color, and about four inches long. It lives on the
borders of small streams, and swims about in pursuit of insects, worms, small shell-fish, and
even frogs and lizards. It is an exceedingly pretty animal, and swims with admirable grace
and dexterity. The S. tetragonurus is common in France, and various parts of Europe; the
S. Alpinus is found in Switzerland; the S. pygmæus is found in Germany and the adjacent
countries. This last, and the S. gracilis, S. Etruscus, and S. Madagascariensis, are the smallest
known mammifers.
There are several species of sorex found in the United States. DE KAY's Shrew, S. De Kayi,
is a small species, of a glossy slate-color, with a short tail; the feet are flesh color; length of head
and body about five inches. It extends from New England to Virginia. The SHORT-TAILED
SHREW, S. brevicaudus, resembles the preceding. It is found in Connecticut and the adjacent ter-
ritories. FORSTER'S SHREW, S. Forsteri, is found in Canada and New York. The S. Carolinen-
sis and S. cinereus are Southern species; the S. Richardsoni, Say's LEAST SHREW, S.
parvus, s.
Cooperi, and the MARSH SHREW, S. palustris, are found in the northwestern territories. The
FRINGE-FOOTED SHREW, S. fimbripes, is found in Pennsylvania.
The BROAD-NOSED SHREW, Otisorex platyrrhinus, is of a dark-brown color, and four inches long,
and seems to be an aquatic species. It is found in New York and the adjacent States. The
LONG-NOSED SHREW, 0. longirostris, is of a chestnut color, and found in South Carolina. The
Sorex personatus is another species, little known.
It will be understood that the shrews are distinct from the shrew moles, which are American
animals, and will hereafter be described.
UROTRICIIUS TALPOIDES.
THE SOLENODONTES.
These animals have the appearance of the shrews, but their teeth are more numerous, and of
somewhat different structure. They naturally occupy a place between the shrews and desmans.
There are two genera.
Genus SOLENODONTE: Solenodon.—Of this there is a single species, S. paradoxum, found
in Cuba and St. Domingo. It is seven inches long, and of a yellowish-gray color.
Genus UROTRICHUS: Urotrichus.—Of this there is one species, the U. talpoides, which is
three inches long, and found in Japan.
VOL. 1.-19

146
VERTEBRATA.
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THE DESMAN OF THE PYRENEES.
THE DESMANS: MYGALE.
This family resemble the shrews, but live in the water, and are larger, and use the tail as a
sort of oar. On account of the odor they diffuse from the glands in the tail, they are called
అనంత
SC.
SUSE. DE
THE RUSSIAN DESMAN.
Musk-rats, but they must not be confounded with the Musk-rat or Ondatra of the United States,
which we shall hereafter describe. The nose is prolonged into a trunk, somewhat flattened; the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA.
147
feet, especially the hind ones, are palmated, and suited for swimming. They feed on insects,
shell-fish, frogs, and fish. Their eyes are small, and the ears rudimentary.
Genus DESMAN: Mygale.—The M. Pyrenacia, found in the Pyrenees, is about five inches
long : its color is a brownish fawn above and grayish beneath ; its claws are strong, and its
musky odor very decided.
The Russian DESMAN, M. Moscovitica, is seven inches long, of a brown color, and is still more
strongly scented. The fish that devour it are penetrated with its odor. The musk is collected
and sold to some extent as a perfume. This animal is found in the Volga and the adjacent lakes
TIE CHRYSOCHLORIS AUREA.
THE CHRYSOCHLORIS.
Genus CHRYSOCHLORIS.—These curious animals, about three inches long, are exclusively
African. They have a chunky body, small eyes, no external tail, ears nearly rudimentary, short
legs, and strong fore-feet, fitted for burrowing. The hind-feet have four claws, and the fore ones
but three. The hair is distinguished by a rich metallic luster, which has given them the name
of Golden Moles. They live almost wholly in the ground, which they perforate with as much
facility as the true moles.
There is only one genus, but there are several species,—the C. aurea, C. villosa, C. Hottentota,
C. Damarensis, and C. obtusirostris, all of the southern and southeastern parts of Africa.
TALPID : MOLES.
Genus MOLE: Talpa. In the Talpida, or Moles, the whole structure evidently points to
their strictly subterranean habits. The body is short and thick, and supported upon short and
strong legs; the head is produced into a long muzzle; the eyes are either so small as to be
detected with difficulty, or completely concealed beneath the skin ; and the external ears are
entirely deficient. The internal ear is very perfect, and the olfactory organs are highly devel-
oped, so that those senses which must be most valuable to animals confined to a subterranean
existence, are possessed by them in the greatest perfection, while the sense of sight, which is com-
paratively useless to a creature which passes the greater part of its time in utter darkness, is
almost entirely suppressed. The tail is usually short, or quite rudimentary.

148
VERTEBRATA.
For the excavation of the galleries which these animals make in pursuit of insects and worms,
and in which they almost constantly reside, their anterior limbs, although short, are exceedingly
powerful, and so arranged as to form most efficient instruments for digging. In the common
FORE-FOOT OF THE MOLE.
HIND-FOOT.
HEAD OF MOLE.
mole of Europe, the bones of the arm are very short and strong, and the limb is terminated by a
broad, flat, and shovel-like hand, armed with long and strong claws, furnished with a curved
prolongation of one of the carpal bones, called the falciform bone, which gives additional strength
to the band, and is so placed that its palm is naturally turned directly backward. By the agency
Viyana
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WREDMAN-KENNY.SC.N.Y.
THE COMMON MOLE.
of these digging hands, the mole burrows with great rapidity, and the galleries which it forms
are of a very complicated nature.
The Common MOLE, T. Europea, is found in most parts of Europe, and is well known for its
curious cylindrical form, and the blackness of its velvet-like coat. Its eyelids are open, and it has
been proved by experiment to have the power of sight, although it is a popular belief that the
mole is quite blind: this, indeed, is the case with another species, inhabiting the south of Europe,
T. cæca, which is supposed to be the mole referred to by those ancient naturalists from whose
statements the charge of blindness has been applied to this species.
Although the greater part of this animal's labor in digging is undoubtedly expended in the
pursuit of food, a portion of his excavations are of a more permanent nature, serving for his
regular residence, and as a high road leading from this to different parts of the district which he
has appropriated. His residence consists of a large hillock of earth, firmly beaten together, and
placed in some secure situation ; within this are two circular galleries, one above the other,
and communicating with each other, the chamber inhabited by the animal is excavated in the
center of the lower gallery, and communicates with the upper one by three short passages.
From

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA.
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a
the bottom of the chamber runs another passage, which descends for a certain distance and then
rises again toward the surface, until it falls into the high road leading from the residence to the
créature's hunting-ground; this also communicates with the lower gallery, and forms one of
about nine tunnels, which issue from all parts of the latter, and which are said by the French
naturalists to open again into the high road at various distances.
The high road is much larger than any of the ordinary tunnels made by the mole in searching
for his
prey,
which open out from it in various directions, and its object evidently is to give the
animal a free and rapid communication with his fortress : in fact, an experiment performed in
France proved that the speed with which a mole, when alarmed, traversed the course of his
main tunnel was nearly equal to that of a horse at full trot. The depth at which the road is
made varies according to circumstances : in ordinary situations, it is rarely more than four or five
inches; but in passing under a road, or any other place where it is exposed to much pressure,
the animal will carry its burrow to the depth of a foot or more.
While burrowing in search of food, the mole frequently comes to the surface, where it makes
an opening, and through this the earth, loosened in its excavations, is got rid of; it forms the little
heaps well known in the fields and meadows as mole-hills. It is a most voracious animal, and a
very short fast is fatal to it; in fact, when two individuals in captivity are not sufficiently sup-
plied with food, the weaker is always killed and devoured by the stronger one. In winter, the
mole continues active, but in severe weather, usually seeks its food at a greater depth in the
ground; in the summer, on the contrary, it frequently quits its abode at night, and hunts for
insects and worms on the surface. It swims well, and often takes to the water, sometimes for
self-preservation when its retreats are invaded by floods, sometimes in changing its abode when
its course is stopped by a rivulet, and occasionally, according to some writers, for the mere pleas-
ure of taking a bath. It is a fierce little creature, and bites severely when incautiously seized.
The males also have sanguinary and fatal combats in the season of their amours.
THE COMMON SHREW-MOLE.
THE SCALOPS, OR SHREW-MOLES.
Genus SCALOPS.—The family of Scalops, or Shrew-Moles, belongs exclusively to North
America. In their dentition they are closely allied to the shrews and desmans, and in their form
and habits to the true moles. The latter animals are not found in the United States; the shrew-

150
VERTEBRAT A.
mole takes its place, and is popularly regarded as a mole. These curious little creatures are
familiar to every gardener and farmer in the Northern and Middle States, by their paths and
galleries in the earth, the traces of which are visible in little mounds on the surface. Gifted with
powerful fore-paws for digging, and a sharp, muscular, tough, and flexible nose, it can bore its
way in the soft soil with amazing celerity. The name given to the tribe, Scalops, from the
Latin, sculpo, I scrape, indicates its leading characteristics. One of these creatures will some-
times make a course of a hundred feet in a single night! Their food consists chiefly of earth-
!
worms, and these they pursue, emboweled in the soil, with the same energy and activity that
other animals seek their prey above ground. It is a general idea in the country that they devour
the vegetables, and hence they are objects of persecution with the farmer : the damage they do,
however, is very slight, consisting only in disturbing the soil, and occasionally uprooting a few
plants, and not in eating them.
This animal furnishes one of those instances of happy adaptation of means to ends, in which
the works of nature abound. Its form is cylindrical, its neck stout and short, its head tapering
to a point,—all suiting it to its mining operations in the soil. Its eyes are exceedingly minute,
and imbedded in fur, so as to shield them from the dirt in which it works. Its fur is thick and
compact, in order to protect the body from the cold and dampness, and every hair is of a glossy
polish to repel the earth and mud with which it comes in contact. Add to this, what has been
already mentioned, the gimlet nose, and the stout, strong, shovel-shaped paws, and we see a
little, energetic, skillful miner, endowed by nature with all the tools needful for success in life.
He seems condemned to toil and darkness, but, in point of fact, what are these but sources of
enjoyment, when they lead him to a perpetual feast? If, as sometimes happens, he chooses to
peep out from his burrow, and to take a night-scamper over the sod, his little eyes dilate and
give him all the vision that he needs or wishes. Truly viewed, the shrew-mole, apparently con-
demned to a dark and dirty existence, is a happy example of a thrifty and contented housekeeper
and a very model of personal cleanliness.
The Common SHREW-MOLE, Scalops aquaticus, or S. Canadensis, is about six inches long,
which is the size of the European mole. The fur is like velvet, and of a silvery brown, almost
black; the snout and palms are of a pinkish flesh-color. Sometimes these creatures are seen
running rapidly along on the ground, but soon dive into one of the openings of their burrows.
Although frequently perforating new paths, they still have galleries which are permanent avenues,
in some of which they have soft nests of dried grass and leaves for their young
When two
rival moles meet, they sidle up at each other like two pigs, and after a short tussle one gets the
better of the other, and punishes him with his teeth.
The period of activity for this little creature is the warm season. It does not become abso-
lutely torpid in winter, but seems only to live a more retired and sedentary life at that period.
Though its scientific name of aquaticus indicates that it is of aquatic habits, such is not the case,
as its whole life is spent on the land. This is one of those names given under mistake, and per-
severed in because it has become common.
This species is found from Canada to the Southern States. Four others are known ;—the
BLACK-CLAWED SHREW-MOLE, S. Æneus, is of a brassy brown, and is almost as brilliant as the
chrysochloris : it is found in Oregon. The SILVERY SHREW-MOLE, S. argentatus, greatly resem-
bling the S. aquaticus, though nearly twice as large, is found in Michigan. Townsend's SHREW-
MOLE, S. Townsendii, is equal in size to the preceding, but has eight more teeth than the S.
aquaticus, and is found in Oregon. The TEXAN SHREW-MOLE, S. latimanus, is found in Mexico
and Texas. BREWER'S SHREW-MOLE, S. Breweri, is a little larger than the S. aquaticus, and is
of a glossy, cinereous, black color. Under the breast there is a slight tinge of brown. It is found
from Massachusetts to Virginia.
a
THE CONDYLURES.
Genus CONDYLURE: Condylura.–Of this there is but a single species, the STAR-NOSED
MOLE, C. cristata, distinguished for its star-like, membraneous process on the nose. It is
confined to North America, and is thinly scattered over the country from Hudson's Bay to

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 4. INSECTIVORA.
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orang www
THE STAR-NOSED MOLE.
Virginia. In the United States it is sometimes called Button-nosed Mole. Its length is five
inches; its color nearly black; the nose and feet, flesh-color. It burrows in moist places like
the shrew-mole, though rather deeper, and has, like that
animal, chambers for rearing its young. It is most numer-
ous near the borders of streams, its food, like that of the
mole, consisting of worms and insects. When observed in
confinement, it continually attempts to hide itself by dig-
ging, and the cartilaginous tendrils around the nose are
in perpetual motion. In that state it eats all kinds of flesh
readily, and shows no disposition to feed on vegetables.
The C. macroura, described by Richardson and others
as a distinct species, is thought by Dr. DeKay to be the same as the one above described.
voor
these
SNOUT OF THE C. CRISTATA, ENLARGED.

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on the
www.
VREDMAN-KENNY.SC.N.Y.
LION, TIGER, AND LEOPARD.
ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
The term Carnivora, signifying Flesh-eaters, is applied generally to creatures that feed on
animal substances; hence it is often used to include not only the Carnivora proper, but the
two orders Cheiroptera and Insectivora. We, however, restrict the order to the various animals
in which the thirst for blood has its highest development, including the following families: The
Ursides, or Bears; Viverrides, as the civets, genets, &c.; Canides, as dogs, wolves, foxes, &c.;
Felides, as the lion, tiger, and cat kind generally; Hyenides, or Hyenas; and Mustelides, or the
weasel kind.
The Carnivora are all true quadrupeds, living on the land, though some of them are arboral
in their habits. The teeth are variable, but generally the molars show, by their compressed
form and sharp cutting edges, that they are intended for the division of flesh. All three kinds
of teeth are always present. The incisors are small, six in number, and placed in a transverse
row across the front of the mouth; the canines are always of a large size, conical, curved, and

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: 153
:
ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
SKULL OF A BEAR.
acute, especially in the most decidedly carnivorous species, where they are so long that there
is usually a gap between the incisors and canines in the upper jaw, for the reception of the
lower canine. Behind the canines, each jaw bears several false molars, the foremost of which
are usually conical, and inserted by a simple root. The hinder ones gradually approach the form
of the true molar, which is more or less com-
pressed, sharp, and notched at the edge : this
is commonly known as the flesh-tooth. Be-
hind it there are often one or two tuberculous
molars.
In the cats and the most blood-thirsty spe-
cies in general, the false molars are compressed
and sharp, and the total number of molars is
often reduced to three, which are all inserted
by two or more roots, much compressed, and
furnished with very sharp jagged edges, fitting
against one another like the blades of a pair
of scissors—an arrangement admirably adapted for cutting through the juicy fibers of the flesh
of their victims. In proportion as the animals are intended for a mixed diet, the molar teeth
become broader, and more tuberculate in their appearance; this may be seen in the common
dog, which is thus enabled to eat grass. To give effect to these sharp, cutting teeth, the lower
jaw in the typical Carnivora is articulated to
the skull by a regular hinge joint, and the
transverse position of the condyle is distinctly
perceptible even in the less rapacious species,
although to a certain extent modified. The
ascending ramus of the lower jaw, which gives
attachment to the muscles by which the jaws
are closed, is always very large, especially in
the typical species.
The skull and face are short and compact;
the former is usually marked with very strong
ridges, for the attachment of the muscles of
the lower jaw, and the zygomatic arches are
very wide to allow of their passage. The or-
bits are incomplete. The brain and organs of sense are always well developed ; the nose espe-
cially, in many species, exhibits a greater degree of perfection than in any other animal. The
eyes are usually large and full, and the pupils possess a great power of contraction and dilatation
to adapt the creatures for their general nocturnal mode of existence. Nearly all the species
possess a distinct external ear.
The mouth is sur-
rounded with soft lips, from which long whiskers
project on each side; these are supplied with
nerves, and evidently constitute delicate tactile or-
gans. The tongue is always long, thin, and free,
and the animals drink by the well-known process
of lapping. The mamma, which are always placed
on the belly, are usually numerous, and many of the
animals are very prolific. The young are usually
born blind.
The form of the body, the development of the tail, the length of the legs, and the structure of
the feet, vary greatly in the different families of this order. The toes are distinctly divided, and
armed with claws; they are usually five in number on the anterior, and four on the posterior
feet, and none of them are ever opposable. The principal peculiarities in the construction of the
feet have reference to the mode in which they are applied to the ground, and as this is in direct
Vol. I.-20
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SKULL OF A CIVET.

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VERTEBRATA.
connection with the habits of the animals, and always corresponds with other important charac-
ters, the differences observed in the structure of these extremities are of great value in the dis-
crimination of the families, and have even been employed in the primary division of the order
into groups.
The most predaceous species are possessed of extraordinary activity ; their bodies are light
and muscular; their legs are long, and their short toes alone are applied to the ground: they
walk, as we should say, on tip-toe, and they are accordingly called Digitigrada.
Those species
which are intended for a more or less vegetable diet, are heavier and endowed with far less
agility; their toes are longer, and they apply the whole foot, including the metatarsus and tarsus,
to the ground in walking : these are denominated Plantigrada. These two groups, however,
shade off almost insensibly into one another, and some naturalists have proposed the formation
of an intermediate group, containing those Carnivora in which a portion of the sole is applied to
,
the ground, under the name of Semi-plantigrada:
Among the fossil remains of animals, those of various species of Carnivora are abundant, espe-
cially those of the bear and hyena. The bones of the latter have been discovered in heaps in
the caverns of Northern Europe, thus showing that in some remote geological era, the climate of
that part of the world was adapted to animals essentially tropical in their nature and habits.
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REDMAN & KEWNY, NY
EUROPEAN BEAR.
THE BEARS: URSIDÆ.
Genus BEAR: Ursus.—Of the bears there are many kinds, varying greatly in some of their
characteristics; we shall, however, notice them in one group. They are found in various parts
of the world, yet no species is met with in Australia, and it has not been ascertained to exist in
Africa. Cuvier held that it was not a native of that country; but Ehrenberg says: “We our-
selves have seen in the mountains of Abyssinia, and therefore in Africa itself, an animal most
like to a bear, and hunted it repeatedly, but in vain. It is called by the natives Karrai." He
then goes on to state, that he can give to those who are interested in the geographical distri-
bution of the bear, “true tidings of a blackish, plantigrade wild beast most like unto a bear," in
the mountains of Abyssinia. It seems probable, therefore, that a species of bear is a native of the
high mountainous regions of Eastern Africa.
In Asia and in Europe, as well as America, the species are widely distributed. The positive
qualities of these beasts were likely to make them objects of attention, and hence we find them
spoken of in the histories of remote ages. The she-bears which came out of the wood," and
a

12
> WORAUX
EUROPEAN BEAR.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
155
tare forty and two" of the mockers of Elisha, 2 Kings ii. 24, are probably the first bears on
record. These bears of Syria may be occasionally traced in subsequent history. Thus Matthew
Paris, in his “England," relates how Godfrey, as he was riding for recreation in a neighboring
wood during the siege of Antioch, saw a poor stranger, who was loaded with a bundle of dry
wood, flying from an enraged bear; whereupon Godfrey gallantly went to the rescue, and the
bear turning upon him he was unhorsed, the horse being wounded by the bear; so he fought
on foot, but, after a severe struggle, in which he received a most dangerous wound, he buried his
sword up to the hilt in his savage adversary, and killed him. The historian, in continuation,
relates the joy of the army at Godfrey's recovery. Long before this, Aristotle had correctly
,
described the bear as “an omnivorous animal, which, by the suppleness of its body, climbs trees
and eats the fruits and vegetables. It also devours honey, having first broken up the hives; crabs,
too, and ants it eats, and also preys upon flesh.” He then accurately describes how the animal
attacks the stag, the boar, and even the bull. A more modern writer, the author of a “ Tour
on the Prairies,” gives a similar description of the bear's love of honey, though in terms not
quite so classical. “The bear," he says, “is the knowingest varmint for finding out a bee-tree in
the world. They'll gnaw for a day together at the trunk, till they make a hole big enough to
get in their paws, and then they'll haul out honey, bees, and all."
Although the bear has long been extirpated from England, the brown species was once
indigenous there. Two or three centuries ago it was imported for baiting, a sport in which the
nobility, and even royalty itself, delighted. A bear-baiting was one of the recreations offered to
Queen Elizabeth in her celebrated visit to Kenilworth. In Southwark, about the same time,
there was a regular “bear garden,” which disputed popularity with the Tower and Globe
theaters. There was, and perhaps still is, a custom in the city of Oxford, to carry, on Christmas
Day, a bear's head crowned with a wreath, before a procession. The origin of this is said to be
that, in ancient times, that is, in the age of bears, a professor of the university, walking in the
forest and reading Aristotle, was met by a bear, who set upon him with his mouth wide open.
Upon this, the professor rammed the book into his throat, saying, “ Eat it, it is Greek !” Whe-
ther the animal survived, we are not informed.
In the early history of New England, the bears make a conspicuous figure, and from the
earliest times it seems to have shared with the wolf the privilege of being employed by nursery
maids to scare children into obedience. It is, however, rarely a dangerous animal to man,
excepting our American grizzly bear, even in his native forests. Some of the species are the
Muins
DEL & SG.
GRIZZLY BEAR.
pets of menageries, especially in Europe, and not unfrequently they have been taught to dance
and tumble in a manner exceedingly amusing to the spectators. The bear is almost as much a
humorist, in his way, as the monkey, and the odd contrast between the gravity of his looks and
the drollness of his capers is irresistibly ludicrous.

156
VERTEBRATA.
HREDMANEKENNYENY!!
MARTIN CLIMBING HIS TREE.
In the Garden of Plants, at Paris, there are two deep pits, walled in and railed around, in which
there are several bears, black, brown, and white. These are objects of the liveliest interest to vis-
itors, and especially the children. The huge beasts will lie down, roll over, assume a begging
posture, make funny faces, and play many pranks, for the petty boon of pieces of cake or bread
thrown to them. Sometimes one of them will climb up the trunk of a dry tree planted in the
middle of the fosse. Such a feat generally secures him a cake worth a sou.
Some years since, one of the bears in this collection was, if we may use the expression, one
of the lions of Paris. His name was Martin, and as all the people of Paris were freely admitted
to the Garden, everybody became acquainted with him. During the hours of exhibition, the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
157
railing of the bear-den was thronged with men, women, and children, and the cry of “ Martin !
Martin !" was heard on all sides. The creature knew his name, and at the call, performed his
various feats of grimacing, tumbling, and attitudinizing. But this was not his only claim to
celebrity. Some hard stories were told about him, one of which was as follows. The night sentry,
looking down into the fosse while the bear was asleep in his lair, observed in the flickering
light what he thought was a twenty-franc gold piece upon the stone floor. He got a ladder
and went down, but was disappointed to find that the supposed coin was a brass suspender-button.
He uttered a cry, upon which the bear, aroused from his slumber, descended in his usual agile
manner, and made a hearty meal upon the unfortunate veteran! This is as the story was told,
but the fact was, that the man was found dead in the morning, with Bruin sitting by him. He
probably fell from the ladder, and was killed outright in the fall. However, the affair made a
tremendous sensation in Paris, and one of the ballads composed upon the event, has obtained
a place in the permanent popular literature of France.
In general, bears are heavy animals, and strictly plantigrade in their walk, which is awkward
and shuffling; the anterior limbs are, however, possessed of great mobility, and many of them
manifest much dexterity in climbing. Their feet are armed with long curved claws, with which
they dig in search of roots and other articles of food. Their bodies are usually covered with
long shaggy hair, the tail being remarkably short. The ears are small, and the nose is more or
less produced and movable, in some species forming a sort of proboscis.
Bears are generally inhabitants of the wooded districts in mountainous countries. They feed
principally upon vegetable substances, such as roots and berries; they also devour worms and
insects, especially ants; and now and then make a meal upon some of the smaller Mammalia,
when these come in their way. Their partiality for honey has been already mentioned ; in some
places they manifest a fondness for fish. Bears are hunted principally for the sake of their
skin and fat; the latter being extensively used as an application to the hair. Their flesh is
eaten, and the broad paws are regarded as a dainty morsel; the hams, when cured, are also in
great repute. Some of the species lie in a dormant state during the winter season.
The BROWN BEAR, Ursus Arctos, is the Ours of the French, Orso of the Italians, Bär of the
Germans, Björn of the Swedes. It is the common bear of Europe, and is widely diffused. The
mountainous districts of Europe, from very high latitudes in the north, to the Alps and Pyrenees
in the south ; Siberia, Kamstchatka, and even Japan, to the eastward, and a portion of the
northern regions of America, form the range of its geographical distribution.
To the Kamstchatkans this bear seems to furnish the necessaries and even the comforts of life.
The skin, we are told, forms their beds and their coverlets, bonnets for their heads, gloves for
their hands, and collars for their dogs; while an overall made of it, and drawn over the soles
of their shoes, prevents them from slipping on the ice. The flesh and fat are their dainties. Of
the intestines they make masks or covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the
sun in the spring, and use them as a substitute for glass, by extending them over their windows.
Even the shoulder-blades are said to be put in requisition for cutting grass.
The Laplanders hold it in great veneration, and call it the Dog of God. It appears that there
has long been among the Norwegians a proverb, that the bear has the strength of ten men and
the sense of twelve. They never presume to call it by its proper name of Guouzhja, lest it
should revenge the insult on their flocks; but make mention of it as Moedda-Aigja, the Old Man
with a Fur Cloak. These superstitions remind us of those respecting the bear among our North
American Indians.
The brown bear is four to five feet in length by two and a half in height. It is a solitary
animal : its retreat during the period of hibernation is the natural hollow of a tree, or some
cavern; and if these are not to be found, the animal constructs a habitation for itself, sometimes
by digging, sometimes by forming a rude kind of hut or den with branches of trees, lined with
moss. Here it retires when fat with the summer's food, and remains dormant, without taking
any sustenance, till the ensuing spring. The period of gestation is about seven months, the
birth taking place in January. The cubs when first born are not much larger than puppies.
The animals are long lived, for it appears that one at Berne had been confined there thirty-one
a

158
VERTEBRATA.
HEDMAN KENNY NY
BGK
THE JUNGLE BEAR.
years; and another is spoken of at the age of forty-seven, in the menagerie at Paris. They are
excellent swimmers, notwithstanding their uncouth appearance.
From the accounts which have been furnished, it would appear that the bears of Norway are
not much inferior in size and ferocity to the grizzly bear of our country. The she-bear of that
region is represented as especially formidable when she has occasion to defend her cubs. In
cases of danger, she drives them into the trees for safety; this she sometimes effects with so much
violence that their cries may be heard a considerable way off; she then retreats to some dis-
tance. This is a sure token that she means to defend her cubs, and it is then very dangerous to
approach them unless the hunter is first freed from the mother, who is sure to attack him with

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA159
.
.
a
a
fury. A peasant of Dalecarlia, one day, in a forest, fell in with a young bear, which had taken
refuge in a tree. This he shot at, and brought the cub to the ground; but his triumph was
of short duration, for its cries soon attracted the mother, all savage with rage, to its rescue.
.
Having discharged his gun, he was quickly overpowered, and desperately bitten in several
places. He would inevitably have lost his life, had not the bear at length severely wounded
herself upon the long knife which he carried attached to his girdle. Feeling the pain, she turned
from him, and spying her cub on the ground, which now lay dead, she took it up in her mouth,
and bore it off, to the no small relief of her antagonist.
The Black Bear of Europe, Ursus Niger Europæus of Cuvier, is now generally regarded
as a variety only of the preceding species. The Bear of the Pyrenees or of the Asturias, whose
young are of a yellowish white, with black feet, is also supposed to be a variety of the same.
Asia can boast of several species of bear. The SIBERIAN BEAR, U. collaris, resembles the
brown bear, but has a white band passing over the shoulders to the breast. The U. Thibetanus,
found in the Himalayah Mountains and in Japan, has a thick neck, a flat head, large ears, a
compact body, clumsy limbs, and rather weak claws. It is black, of moderate size, and very
much resembles the European bear. The U. Isabellinus is found in the Himalayah range. A
specimen in the Zoological Gardens of London was nearly white, and it is conjectured that it
may be a variety of the Arctic bear.
The U. Syriacus, no doubt the species spoken of in the Bible and already alluded to, is of a
fulvous white, varied with tawny spots. Two fine specimens have been in the Zoological Gardens.
The U. labiatus, the BIG-LIPPED or Sloth BEAR—also called the JUNGLE BEAR, the FIVE-
FINGERED SLOTH, SLOTH BEAR, and URSINE SLOth—inhabits the mountainous parts of India.
It is of the size of the brown bear, and has a most uncouth—nay, even a deformed appearance.
Its back is humped, the limbs short, the head depressed. The nose is capable of extension, and
the lips are protrusile. The fur is long and shaggy, of a black color, with brown spots. Under
the neck and on the breast is a white mark. It lives in caverns, and feeds on fruits, honey, and
white ants. In captivity it is mild but melancholy. A pair were kept for some time in the
gardens of the Zoological Society. They lived very sociably, and often lay huddled together,
uttering a kind of rattling but low whine, or purring, which was continuous and monotonous,
but not entirely unmusical; indeed, by more than one who heard it, it was termed their song.
The paw was generally at the mouth when they made this noise.
The MALAYAN Sun BEAR, the Bruang of the Malays, U. Malayanus, is jet black, with the muzzle
of a yellowish tint, and has a semilunar white mark upon the breast. Its appetite for delicacies
is extremely keen. The honey of the indigenous bees of its native forests is supposed to be a
favorite food; and certainly the great length of the tongue is well adapted for feeding on it.
Vegetables form its chief diet, and it is said to be attracted to the vicinity of man by its fondness
for the young shoots of the cocoa-nut trees, to which it is very injurious. It has frequently been
taken and domesticated. In confinement, it is mild and sagacious. Sir Stamford Raffles thus
describes the manners of one which appears to have been deservedly a great favorite:
"When taken young," he says, “ they become very tame. One lived for two years in my
possession. He was brought up in the nursery with the children; and, when admitted to my
table, as was frequently the case, gave a proof of his taste by refusing to eat any fruit but
mangosteens, or to drink any wine but champagne. The only time I ever knew him to be out
of humor was on an occasion when no champagne was forthcoming. He was naturally of an
affectionate disposition, and it was never found necessary to chain or chastise him. It was usual
for this bear, the cat, the dog, and a small blue mountain bird, a lory of New Holland, to mess
together and eat out of the same dish. His favorite playfellow was the dog, whose teasing and
worrying were always borne and returned with the utmost good-humor and playfulness. As he
grew up, he became a very powerful animal, and in his rambles in the garden he would lay hold
of the largest plantains, the stems of which he could scarcely embrace, and tear them up
by the roots."
The BORNEAN BEAR, the Helarctos euryspilus, differs from the Malayan bear principally in
having a large orange-colored patch, deeply notched at its upper part, upon the chest. In size

160
VERTEBRATA.
it is supposed to be rather less. An individual which was exhibited in the Tower of London
measured along the back from muzzle to tail three feet nine inches. It was obtained in Borneo
when
very young, and during the voyage, was the constant associate of a monkey and other
animals. In confinement, its manners greatly resembled those of the Malayan bear. Its
habits in a state of nature do not appear to be known. Dr. Horsfield, speaking of it in
captivity, says: “The Helarctos readily distinguishes the keeper, and evinces an attachment to
him. On his approach, it employs all its efforts to obtain food, seconding them by emitting
a coarse but not unpleasant whining sound. This it continues while it consumes its food,
alternately with a low grunting noise; but if teased at this time, it suddenly raises its voice and
utters at intervals harsh and grating sounds. It is excessively voracious, and appears to be
disposed to eat without cessation. When in a good-humor, it often amuses the spectators in a
different manner. Calmly seated in its apartment, it expands the jaws, and protrudes its long
and slender tongue. It displays on many occasions not only much gentleness of disposition,
but likewise a considerable degree of sagacity. It appears conscious of the kind treatment
it receives from its keeper. On seeing him, it often places itself in a variety of attitudes to court
his attention and caresses, extending its nose and anterior feet, or suddenly turning round,
exposing his back, and waiting for several minutes in this attitude, with his head placed on the
ground. It delights in being patted and rubbed, and even allows strangers to do this; but it
violently resents abuse and ill treatment; and, having been irritated, refuses to be courted while
the offending person remains in sight." The individual whose manners are here described fell a
victim to its voracity. During the hot weather in the summer of 1828, it overgorged itself one
morning, and died within ten minutes after the meal.
We now come to the American Bears. The most formidable animal upon this continent, and
.
the only one that in general attacks mankind, is the GRIZZLY BEAR, the U. ferox of Lewis and
Clark, who first accurately described it; the U. horribilis of Say, and the Meesheh Musquaw
of the Cree Indians. Its length is from six to nine feet; its weight from four hundred to
eight hundred pounds. In form it resembles the European bear. Its fore-claws, which are much
curved, measure six inches. This part of its organization is well adapted for digging, but not
for climbing, and the adult grizzly bear does not ascend trees, although the young ones
frequently do. The muzzle is lengthened, narrowed, and flattened, and the canine teeth are
highly developed. The tail is very small, and so entirely lost in the hair which covers the
haunches, that it is a standing joke among the Indian hunters, when they have killed a grizzly
bear, to desire any one unacquainted with the animal to take hold of its tail. The hair is
abundant, long, and varying through most of the intermediate gradations between yellowish gray
and blackish brown, which last is prevalent, and more or less grizzled. It is difficult to find two
specimens alike in their color. The young are generally black, or nearly so. On the muzzle,
the hair is pale and short; on the legs, it is darker and coarser. The eyes are small, and rather
sunk in the head.
The haunts of this animal are the Rocky Mountains, and the plains to the eastward of them.
They are also common in California, and are met with in the northwestern British territories as far
as latitude 61°. They generally seek the marshy districts, thickly covered with trees and bushes,
among which they have their lairs. They ramble about in search of food both by night and day.
In general, their aspect and manner are in the highest degree savage and morose, but it appears
from the accounts of travelers that the almost universal love of fun implanted in the animal cre-
ation invades the breasts of these horrid monsters. The young grizzlies, we are told, when they
deem themselves alone in their solitary abodes, have their bo-peep, leap-frog, and wrestling as
well as other bears, and sometimes the gruff and gnarled old fathers and mothers lend their
countenances to these sports. Their diet consists in part of wild plums, buffalo-berries, and other
vegetable dainties; but flesh is their chosen food. Any animal they can seize falls a prey to
their voracity. The young ones, and the she-bears with young, hibernate: the older males
ramble about during the winter as at other times.
Unwieldy as this animal appears, it is capable of great rapidity of motion, and its strength is
overpowering. The bison contends with it in vain. The conqueror drags the enormous carcass,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
161
jedy
ve
12
M
LOSSING-BAARITT
THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
weighing often a thousand pounds, to a chosen place, digs a pit for its reception, and repairs
to it till the exhausted store compels him to renew the chase. Yet he will be satisfied with fruits
and roots; but on his diet depends the aggravated or mitigated ferocity of his disposition. This
animal is very tenacious of life: one has been known to receive fifteen bullets before he was
killed. The long, hooked claws are strung into necklaces, and are highly prized by the Indians
as trophies of their prowess. The following account of the habits of the grizzly bear is given by
Sir John Richardson :
“A party of voyagers who had been employed all day in tracking a canoe up the Saskatche-
wan had seated themselves in the twilight by a fire, and were busy in preparing their supper,
when a large grizzly bear sprang over the canoe that was tilted behind them, and seizing one of
the party by the shoulder, carried him off. The rest fled in terror, with the exception of a metif
named Bourasso, who, grasping his gun, followed the bear as it was retreating leisurely with its
prey. He called to his unfortunate comrade that he was afraid of hitting him if he fired at
the bear, but the latter entreated him to fire immediately, without hesitation, as the beast was
squeezing him to death. On this he took a deliberate aim, and discharged his piece into the
body of the bear, which instantly dropped its prey to pursue Bourasso. He escaped with difficulty,
and the bear ultimately retreated to a thicket, where it was supposed to have died; but the curi-
osity of the party not being a match for their fears, the fact of its decease was not ascertained.
VOL. I.-21

162
VERTEBRATA.
The man who was rescued had his arm fractured, and was otherwise severely bitten, but finally
recovered. I have seen Bourasso, and can add that the account which he gives is fully credited
by the traders resident in that part of the country, who are best qualified to judge of its truth
from their knowledge of the parties.
“I have been told that there is a man now living in the neighborhood of Edmonton House,
who was attacked by a grizzly bear, which sprang out of a thicket, and with one stroke of its
paw completely scalped him, laying bare the skull, and bringing the skin of the forehead down
over the eyes. Assistance coming up, the bear made off without doing him further injury; but
the scalp not being replaced, the poor man has lost his sight, although he thinks his eyes are
uninjured.
“Mr. Drummond, in his excursions over the Rocky Mountains, had frequent opportunities of
observing the manners of the grizzly bears, and it often happened that in turning the point of a
rock or sharp angle of a valley he came suddenly upon one or more of them. On such occasions
they reared on their hind-legs, and made a loud noise like a person breathing quick, but much
harsher. He kept his ground, without attempting to molest them; and they on their part, after
attentively regarding him for some time, generally wheeled round and galloped off; though,
from their known disposition, there is little doubt but he would have been torn in pieces had he
lost his presence of mind and attempted to fly. When he discovered them from a distance, he
generally frightened them away by beating on a large tin-box in which he carried his specimens
of plants. He never saw more than four together, and two of these he supposes to have been
cubs; he more often met them singly, or in pairs. He was only once attacked, and then by a
female for the purpose of allowing her cubs to escape. His gun on this occasion missed fire, but
he kept her at bay with the stock of it until some gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay Company,
with whom he was traveling at the time, came up and drove her off.
“ In the latter end of June, 1826, he observed a male caressing a female, and soon afterward
they both came toward him, but whether accidentally or for the purpose of attacking him, he was
uncertain. He ascended a tree, and as the female drew near, fired at and mortally wounded her.
She uttered a few loud screams, which threw the male into a furious rage, and he reared up
against the trunk of the tree in which Mr. Drummond was seated, but never attempted to ascend
it. The female in the mean while, retiring to a short distance, lay down, and as the male was
proceeding to join her, Mr. Drummond shot him also. From the size of their teeth and claws,
he judged them to be about four
years
old."
The following account of the manner of hunting the grizzly bear in California is alike curious
and interesting. It must be understood that a bear has been previously baited, and a party of
some half dozen friends invited to the sport :
“Every thing being prepared, men, horses, saddles, and lassoes, they all start at sunset or
dusk, and keep carefully to windward of the bait, which must be placed on a piece of ground
clear from rocks, trees, or bushes, and within about eight hundred yards of one of these, for
the purpose of hiding themselves, that the bear may not see them when he is approaching the
bait. A horse that has been catching bears three or four times will keep a strict watch fer
the approach of the bear at the bait, and will invariably let the rider know—not by any noisy
motion, but by deep suppressed sighs, and pricking up his ears.
Whenever one or more of the horses do this, the men who have been lying by on foot,
mount as quietly as possible, and when all are ready with their lassoes in their hands, ready to
swing, they put spurs to their horses, which at that moment is very little needed, that noble
animal appearing to all intents and purposes to be as anxious as his rider to capture the savage
animal. The horse, being swifter than the bear, if the plan has been well laid, is sure to
overtake him before he can get to any bush. The foremost rider throws his lasso, and seldom
fails of catching the bear, either by the neck or around the body or one of its legs. Should he
miss, there are several more close at his heels to throw their lassoes. As soon as the bear finds
himself fast, he rears and growls, taking hold of the lasso with his two fore-paws. At this crisis,
the lasso must always be kept tight; if not, the bear will extricate himself immediately.
“Now comes in play the sagacity of the noblest of animals. The horse, from the very moment
.
6

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
163
a
the bear is lassoed, keeps his eye on every movement, and appears to do, or rather I believe
actually does do, all in his power to protect and defend his rider as well as himself; as it often
happens, that from carelessness or inattention on the part of the rider, the bear will entangle the
horse's legs with the lasso, and in such cases, if it is a horse that has been used to lassoing bears,
he will with the greatest agility clear himself, without the least motion from the bit. I have
several times seen a horse, when the bear has been approaching him from before, instead
of turning round to run away or to run on one side, wait until the bear got close to him,
watching him all the time with a steady eye, and all of a sudden take a leap right over the bear,
and then turn suddenly around and face him again. This feat of course is only done by such
horses as are well acquainted with bear-hunting.
“I never was in either a military or naval engagement myself, but I have heard hundreds say
that fear exists in the breasts of warriors no longer than till the first volley is fired. The same
may be said of the horse in bear-hunting. From the moment a horse sees the bear, it matters
not at what distance, he begins to tremble, and his heart beats so loud that his rider can
distinctly hear it. But this lasts no longer than the first momentary onset; for as soon as the
horse feels by the strain of the lasso that the bear is lassoed, his fear leaves him, and he is from
that moment in the highest glee. If the bear is a very large one, two or three more persons
will throw their lassoes on him, because an old bear will be very apt to take the lasso in his
mouth and bite it off, or bring such a strain on it as would break it.
“The bear being now well secured, with three or four lassoes on him, the horses, arching their
necks and snorting with pride at their prize, walk away with the savage animal, which is rearing,
plunging, and growling.
“This method of hunting the bear is one of the noblest diversions with which I am acquainted.
It requires an extraordinary degree of courage for a man to ride up beside a savage monster like
a
the grizzly bear of this country, which is nearly as active as a monkey, and whose strength
is enormous. Should a lasso happen to break, which is often the case, the bear invariably
attacks the herse; and it requires very often the most skillful horsemanship to prevent the horse
or its rider from being injured. It requires also great skill to know when to tighten the lasso,
and to what degree, to prevent it from being suddenly snapped by too sudden a strain. The
rider must have his eye constantly on that of the bear, and watch his every motion. Sometimes,
either through fear, carelessness or inadvertence, a man may let go his lasso. In this case,
another, if the bear takes off, will go as hard as his horse can run, and, without stopping his
speed, will stoop from his saddle and pick the end of the lasso from the ground, and,
taking three turns around the loggerhead of his saddle, and checking his horse's rein, again
detain the bear.
"In short, from the moment that a person arrives at the spot fixed upon to lay wait for the
bear's coming to the bait, until he is fast to a tree or killed, he feels himself elated. Every
motion of those noble animals, the horses, which seem as though they were doubly proud when
they feel the strain of the lasso from the saddle, and appear to take as much delight in the sport
as the riders themselves, is grand beyond any power of description.”
The Rocky Mountains, and the plains to the eastward of them, particularly the districts which
are interspersed with open prairies and grassy hills, are the chief haunts of the grizzly bears. To
the north, they have been observed as far as latitude 61°, and it is supposed that they are to be
found still further.
The BLACK BEAR, U. Americanus, is somewhat smaller than the U. Arctos; the head is nar-
rower, the ears more distant, the muzzle more prominent, and the claws longer and more hidden
in the hair. The fur is black, and consists of smooth, soft, and glossy hair, instead of the shaggy
and woolly locks of the European species. The cheeks are of a fawn-color, and a stripe of this
sometimes descends to the chest. In some cases, these animals are of a yellowish, and sometimes
of a cinnamon color, which has given them the name of Cinnamon Bear, Yellow Carolina Bear,
&c. The tail is very short, the claws short and blunt, and the whole form thick and clumsy.
The black bear originally inhabited nearly every wooded district of the North American continent;
from Panama to the Arctic regions, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, it is still common in all
a

164
VERTEBRATA.
the less settled countries, with the exception of California, where it seems to be replaced by the
grizzly bear. It is occasionally met with in the mountainous parts of Maine, New Hampshire,
and Vermont : in the uninhabited wooded regions of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania
it is common.
The total length of an adult of this species seldom exceeds six feet. Its favorite food appears
to be berries of various kinds, but when these are not to be procured, it preys upon roots, insects,
fish, eggs, and such birds or quadrupeds as it can surprise. It does not eat animal food from
,
choice, for when it has abundance of its favorite vegetable diet it will pass the carcass of a deer
without touching it. Its haunts are in the gloomy forests, its chief happiness seeming to consist
in solitude. Its aspect is eminently savage and morose, and even when partially domesticated, it
does not appear to have the sociable and humorous qualities of the European bear. It is a timid
animal, and will seldom face a man unless it is wounded, or has its retreat cut off, or is urged by
affection to defend its young.
When resident in the fur countries, it almost invariably hibernates,
and about one thousand skins are annually procured by the Hudson's Bay Company from black
bears destroyed in their winter retreats. It generally selects a spot for its den under a fallen
tree, and, having scratched away a portion of the soil, retires to it at the commencement of a
snow-storm, when the snow soon furnishes it with a close, warm covering. Its breath makes a
small opening in the den, and the quantity of hoar frost which occasionally gathers round the
aperture ofter, serves to betray its retreat to the hunter.
In more southern districts, where the timber is of a large size, these bears often shelter them-
selves in hollow trees. The Indians remark that a bear never retires to its den for the winter
until it has acquired a thick coat of fat; and it is remarkable that when it comes abroad in the
spring it is equally fat, though in a few days thereafter it becomes very lean. The period of the
retreat of the bears is generally about the time when the snow begins to lie on the ground, and
they do not come abroad again until the greater part of the snow is gone. At both these periods
they can procure many kinds of berries in considerable abundance. In latitude 65° their winter
repose lasts from the beginning of October to the first or second week of May; but on the
northern shores of Lake Huron, the period is from two to three months shorter. In very severe
winters, great numbers of bears have been observed to enter the United States from the north-
ward. Like the deer and bison, they change their haunts with the season, but it is not true,
as has been asserted, that they generally abandon the northern districts on the approach of
winter; the quantity of bear-skins procured during that season in all parts of the fur countries
being a sufficient proof to the contrary. The females bring forth about the middle of January ;
the number of cubs varies from one to five.
During the spring months, this bear lives on succulent plants along the margins of lakes and
ponds; in summer, it secludes itself in the gloomy swamps, where it feeds on roots, nettles, fish,
and small mollusca. Occasionally a stray pig, calf, or cow diversifies its bill of fare. One of its
great pleasures is to wallow in the mud like a hog. Sometimes it makes a foray into the cornfields,
where it causes great havoc. As autumn advances, nuts, acorns, grapes, berries and mast become
its food. About the same time, many a bee-tree is ravaged of its honey to feed this avaricious
and greedy brute. At this season it roams the woods alone, occasionally embracing the trunk of
a tree with its arms, tearing the bark with its paws, and clashing its teeth till the foam gushes
from the mouth-as if to keep itself in training for the chase—and then goes on its way.
The
young bears are not much bigger than kittens at the time of their birth. They lie care-
fully hidden in some cave or hollow tree till they are able to go forth. They are sportive
creatures, full of pranks,-running, leaping, wrestling, and playing hide-and-seek, like a parcel of
young
cubs are indeed as harmless and sportive as puppies. The hunters tell us that
they often go off and hide themselves, to tease their anxious mothers. After a time the undutiful
cubs come back grinning and leering, and seem to think it an excellent joke. If captured early,
these creatures may be trained to a certain degree of tameness, and may be taught many tricks
—though, as before remarked, they are less docile than the European bears.
The black bear, in spite of his clumsy shape, wallops over the ground with great speed. If
closely pursued by dogs, it climbs a tree, but descends and gives battle on the approach of the
boys. The
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
165
hunters. A blow of its huge paw will lay the largest dog dead in an instant. It is an object of
keen pursuit by the hunter and trapper, as well on account of its skin, which is greatly prized, as
for the love of the chase. Scarcely a season passes that the villagers of Maine, and even the
northern parts of Vermont and New Hampshire, are not invited to this sport by the visits of these
animals within their precincts, coming from the north as winter approaches.
The Indians, though they kill and eat the bear, by a strange apotheosis, regard the BEAR SPIRIT
as one of their divinities, before whom they perform wild dances, and other ceremonies, by way
of propitiation. An instance of this kind of superstition is furnished by Mr. Henry, who gives the
following curious account:
“In the course of the month of January, I happened to observe that the trunk of a very large
pine-tree was much torn by the claws of a bear, made both in going up and down. On further
examination, I saw that there was a large opening in the upper part, near which the smaller
branches were broken. From these marks, and from the additional circumstance that there were
no tracks in the snow, there was reason to believe that a bear lay concealed in the tree. On
returning to the lodge, I communicated my discovery, and it was agreed that all the family
should go together in the morning to assist in cutting down the tree, the girth of which was not
less than three fathoms. The women at first opposed the undertaking, because our axes, being
only of a pound and a half weight, were not well adapted to so heavy a labor; but the hope
of finding a large bear, and obtaining from its fat a great quantity of oil, an article at the time
much wanted, at length prevailed.
“ Accordingly, in the morning we surrounded the tree, both men and women, as many at a
time as could conveniently work at it; and there we toiled like beavers till the sun went down.
This day's work carried us about half way through the trunk, and the next morning we renewed
the attack, continuing it till about two o'clock in the afternoon, when the tree fell to the ground.
For a few minutes every thing remained quiet, and I feared that all our expectations would be
disappointed; but, as I advanced to the opening, there came out, to the great satisfaction of all
our party, a bear of extraordinary size, which I shot. The bear being dead, my assistants
approached, and all, but particularly my Old Mother,' as I was wont to call her, took the head
in their hands, stroking and kissing it several times; begging a thousand pardons for taking
away her life; calling her their relation and grandmother; and requesting her not to lay the
fault upon them, since it was truly an Englishman that had put her to death.
“This ceremony was not of long duration, and if it was I that killed their grandmother, they
were not themselves behindhand in what remained to be performed. The skin being taken off,
we found the fat in several places six inches deep. This, being divided into two parts, loaded
two persons; and the flesh parts were as much as four persons could carry. In all, the carcass
;
must have exceeded five hundred weight. As soon as we reached the lodge, the bear's head was
adorned with all the trinkets in the possession of the family, such as silver arm-bands, and wrist-
bards, and belts of wampum, and then laid upon a scaffold set up for its reception within the
lodge. Near the nose was placed a large quantity of tobacco. The next morning no sooner
appeared than preparations were made for a feast to the manes. The lodge was cleaned and
swept, and the head of the bear lifted up, and a new Stroud blanket, which had never been used,
spread under it.
“ The pipes were now lighted, and Wawatam blew tobacco-smoke into the nostrils of the bear,
telling me to do the same, and thus appease the anger of the bear on account of my having
killed her. I endeavored to persuade my benefactor and friendly adviser that she no longer had
any life, and assured him that I was under no apprehension from her displeasure; but the first
proposition obtained no credit, and the second gave but little satisfaction. At length, the feast
being ready, Wawatam made a speech resembling in many respects his address to the manes of
his relations and departed companions; but having this peculiarity, that he here deplored the
necessity under which men labored thus to destroy their friends. He represented, however, that
the misfortune was unavoidable, since without doing so they could by no means subsist. The
speech ended, we all ate heartily of the bear's flesh; and even the head itself, after remaining
three days on the scaffold, was put into the kettle."

166
VERTEBRATA,
WW
WO
POLAR BEARS ON THE ICE.
There are several kinds of bears in North America, which have been deemed distinct species,
but are now regarded as mere varieties. There are the CINNAMON BEAR, SO named on account
of its color; the YELLOW BEAR OF THE CAROLINAS, also deriving its name from the color of its
hair; the BARREN-GROUND BEAR, of Northern British America; and the Ours Gulaire, Ursus
gularis, of Geoffroy, with a white throat. The habits of these are in no respects different from
those of the black bears; they show, however, that the species is subject to great diversity of
color, from a deep black to a brownish yellow. Those of the lighter complexion seem to inhabit
the more southern portions of the country.
The SPECTACLED BEAR, U. ornatus, inhabits the Cordilleras of the Andes in Chili. Its fur is
smooth, shining, and black, except that its short muzzle is of a dirty yellow or buff color, and there
are two semicircular marks of the same hue, reminding the observer of a pair of spectacles, above
the eyes; the under parts of the throat and neck, and the upper part of the breast, are whitish.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: 167
: .
.
ORDER 5. CARNIVORAThe WHITE BEAR, Polar Bear, or ICE BEAR, U. Arctos, or U. maritimus, belongs to both
continents. It is an inhabitant of the dreary regions which surround the North Pole with eternal
frost, and of those coasts which are rarely free from ice; hence it is almost entirely carnivorous
in a state of nature. Animals of the land and of the sea, birds and their eggs, the dead and the
living, are its food. An admirable swimmer and diver, and of great strength, he often captures
the seal, and is said to attack the walrus itself. Cartwright saw a Polar bear dive after a
salmon, and with success, for he killed his fish. Captain Lyon gives the following account of its
hunting the seal :
“The bear, on seeing his intended prey, gets quietly into the water, and swims until to leeward
of him, whence, by frequent short dives, he silently makes his approaches, and so arranges his
distance, that at the last dive he comes to the spot where the seal is lying. If the poor animal
attempts to escape by rolling into the water, he falls into the bear's clutches; if, on the contrary,
he lies still, his destroyer makes a powerful spring, kills him on the ice, and devours him at
leisure."
The same author informs us that this bear not only swims with rapidity, but is capable
of making long springs in the water. Sabine states that he saw one about midway between the
north and south shores of Barrow's Straits, which are forty miles apart, though there was no ice
in sight to which he could resort for rest.
The Polar bear seems to be, in a great measure, the scavenger of the Arctic seas. The
floating carcasses of whales and other marine animals form a considerable part of his food, and
the smell of the burning kreng often brings him to the whale-ships. In the absence of other
food, however, he does not disdain to seek the shore in quest of berries and roots. That he can
live on vegetable food alone, has been proved in the feeding of specimens in the menageries
of both London and Paris. The sea, however, is his great storehouse. Of course, he never
attacks the full-grown whale, because the weapons with which he is furnished are not capable
of inflicting any vital injury upon it, while a blow from the whale's tail, even on the water,
would flatten him like a pancake. He would attack it at a disadvantage, too; for although he
can swim for many miles, he is, like other quadrupedal animals, powerful only when he has a
firm support. He does, however, often attempt, and sometimes succeeds, in capturing the young
of the whale, while they are so small that he can drag them on the ice. But this is a perilous
meal for him; as the whales he is able to land on the ice are sucking whales, and the mother is
generally very watchful of them. She can either carry the young one away far faster than
the bear can follow, or she can fight boldly in its defense; so that it becomes food for the
bear only by stratagem. The walrus is much more an ice and rock animal than the whale ;
but still the walrus is never so far from the water that it cannot easily regain that element :
it has perfect command of itself there, and is furnished with tusks so powerful, that although
the bear sometimes ventures to measure his strength with it, he seldom gains the mastery.
The young of the walrus is, however, often caught by him; but still the seal is his staple food,
and it is very abundant. The ice upon the Polar seas is not so smooth as that which forms upon
fresh water in lower latitudes, because, when it is first formed, the water is generally in motion,
and there is not unfrequently snow, so that there is a scum of trash or icy fragments, before the
water consolidates into a continuous field of ice. This gives it a granulated surface, which is
afterward powdered over with snow, which falls, not in flakes, but in small particles, when the
cold is very great. This surface, when once it is formed, remains undecayed during the sunless
months; but when the sun begins to exert its influence, the surface alternately thaws and
freezes, at which time it becomes so slippery that it is difficult footing. To the Polar bear,
however, it is a safe path, and that animal never slides or stumbles, be the smoothness of the
surface what it may. It also moves faster upon firm ground than might be supposed from its
appearance. Captain Lyon describes its pace when at full speed, as " a kind of shuffle, as quick
as the sharp gallop of a horse."
This species is of a more lengthened form than that of other bears; the head is very much
elongated and flattened, the ears and mouth are comparatively small, the neck is very long and
thick, and the sole of the foot very large. The fur is silvery white, tinged with yellow, close and

168
VERTEBRATA.
min
1
WO
POLAR BEARS IN THE MENAGERIE OF THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, LONDON.
short, even on the head, neck, and upper part of the back; long, fine, and inclined to be woolly on
the hinder parts, legs, and belly. The sole of the foot exhibits a beautiful instance of adaptation
of means to an end, for it is almost entirely covered with long hair, affording the animal a firm
footing on the ice. The claws are black, not much curved, thick, and short.
The accounts given of the size, strength, and ferocity of this animal by the early navigators
are appalling; but the accuracy of modern investigation has dissipated a good deal of the awe
with which it was regarded, and has gone far to prove that the excited imagination of some of
the narrators has led them beyond the truth.
The gallant adventurers who conducted the modern northern expeditions, penetrated far
beyond the points formerly reached, and had opportunities of observing numbers of Polar bears.
The greatest length from nose to tail, recorded by Captain Phipps, is seven feet one inch, the
weight of the beast being six hundred and ten pounds. Sir John Ross records the measurement
of seven feet ten inches, and the weight of eleven hundred and sixty pounds; and Captain Lyon
states that one which was unusually large, measured eight feet seven and a half inches, and
weighed sixteen hundred pounds! The greater number of full-grown individuals are spoken of as
far inferior to these in dimensions and weight. Fine specimens of this animal may be seen at
the gardens of the Zoological Society in London, and the Garden of Plants, Paris.
Pennant states that Polar bears are frequent on all the Asiatic coasts of the Frozen Ocean,
from the mouth of the Obi eastward, and that they abound in Nova Zembla, Cherry Island,
Spitzbergen, Greenland, Labrador, and the coasts of Baffin's and Hudson's bays, but that they
are unknown on the shores of the White Sea. Sir Edward Parry saw them within Barrow's
Straits as far as Melville Island; and, during his daring boat-voyage, beyond 82° N. latitude.
Sir John Richardson says that the limit of their incursions southward on the shores of Hudson's

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
169
a
Bay and of Labrador, may be stated at about the fifty-fifth parallel. Sir John Franklin learned
from the Esquimaux to the westward of Mackenzie River, that they occasionally, though rarely,
visited that coast. Captain Beechey did not meet with any in his voyage to Icy Cape.
As the Polar bear resides principally on the fields of ice, he is frequently drifted far from the
land. In this way, they are often carried from the coast of Greenland to Iceland, where they
commit such ravages on the flocks that the inhabitants rise in a body to destroy them.
The pairing time of this species is in May, and such is their attachment to each other that if
one of them is killed, the other will suffer itself to be destroyed rather than leave it. The males
do not hibernate, but the females do. The Esquimaux account of this process is thus reported by
Captain Lyon :
“At the commencement of winter, the she-bears are very fat, and always solitary. When a
heavy fall of snow sets in, the animal seeks some hollow place in which she can lie down, and
then remains quiet while the snow covers her. Sometimes she will wait until a quantity of
snow has fallen, and then digs herself a cave: at all events, it seems necessary that she should
be covered by and lie among snow.
and lie among snow. She now goes to sleep, and does not wake until the spring
sun is pretty high, when she brings forth her two cubs. The cave, by this time, has become
much larger, from the effect of the animal's warmth and breath, so that the cubs have room enough
to move, and they acquire considerable strength by continually sucking. The dam at length
becomes so thin and weak, that it is with great difficulty she extricates herself when the sun is
powerful enough to throw a strong glare through the snow which roofs the den. The Esquimaux
affirm, that during this long confinement the bear has no evacuations, and is herself the means of
preventing them by stopping all the natural passages with moss, grass, or carth. The natives
find and kill the bears during their confinement by means of dogs, which scent them through the
snow, and begin scratching and howling very eagerly. As it would be unsafe to make a large
opening, a long trench is cut, of sufficient width to enable a man to look down, and see where
the bear's head lies; he then selects a mortal part, into which he thrusts his spear. The old
one being killed, the hole is broken open, and the young cubs may be taken out by hand, as,
having tasted no blood, and never having been at liberty, they are then very harmless and quiet.
Females which are not pregnant roam about through the winter in the same manner as the
males."
Of the attachment of these northern she-bears to their young, we have many interesting ac-
counts. The following is furnished by Scoresby, in his narrative of a “Voyage to Greenland :"
“ Early in the morning, the man at the mast-head gave notice that three bears were making
their way very fast over the ice, and directing their course toward the ship. They had probably
been invited by the blubber of a sea-horse, which the men had set on fire, and which was burning
on the ice at the time of their approach. They proved to be a she-bear and her two cubs; but
the cubs were nearly as large as the dam. They ran eagerly to the fire, and drew out from the
flames part of the flesh of the sea-horse, which remained unconsumed, and ate it voraciously.
The crew from the ship threw great pieces of the flesh, which they had still left, upon the ice,
which the old bear carried away singly, laid every piece before her cubs, and dividing them, gave
each a share, reserving but a small portion for herself. As she was carrying away the last piece,
they leveled their muskets at the cubs, and shot them both dead: and in her retreat, they
wounded the dam, but not mortally.
“It would have drawn tears of pity from any but unfeeling minds, to have marked the affec-
tionate concern manifested by this poor beast, in the last moments of her expiring young. Though
she was sorely wounded, and could but just crawl to the place where they lay, she carried the
lump of flesh she had fetched away, as she had done the others before, tore it in pieces, and laid
it down before them; and when she saw that they refused to eat, she laid her
;
upon
one, and then upon the other, and endeavored to raise them up. All this while it was piteous to
hear her moan. When she found she could not stir them, she went off, and when at some
distance, looked back and moaned; and that not availing to entice them away, she returned, and
smelling around them, began to lick their wounds. She went off a second time as before; and
having crawled a few paces looked again behind her, and for some time stood moaning. But,
paws
first
VOL. 1.-22
a

170
VERTEBRATA.
still her cubs not rising to follow her, she returned to them again, and with signs of inexpressible
fondness went round first one and then the other, pawing them, and moaning. Finding at last
that they were cold and lifeless, she raised her head toward the ship, and growled her resent-
ment at the murderers, which they returned with a volley of musket-balls. She fell between her
cubs, and died licking their wounds."
Dr. Kane, in his “Arctic Explorations,” furnishes us many interesting sketches of the Arctic
“
bear. In one instance, he saw one of these huge beasts sliding down hill on his rump, the hill
being a huge declivity of ice. Whether the beast was doing this for fun, or as a short cut in the
progress of his journey, does not appear. The following incidents are interesting alike on
account of the nature of the story and the manner in which it is told. It will be understood the
adventurers had met with one of these formidable animals and her cub:
“ The bear fled; but the little one, being unable either to keep ahead of the dogs or to keep
pace with her, she turned back, and putting her head under its haunches, threw it some distance
ahead. The cub safe for the moment, she would wheel around and face the dogs, so as to give
it a chance to run away; but it always stopped, just as it alighted, till she came up and threw it
ahead again; it seemed to expect her aid, and would not go on without it. Sometimes the
mother would run a few yards ahead, as if to coax the young one up to her; and when the dogs
came up, she would turn on them and drive them back; then, as they dodged her blows, she
would rejoin the cub and push it on, sometimes putting her head under it, sometimes catching it
in her mouth by the nape
of the neck.
*For a time, she managed her retreat with great celerity, leaving the two men far in the rear.
They had engaged her on the land ice; but she led the dogs in shore, up a small stony valley
which opened into the interior. After she had gone a mile and a half, her pace slackened,
and the little one being jaded, she soon came to a halt.
“ The men were then only half a mile behind; and, running at full speed, they soon came up
to where the dogs were holding her at bay. The fight was now a desperate one. The mother
never went more than two yards ahead, constantly looking at the cub. When the dogs came
near her, she would sit upon her haunches, and take the little one between her hind-legs, fighting
the dogs with her paws, and roaring so that she could have been heard a mile off. Never,' said
Morton, 'was an animal more distressed.' She would stretch her neck, and sweep at the nearest
dog with her shining teeth, whirling her paws like the arms of a windmill. If she missed her
aim, not daring to pursue one dog lest the others should harm the cub, she would give a great
roar of baffled rage, and go on pawing and snapping and facing the ring, grinning at them with
her mouth stretched wide open.
“When the men came up, the little one was perhaps rested, for it was able to turn around
with its dam, no matter how quick she moved, so as to keep always in front of her belly. The
five dogs were all the time frisking about her, actively tormenting her, like so many gad-flies;
indeed, they made it difficult to draw a bead on her without killing them. But Hans, lying
on his elbow, took a quiet aim, and shot her through the head. She dropped instantly, and
rolled over dead, without moving a muscle.
“The dogs sprang toward her at once; but the cub jumped upon her body, and reared пр,
for
the first time growling hoarsely. They seemed quite afraid of the little creature, she fought so
actively and made so much noise; and while tearing mouthfuls of hair from the dead mother,
they would spring aside the moment the cub turned toward them. The men drove the dogs off
for a time, but were obliged to shoot the cub at last, as she would not quit the body."
We cannot forbear one more extract from the adventures of this daring explorer :
“ The journey began again as the feast closed, and we should have accomplished my wishes had
it not been for the untoward influence of sundry bears. The tracks of these animals were be-
coming more and more numerous as we rounded one iceberg after another; and we could see
the beds they had worn in the snow while watching for seal. These swayed the dogs from their
course : yet we kept edging onward, and when in sight of the northern coast, about thirty
miles from the central peak of the Three Brothers,' I saw a deep band of stratus lying over the
horizon in the direction of Kennedy Channel. This water-sky indicated the continued opening
6
6

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
171
of the channel, and made me more deeply anxious to proceed. But at this moment our dogs
encountered a large male bear in the act of devouring a seal. The impulse was irresistible : 1
lost all control over both dogs and drivers. They seemed dead to every thing but the passion
of pursuit. Off they sped with incredible swiftness ; the Esquimaux clinging to their sledges
and cheering their dogs with loud cries of Nannook! A mad, wild chase, wilder than German
legend,—the dogs, wolves; the drivers, devils. After a furious run, the animal was brought to
bay; the lance and the rifle did their work, and we halted for a general feed. The dogs gorged
themselves, the drivers did as much, and we buried the remainder of the carcass in the snow.
A second bear had been tracked by the party to a large iceberg north of Cape Russell, for we
had now traveled to the neighborhood of the Great Glacier. But the dogs were too much
distended by their abundant diet to move : their drivers were scarcely better. Rest was indis-
pensable."
FOSSIL BEARS.
We have already alluded to the fact, that the bones of various extinct Carnivora, and among
them those of bears, are found abundantly in the caves of Italy, Germany, France, and England.
In a single cavern, that of Külock, in England, Dr. Buckland estimated that there must be the
relics of at least twenty-five hundred bears. The history of these fossils well illustrates the wan-
derings of the human mind, when exercised upon matters of which it is ignorant. Two or three
centuries ago only—that is, before any just ideas of Geology were entertained—these bones were
considered as those of unicorns and dragons, and figured largely in the medical prescriptions of
the time. The caverns in the neighborhood of the Hartz Mountains, abounding in relics of this
kind, were ransacked, and quantities of " unicorn bones” were taken away and sold, as possessing
marvelous healing virtues. So late as 1672, a German savan gave representations of some bones
taken from a cave in the Carpathians, as those of dragons, and by way of helping out the story,
he stated that dragons, living and flying about, were to be met with in Transylvania! To doubt
these marvels in those days was reprobate infidelity.
THE SLOTH BEAR.

172
VERTEBRATA.
SU
Мил
w
who
THE BLACK BINTURONG.—(See p. 177.)
THE VIVERRIDES.
This family includes a great number of animals, all much smaller than the bears, and having
a resemblance to the Civet, or Viverra, in form and habits.
abits. They are divided into several tribes,
as the Subursins, Viverrins, and Mangoustes.
THE SUBURSINS.
This tribe derives its name—which means an inferior sort of bear—from the resemblance of
the raccoon, and some other of its species, to the bear.
ha
THE KINKAJOU.
Genus KINKAJOU: Cercoleptes.—Of this genus there is a single species, the MANAVIRI or
KINKAJOU, or KINKAJOU Porto, C. caudivolvulus, a graceful animal, somewhat smaller than a cat,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
173
found in Guiana, Brazil, and Peru, which has the local name of Cuchumor. Its body is long, the legs
short, the feet plantigrade, the tail prehensile, the fur thick, woolly, and of a grayish or russet
brown. It is gentle in disposition, and does not lack intelligence. The ancient inhabitants of
New Granada reduced it to a state of domesticity. It lives in the deep forests, and, rolled into
.
a ball, sleeps profoundly during the day. As night advances, it opens
its
eyes, and by degrees
awakes to activity, and then goes forth in quest of its food, which consists of small quadrupeds
and birds, insects and fruits. It climbs trees, and runs along the branches in search of birds'
nests: it is also a skillful bee-hunter, and, taking advantage of the dormant state of the insects
during the night, it breaks the honey-comb with one of its - paws, and licks up
the precious
treasure with its long tongue. This habit led the early missionaries to call it the Honey-Bear.
In the menageries of Europe it has been found an exceedingly docile and gentle creature, feeding
readily on fruit, cakes, biscuit, honey, or milk. When angry, its voice resembles the barking of
a small dog.
THE WAH, OR PANDA.
Genus PANDA: Ailurus.—Of this there is but the WHA, WAH, or PANDA, A. fulgens, distin-
guished by the elegance of its fur, which is very thick and of a lively russet, passing into brown
along the limbs. The tail is very thick at the base, and is marked with rings of black. The
animal is somewhat smaller than a cat; its haunts are about rivers and mountain-torrents, where
it lives much on trees, and feeds on birds and the smaller quadrupeds. It frequently utters a loud
cry of “ Wha! wha!” whence one of its names. This sound also betrays it to the hunters.
It is found in the hills of the Himalayah chain, between Nepaul and the Snowy Mountains. It is
called Chitwa by the natives.
Genus RACCOON: Procyon.—Of this genus there are two species, the Common Raccoon,
P. lotor, of the United States, and the CRAB-EATING Raccoon, P. cancrivorus, of tropical America.
The former is spread over North America from Hudson's Bay to Louisiana, excepting only in the more
thickly settled regions, where it has been exterminated. In many parts, it is a common object of
pursuit with the sportsman; in the Southwestern States, it is so abundant as to be a nuisance.
All—even those who never see it in its native haunts—are familiar with it in menageries, in the
legends of hunters, and in the sleigh-robes garnished with its skins. Many a song of the Coon
delights the village dilettanti; and who has not heard the story of Captain John Scott, the
forester whose rifle never missed, and the Coon—which runs to this effect:
“ Coon on the tree, loquitur.--Who are you, stranger?
“Hunter.—My name is Scott.
* Coon.—Captain Scott ?
"Hunter.-Yes.

174
VERTEBRATA.
“ Coon.—Captain John Scott ?
“ Hunter. The same.
“ Coon.—Well, well, don't fire; its no use. I'll come down directly."
The raccoon is about twenty-six inches long; the tail eight inches; the weight twenty to
twenty-five pounds. The head is rather round, the nose sharp and flexible, and the expression of
the face cunning, sly, and foxy. The feet are plantigrade, and hence the animal was con-
sidered by some early naturalists as a small bear. The general color of the fur is blackish gray,
but paler on the under part of the body; the point of the nose and soles of the feet black, and the
cyes black. Around the face is a circle of yellowish-white hair. The tail is marked with five or
six black rings, and is tipped with black. The body is stout, the back arched upward, the legs
rather long, and the claws strong.
The favorite haunts of the raccoon are solitary forests upon marshy grounds, intersected by
His food consists of birds' eggs, the eggs of the soft-shelled turtle, frogs, mussels, and
various other small animals. Along the coast in the Southern States, he finds a species of oyster
streams.
Sith
THE RACCOON.
in which he delights: though we are told that he sometimes pays dear for the whistle, as he gets
his paw caught by a fixed shell, and, unable to escape, he is drowned by the returning tide.
Sometimes he creeps silently in the sedges like a cat, snapping up a duck that comes within his
reach. He climbs trees with ease, and not unfrequently robs the nests of the woodpecker, by
putting his long paws into the holes which this bird has chiseled in the limb of a dry tree.
When the corn is in the milk, he steals at night into the fields and feasts himself to satiety,
reckless of the damage done to the crop, and the ire of the planter when he discovers the theft.
His conical head and sharp, flexible nose are not made in vain, for these enable him to pry
into
corners and crevices for spiders, worms, and the larvæ of various insects, of which he is very
fond.
Thus the raccoon is an animal of large resources and marked character. He goes prowling
about as well by night as by day. He is a fisher, a hunter, a trapper, a reaper, or a fly-catcher,
as occasion may require. He is instinctively cunning as the fox, inquisitive and meddlesome as
the monkey, greedy as a bear, sly as a cat. In northern climates, on the approach of winter,
he retires to his home and sleeps like the bear till spring, or only goes abroad occasionally in fair
weather. At the South, he is active during the year. His nest is usually made in the hollow
trunk of a tree. From four to six young ones are produced at a birth, this event taking place in
May. The young coons are half as big as a rat, and utter a plaintive wail like an infant.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA175
:
: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
The raccoon is easily tamed, and becomes an amusing though troublesome pet. He uses his
fore-feet like hands, and is an expert pickpocket. He will follow his master even along the
streets of a town. He is, however, perpetually peering about, and his inquisitiveness becomes,
after a time, quite tedious and vexatious. His greediness for sugar, honey, and other sweet things,
renders him importunate and troublesome.
The hunting of the raccoon is a favorite sport in some parts of the country. The hunts usually
take place by moonlight, dogs being used to tree the game. Great experience is required, as
these creatures are nimble and subtle, and often baffle even the most skillful hunters. Many of
these animals are caught in various kinds of traps.
Bruse
THE CRAB-EATING RACCOON.
The Crab-eating Raccoon resembles the preceding, though the body is rather longer and more
slender. The general color is an ashy brown; the breast and belly of a lighter shade.
It climbs
trees with agility, and feeds on acorns, grapes, berries, eggs, birds, &c. It sometimes seizes the
chickens around a plantation : it follows the water-courses, and devours frogs and fish; it also
delights in sugar-cane. It seems to be chiefly nocturnal in its habits. It is most abundant in
the northern parts of South America, but is found also in Mexico, Texas, and California.
m
We
Boers.
THE COATI MONDI.
Genus COATI: Nasua.—Of this genus there are said to be several species. They are distin-
guished by a long body, a long head terminating in a long flexible snout, with which they root in

176
VERTEBRATA.
al
-BARESTE
THE ICTIDES ALBIFRONS.—(See p. 177.)
the ground. They are nearly of the size of a cat; the color is fawn, mixed with gray and black,
becoming paler on the under parts. The tail is half the length of the body, and is slightly
annulated. Like certain monkeys, they often gnaw off their tails,—whether because they ache
or itch, or are too long for convenience, or whether as a matter of taste, is not known. They are
semi-plantigrade, but they have strong, sharp claws, and are expert climbers. Their voice, when
pleased, is a soft grumble; when angry, they utter a sharp, strong cry. Their food consists of
insects, worms, snails, fruits, honey, eggs, birds, and other small animals. They are not ferocious,
and easily become tamed; they are, however, restless in captivity, but possess a kind of gentle
curiosity, which excites interest. In the menagerie at Paris, there are several of them, which are
kept with the monkeys, to which, in common with the raccoon, they have a certain analogy.
The COATI MONDI, or the BROWN COATI, Nasua narica, is the only one of the species that
appears to be well established. The word mondi means solitary, and is used to distinguish this
species from another, the Social Coati. Tschudi makes out five species: the Social Coati, the
Solitary Coati, the Coati leucorhyncha, the Banded Coati, and the Mountain Coati. But Gervais,
after a careful examination, reduces them to one--that which we have named above—the
distinctions of size, color, &c., showing only varieties and not specific differences. This conclusion
seems to be justified by the fact that, with abundant opportunities, only one species, the Coati
Mondi, has come under familiar observation at the menageries. This animal is found from
Mexico to Brazil.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
177
Genus BINTURONG: Ictides. Of this genus, called Arctictis by Temminck, there appears to
be only one species, the BLACK ICTIDE, I. ater, the Viverra binturong of Raffles. Its color is
black, speckled with gray. The hair is long, and there is a tuft at each ear. The tail is long
and hairy, and has a propensity to curl, as if prehensile, which it is in fact, to some extent. The
I. albifrons, which is of a grayish-brown color, is only the female of the I. ater, and not a distinct
species, as some naturalists have supposed.
THE VIVERRINS.
This family includes a number of genera, all bearing considerable resemblance to the Genet,
and, with a single exception, that of the Bassaris, belonging to the Eastern continent. They are
nocturnal in their habits, and the eyes contract into a perpendicular line, like those of the cat,
when exposed to the light. They are generally, although not in all the species, savage and
blood-thirsty, making great havoc among birds and small animals, such as rats, mice, squirrels,
frogs, and the like. Several of the species possess an anal pouch, which yields a strong, musky
secretion.
Genus CYNOGALE: Cynogale.—Of this there is but a single species, the Cynogale Bennetti,
found in Borneo. Its body is about eighteen inches long, and of a slender form; the legs are
short; the fur thick and soft, resembling that of the otter. The color is brown, tinged with gray.
It frequents moist places, and enters lakes and rivers in search of its prey, which consists of fish
and other animals.
wir
Novin
THE CIVET.
Genus CIVET: Viverra.—Of this there are two species, the most common of which is the
CIVET, V. civetta. The length of the elongated body of this animal is from two to three feet;
the tail about half as long as the body; height from ten inches to a foot; hair of the body long,
brownish
gray, with numerous interrupted, transverse, black bands or spots of the same color.
The hairs on the ridge or middle line of the back, from between the shoulders, are longer, and can
be raised or depressed at the pleasure of the animal. The legs and most part of the tail are black;
upper lip and sides of the neck, almost white. The eyes are surrounded each by a black patch.
Two or three black bands pass from the base of the ears obliquely toward the shoulder and neck,
which last has a broad black patch. It is a native of the north of Africa.
The Civer approaches in its habits nearest to the foxes and smaller cats, preferring to make its
predatory excursions against birds and smaller quadrupeds in the night, although, like these
carnivora, it will occasionally attack its prey
in the day-time.
Vol. 1.-23
a

178
VERTEBRATA.
22
را را
want
SREDMAN-KENNY:SC.MUY
THE SURICATE.-(See p. 183.)
THE CYNOGALE.
In a state of captivity it becomes in a degree tame, but never familiar, and is dangerous to
handle. The young are fed on farinaceous food, millet-pap for instance, with a little flesh or fish;
and, when old, on raw flesh. Many of them are kept in North Africa to obtain the perfume
which bears the name of the animal, and brings a high price. The civet is procured by scraping
the inside of the pouch with an iron spatula at intervals—about twice a week. If the animal is
in good condition and a male, especially if he has been irritated, a dram or thereabouts is
obtained each time. The quantity collected from the female does not equal that secreted by the
male. Civet, which, by the way, is sometimes confounded with musk, like most other articles of
this nature, is much adulterated, and it is difficult to get it quite pure. The adulteration is
effected with suet or oil to make it heavier.
The other species, the ZIBET, V. zibetha, is somewhat smaller than the preceding; the general
complexion is brownish gray, marked with small, black, round spots. It is a native of India.
A species of zibet is also found in the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes, somewhat larger
than the one just described. The fur is also of a lighter color. To this is given the name of
V. Tangalunga by naturalists.
Genus GENET: Genetta.—Of this genus there are several species, all somewhat smaller than
a cat, and all living upon animal
prey.
The Common GENET, G. vulgaris — Viverra genetta of Linnæus—is of a beautiful reddish gray,
a
,
spotted with small black or brown patches, which are sometimes round and sometimes oblong;
the tail, which is as long as the body, is ringed with black and white, the black rings being to
the number of nine or eleven. There are white spots on the evebrow, the cheek, and on each
side of the end of the nose. It appears, however, that there is some variety in the size and
number of the patches, the bands along the shoulder and neck, the lines on the nape, etc.
This handsome animal is found both in a wild and domestic state in the south of Europe, and
thence southward through Africa to the Cape of Good Hope. In its natural state, it loves to
dwell in low lands, or along the banks of rivers and lakes, and in the vicinity of springs. It is of
predatory habits, and feeds upon small animals, although it also eats vegetables. In the light,
the eyes contract like those of a cat, and the claws are nearly as retractile as those of that

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
179
SREDMAN-KENNY SONY
THE GENET.
animal. Its disposition is meek and gentle, except when irritated; in many places it is kept
instead of a cat, to destroy vermin. In Constantinople it goes from house to house, clearing
them of rats and mice. It has a pouch beneath the tail, which emits a faint smell of musk.
The popular opinion is, that the rats and mice are so disgusted with this scent that they imme-
diately abandon a house when a genet comes into it. It is not strange that an animal which
delights in eating and killing these pests, should be in bad odor with them. The fur of the
genet is fine, thick, and soft; and, on account of its beautiful markings, is greatly prized.
The Rasse, G. Indica, resembles the zibets, and has been classed with them by some writers.
Dr. Horsfield says:
“It supplies in Java the place which the civet holds in Africa, and the zibet on the Asiatic
continent and in the large islands of the Indian Archipelago. I have endeavored to show that,
by its form and marks, it is essentially distinct from the V. zibetha ; and it differs as much in
its natural disposition as in external characters. The zibet is an animal comparatively of a mild
disposition; it is often found among the Arabs and Malays who inhabit the maritime parts of
Borneo, Macassar, and other islands, in a state of partial domestication; and, by the account of
the natives, becomes reconciled to its confinement, and in habits and degree of tameness resembles
the common domestic cat. The rasse, on the contrary, preserves in confinement the natural
ferocity of its disposition, undiminished. As the perfume which it yields is greatly valued by the
natives, it is frequently kept in cages; but, as far as I have observed, it must always be obtained
for this purpose from a wild state, as it does not propagate in confinement.
“ The rasse is not unfrequently found in Java, in forests of a moderate elevation above the
level of the ocean. Here it preys on small birds and animals of every description. It possesses
the sanguinary appetite of animals of this family, in a high degree, and the structure of its teeth
corresponds strictly with its habits and modes of life. In confinement, it will devour a mixed
diet, and is fed on eggs, fish, flesh, and rice. Salt is reported by the natives to be a poison to
it. The odoriferous substance is collected periodically: the animal is placed in a narrow cage,
in which the head and anterior extremities are confined; the posterior parts are then easily
secured, while the civet is removed by a simple spatula."
The substance obtained from the rasse agrees with the civet afforded by the civet and zibet
in color, consistence, and odor. It is a very favorite perfume among the Javanese, and is applied
both to their dresses and, by means of various unguents and mixtures of flowers, to their
persons. Even the apartments and the furniture of the natives of rank are generally scented
with it to such a degree as to be offensive to Europeans; and at their feasts and public
processions the air is widely filled with this odor.
The Fossan, Viverra Fossa of Linnæus, is of a fawn-color, marked with irregular brown spots.
The tail is faintly annulated with black; the body is long and slender, and the legs are longer
and the tail shorter than those of the other genets. When irritated, it emits a strong, musky
a
a

180
VERTEBRATA.
odor. It eats both flesh and fruit, and is very fond of bananas. It is wild, and difficult to be
tamed. Its eye is large and black, giving the animal a mischievous look. It is a native of
Madagascar.
The other species of Genet are as follows: the SENEGAL GENET, G. Senegalensis ; the
ABYSSINIAN GENET, G. Abyssinica ; the GENET OF FERNANDO Po, G. Poensis ; the TIGRINE
GENET, G. tigrina; and the PARDINE GENET, G. pardina, of Senegambia. None of these are
distinguished by striking peculiarities.
Genus LINSANG, or PRIONODON: Linsang.–Of this there are two species, both resem-
bling the genets, but somewhat insectivorous in their habits. The SLENDER LINSANG, L. gracilis,
is of a light fawn, variegated with brown spots. The tail is marked with eight rings. It is a
native of Malacca. The PARTI-COLORED LISANG, L. pardicolor—the Prionodon pardicolor of Hodg-
son—resembles the preceding, though differently marked in its colorings. It is a native of Nepaul.
Car
2
در رم
120
ann
WHY
THE PARADOXURUS.
Genus PARADOXURE: Paradoxurus.—The name of this genus, given by F. Cuvier, was
intended to indicate a peculiarity of the tail, which he noticed in a living specimen, and which
consisted in carrying this member constantly on one side, rolled into a coil. Nevertheless, these
animals seem to have nearly as much command of their tails as the sajous. It is less prehensile,
but they coil it around their bodies with the same facility. Their nails are hooked and semi-
retractile, and they have an odorous pouch like the genets and civets, though the smell is far less
intense. They are found in India and the Asiatic isles, and are nearly omnivorous in their habits.
The PoUGONIE, P. typus, is of a yellowish brown, marked with three ranges of obscure
spots on the back; the sides and legs are also marked with spots, irregularly disposed ; the
muzzle is gray, the tail and feet black. The body is eighteen inches long. This animal is an
agile climber of trees, where it pursues small quadrupeds and birds; it also feeds on eggs and
fruits. It is mild in its disposition, and is found in India, where the French call it the Palm-
Martin.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
181
REOHANSHEVNY5CNY
THE POUGONIE.
The MASQUED PARADOXURE, P. larvatus, is of a dirty fawn-color, and is found in the region
of the Himalayah Mountains. The P. musanga, called the Banded Wild-Cat by Sonnerat, and
the Striped Pole-Cat by Buffon, is common in the islands of Java, Borneo, &c. The Prehensile
Paradoxure of some authors is only a variety of this.
Ugo
AEDANN-KENNYENGRS NEY
THE EUPLERE.
The other species are as follows: P. leucopus, P. Bondar, P. Philippensis, P. setosus, P.
stigmaticus, P. aureus, P. leucomystax, P. trivirgatus, P. Grayi, and P. O'Gilbyi. A portion of
these are arranged under the generic name of Paguma, by Gray.
Genus HEMIGALUS: Hemigalus.—The animals of this genus are not very distinct from the
preceding, except in their dentition, which indicates more insectivorous propensities.

182
VERTEBRATA.
a
The ZEBRA HEMIGALE, H. zebra, the only species, is like the linsangs in its size and general
colorings. Its complexion on the head and sides of the neck is fawn, barred with brown; the
rest of the form is blackish brown. The length of the body is fifteen inches. It is found only
in Borneo.
Genus EUPLERES: Eupleres.—The single species of this genus, E. Goudotii, is of a slender
form, about a foot in length, low on its legs, digitigrade, with a tail half the length of the body.
Its color is a brownish fawn; its fur thick and woolly. Its teeth indicate an insectivorous
tendency. It is found in Madagascar.
Genus NANDINIA: Nandinia.—The only known species, N. binotata, is a beautiful animal of
the size of the genet, with soft fur, of a brown complexion, and spotted with black. It is a good
climber, and has claws partially retractile. Its habitat is the island of Fernando Po, and the
adjacent territories of Guinea.
UL
THE CRYPTOPROCTA FEROX.
Genus CRYPTOPROCTA: Cryptoprocta.—The only species, C. ferox, is but fifteen inches
long, but its strength is great. Its disposition is ferocious and sanguinary in the highest degree.
The body is slender and the back arched ; the color russet, the head round, and the claws
retractile. In these respects, this animal greatly resembles the cat family, but it has odoriferous
glands, which class it with the genets.
Genus BASSARIS: Bassaris.—We now come to the only American animal in the long list of
the Viverrides—the Ring-TAILED BASSARIS, B. astuta. It has a sharp, pointed nose, and a cunning
expression, reminding one of a fox or raccoon, Its resemblance to the latter animal has given it
the name of Ring-tailed Raccoon with the Texans. The body is eighteen inches long, and the tail
one foot two The general color is blackish gray above, and yellowish brown on the lower parts
of the sides, there being a sort of brindled appearance over the head and along the back. The
tail is distinctly branded with black and white.
In disposition, this animal is lively and playful, running along on the branches of the trees
with the agility of a squirrel. It is shy and retiring, and speedily flies to its retreat, which is a
hole in a tree, upon the slightest alarm. Its food consists of birds, insects, and small quadrupeds;
it is said also to feed on the pecan and other nuts, though this is doubtful. Sometimes it scolds
or barks at an intruder, holding its tail curled over its back. It is easily tamed, and among the
Mexicans it is domesticated, when it becomes a playful pet, and catches rats and mice. It

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
183
JW.ORR
THE RING-TAILED BASSARIS.
a
produces three or four at a birth. It is rather a rare animal in Texas, but is more abundant in
parts of Mexico. The natives of that country call it Caco-mixtle.
THE MANGOUSTES.
The type of this family, whose name of Mangouste is equivalent to Ichneumon, or Herpestes, is
the famous Ichneumon of Egypt, sometimes called Pharaoh's Rat. The body of all the species
is long and slender; they are lively in their motions, and so low on the legs as almost to scrape
the ground. The fur is silky and mottled; the nails, generally five on each foot, are sharp and
non-retractile. They feed on small animals, insects, and eggs, the latter constituting a large part
of their food.
We pass over the genera SURICATE, BDEOGALE, and Cynictis, all belonging to Africa, but
which present no species of particular interest.
The Genus MANGOUSTE, Mangusta, or Herpestes, presents several interesting species, the
first of which is the ICHNEUMON, M. ichneumon or H. ichneumon. This animal bears a close re-
semblance to the weasel tribe, both in form and habits. From the tip of the nose to the root of
the tail, it is about eighteen inches in length. At the base, the tail is very thick, tapering gradually
toward the point, which is slightly tufted. It has a long, active body, short legs, lively and
piercing eyes, and a pointed nose; the hair is rough and bristly, of a pale reddish gray. In a
wild state, the ichneumon usually resides on the banks of rivers, and swims and dives like the
otter, being able to keep under water for a great length of time.
The ichneumon is celebrated in the mythology of ancient Egypt, where it has long been
domesticated, and where it was ranked among its divinities, on account of its great utility in
destroying serpents, snakes, rats, mice, and other vermin; it is also fond of crocodiles' eggs,
,
which it digs out of the sand where they have been deposited. It is a very fierce, though small
animal, and will fight with dogs, foxes, and even jackals, with great fury. It will not breed in
confinement, but may be easily tamed when taken young.
The following particulars are related by M. D’Orbsonville, in his “ Essays on the Nature of
various Foreign Animals :” “I had an ichneumon very young, which I brought up. I fed it at

184
VERTEBRATA.
KUD
Ii
RLOMAN-KENNEN
THE EGYPTIAN ICHNEUMON.
first with milk, and afterward with baked meat mixed with rice. It soon became even tamer
than a cat, for it came when called, and followed me, although at liberty, in the country. One
day I brought this animal a small water-serpent alive, being desirous to know how far his instinct
would carry him against a being with which he was as yet totally unacquainted. His first
emotion seemed to be astonishment mixed with anger, for his hair became erect; but in an
CON SKEN
THE CYNICTIS.
instant he slipped behind the reptile, and with remarkable swiftness and agility leaped upon its
head, seized it, and crushed it between his teeth. This essay, and the new food, seemed to have
awakened in him an innate and destructive voracity, which till then had given way to the
gentleness he had acquired from education. I had about my house several curious kinds of fowls,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
185
a
among which he had been brought up, and which, till then, he had suffered to go and come,
unmolested and unregarded; but a few days after, when he found himself alone, he strangled
them every one, ate a little, and, as it appeared, drank the blood of two."
Sonnini, after stating that the ichneumon is rather tolerated than encouraged about the houses
of the Egyptians, says: “Having some resemblance in their habits to weasels and polecats, they
feed upon rats, birds, and reptiles. They ramble about the habitations of men; they even steal
into them, in order to surprise the poultry and devour their eggs. It is this natural fondness for
eggs which prompts them frequently to scratch up the sand with the intention of discovering
those which the crocodiles deposit there, and it is in this manner that they prevent, in reality,
the excessive propagation of these detestable animals. But it is absolutely impossible to abstain
from laughing, and not without reason, when we read of their leaping into the extended mouth
of the crocodiles, of their sliding down into their belly, and not returning till they have eaten
through their entrails. If some mangoustes have been seen springing with fury on little crocodiles
presented to them, it was the effect of their appetite for every species of reptile, and not at all
that of a particular hatred, or of a law of nature, in virtue of which they would have been
specially commissioned to check the multiplication of those amphibious animals, as many people
have imagined."
The mode in which the ichneumon seizes a serpent is thus accurately described by Lucan,
in his “Pharsalia :">
“Thus oft the ichneumon, on the banks of Nile,
Invades the deadly aspic by a wile:
While artfully his slender tail is play'd,
The serpent darts upon the dancing shade-
Then, turning on the foe with swift surprise,
Full on the throat the nimble traitor flies,
And in his grasp the panting serpent dies.”
THE MOONGUS.
The other species of this genus are as follows:
WIDDRINGTON'S ICHNEUMON, M. Widdringtoni, the only European species, and found in the
south of Spain; the CAPE ICHNEUMON, M. Caffer, of South Africa; M. Mutgigella, of Abyssinnia;
Dr. Smith's ICHNEUMON, M. Smithii, of the Cape of Good Hope; the BROWN-TIPPED ICHNEU-
MON, M. apiculata, of the same region; the GARANGAN, M. Javanica, of Java; the MANGOUSTE
,
Nems, or MOONGUS, M. grisea, of India and Nepaul; the NYULA, M. nyula, of the same coun-
tries; the Brown ICHNEUMON, M. paludosa, of the Cape of Good Hope; the MALACCA ICHNEU-
VOL. 1.-24

186
VERTEBRATA.
THE CAPE ICHNEUMON.
mon, M. brachyura, of Malacca; and the SPOTTED ICHNEUMON, M. punctulata, of South Africa
and Natal. It is probable that there are other species, but they are not ascertained.
Genus ATHYLAX, Athylax, presents a single species, Athylax galera, of Madagascar, distin-
guished from the mangoustes in having thicker and more woolly fur, this being of a brown color,
spotted with whitish gray. The length of the body is eleven inches.
SUV
REDMAN KENNY ENG
THE GALIDIA ELEGANS.
Genus GALIDIA: Galidia.—The species of this genus, all of Madagascar, are not greatly
distinguished from the preceding. The Galidia elegans is of a lively russet, spotted with brown
and olive, the tail being annulated with black. It is ten inches long. The G. concolor and
G. olivacea are the other species.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
187
de tec
ETIN!
NIMEO
THE STRIPED GALIDICTIS.
Genus GALIDICTIS, Galidictis, presents two species, also of Madagascar. The G. striata is
distinguished by its coloring, which consists of brown bands or stripes on a light yellowish
ground. The body is ten inches long, and the tail long and bushy. The G. vittata is described
by Dr. Thomson, who possessed one for six months, as diurnal in its habits and agile and
graceful in its movements. In the native country of these creatures, they live in the woods, and
devour nuts, insects, etc.; they often approach the houses, and make great havoc in the poultry-
yards. Like the weasel tribe, they kill their victims, and gorge themselves by drinking their
blood.
THE CANID Æ.
The family of Canido, from canis, a dog, embraces four genera : the Cynhyene, including the
Hyena-Dog; the Canis, including the Dog, Wolf, and Jackal; the Vulpes, including the Fox and
Fennec; and the Otocyon. Formerly the Hyena was included in the same group, but for good
reasons, naturalists now give it a separate place. In this family, all the species of which are
digitigrade and highly carnivorous, the head is more or less conical and pointed in front, from
the jaws being somewhat produced; the legs are of equal length, the anterior being furnished
with five, and the posterior with four toes, all armed with non-retractile claws. The tail is of
moderate length, and more or less tufted with hair. The senses are acute, that of scent being
developed in great perfection. The dentition is complicated: there are three false molars on
each side in the upper, and four in the lower jaw; these gradually increase in size posteriorly,
and approach the true molar in form. The latter is very large, compressed, and cutting, and is
followed in both jaws by two small tubercular teeth; the total number of molars is six above
and six below, although this is variable in the dogs. The tongue is soft, and destitute of horny
spines.
Genus CYNHYENE: the Cynhyæna of Cuvier.—Of this genus there is a single species, the
Cynhyæna pinctus, which is found from Caffraria to Abyssinnia. It is nearly of the size of the
wolf, but of inferior weight and strength. Its dentition is that of the dog, but it is distinguished
by having only four toes on each foot. The jaws are large and the legs long; the colors are
brown, yellow, and white, circularly disposed in patches, so as to have a very mottled appearance-
these markings varying in different individuals. This animal was at first supposed to be a hyena,
and was consequently called the Painted Hyena : its common appellation is the HYENA-Dog, it
having a closer semblance to the canine species than to any other. It hunts the antelope and

188
VERTEBRATA.
REUNAN KENYINY
THE HYENA-DOG.
other quadrupeds in large packs, which are led by a chief. These are daring and ferocious, and
will sometimes attack mankind.
Genus DOG, Canis, or Canis familiaris. In many respects, this is the most remarkable
brute in the whole circle of animated nature. Endowed with speed, endurance, sagacity, acute
senses and instincts often surpassing reason, he at the same time seeks the society of man, and
with affecting docility and attachment, places at his disposal all those high faculties which nature
has bestowed upon him. He follows man to every quarter of the globe; he lives in his house ;
feeds from his master's table, or even from his hand; enters into his feelings, studies his coun-
tenance, and joys or sorrows with him in active sympathy. He romps with him in the yard,
strolls with him over the fields, hunts for him, fights for him, and, if need be, dies for him. So
intimate is this alliance that the dog becomes impressed with his master's character, and at last
reflects his manners: you can generally judge of the lord of the manor by the reception which
his dog gives you at the gate. The dog partakes of man's social condition : in civilized society,
he is civilized; among savages, he also is a savage. So striking are these effects of domestication,
that Landseer, the celebrated painter of animals, has happily and humorously represented almost
every class of society by groups of dogs. The character of this animal is so beautifully drawn by
Buffon, that we cannot do better than give the substance of it:
“The dog, independently of the beauty of his form, his vivacity, force, and swiftness, is
possessed of all those internal qualifications that can conciliate the affections of man, and make
the tyrant a protector. A natural share of courage, an angry and ferocious disposition, renders
the dog in its savage state a formidable enemy to all other animals : but these readily give
way to very different qualities in the domestic dog, whose only ambition seems the desire to
please : he is seen to come crouching along, to lay his force, his courage, and all his useful
talents at the feet of his master; he waits his orders, to which he pays implicit obedience; he
consults his looks, and a single glance is sufficient to put him in motion ; he is more faithful
even than the most boasted among men; he is constant in his affections, friendly without
interest, and grateful for the slightest favors: much more mindful of benefits received than
injuries offered, he is not driven off by unkindness; he still continues humble, submissive, and
imploring, his only hope to be serviceable, his only terror to displease. He licks the hand
that has been just lifted to strike him, and at last disarms resentment by submissive perseverance.
“ More docile than man, more obedient than any other animal, he is not only instructed in a
short time, but he also conforms to the dispositions and the manners of those who command
him. He takes his tone from the house he inhabits; like the rest of the domestics, he is
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
189
YOU ATT
ON THE
DOG
REDMAN-KENNY.ENGRS.N.Y."
CIVILIZED DOGS, AFTER THE MANNER OF LANDSEER. (See opposite page.)
disdainful among the great, and churlish among clowns. Always assiduous in serving tis
master, and only a friend to his friends, he is indifferent to all the rest, and declares himself
openly against such as seem dependent like himself. He knows a beggar by his clothes, by his
voice, or his gestures, and forbids his approach. When at night the guard of the house is
committed to his care, he seems proud of the charge ; he continues a watchful sentinel, he goes
his rounds, scents strangers at a distance, and gives them warning of his being on duty. If they
attempt to break in upon his territories, he becomes more fierce, flies at them, threatens, fights,
and either conquers alone, or alarms those who have most interest in coming to his assistance;
however, when he has conquered, he quietly reposes upon the spoil, and abstains from what he
has deterred others from abusing ; thus giving us lessons of courage, temperance, and fidelity.”
The importance of this animal to man is well indicated by Burchell in his Travels in Africa :
“Our pack of dogs," he says, consisted of about five-and-twenty of various sorts and sizes.
This variety, though not altogether intentional, as I was obliged to take any that could be
procured, was of the greatest service in such an expedition, as I observed that some gave notice
of danger in one way, and others in another. Some were more disposed to watch against men,
and others against wild beasts ; some discovered an enemy by their quickness of hearing, others
by that of scent; some had speed in pursuing game; some were useful only for their vigilance ;
and others for their courage in holding ferocious animals at bay. So large a pack was not
indeed maintained without adding greatly to our care and trouble in supplying them with

190
VERTEBRATA.
meat and water, for it was sometimes difficult to procure for them enough of the latter; but
their services were invaluable, often contributing to our safety, and always to our case, by their
constant vigilance, as we felt a confidence that no danger could approach us at night without
being announced by their barking.
“No circumstances could render the value and fidelity of these animals so conspicuous and
sensible as a journey through regions which, abounding in wild beasts of almost every class, gave
continual opportunities of witnessing the strong contrast in their habits, between the ferocious
beasts of
prey which fly at the approach of man, and these kind but too often injured companions
of the human race. Many times, when we have been traveling over plains where those have fled
the moment we appeared in sight, have I turned my eyes toward my dogs to admire their
attachment, and have felt a grateful affection toward them for preferring our society to the liberty
of other quadrupeds. Often, in the middle of the night, when all my people have been fast
asleep around the fire, have I stood to contemplate these faithful animals lying by their side, and
have learned to esteem them for their social esteem of mankind. When wandering over pathless
deserts, oppressed with vexation and distress at the conduct of my own men, I have turned to
these as my only friends, and felt how much inferior to them was man when actuated only by
selfish views.
“The familiarity which subsists between this animal and our own race is so common to almost
every country of the globe, that any remark upon it must seem superfluous; but I cannot avoid
believing that it is the universality of the fact which prevents the greater part of mankind from
reflecting duly on the subject. While almost every other quadruped fears man as its most
formidable enemy, here is one which regards him as his companion and follows him as his
friend. We must not mistake the nature of the case: it is not because we train him to our use,
and have made choice of him in preference to other animals, but because this particular
species feels a natural desire to be useful to man, and, from spontaneous impulse, attaches itself to
him. Were it not so, we should see in various countries an equal familiarity with various other
quadrupeds, according to the habits, the taste, or the caprice of different nations. But everywhere
it is the dog only that takes delight in associating with us in sharing our abode; he is even jealous
that our attention should be bestowed on him alone; it is he who knows us personally, watches
for us, and warns us of danger. It is impossible for the naturalist, when taking a survey of the
whole animal creation, not to feel a conviction that this friendship between two creatures so
different from each other must be the result of the laws of nature; nor can the humane and
feeling mind avoid the belief, that kindness to those animals from which he derives continued
and essential assistance, is part of his moral duty.”
It
may be truly said that the dog is the only animal capable of disinterested affection. The
horse neighs that he may be fed; he enjoys the chase and feels emulation, and thus shares in
some of our pleasures : but the dog desires to follow us, and be useful to us as a friend. He freely
sacrifices his appetite and his liberty for our benefit. Queen Mary's lap-dog followed her to the
scaffold, caressed the body when the head was cut off, and when forcibly withdrawn, pined away
and died. The dog is as true in his affections in the midst of poverty as in abundance. He
dines as cheerfully and thankfully on a bone with his pauper master, as on the ruddy roast beef
of the lord of the manor. The instance of a cur that followed the body of his master, a poor
tailor, to the churchyard of St. Olave, in London, and, refusing to be comforted, after a few weeks
wasted away and perished, is familiar to all readers. There are innumerable instances of this
sort. One of them, that of a young man who lost his life by falling from one of the precipices of
the Helvellyn Mountains, and who for three months was guarded by his faithful dog—wasted at
last to a skeleton-has been put into immortal verse by Scott:
"I climb'd the dark brow of the mighty Helvellyn;
Lakes and mountains beneath me gleam'd misty and wide;
All was still, save by fits, where the eagle was yelling,
And starting around me the echoes replied.
On the right, Striden-edge round the Red-tarn was bending,
And Cachedicam its left verge was defending,
One huge nameless rock in the front was ascending,
When I mark'd the sad spot where the wanderer died.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA191
.
.
"Dark green was the spot 'mid the brown mountain heather,
Where the Pilgrim of Nature lay stretch'd in decay,
Like the corpse of an outcast abandon'd to weather,
Till the mountain winds wasted the tenantless clay.
Nor yet quite deserted, though lonely extended,
For faithful in death, his mute favorite attended,
The much-loved remains of her master defended,
And chased the hill fox and the raven away.
"How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber?
When the wind waved his garments, how oft didst thou start?
How many long days and long weeks didst thou number,
Ere he faded before thee, the friend of thy heart?”
The general zoological characteristics of this remarkable and interesting species are so familiar
that we need only describe them in outline. They are plantigrade, and have non-retractile claws-
five on the fore-feet, and four on the hinder ones. They follow either by sight or scent, and
hunt singly, or in packs, according to the strength of the prey. The period of gestation in all is
sixty-three days; the number of young at a birth, from four to six: all are born blind. The age
to which they live varies from six to twenty years. These are permanent and universal attributes;
but, in respect to color, form, size, nature of the hair, and the instincts and aptitudes, there is an
almost endless variety. There are some differences of a more radical nature, as in the number
of the caudal vertebræ, some having more and some less. Some dogs, also, have five toes on the
hinder feet. The dentition is also variable in some wild varieties.
Like man himself, the dog is divided into many races, and it is curious that the same doubts
which have arisen as to the specific unity of mankind, also exist as to this animal. Whether all
dogs sprung from one Adam, or from many, is as much a matter of dispute as whether all the
diverse members of the human family descended from the Gardener of Eden, or each race from
some unnamed and nameless progenitor.
The prevailing opinion has been, that all the breeds of domestic dogs are descended from one
original stock, and that the variations which exist are the result of difference of climate and
condition ; but what that original stock was or is, has not been agreed upon. Some persons, and
among them several able naturalists, consider the wolf as the progenitor of the dog, or, in other
words, they hold that the dog is only a tamed and educated wolf. The reasons for this are
various. In the first place, it is found that the osteology of the two is nearly the same, though
the skull of the wolf is thicker and more arched; the period of gestation and the relative length
of the intestines are identical; many of their habits and instincts are similar ; the dog and the
wolf breed together, and their offspring is prolific, though to what extent is not ascertained. When
the dog becomes wild, he grows savage and wolfish in his nature; and many wild dogs resemble
the wolf in appearance. The wolf, though generally fierce and savage, can be rendered gentle
and affectionate to man, as has been shown in several instances. A she-wolf in the Zoological
Gardens of London loved to be noticed by visitors, and she was so anxious to show her
had been littered in the menagerie—and have them caressed, that she absolutely killed them by
rubbing them against the bars of the cage.
These facts, it must be admitted, make a strong case; yet they are opposed by other facts even
more conclusive. In the first place, the dog appears in history—as we shall have occasion to
notice hereafter—from the earliest ages as a distinct species, and bearing generally his present
character. Several varieties, known at the present day, are distinctly represented in the
monuments of ancient Egypt. In that country, as well as in Ethiopia, at the remotest periods,
the dog had already been elevated to a kind of apotheosis. All early traditions
All early traditions represent the dog
and wolf as the very opposites of each other—one the friend and ally of man, the other as an
enemy and a spoiler.
All this may be considered somewhat remote and speculative; but there are many other facts
which go to the same point. The marked difference in temper between the two races—in all
times and under all circumstances-must be considered as a weighty argument against identity of
species. The dog, too, is found in almost all countries and climates, while the wolf is comparatively
pups—which

192
VERTEBRATA.
limited in his range. The wild or semi-savage dogs, as the Esquimaux, for instance, are, with few
exceptions, afraid of wolves, and fly from them in terror, as if governed by an instinctive aversion.
There is a permanent and universal difference in the manner of carrying the tail, that of the dog
being curled more or less upward and over the back, while that of the wolf is uniformly low and
dragging. The dog of every variety shows a natural disposition to guard property, either his
own or that of his master; he is an instinctive sentinel on guard, especially at night-a trait of
character not possessed by the wolf.
It is well known that the form of the pupil of the eye is a characteristic of species; in the horse
it is oval, in the cat linear, in the dog and wolf it is round. This fact has been appealed to as
evidence of the identity of the two animals. But the reply is, that man, and many other crea-
tures, have the round pupil. This, therefore, affords no proof. Two things may, however, be as-
serted, which seem to go far to settle this question. The eye of the wolf is oblique, and always
remains so. There are many races of wild dogs, none of which have ever acquired this characteristic.
In fact, as no wolf, to our knowledge, has ever become a dog, so no dog has ever become a wolf.
The difficulty, not to say impossibility, of considering the wolf as the parent of the dog, has led
to other suggestions; some hold the jackal to be the progenitor of the dog race, while others
consider this animal to be the civilized dog relapsed into barbarism.
As these are mere
conjectures without proofs, they may safely be dismissed as unworthy of serious consideration. It
is a fact well known, that the jackal has a natural odor which is very offensive, and must ever
have prevented him from becoming the favorite of man.
Some have imagined the dog to be the offspring of the fox, but this is contradicted by the fact
that the pupil of the eye—which, as before remarked, is a permanent and characteristic index to
species—is linear and vertical in the fox as in the cat. It may be further added on this point,
that, while the corpuscles of the blood of the dog—as in most other mammalia—are circular,
in the fox they are oval.
Another suggestion is, that the dog is a cross between two or more members of the family of
Canida, as between a wolf and jackal, or the jackal and fox, or perhaps the result of a wider
mixture of races and varieties. It is easy to see that all this is contrary to the analogy of nature,
which, although it presents us with permanent varieties—as is exemplified in various animals, and
the dog himself-never creates a prominent and permanent type, having the character of a
new species, by means of a mixture of other species. We may add that the fact already stated, of
the existence of races of wild dogs, renders any such explanation alike unnecessary and absurd.
It matters not whether these races are descendants of an original stock that has remained in their
normal state from the beginning, or whether they are the offspring of domesticated breeds,
relapsed into savageness: the inference is the same. Just as we know that the wild horse of
South America and Texas had a horse for his father-even though he may have been a
domesticated animal—so we may infer that the wild dogs of India had dogs for their parents.
In order to understand the full force of this reasoning, let us turn to the accounts which
travelers give us of these animals. The dog of the Deccan, called by the Mahrattas Kolsun, is
also found in Nepaul, where it is called Buansu. Its head is elongated and compressed, its nose
sharp, its eyes oblique, the pupils round, their irides brown. The ears are long, erect, and somewhat
rounded at the top, and the limbs are large and strong. It is of a rufous brown color, and hunts
deer, hogs, and other animals in packs of fifty to sixty. It has a coarse, ill-natured expression, but
it is not identical with the wolf; it has not even a very close resemblance either to the wolf, fox,
or jackal. Though it has peculiarities of construction, which we shall hereafter notice, no one,
on seeing it, would hesitate for a moment to say it was a dog, and nothing else. Nor is this the
only race of wild dogs; there are many others, more or less resembling this, and whether we
consider them as original races, or as descendants of breeds broken loose from domesticity, the
inference is the same—that the dog is a permanent and independent type, and not the mere hybrid
of other species. If there is any admissible qualification of this conclusion, we conceive it to be
this and only this: there may be, and probably are, certain dogs in existence, which have some
foreign blood in their veins, either from crossings of the wolf, or fox, or jackal, or a part, or all
together. The characters of such animals, in particular instances, may be more or less tinged by

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
193
WW2
sw.
THE CUON, OR BUANSU.
these adventitious mixtures; but we do not believe that any of the established and recognized
breeds of dogs are the result of such a process. There is, no doubt, a tendency to branching
out into varieties, implanted by nature as well in dogs as other animals, and these varieties,
running in the grooves Providence has furnished for them, become fixed and permanent. “It
must be observed,” says Prichard, speaking of the climatic differences in the hair of dogs, “ that
these as well as other traits in the breed of dogs have in the first place a relation to climate, but
have yet the character of permanent varieties, which remain for generations constant and unde-
viating. The varieties of the dog tribe have become permanent varieties."
But now arises another question : admitting that the dog is an original and distinct race, are
all dogs of the same species ? Are the silken lap-dog and the Cuban blood-hound of the same
parentage? Are the fox-hound that follows by scent, and the greyhound that follows by sight;
the sly lurcher and the frank Newfoundland dog ; the submissive spaniel and the gruff mastiff ;
the terrier that hunts rats, and the bull-dog that pinions a bull; the Dalmatian that struts behind
a coach, and the cur that turns up his nose at all the world as he trudges behind a tinker ;-are
these all of one species? Can we, by any process, conceive the grand and generous ally of the
monks of St. Bernard to be of the same race as the impudent and spiteful pug that lives only to
snap at every stranger's heels? Can we conceive the sleek, long-legged, graceful Italian grey-
hound and the vulgar, woolly poodle to be brothers ?
These questions have been often put and variously answered. The general conclusion is, alike
by those who find the parentage of the dog in the wolf and those who assert its originality, that
all the kinds of dogs are of one descent and one species. The diversities which we see in form,
size, color, instincts, and aptitudes, and even the differences of structure already alluded to, are
all held to be but the results of that principle of variation and development which nature has
provided for in many other instances, through the influence of climate and condition.
VOL. I.-25

194
VERTEBRATA.
We have had occasion to illustrate this principle in a former part of this work (p. 42) in its
application to other animals, the hog, sheep, ox, goat, &c. It is quite as well authenticated
in regard to dogs. The fierce, unconquerable bull-dog, when transported to India, in a few
years is altered in form; he loses his courage and ferocity, and becomes a perfect coward.
Prichard says:
" It appears that barking is an acquired, hereditary instinct; it has become natural to domesti-
cated dogs and young whelps to learn to bark, even when separated at birth from their parents.
It has been conjectured that barking originated in an attempt to imitate the human voice;
however that may be, wild dogs do not bark. There are numerous troops of wild dogs in South
America, principally in the Pampas. There are also in the Antilles, and in the isles on the
coasts of Chili, similar breeds. These, in recovering their liberty, have lost the habit of
barking; like other uncultivated breeds of dogs, they only howl. It is known that the two dogs
brought by Mackenzie to England from the western parts of America, could never bark, and
continued to utter their habitual howl; but a whelp bred from them in Europe learned to bark.
It has often been observed, that the dogs in the island of Juan Fernandez, the progeny of those
that were left there purposely by the Spaniards before Lord Anson's time, with the design of
exterminating the goats, were never known to bark. A curious observation of M. Poulin is, that
the cats in South America have in like manner lost those miaulemens incommodes' which are
so often heard during the hours of night in many parts of Europe.” It would be easy to add
many other similar proofs of the plastic nature of dogs, under the influences of climate and
condition.
Our conclusion as to the unity and independence of species, in the race of dogs, having the
greatest weight of opinion and authority in its favor, as well as the greatest weight of fact and
argument, may, we think, be safely adopted, especially as it probably will ever remain impossible
to attain absolute certainty on this subject.
It is true that some persons have conjectured that there have been various creations of dogs,
of which the several existing breeds are the descendants; but, as there is no evidence whatever
of such a fact, and as this furnishes no better explanation of the phenomena which are under
discussion than the well-established principles and facts just alluded to, it is hardly worthy of
serious consideration.
We are, however, unwilling to close this topic without one final suggestion-partaking as much
of feeling, perhaps, as argument—but which is not without its significance. From the earliest
periods, as we have already suggested, in which history presents civilized man to our view, we
find the dog and the wolf—the former as his friend, and the latter as his enemy; the first as
sagacious, faithful, and valuable,—the latter as ferocious, hateful, and destructive, as at the present
day. Within the first thousand years after the Deluge, we find that divine honors were paid to
the dog, evidently on account of his admirable qualities; it is not possible, therefore, to imagine
him to be the descendant of an ignoble brute like the jackal or the fox, and still less of the
hostile and tameless wolf. It is true that most savage
animals
may, in a few cases, become
attached to their keepers—those who habitually feed and care for them—but in no other do we
find the slightest approach to those qualities which distinguish the dogs,—not as individuals, be
it remembered, but as a race. “Man," says Burns, “is the god of the dog : he knows no other.
See how he worships him! With what reverence he crouches at his feet: with what reverence
he looks up to him: with what delight he fawns upon him: with what cheerful alacrity he obeys
him!” Can this relation between man and the dog, beginning and continuing with our race,
from its infancy to the present time, be accidental? Is it not rather one of those deep and
beneficent provisions which exalt the contemplations of every reflecting and well-balanced mind,
in respect to the Creator?
But, as in the case of man, supposing the several tribes and nations to be of one species, we
still classify them into distinct groups, so with regard to dogs, they have been arranged into
races, according to their affinities.
The following is the classification, according to the development of the frontal sinus and the
cerebral cavity, or in other words, the power of scent and the degree of intelligence. It originated

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
195
REDMANN & KEUNY.ENGRS.N.Y
SPANIELS.
with F. Cuvier, and has been adopted by most naturalists. He reckoned three divisions of the
dog, as follows:
CLASSIFICATION OF DOGS.
I. Those having the head more or less elongated, and the parietal bones of the skull widest at
the base, and gradually approaching each other as they ascend, the condyles of the lower
jaw being on the same line with the upper molar teeth. The Danish dog, the dingo of Australia,
and the greyhound, with all its varieties, belong to this class.

196
VERTEBRATA.
II. The head moderately elongated, and the parietals diverging from each other for a certain
space as they rise upon the side of the head, enlarging the cerebral cavity and the frontal sinus.
To this class belong our most valuable dogs,—the spaniel, setter, poodle, pointer, barbet, beagle,
harrier, hound, Newfoundland dog, sheep-dog, wolf-dog, Esquimaux dog, &c.
III. The muzzle more or less shortened, the frontal sinus enlarged, and the cranium elevated,
and diminished in capacity. To this class belong the bull-dog, some of the terriers, the mastiff,
Iceland dog, little Danish dog, English dog, Turkish dog, and a great many others that might
very well be spared.
But this division is not adapted to the present state of knowledge on this subject; we shall
therefore offer a classification founded on that of Hamilton Smith, with modifications by Gervais
and others who have paid especial attention to the subject. This arrangement, however, will
only include the domesticated breeds; we shall therefore, in the first place, give a sketch of the
most remarkable untamed races.
WILD DOGS.
It is well known that in all countries, dogs occasionally break away from their accustomed
training and become wild. Several of these will associate and herd together, and thus breeds of
wild dogs, the offspring of domestic ones, are established. These multiply and increase according
to the nature of the country in which they are placed. In some of the forests of Germany,
among the mountains of the Pyrenees, on the northern shores of the Black Sea, and in various
parts of America, North and South, there are wild dogs thus descended from domestic ones. In
Asia and in Africa there are also much more numerous bands of wild dogs, many of which have
been known for ages, and being of a distinct and permanent character, some naturalists have sought
to find in them the origin of the domestic dog.
The Cuon, or Buansu, already mentioned, is the Wild DOG OF THE DECCAN, or Wild Dog
OF NEPAUL, the Canis primævus of Hodgson. This animal has some resemblance, in its form,
to both the wolf and the jackal; it is in size between the two; its cranium is most like that of the
latter. It has six pairs of molars above and below, with one pair of inferior tubercular molars.
The color is reddish brown, lighter toward the head, and of a shining blackish hue toward the tail.
It unites in packs, which hunt by night and day, following rather by scent than sight, and making
prey of hares, rabbits, antelopes, deer, and even buffaloes. They make great havoc among
the
game, and also destroy some ferocious beasts. While hunting, they have a cry distinct from
that of the wolf or jackal, and resembling that of the hound. They inhabit particularly that
part of Hindostan called the Deccan, and spread themselves northward to Nepaul, and southward
to the coast of Coromandel, occupying as well the plains as the mountains, sometimes even to the
verge of perpetual snow. They live in the ravines and crannies of rocks, and never burrow.
They are cunning and wary, and seldom permit themselves to be surprised by man. The old
dogs are insusceptible of domestication, but the young are readily tamed, and some have as much
docility as other dogs. Many of them are partially domesticated in the East, and are used for
hunting. They seem, however, to retain their savage and wild character in some degree, and
generally are unreliable. In hog-hunting, they are very useful,—the rude sport seeming to suit
their snarling and snappish natures. Mr. Hodgson, the English traveler and naturalist, had an
excellent opportunity of studying these animals, and he believed he had found in them the
original stock of the domestic dog: hence the scientific name he bestowed upon them, as given
above. This opinion is not considered valid, but the fact that these animals are neither wolves
nor jackals, but dogs, is fully authenticated.
There
are, in different parts of India, wild dogs which go under different names ; some of them
are mere varieties of the Buansu, and other mixed breeds of unknown races. Thus among the
Mahrattas, there is a kind called DHOLE, the Chryseus scylex of Hamilton Smith, which is
described as light, compact, and strong, and of the size of a small greyhound. The countenance
is lively, the eye brilliant, the hair of a bay color. They are harmless if unmolested, and look
upon man rather with curiosity than enmity. They run mute, except a low whimpering note.
Their speed is great, and they run down many of the larger and fiercer animals. Some of them
are killed in their conflicts with the tiger, the elk, and the wild boar.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA197
: : ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
.
The Pariau is the half-domesticated dog of the towns and villages in the East. He is tolerated,
but as an outcast: he belongs to no one, dares to enter no house, and goes roaming about and
picking up a living in any way he can. He is of a mongrel breed, but yet has some of the
amiable qualities of his civilized relatives. Captain Williamson tells us that, in some of the
ditches of the Carnatic forts, alligators are purposely kept, and all the pariah dogs found in the
forts are thrown into them as provision for these monsters. Some persons who have kept tigers
in cages have adopted the same means of supply for their royal captives, putting the poor
pariah through an aperture made for the purpose in the cage; and they justify themselves by
asserting that they thus get rid of a troublesome breed of curs, most of which are unappropriated,
and which, being numerous, are very annoying to passengers, often wantonly biting them, and
raising a yelling noise at night, that sets all attempts to rest at defiance.
It does not always happen, however, that the tiger kills the pariah put into his cage. “I
knew an instance,” says Captain Williamson, “ of one that was destined for the tiger's daily meal,
standing on the defensive in a manner that completely astonished both the tiger and the spectator.
He crept into a corner, and whenever the tiger approached, seized him by the lip or the neck,
making him roar most piteously. The tiger, however, impelled by hunger—for all supply of food
was purposely withheld—would renew the attack. The result was ever the same. At length the
tiger began to treat the dog with more deference, and not only allowed him to partake of the
mess of rice and milk furnished daily for his subsistence, but even refrained from any attempt to
disturb him. The two animals at length became reconciled to each other, and a strong attach-
ment was formed between them. The dog was then allowed ingress and egress through the
aperture; and, considering the cage as his own, he left it and returned to it just as he thought
proper. When the tiger died, he moaned the loss of his companion for a considerable period."
It is a curious fact, illustrative of the influence of climate, that in the East, all dogs of European
breed become, after every successive generation, more and more similar to the pariah or indi-
genous dog of that country. The hounds are the most rapid in their decline, and, except in the
form of their ears, they are very much like many of the village curs. Greyhounds and pointers
also rapidly decline, although with occasional exceptions. Spaniels and terriers deteriorate less,
and spaniels of eight or nine generations, and without a cross from Europe, are not only as good
as, but far more beautiful than, their ancestors.
In Egypt, Constantinople, and throughout the whole of the East, there are in every village,
troops of wandering dogs which belong to no particular person. Each troop has its own quarter of
the place; and if one wanders into a part which does not belong to him, its canine inhabitants
unite together and chase him out. At the Cape of Good Hope there are many dogs, half-starved.
On going from home, the natives induce two or more of these animals to accompany them and
warn them of the approach of any ferocious animal. If any of the jackals come near the walls
of the town during the night, uttering their piercing cries, the dogs sally out at the signal,
and, uniting together, put the jackals to speedy flight.
A wild variety of the pariah exists in Sumatra. It is described by Cuvier as “possessing the
countenance of a fox, the eyes oblique, the ears rounded and hairy, the muzzle of a foxy-brown
color, the tail bushy and pendulous, very lively, running with the head lifted high, and the ears
straight." This animal can scarcely be rendered tractable, and even when he is apparently
tamed, can rarely be depended upon.
As we proceed through the Indian Archipelago, toward Australasia, we skirt the coast of Java.
Every Javanese of rank has large packs of dogs with which he hunts the muntjak, the deer of
that country. These are the indigenous breed of the island, —the body lank, the ears erect,
ferocious in their disposition, and with very little attachment to their masters.
Egypt and Nubia present us with the first historical records of the dog ; here it was anciently
prized and honored on account of its noble qualities, but the aversion of the Jews has passed to
the moderns, and at the present day it is held in general contempt and aversion not only through-
out these countries, but other parts of Africa. Here, as in India, there are troops of half-wild,
outcast dogs in the towns and villages, scouring the streets for offal, and occasionally sweeping in
bands over the country in search of prey. The name of this species in Egypt is Deab; he is

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VERTEBRATA.
of considerable size, with a round muzzle, large head, small, erect ears, and long, hairy tail; he is
spotted with black, white, and yellow, and has a fierce, wolfish aspect.
In Nubia there is a smaller dog of the same kind, which never burrows. It lives on small
animals and birds, and rarely enters any of the towns. A similar dog inhabits the neighbor-
hood of the Cape, and particularly the Karroo or Wilderness. It is smaller than either of the
others, and lives among bushes or under prominent rocks. Others, although not identified with
the jackal, yet, associating with him, inhabit the uplands of Gambia and Senegal.
On the Gold Coast the dog is used and prized as an article of food. He is fattened and
driven to market as the European drives his sheep and hogs. The dog is even more valued than
the sheep for human subsistence, and is deemed the greatest luxury that can be placed even on
the royal table.
In Loango, or Lower Guinea, there are wild dogs which hunt in large packs; they fearlessly
attack even the elephant, and generally destroy him. In the neighborhood of the Cape, the
country is nearly cleared of wild beasts; but in Cape Town, as we have stated, there are a great
number of lean and miserable dogs, who howl about the streets at night, quitting their dens and
lurking-places, in quest of offal. Not long ago, the wolves and hyenas used to descend and dis-
pute the spoil with these dogs, while the town resounded with their hideous howlings all the
night long
The American dogs, whether wild or domestic, are supposed to be descendants of European
or Asiatic breeds. The Newfoundland dog, the Labrador dog, the Esquimaux dog, the Hare
Indian dog, are races which originated in the northern parts of the continent, probably at no very
remote date, from foreign varieties. When America was discovered, the Indians of both divisions
of the continent were already in possession of dogs in a half-tamed state, doubtless of nearly the
same breeds as those which their descendants still possess. A small species of dog called Alco,
in two varieties—one the size of a Guinea-pig, and the other larger—was found among the Mex-
icans and Peruvians, but it appears to have become extinct. Dog's were also found among
the
Indians of the Caribbean Isles.
The wild dogs of America at the present day are not numerous, except in some parts of South
America, where they exist in considerable numbers. These appear to be of various breeds, though
most of them are of the race called Cayotte, which has a resemblance to the wolf, and has often
been described as a species of that animal. The Indians, as well in North as South America, have
numerous dogs, mostly derived from the wild breeds. In Mexico and Colombia great numbers of
similar dogs are used for the purpose of guarding the droves of horses and herds of cattle—one
planter often having many thousands of these creatures. We are told by Dr. Lewis in his
excellent edition of “Youаtt on the Dog," that “there is a diminutive species of dog running wild,
and burrowing in the ground like rabbits, in the neighborhood of Santa Fe and Chihuahua. They
are of every variety of hue, and resort to their burrows whenever disturbed in their natural
haunts. What they subsist on it is difficult to say, as they are too harmless and insignificant to
attack any other animal beyond a mouse or a snail. They are represented as being very
difficult to tame, but when domesticated show no disposition to return to their former mode of
life. The lady of the Mexican Minister, when in this city, had one of these dogs as a boudoir
pet; it was lively, and barked quite fiercely. We have not been able to ascertain whether they
bark in their natural state."
The celebrated mastiffs of Thibet, the dingo of Australia, and the Esquimaux dog, are semi-
civilized races, and will be noticed with the domesticated breeds.
PRELIMINARY HISTORY OF DOGS.
The classification of the various breeds of dogs we have to propose, like every other, will
necessarily be defective, from the want of information as to the races of antiquity, and even some
of the existing varieties. We know, indeed, from the sculptures and paintings of ancient Egypt,
that in the early ages the people of that country had various breeds of dogs, and some of them
were favorites. In these representations we find hounds and greyhounds, pet domestic dogs,
turnspits, watch-dogs, and hunting-dogs. Some kinds were regarded with religious veneration,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
199
as their mummies have been found. The Greeks and Romans had watch-dogs, hounds, grey-
hounds, and spaniels. The latter people were accustomed to send to Britain for the native
mastiff of that country. One of the mosaics found at Pompeii represented a dog fastened by a
chain, with an inscription, “ Cave canem !”. Beware of the dog!"
The Israelites appear to have regarded the dog with peculiar abhorrence as an unclean animal,
perhaps because of the preference given to it by the Egyptians. In this aversion they have been
followed by the Mohammedans. In the Scriptures there are abundant allusions to the dog ;
as, for example, Exodus, xxii. 31; 1 Kings, xxi. 19 and 23; 2 Kings, ix. 36, and elsewhere. The
passages like the following, “ In the place where the dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall dogs
lick thy blood, even thine;" “ The dogs shall eat Jezebel, by the wall of Jezreel;" bring to mind
>
the description of Byron, who had traveled in the East, and was familiar with the habits of those
masterless dogs that “wander up and down for meat, and grudge if they be not satisfied :"
66
“He saw the lean dogs beneath the wall,
Hold o'er the dead their carnival;
Gorging and growling in carcass and limb,
They were too busy to bark at him.
From a Tartar's skull they had stripp'd the flesh,
As ye peel the fig when the fruit is fresh:
And their white tusks crunch'd o'er the whiter skull,
As it slipp'd through their jaws when their edge grew dull:
As they lazily munch'd the bones of the dead,
As they scarce could rise from the spot where they fed;
So well had they broken a lingering fast,
With those who had fallen for that night's repast."
The aversion of the Israelites to the dog, so far back as the time of the Prophets, is strangely
contrasted with the respect entertained for it in Greece. The story of Ulysses and his dog
furnishes a striking illustration of this. Twenty years had passed since Argus, the favorite dog
of Ulysses, had been parted from his master. The monarch at length wended his way home-
ward, and, disguised as a beggar, for his life would have been sacrificed had he been known,
stood at the entrance of his palace door. There he met with an old dependent who had formerly
served him with fidelity, and was yet faithful to his memory; but age and hardship and care, and
the disguise which he now wore, had so altered the wanderer, that the good Eumæus had not the
most distant suspicion with whom he was conversing; but-
“Near to the gates, conferring as they drew,
Argus the dog his ancient master knew,
And, not unconscious of the voice and tread,
Lifts to the sound his ears, and rears his head.
He knew his lord, he knew, and strove to meet;
In vain he strove to crawl and kiss his feet:
Yet, all he could, his tail, his ears, his eyes,
Salute his master, and confess his joys."
The histories of Greece and Rome, as well as the vestiges of their arts of design, abundantly
prove that the dog was as much the attached friend and favorite companion of man in the
days of their highest civilization, as he is at the present time among refined and enlightened
nations. In all ages he seems to have been used very much as now, for the purposes of the
chase, as the playmate of children, the pet of the fair; as the guard of the household at night,
the protector of the person by day. It is wonderful to consider the range of useful and agreeable
qualities in this species : the fine scent, the admirable speed, the indomitable courage, the
amazing strength of some; the surpassing instincts, the playful humor, the winning graces of
others; the quick intelligence, loving friendship, and unfailing fidelity of all. In this country
we are apt to consider the dog almost exclusively in his ministrations to our pleasures and
pastimes. In many parts of Europe-hitched to a small cart—he is the patient and profit-
able drudge of the poorer classes. Even in our cities, we may see him frequently brought into
this service by the ash-man, patiently standing at his post until the load is ready, and then
tugging at the draft like a very horse.

200
VERTEBRATA.
There is still another use of the dog, which a regard to the taste of our readers would naturally
lead us to omit, but truth compels us to state that this animal is used in some countries as a
luxury for the table. This practice is not of modern origin. Many of the Greek and Roman
epicures were fond of the flesh of the dog. Galen speaks of it in the strongest terms of praise.
Hippocrates says that the meat of old dogs is of a warm and dry quality, giving strength to the
eater. Ananias, the poet, speaks of dog's flesh mixed with that of the hare and fox. Virgil
recommends that the fatted dog should be served up with whey or butter; and Dioscorides, the
physician, says that dogs should be fed on the whey that remains after the making of cheese.
It is not surprising that an animal whose flesh was thus regarded as delicious for food
and of powerful hygienic virtues, should be esteemed an acceptable offering to the gods. Accord-
ingly, we find that dogs were sacrificed at certain periods by the Greeks and Romans to almost
all their deities, and particularly to Mars, Pluto, and Pan; to Minerva, Proserpine, and Lucina ;
and also to the Moon, because the dog, by his barking, dispelled all charms and spells, and
frightened away all specters and apparitions. The Greeks immolated many dogs in honor of
Hecate, because by their baying the phantoms of the lower world were evoked. A great num-
ber of dogs were also destroyed in Samothrace in honor of the same goddess. Dogs were
periodically sacrificed in February, and also in April and in May; also to the goddess Rubigo,
who presided over the corn, and the Bona Dea, whose mysterious rites were performed on Mount
Aventine. The dog Cerberus was supposed to be watching at the feet of Pluto, and a dog and a
youth were periodically sacrificed to that deity. The night when the Capitol had nearly been
destroyed was annually celebrated by the cruel scourging of a dog in the principal public places,
even to the death of the animal.
These habits of the ancients naturally passed to the modern nations of Europe, modified,
however, by the state of manners. Before Christianity was established among the Danes, on
every
ninth year, at the winter solstice, a monstrous sacrifice of ninety-nine dogs was offered.
In Sweden the sacrifice was still worse. On each of nine successive days, ninety-nine dogs were
destroyed. This sacrifice of the dog, however, gave way to one more horrible. On every ninth
year, ninety-nine human victims were immolated, and the sons of the reigning tyrant among the
rest, in order that the life of the monarch might be prolonged !
The use of the dog for food exists extensively at the present day. We have already spoken of
the dogs of Loango, fattened for the shambles. Among the Chinese, dog meat is as well estab-
lished in the markets as mutton. All the American Indians feed on dogs, as opportunity or
occasion offers. Many civilized men, especially voyagers and travelers in the Arctic regions,
prompted by hunger, have made their meal on this animal. Some of them, in their narratives,
speak of roast-dog with a gusto that veal or venison could hardly provoke.
We now proceed with our classification of dogs, and a brief description of the most remarkable
varieties :
DIVISION 1.—THE GREYHOUND AND ITS KINDRED.
The GREYHOUND : C. familiaris leporarius.—Of this there is a great variety, all characterized
by a small head, slender limbs, and a gaunt form. An old description says:
“A greyhounde should be headed lyke a snake,
Tayled lyke a ratte,
And neckyd lyke a drake,
Syded like a teme,
Fotyd lyke a cat,
And chyned like a bream."
In hunting, greyhounds usually follow by sight, and net by scent. Their name does not indi-
cate their color, as they are of various complexions. They are not of the highest order of intelli-
gence, nor are they distinguished by great attachment to their masters; but many of them are
favorites, some for their swiftness in the chase, and others for the extreme elegance of their shape.
This breed is mentioned so early as the time of Ovid :
" As when th' impatient greyhound, slipp'd from far,
Bounds o'er the glade to course the fearful hare,
She in her speed does all her safety lay,
And he with double speed pursues the prey;
O'erruns her at the sitting turn, but licks

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
201
His chaps in vain, yet blows upon the flix;
She seeks the shelter which the covert gives,
And, gaining it, she doubts if yet she lives."
The English, Scotch, and Irish greyhounds were all of Celtic derivation, and their cultivation
and character corresponded with the civilization of the different Celtic tribes. The dogs that were
exported from Britain to Rome were probably of this kind. Mr. Blaine gives an account of the
progress of these dogs, which seems evidently to be founded in truth : “Scotland, a northern
locality, has long been celebrated for its greyhounds, which are known to be large and wiry-
coated. They are probably types of the early Celtic greyhounds, which, yielding to the influ-
ences of a colder climate than that they came from, became coated with a thick and wiry
hair. In Ireland, as being milder in its climate, the frame expanded in bulk, and the coat,
although very similar was yet less crisped and wiry. In both localities, there being at that
time boars, wolves, and even bears, powerful dogs were required. In England these wild beasts
were more early exterminated, and consequently the same kind of dog was not retained, but, on
the contrary, was by culture made finer in coat, and of greater beauty in form.”
ZWOJTAR
FIDELITY
The greyhound appears to have been a favorite with the English gentry of the middle ages,
and this animal is frequently sculptured at the feet of his master on the old tombs. A late
VOL. 1.-26

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VERTEBRATA.
beautiful engraving, in allusion to the ancient reputation of the greyhound, pictures one of these
creatures watching at night by the grave of his friend. Probably this was a different variety
from the modern one. A touching memorial of one of the ancient breed exists in the well-
known ballad of Gelert, from which we give an extract:
THE GREYHOUND
« 'Twas only at Llewellyn's board
The faithful Gelert fed,
He watch'd, he served, he cheer'd his lord,
And sentinel'd his bed.
O'erturn'd his infant's bed he found,
The blood-stain'd covert rent;
And all around the walls and ground,
With recent blood besprent.
In sooth he was a peerless hound,
The gift of royal John;
But now no Gelert could be found,
And all the chase rode on.
He call'd his child-no voice replied-
He search'd with terror wild:
Blood! blood! he found on every side,
But nowhere found the child.
And now as over rocks and dells
The gallant chidings rise,
All Snowdon's craggy chaos yells
With many mingled cries.
"Hellhound! by thee my child's devour'd!'
The frantic father cried ;
And to the hilt his vengeful sword
He plunged in Gelert's side.
That day Llewellyn little loved
The chase of hart or hare;
And scant and small the booty proved,
For Gelert was not there.
His suppliant, as to earth he fell,
No pity could impart;
But still his Gelert's dying yell
Pass'd heavy o'er his heart.
Unpleased Llewellyn homeward hied;
When near the portal seat
His truant Gelert he espied,
Bounding his lord to greet.
Aroused by Gelert's dying yell,
Some slumberer waken'd nigh:
What words the parent's joy can tell
To hear his infant cry!
But when he gain'd the castle-door,
Aghast the chieftain stood ;
The hound was smear'd with gouts of gore-
His lips and fangs ran blood.
Conceal'd beneath a mangled heap
His hurried search had miss'd,
All glowing from his rosy sleep,
His cherub boy he kiss'd.
Llewellyn gazed with wild surprise :
Unused such looks to meet,
His favorite check'd his joyful guise,
And crouch'd and lick'd his feet.
Nor scratch had he, nor harm, nor dread,
But the same couch beneath
Lay a great wolf, all torn and dead,
Tremendous still in death.
Onward in haste Llewellyn pass'd,
And on went Gelert too;
And still where'er his eyes he cast,
Fresh blood-gouts shock'd his view.
Ah, what was then Llewellyn's pain !
For now the truth was clear:
The gallant hound the wolf had slain,
To save Llewellyn's heir."

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA203
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.
a
Gelert was no doubt a representative of the race of the English greyhound of his day; but the
breed has sadly degenerated. Their speed, however, is rather increased than diminished, for they
will outstrip a hare in a straight run, coursing for that animal being now the chief use of the
English greyhound. They are also more slight and symmetrical in form than in earlier days,
but not having been obliged to contend with the wolf, or the boar, or the stag, they have lost the
power for which they once were distinguished.
The HIGHLAND GREYHOUND, or DEER-Hound, is distinguished by his great size and his shaggy
hair, which almost covers his face. His limbs are muscular, his back arched, the tail long and
curved. He carries his head high, and has a fine, majestic appearance. He sometimes displays
ill-temper and ferocity toward persons not of his master's family.
The Irish GREYHOUND differs from the Scotch, in having shorter and finer hair, of a pale fawn-
color, and pendent ears. It is, compared with the Scotch dog, gentle and harmless, perhaps
indolent, until roused. It is larger than that animal, some of them being full four feet in
length, and proportionately muscular. On this account, and also on account of their deter-
mined spirit when roused, they were carefully preserved by some Irish gentlemen. They were
FLOSSING-BARPITT
THE SCOTCH GREYHOUND.
formerly used in hunting the wolf when that animal infested the forests of Ireland. Mr. Bell
says that the last person who kept the pure breed was Lord Altamont, who in 1780 had eight
of them.
The Scorch GREYHOUND resembles the English in form, but the frame is stronger and more
muscular, the hind-quarters more prominent, and the coat rougher and more shaggy : the speed,
however, is not so great.
The RUSSIAN GREYHOUND is principally distinguished by its dark-brown or iron-gray color, its
short semi-erect ears, its thin lank body, long but muscular legs, and soft thick hair. The hair of
its tail forms a spiral twist, or fan—he being thence called the Fan-tailed Dog—and as he runs,
having a very pleasing appearance. He hunts by scent as well as by sight, and therefore small

204
VERTEBRATA.
a
packs of this kind are sometimes kept, against which the wolf, or even the bear, would stand little
chance. He is principally used for the chase of the deer or the wolf, but occasionally follows
the hare. The deer is his principal object of pursuit, and for this he is well adapted. He is
met with in most parts of Russia, where his breed is carefully preserved by the nobility, with
whom coursing is a favorite diversion.
The GRECIAN GREYHOUND, whose image was occasionally sculptured on the friezes of the ancient
temples, still exists, and a specimen has lately been in the London Zoological Gardens. It greatly
resembles the English variety.
The TURKISH GREYHOUND is a small-sized hairless dog, or with only a few hairs on his tail. He
is never used in the field, and is bred only as a spoiled pet, yet not always spoiled, for anecdotes
are related of his inviolable attachment to his owner. One of them belonged to a Turkish Pacha
who was destroyed by the bowstring. He would not forsake the corpse, but laid himself down
by the body of his murdered master, and presently expired.
The PERSIAN GREYHOUND is a beautiful animal. He is more delicately formed than the English
breed; the ears are also more pendulous, and feathered almost as much as those of a King
Charles spaniel. Notwithstanding, however, his apparent slenderness and delicacy, he yields
not in courage, and scarcely in strength, to the British dog. There are few kennels in which he
is found in which he is not the master. In his native country he is not only used for hunting
the hare, but the antelope, the wild ass, and even the boar. The antelope is speedier than the
greyhound: therefore the hawk is given to him as an ally. The antelope is no sooner started
than the hawk is cast off, who, fluttering before the face of the deer, and sometimes darting his
talons into his head, disconcerts him, and enables the greyhound speedily to overtake and
master him.
The chase, however, in which the Persians chiefly delight, and for which these greyhounds are
mostly valued, is that of the ghoo-khan, or wild ass. This animal inhabits the mountainous dis-
tricts of Persia. He is swift, ferocious, and of great endurance, which, together with the nature
of the ground, renders this sport exceedingly dangerous. The hunter scarcely gives the animal
a fair chance, for relays of greyhounds are placed at various distances in the surrounding
country; so that, when those by which the animal is first started are tired, there are others to
continue the chase. Such, however, is the speed and endurance of the ghoo-khan, that it is
seldom fairly run down by the greyhounds, its death being usually achieved by the rifle of
some horseman. The Persians evince great skill and courage in this dangerous sport, galloping at
full speed, rifle in hand, up and down the most precipitous hills, and across ravines and mountain
streams, that might well daunt the boldest rider.
The Persian greyhound, carried to Hindostan,
is not always to be depended upon; but is said
to be apt to console itself by hunting its own
master, or any one else, when the game proves
too fleet or escapes into the cover.
The ITALIAN GREYHOUND possesses all the sym-
metry of the English or Persian one, on a small
scale. So far as beauty can recommend it, and,
generally speaking, good nature, it is deservedly
a favorite in the drawing-room; but, like the
large greyhound, it is inferior in intelligence.
It has no strong individual attachment, but
changes it with singular facility.
There are many other less noted varieties of
the greyhound, for which we have not space.
Nor shall we enter largely into a description of
the degenerate cousins of the breed, such as the vagabond street-dogs of Egypt, which claim to
have greyhound blood in their veins. We must not, however, omit the humble but intelligent
TURNSPIT, which, despite its vulgarity, appears to be, in part, of this gentle stock. In former days
THE TURNSPIT.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5, CARNIVORA.
205
it was an almost universal auxiliary in the kitchens of Europe, but modern improvements in the
machinery of cooking have, for the most part, taken away its vocation. It has a long body, with
short legs, the tail curled, the ears long and pendent, and the head large in proportion to the
body. There are some curious stories of the artfulness with which it often attempted to avoid
the tasks imposed upon it. The crooked-legged turnspit is a variety of this dog.
DIVISION II. —THE FRENCH MATIN AND ITS KINDRED.
The Matin—a French word, which literally signifies mastiff, but which is technically used to
mean the GREAT FRENCH CUR-Dog—is of a breed peculiarly esteemed in France, and was erro-
neously regarded by Buffon as the progenitor of the dog race. It is the C. f. laniarius of Linnæus,
and is a very superior animal, of middle size, robust frame, short hair, ears erect, though pendu-
lous at the tip, moderate powers of scent, great activity and endurance, with a somewhat fierce
disposition. He is brave even to ferocity, faithful to the death in guarding his master's property,
and an excellent tender of herds and flocks—in these respects rivaling the shepherd's dog. He
is used in the chase of the boar and the wolf, in which he displays admirable perseverance and
daring.
The DALMATIAN Dog, or GREAT DANISH Dog, claims a place here. The body is generally
white, marked with numerous small round black, or reddish-brown, spots. The Dalmatian is said
THE DALMATIAN DOG.
to be used in his native country for the chase, to be easily broken, and stanch to his work. He
has never been thus employed in England or America, but is chiefly distinguished by his fond-
ness for horses, and as being the frequent attendant on the carriages of the wealthy. To that his
office seems to be confined; for he rarely develops sufficient sense or sagacity to be useful in any
of the ordinary offices of the dog. Some of this breed are the tallest of the canine species in
existence. There is a smaller variety, called the LITTLE DALMATIAN Dog.
The CUBAN MASTIFF, or CUBAN BLOOD-Hound, is of this division. It was a native of Spain, and
was sent to the West Indies, where it was used by the Spanish invaders as an ally in their wars
with the revolted Indians. It acquired a thirst for human flesh, and became a powerful ally in
the dark and bloody history of the period. The priest Las Casas says that the populous island
of Cuba, in consequence of the destruction of the natives by means of these dogs, was rendered
almost a desert. The present breed is a strong and courageous race, of moderate intelli-
gence: they are used as watch-dogs, and are also in request for bull-fights and other Spanish
exhibitions.
According to Gervais, the primitive turnspit and some of the dogs of the Indians of America
were of this division.

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VERTEBRATA.
e
Giugno
THE CUBAN MASTIFF.
DIVISION III.-THE SHAGGY OR WOOLLY BREEDS.
This class embraces several of the most remarkable and interesting species. Their cars, origi-
nally straight and erect, have become somewhat pendulous in the more modified breeds. They
are frequently of considerable height, and in their habits are active, laborious, and intelligent.
They are natives of the countries approaching the Arctic circle.
mume
TIIL ST. BERNARD DOG.
The Mount St. BERNARD Dog, often called the ALPINE SPANIEL, C. f. montanus, is one
of the most celebrated of this division. It is almost peculiar to the Alps, and to the district be-
tween Switzerland and Savoy. The passes over these mountains are exceedingly dangerous from
their steepness and narrowness. A precipice of many hundred feet is often found on one side,
and perpendicular rocks on the other, while the path is glazed with frozen snow or ice. In many
places the path is overhung with huge masses of frozen snow, which occasionally loosen and fall,
when the dreadful storms peculiar to these regions suddenly come on, and form an insurmount-
able barrier, or sweep away or bury the unfortunate traveler. Should he escape these dangers,
the road is now become trackless, and he wanders amid the dreary solitudes until night overtakes

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA. .
207
him; and then, when he pauses from fatigue or uncertainty with regard to the path he should
pursue, his limbs are speedily benumbed. Fatal slumbers, which he cannot shake off, steal upon
him, and he crouches under some ledge, and sleeps to wake no more. The snow drifts on. It is
almost continually falling, and he is soon concealed from all human help.
On the top of Mount St. Bernard, and near one of the most dangerous of these passes, is a con-
vent, in which is preserved a breed of large dogs trained to search for the benighted and frozen
wanderer. Every night, and particularly when the wind blows tempestuously, some of these
dogs are sent out. They traverse every path about the mountains, and their scent is so exquisite
that they can discover the traveler, although he may lie many feet deep in the snow. Having
found him, they set to work and endeavor to scrape away the snow, uttering a deep bark that re-
verbcrates from rock to rock, and tells those who are watching in the convent that some poor
wretch is in peril. Generally, a little flask of spirits is tied round the neck of the animal, by
drinking which the benighted traveler may recruit his strength, until more effectual help arrives.
The monks hasten in the direction of the sound, and often succeed in rekindling the vital spark
before it is quite extinguished. Very many travelers have been thus rescued from death by these
benevolent men and their intelligent and interesting quadruped servants.
One of these Bernardine dogs, named Barry, had a medal tied round his neck as a badge of
honorable distinction, for he had saved the lives of forty persons. He at length died nobly in his
vocation. A Piedmontese courier arrived at St. Bernard on a very stormy day, laboring to make
his way to the little village of St. Pierre, in the valley beneath the mountain, where his wife and
children lived. It was in vain that the monks attempted to check his resolution to reach his
family. They at last gave him two guides, each of whom was accompanied by a dog, one of
,
which was the remarkable creature whose services had been so valuable. Descending from the
convent, they were overwhelmed by two avalanches or heaps of falling snow, and the same de-
struction awaited the family of the poor courier, who were traveling up the mountain in the hope
of obtaining some news of the husband and father.
a
THE NEWTOUNDLAND DOG.
The NEWFOUNDLAND DOG, C. f. Terræ Nova, originated in the island which has given it
name, and is probably derived from a cross of a dog carried thither by the English settlers and a
native breed. These animals are of large size, and in almost every part of British America they

208
VERTEBRATA.
are valuable and useful. They are remarkably docile and obedient to their masters, serviceable
in all the fishing countries, and, yoked in pairs, draw the winter's fuel home. They are faithful,
good-natured, and ever friendly to man. They will defend their master and their master's prop-
erty, and suffer no person to injure either the one or the other; and, however extreme may be
the danger, they will not leave them for an instant. They seem only to want the faculty of speech
in order to make their good wishes and feelings understood, and they are capable of being trained
for all the purposes for which every other variety of the canine species is used.
They are fond of the water, and having powerful limbs, and broad, webbed feet, are excellent
swimmers. No other dog can compare with them in this element. They may be made exceed-
ingly useful to the sportsman in pursuing water-fowl. Dr. Lewis gives a curious and interesting
account of the manner in which a breed of these dogs are used on the Chesapeake in drawing the
flocks of canvas-back ducks within range of the sporting parties. With one of these animals, the
sportsmen, “consisting of several persons all prepared with heavy double-barreled duck-guns,
ensconce themselves at break of day behind some one of the numerous blinds temporarily erected
along the shore, contiguous to the feeding-grounds of these ducks. Every thing being arranged,
and the morning mists cleared off, the ducks will be seen securely feeding on the shallows, not
less than several hundreds of yards from the shore. The dog is now put in motion by throwing
stones from one side of the blind to the other. This will soon be perceived by the ducks, who,
stimulated by an extreme degree of curiosity, and feeling anxious to inform themselves as to this
sudden and singular phenomenon, raise their heads high in the water and commence swimming
for the shore. The dog being kept in motion, the ducks will not arrest their
progress until within
a few feet of the water's edge, and oftentimes will stand on the shore staring, as it were, in mute
and silly astonishment at the playful motions of the dog. If well trained, the dog takes no notice
whatever of the ducks, but continues his fascination until the quick report of the battery announces
to him that his services are now wanted in another quarter, and he immediately rushes into the
water to arrest the flight of the maimed and wounded, who, struggling on every side, dye the
water with their rich blood."
It is not for sporting, however, that the Newfoundland breed are chiefly used. They are excel-
lent guardians of the house, and exceedingly pleasant companions, as well for the old as the
young
They have acquired great reputation for rescuing drowning persons from the water. A few anec-
dotes, among the many on record, will illustrate this trait of character.
“ A native of Germany was traveling one evening on foot through Holland, accompanied by a
dog of this breed. Walking on a high bank which formed one side of a dyke, his foot slipped,
and he was precipitated into the water, and being unable to swim, soon became senseless. When
he recovered his recollection, he found himself in a cottage on the opposite side of the dyke, sur-
rounded by peasants, who had been using the means for the recovery of drowned persons. The
account given by one of them was, that, returning home from his labor, he observed at a consider-
able distance a large dog in the water, swimming and dragging, and sometimes pushing along
something that he seemed to have great difficulty in supporting, but which he at length succeeded
in getting into a small creek on the opposite side. When the animal had pulled what he had
hitherto supported, as far out of the water as he was able, the peasant discovered that it was the
body of a man, whose face and hands the dog was industriously licking. The peasant hastened
to a bridge across the dyke, and having obtained assistance, the body was conveyed to a neigh-
boring house, where proper means soon restored the drowned man to life.”
Dr. Beattie relates an instance of a gentleman attempting to cross the river Dee, then frozen
over, near Aberdeen, Scotland. The ice gave way about the middle of the river; but having a
gun in his hand, he supported himself by placing it across the opening. His dog then ran to a
neighboring village, where, with the most significant gestures, he pulled a man by the coat, and
prevailed on him to follow him. They arrived at the spot just in time to save the drowning
man's life.
One other story should not be omitted of this noble breed of dogs. A vessel was driven
on the beach of Lydd, in Kent, England. The surf was rolling furiously. Eight poor fellows
were crying for help, but not a boat could be got off to their assistance. At length a gentleman

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
209
came on the beach accompanied by his Newfoundland dog. He directed the attention of the
animal to the vessel, and put a short stick into his mouth. The intelligent and courageous fellow
at once understood his meaning, sprang into the sea, and fought his way through the waves. He
could not, however, get close enough to the vessel to deliver that with which he was charged;
but the crew understood what was meant, and they made fast a rope to another piece of wood,
and threw it toward him. The noble beast dropped his own piece of wood, and immediately seized
that which had been cast to him, and then, with a degree of strength and determination scarcely
credible—for he was again and again lost under the waves-he dragged it through the surge and
delivered it to his master. A line of communication was thus formed, and every man on board
was rescued.
It would be easy to fill pages of similar instances. This animal is at the same time of a very
noble disposition-an instance of which is thus related by Dr. Abel :
“When this dog left his master's house, he was often assailed by a number of little noisy dogs
in the street. He usually passed them with apparent unconcern, as if they were beneath his
notice; but one little cur was particularly troublesome, and at length carried his impudence so
far as to bite the Newfoundland dog in the leg. This was a degree of wanton insult beyond what
he could patiently endure, and he instantly turned round, ran after the offender, and seized him
by the skin of the back. In this way he carried him in his mouth to the quay, and, holding him
some time over the water, at length dropped him into it. He did not, however, seem to design
that the culprit should be punished, capitally. He waited a little while, until the poor
animal,
who was unused to that element, was not only well ducked, but nearly sinking, and then plunged
in, and brought him safe to land.”
It
appears that there are two breeds of the Newfoundland dog well known to dog-fanciers-one
very large, and the other smaller, but noted for its intelligence. Specimens of this latter have
been taken to Europe, and used as retrievers. They are principally valuable for the fearless man-
ner in which they will penetrate the thickest cover. They are exceedingly muscular, strong, and
generally black
The celebrated epitaph of Lord Byron upon an animal of this interesting variety vividly paints
the virtues of the race:
"When some proud man returns to earth,
Unknown to glory, but upheld by birth,
The sculptor's art exhausts the pomp of woe,
And storied urns record who rests below.
When all is done, upon the tomb is seen-
Not what he was, but what he should have been.
But the poor dog, in life the firmest friend,
The first to welcome, foremost to defend,
Whose honest heart is still his master's own,
Who labors, fights, lives, breathes for him alone,
Unhonor'd falls, unnoticed all his worth,
Denied in heaven the soul he had on earth :
While man, vain insect, hopes to be forgiven,
And claims himself a sole, exclusive heaven.
O man! thou feeble tenant of an hour,
Debased by slavery, or corrupt by power,
Who knows thee well must quit thee with disgust,
Degraded mass of animated dust!
Thy love is lust, thy friendship all a cheat;
Thy smiles hypocrisy, thy words deceit!
By nature vile, ennobling but by name,
Each kindred brute might bid thee blush for shame.
Ye, who perchance behold this simple urn,
Pass on-it honors none you wish to mourn:
To mark a friend's remains these stones arise ;
I never knew but one-and here he lies."
The LABRADOR Dog is a large and fine animal, resembling the Newfoundland dog. The
ESQUIMAUX DOG, C. f. borealis, is a remarkable breed, about the size of a pointer, robust and
well proportioned, with upright and pointed ears, strong, thick-set legs, and a long bushy tail.
Vol. I.-27

210
VERTEBRATA.
ESQUIMAUX DOGS.
In winter the hair is three or four inches long: under this is a coating of fine close wool, which
drops off in the spring. They have the half-savage character of the people with whom they are
bred. When the Esquimaux goes in pursuit of the seal, the reindeer, or the bear, these dogs
carry the materials of his temporary hut, and his few simple necessaries of life. Sometimes they
assist in the chase, and run down and kill the bear and reindeer on the land, and the seal on the
coast. A few are used as beasts of burden in summer, and each will carry from thirty to fifty
pounds. The majority, however, are sent adrift at this season, and pick up a living by hunting
wild animals, or feeding on fish along the coast, or by thieving around the settlements. When
winter sets in, they return to their several masters, and then their services become important.
They are harnessed by ropes to the sledges, which they draw over the snow at great speed, carry-
ing their master and his family wherever they desire to go.
Capt. Lyon informs us that three dogs drew a sledge weighing one hundred pounds and him-
self one mile in six minutes; his leader dog, which is generally more powerful than the others,
drew one hundred and ninety-six pounds the same distance in eight minutes; seven dogs ran one
mile in four minutes and thirty seconds, with a heavy sledge full of men attached to them; ten
dogs ran one mile in five minutes; nine dogs drew one thousand six hundred and eleven pounds
the same distance in nine minutes.
They have been known for several successive days to travel more than sixty miles. They sel-
dom miss their road, although they may be driven over an untrodden snowy plain, where they
are occasionally unable to reach any place of shelter. When, however, night comes, they partake
with their master of the scanty fare which the sledge will afford, and, crowding round, keep him
warm and defend him from danger. If any of them fall victims to the hardships to which they
are exposed, their master or their companions frequently feed on their remains, and their skins
are converted into warm and comfortable dresses.
The manner of these creatures in harness is thus described by Capt. Parry:
“A number of dogs, varying from six to twelve, are attached to each sledge by means of a
single trace, but with no reins. An old and tried dog is placed as the leader, who, in their simple
journeys, and when the chase is the object, steadily obeys the voice of the driver sitting in front

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
211
of the sledge, with a whip long enough to reach the leader. This whip, however, is used as sel-
dom as possible; for these dogs, although tractable, are ferocious, and will endure little correc-
tion. When the whip is applied with severity on one, he falls upon and worries his neighbor,
and he, in his turn, attacks a third, and there is a scene of universal confusion; or the dogs double
from side to side to avoid the whip, and the traces become entangled, and the safety of the sledge
endangered. The carriage must then be stopped, each dog put into his proper place, and the
traces readjusted. This frequently happens several times in the course of the day. The driver,
therefore, depends principally on the docility of the leader, who, with admirable precision, quickens
or slackens his pace, and starts off or stops, or turns to the right or left, at the summons of his
,
master. When they are journeying homeward, or traveling to some spot to which the leader
has been accustomed to go, he is generally suffered to pursue his own course; for, although every
trace of the road is lost in the drifting snow, he scents it out, and follows it with undeviating accu-
racy. Even the leader, however, is not always under the control of his master. If the journey
lies homeward, he will go his own pace, and that is usually at the top of his speed; or, if
any
game starts, or he scents it at a distance, no command of his driver will restrain him. Neither
the dog nor his master is half civilized or subdued.”
The GREENLAND, and SIBERIAN, and KAMTSCHATKADALE Dogs are varieties of the Esquimaux or
Arctic dogs, but enlarged in form, and better subdued. The docility of some of these is equal to
that of any European breed. The following pleasant story is told of one of them :
person of the name of Chabert, who was afterward better known by the title of Fire
King,' had a beautiful Siberian dog, who would draw him in a light carriage twenty miles a day.
He asked one thousand dollars for him, and sold him for a considerable portion of that sum; for
he was a most beautiful animal of his kind, and as docile as he was beautiful. Between the sale
and the delivery, the dog fell and broke his leg. Chabert, to whom the price agreed on was of
immense consequence, was in despair. He took the dog at night to a veterinary surgeon. He form-
ally introduced them to each other. He talked to the dog, pointed to his own leg, limped around
the room, then requested the surgeon to apply some bandages around the leg, and he seemed to
walk sound and well. He patted the dog on the head, who was looking alternately at him and
the surgeon, desired the surgeon to pat him, and to offer him his hand to lick, and then, holding
up his finger to the dog, and gently shaking his head, quitted the room and the house. The dog
immediately laid himself down, and submitted to a reduction of the fracture, and the bandaging
of the limb, without a motion, except once or twice licking the hand of the operator. He was
quite submissive, and in a manner motionless, day after day, until, at the expiration of a month,
the limb was sound. Not a trace of the fracture was to be detected, and the purchaser, who is
now living, knew nothing about it.”
The LAPLAND Dog appears to be a very active and sagacious variety of the Arctic breed.
The HARE INDIAN Dog.—This species is marked by a sharp muzzle, ears erect and pointed,
and a lively, cheerful, and pleasing aspect. The hair is white, with patches of grayish black and
brown. They are good tempered and manageable, and are used by the Hare Indians in the
neighborhood of Mackenzie's River and the Great Bear Lake, chiefly in the chase. They have
broad feet and light forms, and thus pass easily over the snow. They run down and overtake the
moose and deer, and keep them at bay till the hunters come up and dispatch them. They never
bark; but one that was born and bred in the Zoological Gardens of London barked like other
dogs.
The ICELAND Dog has a roundish head, ears partly erect and partly pendent; the fur soft, and
very long, especially behind the fore-legs and on the tail. It is exceedingly useful to the Ice-
landers while traveling over the snowy deserts of the north. By a kind of intuition it rarely
fails in choosing the shortest and the safest course. It is also more aware than its master of
the approach of the snow-storms, and is a most valuable ally against the attack of the Polar bear,
who, drifted on masses of ice from the neighboring continent, often commits depredations among
the cattle, and even attacks human beings. When the dog is first aware of the neighborhood of
the bear, he sets up a fearful howl, and men and dogs hasten to hunt down and destroy the
depredator
a

212
VERTEBRATA.
THE ICELAND DOG.
The traveling in Iceland is sometimes exceedingly dangerous at the beginning of the winter.
A thin layer of snow covers and conceals some of the chasms with which that region abounds.
Should the traveler fall into one of them, the dog proves a most useful animal; for he runs im-
mediately across the snowy waste, and by his howling induces the traveler's friends to hasten to
his rescue.
The SHEPHERD's Dog, though little used in the United States, is universally known as one of the
most interesting of the dog species. It possesses much of the same form and character in every
country. The muzzle is sharp, the ears are short and nearly erect, and the animal is covered, par-
ticularly about the neck, with thick and shaggy hair. He has usually two dew-claws on each of
the hind-legs-not, however, as in the one claw of other dogs, having a jointed attachment to the
limb, but merely connected by the skin and some slight cellular substance. The tail is long, and
slightly turned upward, and is almost as bushy as that of a fox. He is of a black color, or black
prevails, mixed with gray or brown.
There are several breeds of the sheep-dog, used in different countries for different purposes.
Some of the larger and more powerful kinds are employed, among other duties, to guard the
flock from the wolf. In such cases, the sheep, on the slightest alarm, rally round the dog, as
if conscious that he is their protector. Whatever differences there may be in the breeds, they
have all the same substantial character of intelligence and devotion to their duties. Other
dogs—the pointer, the setter, the hound, the greyhound, the terrier, the spaniel—have each
admirable gifts of nature, heightened by training; but the shepherd's dog surpasses them all in
adaptation to his work. If he be but with his master, he lies content, indifferent to every sur-
rounding object, seemingly half asleep and half awake, rarely mingling with his kind, rarely
couiting, and generally shrinking from, the notice of a stranger; but the moment duty calls, his
sleepy, listless
eye becomes brightened; he eagerly gazes on his master, inquires and comprehends
all he is to do, and, springing up, gives himself to the discharge of his duty with a sagacity, and
fidelity, and devotion, too rarely equaled even by man himself.
James Hogg, the celebrated Ettrick Shepherd, living in his early days among the sheep and
their quadruped attendants, and an accurate observer of nature, as well as an exquisite poet, gives
some anecdotes of the colley—the Highland term for sheep-dog-with which the reader will
not be displeased : “My dog Sirrah,” says he, in a letter to the Editor of Blackwood's Edinburgh
Magazine, “was, beyond all comparison, the best dog I ever saw. He had a somewhat surly
and unsocial temper, disdaining all flattery, and refusing to be caressed; but his attention to my
commands and interest will never again be equaled by any of the canine race.
When I first saw
him, a drover was leading him with a rope. He was both lean and hungry, and far from being

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
213
THE SHEEP-DOG, OR SHEPHERD'S DOG.
a beautiful animal; for he was almost black, and had a grim face, striped with dark brown. I
thought I perceived a sort of sullen intelligence in his countenance, notwithstanding his dejected
and forlorn appearance, and I bought him. He was scarcely a year old, and knew so little of
herding, that he had never turned a sheep in his life; but, as soon as he discovered that it was
his duty to do so, and that it obliged me, I can never forget with what anxiety and eagerness he
learned his different evolutions; and when I once made him understand a direction, he never
forgot or mistook it.”
One night, a large flock of lambs that were under the Ettrick Shepherd's care, frightened by
something, scampered away in three different directions across the hills, in spite of all that he
could do to keep them together. “Sirrah,” said the shepherd, " they're a' awa!"
It was too dark for the dog and his master to see each other at any considerable distance,
but Sirrah understood him, and set off after the fugitives. The night passed on, and Hogg and
his assistant traversed every neighboring hill in anxious but fruitless search for the lambs ; but
he could hear nothing of them nor of the dog, and he was returning to his master with the
doleful intelligence that he had lost all his lambs. “On our way home, however," says he, "we
discovered a lot of lambs at the bottom of a deep ravine called the Flesh Cleuch, and the inde-
fatigable Sirrah standing in front of them, looking round for some relief, but still true to his
charge. We concluded that it was one of the divisions which Sirrah had been unable to manage,
until he came to that commanding situation. But what was our astonishment when we dis-
covered that not one lamb of the flock was missing ! How he had got all the divisions collected
in the dark, is beyond my comprehension. The charge was left entirely to himself from midnight
until the rising sun; and, if all the shepherds in the forest had been there to have assisted him,
they could not have effected it with greater promptitude. All that I can say is, that I never felt
so grateful to any creature under the sun as I did to my honest Sirrah that morning."
A shepherd, in one of his excursions over the Grampian Hills to collect his scattered flock, took
with him—according to a common practice, to initiate them in their future business—one of his
children about four years old. After traversing his pastures for a while, attended by his dog,
he was compelled to ascend a summit at some distance. As the ascent was too great for the
child, he left him at the bottom, with strict injunctions not to move from the place. Scarcely,
however, had he gained the height, when one of the Scotch mists, of frequent occurrence, sud-
denly came on, and almost changed the day to night. He returned to seek his child, but was
unable to find him, and concluded a long and fruitless search by coming distracted to his cottage.
His poor dog also was missing in the general confusion. On the next morning by daylight he
renewed his search, but again he came back without his child. He found, however, that during

214.
VERTEBRATA.
his absence his dog had been home, and, on receiving his allowance of food, instantly departed.
For four successive days the shepherd continued his search with the same bad fortune, the dog
as readily coming for his meal and departing. Struck by this singular circumstance, he deter-
mined to follow the dog, who departed as usual with his piece of cake. The animal led the way
to a cataract at some distance from the spot where the child had been left. It was a rugged
and almost perpendicular descent which the dog took, and he disappeared in a cave, the mouth
of which was almost on a level with the torrent. The shepherd with difficulty followed; but, on
entering the cavern, what were his emotions when he beheld the infant eating the cake which
the dog had just brought to him, while the faithful animal stood by, eyeing his young charge
with the utmost complacency! From the situation in which the child was found, it appeared
that he had wandered to the brink of the precipice, and then either fallen or scrambled down,
the torrent preventing his return. The dog, by means of his scent, had traced him to the
spot, and afterward prevented him from starving by giving up a part, or, perhaps, the whole of
his own daily allowance. He appears never to have quitted the child night or day, except for
food, as he was seen running at full speed to and from the cottage.
Hogg tells us, and very truly, that a single shepherd and his dog will accomplish more in
gathering a flock of sheep from a Highland farm than twenty shepherds could do without
dogs ; in fact, that without this docile animal the pastoral life would be a mere blank. It would
require more hands to manage a flock of sheep, gather them from the hills, force them into
houses and folds, and drive them to markets, than the profits of the whole flock would be
capable of maintaining. Well may the shepherd feel an interest in his dog: he it is indeed
that earns the family bread, with the smallest morsel of which he is himself content, -always
grateful, and always ready to exert his utmost abilities in his master's interests. Neither
hunger, fatigue, nor the worst treatment will drive him from his side, and he will follow him
through every hardship without murmur or repining. If one of them is obliged to change
masters, it is sometimes long before he will acknowledge the new owner, or condescend to work
for him with the willingness that he did for his former lord; but, if he once acknowledges him,
he continues attached to him until death.
Buffon gives the following eloquent portrait of the sheep-dog: “This animal, faithful to man,
will always preserve a portion of his empire and a degree of superiority over other beings. He
reigns at the head of his flock, and makes himself better understood than the voice of the
shepherd. Safety, order, and discipline are the fruits of his vigilance and activity. They are a
people submitted to his management, whom he conducts and protects, and against whom he
never employs force but for the preservation of good order. If we consider that this animal,
notwithstanding his ugliness and his wild and melancholy look, is superior in instinct to all
others; that he has a decided character in which education has comparatively little share; that
he is the only animal born perfectly trained for the service of others; that, guided by natural
powers alone, he applies himself to the care of our flocks, a duty which he executes with
singular assiduity, vigilance, and fidelity; that he conducts them with an admirable intelligence
which is a part and portion of himself; that his sagacity astonishes at the same time that it
gives repose to his master, while it requires great time and trouble to instruct other dogs for
the purposes to which they are destined :--if we reflect on these facts, we shall be confirmed
in the opinion that the shepherd's dog is the true dog of nature, the stock and model of the
whole species."
The ITALIAN or POMERANIAN WOLF-Dog is mostly covered with grayish hair, short on the head,
ears, and feet, and long and silky on the body and tail. It is a superior breed, greatly attached
to its master, and is used as a sheep-dog, especially in countries where the sheep are liable to
attacks from the wolf.
The DROVER's Dog is common in England, and possesses all the docility of the sheep-dog. The
following story, among many similar ones, is proof of his sagacity and fidelity: A butcher was
accustomed to purchase sheep and kine in the vicinity, which, when fattened, he drove to Alston
market and sold. In these excursions he was frequently astonished at the peculiar sagacity of
his dog, and at the more than common readiness and dexterity with which he managed the cattle;

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
215
POMERANIAN WOLF-DOG.
until at length he troubled himself very little about the matter, but, riding carelessly along, used
to be amused with observing how adroitly the dog acquitted himself of his charge. At
length, so convinced was he of his sagacity, as well as fidelity, that he laid a wager that he would
intrust the dog with a number of sheep and oxen, and let him drive them alone and unattended
to Alston market. It was stipulated that no one should be within sight or hearing who had the
least control over the dog, nor was any spectator to interfere. This extraordinary animal accord-
ingly proceeded with his business in the most steady and dexterous manner; and, although he
had frequently to drive his charge through other herds that were grazing, he did not lose one;
but, conducting them to the very yard to which he was used to drive cattle when with his master,
he significantly delivered them up to the person appointed to receive them by barking at his
door! When the path which he traveled lay through grounds in which others were grazing, he
would run forward, stop his own drove, and then, chasing the others away, collect his scattered
charge, and proceed.
DIVISION IV.HUNTING-DOGS, HOUNDS, AND SPANIELS.
These animals are generally of middling size, though some are small; the ears are long and
pendent, the scent acute, and the intelligence great. In general, the covering is smooth, though
instances of rough hair occur.
The Old English Hound is supposed to be the original stock of the island of Great Britain,
and was used by the natives in the chase. It is of large size, long body, deep chest, ears very
large and pendulous, a peculiarly deep voice, heavy appearance, and slow movement in the chase.
It is now almost extinct, having given way to the swifter breed now in use.
The Fox-HOUND, the much celebrated and esteemed hunting-dog in England, is a cross of the
old English hound by the greyhound; it is from twenty-two inches to two feet in height, and
of middle size. The head and fur are of great beauty, the scent exquisite, and the speed great-
equal to the swiftest horse. Youаtt tells us that “a match was run over the Beacon Course at
Newmarket, the distance being four miles one furlong and one hundred and thirty-two yards.
The winning dog performed it in eight minutes and a few seconds; but of the sixty horses that
started with the hounds, only twelve were able to run in with them. Flying Childers had run
the same course in seven minutes and thirty seconds."
The fox-hound is bred in England with the greatest care by the gentry, and is used in hunting
the fox, esteemed the most aristocratic sport in the country. Several gentlemen keep packs
of hounds, varying from thirty to sixty dogs,—three thousand dollars a year being frequently

216
VERTEBRAT A.
OLD ENGLISH HOUND.
expended on a single pack. A pack of hounds sometimes costs two thousand guineas in the first
purchase, and that sum has even been paid for ten couples of a favorite breed. Often several
packs are united in the hunt. The fox is run down, it being esteemed a mean and unworthy act
to shoot one of these animals. The fox is indeed considered as designed for the sport of the
gentry, and to dispose of it in any other manner than for their pleasure is an offense against good
society. Every thing that experience, money, and skill can suggest to give dignity and zest to
this sport, is employed. Books are written upon every branch of the subject. . Magazines are
devoted to it; men are brought up and carefully trained in the profession of breeding and break-
ing horses and dogs for the chase. There are dog-breeders, dog-trainers, dog-physicians, dog-
surgeons, dog-architects, and each is honored in his way. Nay, we are told by a celebrated writer
on field-sports, that the hunter himself should be carefully disciplined—as if the fox-chase were
the great end of life. “A huntsman,” says
“ A huntsman,” says Beckford, “should be attached to the sport, and
indefatigable, young, strong, active, bold, and enterprising in the pursuit of it. He should be
sensible, good-tempered, sober, exact, and cleanly—a good groom and an excellent horseman.
His voice should be strong and clear, with an eye so quick as to perceive which of his hounds
carries the scent when all are running, and an ear so excellent as to distinguish the leading
hounds when he does not see them. He should be quiet, patient, and without conceit. Such
are the qualities which constitute perfection in a huntsman. He should not, however, be too
fond of displaying them until called forth by necessity; it being a peculiar and distinguished
trait in his character to let his hounds alone while they thus hunt, and have genius to assist them
when they cannot."
In illustration of the extent to which sporting is carried on in England, we may state that the
dog-kennel of the Duke of Richmond cost thirty thousand dollars. Youаtt teils us with an
evident feeling of admiration, that in its construction the duke was his own architect, assisted
by, and under the guidance of, Mr. Wyatt. “He dug his own flints, burned his own lime, and con-
ducted the wood-work in his own shops. This dog-kennel is a grand object when viewed from
Goodwood. The front is handsome, the ground well raised about it, and the general effect good;
the open court in the center adds materially to the noble appearance of the building. The en-
trance to the kennel is delineated in the center with a flight of stairs leading above. The
huntsmen's rooms, four in number, first present themselves ; each of them is fifteen feet four
inches, by fourteen feet six inches. At each end of the side toward the court is one of the feed-
ing-rooms, twenty-nine feet by fourteen feet four inches, and nobly-constructed rooms they are.
At the back of the feeding-rooms are one set of the lodging-rooms, from thirty-five feet six
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
217
PREDMANEKNNYENY
THE FOX-HOUND.
inches, to fourteen feet four inches, and at either extremity is another lodging-room, thirty-two
feet six inches in length, and fourteen feet six inches in width. Coming into the court, we find
the store-room twenty-four feet by fourteen and a half, and the stable of the same dimensions.
At the top of the buildings are openings for the admission of cold air, and stoves to warm the
air when too cold. There are plentiful supplies of water from tanks holding ten thousand gallons;
so that there is no inconvenience from the smell. Round the whole building is a pavement five
feet wide; airy yards and places for breeding, &c., making part of each wing. For the hunts-
man and whipper-in there are sleeping-rooms, and a neat parlor or kitchen."
The hunting metropolis of Great Britain is Melton-Mowbray, in Leicestershire, and such is the
,
scale on which the sport is conducted, that the place has stabling for a thousand horses. The
hunting season lasts from the beginning of November to the end of March. During this period
the town is frequented by the leading sportsmen of the Three Kingdoms, and some from the con-
tinent, and even from America. The sport is conducted with unrivaled tact, science, and splendor.
Noblemen of the highest rank, princes, statesmen, soldiers, scholars, mingle in the exciting chase.
The horses are of the finest breed and blood, and are trained in the perfection of art. A party
of fifty gentlemen, with as many retainers, and a hundred dogs, scampering over the rich and
beautiful country, filling the air with the cry of hound and horn, is a most imposing spectacle.
The STAG-Hound is distinguished from the fox-hound by the apparent broadness and short-
ness of his head, his longer cheek, his straighter hock, his wider thigh, and deeper chest, and
better feathered and more beautifully arched tail. His appearance indicates strength and stout-
ness, in which indeed he is unequaled, and he has sufficient speed to render it difficult for the
,
best horses long to keep pace with him. This animal, as its name imports, is used for the chase
of the deer, which is deemed a royal sport. The stag-hounds are now a part of the regular
Crown establishment. The royal kennel is situated upon Ascot Heath, about six miles from
Windsor. At the distance of a mile from the kennel is Swinley Lodge, the official residence of
the Master of the Stag-Hounds.
The chase of the stag appears to be very exciting sport. When one of them first hears the
cry of the hounds, he runs with the swiftness of the wind, and continues to run as long as any
sound of his pursuers can be distinguished. That having ceased, he pauses and looks carefully
around him; but before he can determine what course to pursue, the cry of the pack again
forces itself
upon
his attention. Once more he darts away, and after a while again pauses.
His
strength perhaps begins to fail, and he has recourse to stratagem in order to escape. He practices
the doubling and the crossing of the fox or the hare. This being useless, he attempts to escape
VOL. I.-28

218
VERTEBRATA.
2
2
mit"
FOX-CHASE IN ENGLAND.
a
by plunging into some lake or river that happens to lie in his way, and when, at last, every
attempt to escape proves abortive, he boldly faces his pursuers, and attacks the first dog or man
who approaches him.
The performances of the stag-hound are remarkable. A deer, in the spring of 1822, was turned
out before the Earl of Derby's hounds at Hayes Common. The chase was continued nearly four
hours without a check, when, being almost run down, the animal took refuge in some outhouses near
Speldhurst, in Kent, more than forty miles across the country, and having actually ruin more than
fifty miles. Nearly twenty horses died in the field, or in consequence of the severity of the chase.
A stag was turned out at Wingfield Park, in Northumberland. The whole pack, with the ex-
ception of two hounds, was, after a long run, thrown out. The stag returned to his accustomed
haunt, and, as his last effort, leaped the wall of the park, and lay down and died. One of the
hounds at his heels, unable to clear the wall, fell and expired, and the other was found dead at
a little distance. They had run about forty miles.
The ENGLISH BLOOD-Hound.— A true blood-hound—and the pure blood is rare-stands about
twenty-eight inches in height, muscular, compact, and strong; the forehead is broad, and the face
narrow toward the muzzle; the nostrils are wide and well developed; the ears are large, pendu-
lous, and broad at the base; the aspect is serene and sagacious; the tail is long, with an upward
curve when in pursuit, at which time the hound opens with a voice deep and sonorous, that may
be heard down the wind for a very long distance. The color of the true breed is almost invaria-
bly a reddish tan, darkening gradually toward the upper parts till it becomes mixed with black
on the back; the lower parts, limbs, and tail being of a lighter shade, and the muzzle tawny.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
219
a
Some, but such instances were not common, had a little white about them, such as a star in the
face, &c. The general opinion is, that the original stock was a mixture of the deep-mouthed
southern hound and the powerful old English stag-hound.
Our English ancestors, some centuries ago, discovered the extraordinary power of this breed in
tracking any animal by its scent. They therefore trained it to the chase, and afterward used it
to hunt down criminals. The perseverance and sagacity of these creatures in following a man on
whose track they had been set, often for many miles, and even through towns and villages, and
crowded thoroughfares, was indeed wonderful. In general, when they found the culprits, they
would patiently keep guard over them, and not permit them to move away until their masters
came up. Sometimes, however, dogs of a ferocious disposition would fall upon them and tear
them in pieces. The manner in which the blood-hound pursued the robber is thus described by
the poet Somerville :
“Soon the sagacious brute, his curling tail
Flourish'd in air, low, bending, plies around
His busy nose, the steaming vapor snuffs
Inquisitive, nor leaves one turf untried,
Till, conscious of the recent stains, his heart
Beats quick. His snuffing nose, his active tail,
Attest his joy. Then, with deep opening mouth,
That makes the welkin tremble, he proclaims
Th' audacious felon. Foot by foot he marks
His winding way. Over the watery ford,
Dry sandy heaths, and stony barren hills,
Unerring he pursues, till at the cot
Arrived, and, seizing by his guilty throat
The caitiff vile, redeems the captive prey."
a
Before the union between England and Scotland, the “Border” between the two countries was
the theater of constant forays, for the purpose of stealing sheep, cattle, and other property. The
English and Scotch were, in fact, as great robbers as the Bedouins of the present day. In this
state of things the blood-hounds became indispensable as guards. The pursuit of border forayers
was called the “hot-trod.” The “harried” party and his friends followed the marauders with
blood-hound and bugle-horn, and if his dog could trace the scent into the opposite kingdom, he
was entitled to pursue them thither. Sir Walter Scott states that the breed was kept up by the
Buccleuch family on their border estates till within the eighteenth century, and records the fol-
lowing narrative: “A person was alive in the memory of man who remembered a blood-hound
being kept at Eldinhope, in Ettrick Forest, for whose maintenance the tenant had an allowance
of meal. At that time the sheep were always watched at night. Upon one occasion, when the
duty had fallen upon the narrator, then a lad, he became exhausted with fatigue, and fell asleep
upon a bank, near sun-rising. Suddenly he was awakened by the tread of horses, and saw five
men well mounted and armed ride briskly over the edge of the hill. They stopped and looked
at the flock; but the day was too far broken to admit the chance of their carrying any of them
off. One of them, in spite, leaped from his horse, and coming to the shepherd, seized him by the
belt he wore round his waist, and, setting his foot upon his body, pulled it till it broke, and car-
ried it away with him. They rode off at the gallop, and the shepherd giving the alarm, the
blood-hound was turned loose, and the people in the neighborhood alarmed. The marauders,
however, escaped, notwithstanding a sharp pursuit. This circumstance serves to show how very
long the license of the Borderers continued in some degree to manifest itself.”
This, perhaps, is the last instance of an attempted "Border foray" on record. The times were
changed. The nobles had ceased to pride themselves on their ignorance of all the arts save the
art of war, and to make it matter of thanksgiving that they knew not how to use the pen. Civili-
zation advanced as learning was diffused, till the law of the strongest no longer prevailed against
the law of the land. The blood-hound, from the nobler pursuit of heroes and knights, “minions
of the moon,” who swept away the cattle and
the cattle and goods of whole districts, marking the extent of their
“raid” by all the horrors of fire and sword, sank to the tracker of the deer-stealer and petty felon,
as we have related. About a century and a quarter ago, when deer-stealing was a common crime
in England, the park-keepers relied upon their blood-hounds principally for detecting the thief;

220
VERTEBRATA.
and so adroit were these dogs, that when one of them was fairly laid on, the escape of the criminal
,
was with good reason considered to be all but impossible. Even now the breed lingers about
some of the great deer-parks for the purpose of guarding the game.
The Cuban BLOOD-HOUND was a mastiff, and has been already noticed.
The AFRICAN BLOOD-HOUND.—Of this species a pair were presented to the Tower Menagerie of
London by Major Denham, which he had brought from Central Africa : they were finely formed
animals. This breed are used in their native country for the chase, in which they display great
sagacity and power of scent.
The OTTER-HOUND, a mixed breed between the old English hound and the terrier, was formerly
much used in England, but since the otter has nearly disappeared, it has become very rare. The
terrier is used for otter-hunting in the north of Scotland.
The BEAGLE, probably a descendant of the old English hound and harrier, is a diminutive
species of fox-hound, with a fine musical voice, and an exquisite scent, formerly much used in
hunting, but now seldom employed.
The Harrier is a fox-hound, bred down to a small size, and is now chiefly used in England
for hunting the hare.
The LURCHER is a cross between the greyhound and shepherd's dog. He runs mute and by
scent, and is used by poachers. The keeping of one of these creatures is considered, in England,
beneath the dignity of a gentleman.
We now pass from the hounds to the spaniels, an exceedingly interesting and attractive portion
of the race. The spaniel is evidently the parent of the Newfoundland dog and the setter; while
the retriever, the poodle, the St. Bernard, the Esquimaux, the Siberian, the Greenland, the shep-
herd and drover's dog, and every variety distinguished for intelligence and fidelity, have more or
less of his blood in them.
a
KING CHARLES' AND BLENHEIM SPANIELS.
The SPANIEL is probably of Spanish origin, and hence his name. The ears are large and pend-
ent, the tail elevated, the fur of a different length in different parts of the body, but longest
about the ears, under the neck, behind the thighs, and on the tail, varying in color, but most
commonly white, with brown or black patches. There are many varieties of the spaniel.
The Cocker is the smallest of the land species, and is chiefly used in flushing woodcocks and
pheasants in thickets and copses into which the setter, and even the springer, can scarcely enter.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA221
.
.
THE SETTER.
“But, if the shady woods my cares employ,
In quest of feather'd game my spaniels beat,
Puzzling the entangled copse, and from the brake
Push forth the whirring pheasant."
The cocker is here very useful, although he is occasionally an exceedingly impatient animal.
He is apt to whimper and babble as soon as he comes upon the scent of game, and often raises
the bird before the sportsman is within reach; but when he is sufficiently broken in not to give
tongue until the game rises, he is exceedingly valuable. There can scarcely be a prettier object
than this little creature, full of activity, and bustling in every direction, with his tail erect, and,
the moment he scents the bird, expressing his delight by the quivering of every limb, and the
low, eager whimpering which the best breaking cannot always subdue. Presently the bird
springs, and then he shrieks out his ecstasy, startling even the sportsman with his sharp, shrill,
and strangely expressive bark.
The SPRINGER is slower and steadier in its range than the cocker; but it is a much safer dog
for the hunter, and can better stand a hard day's work. It is much esteemed by some sportsmen.
The KING CHARLES' SPANIEL, So called from the fondness of Charles II. for it-who usually

222
VERTEBRATA.
a
had some of them following him wherever he went—belongs likewise to the cockers. Its form
and character are well preserved in one of the paintings of the unfortunate father of that monarch
and his family. The ears deeply fringed and sweeping the ground, the rounder form of the fore-
head, the larger and moister eye, the longer and silken coat, and the clearness of the tan and
,
white and black color, sufficiently distinguish this variety. His beauty and diminutive size have
consigned him to the drawing-room or parlor. Charles the First had a breed of spaniels, very
small, with the hair black and curly. The spaniel of the second Charles was of the black-and-
tan kind. The King Charles' breed of the present day is materially altered for the worse. The
muzzle is almost as short, and the forehead as ugly and prominent as the veriest bull-dog. The
eye is increased to double its former size, and has an expression of stupidity with which the char-
acter of the dog too accurately corresponds. Still there is the long ear, and the silky coat, and
the beautiful color of the hair, and the true breeds command a high price.
The BLENHEIM SPANIEL, a breed cultivated by one of the Dukes of Marlborough, belongs to
this division. From its beauty and occasional gayety, it is oftener an inhabitant of the drawing-
room than the field; but it occasionally breaks out, and shows what nature designed it for.
To this division belong several other varieties, which, like the preceding, may be regarded as
Dogs of the parlor—as the MALTESE Dog, not much bigger than a weasel; the Lion Dog, nearly
covered with long, wavy, silky hair, and, though exceedingly small, bearing in outline a resem-
blance to the lion; and the little WHITE DOG OF CUBA.
The SETTER is evidently a spaniel bred down to a smaller size, and taught to mark his
setting or crouching. It has great activity and strength, takes to the water when necessary, and is
exceedingly attached and ready in its comprehension. It is a great favorite with many sports-
men, being often preferred to the pointer.
game by
BARA
THE POINTER.
The Pointer is the offspring of the fox-hound and spaniel, and presents a remarkable instance
of a native instinct directed to the use of man. Nothing can be more admirable than to see a
pointer sweep the field in circles, and when detecting the game by his strong powers of scent, to
observe him stand and point to it with his nose, till his master approaches and tells him to ad-
The anecdotes of this dog's sagacity are too familiar to need repetition. There are
several breeds, as the Portuguese, the French, the Spanish, and the Russian, but the English is
by far the best as a sporting dog.
vance.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5, CARNIVORA.
223
po
Amira
Cave
THE WATER-SPANIEL.
trodden up.
bring his
The WATER-SPANIEL.—Of this breed there are two varieties, a larger and smaller, both useful
according to the degree of range or the work required; the smaller, however, being ordinarily
preferable. In both, the head is long and the face smooth; the limbs—more developed than
those of the springer-should be muscular, the carcass round, and the hair long and closely curled.
Docility and affection are stamped on the countenance of this animal, and he excels every
other
breed in attachment to his master. In the field his work is double—first to find, when
ordered so to do, and to back behind the sportsman, when the game will be more advantageously
In both he must be taught to be perfectly obedient to the voice, that he may
be
kept within range, and not unnecessarily disturb the birds. A more important part of his duty,
,
however, is to find and bring the game that has dropped. To teach him to find is easy enough,
for a young water-spaniel will as readily take to the water as a pointer puppy will stop; but to
game without tearing it is a more difficult lesson, and the most difficult of all is to make
him suspend the pursuit of the wounded game while the sportsman re-loads. The water-spaniel
was originally from Spain; but the pure breed has been lost, and the present dog is probably
descended from the large water-dog and the English setter.
The water and land spaniels differ materially from each other. The water-spaniel, although
when at his work being all that his master can desire, is, when unemployed, comparatively a slow
and inactive dog; but under this sobriety of demeanor is concealed a strength and fidelity of
attachment to which the more lively land-spaniel cannot always lay just claim.
Youаtt tells us that he once saved a young water-spaniel from the persecution of a crowd of
people who had driven it into a passage, and were pelting it with stones. “ The animal had the
character of being, contrary to what his species usually are, exceedingly savage; and he suffered
himself to be taken up by me and carried from his foes with a kind of sullenness; but when,
being out of the reach of danger, he was put down, he gazed on his deliverer, and then crouched
at his feet. From that moment he attached himself to his new master with an intensity of affec-
tion scarcely conceivable--never expressed by any boisterous caresses, but by endeavoring to be
in some manner in contact with him; resting his head upon his foot; lying upon some portion of
his apparel, his eye intently fixed upon him, endeavoring to understand every expression of his
countenance. He would follow one gentleman, and one only, to the river-side, and behave gal-

224
VERTEBRATA
im
What
NI
un
REDMAN-KENNY.N.Y.
THE POODLE.
lantly and nobly there; but the moment he was dismissed, he would scamper home, gaze upon
his master, and lay himself down at his feet. In one of these excursions he was shot. He crawled
home, reached his master's feet, and expired in the act of licking his hand.”
The Poodle.— The particular cross from which this dog descended is unknown, but the variety
produced has been carefully preserved. It is probably of continental origin, and is known by its
thick curly hair, concealing almost every part of the face, and giving it the appearance of a short,
thick, unintelligent skull. When, however, the hair is removed, there is still the large head;
but there is also the cerebral cavity more capacious than in any other dog, and the frontal sinuses
fully developed, and exhibiting every indication of the intellectual class to which it belongs. It
was originally a water-dog, as its long and curly hair, and its propensities in its domesticated
state, prove; but from its peculiar sagacity, it is capable of being trained to almost any useful
purpose, and its strong individual attachment renders it more the companion of man than a mere
sporting dog ; indeed, its qualities as a sporting dog are seldom recognized by its owner.
These dogs have far more courage than the water-spaniel, all the sagacity of the Newfound-
land, more general talent, if the expression may be used, and more individual attachment than
either of them, and without the fawning of the one, or the submissiveness of the other. The
poodle seems conscious of his worth, and there is often a quiet dignity accompanying his demon-
strations of friendship.
This dog, however, possesses a very peculiar kind of intelligence. It will almost perform the
common offices of a servant: it will ring the bell and open the door. Mr. Wilkie, of Ladythorn,
in Northumberland, had a poodle which he had instructed to go through all the apparent agonies
of dying. He would fall on one side, stretch himself out, and move his hind-legs as if he were in
great pain; he would next simulate the convulsive throbs of departing life, and then stretch out
his limbs, and thus seem as if he had expired. In this situation he would remain motionless,
until he had his master's command to rise.
A poodle occupies an interesting place in the history of the Peninsular war. He belonged to
a French officer, who was killed at the battle of Castella. The French were compelled to retreat
before they could bury their dead, and the soldiers wished to carry with them this regimental
favorite, but he would not be forced from the corpse of his master. Some soldiers afterward tra-
versing the field of battle, one of them discovered the cross of the Legion of Honor on the breast
of the fallen officer, and stooped to take it away, when the dog flew savagely at him, and would
not quit his hold, until the bayonet of another soldier laid him lifeless.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
225
The BARBET is a small poodle, the production of some unknown and disadvantageous cross with
the true poodle. It has all the sagacity of the poodle, and will perform even more than his tricks.
It is always in action, always fidgety, generally incapable of much affection, but inheriting much
self-love and occasional ill-temper, unmanageable by any one but its owner, eaten up with red
mange,
, and frequently a nuisance to its master, and a torment to every one else. It is, however,
very intelligent, and truly attached to its owner.
The barbet possesses more sagacity than most other dogs, but it is sagacity of a particular kind,
and frequently connected with various amusing tricks. Mr. Jesse, in his “Gleanings in Natural
History,” gives a singular illustration of this. A friend of his had a barbet that was not always
under proper command. In order to keep him in better order, he purchased a small whip, with
which he corrected him once or twice during a walk. On his return, the whip was put on a
table in the hall, but the next morning it was missing. It was soon afterward found concealed
in an out-building, and again made use of in correcting the dog. Once more it would have been
lost, but on watching the dog, who was suspected of having stolen it, he was seen to take it from
the hall table in order to hide it once more.
a
DIVISION V.-CUR-DOGS-MIXED BREEDS.
This division embraces several remarkable varieties, generally below the middling size, with
large eyes, and a large head, and possessing great activity and intelligence. The French matin,
already described, approaches this breed, but it seems to have become a distinct, permanent race.
At the head of the division, therefore, we must place the Cur-Dog proper. This has long had a
bad name as a bully and a coward, and certainly his habit of barking at every thing that passes,
renders him often a very annoying animal. He is, however, in a manner necessary to the laborer;
he is a faithful defender of his humble dwelling; no bribe can seduce him from his duty; and he
is likewise a useful and an effectual guard over the clothes and scanty provisions of his master, who
may be working in some distant part of the field. All day long he will lie upon his clothes, seem-
ingly asleep, but giving immediate warning of the approach of a supposed marauder. He has a
propensity to fly at every horse and every strange dog, and is thus often regarded as a nuisance.
Mr. Hogg, however, in a curious parallel between the sheep-dog and the cur, gives him a good
character. “An exceedingly good sheep-dog," he says, " attends to nothing but the particular
branch of business to which he is bred. His whole capacity is exerted and exhausted in it, and
he is of little avail in miscellaneous matters; whereas a very indifferent cur, bred about the house,
and accustomed to assist in every thing, will often put the more noble breed to disgrace in these
little services. If some one calls out that the cows are in the corn, or the hens in the garden, the
house colley needs no other hint, but runs and turns them out. The shepherd's dog knows not
what is astir, and, if he is called out in a hurry for such work, all that he will do is to run to the
hill, or rear himself on his haunches to see that no sheep are running away. A well-bred sheep-
dog, if coming hungry from the hills, and getting into a milk-house, would likely think of nothing
else than filling his belly with the cream. Not so his initiated brother: he is bred at home to
far higher principles of honor. I have known such lie night and day among from ten to twenty
pails full of milk, and never once break the cream of one of them with the tip of his tongue, nor
would he suffer cat, rat, or any other creature to touch it. While, therefore, the cur is a nuisance,
he is very useful in his way, and we would further plead for him, that he possesses a great deal
of the sagacity and all the fidelity of the choicest breed of dogs.”
The TERRIERS are of such variety as to render it difficult to describe them. We shall only
mention the principal breeds.
The English TERRIER has the forehead convex, the eye prominent, the muzzle pointed, the
tail thin and arched, the fur short, the ears of moderate size, half erect, and usually of a deep-
black color, with a yellow spot over the eyes. The coat may be either smooth or rough. The
smooth-haired ones are more delicate in appearance, and are somewhat more exposed to injury
or accident; but in courage, sagacity, and strength, there is very little difference, if the dogs are
equally well bred. The rough terrier possibly obtained his shaggy coat from the cur, and the
smooth terrier may derive his from the hound.
Vol. 1.-29

226
VERTEBRATA.
WM
SCOTCH TERRIER.
The Scorch TERRIER is of three varieties. The common Scotch terrier is twelve or thirteen
inches high; his body muscular and compact, with considerable breadth across the loins, and the
legs shorter and stouter than those of the English terriers. The head is large in proportion to the
size of the body, the muzzle small and pointed, with strong marks of intelligence in the countenance,
warm attachment to its master, and the evident devotion of every power to the fulfillment of his
wishes. The hair is long and tough, and extending over the whole of the frame. In color it is
black or fawn: the white, yellow, or pied are always deficient in purity of blood. Another species
has nearly the same conformation, but is covered with longer, more curly, and stouter hair—the legs
being apparently, but not actually, shorter. A third species of terrier is of a considerably larger
bulk, and three or four inches taller than either of the others. Its hair is shorter than that of the
other breeds, and is hard and wiry. Mrs. Lee, in her clever book of Anecdotes of Animals, gives
us the following:
“ The most ancient of this influential, if not respectable, tribe of dogs—indeed the most ancient
dog of Great Britain—is the Scotch terrier, brought to us, probably, from the northwest of Europe
by our primitive inhabitants. There are two varieties of indigenous terriers—the one, smooth,
usually white or black in color, with tan spots, sharp muzzle, bright and lively eyes, pointed or
slightly turned-down ears, and tail carried high. It is, however, supposed that the Scottish race,
with a shorter and fuller muzzle, stouter limbs, hard, shaggy fur, sometimes white in color, but
more often sandy or ochry, is the oldest and most genuine breed. One of these clever and ex-
cellent beasts, named Peter, lived with my mother for some years, and during the whole of that
time evinced the greatest sagacity and attachment. He constantly understood the conversation,
provided it related to cats, rats, or himself; and often when we spoke of him casually, without
even knowing he was in the room, or calling him by his name, he has laid his head on our knees
and wagged his tail, as much as to say, 'I understand. He was a most inveterate enemy to all
rats, mice, and cats, nipping them in the back of the neck, and throwing them over his head, at
the rate of one in a minute. Before he came into our family, he won a wager that he would kill
twelve rats in twelve minutes. The second rat fastened on his lip, and hung there while he dis-
patched the other ten, and then, within the given time, he finished that also.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
227
“ For the last three months of my mother's existence, Peter was almost always on her bed,
night and day; and during the final four weeks, when death was daily expected, he was sad and
dull, which was attributed to the change in the habits of the family. Forty-eight hours before
all was over, Peter crept into a corner under the bed, which had always been his place of refuge
when in trouble, and we with difficulty prevailed on him to quit it, even when his mistress wished
to see and say farewell to him. On that occasion he hung his head, and appeared to be so miser-
able, that apprehensions of malady on his part were entertained. He returned to his corner, and
was not thought of for some time. At length all was quiet in the room, and I was about to leave
it, when I recollected Peter. He was with difficulty prevailed on to leave his corner, where he
lay curled
up and trembling. I lifted him up to take a last look of his beloved mistress, but he
laid his head on my shoulder, and was so much distressed that I carried him away immediately.
On the following day he accompanied me up stairs, and when I passed my mother's door, he
looked
пр
in my face, as much as to say, 'Are you going in there?' but I replied “No! and he
never again asked for entrance."
A terrier, known to Professor Owen, was taught to play at hide-and-seek with his master, who
summoned him by saying, “Let us have a game !" upon which the dog immediately hid his eyes
between his paws, in the most honorable manner, and when the gentleman had placed a sixpence,
or a piece of cake, in a most improbable place, he started up and invariably found it. His powers
were equaled by what was called a fox-terrier, named Fop, who would hide his eyes, and suffer
,
those at play with him to conceal themselves before he looked up. If his playfellow hid himself
behind a window-curtain, Fop would, for a certain time, carefully pass that curtain, and look
behind all the others, behind doors, etc., and when he thought he had looked long enough, seize
the concealing curtain and drag it aside in triumph.
Sony
BLACK AND TAN TERRIER
a
A black-and-tan terrier, belonging to a linen-draper in Swindon, as soon as the shop was opened
in the morning, was in the habit of going to the post-office with his master. The letter-bag was
put into his mouth, and he carried it home. One morning he took it into his head to precede
his master, and go alone. The postmaster, on seeing him, felt so certain his owner was at the
door, that he delivered the bag to him, with which he ran home, while his master was seeking
him. From that time it became his regular duty to fetch the letters daily.
Sir Walter Scott tells us of the remarkable comprehension of human language evinced by his
bull-terrier, called Camp. He understood so many words, that Sir Walter felt convinced an
intercourse with dumb animals might be enlarged. Camp once bit the baker, for which Sir
Walter beat him, and, at the same time, explained the enormity of the offense; after which, to
the last moment of his life, he never heard the least allusion to the story, in whatever voice or

228
VERTEBRATA.
tone it might be mentioned, without getting up and retiring into the darkest corner of the room,
with great appearance of distress. Then, if it were said that the baker had been well paid, or
that the baker was not hurt after all, Camp came forward, capered, barked, and rejoiced. When
he was unable, toward the end of his life, to attend his master in his rides, he watched for his
return, and the servant used to tell him Sir Walter was coming down the hill, or through the
moor. Camp never mistook him, although he did not use any gesture, but either went out at
the front to ascend the hills, or at the back to get at the moor side.
The use of terriers is various. In this country they are chiefly employed for destroying rats,
in which they display prodigious skill and activity. The black-and-tan variety is a favorite in
the livery stables.
To this fifth division belong the pariahs of India, and generally the vagabond street-dogs of Asia
and Africa, which we have already described. We must also mention under this head the PoE,
found in some of the islands in the Pacific; the KARARAHE, the native breed of New Zealand-a
small species used as a watch-dog-probably the descendants of animals left on the island three
centuries ago by Spanish navigators; and the semi-domestic dogs of the Indians of Patagonia
and Terra del Fuego. Here also we must place the Dingo of New Holland.
10
AVM
rinn
THE DINGO.
This remarkable variety has the head elongated, the forehead flat, and the ears short and erect,
or with a slight direction forward. The body is thickly covered with hair of two kinds,—the
one woolly and gray, the other silky and of a deep yellow or fawn color. The limbs are
muscular, and, in their form and proportions, resemble those of the common shepherd's dog.
He is very active and courageous. When running, the head is lifted up, and the tail is carried
horizontally. Like other wild dogs, he does not generally bark, but whines and growls. He does,
however, occasionally bark, and has the same kind of snarling voice which the larger dogs com-
inonly have. The specimens of the dingo that have been brought to Europe have usually been of a
savage and intractable disposition. There have been several of these in the Zoological Gardens of
London. Some of them were inmates of that establishment for a dozen years, but not an indi-
vidual acquired the bark of the other dogs by which they were surrounded. When a stranger
made his
appearance, or when the hour of feeding arrived, the howl of the Australasian was the
first sound that was heard, and it was louder than all the rest. If some of them throw off a
portion of their native ferocity, others retain it undiminished. A bitch and two of her whelps,
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
229
nearly half
a
a
grown—a male and a female—had inhabited the same cage from the time that the
young ones were born. Some cause of quarrel occurred on a certain night, and the two bitches
fell upon the dog and destroyed him. There was not a limb left whole. Even in their native
country all attempts to domesticate them perfectly, have failed, for they never lose an opportunity
to devour the poultry or attack the sheep. One that was brought to England broke his chain-
scoured the surrounding country-and, before dawn, had destroyed several sheep; and another
attacked, and would have destroyed, an ass, if he had not been prevented. These animals were
formerly numerous in New Holland, but they are now comparatively rare.
A curious instance of the effect of domestication in producing variation in color has lately been
exhibited in a very striking and interesting manner in the menagerie of the Zoological Society by
a bitch of this variety. She had a litter of puppies, the sire of which was also of her own breed.
Both of them had been taken in the wild state, but were of the uniform reddish-brown color
which belongs to the race, and the mother had never bred before ; but the young, bred in con-
finement and in a half-domesticated state, were all of them more or less spotted.
a
DIVISION VI.—THE MASTIFF AND BULL-DOG.
The ancients divided dogs into three kinds: the Celeres, or swift dogs, which hunted by sight,
of which the greyhounds are the types; the Sagaces, or intelligent dogs, of which the spaniels are
the types; and the Pugnaces, or fighting dogs, of which the mastiffs and bull-dogs are the repre-
SO
The
THE MASTIFF.
sentatives. Of this latter kind, there was a variety from Epirus, probably the same as the modern
Albanian dog, which had great fame; but, after the discovery of Britain, these were pitted against
a native variety of that island-doubtless the progenitors of the modern mastiff or the bull-dog-
and completely beaten. The British pugnaces have maintained their ascendency from that day
to this. The climate, indeed, seems favorable to the development of the fighting faculty, as the
history of John Bull and his bull-dog alike testify.
The Mastiff is doubtless an original breed of the British islands, and there it has its completest

230
VERTEBRATA.
development. We may say, without offense, that he is a good deal of an Englishman in his air
and manner,—of full habit, grave and somewhat sullen aspect, and a deep, sonorous voice. He
seems aware of his imposing presence, and takes care that it shali make its full impression.
He acknowledges no superior, and is a little imperious toward his equals—especially those who
question his claims to superiority—but is magnanimous toward his inferiors. He is fierce in his
enmities, but warm and faithful to the death in his friendships. He understands his duties, and
scrupulously performs them. In the course of the night he frequently makes an excursion,
and carefully examines the premises he is appointed to guard and defend; and, on the slightest
suspicion, makes the welkin ring with his warning voice. He is as true to the cottager as the
prince, and woe be to whoever—when this dog is on duty-ventures to injure the person or
property of the one or the other. This breed is common in our own country, especially in the
New England villages; and, although often debased by impure blood, is still a faithful and
favorite watch-dog.
SWW.ORR NY
THE THIBET MASTIFF.
The THIBET MASTIFF is of immense size, and of a deep-black color, slightly clouded on the
sides, his feet and a place over the eyes being of a tawny hue. He is bred in the table-land of
the Himalayah Mountains bordering on Thibet. The Bhoteas, by whom many of them are care-
fully reared, come down to the low countries at certain seasons of the year to sell their borax and
musk. The women remain at home, and they and the flocks are most sedulously guarded by
these dogs. They are the defenders of almost every considerable mansion in Thibet.
To this division belong the Dog OF SUMATRA, the Dog of Cuba, a breed inferior to the Cuban
mastiff, already described, the LITTLE DANISH Dog, and a great number of mongrels, of no great
worth, which pass by different names in different countries.
The Bull-Dog has a round, thick head, a turned-up nose, and thick and pendulous lips. He is

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
231
a
of moderate size, but of great strength and courage. In general he makes a silent though fero-
cious attack, and the persisting powers of his teeth and jaws enable him to keep his hold against
any but the greatest efforts, so that the utmost mischief is likely to ensue as well to the innocent
visitor of his domicile as to the malicious intruder. He is scarcely capable of any education, and
is fitted for nothing but ferocity and combat.
The name of this dog, which is of English origin, is derived from his being employed in Eng-
land and other countries, until a few years ago, in baiting the bull. This was practiced by the low
and dissolute in many parts of the United Kingdom. Dogs were bred and trained for the
pur-
pose; and while many of them were injured or destroyed, the head of the bull was lacerated in
the most barbarous manner. Nothing can exceed the fury with which the bull-dog rushed on
his foe, and the obstinacy with which he maintained his hold. He fastened upon the lip, the
muzzle, or the eye, and there he hung, in spite of every effort of the bull to free himself from his
antagonist.
19
TAL
THE BULL-DOG.
a
Bull-dogs are not so numerous as they were a few years ago; and every kind-hearted
person
will rejoice to hear that bull-baiting is now put down by legal authority in every part of Great
Britain. A few of them are kept in this country, but they are neither useful nor agreeable.
The BULL-TERRIER.—This dog is a cross between the bull-dog and the terrier, and is generally
superior, both in appearance and value, to either of its progenitors. A second cross considerably
lessens the underhanging of the lower jaw, and a third entirely removes it, retaining the spirit
and determination of the animal. It forms a steadier friendship than either of them, and the
principal objection to it is its love of wanton mischief, and the dangerous irascibility which it oc-
casionally exhibits.
The Pug-Dog is a small variety, which has something of the power of the bull-terrier. It com-
bines a ludicrous importance and pretense with littleness of form and pettishness of character. It
is noisy and snappish, but capable of strong attachment. The French Pug is a docile creature,
and is taught many ingenious tricks.

232
VERTEBRATA.
學
​நமோ
LOSSING-BARRITT
The Wolf, Canis lupus, is always and everywhere an untamed, ferocious animal, yet, strange
to say, in its structure and physiological characteristics, it is very similar to the dog. On ac-
count of its superior strength and energy, and its being supposed to be the progenitor of the
dog, it is placed by some naturalists at the head of the Canidæ. It consists of many
varieties, differing somewhat in size and vigor, but all ravenous, daring, and destructive. Being
spread over a considerable portion of the world, and coming frequently in collision with man, its
history makes a prominent figure in the annals of the brute creation. It is associated with the
carly settlements of most countries as a dangerous enemy of man, and is hence woven into the
tales, ballads, legends, adventures, and fables which embellish the early literature of most nations.
Adventures with wolves furnish some of the most exciting tales of hunters in Europe as well as
America. The frightful story of “Little Red Riding-Hood," which has peopled the imaginations
of so many children with mischievous terrors, is a familiar example of the impressions which these
creatures have made on the popular mind.
The Common Wolf of Europe and America is of the size of a large dog; its usual color is a
yellowish gray: the hair is strong and harsh, and longest around the neck, shoulders, and
haunches. The muzzle is black, the upper lip and chin white, the eyes oblique, tail bushy, but
carried low: height of the shoulder twenty-seven to twenty-nine inches. This is the most com-
mon aspect of the species, but it varies in different countries. In the high northern countries of
Europe and America, owing to the effect of climate, it sometimes becomes white, or nearly so.
One of the varieties is much darker, and is called the Black Wolf, as well in Europe as America.
In different countries it varies not only in color, but in other characteristics. The French wolves
are generally browner and smaller than those of Germany; the Russian race is longer, and ap-
pears more bulky and formidable from the great quantity of long coarse hair on the cheeks,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
233
FRENCH WOLVES.
gullet, and neck; their eyes are very small, and their whole aspect peculiarly savage and sinister.
The Swedish and Norwegian wolves are similar to the Russian in form, but appear heavier and
deeper in the shoulder, lighter in color, and in winter, totally white. The Alpine wolves are
brownish gray, and smaller than the French; those of Italy, and to the eastward as far as
Turkey, are fulvous. Toward the Arctic regions of our own continent, they are nearly white;
further south, some are brown and some black. In Great Britain, these fierce animals were once
numerous and destructive; the power of several kings was exerted in vain to extirpate them.
They are, however, now altogether extinct in the Three Kingdoms. In the mountainous parts
of France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway, and Russia, they are still numerous, and in
some districts they are often formidable to the inhabitants.
In Asia there are several varieties, as the LANDGAH, of Nepaul; the BERIAH, of India ; the C.
hodophilax, of Japan; and the BLACK DERBOUN, of the mountains of Arabia and Syria. These
present peculiarities which have led some naturalists to regard them as of distinct species.
Sir John Richardson enumerates the following varieties among the North American wolves :
the Common GRAY WOLF, Canis lupus griseus, the Mahaygan of the Cree Indians, and the Ama-
rok of the Esquimaux; the WHITE WOLF, C. l. albus ; the PIED WOLF, C. l. sticte; the DUSKY
or CLOUDED WOLF, C. l. nubilus, the BLACK AMERICAN WOLF, C. 1. ater ; and the PRAIRIE
WOLF, the Lupus latrans of Say. To these we may add the RED TEXAN WOLF, C. 1. rufus.
l
As we regard the various kinds of dogs of one species, so we consider the wolves as of one
species. They differ in size, form, and color, but, as we have said, all are savage, fierce, and pre-
daceous. The first named, the Gray Wolf, identical with the common wolf of Europe, was spread
over our country, in its early days, from Maine to Georgia. The first settlers of Boston were obliged
to fence in their cattle at night to protect them from the wolves. An old author says: “The wolf
of Carolina is the dog of the woods. It is neither so large nor so fierce as the European wolf.
in great droves in the night to hunt deer, which they do as well as the best pack of
hounds: nay, one of these will hunt down a deer. They are often so poor that they can hardly
When they catch no prey, they go to a swamp and fill their belly full of mud; if afterward
they chance to get any thing of flesh, they will disgorge the mud and eat the other. When
they hunt in the night, and there are a great many together, they make the most hideous and
frightful noise that ever was heard. The fur makes good muffs. The skin, dressed to a parch-
ment, makes the best drum-heads, and if tanned, makes the best sort of shoes for the summer-
countries.” We hardly need say, that with much truth this account mingles some absurd fiction.
Although this animal has disappeared from the settled parts of our continent, it is still common
VOL. I.-30
They go
run.

234
VERTEBRATA.
vyn
mine
dem
AMERICAN WOLF.
;
throughout the wild northern regions, being more or less abundant in different districts. " Their
foot-marks," says Richardson,“ may be seen by the side of every stream, and a traveler can rarely
pass a night in these wilds without hearing them howling around him. They are very numerous
on the sandy plains which, lying to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, extend from the sources
of the Peace and Saskatchewan rivers toward the Missouri. There bands of them hang on the
skirts of the bison herds, and prey upon the sick and straggling calves. They do not, under
ordinary circumstances, venture to attack the full-grown animal, for the hunters informed me
that they often see wolves walking through a herd of bulls without exciting the least alarm; and
the marksmen, when they crawl toward a buffalo for the purpose of shooting it, occasionally wear
a cap with two ears, in imitation of the head of a wolf, knowing from experience that they will
be suffered to approach nearer in that guise. On the Barren Grounds through which the Copper-
mine River flows, I had more than once an opportunity of seeing a single wolf in close pursuit of
a reindeer; and I witnessed a chase on Point Lake when covered with ice, which terminated in
a fine buck reindeer being overtaken by a large white wolf, and disabled by a bite in the flank.
An Indian, who was concealed on the borders of the lake, ran in and cut the deer's throat with
his knife: the wolf at once relinquished his prey and sneaked off. In the chase, the poor deer
urged its flight by great bounds, which for a time exceeded the speed of the wolf; but it stopped
so frequently to gaze on its relentless enemy, that the latter, toiling on at a 'long gallop,' with its
tongue lolling out of its mouth, gradually came up. After each hasty look the deer redoubled its
efforts to escape; but, either exhausted by fatigue or enervated by fear, it became, just before it
was overtaken, scarcely able to keep its feet."
The same author observes that the wolves destroy many foxes, which they easily run down if
they perceive them on a plain at any distance from their hiding-places; and he relates that in
January, 1827, a wolf was seen to catch an Arctic fox within sight of Fort Franklin, and although
immediately pursued by hunters on snow-shoes, it bore off its prey in its mouth without any
apparent diminution of its speed. The same wolf continued for some days to prowl in the vicin-
ity of the fort, and even stole fish from a sledge which two dogs were accustomed to draw home
from the nets without a driver. As this kind of depredation could not be allowed to go on, the
wolf was waylaid and killed. He further states, that the buffalo-hunters would be unable to
preserve the game they kill, from the wolves, if the latter were not as timid as they are rapacious.
The simple precaution of tying a handkerchief to a branch, or of blowing up a bladder and hang-
ing it to wave in the wind, is sufficient to keep herds of wolves at a distance. At times, however,
he
says that they are impelled by hunger to be more venturous, and that they have been known
to steal provisions from under a man's head in the night, and to come into a traveler's bivouac
and
carry off some of his dogs. “During our residence at Cumberland House in 1820," contin-
"
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
235
ues Sir John, “a wolf, which had been prowling round the fort, and was wounded by a musket-
ball and driven off, returned after it became dark, while the blood was still flowing from its
wound, and carried off a dog from among fifty others, that howled piteously, but had not courage
to unite in an attack on their enemy. I was told of a poor Indian woman who was strangled by
a wolf, while her husband, who saw the attack, was hastening to her assistance; but this was the
only instance of their attacking human life that came to my knowledge. As the winter advances
and the snow becomes deep, the wolves, being no longer able to hunt with success, suffer from
hunger, and in severe seasons many die."
Mgo
Varm
wives
We
PRAIRIE WOLVES.
a
The PRAIRIE WOLF is a well-known variety, of a smaller size, with a sharp pointed nose, and a
fox-like expression. Its general color is a reddish brown. It has received various names, as the
Barking Wolf, from its barking somewhat like a dog, the Burrowing Dog, and the Cased Wolf.
Its northern range is about the 55th degree of latitude, and thence southward to Mexico. It is
abundant in Texas. It associates in greater numbers than the gray wolf of the same districts : it
hunts in packs, and brings forth its young in burrows on the open plain, remote from the woods.
On the banks of the Saskatchewan these animals start forth from the earth in great numbers
on hearing the report of a gun, and gather round the hunter expectant of the offal of the animal
which he has slain. They are much more fleet than the common wolves. Sir John Richardson
was informed by an experienced hunter who had resided for forty years on the Saskatchewan,
that the only animal on the plains which he could not overtake, when mounted on a good horse,
was the prong-horned antelope, and that the prairie wolf was the next in speed. These animals
live on birds, small quadrupeds, and, when urged by necessity, on the carcasses of buffaloes and
other animals. When taken young they can be tamed, and have some of the qualities of a dog,
but neither his intelligence nor his fidelity.
The Red Texan WOLF resembles the gray wolf in size and form, but has a more foxy coun-
tenance; in its habits, also, it resembles the gray variety. It is common from Arkansas to
Mexico, and perhaps further south. In color it is of a reddish brown, but there is a considerable
diversity among the different varieties.
It
may be remarked, generally, that the gray, white, and black wolves are widely distributed
over North America, all being found more or less frequently, from the Arctic regions to the Gulf
of Mexico. The prairie wolf seems nearly confined to the plains east of the Rocky Mountains ;
the red Texan wolf is exclusively southern in its distribution.
The CAYOTL or CayGOTLE of Mexico appears to be a small variety of wolf, of a whitish-gray
color, and of a less savage character than is common to the tribe. Mr. Ryan tells us that he was
followed by one of them, and every evening when he encamped, the wolf squatted himself down,
a
a

236
VERTEBRATA.
and helped himself whenever he could. Something, however, was generally left for him; and he
became so tame, that he stopped when the party stopped, and when any thing was killed, walked
round and round, licking his jaws in expectation of his share. No one ever molested him, and
therefore he continued quite harmless.
The AGUARA, C.1. jubatus, of South America, is called the RED WOLF by some authors. It is a
great plunderer, but flies from man. It seems confined to the marshy districts of Paraguay,
along the Rio de la Plata.
From the narratives which are furnished respecting wolves, it would appear that the European
varieties are much more savage than our own.
We are told that a woman, in Russia, accompa-
nied by three of her children, was one day in a sledge, when they were pursued by a number of
wolves. She put the horse to a gallop, and drove toward her home with the utmost speed. She
be
2055116.9.ARITT
A WOMAN AND HER CHILDREN PURSUED BY WOLVES.
was not far from it; but the ferocious animals gained upon her, and were upon the point of rushing
on to the sledge. For the preservation of her own life, and that of the remaining children, the
poor frantic creature cast one of them to her blood-thirsty pursuers. This stopped their career
for a moment; but, after devouring the poor child, they renewed the pursuit, and a second time
came up with the vehicle. The mother, driven to desperation, resorted to the same horrible
expedient, and threw another of her offspring to the ferocious assailants. The third child was
also sacrificed in the same way, and soon after, the wretched being reached her home in safety.
Here she related what had happened, and endeavored to palliate her own conduct, by describing
the dreadful alternative to which she had been reduced. A peasant, however, who was among
the bystanders, and heard the recital, took up an axe, and with one blow cleft her skull in two,
saying, at the same time, that " a mother who could thus sacrifice her children for the preserva-
tion of her own life, was no longer fit to live.” The man was 'committed to prison, but the
emperor subsequently granted him a pardon.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
237
The following story is less tragic, but not less exciting. In Hungary, a man and a boy, on a
sledge, were proceeding, just at dusk, toward a village. As they emerged from a wood, the
owner, who was seated behind with his back to the horses, saw a wolf rush out of the angle of
the forest, and give chase to the sledge at the top of his speed. The man shouted to the boy
who was driving, “Farkas ! farkas!"-A wolf! a wolf!—“Itze het! itze het!"-Drive on! and the
lad, looking round in terror, beheld the animal just clearing the gripe which ran along the road
they had passed Quick as lightning, with shout and whip, and with all his might, he urged the
horses to gain the village. Away they flew at their fullest stretch, as if sensible of the danger
behind them. The man turned his seat, and urged the boy still more energetically to lash the
horses to their very utmost speed. He did not need any further incentive, but pushed on the
nags with frantic exertion. The sledge flew over the slippery road with fearful speed; but the
wolf urged more his utmost pace, and gained fast upon it. The village was distant about two
hundred yards below the brow of the hill; nothing but the wildest speed could save them, and
the man felt that the wolf would inevitably spring upon them before they could get to the
bottom. Both shouted wildly as they pursued their impetuous career, the sledge swerving
frightfully from one side of the road to the other, and threatening every moment to turn over.
The man then drew his thick bunda-sheep-skin-over his head; he looked behind and saw
the fierce, panting beast within a few yards of him; he thought he felt his hot breath in his own
face; he ensconced his head again in his bunda, and, in another moment, the wolf sprang upon
his back, and gripped into the thick sheep-skin that covered his neck.
With admirable presence of mind the bold-hearted peasant now threw up both his hands, and
grasping the wolf's head and neck with all his strength, hugged him with an iron clutch to his
shoulders. “ Itze het!" shouted the brave fellow, and holding his enemy in a death grip,
they swept into the village, dragging the fierce brute after them, in spite of his frantic efforts to
disengage himself. The shouts of the boy and man, with the mad speed and noise of the horses,
brought the villagers out to see what was the matter. “Farkas ! farkas !" shouted both, and the
peasants immediately seeing their perilous position, gave chase with their axes, calling out to the
man to hold on bravely. At length the boy succeeded in slackening the speed of the animals,
the sledge stopped, and the peasants, rushing on, dispatched the ferocious creature upon the
man's back, whose arms were so stiffened with the immense muscular exertion he had so long
maintained, that he could hardly loosen them from the neck of the dead wolf.
!
EREDMANEKENNYENGASIN.V.
THE JACKAL.
The JACKAL has the dental formula of the dog. The pupil of the eye is round; the color
yellowish gray above, whitish below; thighs and legs yellow; ears ruddy; muzzle very pointed:

238
VERTEBRATA.
tail reaching hardly to the heel. The colors sometimes vary; the size is about two thirds that
of the wolf.
Its habits are gregarious; it hunts in packs, and is the pest of those countries where it is found.
In their huntings the jackals will frequently attack the larger quadrupeds, but the smaller animals
and the poultry are their most frequent prey. Their cry is very peculiar and piercing. Captain
Beechey notices it as having something rather appalling when heard for the first time at night;
and he remarks, that as they usually come in packs, the first shriek which is uttered is always
the signal for a general chorus. “We hardly know," continues the captain, " a sound which
partakes less of harmony than that which is at present in question; and, indeed, the sudden burst
of the answering long-protracted scream, succeeding immediately to the opening note, is scarcely
less impressive than the roll of the thunder-clap immediately after a flash of lightning. The
effect of this music is very much increased when the first note is heard in the distance—a circum-
stance which often occurs—and the answering yell bursts out from several points at once, within
a few yards or feet of the place where the auditors are sleeping." These animals burrow in the
earth, and are said to devour the dead on the battle-field, and to scratch away the earth from the
shallow graves in order to feed on the corpses. Jackals are also noted for a very disagreeable
odor. The story of the jackal being the lion's provider, may have arisen from the notion that
,
the yell of the pack gives notice to the lion that prey is on foot, or from the jackal's being seen
to feed on the remnants of the lion's
quarry.
Some authors are of opinion that the three hundred foxes between whose tails Samson is said
to have put fire-brands in order that they might set fire to the crops of the Philistines—Judges, xv.
4, 5—were jackals. Many of the modern Oriental names for the last-mentioned animals—Chical
of the Turks, Sciagal, Sciugal, Sciachal, or Shacal of the Persians—come very near to the Hebrew
word “Shual.” Hasselquist, speaking of “ Canis aureus, the Jackcall, Chical of the Turks," says:
,
“There are greater numbers of this species of fox to be met with than the former—Canis vulpes-
particularly near Jaffa, about Gaza, and in Galilee. I leave others to determine which of these
is the fox of Samson."
Fossil DOGS AND WOLVES.—The fossil remains of dogs and wolves have been found in various
parts of Europe, and especially in the bone-caves of Great Britain. Gervais says, however, that
no bones known to be those of the dog have been discovered of a date anterior to the age
of
and to that of the ox, horse, and other animals which came into existence with man.
Genus FOX: Vulpes.—The fox agrees with the dog in dental formula and general osteological
character, and hence he has been classified with the genus Canis. But the lengthened and
sharp-pointed muzzle, the round head, the form of the pupil of the eye, —which is linear and
vertical by day, though it becomes nearly round in the darkness,—the long body, short limbs,
and elongated, thick, and bushy brush, constitute differences which separate the former from the
latter, and have led naturalists to place the fox in a distinct genus.
The Common Fox of Europe, V. vulgaris, although distinguished by some variations of color,
is generally of the same complexion as our American red fox. It is the most remarkable species,
and is that which has long figured in history. It is found in most parts of Europe, and in Asia
and Africa. It is voracious, swift of foot, and of great strength for its size. Its prominent char-
acteristic, however, and that which has been noted in all ages and countries, is its cunning. “As
cunning as a fox” is a saying in many languages.
In the carliest fables,—those of Lokman the Arabian, from which Esop is supposed to have
borrowed,—the fox figures in the character of the flatterer, and from that day to this, "Reynard
the fox” has been the chief hero of the proverbialists of ali countries.
We have already had occasion to notice the intense interest with which the chase of the fox is
regarded in England. This is the only sport there called “hunting," the pursuit of other animals
being expressed by various terms. The chase of the hare is "coursing;" of birds, “shooting," &c.
The red fox, the only species in that country, is said to be superior to the common red fox in
America, in his capacity to sustain a long chase; and, living in a thickly settled country, he is
a more wily beast than his American brother. The following account of the fox in England,
from the “London Sporting Magazine," will be read with interest :
a
man,
-
.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
239
a
66
“Though the cunning of the fox is proverbial, this is not the only remarkable quality by which
he is characterized; he is also bold and resolute, particularly when a supply of food has to be
provided for a litter of cubs. He possesses, besides, those enduring qualities that will carry
him
through a chase of some forty or fifty miles, right ahead, across every description of country-low
grounds and commons, fallows and pastures, woods and plantations; and although, during the
progress of the run, he is remarkably crafty, and will avail himself of every means to elude the
vigilance of his determined pursuers, yet, even when defeated, he dies game to the very
last.
Imagine yourself placed, as the hounds are drawing the cover, in a stubble-field, immediately
adjoining the wood where the earths are situated. Reynard, pursued by a stanch and true pack
of well-bred and well-managed hounds, has threaded its most intricate mazes-doubled and
redoubled, crossed and recrossed—for the purpose of puzzling his numerous enemies. But check
after check follows, and he is at length forced to break cover, which he does very reluctantly.
On reaching the stubble-field, just mentioned, he will pause for a moment to listen, taking breath
at the same time. His brush is draggled in the dew, and his coat is also wet and discolored. He
turns his sharp nose toward the cover, with his ears pricked up to catch the sound of the
approach of danger. One fore-foot is elevated; and there he stands, a perfect picture for the
skillful and truth-delineating artist. He soon finds that his host of enemies are on the scent; he
hears the voice of the huntsmen, the cry of the pack, the cracking of the knotted cord, and that
indescribable roar which is peculiar to the chase, with the shrill words of the manager of the
pack, 'Yoicks, my hounds! At him, Rover! Yoicks, my pets! Yoicks! Yoicks!' waving his
сар,
and encouraging them onward. At the same time, the whips in the distance vociferate,
* Broke cover! Gone away! Gone away! Hearing all this, and perfectly understanding its
motive, Reynard plucks up additional spirit and resolution, and flies at an accelerated speed, to
reach a distant earth, or some well-known place of refuge and safety, perhaps to leave his home
forever, and with the certainty of a desperate chase.
“Nor is the fox the least dexterous in securing his prey. Like the badger, he leaves the
earths generally about ten or eleven o'clock at night, unless the state of the weather be extremely
unfavorable, and then he prudently stops at home. His sharp bark about midnight indicates his
whereabout. He visits farmyards and homesteads, henroosts, and other out-buildings, containing
ducks, geese, and turkeys, making, when he can accomplish an entrance, sad havoc among every
description of these inhabitants of the farm premises. An instance of the cunning of the fox in
his forays occurred a short time ago, and should be related here. A neighbor of ours possessed
a large number of fine turkeys, which usually roosted in the branches of some tall Scotch firs,
immediately adjoining the farmyard ; Reynard had an eye on them, and made several visits
during the moonlight nights unsuccessfully. They were perched too high for him to reach them,
and therefore he was obliged to resort to stratagem, for stratagem is the fox's stalking-horse.
“Now, how was this to be practiced? Well, he first scratched the ground beneath the tree
with his fore-feet, and then the base of the tree itself, in order to draw their attention; at the
same time looking up to mark every movement. He then ran round the tree in rapid rings.
The turkeys, aware of their danger, followed his quick movements with their eyes, and became
confused and dizzy. One fine bird fell plump upon the ground, and was instantly killed, accord-
ing to the authority of the shepherd, who was watching the proceedings. The like scheme was
repeated, and down came another, which shared the same fate. Both were borne off to the
earths. The loss of turkey after turkey induced the farmer to watch in ambush, and the truth
of this stratagem was fully established. But the cunning animal paid the forfeit of his own life,
for he was shot dead while decamping with his last booty.
“The fox will travel a long distance in search of food; but, like a true general, never when he
can levy his contributions near home. Thus, also, if the estate in which he is located abounds
with game, his visits to the homestead will be of less frequent occurrence, nor will he attack
hares, if there be an abundant supply of rabbits. When, however, this is not the case, he will,
even in the day-time, seize the hen pheasant, or partridge, upon their nests, as well as the hare
upon her 'form,' notwithstanding the alarm created by the crows, which are constantly upon the
watch, and have a particular eye to his movements. The fox is thus the means of causing very

240
VERTEBRATA.
extensive destruction among the several descriptions of game. In those woods where foxes
abound to a considerable extent, they will so diminish the number of rabbits that very few can
be seen at any time. Becoming under these circumstances extremely scarce, even to the foxes
themselves, they are compelled to extend their nightly rambles to a considerable distance from
home. If there is a young family to be provided for, they are often bold and determined in
search of, and in seizing their prey. The old fox will then leave the earths early in the after-
noon, or just before the sun has reached the west ; and, proceeding very cautiously, will approach
the homestead situated nearest the cover, or the dwelling of the woodman. Indeed, they fre-
quently visit the farmyard, and seize the first fowl that comes within their reach, especially if
they have strayed a little distance from home. Many instances have occurred, where the old
farmyard cock, the father of a numerous progeny, after taking his many wives over five-barred
LOSSING-BARRITT:
THE FOX AND THE GOOSE.
gates, has been seized and borne away into the dense cover, notwithstanding his loud but una-
vailing cries, which have sent his companions homeward in a tremendous hurry and alarm.
“Some years ago, a gentleman had a remarkably fine game-cock from a very celebrated breed.
He was seized in the way just described; the alarm was given, a gun was taken, and the trigger
pulled. The shot took effect, and the thief was laid prostrate on the ground. The bird, liberated
from his grasp, jumped on the body of the fox, clapped his wings, and crowed right lustily—a
sufficient proof of his high birth.
“ It is a common opinion that if the parent fox fails to bring home a supply of food, to satisfy
the cravings of hunger, her own cubs will deprive her of existence. This is somewhat question-
able; still, the assertion has been boldly maintained, and its truth is said to have been confirmed.
For instance, many years ago, a bark-stripper, who was occupied very early in the morning on
the outside of a very intricate cover, saw an old fox returning home with a fine goose upon her
back. The man watched the proceedings. A large hay-stack stood near the wood side, and this
spot was within a short distance of the earths, which were found in an extremely dense and rocky

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
241
locality. The old fox placed the goose on the ground close to the stack, and dashed into the
thick underwood. The bark-stripper descended the tree, took possession of the prize, and retired
to mark the result. The old fox had evidently gone for the purpose of fetching the cubs, as she
soon appeared and conducted them to the very spot where the goose had been deposited. She
found that it was gone, and evinced the utmost degree of anxiety and alarm, hurrying about in
every direction. The bird could not be found, and the cubs, disappointed of their expected
supply of food, flew at the mother and tore her to pieces !
But, however savage
the
young foxes may be, the most affectionate care is evinced by the
mother for her cubs. Often, on a fine summer evening, she will emerge from her home, near an
open green spot; and, after looking cautiously around and attentively listening, her cubs will
follow her. She leads them to the open space alluded to, and they commence their playful
gambols in the most joyous manner possible, tumbling each other about, sometimes placing
AWA
mim
IM
FOXES AT PLAY.
themselves in a row, and commencing the game of leap-frog like a lot of merry schoolboys;
sometimes, as there is said to be one fool in all large families, they chase this unfortunate member
about in the roughest manner possible, as if to arouse its dormant energies, while the old fox,
sitting upon her haunches, marks with a parent's fondness the playfulness of her children. But,
on the least note of danger being heard, a low whimper from her is instantly obeyed, and they all
immediately disappear to their den.
“ The fox seems to possess a mingled humor and love of mischief, almost human. When he
encounters a large toad, he will place both his fore-feet beneath its body, and pitch it twenty or
thirty feet high, repeating this operation very rapidly until the unfortunate reptile is either disabled
or killed.
"Reynard, although extremely cunning and cautious, is at the same time very provident.
When the evening twilight is spread over the earth, and the woods have assumed a deeper gloom,
and the notes of the feathered race, from the jay to the raven, are wholly hushed, or but faintly
VOL. 1.-31

242
VERTEBRATA.
heard, and the drowsy tinklings of bells lull the distant folds, the rabbits will leave their separate
burrows, situated on the margin of the cover, for the purpose of feeding in the open land. The
fox, bent upon his prowling expedition, may then be dimly discerned, stealing along the broad
riding, or taking a shorter cut along a narrower path, to reach the feeding-ground in question.
But, in approaching the outside of the cover, and placing himself between the game and its
retreat, he exercises remarkable caution. His head is bent close to the ground, his body crouched,
his steps are as silent and stealthy as those of the cat, and thus advancing, he is enabled to reach
the proper distance for springing upon his victim, which he very rarely fails to secure. But,
however dexterous in thus seizing his prey, Reynard is not reckless or thoughtless in regard to
his resources. If he has been feeding upon a rabbit, the hind-quarters, for instance, at a distance
from home, he will not leave the remainder for either the vermin or the rapacious birds; but,
carefully pulling the skin over the flesh, for the purpose of keeping it clean, will bury it in some
loose earth, and come back and fetch it the next day.
“The calculation of this species is also remarkable, for two foxes will sometimes act in concert.
I knew an instance of this sort in respect to an old hare that had frequently bid defiance to and
eluded the speed of the best greyhounds. A fox that knew where the form of this hare was
situated, aroused and hunted her like the best trained harrier, and forced her up the long wood-
siding. Now, his companion had placed himself in ambush, about half way up. On came the
hare, at a rapid rate. The fox last mentioned rushed at her, and missed her; but she was turned
in this
way
into the
very teeth of the other; and thus was effected by stratagem what the grey-
hound had failed to accomplish by speed."
The animal we have been describing is the prominent species, at least in Europe. There are
others in different parts of the Eastern continent, as the V. Bengalensis, the KOKREE of the
Mahrattas; the V. Himalaicus, resembling the American and European red fox, with a fine rich
fur of brilliant and varied colors; and the CAAMA, V. Caama, a small species of Southern Africa.
Three species are also mentioned as belonging to the region of the Nile: V. Niloticus; V. fame-
licus ; and V. pallidus. It should be remarked that none of these are thoroughly known, and
some of them may be only varieties.
The Common AMERICAN Fox, V. fulvus, is of a bright reddish color; the nose, the lower parts
.
of the legs, forehead, neck, and flanks, however, being black. It so closely resembles the European
fox, that it was for a long time regarded as the same species. It is now known to be distinct. It
is extensively distributed throughout North America and the north of Asia, it having been found
in Japan. It is common in British America, and several thousand skins are annually collected by
the northern British fur-traders. It is still common throughout the United States, and even in
New England, where it is pursued with fox-hounds, and shot as it comes within range. Some
thousands of skins are thus annually obtained: one individual will often obtain thirty, or more,
in a season. In the Southern States the fox is hunted somewhat in the English fashion,—the
gray variety being most common in that region. Sir John Richardson says that the species we
are describing does not possess the wind of its English namesake,—that it runs with great swift-
ness for a short distance, but its strength is soon exhausted. We have accounts, however, which
seem to show that this animal is quite as enduring as the English one.
This animal feeds on eggs, crickets, rabbits and other small quadrupeds, with such birds as he
can seize. Many of them live along the sea-shore, and prey on water-fowl or fish. They do not
refuse carrion when hard pressed for food. They also carry off young lambs, geese, turkeys,
ducks, and poultry. Everywhere they have the reputation of gormandizers and thieves. When
hunted by dogs, on the beaches, they often take to the water for escape. They live in burrows,
and bring forth from four to nine at a birth. These are blind, and covered for a time with a soft,
yellowish, woolly fur. Sometimes the litter displays a variety of colors, among which are found
some marked like the cross fox. They display the same aptitude to cunning as the European
fox, although they are less exposed, and therefore less trained in the fine arts peculiar to foxes.
When pursued by dogs, they will frequently bafle their pursuers by leaping up on the trunk
of a tree. When the pack has passed, they leap down, and trot off in a safe direction.
We are not surprised at the hard names that are given to the fox: he is voracious, thieving,
-
а

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
243
SNORRIX
THE FOX BRINGING FOOD TO HER YOUNG.
a
and destructive; but let us not abuse our own minds by giving a moral and therefore a damning
signification to these terms. He lives as he was made to live, and simply obeys the laws of his
existence. As he is a disturber of the peace, we claim the right to hunt him and extirpate his
race, by virtue of that charter which gave to man dominion over the beasts of the field and the
fowls of the air. But we must do justice to Nature and the ways of the Author of Nature. We
see a fox steal our geese, our poultry, our lambs; and, with a feeling of holy indignation, delight
to see him in a trap or the jaws of the hounds. But, take another view of the case. The fox is
impelled by hunger, and must eat or die; nay, he may have a family of young ones that must
starve if he fails to bring them food. No moral law restrains him: he has a perfect right to any
thing that comes in his way, although he must take the risk of seizing it. Look at the father or
mother fox, stealing out at nightfall, knowing that he is waylaid by steel-traps, that in the morning
the hounds will be on his track, that his every step is taken in peril of his life. Yet he braves
these dangers; he snatches the food from the very jaws of death, and hastens home, not to
appease his own hunger but to feed his children. Is there not something holy, beautiful,
touching in this—the cunning, thieving, reprobate fox, risking his life and forgetting his appetite,
to feed those that God has given him? I believe that often, where man views with hate, God
looks down with benignity on his brute creation. May it not be, too, that even in respect to
human beings, even those who fall under the ban of society or the law, God is often more merciful
than the judgments of man? Man would never have selected a thief on the cross to be an
example of mercy: that was the act of God!
The Gray Fox, V. Virginianus, is generally of a gray color, varied with black, the sides and
neck yellowish red; the colors, however, differ in different specimens. The head is broader and
shorter than that of the red fox; the fur coarser, the legs longer, and the body thicker and of a
more clumsy aspect. As the red fox prevails at the North, this variety is most common at the
South. It is exceedingly voracious, but shy and cowardly. Among the planters of the South, it
is an object of aversion on account of its inroads upon the poultry. Although generally nocturnal
in its habits, it goes forth at all hours of the day, if necessity or taste incline.. At night, it has a
hoarse querulous bark, sometimes one fox answering another. When hard pressed in the chase,
this animal frequently takes refuge in a tree, which it will climb to the height of twenty or thirty
feet. It feeds on partridges, quails, rabbits, and generally on such birds and quadrupeds as it can
capture. It does not usually burrow, but makes a kennel, furnished with leaves, in a hollow tree.
The AMERICAN Cross Fox, V. decussatus.—The general color of this animal is red above,
and dark brown below: it is distinguished by a black cross on the neck and shoulders, and
а

244
VERTEBRAT A.
U hee B.DEL. 650
THE GRAY FOX.
a black longitudinal stripe on the under surface. In size, form, and face, it resembles the red
fox, of which it is a variety. Its skin formerly sold for twenty-five dollars : at present it is only
worth three times that of the common red fox. This animal is found from Nova Scotia westward
across Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, New York, and Canada, and northward to Labrador.
The Swift Fox or KitFox, V. velox, is a small, slender species, generally of a gray color. In
form it resembles the red fox, and in color the gray fox. It is a beautiful animal, runs with
ЛАТ.
www
A on.ITAS
THE AMERICAN CROSS FOX.
great swiftness, and, if pursued, doubles and winds with admirable skill and alertness. It iives
in deep burrows, and is found on the plains and prairies on both sides of the Rocky Mountains,
about latitude 49º.
The Silver Fox or Black Fox, V. argentatus, of America, is generally regarded as only a
variety of the common fox, but Gervais considers it as probably a distinct species. It re-
sembles the variety called Black Fox of Europe. The size is that of the common fox, the fur
exceedingly long, soft, and rich ; and, although presenting great variety in the different species,
generally silvery black, sometimes with a chocolate tinge, the tip of the tail always white. The
frontal part of the cranium has a peculiar lyre-shape, distinguishing it from every other species.
This animal is found from Hudson's Bay to Pennsylvania, but it is everywhere exceedingly scarce.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
245
Its fur is among the most valuable, being prized in all civilized countries, and especially in Russia
and China; a single skin will often sell for fifty or seventy-five dollars. This species displays the
general characteristics of the common fox.
The JACKAL Fox, V. Utah, is larger than the common fox, the fur very long and fine, color
grayish brown, and the tail irregularly banded with dark brown and dull white. The hues,
however, vary in different specimens. This animal was first noticed by Lewis and Clarke; it is
found in the Rocky Mountains, in Utah, in Oregon, and the northern regions traversed by the
British fur-traders,—it being nowhere common. The aspect and appearance of this animal are
peculiar, and probably it will prove to be a distinct species.
The Arctic Fox, or Isatis, V. lagopus, is found in both hemispheres, within the Arctic
circle, and is generally white or gray. One variety, called Sooty Fox, or Blue Fox, and erroneously
supposed to be a distinct species, has been denominated V. fuliginosus. These creatures are grega-
rious, and in some sandy places their burrows are so numerous as to be called villages. They have
not the rank smell of other foxes, and are exceedingly clean in their habits, never soiling their
dwellings. They have not the cunning and caution of the red fox, and are easily taken in traps.
Their fur is little valued, but their flesh is much esteemed They are numerous from Hudson's
Bay to Behring's Straits. The young ones migrate southward late in the autumn, but retire
early in the spring to their haunts along the borders of the Arctic Sea. The V. Azara, V. Magel-
lanicus, and V. Corsac, are South American varieties or species, very little known.
a
VINSI
W
THE FENNEC.
THE OTOCYON.
Genus FENNEC: Fennec.—Of this we know but a single species, the Canis Cerda, or Fox
FENNEC, which lives along the borders of the Barbary States, in the Desert of Sahara, and in
Central Africa. It is about seven inches long; has long ears, and an exquisite sense of hearing.
It is of a pale dove-color, and feeds on the small game of the desert.
Genus OTOCYON: Otocyon.—Of this there is but one species, the Otocyon megalotis, found in
the country of the Hottentots: it seems to combine something of the fox and the civet. Its
fur is thick, the tail rather short but bushy, the legs long, the color grayish brown varied with
fawn. The length is fifteen inches. Its habits are little known.

246
VERTEBRATA.
BEOMANEKENNY.ENGRS.NY-
THE DOMESTIC CAT.
THE FELIDÆ, OR CAT FAMILY.
We place at the head of this article an engraving of the soft, pleasant, purring puss of our
firesides, for, gentle as she seems, she is the representative of the most predaceous family among
quadrupeds. She is, in fact, cousin-german to the lion, the tiger, the cougar, and jaguar, all
of which belong to the tribe of cats. The difference between these creatures and puss is, that
while she feeds on mice, they feed on sheep, deer, antelopes, and buffaloes, or, if a chance offers,
upon man himself. They all make prey of living animals, and are admirably fitted by nature
for the war they incessantly wage on other creatures. In their structure, the head is short and
almost rounded in its form, for although the zygomatic arches and ridges are greatly developed,
the muscles for moving the jaws are so exceedingly large as to fill up all the cavities, and pro-
duce a smooth, plump surface. The jaws are short, the dentition consisting of six incisors and one
canine, above and below; four præ-molars above and two below, on each side; and two molars
above and one below, also on each side. The canines are long, sharp, compressed, and cutting;
the præ-molars are furnished with two roots, compressed, pointed, and serrated; the flesh-teeth
or true molars are very large, sharp-edged, and terminated by two or three points; and behind
the flesh-tooth in the upper jaw there is a small tubercular tooth which is wanting in the lowe
jaw. In addition to this formidable apparatus of cutting teeth, the tongue in these animals is
covered with small recurved prickles, with which they are enabled to lick the last particles of
flesh from the bones of their prey.
In the form of their bodies the cats are all light, and excessively muscular, so that their
activity is astonishing. Their legs are usually of moderate length, but exceedingly powerful;
and the toes—five before and four behind—are armed with long, curved, and acute claws, which
are preserved from being blunted by a peculiar arrangement of the phalanges. For this purpose,
the last or claw joint of each toe is drawn back, by ligaments attached to the penultimate joint,
until it assumes a perpendicular position, when the claw, which it supports, is completely retracted
within a sort of sheath, and is entirely concealed by the fur. This is effected by the elasticity
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
247
of the ligaments, and without any exertion on the part of the animal. But, when a cat is
about to strike its prey, the claw joint is pulled down by the flexor muscles, and the formidable
talons are then protruded, ready to
be buried in the flesh of the victim.
The animals of this family have gener-
ally very acute senses, especially those
of hearing and sight. The nictating
membrane is very large and movable :
the glaring or glistening of the eye,
CAT'S RETRACTILE CLAW, COVERED AND UNCOVERED.
in a dim light, seeming as if the ball
were on fire, is common to many carnivorous animals, but in none is it so conspicuous as in
the cats. This feature gives to the larger species an indescribable look of ferocity, especially
when they are excited, either in pursuit of their prey or in conflict with an enemy. The
lower surface of the foot is furnished with thick,
ball-like pads of the epidermis, upon which the
animal walks, and these are the cause of the pe-
culiarly noiseless tread which is characteristic of
all the members of this family. They always take
their prey by springing suddenly upon it from
CAT'S CLAW WITH THE FLEXOR MUSCLE.
some concealed station, and, if they miss their aim
in the first attack, rarely follow it up. Accordingly they are all cowardly, sneaking animals, and
never willingly face their enemy unless brought to bay or wounded, trusting always to their
power of surprising their victims by the aid of their stealthy and noiseless movements. They are
mostly nocturnal and solitary in their habits; some of them, however, live in families. They never,
with a few rare exceptions, unite in troops, like the wolf or the jackal. They are distributed in
all parts of the world, with the exception of Australia, but principally in the warmer regions,
where alone the larger species are met with.
In our notice of these animals, we shall first describe those of the old continent, and then
those of the new.
Genus FELIS.-At the head of this remarkable genus stands the Licn, Felis leo, often called,
on account of his strength, his aspect, and his general ascendency over the brute creation, the
King of Beasts.
Although the lion is not a native of our continent, still, nearly every person has become
familiar with its appearance, either by representations of it or by seeing it in menageries. The
impressions thus obtained are, however, often erroneous, and always imperfect and inadequate.
It is necessary, therefore, to describe him as he appears in his natural state.
The male lion has a large head, and, in repose, has a countenance of such gravity as to appear
majestic. When excited, his eye flames as with fire, and his aspect becomes terrible. The neck
is usually ornamented with a flowing mane, which lends a savage beauty to his grand and noble
form. At the same time, he carries his head high, as if conscious of his power and proud of his
ascendency. When full grown, the body measures about cight feet; the tail is half that length,
and usually terminates in a spine or claw, which, however, is attached only to the skin, and is
easily worn off. No use for this is known. The structure of the bones and muscles presents a
model of strength and activity. A lion can crush the skull of a buffalo with a stroke of his paw,
and can carry off the body of a man, or antelope, as easily as a cat does a rat. One of them
has been known to gallop off with a two-year-old heifer, and in its progress to leap a broad dyke
with the utmost facility; another to kill a horse, and drag the body to the distance of a mile;
and still another, having killed a young cow, to run off with it, and, although pursued by men
on horseback for five hours, the body only touched the ground two or three times !
The lion lies in wait for his prey; he creeps near to it, and then rushes upon it with a series
of tremendous leaps, seldom failing to secure his prize. The cat, hunting a mouse, is a good
example-on a minute scale-of a lion hunting an antelope or a quagga. His nature leads him
to seek concealment, to skulk under cover, and to gain his object by stealth rather than open
a

248
VERTEBRATA.
he may
attack; yet, when actually confronted with an enemy, he often displays the most undaunted
courage. Many tales have been told of his good temper and magnanimity. The whole truth on
this point seems to be, that when he is not pressed by hunger he is languid or indifferent. If
acquaintance be made with him in this state, he often appears magnanimous. A small dog
being put into the menagerie of the Garden
of Plants, with a lioness, was kindly received
and finally became a pet and favorite of the
monster, playing with her huge jaws as if
they had been those of his mother. The
story of Androcles, the Roman—who met a
lion in a cave in Africa, and having pulled
a thorn out of its foot, from which it was
suffering, thereby obtained the creature's
good-will-is probably founded in truth, al-
though doubtless embellished. Savage as
this animal
appears, if taken
young,
be rendered comparatively gentle and tame.
Tame lions, led about in golden chains,
have long been part of the pageant of a Per-
sian court: almost every menagerie now-a-
days has its tame lions. Van Amburgh has
obtained a complete mastery, not only over
lions, but tigers and other felidæ of the
most ferocious character. The lion was cre-
ated to kill and eat other animals: in ful-
filling this law of his nature, he is not more
destructive than man himself. Mankind have butchers who kill for the people: the lion only
kills for himself and family. His hunger being appeased, he ceases his slaughter until hunger
again calls him to action. In general, he does not attack man, in his native wilds; he rather
preys on the larger quadrupeds that come within his reach : yet he will attack man when
threatened or irritated by him, or when prompted by hunger, especially if he can steal upon
him
in the early part of the night, when the instinct of destruction is strong upon him. When he
has once fed on human flesh, he is said to prefer it; and hence the lions that have been born and
bred in the vicinity of towns and villages, have more ferocious habits toward mankind than others.
The lioness is without a mane; she is smaller, less powerful, and far less majestic in appear-
ance than the lion. The sly, skulking, cowardly qualities are also stronger in her. She is
jealous and ferocious when her young ones are threatened, and she fearlessly faces any danger in
their defense.
The pairing of these animals is thus described by Gérard, a Frenchman who spent some years
in lion hunts, in Algeria, and who, on account of his exploits, obtained the title of “the Lion
Killer :"
“ It is ordinarily at the end of January that the monarch of Africa seeks his royal consort. As
the males are, by one third, more numerous than the females, it is not an uncommon occurrence
to find one of these dusky belles accompanied by two or three aspirants, who indulge in most
desperate battles for her favor. She at last, becoming impatient to find that these gallants do not
strangle each other to share her undivided love, leads them toward the haunt of some brave old
lion, whose valor is known afar by the thunder of his voice. The disputing lovers arrive with
their mistress in the presence of the new rival, and march bravely forward. The negotiations
are not long, and the result of the encounter is always certain. Attacked by the three lovers at
once, the old lion receives them without moving from his place; he strangles the first with a
grasp of his jaws, the second is thrown aside with a broken leg, and the third feels himself very
happy if he can get away from the battle with one eye, which he very hastily does, leaving the
other in the claws of his master.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
249
BAUNERS
“The place once clear, the noble victor shakes out his mane to the wind, with a long roar,
and then comes and stretches himself at the feet of his love, who, for the first mark of her favor,
licks the wounds he has received on her account with a fawning grace that awakens the ten-
derest emotions in his susceptible heart. When two old lions meet upon the same adventure,
the affair is not so gayly
terminated. Mohammed, an
Arab of the tribe of Kesenna,
told me of a combat of this
nature where he was a spec-
tator, although much against
his will. It was in the pair-
ing season for stags, and Mo-
hammed, a great hunter of
every kind of wild animals,
perched himself at sunset in
the boughs of an oak-tree,
to watch for a doe that he
had seen wandering in the
vicinity, accompanied by sev-
eral stags. The tree which
he had climbed was situated
in the middle of a large clear-
ing, and near a path that led
into the neighboring forest. Toward midnight he saw a lioness enter the clearing, followed by a
red lion with a full-grown mané. The lioness strolled from the path, and came and laid herself
down at the foot of the oak, while the lion remained in the path, and seemed to be listening to
some noise as yet inaudible to the hunter.
“Mohammed then heard a distant roaring in the forest, and immediately the lioness answered
it. Then the lion commenced to roar with a voice so loud that the frightened hunter let fall
his gun, and held on the branches with both hands, lest he might tumble from the tree. As the
voice of the animal that had been heard in the distance gradually approached, the lioness wel-
comed him with renewed roarings, and the lion, restless, went and came from the path to the
lioness, as though he wished her to keep silence, and from the lioness to the path, as though to
say, 'Let him come, the vagabond, he'll find his match.'
“In about an hour a large lion, as black as a wild boar, stepped out of the forest and stood in
the full moonlight on the other side of the clearing. The lioness raised herself to go to him,
but the lion, divining her intent, rushed before her and marched straight at his adversary. With
step measured and slow, they approached to within a dozen paces of each other—their great
heads high in air, their tails slowly sweeping down the grass that grew around them. They
crouched to the earth—a moment's pause--and then they bounded with a roar high in air, and
rolled on the ground, locked in their last embrace. The battle was long and fearful to the
involuntary witness of this midnight duel. The bones of the combatants cracked under their
powerful jaws, their talons strewed the grass with entrails, and painted it red with blood, and
their roarings, now guttural, now sharp and loud, told their rage and agony.
“At the beginning of the contest, the lioness crouched herself on her belly, with her eyes
fixed
upon the gladiators, and all the while the battle raged, manifested, by the slow cat-like motion
of her tail, the pleasure she felt at the spectacle. When the scene closed, and all was quiet and
silent in the moonlight glade, she cautiously approached the battle-ground, and snuffing the dead
bodies of her two lovers, walked leisurely away, without deigning to answer the gross,
but
appro-
priate epithet that Mohammed hurled at her as she went, instead of a bullet.
“This example of the conjugal coquetry and fidelity of the lioness is applicable to all her
species. What she desires is a lover full grown and brave, who will drive away
whose beardless chins and constant quarrels offend her delicacy and trouble her repose.
.
Such a
VOL. 1.-32
the
young lions,

250
VERTEBRATA.
3
hor
Entra
HARRISON
A LION STEALING UPON HIS PREY.
lover she is sure to find, although she may not keep him, for the moment that a braver lion
appears she gives him always a ready welcome. From what I have seen of the lion, I am led to
believe that he has a more faithful heart than his fickle spouse, and never, unless forced to do
so, changes his mistress, but takes her for better or for worse, during the whole term of his
matrimonial connection, and he shows for her an affection and care that are worthy of a better
return.
“When the royal couple leave their lair, both in going and returning, the lioness always leads
the way, and when she pauses in her walk, the lion stops till she is ready to go on. After
arriving at some Arab encampment where their supper is to be procured, the lioness lies down at
a short distance off, while the lion bounds bravely into the inclosure, and selects for her whatever
is best to her taste, and lays it down at her feet. He watches her with great pleasure while she
makes her repast, and never thinks of eating himself until she is satisfied. In a word, there is
no form of tenderness that he does not manifest for her, either during or after the honeymoon.
“When the lioness becomes heavy with young, which occurs during the latter part of Decem-
ber or the first of January, she seeks a dense and impenetrable ravine, where she may deposit
her offspring. The litter varies in number from one to three, depending upon the age and vigor
of the lioness, but there are ordinarily two cubs, one male and one female.
“During the first few days after becoming a mother, she never leaves her cubs, even for an
instant, and the father provides for all their wants. It is only after they have reached the of
three months, and have finished teething, that the mother goes out to get food for them, and
then is absent only a few hours each day. On her return, she brings them mutton or some other
simple food, carefully skinned and torn in small pieces. The crisis of teething is a very important
one in the life of the lion cubs, and a large number die at that period. The male lion, who is of
a very grave and reserved character when old, does not love to stay by his offspring, whose
childish gambols offend his dignity; and, in order to be more tranquil
, he selects a sleeping
apartment in the jungle, near that of his wife, and where he may be called in case of need.
“At the age of from four to five months, the whelps follow their mother during the night to
the edge of the woods, where they wait for the lion to bring them their dinner. At the
At the age of
six months, and during a dark night, the whole family change their domicile; and from this
age

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
251
A LION SPRINGING UPON HIS PREY.
moment up to the time they finally leave their parents, the young lions constantly follow the old
ones in pursuit of prey. From eight months to one year old, they commence to attack the flocks
of sheep or goats that may be found wandering in the vicinity of their retreat. Sometimes they
try their hand at catching horned cattle, but they are yet so awkward that there are often ten
wounded for one killed, and their father is obliged to come in and interfere, lest they go supper-
less to bed.
“It is not until they are two years old that they know how to strangle a horse, an ox, or a
camel, with one grasp of the jaw at the throat of the animal, and to leap the hedges seven feet
high, that are reputed to protect the Arab douars. This period, from the time of the birth of
the cubs until they are two years old, is truly ruinous for the people of the country inhabited
by one of these happy families. Indeed, they not only kill to eat, but they kill to learn to kill.
It is easy to understand what such an apprenticeship must cost to those who furnish the mate-
rials for the clumsy tyros.
"When the whelps reach the age of three years they leave their parents in order to get married ;
and the old couple, unwilling to remain alone, replace them by a new family. The lions are not
full
grown until their eighth year, and then they attain their full strength and size, and the male,
a third larger than the female, grows his full mane. We should not judge the lion living in his
wild state, by his degenerate brother confined in a menagerie. The latter has been taken from
its mother before being weaned, and has been raised like a rabbit, deprived of the maternal milk,
and debarred from the desert life of liberty, and the living food its bravery conquered. From his
seclusion arises his meager form, his unhappy look, his unhealthy shape, and his lack of mane
which gives him the appearance of a spaniel, and makes him an alien to his forest brother.
“There are in Algiers three species of lions: the Black Lion, the Red or Tawny Lion, and the
Gray Lion, and they are styled by the Arabs, el adrea, el asfar, and el zarzouri. The black lion
is a much rarer animal than the others, and has a more powerful head, neck, shoulders, and legs.
The lower part of his body is clad in a robe of the color of a dark bay horse, and the shoulders
are covered by a long, heavy black mane, that falls down on either side almost to the ground,
and gives to him an air not at all reassuring. The breadth of his forehead is eighteen inches; the
length of his body, from the tip of his nose to the root of the tail, measures seven feet and a half,
and his tail, three feet. The weight of his body varies between six hundred and six hundred and
sixty pounds.
“The Arabs are more afraid of this lion than the two others, and they have good reason to be.
Instead of migrating from place to place, the black lion takes up his residence in some favorite
retreat, and remains there sometimes thirty years. He rarely descends into the plain to get his
food in the Arab camps, but, in revenge for this forbearance, lies in wait for the herds as they
descend the mountain, and kills four or five beasts, merely for the pleasure of drinking their
a

252
VERTEBRATA.
A. GUSMAN
LIONESS AND DOG.—(See p. 248.)
blood. In the summer season, when the days are long, he goes out at the setting of the sun, and
crouches by some frequented path, where the tinkling caravan descends the mountain road,' or
watches for a traveler with his horse, or some belated herdsman.
“The tawny lion and the gray lion do not differ from each other, except in the color of the
mane, and are a little larger than the black lion, and not so short. With the exception of the
differences we have just shown, all the three species have the same character and habits. The
life of this animal may be divided into two distinct eras, in which he seems to be, after a manner,
an entirely different being, which difference has given rise to a thousand errors respecting him;
these two eras are the day and night. In the day-time, he is accustomed to retire into the depths
of the woods, at a distance from all noise, to sleep and digest his meals at his leisure. In the
night, he roams abroad, the king of the universe. It has been said that the lion will not attack a
man, because perchance a man has found himself face to face with one that the flies or the sun
has obliged to change his lair, or that has come down to the water to drink, and yet escaped with
impunity, without remembering that the drowsy epicure was half asleep, and sated with food.
He does not kill for the pleasure of killing, but to satisfy his hunger, or to defend himself when
attacked. In a country like Algiers, literally covered with herds, he is never fasting, except
during the day, while sleeping; and the natives, knowing this, take care to stay at home when
he quits his lair, or, if they are obliged to travel at night, they never go on foot or alone.
As to
myself, I will say that if I have noticed an indifferent expression on the countenance of several
lions whom I have met abroad early in the evening, I never saw those that I met at night exhibit
other than the most hostile disposition. I am so sure that a single man is inevitably lost if he
meets with such an encounter, that when I am bivouacking in the mountain, I never leave my
tent after sunset for an instant, except with
my
hand."
The roaring of the lion is described by most travelers as exceedingly grand and often terrific.
It is a curious fact that these creatures become most active in tempestuous weather; at night, in
the midst of the terrific thunder-storms that take place in tropical Africa, the roarings of the lion
seem actually to challenge the thunder and the lightning. At such times, several of them will
often roar in concert, thus adding a feature of terrific grandeur to the awful anthems of nature.
my carbine in
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
253
-LOSSINC BARPIDI
MEETING OF THE LIONS.—(See p. 249.)
а
Gérard thus speaks on this subject : “When a lion and a lioness are together, the female always
roars first, and at the moment when the couple is leaving its lair. The roar is composed of a
dozen distinct sounds, which are commenced by low sighing, and then go on crescendo, and finish
as they began, leaving an interval of a few seconds between each sound; the lion then alternates
with the lioness. They roar in that manner every quarter of an hour up to the moment when
they approach the encampment that they are about to attack, when they both keep silence; but
after they have taken and eaten their food, they recommence their melancholy music and con-
tinue it until morning.
“ A solitary lion generally roars as he rises from his slumber at the commencement of the
night, and will often continue his thundering challenges without cessation until he reaches the
encampments. During the great heats of summer the lion roars but little, and sometimes not at
all; but as the season of his amours advances, he makes up for the time lost in silence. The
Arabs, whose language is rich in comparisons, have but one word for the roaring of the lion, and
that is rad, thunder.
“Among other foolish questions I have had asked me, is : “Why does the lion roar? I would
say that the roaring of the lion is to him what to the bird is his musical song, and if the ques-
tioner does not believe the fact, if he will go to the forests and pass several
in his company,
he may perchance find a better explanation.” We may add that many authors have supposed
that the roaring of the lion was instinctive, its main object being to startle the animals on which
he wishes to prey, from their hiding-places, so that he may see them, and in their confusion fall
,
upon and seize them.
The author we have just quoted furnishes the following curious statistics : “The average length
of the life of the lion is from thirty to forty years. He kills or consumes, year by year, horses,
mules, horned cattle, camels, and sheep, to the value of twelve hundred dollars; and taking the
average of his life, which is thirty-five years, each lion costs the Arabs forty-two thousand dollars.
The thirty animals of this species living at the present moment, in the province of Constantine, and
whose loss is replaced by others coming from Tunis or Morocco, are sustained by an annual cost
of thirty-six dollars !”
years

254
VERTEBRATA.
72
These accounts, it will be remembered, relate to the lions of Northern Africa, which live in
the vicinity of towns and settlements. Travelers and adventurers in the more southern and less
settled portions, give the same general representation of this formidable beast.
The following sketch, among many similar ones, furnished by Mr. Cumming-a modern British
Nimrod—who spent some months in hunting the monsters of Africa, gives a fearful picture of their
banquets. It will be understood that the narrator had shot three rhinoceroses near a fountain,
and soon after twilight had died away, he came down to the water to watch for lions. With him
was his Hottentot attendant, Kleinboy :
“On reaching the water I looked toward the carcass of the rhinoceros, and to my astonish-
ment I beheld the ground alive with large creatures, as though a troop of zebras were approach-
ing the water to drink. Kleinboy remarked to me that a troop of zebras were standing on the
height. I answered Yes;' but I knew very well that zebras would not be capering around the
carcass of a rhinoceros. I quickly arranged my blankets, pillow, and guns in the hole, and then
lay down to feast my eyes on the interesting sight before me. It was bright moonlight, as clear
as I need wish. There were six large lions, about twelve or fifteen hyenas, and from twenty to
thirty jackals, feasting on and around the carcasses of the three rhinoceroses. The lions feasted
peaceably, but the hyenas and jackals fought over every mouthful, and chased one another
round and round the carcasses, growling, laughing, screeching, chattering, and howling, without
any intermission. The hyenas did not seem afraid of the lions, although they always gave way
before them; for I observed that they followed them in the most disrespectful manner, and stood
laughing, one or two on either side, when any lions came after their comrades to examine pieces
of skin or bones which they were dragging away.”
The following account of an attack by one of these lion “man-eaters," as they are called—for
having once tasted human flesh they will eat nothing else if it can be obtained—is by the same
adventurous person. He and his party had, unknown to themselves, pitched their camp in the
proximity of a lion of this description. All had retired to rest, when
“Suddenly,” says the narrator, “ the appalling and murderous voice of an angry, blood-thirsty
lion burst upon my ears within a few yards of us, followed by the shrieking of the Hottentots.
Again and again the murderous roar of attack was repeated. We heard John and Ruyter shriek,
* The lion! the lion! Still for a few moments we thought he was but chasing one of the dogs
round the kraal, but the next instant John Stofulus rushed into the midst of us, almost speech-
less with fear and terror, his eyes bursting from their sockets, and shrieked out, “The lion! the
lion! He has got Hendrick! He dragged him away from the fire beside me. I struck him
with the burning brands upon his head, but he wouldn't let go his hold. Hendrick is dead!
O God! Hendrick is dead! Let us take fire and seek him.'
Let us take fire and seek him. The rest of my people rushed
about shrieking and yelling as if they were mad. I was at once angry with them for their folly,
and told them that if they did not stand still and keep quiet, the lion would have another of us,
and that very likely there was a troop of them. I ordered the dogs, which were nearly all fast,
to be made loose, and the fire to be increased as far as could be. I then shouted Hendrick's
name; but all was still. I told my men that Hendrick was dead, and that a regiment of soldiers
could not now help him, and hunting my dogs forward, I had every thing brought within my
cattle kraal, when we lighted our fire and closed the entrance as well as we could. It appeared
that when the unfortunate Hendrick rose to drive in the ox, the lion had watched him to his
fireside, and he had scarcely lain down when the brute sprang upon him and Ruyter—for both
lay under one blanket—with his appalling roar; and roaring as he lay, grappled him with his
fearful claws, and kept biting him on the breast and shoulder, all the while feeling for his neck;
having got hold of which, he at once dragged him away backward round the bush into the dense
shade. As the lion lay on the unfortunate man, he faintly cried, “Help me! help me! O God!
Men, help me! After which, the fearful beast got hold of his neck, and then all was still, except
that his comrades heard the bones of his neck cracking between the teeth of the lion.” It is
satisfactory to know that on the following day Mr. Cumming took revenge on the lion, whose
huge grisly hide he afterward exhibited in London.
Pringle, the celebrated traveler in Southern Africa, gives us the following sketch. His party, it

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
255
a
must be understood, consisted of seventeen horsemen, Mulattoes and Hottentots, and a number of
powerful hounds:
* The Hottentots traced the lion on foot, discovering his spoor, or track, with surprising dex-
terity, and found him in a large thicket about a mile distant. The dogs failed to dislodge him;
the Mulattoes rode round the jungle and fired into it, but without effect. At last three Scotch-
men determined to march in, provided the Mulattoes would support their fire. Regardless of the
warnings of more prudent men, they went in, and, as they thought, found the lion crouched
among the roots of a large evergreen bush, glaring at them from under the foliage. They fired
and struck, not the lion, but a great block of sand-stone, which they had mistaken for him; but
beyond which he was actually lying. With a furious growl he bolted from the bush; the Mulat-
toes fled, helter-skelter, leaving the Scots with empty guns, tumbling over each other in their
haste to escape. In a twinkling he was upon them, with one stroke of his paw dashed John
Rennie to the ground, and with one foot upon him, looked round upon his assailants in conscious
power and pride, and with the most noble and imposing port that could be conceived. It was
the most magnificent thing I ever witnessed; but the danger of our friends was too great to
enjoy the picture. We expected every minute to see one or more of them torn to pieces; and
yet in their position, one lying under the lion's paw, and the others scrambling toward us, we
dared not fire. Fortunately, however, the lion, after steadily surveying us, turned calmly away,
drove off the hounds with his heels, as if they had been rats, and bounded over the adjoining
thicket like a cat, clearing bushes twelve or fifteen feet high, as if they had been tufts of grass.
“Our comrade had sustained no other injury than a scratch upon the back and a severe bruise,
,
and we renewed the chase. We found the enemy standing at bay under a mimosa-tree. The
dogs barked round him, but were afraid to approach; for he growled fiercely, and brandished his
tail in a manner that showed that he meditated mischief. The Hottentots, by taking a circuit, ,
reached a precipice above him, and another party of us occupied a position on the other side of the
glen, so that the lion was between two fires; he became confused; we battered away at him, and
he fell, pierced with many wounds. He appeared to be full grown, and six years old, measuring
eleven feet from the nose to the tip of the tail. His fore-leg, below the knee, was so thick that
I could not span it with both hands; his head was almost as large as that of an ordinary ox.
His flesh, which I had the curiosity to taste, resembled very white coarse beef, and was insipid
rather than disagreeable."
It would be easy to fill a volume with similar accounts. Mr. Livingstone, whose recent travels
in Southeastern Africa, have excited such general interest, seems to think the lion a more cowardly
and much less dangerous animal than he has been reported to be; his work, however, furnishes
us with the following exciting incident:
“The Bakátla of the village Mabotsa were much troubled by lions, which leaped into the cattle-
pens by night, and destroyed their cows. They even attacked the herds in open day. This was
so unusual an occurrence that the people believed that they were bewitched— given,' as they
said, 'into the power of the lions by a neighboring tribe. They went once to attack the ani-
?
mals, but, being rather a cowardly people compared to Bechuanas in general on such occasions,
they returned without killing any.
“It is well known that if one of a troop of lions is killed, the others take the hint and leave that
part of the country. So, the next time the herds were attacked, I went with the people, in order
to encourage them to rid themselves of the annoyance by destroying one of the marauders. We
found the lions on a small hill about a quarter of a mile in length, and covered with trees. A
circle of men was formed round it, and they gradually closed up, ascending pretty near to each
other. Being down below on the plain with a native schoolmaster, named Mebálwe, a most ex-
cellent man, I saw one of the lions sitting on a piece of rock within the now closed circle of men.
Mebálwe fired at him before I could, and the ball struck the rock on which the animal was sit-
ting. He bit at the spot struck, as a dog does at a stick or stone thrown at him; then leaping
away, broke through the opening circle and escaped unhurt. The men were afraid to attack
him, perhaps on account of their belief in witchcraft. When the circle was re-formed, we saw
two other lions in it; but we were afraid to fire lest we should strike the men, and they allowed
a
A

256
VERTEBRATA.
MR. LIVINGSTONE STRUCK DOWN BY A LION.
a
the beasts to burst through also. If the Bakátla had acted according to the custom of the coun-
try, they would have speared the lions in their attempt to get out. Seeing we could not get
them to kill one of the lions, we bent our footsteps toward the village; in going round the end
of the hill, however, I saw one of the beasts sitting on a piece of rock as before, but this time he
had a little bush in front. Being about thirty yards off, I took a good aim at his body through
the bush, and fired both barrels into it. The men then called out, 'He is shot, he is shot!'
Others cried, 'He has been shot by another man, too; let us go to him! I did not see any one
else shoot at him, but I saw the lion's tail erected in anger behind the bush, and turning to the
people said, 'Stop a little, till I load again.?
“When in the act of ramming down the bullets, I heard a shout. Starting, and looking half
round, I saw the lion just in the act of springing upon me. I was upon a little height; he caught
my shoulder as he
sprang, and we both came to the ground below together. Growling horribly
close to my ear, he shook me as a terrier dog does a rat. The shock produced a stupor similar
to that which seems to be felt by a mouse after the first shake of the cat. It caused a sort of
dreaminess, in which there was no sense of pain nor feeling of terror, though quite conscious of
all that was happening. It was like what patients partially under the influence of chloroform
describe, who see all the operation, but feel not the knife. This singular condition was not the
result of any mental process. The shake annihilated fear, and allowed no sense of horror in look-
ing round at the beast. This peculiar state is probably produced in all animals killed by the
carnivora ; and if so, is a merciful provision by our benevolent Creator for lessening the pain of
death. Turning round to relieve myself of the weight, as he had one paw on the back of my
head, I saw his eyes directed to Mebálwe, who was trying to shoot him at a distance of ten or
fifteen yards. His gun, a flint one, missed fire in both barrels; the lion immediately left me,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
257
a
a
and, attacking Mebálwe, bit his thigh. Another man, whose life I had saved before, after he had
been tossed by a buffalo, attempted to spear the lion while he was biting Mebálwe. He left
Mebálwe and caught this man by the shoulder, but at that moment the bullets he had received
took effect, and he fell down dead. The whole was the work of a few moments, and must have
been his paroxysms of dying rage. In order to take out the charm from him, the Bakátla on
the following day made a huge bonfire over the carcass, which was declared to be that of the
largest lion they had ever seen. Besides crunching the bone into splinters, he left eleven teeth
wounds on the upper part of my arm.”
The following curious facts are furnished by the same writer:
“The same feeling which has induced the modern painter to caricature the lion, has led the
sentimentalist to consider the lion's roar the most terrific of all earthly sounds. We hear of the
majestic roar of the king of beasts. It is, indeed, well calculated to inspire fear if you
hear it
in combination with the tremendously loud thunder of that country, on a night so pitchy dark
that every flash of the intensely vivid lightning leaves you with the impression of stone-blindness,
while the rain pours down so fast that your fire goes out, leaving you without the protection of
,
even a tree, or the chance of your gun going off. But when you are in a comfortable house or
wagon, the case is very different, and you hear the roar of the lion without any awe or alarm.
The silly ostrich makes a noise as loud, yet he never was feared by man. To talk of the
majestic roar of the lion is mere majestic twaddle. On my mentioning this fact some years ago,
the assertion was doubted, so I have been careful ever since to inquire the opinions of Europeans,
who have heard both, if they could detect any difference between the roar of a lion and that of
an ostrich; the invariable answer was, that they could not when the animal was at any
distance.
The natives assert that they can detect a variation between the commencement of the noise of each.
There is, it must be admitted, considerable difference between the singing noise of a lion when
full, and his deep, gruff growl when hungry. In general, the lion's voice seems to come deeper
from the chest than that of the ostrich, but to this day I can distinguish between them with
certainty only by knowing that the ostrich roars by day and the lion by night.”
It is well known that Africa has ever been the principal home of the lion. It is still found in
nearly all parts of that continent in three varieties-the Black Lion, the Red Lion, and the Gray
Lion. The lions of Asia are known under three names, but whether they are distinct species or
mere varieties, is not established. The Bengal Lion is said to be of a darker color, more graceful
form, and a less extensive mane than the African lion. The Persian or Arabian Lion is distin-
guished by the pale isabella color of its hair. The Guzerat or Maneless Lion, instead of a flow-
ing mane, has only long hairs standing up along the neck and shoulders.
The habits of the Asiatic lions do not differ much from those of Africa, excepting that the
former, from the state of the country, frequent jungles. In India the elephant is generally
employed in the chase, which is conducted with more pomp and circumstance than in any other
country. The grand Asiatic huntings of former times, those of Genghis Khan for instance, will
occur to many of our readers. The accounts of most modern sportsmen give a very coura-
geous bearing to the Asiatic lions in these encounters. One of them states that the lions in India,
instead of running away when pursued through a jungle, seldom take to cover as a refuge at all.
On the approach of their enemies, they spring out to meet them open-mouthed in the plain.
They are thus easily shot; but if they are missed or only slightly wounded, they are most
formidable adversaries. They are even said to have sprung on the heads of the largest elephants,
and to have fairly pulled them to the ground, riders and all.
The lion is only found in certain districts of Asia; he is nowhere numerous. Here as well as
in Africa, his numbers are being daily diminished. Not only the human inhabitants attack him,
and with improved and improving weapons and modes of destruction, but other animals some-
times dispute, and with effect, his proud title of King of the Beasts. This is especially the case
in Africa. The oryx has been known to plunge its long straight horns thtough his body, leaving
him dead on the spot; and the cow-buffalo, in defense of her calf, sometimes rushes upon him and
gores him to death with her horns. The history of the lion, as far as we can trace it, is that of
the most powerful, but still a constantly diminishing species. Their strength, their ferocity, their
Vol. I.-33

258
VERTEBRATA.
BUFFALO GORING A LION.
a few
destructiveness—the very qualities which constitute their glory—arm the world against them, and
—
will be the means of their final extirpation. Formerly they were found in Europe, for Herodotus
tells us that the camels of Xerxes, in his invasion of Greece, were attacked by lions in what is
now the Turkish province of Roumelia. But they have long since disappeared from Europe, and
even from Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, where they were once common. The various allusions to
these animals in the Sacred Scriptures prove a familiarity with the habits of the race. Even in
Asia, excepting some districts of Arabia, and parts of Persia and India, these magnificent beasts
are very rare. The war that mankind has incessantly waged against them has thinned their
ranks, and probably not only the lion, but the tiger, the rhinoceros, and the giraffe, will ere long
become extinct. In forty years a thousand lions were taken to ancient Rome, and perished in
the fights of the arena. In more modern times the use of fire-arms has made constant havoc
among these animals wherever they have come in contact with man.
Within a
year's
the
spirit of Nimrod has led various mighty hunters, such as Harris, Cumming, Anderson, Gérard,
and others, into the wilds of Africa in pursuit of the enormous animals which teem in those
solitary regions; and by these daring men, not only elephants, giraffes, hippopotami, buffaloes, and
rhinoceroses, but lions have been slaughtered almost like rabbits. Everywhere the work of
destruction goes on, and year by year the lion becomes more rare. A century hence he will
probably be among those creatures that all have heard of, but which it has been the fortune of
few to behold. Rats, mice, and mosquitos will flourish long after the lion has become a mere
tradition. Such is the glory of the King of Beasts—a glory founded in fear, and beget-
ting universal hate. Perhaps the glory of some other kings may, in future ages, be likened
,
thereunto.
The Tiger, or ROYAL TIGER, Felis tigris, stands next the lion in size; if the latter is a model
of strength and grandeur, the former is the personification of beauty and grace. This animal is
so common in the menageries, that we need only give a short description of it. The body is

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
259
o?
ليالي
Se
JAN
WE
UAB
THE ROYAL TIGER.
long, usually six to eight feet, but sometimes measuring ten and even twelve feet; the head is short
and round : there is no mane. The ground-color is a pale yellow, elegantly striped by a series of
transverse black bands or bars, which occupy the sides of the head, neck, and body, and are
continued upon the tail in the form of rings, the last of the series uniformly occupying the
extremity of that organ, and giving it a black tip of greater or less extent. The under parts
of the body, and the inner sides of the legs, are almost entirely white. The whole frame,
although less elevated than that of the lion, is of a slenderer and more graceful make. Its
movements are exceedingly easy and graceful. When pleased, it purs and rubs itself against the
nearest object, like a cat. It lurks in the jungles, and makes prey of such animals as come in

260
VERTEBRATA.
its way. The bound with which it throws itself upon its victim is terrific: in these attacks, it
often makes a leap of fifty feet. Such is its strength, that man is a mere puppet in its gripe :
even the Indian buffalo, which is as large as our ox, is not only borne down by this ferocious
beast, but is dragged off by it without difficulty. The tigress has three to five cubs at a birth ;
in their defense she is even more fierce than the lioness.
The tiger, of which there is but a single species-although there is a Chinese variety, which
is of a paler color, and sometimes, it is said, of a white ground, with black and gray stripes—
is found only in Asia. It is most common in Hindostan, where it reigns supreme in the wilds,
complete master of the animal kingdom. It is met with in various parts of Central Asia, and in
some of the great Asiatic islands : in certain districts of Sumatra it is the scourge of the country,
being permitted to go on increasing because of a superstitious notion of the people that it is ani-
mated by the souls of their ancestors, and therefore it must not be destroyed. It lurks among
the bushes along the sides of rivers, and so numerous is the race that they have nearly depopu-
lated many places.
Various devices have been put in requisition to take or annihilate this destructive quadruped.
Ten rupees were formerly offered by the East India Company for every tiger destroyed within
the provinces where their power and influence extended—a small reward, but sufficient, conjointly
with the depredations of the animal, to stimulate the poorer classes to destroy it.
A kind of spring-bow was formerly laid in its way, and discharged a poisoned arrow, generally
with fatal effect, when the animal came in contact with a cord stretched across its path ; and this
method is said to be still in use in some places. Again, a heavy beam was suspended over the
way traversed by the tiger, which fell and crushed him on his disengaging a cord which let the
beam fall. A Persian device is said to consist of a large, spherical, and strongly interwoven bamboo
cage, or one made of other suitable materials, with intervals throughout, three or four inches
broad. Under this shelter, which is picketed to the ground in the tiger's haunt, a man provided
with two or three short strong spears takes post by night, with a dog or a goat as his companion,
wraps himself in his quilt and goes to sleep. A tiger arrives, of whose presence the man is
warned by the dog or the goat, and generally after smelling about, rears himself up against the
cage, upon which the man stabs him resolutely with his short spear through one of the interstices
of the wicker-work.
It seems ludicrous to talk of taking a tiger with bird-lime; but it is said to be so captured
in Oude. When a tiger's track is ascertained, the peasants, we are told, collect a quantity of leaves
resembling those of the sycamore, and which are common in most Indian underwoods; these they
smear with a kind of bird-lime, which is made from the berries of an indigenous and by no means
scarce tree, and strew them with the adhesive substance uppermost, in some gloomy spot to
which the tiger resorts in the heat of the day. If he treads on one of the limed leaves he gener-
ally begins by trying to shake it from his paw, and not succeeding, proceeds to rub it against his
jaw in order to get rid of it. Thus his eyes and ears become agglutinated, and the uneasy
animal rolls, perhaps, among many more of the smeared leaves, till he becomes enveloped : in
this state he has been compared to a man who has been tarred and feathered. The tiger's irri-
tation and uneasiness find vent in dreadful howlings, on which the peasants hasten to the spot,
and shoot him without difficulty.
The tiger-hunt, as practiced in India, is perhaps the grandest and most exciting of wild sports.
Upon such occasions the whole neighborhood is on the move, and two hundred elephants have
been known to take the field. From ten to thirty of these gigantic animals, each carrying sports-
men armed with rifles, have frequently started for the jungle. An English writer gives the
following account of one of these expeditions :
“We had elephants, guns, balls, and all other necessaries prepared, and about seven in the
morning we set off. The jungle was generally composed of corinda-bushes, which were stunty
and thin, and looked like ragged thorn-bushes; nothing could be more desolate in appearance;
it seemed as if we had got to the furthest limits of cultivation or the haunts of men. At times
the greener bunches of jungle, the usual abodes of the beasts of prey during the day-time, and the
few huts scattered here and there, which could hardly be called villages, seemed like islands in

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
261
« The
a
the desert waste around us. We stopped near two or three of these green tufts, which generally
surrounded a lodgment of water, or little pond, in the midst of the sand.
way in which these ferocious animals are traced out is very curious, and if related in
England would scarcely be credited. A number of unarmed, half-naked villagers, go prying
from side to side of the bush, just as a boy in England would look after a stray sheep, or peep
after a bird's nest. Where the jungle was too thick for them to see through, the elephants,
putting their trunks down into the bush, forced their way through, tearing up every thing by the
roots before them. About four miles from our tents we were all surrounding a bush, which
might be some fifty yards in circumference—our all including William Fraser, alone upon his
great elephant, Mr. Barton and myself upon another equally large, Mr. Wilder upon another, and
eight other elephants, with horsemen at a distance, and footmen peeping into the bushes. Our
different elephants were each endeavoring to force his way through, when a great elephant with-
out a howdah on his back, called “Muckna, put up, from near the center of the bush, a royal
tiger. In an instant Fraser called out, “Now, Lady H., be calm, be steady, and take a good aim;
here he is!' 'I confess, at the moment of thus suddenly coming upon our ferocious victim, my
heart beat very high, and for a second I wished myself far enough off; but curiosity, and the
eagerness of the chase, put fear out of my head in a minute; the tiger made a charge at the
Muckna, and then ran back into the jungle. Mr. Wilder then put his elephant in, and drove
him out at the opposite side. He charged over the plain away from us, and Wilder fired two balls
at him, but knew not whether they took effect. The bush in which he was found was one on
the west bank of one of those little half-dry ponds of which I have spoken. Mr. Barton and I
conjecturing that, as there was no other thick cover near, he would probably soon return, took
our stand in the center of the open space; in a minute the tiger ran into the bushes on the east,
side; I saw him quite plain; we immediately put our elephant into the bushes, and poked about
till the horsemen, who were reconnoitring round the outside of the whole jungle, saw him slink
under the bushes to the north side; hither we followed him, and from thence traced him, by his
growling, back to the outer part of the eastern bushes. Here he started out just before the
trunk of our elephant, with a tremendous growl or grunt, and made a charge at another
elephant further out on the plain, retreating again immediately under cover. Fraser fired at
him, but we suppose without effect; and he called to us for our elephant to pursue him into
his cover.
“ With some difficulty we made our way to the inside of the southern bushes ; and as we were
looking through the thicket, we perceived beau tiger slink away under them. Mr. Barton fired,
and hit him a mortal blow about the shoulder or back, for he instantly was checked, and my
ball, which followed the same instant, threw him down. We two then discharged our whole
artillery, which originally consisted of two double-barreled guns, loaded with slugs, and a pair of
pistols. Most of them took effect, as we could discover by his wincing, for he was not above ten
yards from us at any time, and at one moment, when the elephant chose to take fright and turn
his head round away from the beast, running his haunches almost into the bush, not five. By
this time William Fraser had come round, and discharged a few balls at the tiger, which lay
looking at us, grinning and growling, his ears thrown back, but unable to stir. A pistol fired by
me, shattered his lower jaw-bone; and immediately, as danger of approaching him was now over,
one of the villagers with a matchlock went close to him, and applying the muzzle of his piece to
the
nape of his neck, shot him dead, and put him out of his pain. The people then dragged him
out, and we dismounted to look at him, pierced through and through; yet one could not con-
template him without satisfaction, as we were told that he had long infested the high road, and
carried off many passengers. One hears of the roar of a tiger, and fancies it like that of a bull;
but in fact it is more like the grunt of a hog, though twenty times louder, and certainly one of
the most tremendous animal noises one can imagine."
Captain Mundy gives us the following spirited description of a tiger-hunt in which he was
-
engaged. The parties found immense quantities of game, wild hogs, hog-deer, and the neilghi:
they however strictly abstained from firing, reserving their whole battery for the nobler game of
which they were in pursuit. They had to pass through a thick forest, and the narrator gives a

262
VERTEBRATA.
very interesting description of the power and dexterity of the elephants in overthrowing trees to
make a road :
“On clearing the wood,” he says, “we entered an open space of marshy grass not three feet
high; a large herd of cattle were feeding there, and the herdsman was sitting singing under a
bush, when, just as the former began to move before us, up sprang the very tiger for whom our
visit was intended, and cantered off across a bare plain dotted with small patches of bush-jungle.
He took to the open country in a style which would have more become a fox than a tiger, who
is expected by his pursuers to fight and not to run, and as he was flushed on the flank of the line
only one bullet was fired at him ere he cleared the thick grass. He was unhurt; and we pursued
him at full speed. Twice he threw us out by stopping short in small strips of jungle, and then
heading back after we had passed; and he had given us a very fast trot of about two miles when
Colonel Arnold, who led the field, at last reached him by a capital shot, his elephant being in full
career.
“As soon as he felt himself wounded, the tiger crept into a close thicket of trees and bushes,
and crouched. The two leading sportsmen overran the place where he lay, and as I came up I
saw him through an aperture rising to attempt a charge. My mahout had just before, in the
heat of the chase, dropped his ankors, or goad, which I had refused to allow him to recover, and
the elephant being notoriously savage, and further irritated by the goading he had undergone,
became consequently unmanageable; he appeared to see the tiger as soon as myself, and I had
only time to fire one shot when he suddenly rushed with the greatest fury into the thicket, and
falling upon his knees nailed the tiger with his tusks to the ground. Such was the violence of
the shock that my servant, who sat behind, was thrown out, and one of my guns went overboard.
The struggles of my elephant to crush his still resisting foe, who had fixed one paw on his eye,
were so energetic that I was obliged to hold on with all my strength to keep myself in the
houdah. The second barrel, too, of the gun, which I still retained in my hand, went off in the
scuffle, the ball passing close to the mahout's ear, whose situation, poor fellow, was any thing but
enviable. As soon as my elephant was prevailed upon to leave the killing part of the business
to the sportsmen, they gave the roughly used tiger the coup-de-grace. It was a very fine female,
with the most beautiful skin I ever saw."
An English gentleman who was present, gives the following account of a hunting-party of the
Nawab Asuf-ud-Dowlah. After describing the immense cavalcade of the nawab, he says:
“ The first tiger we saw and killed was in the mountains. We went to attack him about noon;
he was in a narrow valley, which the nawab surrounded with about two hundred elephants; we
heard him growl horribly in a thick bush in the middle of the valley. Being accustomed to the
sport, and very eager, I pushed in my elephant; the fierce beast charged me immediately; the
elephant, a timid animal, turned tail, and deprived me of the opportunity to fire. I ventured
again, attended by two or three other elephants; the tiger made a spring, and nearly reached
the back of one of the elephants on which were three or four men; the elephant shook himself
so forcibly as to throw these men off his back, and they tumbled into the bush ; I
gave
them
up
for lost, but was agreeably surprised to see them creep out unhurt. His excellency was all this
time on a rising ground near the thicket, looking on calmly, and beckoning to me to drive the
tiger toward him. I made another attempt, and with more success; he darted out toward me
on my approach, roaring furiously and lashing his sides with his tail. I luckily got a shot and
hit him; he retreated into the bush, and ten or twelve elephants just then pushed into the
thicket, alarmed the tiger, and obliged him to run toward the nawab, who instantly gave him a
warm reception, and with the assistance of some of his omras, or lords, laid the tiger sprawling
on his side. A loud shout of Wha! wha! proclaimed the victory."
This is hunting on a grand scale, but it is altogether insignificant in comparison with the hunts
of the Chinese emperors in their Tartar provinces. These serve to exercise the troops in winter,
and are of great antiquity. They were practiced by Genghis Khan, and are still continued. The
emperor commands the huntsmen to trace out a vast circle of perhaps thirty miles in circum-
ference. The officers then station their troops, inclosing it around; the soldiers begin their
march to the sound of martial music, and continue gradually to advance toward the centre, keep-

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA263
.
.
ing the ring unbroken, and thus driving before them the wild animals within the circle; but they
are forbidden to kill or wound any of them, however ferocious they may be. They encamp every
night, when all the martial maneuvres are punctually executed. The march lasts many
weeks ;
the space lessens; and the creatures, finding themselves closely pressed, flee to the mountains
and forests, whence they are soon dislodged by the hunters opening their dens and kennels with
spades and mattocks, and even searching them out with ferrets.
As the narrowed ring brings the bewildered animals together, the strong, growing furious,
devour the weak, and the air is rent with horrid howlings, yells, and screams of ferocity or agony.
The soldiers are scarce able to drive the beasts forward by incessant shouts. At length, when
they are pent into so small a space that they can all be seen, the drums, cymbals, and other music
set up a deafening clangor. This, joined to the fierce cries of the hunters and soldiers, so terrifies
and astonishes the beasts, that they lose all their ferocity; lions and tigers, bears, wolves, and
wild boars, crouch subdued, and endeavor to skulk one behind the other.
The emperor, accompanied by his sons and chief officers, first enters the circle, holding his
drawn saber and bow and arrows, and begins the terrific slaughter by striking the most savage of
the animals. Many of these, at their last extremity, on being wounded, resume their ferocity, and
struggle hard for their lives. The sovereign now retires to an eminence, where a throne has been
raised, whence he views the fight, from which no one shrinks, however great the peril. When
the princes and nobles have sufficiently displayed their prowess, the youths continue the carnage.
-10
“What yet remain
Alive, with vain assault, contend to break
Th' impenetrable line. Other's, whom fear
Unnerves, with self-preserving wiles, beneath
The bodies of the slain for shelter creep.
When, lo! the bright sultanas of the court ! -
Suppliant they bend, and humbly sue to save
The vanquish'd host.
At beauty's high behest, the khan commands,
Opening to right and left, the well-train'd troops
Leave a large void :-impetuous forth the foe
a
Fly frantic, on the wings of fear upborne."
a
The tiger has often been represented as untamable, but this is now known to be a mistake.
Not only is it capable of being tamed, but instances have happened in which it has shown strong
attachment to its keepers. A young tigress, brought to London and placed in the Tower
Menagerie, had been, during her passage from Calcutta, allowed to range about the vessel unre-
strained, and had become perfectly familiar with the sailors, showing not the slightest symptom
of ferocity. On her arrival in the Thames the irritation produced by the sight of strangers
instantly changed her temper, rendering her irascible and dangerous. So sulky and savage was
she, that Mr. Cops, who then kept the lions in the Tower, could hardly be prevailed on by her
former keeper, who came to see her, to allow him to enter her den; but as soon as the tigress
recognized her old friend, she fawned on him, licked him, caressed him, and manifested the most
extravagant signs of pleasure; and when at last he left her, she cried and whined for the remain-
der of the day. The tame tigers of the mendicant priests, or fakirs, of Hindostan are well known.
But while there can be no doubt of the tamable qualities of the tiger, and indeed of all the great
cats, they are not to be incautiously trusted. The natural disposition is always ready to break
out; and the mildest of them, though
“Ne'er so tame, so cherish'd, and lock'd up,
Will have a wild trick of his ancestors."
It is a curious fact that the lion and tigress, in confinement, will breed together: this has
twice happened in England. The young ones appeared more like tigers than lions. In both cases
they died young. The fundamental character of man is well illustrated in the emblems he uses
to express his will.
In the East the tiger is the favorite type of royalty, and royalty is the representative of God
on earth. In old Rome the eagle was placed upon the national banners; in modern Chris-

264
VERTEBRATA.
tian England, the lion is the presiding genius of the national insignia. Such are the types
of despotism: and republican America has followed the example. When it was proposed in
Congress that the beaver, or some peaceful and worthy animal should be placed upon our
national crest, the suggestion was laughed to scorn. Nothing could content that innate wor-
ship of might without respect to right, which belongs to men of all times and all climes, but the
great feathered thief, robber, butcher, and scavenger—the Bald-Headed Eagle !
wИ.
یا ! /
plana
THE LEOPARD.
The LEOPARD, Felis leopardus, is about half the size of the tiger, being two feet high and four
long, and is distinguished alike for the elegance of its form, the grace of its movements, and the
beauty of its skin. The latter is of a pale yellow color, marked with small tawny spots, united in
circular or quadrangular or triangular groups, these groups being arranged nearly in rows, and
covering the whole body. The habits of these animals in a state of nature are little known.
They are very active, and climb with such facility as to be called Tree-Tigers by the natives.
Nothing can be more beautiful than the elegant and active manner in which the leopards sport
among the branches of the trees : at one time they will bound from branch to branch with such
rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow them; then, as if tired, they will suddenly stretch them-
selves along a branch, so as to be hardly distinguishable from the bark, but start up again on the
slightest provocation, and again resume their graceful antics. They feed on antelopes, deer, and
especially monkeys, which abound in the countries where the leopard is found. Those that
dwell near the settlements of man make sad havoc among the sheep and pigs. It is said that
when pressed by hunger they will attack a man by stealing upon him from behind. The leopard
is easily tamed, and expresses great fondness for its keeper, and will play with him like a cat,
although it cannot be fully trusted. A remarkably beautiful one in an English menagerie was
exceedingly fond of playing with the tuft at the extremity of a lion's tail, and from the familiar
manner in which he patted and bit it, he evidently considered it as manufactured for his own
particular entertainment.
Some years ago Mrs. Bowditch brought a tame leopard over with her to England from Africa.
This animal was called Saï. One day, at Cape Coast Castle, he found the servant appointed to
attend on him, sitting asleep, resting his back against a door; Saï instantly lifted up
his
paw,
and
gave the sleeper a tap on the side of the cheek, which knocked him over, and when the man
awoke he found Saï wagging his tail and seeming to enjoy the fun. Another day, when a
was scrubbing the floor, he jumped on her back; and when the woman screamed with
fright, he sprang off, and began rolling over and over like a kitten. When put on board ship,
he was at first confined in a cage; and the greatest pleasure he had was when Mrs. Bowditch gave
him a little twisted cup or cornet of stiff paper with some lavender-water in it, and with this he

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
265
was so delighted, that he would roll himself over and over, and rub his paws against his face.
At first he used to put his claws out when he attempted to snatch any thing; but as Mrs. Bow-
ditch would never give him any lavender-water when this was the case, he soon learned to keep
his claws in.
his
LOSSINGEBARITTA
THE PANTHER.
a
a
The PANTHER, F. pardus, greatly resembles the leopard, and by most naturalists the two ani-
mals are considered as of the same species. It is said, however, that the ground-color of the
panther is a shade darker than that of the leopard; its spots also are larger, and the inner edges
of the rings of spots are of a darker hue. It would appear that the habits of the two animals are
similar, and that both inhabit Africa and Asia—the leopard being most common in the former
and the panther in the latter.
The OUNCE, F. uncia, resembles the panther in size and habits, but its form is somewhat lower
and stouter, the tail longer and thicker, the ground-color paler, the spots larger and more irregu-
lar, and the fur much thicker. It is a native of India.
Among the larger spotted cats of the Old World is the RIMAN-DIHAN, F. macrocelis. It is four
feet long, and one foot ten inches high; the color, whitish ashy gray, with dark irregular stripes
and spots over the body; the limbs stout; the feet and claws robust and strong; tail long, large,
and lanuginous. It is a native of Sumatra, and is rather a rare animal. It feeds on poultry,
birds, small quadrupeds, and deer.
Sir Stamford Raffles gives the following description of two specimens, one of which he carried
to England: “While in a state of confinement they were remarkable for good-temper and
playfulness; no domestic kitten could be more so; they were always courting intercourse with
persons passing by, and in the expression of their countenance, which was always open and
smiling, showed the greatest delight when noticed, throwing themselves on their backs, and
delighting in being tickled and rubbed.
On board the ship there was a small
VOL. I.--34

266
VERTEBRATA.
VREO VAN KENNYIN
Wat
wo
THE RIMAN-DIHAN.
a
dog, who used to play round the cage and with the animal, and it was amusing to observe the
playfulness and tenderness with which the latter came in contact with his inferior-sized com-
panion. When fed with a fowl that died, he seized the prey, and after sucking the blood and
tearing it a little, he amused himself for hours in throwing it about and jumping after it in the
manner that a cat plays with a mouse before it is quite dead. He never seemed to look on man
or children as prey, but as companions: the natives assert that when wild, these creatures live
principally on poultry, birds, and the smaller kinds of deer. They are not numerous, and may
be considered rather rare animals, even in the southern part of Sumatra. Both specimens were
procured from the interior of Bencoolen, on the banks of the Bencoolen River. They are gener-
ally found in the vicinity of villages, and are not dreaded by the natives, except as far as they
may destroy the poultry. The natives assert that they sleep and often lie in wait for their prey on
trees; and from this circumstance they derive the name of Dihan, which signifies the fork formed
by the branch of a tree, across which they are said to rest and occasionally to stretch themselves.
Both specimens constantly amused themselves in frequently jumping and clinging to the top of
their
cage, and throwing a somerset, or twisting themselves round in the manner of a squirrel
when confined, the tail being extended, and showing to great advantage when so expanded.”
Leaving for the present the American Jaguar and Puma which rank with the leopard and
panther in size, and would naturally come in here, we must now notice various foreign species of
the cat family, which are intermediate between these powerful brutes and the smaller kinds.
The SERVAL, F. serval, of Africa, has a skin of a yellowish color, marked with black spots; the
tail has eight black rings; length of the body two feet, height one foot. A young one in the
Zoological Gardens was mild, gentle, and exceedingly sportive, playing with its tail and rolling
small objects about on the floor like a kitten. It is a native of Southern Africa.
The CAFFRE Cat, F. Caffra, is about two feet long; its tail is long and bushy; its ground-color
of a grayish brown zebraed with black. It is extremely elegant in its form and its markings.
It is found in Caffraria and parts of Southern Africa, living in the flats covered with long grass
and low underwood, and feeding upon small quadrupeds and birds.
The NEPAUL TIGER-Cat, F. Nepalensis, has a ground-color of grayish brown, with longitudinal
bands and spots of deep black. It is of the size of the preceding, but more slender of form, and
with the tail longer. It appears to be of a wild and savage nature.
The KUBOUK, F. Javanensis, found in Java; the MARBLED Cat, F. marmorata, of Malacca; the
MIRVINI, F. Moormensis, from the Moormi Hills of Nepaul; the WAGATI Cat, F. viverrina, of
India; the Balu, F. Sumatrana, of Sumatra; the Maou, F. Chinensis, of China; WARWICK'S
a
:

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
267
THE CAFFRE CAT.
Cat, F. Himalayann, of India, and the WAVED Cat, F. torquuta, also of India, appear, all, to
bear a resemblance to the Nepaul tiger-cat : they are, however, little known.
بما
THE LYNX.
We now come to the LYNXES, of which there are several species. The common EUROPEAN
Lynx, F. lynx, has long fur, of a dull reddish gray above, with oblong spots of reddish gray upon
the sides, the spots on the limbs rounder and smaller; whitish below, mottled with black.
Length about three feet. This species varies much. In winter the fur is much longer than it is
in the summer, and has a hoary appearance in the former season, owing to the long hair being
then tipped with grayish white. The tail, which is black at the end, is short, not more than six
or seven inches long. It feeds on small quadrupeds and birds, in quest of which it climbs trees
with ease and activity. In case of need, it will eat carrion and the carcasses of animals slain by

268
VERTEBRATA.
the larger carnivora. Its keenness of sight has become proverbial; the ancients imagined that it
could even penetrate opaque substances. Its fur is valuable, and immense numbers of its skins are
annually brought to the various markets of the world. There appear to be several varieties of
this species in Northern Europe and Northern Asia, which pass under different names, and are
supposed by some to be distinct species.
The BOOTED LYNX, F. caligato, is rather smaller than the preceding; the ears are large, and
tipped with a pencil of short brown hairs. The upper parts of the body are a bluish gray, some-
times having a fulvous tinge; the lower parts are reddish The tail has three or four incomplete
rings toward the tip. Its habits of feeding are the same as the preceding. It is a native of Africa
and the south of India.
The Chaus, or Marsh LYNX, F. chaus, has a general resemblance to the other lynxes: it is
found in the north of Africa, and in the morasses and bushy lowlands that border the Caspian
Sea, as well as the banks of the tributary rivers. It is said to be numerous in Persia, and has
been noticed in the Deccan. This species haunts marshes and boggy regions, and goes hunting,
during the night, after birds, small rodents, and fishes; it seldom climbs trees, and is not easily
tamed. The SMALLER Chaus, F. pulchella, is found in Egypt; the SERVALINE Chaus, F. serva-
linas, in India.
REDHANEKENNY.SC.N.Y.
THE CARACAL.
The CARACAL, or Siyah Ghush, F. Caracal, is supposed by some to be the lynx of the ancients.
It is somewhat larger than the fox, the upper surface of the body being a uniform deep brown;
the ears long, upright, and tapering to a fine point, surmounted by a pencil of long black hairs.
It is found in all the eastern portion of Africa and the southern half of Asia. It is said to follow
the lion and other large beasts of prey, most probably for the purpose of feeding upon what they
leave. But, in addition to this, it feeds on small quadrupeds and birds, the latter of which it is
said to pursue actively on trees. It has obtained the name of “lion's provider," most probably
from its dogging the footsteps of the lion, and having been found preying on what he has left. We
are told that the caracals hunt in packs, and run down their prey like wild dogs. A young one
in the Zoological Gardens was familiar, and pleased to be noticed; the old ones, in their native
state, are ferocious and powerful.
The FLAT-HEADED Lynx, F. planiceps, of Sumatra, is little known.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
269
-
The DOMESTIC CAT, F. Catus ; Chat, in French; Gatto, in Italian ; Gato, in Spanish; Katze,
in German.—The domestic cat, like the domestic dog, has been the companion of man from the
earliest periods of history; it is the only one of the cat family that has been generally used in the
economy of home. Egypt had its domestic cats, where they were embalmed, and their remains
are still found; probably that country was the first to domesticate these animals. In nearly all
European countries, the name of the cat is derived from the Latin, which renders it likely that
Northern and Western Europe received this domestic animal through Roman civilization. As is
the case with other domesticated animals—although the wild ones are nearly all alike in size,
form, and color—the tame ones are black, white, gray, mottled, and variegated, in endless diversity.
There are also particular breeds, some of which have attained celebrity, as the Angora Cat, a
large, fine kind, gentle and delicate, with fine silvery hair; the Maltese Cat, of a mouse-color,
and distinguished as a good mouser; the Tabby Cat, which resembles the wild breed; and the
Tortoise-shell Cat, supposed to have originated in Spain, and beautifully marked with white, black,
and orange colors, and noted for its activity and its grateful attachment to its keeper. The females
are generally pure tortoise-shell, while the males are buff, with stripes of a darker hue. The Persian
Cat is of a glossy gray, with the fur long, and soft as silk; the Chinese Cat is beautifully glossed,
and variegated with black and yellow. The Chartreuse Cat is of a white or whitish color, with a
blue tinge, the eyelids being red. The Manx or Tailless Cat, of Cornwall, in England, and the
Isle of Man, are of this breed. In our country, the breeds of cats are little attended to. In
France, the people generally are cat-fanciers, and many beautiful specimens are to be seen there.
The habits of cats are familiar to all: their light, noiseless tread; their easy, graceful move-
ments; their sly, stealthy approach, when seeking to catch a mouse or a bird; the patience with
which they watch for it,—the sudden, murderous bound, with which they seize it! Everybody
has seen the pride with which they parade their just-caught game before the household; the levity
with which they torment a poor, frighted, dying mouse. What can exceed the soft, seductive
grace with which puss smiles and fawns upon you, when she is pleased! how gentle is her pur,
how velvety her paw, at such a time as this! What can be more hideous than her whole aspect
when she is angry,—her teeth displayed, her claws protruded, her back arched, her tail aloft, her
hair standing out in all directions, while she spits like a tobacco-chewer leveling his battery at
the carpets of the Astor House or the St. Nicholas! What spectacle is there in nature more
pleasing than a family of kittens at their play?
What is more amusing than to watch a young cat when it first sees itself in a mirror? Half
curious and half playful, it begins by pawing at the image; then it peers slily around the edge
of the glass, but returns disappointed. Again observing the reflection, it renews its attempts.
This is several times repeated, until at last the little creature puts itself in various attitudes to
observe the effect. After a time it ceases to attempt to catch or play with the image, but still
seems fond of seeing itself in a glass.
Cats are fond of certain odors, as those of catmint and valerian, rolling themselves in a kind of
ecstasy when they smell the latter plant. They spend much time in stroking their faces with their
paws, as if washing themselves. Notwithstanding their seeming gentleness, they have savage fights
with each other, and tear the skin off each other's necks.
The pupil of a cat's eye, in the light, appears to be only a vertical line or slit: in the dark it
becomes round. The glistening of a cat's eyes in a dim light, has been supposed to be owing to
phosphoric emanation; it is, however, only the reflection of the light from the cornean membrane
of the eye. The electricity noticed on the back of the animal probably belongs to the hair of all
the feline race, and is conjectured to be in some way—not yet explained-connected with their
natural excitability.
The cat possesses the instinct of catching and eating mice, and the mouse that of shunning the
cat as its most dangerous enemy. Once, a gentleman in Rome happened to open a drawer he
seldom had occasion to use, when he saw a mouse jumping out of it, and found among
the
papers
a nest with five young mice, naked and blind, and of a pale flesh-color. He placed them on a
table, handled them, &c., and they evinced no symptoms of fright, nor any inclination to get away,
but only appeared eager to approach each other for the sake of warmth. There happened to be
a
a

270
VERTEBRATA.
in the house a very young cat who had never tasted any thing but milk. He placed it near the
little mice by way of experiment; but, to his astonishment, it did not even look at them, nor per-
ceive them, even when he turned its eyes in the proper direction, until at last, when he had
repeatedly approached its nose to the mice, it suddenly caught a scent, whereupon it began to
tremble with desire. The propensity became more and more violent, and the cat smelled at the
mice, touching them with its nose, when all at once the pale-colored little creatures became suf-
fused with blood, and began to make great exertions to get out of the way of danger, while the
cat as eagerly followed them.
The cat displays a great affection for her kittens, and her pride when they first run about is
quite amusing. “While I was an undergraduate at college," says Wood," a cat belonging to the
baker's department formed a great friendship for me, and used to come every morning and evening
to obtain her share of breakfast and tea. She continued her attentions for some time, but, one
morning she was absent from her accustomed corner, nor did she return until nearly a week had
passed, when she came again, but always seemed uneasy unless the door was open. A few days
afterward she came up as usual, and jumped upon my knee, at the same time putting a little
kitten into my .
hand. She refused to take it back again, so I restored it to its brothers and sisters
myself. Soon afterward, on going into my bedroom, I found another kitten fast asleep on my bed."
The instinct of the cat teaches her to become familiar with places. When she is taken to a new
room, she carefully examines every article by looking at it and smelling of it: she crawls into
every hole, closet, and cupboard; creeps under the beds, measures with her feelers every passage,
and having taken this survey, probably never forgets its details. The attachment of cats to places,
which is instinctive and necessary, is supposed to exclude attachment to persons : instances of
personal love and friendship are, however, by no means uncommon. A gentleman in the neigh-
borhood of London had a tortoise-shell cat which, though he never fed it, or paid much attention
to it, formed an attachment for him equal to that of any dog. It knew his ring at the bell, and,
at whatever time he came home, it was rubbing against his legs long before the servant came, saw
him into the sitting-room, and then walked off. It was a very active animal, and usually went
bird-catching during the night; but, when its master arose, which was generally early in the morn-
ing, the cat was always ready to receive him at the door of his room, and accompanied him in his
morning walk in the garden, alternately skipping to the tops of the trees, and descending and
gamboling about him. When he was in his study, it used to pay him several visits in the day,
always short ones, but it never retired till he had recognized it. If rubbing against his legs had
not the desired effect, it would mount the writing-table, nudge his shoulder, and, if that would not
do, pat him on the cheek; but the moment that he had shaken it by the paw and given it a pat
or two on the head, it walked off. When he was indisposed, it paid him several visits every day,
but never continued in the room; and, although it was fond of society generally, and also of its
food, it never obtruded its company during meals, thus showing that its attachment was personal
and disinterested.
For centuries cats have been connected with ideas of superstition and sorcery. They have
always been regarded as attendants upon witches; and witches themselves have been said to
borrow their shapes when on their mysterious expeditions. Lord Cochrane was accompanied by
a favorite black cat in a cruise through the northern seas. The weather had been most unpro-
pitious; no day had passed without some untoward circumstance, and the sailors were not slow
in attributing the whole to the influence of the black cat on board. This came to Lord Cochrane's
ears; and, knowing that any attempt to reason his men out of so absurd a notion was perfectly
useless, he offered to sacrifice this object of his regard, and have her thrown overboard. This,
however, far from creating any satisfaction, only alarmed the men still more; they were sure that
the tempests she would then raise would be much worse than any they had yet encountered; and
they implored his lordship to let her remain unmolested. ** There was no help, and they could
only hope, if she were not affronted, they might, at the end of their time, reach England in
safety."
Black cats were always more especially connected with superstitious feelings. Mrs. Lee says
that she was once accosted by a peasant's wife, who, with a vial in her hand to contain it, requested

69
Sudan
MAUL HUMAM
ht
SQUARILEY
ANGORA CATS.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
271
a
a
a
Success.
a
that she would give her a few drops of blood from the tail of her black kitten, not only to bring
luck to her hearth, but to keep pestilence from her doors. A working woman told her once, not
to turn a stray black cat from her house; for, if she did, she would never have any prosperity
afterward. Captain Brown tells us that on Hallowe'en, it was usual in Scotland for families to tie
up their cat, in order to preserve it from being used as a pony by the witches that night. Those
who neglected this precaution, ran the risk of seeing their cat scampering through the fields, with
a witch on its back, on the high road to Norway. A black cat was commonly sacrificed by the
ancients to Hecate, or among the Scandinavians to Frea, the northern Hecate. A black cat, sent
with a prayer-book and a bag of sand into a new house, so as to precede the proprietor in posses-
sion, was formerly deemed essential to insure prosperity to the person changing his abode. To
steal a black cat and bury it alive, is, in the Irish Highlands, considered as a specific for a disorder
in cattle, termed "blacklegs," which otherwise
proves
fatal.
Another
very curious thing is, that while most persons are pleased with cats, others have an
instinctive and uncontrollable aversion toward them. What is still more remarkable is this, that
those persons entertaining this dislike can instantly tell that a cat is in a room, even though it is
out of sight. An instance of this kind is thus related in regard to Rev. Dr. B—;
He had a horror of cats and kittens, and such was its intensity as to endow him with clair-
voyance, so that he could easily detect one of these creatures in the room, though it might be out
of sight, or even confined in a closet. Frequent attempts were made to deceive him, but without
His instinct was infallible. When he was seen coming, the first thing attended to
was to shut up the whole purring family, and they were kept under lock and key till the good
doctor had departed. Once upon a time, while dining with a friend, he suddenly threw down his
knife and fork, his face being pale with horror.
“What is the matter?" ejaculated his host in great excitement.
“It is a cat," said the doctor, in a hollow voice.
* A cat !" was the thrilling reply. “Impossible; we were particular to shut up the cat and
kittens as soon as you came.
" I say, there's a cat in the room," said the doctor, with fearful emphasis.
A hurry-scurry ensued, and after a long search a kitten was found slumbering in the cradle,
under the clothing, and snugged down beside the baby!
The evening serenades of cats, called caterwaulings, in towns and cities, are notorious; they are
supposed to be courtings, but are usually attended with a good deal of biting and scratching.
At all events, they are rather annoying. The humors of a late Scottish judge, Lord Eldin, are
worth repeating in this connection : "He kept a numerous company of cats, to whose general
accommodation he devoted a large apartment, and had them duly fed and attended, endeavoring
to make them a happy as well as an orderly society. Civil wars were, however, constantly break-
ing out among them, to the disturbance of the neighborhood; and at last they became so noisy,
that, at a late hour one evening, he went in person to enforce the necessity of observing the king's
peace, even on the part of his quadruped subjects. The Toms and Tabbies, for the whole colony
were up in arms, paid not the least attention to the presence or admonition of the learned gentle-
He retired, sent for his clerk, and desired him to fetch the riot act from the library. This
being obtained, the two proceeded to the territory of the conflicting cats, the clerk with the riot
act, and the barrister—which Eldin then was—with a horsewhip. After proclamation duly
made, the riot act was read with the necessary solemnity, and the cats warned of the conse-
quences if they did not return to an orderly deportment before the expiry of the statutable time.
That time passed without any abatement of the riot, upon which the governor bolted the door,
and bestowed on them a hearty discipline with the whip."
The Wild-Cat, Felis catus ferus. We have thus far been speaking of the cat in her tamed
and civilized condition; we must now speak of her in her savage state. There are many kinds
of wild-cat, some of which we have already noticed, but that from which the domestic cat is sup-
posed to have sprung is called the Common European Wild-Cat, and is found in most parts of
that quarter of the globe, as well as in Asia and Africa; it is also sometimes met with in this
country. When America was first discovered, this species, either tame or wild, was not found
man.

272
VERTEBRATA.
WWN
THE WILD-CAT.
here; all our domestic cats, as well as the wild ones occasionally found in the woods, are the
descendants of those brought hither by the Europeans.
The wild-cats of the European continent are either the descendants of the original races that
have continued untamed from the beginning, or of domesticated cats that have wandered from
their homes, and, living apart from man, have relapsed into barbarism. It is said that the wild
and tame cats, in their wanderings, sometimes meet; when this is the case, the females of the
tame breed are well treated by the savage cats, but the males are rudely set upon and sometimes
torn in pieces. The wild and tame cats sometimes breed together, and produce the kind called
Tiger-Cats. Some authors hold that the wild-cat is a distinct species, because its tail is shorter
and more bushy than that of the domestic cat; but this opinion seems not well founded, for still
greater differences are found in dogs which are acknowledged to be of the same race.
The wild-cat is rather larger and more robust than the tame breed; the head is triangular,
and has a savage aspect, especially when the animal is irritated; the fur is long, soft, and thick;
the back, sides, and limbs are gray, darker on the back and paler below, with a blackish longi-
tudinal stripe along the middle of the back, and numerous paler curved ones on the sides. The
tail is annulated with light gray and black, the tip of the latter color. As is the case with some
other animals—the ox, dog, and horse, for instance—so it is with the cats. The wild ones are
nearly all of the same hue, while the domestic ones, as we have already stated, are white, black,
gray, and yellow, and of various mingled shades and colors.
The wild-cat is a very shy animal, chiefly nocturnal in its habits. It lurks in woods and
thickets, and preys on hares, squirrels, and birds of various kinds. Some four or five hundred
years ago it was common in England, and was a beast of chase like the fox and the hare; it is
now nearly extirpated. It is common in France, Germany, Russia, Hungary, and some other
parts of Europe.
There is a variety of this animal which we must not omit to mention : this is the EGYPTIAN
Cat, F. maniculata. It is found in a wild state in Nubia, and is said to be somewhat smaller than
the European wild-cat; the ground fur or hair is of a brownish yellow, dark above and pale
below. The tail is slender, with two dark rings at its point. This is conjectured to be a distinct
species, and of that kind domesticated in Egypt, and traced on the monuments and found in the
cat-mummies. We see no necessity of adopting this opinion. It may be, indeed, a descendant of
this breed, for there seems to be no animal that so soon loses its cultivation, and returns to a
wild state. A trifling neglect of proper feeding or attention will often cause them to depend
upon their own resources; and the tasting of some wild and living food will tempt them to seek
it again, and to leave their civilized home. They then prowl about in the same manner as their
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
273
congeners, crouching among covers, and carefully concealing themselves from all publicity. They
breed in the woods or thickets, and support themselves upon birds or young animals. Sir W.
Jardin
says, that " few extensive rabbit-warrens want two or three depredators of this kind, where
they commit great havoc, particularly among the young in summer. They sleep and repose in
the holes, and are often taken in the snares set for their prey. I once came upon a cat which
had thus left her home: she had newly kittened in the ridge of an uncut corn-field. Upon
approaching, she showed every disposition to defend her progeny, and beside her lay dead two
half-grown leverets." These Egyptian cats may therefore be the degenerate offspring of the civil-
ized cats which figure so largely in the early history of Egypt, and whatever difference there may
be between those and the other varieties, can be accounted for by the influence of climate and
condition. There is doubtless a tendency in the wild races of animals of the same species to uni-
formity of color and structure, but still we see permanent varieties in the wild dogs of Asia—as,
for instance, the cuon and pariah ; we therefore do not find it necessary to reject the possibility
of similar permanent varieties in cats.
a
THE JAGUAR
We shall now notice the American felidae. The most formidable of these animals is the
JAGUAR, Felis onça. Its length is four to five feet; the tail two feet; the height two feet; the
ground-color of the body is yellow, marked with open black figures of a roundish form; in each
of these there is one or more small black spots. The marks are arranged in longitudinal lines,
nearly parallel, along the body. The belly is almost white. The effect of the whole is in the
highest degree brilliant and beautiful. It appears, however, that there is considerable variety in
the shades of the colors and in the markings. The head of the animal is large, and the jaws have
great power of expansion. The general form is robust, and has a somewhat heavy but still
VOL. 1.-35

274
VERTEBRATÀ.
powerful appearance. This animal is larger and stouter in his structure than the leopard and
panther, and is about three fourths the size of the tiger. It has much of the fierceness and daring
of the latter animal, and is hence often called the American Tiger. There is a variety, which
appears to be quite rare, in which the ground-color is nearly black, the spots, however, being
dimly visible; this is called the Black Tiger.
The jaguar is found in Texas and Mexico, and thence southward to the Argentine Republic.
It is most common, and appears to attain its greatest size and ferocity, in the tropical countries.
In the deep impenetrable swamps and thickets which abound in those regions, amid thorny
shrubs and tangled vines, these animals abound, feeding on the monkeys, peccaries, and other
quadrupeds that come within their reach. Many of them emerge from their haunts, especially
at night, and make prey of deer, horses, and cattle. The colts and calves are their favorite prey,
but they sometimes kill and drag off horses and full-grown cattle. A jaguar has been known to
kill an ox yoked to another, and, carrying off the dead one, has compelled his companion to fol-
low. Frequently two jaguars will combine to master the larger and more powerful brutes.
.
Some of them lie in wait around the salt-licks and attack the animals that resort to these places.
Their habit is to conceal themselves behind some bush, or on the trunk of a fallen tree; here
they will lie, silent and motionless, for hours, patiently waiting for their victims. When they see
a deer, or a mule, or mustang approaching, the eyes dilate, the hair rises along the back, the tail
moves to and fro, and every limb quivers. When the unsuspecting prey comes within his reach, the
monster bounds like a thunderbolt upon him. He fixes his teeth in his neck and his claws in the
loins, and though the dismayed and aggravated victim flies, and rears, and essays to throw off his
terrible rider, it is all in vain. His strength is soon exhausted, and he sinks to the earth an easy
prey to his destroyer. The jaguar, growling and roaring in triumph, already tears his flesh while
yet the agonies of death are upon him. When his hunger is appeased he covers the remains of
the carcass with leaves, sticks, and earth, to protect them from the vultures; and either remains
watching near at hand or retires for a time till appetite revives, when he returns to complete his
carnival. An instance is related in which a jaguar was found, by a party of rangers, watching
the carcass of a horse which he had killed and partially devoured, eight or ten famished wolves
being around, yet not daring to take part in the feast. The rangers approached, and when the
jaguar fled, they followed in pursuit. The wolves set up a cry like hounds, and joined in the
chase. The jaguar was soon shot, and the wolves went back and devoured the remains of the
horse.
The jaguar is peculiarly sly and stealthy in approaching his prey. He has also the habit of fol-
lowing for a long time the object of his desire. He does not often openly attack a man; and,
indeed, he generally slinks away from him if boldly confronted. He will, however, frequently
follow a traveler, keeping at a distance and out of sight, till an opportunity offers for springing
upon him from behind. In South America, the instances in which these ferocious creatures have
carried off children, and even men and women, are by no means rare.
When Mr. Waterton was encamped on the banks of the Essequibo, he was visited by one of
these prowlers. In his “ Wanderings,” he says: “Whenever the fire got low the jaguar came a little
nearer, and when the Indian renewed it, he retired abruptly; sometimes he would come within
twenty yards, and then we had a view of him, sitting on his hind-legs like a dog ; sometimes he
moved slowly to and fro; and at other times we could hear him mend his pace, as if impatient.
,
At last the Indian, not relishing the idea of having such company, set up a most tremendous yell.
The jaguar bounded off like a race-horse, and returned no more. It appeared by the print of his
feet next morning that he was a full-grown one."
The jaguar generally roams about alone, but sometimes he is seen in company with the female.
The latter produces two at a birth. These are rough and woolly in appearance, till they are
nearly full grown. The mother takes them abroad with her when they are of some size ; like
the rest of her family, she is devoted to her offspring, and will face any danger in their defense.
The jaguar is a most expert climber. Sonnini tells us that he saw the scratches left by the
claws of one on the smooth bark of a tree, some forty feet high, without branches. He traced the
marks of several slips made by the climber, but the animal had at last reached the top. Hum-
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
275
a
boldt heard the jaguar's yell from the tops of the trees, followed by the sharp, shrill, long whistle
of the terrified monkeys, as they seemed to flee. None of the living quadrupeds appear to come
amiss to it, and birds and fish, which last it captures in the shallows, are sacrificed to its vora-
cious appetite. It is said to secure them, by proceeding into the edge of the water, where it
drops its spittle on the surface; when the fish approach to seize it, he knocks them out upon the
shore with his paw. Though generally so sly in their habits, the jaguars frequently carry off cattle,
horses, and sheep from the inclosures of the plantations, and the havoc made by them is very
great. Nor are the reptiles free from its attacks. The shells of turtles were pointed out to Hum-
boldt as having been emptied of their contents by the jaguar, which, it seems, watches them as
they come to the sandy beeches to lay their eggs, rushes on them, and turns them on their backs.
He then insinuates his paw between the shells, and scoops out the contents as clean as if a
surgeon's knife had been employed. As the beast turns many more than he can devour at one
meal, the Indians often profit by his dexterous cunning. He will, it is stated, pursue this perse-
cuted race into the water where it is not very deep; he will also dig up and devour the eggs.
Sometimes this formidable creature seems to forget his habitual ferocity. Captain Andrews
tells us of a jaguar that was set upon by the dogs of some hunters, which for some time would
not fight, but played with these animals in the best possible temper. He was not moved from
his sportive humor till he was shot in the shoulder. Humboldt relates a story of two Indian
children, a girl and a boy, the one about seven and the other nine years old, who were at play on
the outskirts of a village, about two o'clock in the afternoon, when a large jaguar came out of the
woods bounding toward them playfully, his head down and his back arched, like a cat. He
approached the boy, who was not sensible of his danger, and began to play with him, till at
last the jaguar hit him so hard on the head with his paw as to draw blood, whereupon the
little girl struck him smartly with a small switch, and he was bounding back not at all irritated,
when the Indians, alarmed by the cries of the girl, came up.
The jaguar is said to make its attacks on quadrupeds by springing upon the neck of his preyi
then placing one of his paws upon the back of its head, while he turns round the muzzle with the
other, he dislocates the neck and deprives it of life. In his turn he falls a victim to man in many
ways. Sometimes he is driven by dogs “to tree,” in which case he is dispatched with the musket
or lance; sometimes the pack force him among the bushes, and then often is exhibited a daring
feat. A single Indian, with his left arm enveloped in a sheep-skin, and with a five-feet lance in
his right, goes boldly in to him. The hunter parries the onset of the furious beast with his
shielded and at the same time deals him such a thrust with his lance as seldom requires
repetition. The lasso is also used with the best effect upon the plains. The object of this war
upon the jaguar is often to destroy a dangerous and destructive enemy; the value of the skin is
also an inducement to the chase. This is much used by the Mexicans for saddle-cloths and
holster-coverings. Many thousands are annually exported to Europe, where they are in great
request for various purposes.
Notwithstanding the courage and ferocity of the jaguar, instances have happened in which it
has been completely cowed and humbled by the convulsions of nature. We are told of a party
of travelers among the mountains of South America who fled to a cave during a terrific thunder-
storm. While here, a jaguar, seeking shelter from the tempest which made the rocks tremble
to their center, entered the cave. Instead of attacking, or even threatening the strangers, who
had no doubt invaded his lair, the beast crept almost upon his belly around them, and slunk away
amid the recesses of the cavern.
Similar instances have been related of the tiger. In the inundations which occasionally take
place in India, the marshy plains along the rivers are often completely covered by the water.
These regions are the abodes of numbers of ferocious beasts-tigers, leopards, and crocodiles, with
serpents, snakes, and vultures—all usually preying upon each other. But when the waters
sweep
the land, numbers of these creatures may be seen together, in perfect harmony, taking
shelter upon the limbs of some gigantic tree that lifts itself above the flood.
Malte-Brun gives us a similar picture in respect to Guiana. This country, he tells us, is sub-
ject to annual inundations during the rainy season; the rivers, swollen by continual rains, over-
arm,

276
VERTEBRATA.
ក
INUNDATION IN GUIANA.
flow their banks; forests, trees, shrubs, and parasitical plants seem to float upon the water.
Quadrupeds are forced to take shelter in the highest trees; large lizards, agoutis, and peccari
quit their dens, now filled with water, and remain among the branches. Aquatic birds spring upon
the trees, to avoid the alligators and serpents that infest the temporary lakes. The fishes forsake
their ordinary food, and live upon the fruits and berries of the shrubs among which they swim :
the crab is found upon the trees, and the oyster multiplies in the forest. The Indian, who surveys
from his canoe this confusion of earth and sea, suspends his hammock on an elevated branch, and
sleeps without fear in the midst of so great apparent danger.
From the account we have given, it might seem that the jaguar in South America holds unques-
tioned dominion over the animal creation, as does the lion in Africa and the tiger in India. It
has, however, one enemy, living in its own haunts, which not unfrequently makes even this tyrant
of the wilderness its prey. This is the boa constrictor. In the overgrown and swampy thickets of
the tropical regions, these serpents, in many varieties-nursed by a perpetual summer, and pam-
pered by an uninterrupted feast-multiply in almost countless millions, and grow to an enormous
size. They lie couched amid the rank herbage that cumbers the earth, or wind among the trail-
ing mosses that festoon the forests, or hang suspended from the boughs of the trees. Silent and
motionless they watch the approach of their prey. Often the stealthy jaguar comes unconsciously
within the reach of one of them, when, with the quickness of thought, it darts upon him, embraces
him in its folds, and his bones cracking like fagots, he expires in the invincible grasp
The Cougar, Felis concolor, has had the honor of bearing a great variety of names. Being,
like the true lion, a ferocious beast, and nearly of a uniform color, it was originally called the
American Lion; consequently certain European naturalists found conclusive proof in this animal
to sustain a favorite theory that every thing American was on an inferior scale, when compared
with similar products of nature in the Old World. Among the people of New England it was for-

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
277
Tolls
Eur
wa mwanae NWU-
M
COS
ER
THE BOA CONSTRICTOR CRUSHING THE JAGUAR.
merly called the Panther, and this was vulgarized into Painter ; sometimes, too, it was called
Catamount. Charlevoix described it under the name of Carcajou, which really belongs to the
glutton. Azara called it Gouazoura, and the French gave it the name of Cougar. This, with the
South American title of Puma, it still retains; it is also still called Panther in the United States.
The form of this creature is long and slender, the legs short and stout, the head being rather small
and carried high. The body is silvery fawn above, sometimes reddish, the tawny hairs of the
upper parts being whitish at the tips; the belly and inside of the limbs are nearly white; the head
black and gray, irregularly mixed. The length of the body is four to five feet, and sometimes
The female is colored like the male. Three to five young ones are produced at a
birth ; these are variously striped and spotted.
The
cougar is the only formidable animal of the cat kind that is known in the United States.
Formerly, it extended from Canada to Patagonia; but, in the more settled parts of our country,
it is altogether extirpated or extremely rare. Fifty years ago, it was occasionally met with
even more.

278
VERTEBRATA.
in nearly all the wooded regions of New England. One is still sometimes seen in the northern
wilds of Maine and New Hampshire. The author of these pages recollects that, in his boyhood,
meeting a “painter" was among the possible adventures of a sportsman in the mountainous western
border of Connecticut. At present this animal is rare in most parts of the Northern and Middle
States : it is frequently met with in the Alleghany range, from New York to Georgia. It is fond
of marshy lands, and is common in the swamps along the Southern rivers, and is especially
abundant in Texas and Florida. It is found in Oregon and California, but more sparingly.
Though it appears to be the only large animal of the cat family that lives and thrives in a tem-
perate climate, the cougar still seems to find its true home in the hot regions of our continent.
In Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Guiana, and Brazil, it reaches its largest size, and its pre-
daceous qualities have their fullest development.
The cougar generally subsists on birds and small quadrupeds, such as young deer, raccoons,
skunks, and the like: in South America the monkeys and peccaries frequently become its prey.
.
In the vicinity of man it often makes sad havoc among the sheep: one has been known to kill
fifty in a night, and gorge himself with their blood. It also kills great numbers of swine. Young
animals, lambs, pigs, calves, and colts, are its especial favorites. If a cougar finds an unfortunate
cow, or even a bullock, embarrassed in the oozy mud of a swamp, he will fall upon it and kill it.
If the animal is too large for a single meal, the greedy brute, having filled himself to repletion,
retires to a short distance, and waits and watches till his hunger revives, when he returns and
finishes his gluttonous repast.
This animal is nocturnal in its habits, and is said to utter a wailing cry, which travelers repre-
sent as peculiarly wild, startling, and hideous, when heard in the wilderness, during the still
watches of the night. It is conjectured, however, that the shrill bark of the fox, and the desolate
hootings of the owl, are often mistaken for the yell of the cougar. This animal prowls about in
search of its prey with great perseverance, and slily approaching its intended victim, bounds upon
it with a sudden and terrible velocity. It is a peculiarly cowardly animal, and appears never to
attack a man in open day, but sometimes at night it has sprung upon an unwary traveler either
lagging along the road or encamped in the woods. Like all others of the cat family, it is afraid
.
,
of fire, and the usual defense of woodmen is to keep up a blaze during the night. Even with this
caution, a party of foresters has often been startled by finding their horses attacked, and sometimes
cruelly lacerated by the claws and teeth of these blood-thirsty creatures. Innumerable instances
of this kind have happened to emigrants and settlers in the Western States.
The cougar climbs trees with great facility; it often lies in wait for its prey on the limb of a
tree, and when it comes within reach, descends upon it like a thunderbolt. In mountainous
countries, its lair is in the clefts of the rocks; in marshy lands, it makes its rude bed of leaves,
weeds, and grasses, in the thick, matted coverts of the jungle, the chapparal, or the cane-brake.
The female cougar is most affectionate and devoted to her young. She only leaves them to pro-
cure necessary food, and permits them to subsist upon her till she is often reduced to a skeleton.
When about half grown, they cease to be nursed, and accompany their parents—who usually go
together-in their hunts.
It
appears
that there is an animal in South America which is called the BLACK COUGAR, Felis
discolor; but wnether a distinct species or only a variety of the cougar, is not determined.
The OCELOT, or LEOPARD Cat, Felis pardalis, is found in Texas, Louisiana, and Mexico, and as
far south as Paraguay. The length of the body is three feet, the height one foot six inches. The
ground-color is gray, marked with fawn-colored patches and spots, edged with black; these are
irregularly but gracefully disposed in bands, sloping down the sides, and running in lines along
the head and neck. The under parts are white, spotted with black. The colors are exceedingly
rich, and the whole effect indescribably beautiful. Of all the cat family, this is admitted to be
the handsomest. Its activity and grace of movement are equal to the splendor of its skin. It
lives in woods and thickets bordering upon streams or lakes, keeping itself concealed during the
day, and sallying forth on its hunt by night. It climbs trees with agility, where it pursues its
game, especially birds and monkeys, with great address. It is said to practice a trick on the lat-
ter animal which shows a good appreciation of monkey character. It will stretch itself out on the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
279
By
9's
CCOO
THE OCELOT.
limb of a tree, as if dead. The monkeys cannot restrain their curiosity, and so approach to see
what this means. When they come within reach, they are suddenly grasped by the teeth and
claws of the wily deceiver. The ocelot also devours small quadrupeds, as well as eggs. If by
chance it is discovered by man, it conceals itself by crouching upon the larger branches of the
trees, or in the bottoms of decayed trunks. It runs like the fox and wild-cat when pursued by
the hunters and their hounds, often seeking to baffle the chase by doubling and resorting to vari-
ous artifices. In case of extremity it ascends a tree. It is savage and spiteful in its defense, and
snarls and spits at a stranger when confined in a cage. If taken young, however, it may be ren-
dered quite tame, so as to be left at liberty; thus domesticated, it manifests strong attachment
for its master. Mr. Bennett states that a male specimen in the Tower Menagerie was perfectly
good-tempered, exceedingly fond of play, and had much of the character and manners of the
domestic cat. Its food consisted principally of rabbits and birds; the latter it plucked with
great dexterity, and always commenced its meal with the head, of which it seemed particularly
fond; but it did not eat with the ravenous avidity which characterizes nearly all the animals of
this tribe.
The Miris, or CHATI, Felis mitis, the Chibiguazu of Azara, is a native of Mexico and the coun-
tries south to Paraguay. It is smaller than the ocelot, but it resembles that animal, and has been
confounded with it. Its ground-color is pale yellow above, figured with irregular dark patches,
disposed in longitudinal rows. The lower parts are white, also marked with spots arranged in
These animals inhabit the deep forests by day, but go forth at night, sometimes visiting
the farm-yards and killing the poultry. They live in pairs, and feed on birds and small quadru-
peds. Their eyes shine in the night. They have the habits of washing their faces with their
paws, cleaning themselves, fuffing, sneezing, &c., like the domestic cats. One of these animals in
the Paris Menagerie was very gentle, and manifested great delight at being caressed. If any one
with whom it was familiar passed the cage without noticing it, it would utter a plaintive cry of
discontent.
The PAMPAS Cat, or JUNGLE CAT, Felis pajero, is found in the country bordering the Rio de
la Plata. It is twenty-six inches in length, and thirteen in height, and is distinguished by hair
three to four inches in length. The color is yellowish gray, with numerous irregular brown and
yellow stripes running obliquely from the back along the sides. It lives in the pampas or plains,
and not in the woods, concealing itself amid the dense masses of thorny shrubs, and feeding
chiefly on Guinea-pigs.
The MARGAY, Felis tigrina, is of the size of the domestic cat; the PAINTED OCELOT, Leopardus
pictus, the GREY OCELOT, Felis armillata, the VARIEGATED LEOPARD, L. variegatus, the FALSE
MARGAY, L. tigrinoides, are all small species found in tropical America; the KUICHUA, F. ma-
croura, is of Mexico
rows.

280
VERTEBRATA.
a
Of lynxes, there appear to be several American species. The Bay Lynx, Felis rufa, or Felis
montana, is also called the AMERICAN WILD-Car. It is two and a half feet long, and usually
weighs somewhat less than twenty pounds; the head is round, the body slender, legs long, soles
of the feet naked, hind-feet partially webbed, ears large, nearly triangular, and tipped with coarse
hairs, which are shed in summer. The throat is surrounded with a ruff of long hair. The tail is
short, slender, and turned up at the end. The general color is of a yellowish brown or bay; there
is a line of darker brown rising from the shoulders to the tail, and circular longitudinal stripes of
a similar shade upon the back. The sides are spotted with dark brown.
This animal is very extensively distributed, being found in all the less settled portions of North
America, from latitude sixty north to the tropics. In the warmer parts of the United States
it is abundant, and in some places is even a nuisance, from its depredations upon the eggs and
poultry of the plantations. It usually chooses the wooded steeps of hills, or thick, swampy for-
ests for its haunts; it feeds on eggs, rabbits, rats, squirrels, partridges, fish, and indeed almost
any small quadruped it can master, or any bird it can seize. The hens, ducks, geese, and turkeys
of the farm-yards fall victims to its voracity. It will follow flocks of wild turkeys, and seeing in
what direction they are going, will proceed by a short cut to the path they are likely to take,
where it crouches down, and when one of them comes within its reach it bounds upon it and seizes
it. It is a very shy animal, and when hunted displays great address in eluding both dogs and
hunters. It is very timid, yet makes a stout defense when driven to extremity. It is a tolerable
swimmer, and has not the general aversion of the cat family to the water. Its usual home is in
the hole of a tree, or a space beneath a log. The female makes a bed of moss and leaves, where
she produces from two to four young at a birth. All attempts to domesticate this species have
proved fruitless. The flesh is said to be white like veal, and of good flavor.
a
THE CANADA LYNX.
The CANADA Lynx, Felis Canadensis, the Loup Cervier of the French, and Peshoo of the In-
dians, has a round, broad head, large eyes, strong teeth, ears acute and tipped with long hairs.
The body is robust, the legs thick and clumsy, the toes strong and imbedded in fur. The fur has
a woolly appearance, the under part being very close and soft. The general color of the back is
gray, with a rufous tinge; the sides are gray, the under surface dull white. There are irregular
spots of brown over nearly the whole form, these markings varying in different species. The
length of the body is thirty-three to thirty-eight inches; the tail six inches.
The Canada lynx is a northern species, being found from latitude sixty-six degrees north to
Pennsylvania. It is occasionally found in the unsettled parts of the northern United States, but

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
281
it is most common in Canada. It is of exceedingly retired habits, and feeds on grouse, hare, rab-
bits, squirrels, &c. It occasionally catches a wild goose, a marmot, a porcupine, and even a deer.
The
young fawns frequently become its victims. Like the rest of its kind, it breeds but once a
year, and generally produces two at a birth. The skins are used for muffs and collars, and are
much esteemed. Many hundreds of them are annually taken by the hunters and trappers. The
Indians regard their flesh as good eating. When alarmed or pursued, it proceeds by leaps
or bounds, and if hard pressed, takes to a tree. Its claws are of great strength, and it de-
fends itself powerfully. It can leap from a great height without injury, and is likewise a good
swimmer.
This animal so nearly resembles the common lynx of Europe that it has been regarded as of the
same species. This opinion is now generally abandoned. It is believed, however, that the same
species exists in the northern parts of Asia.
THE CHEETAH.
Genus GUEPARD, presents a single species, the CHEETAH, Felis jubata, called also the Youze
and Hunting-Leopard, celebrated alike for its beauty and its interesting qualities. In its conforma-
tion and character this animal seems to combine something of the dog and cat, whence it is called
Cynailurus by some naturalists. It has a circular pupil, and is chiefly diurnal in its habits. In
size and shape it is between the leopard and the hound. The color is yellowish fawn above, and
nearly pure white beneath. It is covered on the upper parts with numerous black spots, from
half an inch to an inch in diameter. A slight mane runs along the neck. The hair generally
has a crispness, distinguishing it from the softness of that of the cat's. The skins are an article
of some importance in the trade of the western coast of Africa. The intelligence, tractability,
and fidelity of the cheetah are such that it has been trained to the chase of the antelope in the
East. Several of them are carried to the field in low cars whereon they are chained, each one
being hooded. When the hunters come within view of a herd of antelopes, one leopard is
unchained, his hood is removed, and the game is pointed out to him; for he is directed in the
pursuit by his sight. Perceiving the object, he steals along cautiously and crouchingly, taking
advantage of every means of masking his attack, till he has approached the herd unseen, within
killing distance, when he suddenly launches himself upon his quarry with five or six vigorons and
rapid bounds, strangles it instantaneously, and drinks its blood. The huntsman now approaches
the leopard, caresses him, wins him from his prey by placing the blood which he collects in a
wooden ladle under the nose of the animal, or by throwing to him pieces of meat; and while he
is thus kept quiet, hoods him, leads him back to his car, and then chains him. If the leopard
fails in his attack, he returns to his den with a mournful and dejected air.
Of the habits of the hunting-leopard in a state of nature we have but little knowledge. It is
VOL. 1.-36

282
VERTEBRATA.
found both in Asia and Africa; it is common in Persia, India, and Sumatra, and the country
around the Cape of Good Hope. A pair of them were in the Zoological Gardens a few years
since, and are described as having been exceedingly graceful and beautiful animals, purring when
pleased, and mewing when discontented. They seemed to possess none of the sly and skulking
habits of the cats; on the contrary, they were frank and confiding, and manifested great fond-
ness for their keeper.
Fossil FELIDÆ.—Among the relics of extinct animals, those of the cats are numerous and diver-
sified. In the second, or miocene period of the tertiary formations, are found the first traces of
the larger fossil cats. Four species, some as large as the lion, are enumerated by Professor
Kaup. In the third and fourth, or pliocene period, the bones of the herbivorous animals become
more abundant, and as the destroyers were needed, according to the universal system of na-
ture, to limit their increase, we find the bones of the carnivora to increase in proportion.
Among them, the geologists specify numerous species of cats similar to the tigers, lions, leopards,
and tiger-cats of our own time.
It is interesting to observe, that while most of the large species of that age
have become extinct,
the wild-cat, the progenitor of our domestic cat, which existed at that time, has survived. There
are very few animals known to us that can boast a lineage so ancient as Puss. A curious in-
stance of the strange operations of nature in these remote periods is mentioned by Dr. Lund in
his Fossil Fauna of Brazil. In that country he discovered the bones of a species of hunting-leop-
ard—an animal now only known in Asia and Africa—of the size of the domestic cat! To this he
gave the name of Cynailurus minutus. He also discovered the fossil remains of an animal similar
to the jaguar, but of the size of the tiger, or even the lion, of the Old World. What curious
glimpses these revelations afford of those dim ages of the earth, lost to man, and unwritten and
unrecorded save by the Creator alone! And other facts unfold still more startling wonders to the
view. As we have before stated, the bones of many animals belonging to orders which are at the
present time strictly tropical, have been found in abundance in different parts of Northern Europe.
Among the Brazil fossil cats, Professor Owen enumerates four species, one of them, the GREAT
CAVE-TIGER, Felis spelæa, being of the size of the jaguar. In connection with these facts, the same
author presents the following interesting observations:
“ It is too commonly supposed that the lion, the tiger, and the jaguar are animals peculiarly
adapted to a tropical climate. The genus Felis is, however, represented by species in high north-
ern latitudes, and in all the intermediate countries to the equator; and there is no genus of Mam-
malia in which the unity of organization is more closely maintained, and in which, therefore, we
find so little ground in the structure of a species, though it may most abound at the present day
in the tropics, for inferring its special adaptation to a warmer climate. A more influential, and
indeed the chief cause or condition of the prevalence of the larger feline animals in any given
locality, is the abundance of the vegetable-feeding animals in a state of nature, with the accom-
panying thickets or deserts unfrequented by man. The Indian tiger follows the herds of ante-
lope and deer in the lofty Himalayan chain to the verge of perpetual snow. The same species
also
passes that great mountain barrier, and extends its ravages, with the leopard, the panther,
and the cheetah, into Bocharia, to the Altaian chain, and into Siberia as far as the fiftieth degree
of latitude, preying principally on the wild horses and asses. It need not, therefore, excite sur-
prise that indications should have been discovered in the fossil relics of the ancient Mammalian
population of Europe, of a large feline animal, the contemporary of the mammoth, of the tichorine
rhinoceros, and of the gigantic cave-bear and cave-hyena, and the slayer of the oxen, deer, and
equine quadrupeds that so abounded during the same epoch."

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA
283
40
TAL
Sunny
HA
I REDMAN & KENNY NHY
THE STRIPED HYENA.
THE HYENIDÆ, OR HYENINÆ.
As several distinguished authors of the present age have undertaken to reconcile the world
to the Great Man-Killer of Modern times; as Aaron Burr has found an apologist, and almost an
eulogist; as Eugene Aram has been commended to our sympathy, and Jonathan Wild apotheo-
sized in romance; and as learned commentators have recently discovered that even Judas Iscariot
was a true disciple, we are rather surprised to find that some one has not undertaken to render
the family of Hyenas popular and amiable in the eyes of mankind. Certain it is, that few marked
characters in history have suffered more from the malign inventions of prejudice. The ancients

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VERTEBRATA.
charged the hyena with magical powers, and the terrible attribute of bisexuality, and the mod-
erns kave heaped upon him the disreputable accusation of untamability. The striped hyena is
said, even in grave-yards, and when it is about to make its abominable feasts, to utter a fearful
howl, which is compared to a mocking laugh, whence he is called the “Laughing Hyena." This
has operated on the lively imaginations of the Orientals—where this creature is common-in such
a manner, that they believe the grave-yards peopled with disgusting demons, whom they called
Ghouls, and so this animal is charged with having evoked the demonology of the Arabians and
other Eastern nations from the ghastly precincts of the tomb. Such injustice might be made to
excite sympathy, and the ardent defenders could easily, as in the cases of the human hyenas above
alluded to, slide into gentle and generous apologists. It is true, the disagreeable reputation of vio-
lating the sanctuaries of the dead, and of occasionally feeding on some innocent little Red Riding-
Hoods, together with wholesale thieveries and robberies, practiced from time immemorial, might
seem rather hard features to be blended into an agreeable portrait, but who can tell what the
seductive colors of Bulwer, Ainsworth, and the “Berkley Men” might do? Napoleon killed a
million of living men, and we may well doubt if all the hyenas in the world have devoured as
many dead ones from the beginning of time. The same pen that could make the first a sublime
object of hero-worship, might at least offer a handsome apology for the last. Aaron Burr was
the moral and political hyena of his day; so at least cotemporary society adjudged him. What
infinite skill, what admirable talent, is that which could shroud the memory and the grave of such
a man in the dainty sackcloth of the proverb,“ Of the dead, only good !” And if German eru-
dition, seconded by the author of the “ English Opium-Eater," can lift from the name of Judas
the curse of eighteen centuries, what might not be achieved in behalf of the hyena, if
could be found to set about it? As for ourselves, not permitted to indulge in the agreeable re-
laxation of inditing romance, we must proceed in our stern task of telling the truth, the whole
truth, and nothing but the truth.
The Hyenas, or Hyænas, then, are a family of digitigrade carnivorous mammalia, distinguished
by having their fore-legs longer than their hind-legs, by their rough tongue, great and conical
molar, or rather cutting and crushing teeth, coarse, rough hair, projecting eyes, large ears, and
a glandular pouch beneath the anus. The incisors are six above and six below; the canines,
one above and one below; the molars, five above and four below; the whole number of teeth,
thirty-four. The false molars, three above and four below, are conical, blunt, and very large.
The
upper
flesh-tooth has a small tubercle within and in front, but the lower one has none,
and presents only two trenchant points. The whole of the dental and molar organization, and
indeed the whole cranial structure, appears to have been formed with a view to the bringing
into the most available action, the formidable natural instruments which enable the hyenas to
break the hardest bones. In illustration of this, Dr. Buckland gives the following account of the
feats of a Cape hyena which he saw at Oxford in the traveling collection of Mr. Wombwell: “I
was enabled to observe the animal's mode of proceeding in the destruction of bones. The shin-
bone of an ox being presented to this hyena, he began to bite off with his molar teeth large frag-
ments from its upper extremity, and swallowed them whole as fast as they were broken off. On
his reaching the medullary cavity, the bone split into angular fragments, many of which he caught
up greedily and swallowed entire. He went on cracking it till he had extracted all the marrow,
licking out the lowest portion of it with his tongue; this done, he left untouched the lower con-
dyle, which contains no marrow, and is very hard.
I
gave
the animal successively
three shin-bones of a sheep; he snapped them asunder in a moment, dividing each in two parts
only, which he swallowed entire, without the smallest mastication. On the keeper putting a spar
of wood two inches in diameter into his den, he cracked it in pieces as if it had been touchwood,
and in a minute the whole was reduced to a mass of splinters. The power of his jaws far ex-
ceeded
any animal force of the kind I ever saw exerted, and reminded me of nothing so much as
a miner's crushing-mill, or the scissors with which they cut off bars of iron and copper in the
metal founderies."
The power displayed by the jaws of the heyna would indeed almost surpass belief, if an exam-
ination of the structure of the animal did not explain the phenomenon. The muscles of the jaws,
aided by the muscles of the neck, are so strong that it is almost impossible to drag from its vice-
*

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
285
like gripe that which the animal has once seized upon. Cuvier remarks that its efforts in this way
sometimes produce anchylosis of the cervical vertebræ, and that this has given rise to the asser-
tion that hyenas have but a single bone in the neck. He also states that their name among the
Arabs is the symbol of stubbornness. The feet have four toes each, like those of the suricates.
The same author sums up their character by saying that they are voracious nocturnal animals,
inhabiting caverns, living for the most part on carcasses, for which they ransack the tombs, and
that they are the subjects of an infinity of superstitious traditions.
Under the term Hyenince we include two genera, the Hyenas proper and the Proteles.
Genus HYENA: Hyæna.—Of this there are two species, though some authors regard one
only as a variety; the STRIPED HYENA and the SPOTTED HYENA. The former, the Hyæna striata,
is the "Yava, the hyena of the ancients; the Canis hyæna of Linnæus ; H. striata of Zimmerman;
H. vulgaris of Desmarest; and H. antiquorum of Temminck; H. orientalis of Tiedemann; the
Hooandor of Buffon, Bennett, and other writers. When full grown, it is about the size of a large
dog or wolf, but shaggy and ragged in its appearance. The hair is of a rough, wiry texture; and
along the dorsal line, from the head to the insertion of the tail, there runs a coarse, bristly mane,
which gives a peculiar character to the back of the animal, to which there is scarcely any thing
corresponding among other beasts of prey. The tail is short and bushy, sometimes plain, and
sometimes fringed with black. Under the tail there is an orifice, which communicates with a
sort of sack or pouch, containing a substance resembling civet, but much more offensive to the
smell. The head is broad and flat; the eyes are large, and exhibit a peculiar expression of wild-
ness and sullen ferocity. The ground-color of the body is generally of a clear fawn, but there
are many varieties of shade in the species. Some are of a deep brown tint, and others brownish
gray; and they are invariably brindled or striped with darker shades. The snout is black and
remarkably full; the legs are very strong, and altogether the animal is very formidable in pro-
portion to its size. In the carriage of its head it resembles a dog on the scent; and when dis-
lodged from cover, and obliged to retreat, it limps off at first, seemingly hunch-backed and lame;
but when it has measured a short distance, these apparent impediments wear off, and it steps out
at a rapid rate.
The striped hyena is a wild and solitary animal, and chooses for its habitation the most hidden
dens and caverns of the earth; and, when nature fails to provide it with a dwelling-place in its
favorite locality, it sets to work and excavates a hole in the cleft of a rock, or some other mount-
ainous recess, for its own accommodation. The cry it utters is very peculiar. It commences
with a low moaning sound, not unlike that of a human being under the influence of pain, and
gradually rises into the most loud and violent bellowing. It generally conceals itself during the
day-time, and comes forth in the night in quest of its prey. In their roaming for this end, hyenas
are peculiarly assiduous and daring, and do not turn aside from obstacles that would be accounted
insurmountable by much larger animals. When put to it, they will not shrink from an encounter
with the panther, or even the lion himself, and they frequently attack and vanquish the ounce
and other animals much larger than themselves. In their nocturnal prowlings, when excited by
hunger, they do not hesitate to visit the habitations of man, and the inclosures round these do not
always prove a sufficient protection from their savage attacks on such domestic animals as they mark
out for their victims. Nor does the sight of man, or the report of fire-arms, always scare them from
their
prey.
The most revolting of all the characteristics in the economy of the hyena, is its sac-
rilegious violations of the repositories of the dead; and what is scarcely less so, is its blood-thirsty
propensity of following armies, and of feasting on the remains of those who may be slain in battle.
Though, generally speaking, unsocial animals, hyenas have been known to unite in considerable
numbers on occasions, such as the watching and dogging of the movements of contending armies,
attacking flocks and herds, or when the live-stock of the village is marked out for plunder. This
species seems to be common in most parts of Africa, and especially in the northern and central
portions. It often prowls about the towns and villages, and Niebuhr tells us that in the Gaboon
country, in the summer, when the inhabitants sleep in the open air, it will sometimes snatch away
children from the sides of their parents. Travelers in Africa constantly speak of the hyenas that
throng about their camps at night, and sometimes destroy their asses, and even horses. It has

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VERTEBRATA.
been the custom, among other fabulous assertions, to state that the hyena is not to be tamed, but
Mr. Bennett, who had an opportunity of observing them in the Tower Menagerie, says there is
scarcely any animal that submits with greater facility to the control of man. He speaks of the
docility and attachment to his keepers manifested by the striped hyena, especially when allowed
a certain degree of liberty, which the animal shows no disposition to abuse, though those which
are carried about from fair to fair in close caravans are surly and dangerous from irritation and
ill-treatment. The individual which Mr. Bennett describes was remarkably tame, and confined
in the same den with one of the American bears. Colonel Sykes remarks, that this species, the
Turrus of the Mahrattas, is numerous in the Deccan, and susceptible of the same domestication
as a dog. Other travelers speak of the hyena as capable of being tamed, and performing the duty
of watch-dogs.
The striped hyena is found in Asia, the mountains of Caucasus, and the Altaian chain, Asiatic
Turkey, Syria, Persia, Barbary, and Senegal, and even as low as the Cape. There are specimens
in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, the Garden of Plants, Paris, and are common
in the other menageries of Europe and those of this country.
It seems uncertain whether this is the animal alluded to in the Bible. Some translate the
words rendered in our copies of the Holy Scriptures “the valley of Zeboim ”—1 Sam. xiii. 18;
Nehem. xi. 34—as “the valley of hyenas;" and the “Seventy" render the words given by
the English translators as "a speckled bird," and "a bird of divers colors”—Jer. xii. 9—as "the
cave of the hyena,” Enrjhalov Yaívns, while others would substitute one of the Hebrew letters com-
posing the word in Samuel for another, and make the reading “vipers," as if certain streaked ser-
pents were meant. Bochart shows that by the Tsabhua, or Tseboa, the word occurring in the
ninth verse of the twelfth chapter of Jeremiah, the hyena was intended, and if this opinion be
correct, there can be little doubt that “the valley of Zeboim” means “the valley of hyenas."
Dzuba and Dubba are, it appears, Arabic names for this species.
Whatever may be the opinions as to the striped hyena being alluded to in those passages of
Scripture which we have quoted, there can be no doubt that it is the "Yawa of Aristotle and the
Greeks. The most monstrous fables, as we have already intimated, were rife respecting this ani-
mal, and the extent to which they had reached may be supposed, when we find Aristotle taking
pains to demonstrate the absurdity of the assertion that the animal was bisexual, or a true her-
maphrodite. It would be a waste of time and space to enumerate all the wonderful
powers that
were attributed to it; but among other accomplishments, in addition to those already alluded to,
it was said to imitate the language of men, in order to draw to it shepherds, whom it devoured
at leisure, and to have the power of charming dogs so that they became dumb!
The SPOTTED HYENA, H. maculata, is the Tiger-Wolf of the colonists at the Cape; Canis cro-
cuta of Erxleben and Gmelin; Hyæna crocuta of Zimmerman; Hyæna Capensis of Desmarest;
Crocuta maculata of Gray. It inhabits Southern Africa, and is to be met with in large numbers
in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope. It is smaller than the striped species, and the bristly
mane does not extend beyond the loins, betwixt which and the tail a few scattered, produced
hairs only are observable. Its general tint, on the upper part of the body, is dull yellow, and the
belly and limbs are blackish brown. A deeper tinge of this last spots almost every part of the
body. The character and habits of this species, in point of ferocity, do not differ materially from
the striped hyena, except, perhaps, that they are even more daring when pressed by hunger, and
more easily reduced to a state of domestication. Their feelings, both of hatred and affection,
seem to be equally strong. Instances are recorded of individuals manifesting the liveliest affec-
tion and regard for their keepers; while, on the other hand, they would exhibit the most violent
rage against persons who had given them no cause of offense. Barrow relates that the spotted
hyena is met with in a domesticated state in the district of Schneuberg, where it is found equal
in point of intelligence and fidelity to the dog, and even more serviceable in the chase than that
animal. In the wild state they have been known to enter the huts of Hottentots and carry
off
children, when they were left unprotected; and Thunberg tells us, that such is their audacity,
that they will eat the shoes from off the feet, and the saddle from under the head of the traveler,
who happens to make his couch in the open air.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
287
Numerous writers have treated of the habits of this destructive animal. From them it
appears
that it is more numerous and more widely diffused than the other kind common in that quarter,
which has the name of the Strand or Coast Wolf-the H. villosa, hereafter to be described : it is
also more voracious and destructive, not only devouring such animals as it chances to find dead,
but also carrying off the smaller ones from the pens of the farmers during the night, and often
succeeding in killing and mutilating such of the larger kinds as have not been secured before
dusk. Sickly animals, it appears, are less liable to suffer from the voracity of this creature than
those that are in full health, the latter, by their rapid flight, inspiring their enemy with a cour-
age of which by nature he is destitute; whereas, the sickly face him, and thus intimidate him
from attacks which might be successful if made. So anxious is he for the flight of the animals
as a preliminary to his attack, that he uses all the grimace and threatening he can command to
induce them to run, and never dares to attack them unless they do so.
“The character of this hyena," says an eminent author, “ makes his destruction an object of no
small importance to the farmers, whose ingenious snares for him call forth amazing cunning and
dexterity on the part of the animal to render them of no avail. The more common methods em-
ployed against beasts of prey, such as spring-guns, traps, &c., do not succeed in his case. During
,
his nocturnal wanderings, he minutely examines every object that presents itself to his notice
with which he is not perfectly familiar; and if he see reason to suspect that it can injure him, he
will turn back and make his way in an opposite direction. Thus cords or leather thongs, which
are often laid across the footpaths the hyena is accustomed to travel upon, and which are attached
,
to the triggers of loaded guns, with the design that his contact with the thong may cause the
discharge of the gun in his direction, are very carefully examined by him, and the usual result of
,
his examination is his deciding against trusting himself in contact with them. The farmers have
so often observed this result, that they now very rarely attempt his destruction by this means,
but occasionally succeed by substituting for cords the delicate stems of creeping plants, which are
regarded by him without suspicion until he has actually suffered through them. Many other in-
genious methods, suggested by the necessity of the case, have been adopted by the farmers for
the destruction of hyenas; but a description of them, though elsewhere desirable, would here be
out of place.
“This species seldom, if ever, moves abroad during the day, but passes that period in a state of
repose, either in holes in the ground, or in retired situations densely covered with bush. Night
,
is his favorite season for seeking his food; and toward nightfall his howlings are regularly heard,
announcing to the various animals the approach of their voracious enemy, and thus enabling
many of them to escape his wiles. The propensity this beast has for howling seems, therefore, to
be disadvantageous to him; and if his almost continuous noise be not intended to put the animals
preys upon their guard, its actual purpose is scarcely conceivable. Some have
surmised it to be his call to creatures of his own species; but that this is not the case, is certain
from the fact that hyenas are heard to utter their supposed call even while separating from each
other further and further as each cry is uttered; in addition to which it may be remarked that it
is contrary to the habit of this animal to hunt in company, or even to congregate in large num-
bers, save when assembled by the temptation of an abundance of carrion. A still further proof
that the hyena's cry is not a friendly call to his own species, may be found in the fact, that when
individual hyenas have found a dead animal they cease to utter their melancholy howl, as if in
fear of calling participators of their feast."
It appears from the above interesting account, that the spotted hyena puts in practice "all the
grimace and threatening he can command” to induce the objects of his attack to run; in other
words, his plan of attack is founded upon intimidation. May not his howls be intended to inspire
terror and shake the nerves of the animals within hearing of the doleful nocturnal sounds?
“Till lately,” adds the author just quoted, “hyenas were in the habit of paying nightly visits
to the streets of Cape Town, and were regarded as very useful in carrying away the animal refuse,
which might otherwise have been disagreeable. This however no longer occurs, partly perhaps
from better regulations now existing in the town, and partly from the number of these animals
having very greatly decreased. Even now, however, individual hyenas occasionally approach the
upon which he

288
VERTEBRATA.
town, and their howlings are sometimes heard under Table Mountain, and in other directions,
during the nights. In the countries inhabited by the Kaffirs they are very numerous and daring,
generally approaching the villages during the night, and attempting, either by strength or strata-
gem, to pass the wattles by which the houses are defended. If they be thus far successful, they
next endeavor to enter the houses, which they sometimes accomplish, in which case they not un-
frequently carry off some young child of the family. Scars and marks on various parts of the
body often testify to the traveler how dangerous a foe the natives have in this animal."
Mr. Steedman, in his “Wanderings and Adventures in the Interior of Southern Africa,” gives
most appalling accounts of the rapacity of the spotted hyena. He states that Mr. Shepstone, in
a letter from Mamboland, relates that the nightly attacks of wolves, as the hyenas are generally
called, have been very destructive among the children and youth; for within a few months not
,
fewer than forty instances came to his knowledge wherein that beast had made a most dreadful
havoc. “To show clearly," says that gentleman, “the preference of the spotted hyena for human
flesh, it will be necessary to notice that when the Mambookies build their houses, which are in
form like bee-hives, and tolerably large, often eighteen or twenty feet in diameter, the floor is
raised at the higher or back part of the house, until within three or four feet of the front, where
it suddenly terminates, leaving an area from thence to the wall, in which every night the calves
are tied to protect them from the storms or from wild beasts. Now it would be natural to sup-
pose, that should the wolf enter, he would seize the first object for his prey, especially as the na-
tives always lie with the fire at their feet; but notwithstanding this, the constant practice of this
animal has been in every instance to pass by the calves in the area, and even by the fire, and to
take the children from under the mother's kaross, and this in such a gentle and cautious manner,
that the poor parent has been unconscious of her loss until the cries of her little innocent have
reached her from without, when a close prisoner in the jaws of the monster.” Mr. Shepstone
then particularizes two instances within his own knowledge, one of a boy about ten years of age, ,
and the other of a little girl about eight, who had been carried off by this species, and wretch-
edly mangled, but recovered by the attention of Mr. Shepstone and his friends. Notwithstanding
this ferocity, the spotted hyena has, it is stated, been occasionally domiciliated in the houses of
the peasantry, "among whom,” says Mr. Bennett, “he is preferred to the dog himself for attach-
ment to his master, for general sagacity, and even, it is said, for his qualifications for the chase.”
The strength of these animals, and their power of dragging away large bodies, is strikingly ex-
emplified in Colonel Denham's narrative. At Kouka he relates that the hyenas, which were
everywhere in legions, grew so extremely ravenous, that a good large village, where he sometimes
procured a draught of sour milk on his duck-shooting excursions, had been attacked the night
before his last visit, the town absolutely carried by storm, notwithstanding defenses nearly six
feet high of branches of the prickly tulloh, and two donkeys, whose flesh these animals are, ac-
cording to our author, particularly fond of, carried off, in spite of the efforts of the people. “We
constantly,” continues Colonel Denham, “heard them close to the walls of our own town at night,
and on a gate being left partly open, they would enter and carry
off
any
unfortunate animal that
they could find in the streets.” From the same narrative it appears that it was necessary to pro-
tect the graves from the attacks of these rapacious brutes. Mr. Toole's grave had a pile of thorns
and branches of the prickly tulloh, several feet high, raised over it as a protection against the
flocks of hyenas which nightly infested the burying-places in that country.
The STRAND WOLF, H. villosa, has been already alluded to, and is held by some naturalists to
be a variety of the striped hyena. It is about four feet four inches long, the hair coarse and
shaggy on the body, and short and crisp over the head, cars, and extremity. The general color
is a grizzled brown. It inhabits the sea-coast throughout the whole extent of Southern Africa,
but is by no means so common as the spotted hyena. It lives chiefly on carrion and such dead
animal substances, whales for instance, as the sea casts up; but when pressed by hunger, its hab-
its seem to resemble those of the other species, for it then commits serious depredations on the
flocks and herds of the colonists, who hold its incursions in great dread. Mr. Steedman, who
makes this statement, says he saw a very fine specimen, which had been shot by a farmer residing
in the vicinity of Blauwberg, and was informed that it had destroyed three large calves belonging

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
289
-
to the farmer. He adds, that it is said to be a remarkably cunning animal, retiring to a consid-
erable distance from the scene of its depredations to elude pursuit, and concealing itself during
the day-time in the mountains, or in the thick bush, which extends in large patches throughout
the sandy district in which it is usually found.
The Brown HYENA, H. rufa of Cuvier, H. fusca of Geoffroy, and Crocuta brunnea of Gray,
found in Southern Africa, is probably a variety of the H. villosa.
Fossil HYENAS.—The hyenas of the present day are wholly confined to warm climates, and
the continents of Asia and Africa—but it appears that in the third period of the tertiary deposits,
the pliocene period of Lyell, their bones are found in various localities,—in Germany, Italy, France,
and England, and in South America. Four species are identified, but none of the present races.
It would appear that these animals were once abundant in these northern climates, as Dr. Buck-
land calculates that the bones of four hundred hyenas were found, in a broken and fragmental
state, in the single cavern of Kirksdale, in England. In other caves, vast numbers of the remains
of hyenas have been discovered—among them, those of the GREAT CAVE-HYENA, H. spelæa –
mingled with the bones of other animals, from which it has been concluded that these places were,
for many ages, the abodes of these greedy brutes, and that here they devoured their
prey.
Genus PROTELES: Proteles.--Of this there is a single species—the AARD-WOLF or EARTH-
WOLF, the Proteles Lalandii of Is. Geoffroy, and Viverra cristata of Sparrman; Proteles hyænoi-
des of Gervais. It is found in Southern Africa, and along the eastern portions as far north as
Nubia and Abyssinia: it derives its name-given by the European colonists—from its habit of
burrowing in the earth. It is alike curious to the common and to the scientific observer. To
the external appearance and osteological structure of a hyena, this truly singular animal unites
the head and feet of a fox, and the intestines of a civet. Its teeth are remarkable: the perma-
nent canines are tolerably large, but the molars are small, and separated by intervals. It has
five toes on the fore-feet, and four only on the hind; the innermost toe of the fore-foot is placed,
as in the dogs, at some distance above the others, and therefore never touches the ground when
the animal stands or walks. The legs also are completely digitigrade; that is to say, the heel is
elevated, and does not come into contact with the surface, as in man and other similarly formed
animals, which walk upon the whole sole of the foot, and are thence said to be plantigrade. It
is of great importance to remark the difference between these two modifications of the locomotive
organs, because they have a very decided and extraordinary influence upon the habits and econ-
omy of animal life. Digitigrade animals, which tread only upon the toes, and carry the heel con-
siderably elevated above the ground, have much longer legs than plantigrade animals, and are,
therefore, especially fitted for leaping and running with great ease and rapidity. Accordingly, it
will be observed that the horse, the stag, the antelope, the dog, and other animals remarkable for
rapidity of course, partake strongly of this formation; and even their degree of swiftness is accu-
rately measured by the comparative elevation of the heel. Inattentive observers sometimes mis-
apprehend the nature of this peculiar conformation of the extremities of digitigrade animals, and
are apt to confound the hough with the ankle, and to mistake for the knee what is really the
heel of the animal. Thus we have heard it said that, in the hind-legs of the horse, the knee was
bent in a contrary direction to that of man. This is by no means true: a little attention to the
succession of the different joints and articulations, will show that what is called the cannon-bone
in the horse, and other digitigrade animals, in reality corresponds to the instep in man; and that
what is generally mistaken for the knee really represents the heel.
In the particular case of the Proteles, the natural effect of the digitigrade formation is, in some
degree, lessened by the peculiar structure of the fore-legs, which, contrary to the general rule
observable in most other animals, are considerably longer than the hind. In this respect, also.
the Proteles resembles the hyenas; and in both genera this singular disproportion between the
anterior and posterior extremities abridges the velocity properly due to their digitigrade con-
formation.
The size of this curious animal is about that of a full-grown fox, which it further resembles in
its pointed muzzle; but it stands higher upon its legs, its ears are considerably larger and more
naked, and its tail shorter and not so bushy. At first sight it might be easily mistaken for a
VOL. 1.-37

290
VERTEBRATA.
young striped hyena, so closely does it resemble that animal in the colors and peculiar markings
of its fur, and in the mane of long stiff hair which runs along the neck and back; indeed, it is
only to be distinguished by its more pointed head, and by the additional fifth toe of the fore-feet.
The fur is of a woolly texture on the sides and belly, but a mane of coarse stiff hair, six or seven
inches in length, passes along the nape of the neck and back, from the occiput to the origin of
the tail, and is capable of being erected or bristled up, like that of the hyena, when the animal is
irritated or provoked. The general hue of the fur is pale ash-color, with a slight shade of yellow-
ish brown; the muzzle is black and almost naked, or covered only with a few long stiff mus-
taches. Around the eyes, and on each side of the neck, are dark brown marks; eight or ten
bands of the same color pass over the body in a transverse direction, exactly as in the common
striped hyena; and the arms and thighs are likewise marked with similar transverse stripes. The
legs and feet are of a uniform dark brown in front, and gray behind. The long hairs of the
mane are gray, with two broad rings of black, the second of which occupies the point; those of
the tail are similarly marked, and equally long and stiff; whence it appears as if the mane and
tail were clouded with an alternate mixture of black and gray. The ears are gray on the interior
surface, and dark brown on the outer.
In its habits and manners the aard-wolf resembles the fox: like that animal, it is nocturnal,
and constructs a subterraneous burrow, at the bottom of which it lies concealed during the day-
time, and only ventures abroad on the approach of night, to search for food, and satisfy the
other calls of nature. It is fond of the society of its own species, and many individuals have
been found residing together in the same burrow. As they are of a timid and wary character,
they have generally three or four different entrances to their holes; so that, if attacked on one
side, they may secure a retreat in an opposite direction. Notwithstanding the disproportionate
length of their fore-legs, they are said to run very fast; and so strong is their propensity to
burrow, that one of M. Delalande's specimens, perceiving itself about to be run down and cap-
tured, immediately ceased its flight, and began to scratch up the ground, as if with the intention
of making a new earth. It generally lives on decayed flesh, but also devours ants. It is said
to prefer the flesh of lambs, and M. Geoffroy suggests that it has also a fondness for the fat of
the tails of the big-tailed sheep, common in Southern Africa. The habits of the animal, in
respect to its food, are, however, little known.
THE MUSTELIDES.
The Mustelides, a term from Mustela, a weasel, embraces three tribes or divisions: the Melidæ,
of which the badger is the type; the Mustelins, of which the weasel is the representative; and
the Loutrins, of which the otter is the type. Among them there is great diversity of size, hab-
its, color, and endowments; but they agree, generally, in being carnivorous or omnivorous—in
having a long, thin, pliable body and short legs, qualifying them to pursue their prey in small
openings and narrow passages, and in possessing fine furs. Some of them produce the most
valuable furs of commerce. Several of the species are endowed with the power of diffusing
a strong odor from a pouch beneath the anus.
THE MELIDÆ.
The animals of this tribe are all plantigrade, or nearly so, and for the most part omnivorous.
Genus BADGER: Meles.—Of this, according to the best authors, there are four species: the
Common BADGER OF EUROPE, M. vulgaris; the AMERICAN BADGER, M. Labradorica; the INDIAN
BADGER, M. collaris; and the ANAKUMA BADGER, M. Anakuma, of Japan. Some naturalists,
however, regard them as constituting each a distinct genus.
The European Badger, which has some resemblance in form to the bear, like that animal is
omnivorous, feeding on flesh or vegetables, according as opportunity may offer. Its dental system
is indeed better adapted to the chewing and masticating vegetable substances than for tearing
and cutting raw flesh. The principal character of the feet consists in its having five toes both
before and behind, short, strong, deeply buried in the flesh, and furnished with powerful com-
pressed claws, admirably calculated for burrowing or turning up the earth in search of roots. The

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
291
PREHOMME
While
emman
THE EUROPEAN BADGER.
a
legs are short and muscular; the body broad, flat, and compact, and about two feet four inches
long; the head is more or less prolonged; the snout pointed; the ears small, and the tail short.
Beneath the anus there is an aperture of considerable size which opens transversely, and exudes
from its inner surface a greasy or oleaginous matter of very offensive odor. The same formation
is observed in many other genera of carnivorous mammals, though the qualities of the substance
secreted differ according to the species. In the civets and genets, for instance, its smell is so
pleasing as to entitle it to the rank of perfume; while in the Moufettes, on the contrary, its odor
is so extremely fetid as to have acquired for them, above all other animals, the generic name of
Mephites, translated by the strong English term of Stinkards. In America we call them Skunks,
a term which everybody's experience has defined without the aid of a dictionary.
The hide of the badger is amazingly thick and tough; the hair uniformly long and coarse over
the whole body, and trailing along the ground on each side as the animal walks. The badger
and its congeners offer a strange intermixture of colors, which is seen in no other mammal, except
those of the genera Gulo and Mephitis, which approximate so nearly to it in many other respects :
in general, the darker shades are found to predominate upon the back and upper parts of the
body, and the lighter below; but in the animals above mentioned this general rule is reversed,
and it is the light shades which occupy the back and shoulders, while the dark ones are spread
over the breast and abdomen. The head of the badger, for instance, is white, except the region
beneath the chin, which is black, and two bands of the same color, which rise on each side a
little behind the corners of the mouth, and after passing backward and enveloping the eye and
ear, terminate at the junction of the head and neck. The hairs of the upper part of the body,
considered separately, are of three different colors-yellowish white at the bottom, black in the
middle, and ashy gray at the point; the last color alone, however, appears externally, and gives
the uniform sandy-gray shade which covers all the upper parts of the body: the tail is furnished
with long coarse hair of the same color and quality, and the throat, breast, belly, and limbs are
covered with shorter hair, of a uniform deep black.

292
VERTEBRATA.
a
Though the badger is found throughout all the northern parts of Europe and Asia, it is rather
a scarce animal.everywhere. Its food is chiefly roots, fruits, insects, and frogs, but it likewise
destroys the eggs and young of partridges and other birds which build on the ground, and
attacks the nests of the wild bees, which it robs with impunity, as the length of its hair and the
thickness of its hide render it insensible to the sting of the bee. It lives in deep burrows, which
it excavates, reposing in them during the day, and going forth at evening in search of its food.
It chooses the most solitary woods for its residence, is quiet and inoffensive in its manners, but
when attacked defends itself with a courage and resolution which few dogs of double its own
size and weight can overcome. It bites angrily, and holds on with great tenacity, which it is
enabled to do the more easily from the peculiar construction of the articulation or hinge that
connects its under jaw with the skull, and which consists of a transverse condyle completely
locked into a bony cavity of the cranium.
In England and Scotland this animal is rare, but the cruel sport of baiting the badger is still
practiced. The
poor brute is placed inside a kennel or cask, and dogs set at it, who are not unfre-
quently worsted by the badger, as its bite is terrific, and its skin so tough and loose, and the hair
so thick, that the bites of the dog do not take full effect. The pleasure of this “sport,” as in many
other diversions of the sporting world, appears to consist in trying whether the dogs or the badger
will be most mangled in a given time. The irritating the badger so as to make him more furious,
has given rise to a word in all the dictionaries—that of badgering.
The badger is not mentioned by Aristotle in his Natural History, and possibly it may not be
found in Greece, as the ancient language of that country has not even a name for it, and as it is
less common in the southern than in the northern parts of Europe. Pliny, however, notices it
under the name of Melis, and various other Roman authors have spoken of it. More recent
writers call it Taxus, a name perhaps derived, like other Roman names of northern animals, from
the German language, in which the badger is called Zachs or Dachs ; in Dutch, Das.
The female brings forth her young in the early part of spring, to the number of three, four,
or five; she continues to suckle them carefully for the first five or six weeks, and afterward
accustoms them gradually to shift for themselves. When taken young they are easily tamed, and
become as familiar and playful as puppies; they soon learn to distinguish their master, and
show their attachment by following or fawning upon those who feed them; the old, however, are
always indocile, and continue solitary and distrustful under the most gentle treatment.
The badger is hunted in some parts of Europe during the bright moonlight nights, when he
goes abroad in search of food. The hide, when properly dressed, makes the best pistol furniture;
the hair is valuable for making brushes to soften the shades in painting; and the hind-quarters,
when salted and smoked, are said to make excellent hams. Bell informs us that he saw dozens
of badgers at a time hanging in the meat-markets of Pekin: there seems, indeed, no reason why
it should be inferior to the flesh of the bear, which is universally esteemed by all who have
tasted it.
The American Badger measures about two feet and a half from the muzzle to the root of the
tail, which is five inches more. Its snout is less attenuated than that of the European species,
though its head is equally long; its ears are short and round, the claws of its fore-feet much
longer in proportion than those of the common species, its tail comparatively shorter, its fur of a
quality altogether different, its colors also very different, and its appetites more decidedly carniv-
orous ; the head and extremities alone are covered with short coarse hair; all the other parts
of the body are furnished with remarkably soft, fine, silky fur, upward of four inches in length,
and differing only in being rather more sparingly supplied on the under than on the upper parts.
This animal, the Carcajou of Buffon, the Taxus Labradoricus of Long's Expedition, the Taxidea
Carcajou of Gervais, is called Brairo and Siffleur by the Canadians, Mistonusk and Awawteekæoo,
or the Digging Animal, by the Crees, and Chocartoosh by the Pawnee Indians. Its form and
habits have been described by Sir John Richardson as follows:
“The Meles Labradorica frequents the sandy plains or prairies which skirt the Rocky Moun-
tains as far north as the banks of the Peace River, and sources of the River of the Mountains, in
latitude 58º. It abounds on the plains watered by the Missouri, but its exact southern range has

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
293
not, as far as I know, been defined by any traveler. The sandy prairies in the neighborhood of
Carlton House, on the banks of the Saskatchewan, and also on the Red River that flows into
Lake Winnipeg, are perforated by innumerable badger-holes, which are a great annoyance to horse-
men, particularly when the ground is covered with snow. These holes are partly dug by the
badgers for habitations, but the greater number of them are merely enlargements of the burrows
of the Acetomys Hoodii and Richardsonii, which the badgers dig up and prey upon.
prey upon. While the
ground is covered with snow, the badger rarely or never comes from its hole; and I suppose
that in that climate it passes the winter, from the beginning of November till April, in a torpid
state. Indeed, as it obtains the small animals upon which it feeds by surprising them in their
burrows, it has little chance of digging them out at a time when the ground is frozen into a
solid rock. Like the bears, the badgers do not lose much flesh during their long hibernation,
for on coming abroad in the spring they are observed to be very fat. As they pair, however, at
that season, they soon become lean. The badger is a slow and timid animal, taking to the first
earth it meets with when pursued; and as it makes its way through the sandy soil with the
rapidity of a mole, it soon places itself out of the reach of danger. The strength of its fore-
feet and claws is so great, that one which had insinuated only its head and shoulders into a hole,
resisted the utmost efforts of two stout young men, who endeavored to draw it out by the hind-
legs and tail, until one of them fired the contents of his fowling-piece into its body. Early in
the spring, however, when they first begin to stir abroad, they may be easily caught by pouring
water into their holes; for the ground being frozen at that period, the water does not escape
through the sand, but soon fills the hole, and its tenant is obliged to come out.
“ The American badger appears to be a more carnivorous animal than the European one. A
female which I killed had a small marmot, nearly entire, together with some field-mice, in its
stomach. It had also been eating some vegetable matters.”
As to the southern limit of the geographical range of the species, at least in one direction, it
is known to inhabit Mexico, as appears from the detailed and correct descriptions of Fernandez,
who calls it by the native name of Ilacoyotl or Coyotlhumuli; and a very fine skin was some
time
ago sent from California to the Zoological Society of London.
a
HOME
REDIAN:KENNY:SC.NY
THE INDIAN BADGER.
The INDIAN BADGER, or SAND-BEAR, called Bhalloo-Soor, or Bear-Pig, by the Hindoos, the
Arcitonyx collaris of Cuvier, is about the size of the common badger, but stands higher upon its
legs, and is at once distinguished by its attenuated muzzle ending in a truncated snout, like that
of the common hog, and by its small and nearly naked tail. The whole height of this animal is
about twenty inches, and the length of its tail nine inches. It has a body and limbs resembling

294
VERTEBRATA.
a
those of a bear, with the snout, eyes, and tail of a hog. Its ears are short, completely covered
with hair, and surrounded by a slight border of white.
The individuals, a male and female, observed in the menagerie of the Governor-general at Bar-
rackpoor by the French naturalist Duvancel, who furnished Cuvier with the materials for his
description, were very shy and wild. They passed the greater part of the day buried beneath
the straw of their den, in deep sleep. All their movements were remarkably slow. Though
they did not altogether refuse animal food, yet they exhibited a marked predilection for bread,
fruits, and other substances of a vegetable nature. When irritated, they uttered a peculiar
kind of grunting noise, and bristled up the hair of their back; if still further tormented, they
would raise themselves upon their hind-legs like a bear, and appeared, like that animal, to pos-
sess great power in their arms and claws.
This is confirmed by Mr. Johnson in his “Sketches of Indian Field-Sports.” “Badgers in
India,” says he, “are marked exactly like those in England, but they are larger and taller, and
exceedingly fierce, and will attack a number of dogs. I have seen dogs that would attack a
hyena or wolf, afraid to encounter them. They are scarce, but occasionally to be met with among
the hills. In their nature they resemble the bear."
The ANAKUMA BADGER, M. Anakuma, described by Temminck and Schlegel, is found in Japan.
Its colors are disposed in nearly the same manner as those of the European badgers, but the
bands of the head, instead of being white, are of a light red. The reddish tint prevails also over
the lower parts of the body, instead of the grayish brown. It inhabits mountainous countries
covered with forest, lives in burrows, is nocturnal in its habits, and feeds on frogs, lizards, earth-
worms, and vegetables.
Genus HELICTIS : Helictis.—This embraces three species of small animals nearly plantigrade,
resembling the badger, but of the size of the martens. The MUSKED HELICTIS, H. moschata of
Gray, is found in Pegu and China; the NEPAUL HELICTIS, H. Nipalensis, is found in Nepaul; and
the ORIENTAL HELICTIS, H. Orientalis, is found in Sumatra. The two last were formerly ranked
with the gluttons: their habits are little known.
Genus MYDAUS: Mydaus.—Of this there is a single species, the JAVANESE SKUNK, the TELEDU
or SENG-GUNG of the Javanese ; the Teleggo of the inhabitants of Sumatra ; Mephitis Java-
nensis of Rafles; M. telagon of Gervais, and M. meliceps of Cuvier. It is twelve inches long;
its tail two inches, with a pencil of hairs at the tip ; form attenuated, like that of the polecat ;
feet plantigrade; claws long and strong, proper for digging ; color blackish brown, marked with
white or fawn on the head and back. It has two glands half an inch long, beneath the rectum,
which secrete a disgusting odor like that of the skunks.
It is found in Sumatra and Java, especially in the mountains and ridges of the latter which are
cultivated for the production of wheat and European vegetables and fruits, such as potatoes, cab-
bages, peaches, and strawberries, in a deep vegetable mould. Here the teledu ranges, and in its
search for food injures the plantations and destroys the roots. It turns up the earth with its nose
like a hog, and thus leaves vexatious traces of its nocturnal visits.
The dwelling of the animal is formed at a slight depth beneath the soil, under the roots of a
large tree, where it constructs a globular chamber several feet in diameter, smooth and regular;
there is a subterraneous approach to it about six feet long, the external entrance to which the ani
mal conceals with twigs and dry leaves. Here it remains hidden during the day, and at night
comes forth to seek the insects and their larvæ, and common earth-worms, which are its food.
It is said to live in pairs, and the female produces two or three young at a birth, according to
the accounts of the natives.
The fetid matter, which they cannot propel beyond a distance of two feet, is very volatile, and
spreads its effluvia to a great extent. The entire neighborhood of a village is sometimes infected by
the odor of an irritated teledu; and it is so powerful in the immediate vicinity of the discharge, as
to produce syncope in some persons.
Dr. Horsfield describes the manners of this species as by no means ferocious, and states that
if taken young it might, like the badger, be easily tamed. He kept one some time in confine-
ment: it became gentle, and never emitted its offensive smell. He carried it with him from

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA,
295
Mount Prahu to Blederan, a village on the declivity of that hill, where the temperature was more
moderate. It was tied to a small stake, and moved about quietly, burrowing the ground with its
snout and feet, as if searching for food, without noticing the bystanders or making violent efforts
to disengage itself. It ate voraciously of earth-worms which were brought to it, and held one
extremity of a worm in its claws while its teeth were employed in tearing the other. After it had
eaten ten or twelve, it became drowsy, made a small groove in the earth, in which it placed its
snout, and having deliberately composed itself, soon slept soundly.
REOMA-KEUWY:ENGRSINIVA
THE SKUNK.
Genus MOUFETTE, or SKUNK : Mephitis. — The animals of this genus are confined to
America—the Zorilla of the Cape and Mydaus of the Asiatic islands, sometimes called skunks,
really belonging to other and distinct genera. Three species are known in the United States, and
several in Mexico and South America. Thus the race extends from Hudson's Bay to the Straits
of Magellan. They resemble the badgers in being nearly plantigrade, and having the anterior
claws long and adapted for digging. There is a similarity also in the distribution of the colors,
the dark shades forming the ground, and the light ones the markings. The hair of the body is
long, and still longer on the tail, which being carried erect, has a plume-like appearance. Some
of the species burrow in the ground, and others live in the fissures of rocks, several of them often
associating together. They subsist chiefly on birds' eggs, insects, small quadrupeds, and poultry;
they also add frogs, mice, and lizards to their bill of fare when opportunity offers. Their size is
about that of the badger. They move slowly, and seldom attempt to escape from man by flight.
The form is elegant, and the colors, disposed in longitudinal bands, are strikingly contrasted.
These circumstances, with the long, flowing hair, would give these animals a beautiful appearance,
were not all agreeable associations rendered impossible by their abominable stench. The great
distinction of the genus is the possession of two glands beneath the anus, from which they eject,
to a considerable distance, a liquid possessing the revolting odor of the polecat, with a suffocating
and overpowering smell of garlic. This is alike intolerable to man and animals. Dogs retreat from
this abominable liquid, vomiting and rolling themselves, as if in agony, on the earth, and it is
said even cattle bellow with distress when the air is strongly impregnated with it. A skunk will
taint the atmosphere for half a mile in every direction, and clothes infested by the liquid are
ruined, as they never part with the disgusting fragrance. This gift is the animal's shield and
buckler, and nature, in her infinitely diversified arts of defense, appears nowhere—not in trench-
ent teeth, or rending claws; not in overpowering strength, or ferocity, or even deadly venom-
a

296
VERTEBRATA.
to have provided any creature with more effective protection than is bestowed by this syringe
upon the skunk. We surely cannot doubt the fertility of nature's resources when we find a whole
race of animals enjoying life, liberty, and a free pass, through motives addressed exclusively to
the nose. It may indeed be said that all this belongs rather to the ridiculous than the sublime, and
that the skunk-four-legged or otherwise—is always and everywhere an object of mingled aver-
sion and contempt. The reply is, that being what he is, he doubtless enjoys his privilege, and
may be supposed even to triumph in the general disgust he excites among those who are not of
his genus.
The Common SKUNK of the United States, Mephitis Americana, or Mephitis chincha, or Viverra
putorius—the Seecawk of the Cree Indians, the Fiskatta of Kalm, or, according to Charlevoix,
the Enfant du diable—has a body about seventeen inches long, with a tail, including the long
hair, twelve inches. The head is small, the forehead rounded, the body long, fleshy, and widen-
ing toward the hips; fur long and coarse, with long, glossy hairs intermixed; eyes small, ears
short and rounded; feet broad, and nails of the fore-feet strong, curved, and sharp. The two anal
glands are situated on each side of the rectum; the sack is supposed to contain about three drams
of the offensive liquid. When this is ejected, the tail is carried forward and nearly laid on the back.
An experienced person, perceiving this sign of preparation, is always careful to put himself instantly
out of shooting distance. It is said that the scent is much stronger if the ejection takes place
when the animal is irritated, and that it is also stronger at night than in the day-time. At night
the liquid has a luminous appearance, and a stream of it has been compared to a stream of phos-
phoric light. It possesses a very acrid quality, and dogs and persons
into whose
eyes
it has been
thrown have been rendered blind.
The species vary much in the markings; indeed, as in the case of striped grasses, it is difficult
to find two precisely alike. In general, the color is a blackish brown, with a narrow stripe of yel-
lowish white along the nose to the head; a large patch of white on the nape of the neck, and
extending downward in a stripe on each side of the back, and a stripe of white on each side of the
tail for three fourths of its length. The tail is often tipped with white. But as we have said, these
markings are variously modified. It is believed that when both parents are alike in color and
markings, the young ones are similarly colored; but if the parents are dissimilar, the offspring is
diversified.*
The skunk is a prolific animal, bringing forth from four to eight at a birth. Sometimes as
many as fifteen skunks have been found in one burrow. During the winter, in the cold parts of
the country, these animals keep close in their burrows, in a dozing but not torpid state. At the
south, they are active the year round. They are cleanly in their habits, and never suffer them-
selves to be soiled by their own effluvia any more than the rattlesnake by his own venom. Some
wild animals, as well as Indians, make prey of the skunk, and we have read in the pages of a
distinguished naturalist a recommendation of it as “well tasted and savory.” This is a common
animal in nearly all the Atlantic States: depending upon its peculiar battery for defense, it is
often seen walking slowly along, its tail erect, with an air of conscious security or impudent defi-
ance, and if it perceives a man it does not always take the trouble to get out of his way; the man
,
is most likely to beat a retreat; indeed, a brave man is quite as likely to run from a skunk as a
lion. The fetid liquid is ejected in small streams, sometimes to the distance of fourteen feet, and
usually with great accuracy of aim. As we have stated, the odor is stronger at night than during
a
a
* The following careful description is from Sir John Richardson's Fauna Boreali-Americana : "The skunk is low on
its legs, with a broad fleshy body, white forehead, and the general aspect rather of a wolverene than of a marten;
eyes small; ears short and round. A narrow white mesial line runs from the tip of the nose to the occiput, where it
dilates into a broad white mark. It is again narrowed, and continues so until it passes the shoulders, when it forks,
the branches running along the sides, and becoming much broader as they recede from each other. They approach
posteriorly, and unite on the rump, becoming at the same time narrower. In some few specimens the white stripes
do not unite behind, but disappear on the flanks. The black dorsal space included by the stripes is egg-shaped, the
narrow end of which is toward the shoulders. The sides of the head and all the under parts are black. The hair on
the body is long. The tail is covered with very long hair, and has generally two broad longitudinal white stripes
above on a black ground. Sometimes the colors of the tail are irregularly mixed; its under surface is black. The
claws on the fore-feet are very strong and long, being fitted for digging, and very unlike those of martens.”

CLASS I. MAMMALIA297
: .
.
: ORDER 5. CARNIVORAthe day. In many of the New England villages, the perfume of the skunk and the cry of the
whippoorwill are a frequent summer-evening serenade. The animal lives in the woods and thick-
ets, but not unfrequently approaches the habitations of men, and even domiciliates himself in the
barns, where he makes sad havoc among the eggs and chickens. We have even heard of one that
got into a cellar one night, and being discovered by the house-maid—who, by the way, was brave
as a lion in defense of the threshold—she fell upon him and killed him. Such was the stench which
followed, that the woman was violently ill for several days, and the meat, bread, and vegetables
in the cellar were so impregnated as to be utterly ruined.
Old Lawson's description of the skunk is alike humorous and truthful. He says: “Polecats,
or skunks, in America are different from those in Europe. They are thicker and of a great many
colors; not all alike, but each differing from another in a particular color. They smell like a
fox, but ten times stronger. When a dog encounters them they make urine, and he will not be
sweet again in a fortnight or more. The Indians love to eat their flesh, which has no manner of
ill smell when the bladder is out. I know no use their furs are put to. They are easily brought
a
up tame."
its enemy,
a
6
Catesby, in his Carolina, says: “When one of them is attacked by a dog, to appear formidable
it so changes its usual form, by bristling up its hairs and contracting its length into a round form,
that it makes a very terrible appearance. This menacing behavior, however, insufficient to deter
is seconded by a repulse far more prevailing; for from some secret duct it emits such
fetid effluviums, that the atmosphere for a large space round shall be so infected with them that
men and other animals are impatient till they are quit of it. The stench is insupportable to some
dogs, and necessitates them to let their game escape; others, by thrusting their noses into the
earth, renew their attacks till they have killed it; but rarely care to have more to do with such
noisome
game, which for four or five hours distracts them. The Indians, notwithstanding, esteem
their flesh a dainty; of which I have eaten and found it well tasted. I have known them brought
up young, made domestic, and prove tame and very active, without exercising that faculty which
fear and self-preservation perhaps only prompts them to. They hide themselves in hollow trees
and rocks, and are found in most of the northern continent of America. Their food is insects
and wild fruit."
Sir John Richardson states that the noisome fluid which the skunk discharges is one of the
most powerful stenches in nature, and so durable, that the spot where a skunk has been killed
will retain the taint for many days. He quotes Graham for the fact that several Indians lost
their eye-sight in consequence of inflammation produced by this fluid having been thrown into
them by the animal. “I have known,” says he, in continuation," a dead skunk, thrown over the
stockades of a trading-post, produce instant nausea in several women in a house with closed doors
upward of a hundred yards distant. The odor has some resemblance to that of garlic, although
much more disagreeable. One may, however, soon become familiarized with it; for, notwith-
standing the disgust it produces at first, I have managed to skin a couple of recent specimens by
recurring to the task at intervals. When care is taken not to soil the carcass with any of the
strong-smelling fluid, the meat is considered by the natives to be excellent food.”
The anecdotes of persons who have suffered from ignorant attacks upon this animal are numer-
ous and some are laughable. I knew, some forty years ago, a Frenchman who lived on the great
thoroughfare between Hartford and Wethersfield, Conn., where he had a considerable farm. One
evening, coming along the street of Wethersfield—which, by the way, as everybody knows, is
renowned for its immense product of onions—on his way homeward, he saw a pretty little animal
running in the path before him. This was in fact a young skunk, but which the Frenchman mis-
took, in the dark, for a kitten. He rushed upon it, seized it, and put it in his pocket. On his
arrival among his family, there was a general outcry at the infernal odor he brought with him,
upon which he took out the little animal from his pocket, and which was evidently the cause of
the disturbance. “What is it?" said one; and “What is it?" said another; for the family were
all French, and were not initiated in our Yankee natural history. “I should think by the smell
of garlic," said the Frenchman, " that it must be a Wethersfield kitten!”
A still better story has been often told, in which the celebrated Dr. Lyman Beecher was the
VOL. I.-38
a
a

298
VERTEBRATA.
hero. When settled in Litchfield, in the earlier days of his long and useful career, he was one
evening returning home, carrying with him a quarto volume of Ree's Encyclopedia, then in course
of publication in Philadelphia, and regarded as the Herculean enterprise of the American press
for the dawning nineteenth century. As he went along, he saw before him a skunk, which,
instead of hurrying its pace, or getting out of the way, seemed rather defiantly to flourish his
tail and linger in the path. Upon this, the Reverend Doctor hurled the Cyclopedia at him, in
revenge of which the skunk opened his battery, and took the imprudent and astonished divine
between wind and water. Doctor Beecher reached home in a dreadful plight, and it may well
be guessed that he did not forget the incident. Some years after, an abusive pamphlet was pub-
lished against him by some sectarian, and the doctor was advised to reply to it. “No, no,” said
he, with equal wit and good sense; “no; I once discharged a quarto at a skunk and got the
worst of it. I am not likely to try it again."
It is said that inhaling skunk's odor has been prescribed with good effect in asthmatic affec-
tions: in one instance, however, a man who had taken it for this malady, and was benefited, was
so impregnated with the smell as to be offensive to himself and his friends. On its being recom-
A
ما
CALIFORNIA SKUNK.
ease.
mended to him a second time, he declined taking it, saying the remedy was worse than the dis-
In another case, a clergyman affected with asthma had a bottle of skunk's liquid, which
he uncorked and put to his nose, when he was attacked with a paroxysm. One day, while preach-
ing, he felt an attack, and so opened his bottle and took a whiff. Instantly the whole sanctuary
was filled with the effluvia, and the congregation spontaneously took to flight: a melancholy evi-
dence, no doubt, alike of the levity of sinners and the strength of the odor, inasmuch as even the
“wrath to come” was forgotten in a present momentary disgust. It appears that good old Father
Charlevoix, in christening this animal the “Child of the Devil,” had theological as well as sen-
timental grounds for the piquant nomenclature.
The TEXAN SKUNK, the M. mesoleuca of Litchtenstein, and M. nasuta of Bennett, resembles the
common skunk in form, size, and habits. The whole of the back, from the forehead to the rump,
and including the tail, is covered with white hair, extending half down the sides; the under parts
are a blackish brown. The line of division between the light and dark colors is so sharply defined
as to give the animal the appearance of having two distinct sorts of skin. It is found on the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: 299
:
ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
sedgy plains and in the woods of Texas and Mexico, its retreats being hollows beneath the roots
of trees, holes in the fallen trunks, or cavities in rocks. Its food consists of grubs, beetles, and
other insects, with eggs, birds, and small quadrupeds. It is quite destructive to the poultry on
the plantations.
This animal is shy and timid, but does not ordinarily attempt to escape from man, unless it
chances to be near its burrow. Its white, bushy tail, being carried erect, often betrays it to the
hunter, even when the body is concealed in the grass.
The CALIFORNIA SKUNK, or ZORILLA, Mephitis zorilla, resembles the preceding, but is smaller,
being but about a foot long. It lives in holes in the earth, or beneath the roots of trees, or in
crevices of the rocks, and feeds on insects, birds, and small quadrupeds. It has an offensive odor-
ous liquid similar to that of the common skunk. It is found in California. This is to be distin-
guished from the African zorilla, which will be noticed hereafter.
The three species of skunks which we have thus described are the only ones found in the United
States; of the more southern species we have few well-authenticated details, and can give little
more than names. Among them there are the M. mesomelas, M. interrupta, M. varians, and M.
Mexicana, all found in Mexico; a species bearing the local name of Mapurito, found in New Gra-
nada; the M. quitensis, the Gulo quitensis of Humboldt, found in Peru; the M. Feuillei, found
in the vicinity of Montevideo; the M. Chilensis of Chili, and the M. Castania, a small species
found in the more southern portions of South America. It is possible that all these are not enti-
tled to the rank of distinct species, and there are no doubt other species of which we have no very
reliable accounts. All these, whether species or varieties, have a general resemblance to the
kinds we have described, the chief differences being in size and the distribution of the light and
dark colors. The signal quality of each is that which characterizes the genus—the possession of
the peculiar fetid odor for a weapon of defense.
THE MUSTELINS.
a
This tribe includes a number of very remarkable species, several of which are of considerable
size and heavy mould, in these respects resembling the badgers; others are much smaller, but of
great activity and energy, and all are in the highest degree carnivorous and voracious.
Genus GLUTTON: Gulo.—Of this there is a single species, the GLUTTON of Europe and Wol-
VERENE of the United States. It furnishes a curious instance of the diversity of names which
have been bestowed on a single animal, not merely in different languages, but by different writers.
It is the Gulo luscus of Linnæus; the Carcajou of the French Canadians; the Carcajou-kinkajou
of Charlevoix; the Quickhatch of Ellis and others; the Quiquihatch of Graham; the Kablee-arioo
of the Esquimaux; the Naghai-ch of the Chippeways; the Okeecoohawgees of the Algonquins;
the Rosomak of the Russians; the Timmi of the Kamtschatkans; the Ursus gulo of Pallas;
the Taxus gulo of Tiedemann; Gulo arcticus of Desmarest; Gulo vulgaris of Griffith and Cuvier,
to which we may add the Quadruped vulture of Buffon. The name of Glutton, which is the
prevalent one, it is said, originated in a blunder, but mankind suited the description to the title
,
they had given it. The name of this animal in the Finnish language is Fiæl-Frass, which means
a "dweller among rocks."
rocks.” The Germans popularized this into Vielfrass, which means a gorman-
dizer, a glutton. The old writers, in the days when fiction was as good as fact, had no difficulty
in making up stories to justify the terrible name which the animal had thus acquired. Accord-
ingly, Olaus Magnus said, “It is the custom of this creature, when it has found the carcass of
some large beast, to eat until its belly is distended like a drum, when it rids itself of its load by
squeezing its body betwixt two trees growing near together, and again returning to its repast,
soon requires to have recourse to the same means of relief."
Other writers followed in a similar vein, and to this charge of disgusting voracity, added the
attribute of the most wonderful craft and dexterity. It was said to climb trees, and throw down
moss which the reindeer is fond of, and when they were enticed within reach, the glutton would
pounce upon their backs and destroy them. Even Buffon was led to adopt these romances. He
says of this creature: “The defect of nimbleness he supplies with cunning: he lies in wait for
animals as they pass; he climbs upon trees in order to dart upon his prey, and seize it with advan-
a
a

300
VERTEBRATA.
PREDMAPKENVEREN
THE GLUTTON.
tage; he throws himself down upon elks and reindeer, and fixes so firmly on their bodies with his
claws and teeth that nothing can remove him. In vain do the poor victims fly and rub them-
selves against trees; the enemy attached to the crupper or the neck continues to suck their blood,
to enlarge the wound, and to devour them gradually and with great voracity, till they fall down
dead."
Buffon, however, though sometimes seduced into exaggeration by the marvelous facility of his
style and the lavish flow of his imagination, belonged to an age when what had been said was
not considered as, of course, done; authority was not the exclusive guide, at least in matters of
science, and therefore his inquiries went behind what was written, the question being, What is the
truth? Thus he not only corrected many errors of those who had gone before him, but even,
in some cases, recanted his own. In regard to the glutton, in a supplementary chapter, he gives
an account of one he had actually seen, as follows: “He was so tame that he discovered no fero-
city, and did not injure any person. His voracity has been as much exaggerated as his ferocity;
he ate, indeed, a great deal, but when deprived of food he was not importunate. He is rather
wild, avoids water, and moves with a kind of leap. After eating, he covers himself in the cage
with straw. In drinking, he laps like a dog. If indulged, he would devour more than four
pounds of flesh in a day; he swallows his food voraciously, and almost without chewing.” Such
is the plain, unvarnished tale, told from observation. How different from the loose narrations of
the "old authors.”
The wolverene is found in all the high northern latitudes of both continents. It is common in
Canada, and even in Michigan, and thence northward to the Polar Sea, its range extending from
Davis' Straits on the east, to the islands of Alaska on the west. The body of the animal is about
two feet and a half long; the head is broad and compact, suddenly rounded off on every side to
form the nose; jaws resembling those of a dog in shape; back arched; tail low and bushy ; legs
thick and short; the whole aspect indicating strength without much activity. Fur generally dark
brown, passing in the height of winter almost into black. A pale reddish brown band, more or

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
301
a
less distinct, and sometimes fading into soiled brownish white, commences behind the shoulder,
and running along the flanks turns up on the hip and unites with its fellow on the rump; the
short tail thickly covered with long black hair; some white markings, not constant in size or
number, on the throat and between the fore-legs; legs brownish black; claws strong and sharp.
In walking, it places its feet on the ground much in the manner of a bear, and imprints a track on
the snow or sand which is often mistaken for that of the bear by Europeans on their first arrival
in the fur countries; but the Indians distinguish the tracks at the first glance by the length of
the steps. The female produces from two to four once a year, the cubs being covered with a
downy fur of a pale cream-color. The reputation of the wolverene for voracity is not wholly
unwarranted. It feeds on the carcasses of animals it meets with which have been killed by acci-
dent; it devours mice, marmots, hares, and other rodentia. It is said to be a great destroyer of
beavers. Mr. Graham informs us that the wolverenes are extremely mischievous, and that they
do more damage to the small fur-trade than all the other animals conjointly. They will, he states,
follow the marten-hunter's path round a line of traps extending forty, fifty, or sixty miles, and ren-
der the whole unserviceable, merely to come at the baits, which are generally the head of a par-
tridge or a bit of dried venison. They are not fond of the martens themselves, but never fail of
tearing them in pieces, or of burying them in the snow by the side of the path, at a considerable
distance from the trap. Drifts of snow often conceal the repositories thus made of the martens
at the expense of the hunter, in which case they furnish a regale for the hungry fox, whose saga-
cious nostril guides him unerringly to the spot; and two or three foxes are often seen following
the wolverene for this
purpose.
Sir John Richardson says: “This animal is so suspicious, that it will rarely enter a trap itself,
but beginning behind, pulls it to pieces, scatters the logs of which it is built, and then carries off
the bait. It feeds on various small animals, and occasionally on disabled quadrupeds of a larger
size. I have seen one chasing an American hare, which was at the same time harassed by a
snowy owl. It resembles the bear in its gait, and is not fleet; but it is very industrious, and no
doubt feeds well, as it is generally fat. It is much abroad in the winter, and the track of its
journey in a single night may be often traced for many miles. From the shortness of its legs, it
makes its way through loose snow with difficulty, but when it falls upon the beaten track of a
marten-trapper, it will pursue it for a long way. It is reported to defend itself with boldness and
success against the attack of other quadrupeds, but it flees from the face of man, and makes but
a poor fight with a hunter, who requires no other arms than a stick to kill it."
Sir James Ross gives a striking instance of the boldness of the species when urged by famine,
"At Victoria Harbor, in the middle of the winter, two or three months before we abandoned the
ship, we were one day surprised by a visit from one, which, pressed hard by hunger, had climbed
the snow-wall that surrounded our vessel, and came boldly on deck, where our crew were walk-
ing for exercise. Undismayed at the presence of twelve or fourteen men, he seized upon a can-
ister which had some meat in it, and was in so ravenous a state, that while busily engaged at his
feast he suffered me to pass a noose over his head, by which he was immediately secured and
strangled. By discharging the contents of two secretory organs, it emitted a most insupportable
stench. These secretory vessels are about the size of a walnut, and discharge a fluid of a yellow-
ish-brown color, and of the consistence of honey, by the rectum, when hard pressed by its
enemies."
The skin of the wolverene is valued in Kamtschatka, the women dressing their hair with its
white paws, which they esteem a great ornament. That of the Asiatic and European variety is
,
much finer, blacker, and more glossy than the American ones, the latter resembling the fur of a
black bear.
Genus RATEL: Mellivora, or Honey-Eaters.—Of this genus there are two species, the CAPE
RATEL, or BHARSIAH, and the INDIAN RATEL. Of the former, M. Capensis of Cuvier, the hair is
rather smooth, but stiff and wiry; body above, from the top of the head to the root of the tail,
dull ash-gray, whitest toward the head; muzzle, space round the eyes and ears, limbs, all the
under parts, and rest of the tail, black; claws on the fore-feet long, the middle three longest, the
internal claw placed much more backward than the rest; bulk about that of a badger; total

302
VERTEBRATA.
wwel
REDMAN KENNY ENG
THE CAPE RATEL.
a
length three feet, the tail about a sixth of this length; height about ten or twelve inches. The
hide is tough and loose, like that of the badger, so that, if any one catches hold of it by the back
part of the neck, it is able to turn round in its skin, and bite the offending arm. The claws of
the fore-feet are particularly well formed for grubbing. The teeth consist of six incisors common
to nearly all carnivorous quadrupeds, two canines and eight cheek teeth in each jaw.
With respect to the habits of these animals, we can do little more than give an abstract of
Sparrman's version of the relations of the Hottentots and of the Dutch colonists, which has been
adopted by all subsequent authors. The bees, according to this author, furnish the ratel with his
principal, if not his only, means of subsistence. These insects are accustomed to take up
their
abode in holes in the earth, formed by various burrowing quadrupeds, and the ratel is endowed
with peculiar sagacity for discovering their nests, which it undermines with its powerful claws, in
order to feast upon the honey contained in them. Aware that sunset is the period at which the
bees return to their homes, it chooses that time for making its observations, which are conducted
in a very curious manner. Seated
upon
the ground with one of its paws raised, so as to shade
from its eyes the rays of the declining sun, it peers cautiously on either side of this singular kind
of parasol, until it perceives a number of bees flying in the same direction. These it carefully
marks, and follows in their track until it has safely lodged them in their nests, which it immedi-
ately commences pillaging. But if it should happen that, contrary to their usual custom, they
have built in the hollow of a tree, the ratel, being unable to climb, and angry at its disappoint-
ment, wreaks its vengeance upon the senseless stock by biting around it, and the Hottentots know
well that such marks on the trunk of a tree are certain indications of a bee's nest being contained
within it.
It is added, that the ratel, as well as the native inhabitants of the neighborhood of the Cape,
is sometimes guided in this search after honey by a little bird, the honey-cuckoo, which it seems
has sagacity enough to know that both men and beasts are fond of the tempting spoil. This lit-
tle creature, although incapable of storming a hive in its own person, takes advantage of the pro-
pensity that exists in others who are better fitted for the task, and invites the Hottentot or the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
303
a
ratel to follow it, by a peculiar note, which they both equally understand. Having thus secured
their attention, it flies slowly on before them, alternately halting for them to come up with it, and
then taking another flight, still admonishing them by its warning voice, until it arrives at the spot
where the hidden treasure is deposited. Then it suddenly ceases to be heard, but remains quietly
perched on a tree in the vicinity, waiting for a share of the plunder, which it usually receives as
a reward for its interested service.
In such an assault upon an angry swarm, the toughness of the ratel's hide must be a most
effectual defense, and it is even stated that so difficult is it to penetrate its skin, that a pack of
dogs that would be sufficient to dispatch a moderate sized lion, have sometimes failed in their
attack upon this comparatively insignificant animal. Such is its tenacity of life, that, as Mr.
Barrow states, “it is a species of amusement for the farmers to run knives through different parts
of its body without being able for a length of time to deprive it of existence.” Major Denham
was, however, informed by the natives of Central Africa, where it is also found, that a single blow
on the nose is sufficient to destroy it almost instantaneously, which may probably be owing to
the thinness of the skull adjoining the ossa nasi. In the same regions it has obtained credit for
so much ferocity as to be said, at certain seasons, to venture singly to attack a man.
On the whole, we are inclined to doubt the marvelous parts of Sparrman's account of the
ratel: that it feeds on honey, and has acute instincts in finding and obtaining it, is very likely;
but that honey is its chief food is by no means probable. The dentition of the animal shows it
to be in a high degree carnivorous, and we very readily believe, that, like its Asiatic congener,
which we shall soon describe, it diversifies its repasts with flesh when it comes in its way.
Mr. Bennett well observes that the dentition of the ratel is much at variance with the diet
attributed to him in the accounts we have recited, and that their accuracy may fairly be doubted.
“It requires," says he, “the most positive evidence to convince us that an animal, the number and
disposition of whose teeth correspond more closely with those of the cats than any other quadru-
ped with which we are acquainted, and exhibit a carnivorous character scarcely, if at all, inferior
'to that which is evidenced by the same organs in the hyenas, should subsist entirely, as from
these accounts we are left to believe, upon the petty rapine of a hive of bees, and the honeyed pro-
duce of their comb. Still, there exist such decisive marks of a diminished capacity for preying
on animal food, in the thick-set and clumsy form of its body, the shortness of its limbs, its partially
plantigrade walk, the structure of its muzzle, and even in the form of the teeth themselves, as to
induce us to pause before we determine to reject the popular testimony as unworthy of credit,
although we must regard it as doubtful on some particular points, and insufficient and imperfect
on the whole.” This animal inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.
The Indian RATEL, M. Indica, held by some naturalists to be a mere variety of the preceding,
appears to resemble it very closely in appearance. It is found in several parts of India, especially
along the high banks bordering the Ganges and the Jumna, and our accounts of it are more reli-
able than those we have of the African species. It rarely issues forth by day, but prowls about
at night among the habitations of the Mohammedan natives, scratching up the recently buried
bodies of the dead, unless they are protected by thorny bushes, placed over them for this pur-
pose. It burrows with such celerity, that it will work itself under cover in the hardest ground in
ten minutes. The natives sometimes dig them out of their holes, and take them alive. The old
ones are secured with difficulty, and seldom live long in captivity; the young, on the contrary,
are docile and playful. In confinement, their general food is flesh, in any
every state; but
birds and rats seem to be particularly acceptable. They are fond of climbing, but perform this
operation in a clumsy manner. They sleep much during the day, but become watchful at night,
and manifest uneasiness by a hoarse call or bark. A species of this kind of ratel was one of the
earliest members of the collection in the London Zoological Gardens, and was particularly playful
and good-tempered, soliciting the attention of every visitor by throwing its clumsy body in a vari-
ety of postures, and tumbling head over heels with every symptom of delight. Toward animals
its manner was entirely different, displaying a cat-like eagerness in watching the motions of the
smaller species, and they, in return, exhibiting an instinctive dread when they perceived or ap-
proached it. Its food consisted of bread and milk in the morning, and flesh later in the day.
a
and every

304
VERTEBRATA.
a
gray; there
a
Genus GALICTIS, Galictis, contains two species, the Grison and the TaïRA. The former, G.
vittata, the Viverra vittata of Linnæus, and Guiana marten of Buffon, in its general color is nearly
black, but gray on the top of the head and beneath the throat, with a yellowish band along the
back, and descending on either side to the shoulders. It is nearly plantigrade, is highly carnivo-
rous, and inhabits the woods throughout a large part of South America.
The Taïra, G. barbara, the Mustela barbara of Linnæus, the Taira or Galera of Buffon, is
larger than the preceding, and is of a blackish-brown color, the fore-parts shaded with
is also sometimes a light spot on the throat, and the back part of the neck. It is a burrowing
animal, and diffuses a musky odor. The body is long, and the strength great for the size. It is
found in Guiana, Brazil, and other parts of South America. A specimen was presented to the Lon
don Zoological Society from Peru; this was gentle and playful, and displayed the same aversion
to water as a cat.
Genus MARTEN: Mustela.—This includes several remarkable species, all of which climb with
facility, and having long, lithe bodies, with short legs, are able to enter holes and wind through
passages from which even the smallest cats are excluded. They are all endowed with voracious
appetites, and devour great numbers of eggs, birds, and small quadrupeds. Some of them intro-
duce themselves into the poultry-yards, and make immense havoc among the feathered inhabitants.
Most of them are noted for their valuable peltry, and some produce the finest and most luxurious
furs that are known. Though nearly allied to the weasels and polecats, which are distinguished
for their offensive odor, the martens only diffuse a musky and not disagreeable scent.
247
REOMAN-KENNY.SC.N.Y..
MARTEN.
WEASEL.
The Common MARTEN OF EUROPE, M. martes,—M. Foina of Linnæus; the Beech Marten and
Stone Marten of the English; the Fouine of the French; Foina and Fouina of the Italians ;
Hauss Marder and Stein Marder of the Germans,—is found in Northern and temperate Europe
and Western Asia, but not in America. Its head is somewhat triangular, the muzzle pointed, the
eyes prominent and lively; the body much elongated and very flexible; the tail long, thick, and
bushy; the toes naked, but at times, probably in the winter, covered beneath with thin soft

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA. 305
a
hair. The fur is of two sorts—the inner extremely soft, short, copious, and of a light yellowish-
gray color; the outer very long, shining, ash-colored at the roots, brown at the extremity, but of
different degrees of intensity at different parts of the body; the middle of the back, the tail, the
outer parts of the legs and the feet, being darker than the other parts; the belly lighter and more
gray; the throat white. Length of head and body one foot six inches; of the tail, nine inches
six lines.
This marten is found more remote from woods, though it is often met with in them, and more
frequently in mountainous and stony places, and nearer the habitations of man than the pine mar-
ten. It prefers the vicinity of farm-yards and homesteads, and is a ruinous visitor to them and
the game-preserve. It is an expert climber, and is lively, active, and graceful in its movements.
The nest of the female is constructed of herbage, straw, or grass, sometimes in the hollow of a
tree, sometimes in the crevices of rocks, not unfrequently in a ruin, and occasionally in granaries
or barns. The fur is considered very far inferior to that of the pine marten, and is known in the
trade as the skin of the Stone Marten. Many are imported from the north of Europe, and dyed
to represent sable. The comparatively poor quality of the fur, however, is immediately percept-
ible to the experienced eye, although, as is the case with most of the animals which are used for
their fur, the northern skins are fuller, richer in color, and more lustrous than those from more
temperate climates.
The Pine MARTEN, Martes abietum, the Mustela martes of Linnæus.—Of this species the general
color is brown, though as in the case of the preceding, subject to variation in the depth of the tint;
throat yellow; toes naked beneath ; legs longer and head smaller than in the beech marten. This
is the Marte of the French; Marta, Martura, Martora, and Martorello of the Italians; Marta of
the Spanish; Feld-Marder and Wild-Marder of the Germans; Marter of the Dutch ; Wawpeestan.
of the Cree Indians; Wawbeechins of the Algonquins; Sable of the American Fur-Dealers,
though Dr. DeKay thinks the American sable a distinct species; and Marten of the Hudson's
Bay Company's Lists. It is found in Europe and North America. In its habits it resembles
the beech marten in many respects, but it shuns the neighborhood of man-living in Europe in
deep forests, and preying on birds and the smaller animals. The female deposits six to eight
young ones, in a nest of moss and leaves, formed in some hollow tree, when she does not take
possession of that of the squirrel or the woodpecker.
In America it inhabits the woody districts in the northern parts, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, in great numbers, and has been observed to be particularly abundant where the trees
have been killed by fire, but are still standing. It lives in the trees, is nocturnal in its habits,
and destroys great numbers of the smaller squirrels. “It is very rare," says Richardson, “ as
Hearne has remarked, in the district lying north of Churchill River and east of Great Slave
Lake, known by the name of Chepewyan or Barren Lands. A similar district, on the Asiatic
side of Behring's Straits, twenty-five degrees of longitude in breadth, and inhabited by the
,
Tchutski, is described by Pennant as equally unfrequented by the marten, and for the same rea-
son, the want of trees. The limit of its northern range in America is like that of the woods,
about the sixty-eighth degree of latitude, and it is said to be found as far south as New England.
Particular races of martens, distinguished by the fineness and dark colors of their fur, appear to
inhabit certain rocky districts. The rocky and mountainous but woody district of the Nipigon,
on the north side of Lake Superior, has long been known for its black and valuable marten-
skins.” It might have been added that this animal is found as far south as Pennsylvania.
The same author gives the length of the head and body at from eighteen to twenty inches, and
notices a remark of the natives that the fur loses all its luster, and consequently much of its
value, upon the falling of the first shower of rain for the season. He further states that this
animal preys on mice, hares, and partridges, and in summer on small birds' eggs,
eggs, &c. A par-
tridge's head, with the feathers, is, he says, the best bait for the long-traps in which it is taken.
It does not reject carrion, and often destroys the hoards of meat and fish laid up by the natives,
when they have accidentally left a crevice by which it can enter. When its retreat is cut off, it
shows its teeth, sets up its hair, arches its back, and hisses like a cat. It will seize a dog by the
nose and bite so hard, that, unless the latter is well used to the combat, it escapes. Easily tamed,
VOL. I.-39

306
VERTEBRATA.
it soon becomes attached to its master, but is not docile. The flesh is occasionally eaten, but
not prized, by the Indians. The females are smaller than the males, go with young about six
weeks, and produce from four to seven at a time, about the end of April. According to Mr.
Grahan, this marten is sometimes troubled with epilepsy.
The fur of this animal is much esteemed, and the exportation of skins from the territories of the
Hudson's Bay Company and Canada is very great.
The PEKAN, FISHER, or PENNANT'S MARTEN, M. Canadensis, popularly called Black Fox and
Black Cat in some parts of the United States, has a head somewhat resembling a cat, eyes small
and oblique, body long, and formed for agility and strength; general color grayish brown; length
of the body twenty-four inches. It runs with rapidity, and climbs trees with facility. When at-
tacked by dogs it fights ferociously. Though nocturnal in its habits, it is frequently seen abroad
in the day. It prefers low, swampy ground, and being partially web-footed, probably preys oc-
casionally on fish: it generally feeds on mice, rabbits, grouse, and the like. It is said to have
received the name of Fisher from a taste for fish used to bait traps. Richardson says it eats
frogs, and he was informed that it had a fondness for the Canada porcupine, which it kills by
turning it over and biting it on the belly. It is found from Virginia to the Great Slave Lake. It
was very abundant in New England in the early periods of its history, but is now comparatively rare.
The JAPANESE SABLE, M. melanopus, is little known.
It may be remarked that some uncertainty and confusion exist as to several species of mar-
tens. The pine marten is generally regarded as the American sable, but, as already remarked,
Dr. DeKay held a different opinion. Gervais mentions the Pekan and Pennant's marten as dis-
tinct species, and several authors speak of the Huron Marten, M. Huro of Cuvier, as a distinct
species, while it is no doubt a mere variety of the pine marten.
The SABLE, or ZIBELINE MARTEN, M. zibellina ; the Sobol of the Poles and Russians. This is
by far the most highly esteemed of all the martens; it ranks higher in respect to its fur than even
the ermine. In form and size it does not differ greatly from the other martens, and there is also
a slight resemblance in the character of the fur, though that of the martens is very inferior in all
those qualities which are valued in furs. Though the fact is sometimes stated otherwise, the
teeth of the sable are of exactly the same character as those of the martens, which indicates the
same kind of living, and the capacity of partially subsisting upon vegetable matter when animal
food is not to be had. But there is one character of the sable which points it out as belonging to
a different locality, and that is, the feet being completely covered with fur down to the claws.
Thus the sable is a more northerly animal than any of the martens, and much more a creature of
the wilds. Accordingly, it is never met with in warm places, but only in the extremest wilds of
Siberia and the vicinity, beyond the positive forests, and on the margins of the polar ice.
The skin of the sable is exceedingly valuable; and though a very small one, a single skin
fetches a large price. The animal is accordingly sought after with the greatest assiduity, and it
may be said, that the desire of procuring sable-skins has conduced more than any thing else to the
discovery of the extreme north and northeast of Asia. It is during winter that this hunting is
carried on, and it is described as being more severe than the hunting of the fur animals in Amer-
ica, because of the vast accumulations of broken ice, covered with snow, which skirt the shores of
the and contain between them the most dangerous pitfalls, concealed by snow. In America,
the margin of the Polar Sea is no doubt as wild in itself as it is in Asia; but the American hunt-
ing-ground does not come up into so high latitudes as the sable ground in Siberia; and thus,
though the American hunter has long roads and severe cold, he is not beset by so many dangers.
We need hardly mention that the fur of the sable, in its perfection, is a rich brown, marked with
some white spots on the chin and sides of the head. The part where these spots are is not as
much valued as the rest, and the furriers work it up separately, and give it the name of "sable
gill."
Like the ermine, the sable is subject to an annual change of color. In summer it is black, and
the change to brown that it undergoes in winter naturally follows the general law of being more
perfect in proportion as the cold is more severe. The cold of the sable's country, however, is suffi-
cient every winter for accomplishing any thing that cold can accomplish, whether it reside in the
sea,
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
307
places which we have mentioned close by the Polar Sea, or on the cold heights of the mountains
further south; and therefore the sable-skins obtained during the winter are more uniform in color
than those of animals which inhabit less rigorous localities.
In many places in Siberia, the hunting of the sable is a duty imposed by the Russian govern-
ment upon the exiles of that country; and to them, when they first enter upon it, it is the most
dreadful to which human beings can be subjected. They are unacquainted with the country, and
instead of knowing where to discover and how to procure the animals, of which they are com-
pelled to find a specified number, they can hardly make their own way across rocks and chasms,
fallen trees, and countless other irregularities, all hidden under the snow; and thus many of them
perish in that dreadful wilderness.
The sable, as we might expect, partakes of the characters of a tree animal and a ground animal
jointly. It can climb; and it is understood to climb for those wild berries which remain upon
the branches in winter, as well as for birds and their eggs and young during the summer. It also
hunts prey upon the ground, and though it is of course not capable of running down a hare in
fair chase, it is very capable of dispatching one if it come upon it by surprise. It is also sure to
follow the more powerful predatory animals, the polar bear, the wolf, and the glutton, in order to
obtain a share of their prey. In its disposition it is not a ferocious animal, but can be tamed, and
will show some affection in a domestic state. In this condition it subsists indiscriminately upon
animal and vegetable matter, and is said not to be so prone to make its escape to the wilds as the
other martens.
Wwe
REDMANSKENNY.E
POLECAT ATTACKING A HARE.
a
Genus POLECAT, or WEASEL: Putorius.—This genus includes the Weasels, with the Ermine
or Stoat, as well as the Polecat or Fitchet, and the Ferret; all small, but distinguished for their
long, flexible bodies, and their destructive habits, surpassing even the cats in their instinct for kill-
ing other animals. All are noted for a secretion in an anal pouch, which, when they are irritated
or frightened, diffuses a more or less offensive odor. They trace their prey by scent, take to the
water readily, as they have semi-palmated feet, and kill by inflicting a wound in the neck. The
female is commonly much smaller than the male.
The POLECAT, FITchet, or FITCHET-WEASEL, P. fætidus, the M. putorius of Linnæus, is the
Fulimart or Foumart of the English. Polecat has been supposed to be a corruption of Polish
cat; but this seems to be not much better than a guess: Foumart and Fulimart have, with
better reason, been considered as contractions of Foul Marten, in contradistinction to the Sweet

308
VERTEBRATA.
a
Marten. It is the Putois of the French; Foetta and Puzzolo of the Italians; Putoro of the
Spanish; Iltis, Ulk, and Buntsing of the Germans.
This animal is stouter in proportion than either the common weasel or the ermine, and the
head is broader; the nose rather pointed, ears round, and not conspicuous; neck comparatively
short; tail inclining to bushy, and rather more than a third of the length of the body and head.
There are two kinds of fur in this species—the short is fulvous and woolly, the long is black, brown-
ish black, and shining. A brown color mingled with yellow, varying according to the proportions
of these two sorts of fur in the individual, is the result. There are some white marks about the
mouth and ears, and the parts which are darkest in color are the head, tail, and feet. The length
of the head and body is seventeen inches. The anal sack, situated beneath the extremity of the
rectum, contains a yellowish fetid substance of the consistence of thick cream, which has an odor
inferior in intensity to that of the skunk, but still proverbial for its offensive quality.
The polecat is found throughout Europe and Western Asia, but is not a native of America. It
is most destructive to the poultry-yard and the preserve; its appetite for slaughter, which seems
never to be satiated as long as any living thing remains within its reach, rendering it a most ruin-
ous neighbor to those who rear fowls or keep up a head of game. Not only the young birds fall
victims to it, but the parents also; nor are even geese or turkeys safe. We have heard an in-
stance of a hen and a whole brood of chickens being killed by one of these destroyers in a single
night; and upon another occasion, seven or eight nearly full-grown turkeys. The brain and the
blood seem to be the choicest portions. The bodies of the dead are carried off to its haunts,
which are generally in some copse or wood near a farm, or in the heart of a preserve, whence it
issues on its deadly errand in the evening, generally soon after sunset, or when it grows
dusk.
No “vermin” is placed with more satisfaction upon “the Keeper's Tree,” for none commits more
havoc, if so much, among the game. Beginning with the
game. Beginning with the egg, it persecutes all the game-birds
through every period of life, and is a far more determined enemy than the stoat itself to the hare
and rabbit-warren. The fox, as is well known, will do much to keep down the pheasants, and
especially the rabbits and hares; but even this wily and powerful invader is not so mischievous as
the species of which we are treating. Where a fox will kill one, a polecat will immolate ten, to
say nothing of eggs; no vertebrated animal seems to come amiss to its murderous nature. Bewick
relates that during a severe storm, a foumart was traced in the snow from the side of a rivulet to
its hole at some distance from it. As it was observed to have made frequent trips, and as other
marks were to be seen in the snow which could not easily be accounted for, it was thought a
matter worthy of great attention. Its hole was accordingly examined, and five eels were discov-
ered to be the fruit of its nocturnal excursions. The marks in the snow were made by the motion
of the eels in the quadruped's mouth. In Loudon's Magazine is an account of a female polecat
that was hunted to her nest, which held five young ones in a comfortable bed of withered grass.
From a side hole the narrator picked out forty large frogs and two toads alive, but capable of
sprawling only, for the old polecat had stricken them all with palsy by a bite through the brain of
each! Whether she had put them in this condition as a pickle, to preserve them for future use, is
not known. At all events, the fact suggests the hideously destructive nature of these creatures.
The nest of this species is generally made in some rabbit-burrow, in the crevice of a rock, or where
the tangled herbage and brushwood overgrow loose heaps of stones; there the female drops
from four to six young in May, or early in June. The courage of the polecat is great, and none
of the tribe denominated by game-keepers “vermin" so severely tries the "pluck” of a terrier; for
its flexibility, unless seized in the right place and shaken to death at once, enables it to turn and
fasten upon the nose of the dog, so as to make the latter not unfrequently desist from the attack.
There is good evidence that the polecat will breed with the ferret. Inferior to the fur of the
sable or marten, that of the polecat is nevertheless esteemed, and a considerable exportation of the
skins annually takes place from the north of Europe, under the name of Fitch.
The SIBERIAN POLECAT, or CHOROK, M. Sibirica of Pallas, is about the size of the ferret, and
has long fur of a bright golden yellow. It is a very hardy species, and in its native country re-
sides chiefly in the forests. Among the other species are the Vomela, or Peregusng, P. Sarmati-
cus, found in Siberia, and the Itatsi, P. itatsi, of a bright chestnut-color, and found in Japan.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
309
city: 1
POLECAT.
FERRET.
The FERRET, Viverra furo of Shaw, the Furet of the French, is of a light yellowish color,
different parts being more or less white, for the long fur is partly white, and the short almost
entirely yellow; the eyes are pink; length of head and body fourteen inches; of the tail six
inches. It is supposed to be a native of Africa, but is not found there in a wild state; it is do-
mesticated in Europe, and, by some, is regarded as a variety of the polecat, produced partly
through albinism. This, no doubt, is an error. Its habits are similar to those of the European
weasels, but more blood-thirsty. Capable of a certain degree of tameness, it seldom, if ever, be-
,
comes attached, and is a dangerous inmate, unless properly secured. It has even been known
to attack and cruelly lacerate an infant which had been left unguarded in its cradle, and with
such ferocity that, after it had been driven away, the cries of the tortured child brought it from
its hiding-place, eager to renew the attack.
This species, whose whiteness and red eyes may, perhaps, be the result of a long period of
domestication, cannot bear cold, and should be kept warm to insure its healthy condition. It is
said to breed twice a year in a state of domestication, unless it devours its offspring, which it
sometimes does, and then it has three litters. The gestation of the female continues six weeks,
and she then produces generally six or seven young-sometimes even nine. These are blind for
a month, and at the end of two more are considered fit for service.
We have the evidence of history as to the southern origin of the ferret. Strabo informs us
that in early times a great portion of Spain was literally eaten up on the surface, and drilled
into holes like a honeycomb, by rabbits, just as many parts of the Pampas in South America
are at present by the viscacha. Countries, when taken possession of by these burrowing rodents
in such multitudes, are quite unprofitable to man; and scarcely any human means, indeed
none which would be repaid by the advantage gained, can rid them of these pests. To bring
Spain within the class of useful countries, the ferret was imported from Africa; and it has
ever since been more or less preserved in Europe, not domesticated—for, to soften its disposi-
tion would be to destroy its usefulness—but a subject of the care of those who employ it. To

310
VERTEBRATA.
those who feed it, and are otherwise kind to it, it is not gratuitously savage, at least in any
very high degree; but very little tampering with it angers it, and makes it bite. When angry,
its odor, which is far from pleasant at any time, becomes much less so, and establishes its connec-
tion with the polecat genus.
It is considerably smaller than the polecat, being three inches shorter in the body, and one
inch shorter in the tail ; and it is exceedingly slender. It is very bold, however, and its dis-
position to kill rabbits is most inveterate. It is chiefly used for rabbit-hunting, not for killing
them; for if it were allowed to do that, it would soon dispatch a whole warren, and leave the
owner to dig out the dead bodies at his leisure. It is used to
It is used to “unearth” them, or drive them
out of their holes, and it is carefully muzzled to prevent it from biting. The rabbits are not, of
course, aware of the perfect harmlessness of the muzzled ferret, and so they scamper out, and are
caught, generally by terriers, which watch at the mouths of the holes, and at another time in a
net, if the object is to keep the rabbits alive. It is also the very prince of rat-catchers; and,
as it is not muzzled for this sort of occupation, it slaughters away in a dashing style, and might
be
very useful in places infested with rats, were it not for the attention and trouble which it
requires. In corn-stores and mills it might be advantageously kept; and if a snug berth could
always be provided for it, it would be very valuable at sea. The ferret, as is the case with most
animals when transported to a climate colder than their natural one, spends a great deal of its
time in sleep; but the moment that it awakens, it is in a state for action; and slender as it seems,
it is capable of undergoing a great deal of fatigue.
The preceding species is only known in America as a foreign curiosity, but this continent has an
indubitable species of its own. This is the BLACK-FOOTED FERRET, P. nigripes, a rare animal, in-
habiting the country bordering on the lower part of the Platte River, and thence to the Rocky
Mountains. Its general color is a yellowish brown, the lower parts white ; length one foot seven
inches. In its habits it resembles the European species; it feeds on small reptiles and quadru-
peds, eggs, and insects. It is a destructive foe to rabbits, hare, grouse, and other game.
The JAVA FERRET, P. nudipes, is little known.
Of the smaller kinds of putorius, usually called weasels, there are many species, but they are
not, in all cases, well distinguished from each other. One of the most remarkable of them is the
StoAt or ERMINE, or ERMINE-WEASEL of the English and Americans, L'Hermine and Roselet
of the French, the Armellino of the Italians, Hermelin of the Germans, Seegoos of the Cree
Indians, and Terreeya of the Esquimaux, the P. erminia of naturalists. It is distinguished by
the long, flexible, worm-like form, the nimble gliding movements, the sanguinary tastes and de-
structive habits of the genus; and, indeed, possesses all their qualities in the highest perfection.
It is ten or eleven inches long, the body reddish brown above, and white beneath; extremity of
the tail black. The most remarkable fact in its history is, that the dark part of its fur turns white
in winter, in northern climates, but generally remains the same in southern latitudes, as in Vir-
ginia, for instance. Even in the State of New York, shades of brown frequently remain blent
with the white. The change from brown to white takes place in October and November ; the
change from white to brown in March. These alterations are not effected by shedding the coat,
but by changes in the color of the hair itself. The young are four to seven in number, and are
produced in April.
The ermine is found in Middle Europe, but is common only in the North. The white are
those most valued; the finest are obtained in the most northerly countries, as Russia, Nor-
way, Siberia, Lapland, and British America. On this continent their range is very extensive,
that is, from Labrador to Georgia. It is only in the high inland parts that it is met with in the
Southern States. In the United States it is most common in elevated stony districts. The
number of ermine-skins annually taken throughout the world must amount to several hundreds
of thousands. They have long been used to decorate the robes of judicial officers in England,
and has a proverbial association with ideas of moral purity. They are also much worn by ladies
and children.
" It appears that in England, generally," says Mr. Macgillivray, “ the ermine is less common
than the weasel; but in Scotland, even to the south of the Frith of Forth, it is certainly of

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
311
We
ERMINE-WEASELS.
It
more frequent occurrence than that species; and for one weasel I have seen at least five or six
ermines. It frequents stony places and thickets, among which it finds a secure retreat, as its
agility enables it to outstrip even a dog in a short race, and the slimness of its body allows it
to enter a very small aperture. Patches of furze, in particular, afford it perfect security, and it
sometimes takes possession of a rabbit's burrow. It preys on game and other birds, from the
grouse and ptarmigan downward, sometimes attacks poultry or sucks their eggs, and is a deter-
,
mined enemy to rats and moles. Young rabbits and hares frequently become victims to its
rapacity, and even full-grown individuals are sometimes destroyed by it. Although in general
it does not appear to hunt by scent, yet it has been seen to trace its prey like a dog, following
its track with certainty. Its motions are elegant, and its appearance extremely animated.
moves by leaping or bounding, and is capable of running with great speed, although it seldom
trusts itself beyond the immediate vicinity of cover. Under the excitement of pursuit, how-
ever, its courage is surprising, for it will attack, seize by the throat, and cling to a grouse, hare,
or other animal strong enough to carry it off, and it does not hesitate, on occasion, to betake
itself to the water. Sometimes, when met with in a thicket or stony place, it will stand and
gaze upon the intruder, as if conscious of security; and, although its boldness has been exaggera-
ted in the popular stories which have made their way into books of natural history, it cannot be
denied that, in proportion to its size, it is at least as courageous as the tiger or the lion."
Mr. Bell was informed by the Rev. F. W. Hope that the latter, while shooting in Shropshire,
was attracted by the loud shrill scream of a hare which he thought had been just caught in a
poacher's snare. He ran toward the spot, and there saw a hare limping off, apparently in great
distress, with something attached to the side of the throat. This proved to be a stoat, and
the stricken hare made its way into the brushwood with its enemy still holding on.
In Eng-
land it takes advantage of the galleries of the mole for its winter retreat, as well as the rabbit-
burrow.
Captain Lyon, in the polar regions of America, saw the ermine hunting the footsteps of mice
as a hound would hunt a fox, and observed their burrows in the snow, which were pushed up in

312
VERTEBRATA.
a
a
the same manner as the tracks of moles in Britain. These passages ran in a serpentine direction,
and near the hole or dwelling-place the circles were multiplied, as if to render the approach more
intricate.
The same graphic voyager gives a lively description of a captive ermine: "He was a fierce lit-
tle fellow, and the instant he obtained daylight in his new dwelling, he flew at the bars, and
shook them with the greatest fury, uttering a very shrill, passionate cry, and emitting the strong,
musky smell which I formerly noticed. No threats or teasing could induce him to retire to the
sleeping-place, and whenever he did so of his own accord, the slightest rubbing on the bars was
sufficient to bring him out to the attack of his tormentors. He soon took food from the hand,
but not until he had first used every exertion to reach and bite the fingers which conveyed it.
This boldness gave me great hopes of being able to keep my little captive alive through the win-
ter, but he was killed by an accident."
Sir John Richardson states that the ermine is a bold animal, and often domesticates itself in
the habitations of the American fur-traders, where it may be heard the live-long night pursuing
the white-footed mouse. He remarks that, according to Indian report, this species brings forth
ten or twelve young at a time. In this country it produces about five in April or May.
In Siberia, ermines are taken in traps baited with flesh; and in Norway they are either shot
with blunt arrows, or taken in traps made of two flat stones, one being propped up with a stick,
to which is fastened a baited string. This the animal nibbles, when the stone falls and crushes
it. Two logs of wood are used for the same purpose, and in the same manner, in Lapland.
In the United States the ermine usually passes for a weasel, its habits being the same as those
of the ermine of Europe. In the same manner it pursues the rabbit and hare, and in the same
manner invades the poultry-yard. A single ermine has been known to kill forty full-grown fowls
in a single night. Its destruction of mice is enormous, and probably it is rather a benefactor to
the farmers, despite its depredations. Though nocturnal in its habits, it is seen at all hours of
the day. It does not dig its own burrows, but makes its nest in heaps of stones, in hollows be-
neath the roots of trees, or in the vacated burrows of the ground-squirrel. It is nowhere common,
but is occasionally seen over nearly the whole of North America.
The COMMON WEASEL OF EUROPE, P. vulgaris, the Belette of the French, Donnola, Ballotula,
and Benula of the Italians, and Wisel of the Germans, is one of the most remarkable of
known animals. “The stoat,” says Mr. Bell, “is brown above, dirty white beneath; the tail
always black at the tip, longer and more bushy than that of the weasel, and the former animal is
twice as large as its elegant little congener. The weasel, on the other hand, is red above, pure
white beneath, the tail red and uniform. Their habits also, though generally similar, are in many
of their details considerably distinct; and we are fully borne out by observation in saying that
the accusations against the weasel of the mischief which he is said to perpetrate in the farm-yard
and the hen-roost, as well as among game of every description—on hares and rabbits no less than
,
on the feathered tribes—are principally due to the stoat. It is not meant to be asserted that the
weasel will not, when driven by hunger, boldly attack the stock of the poultry-yard, or occasion-
ally make free with a young rabbit, or a sleeping partridge; but that its usual prey is of a much
more ignoble character is proved by daily observation. Mice of every description, the field and
the water vole, rats, moles, and small birds, are their ordinary food; and from the report of un-
prejudiced observers, it would appear that this pretty animal ought rather to be fostered as a
destroyer of vermin than extirpated as a noxious depredator. Above all, it should not be mo-
lested in barns, ricks, or granaries, in which situations it is of great service in destroying the col-
onies of mice which infest them. Those only who have witnessed the multitudinous numbers in
which these little pests are found, in wheat-ricks especially, and have seen the manner in which
the interior is sometimes drilled, as it were, in every direction by their runs, can at all appreciate
,
the amount of their depredations; and surely the occasional abduction of a chicken or a duckling,
a
supposing it to be even much more frequently chargeable against the weasel than it really is,
would be but a trifling set-off against the benefit produced by the destruction of those swarms of
little thieves."
Mr. Bell adds, as ground for this defense of the weasel, that a friend of his assured him that at

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
313
a
a
least three bushels of different species of mice had been killed out of one wheat-rick, a number
that will not surprise those who have seen a good thoroughly routing mouse-hunt in a grain rick-
yard or granary, where the mice have taken
where the mice have taken up their quarters in earnest. Great good the weasel
certainly does, and its usual mode of attack, when it reaches its prey, shows that small quadru-
peds and birds form its staple food. It inflicts a bite on the head, which pierces the brain, and
seldom fails to lay the victim dead at its feet by a single stroke. But there can be no doubt that
it is a destroyer of newly hatched gallinaceous and grown birds and young ducks, as well as the
smaller feathered tribes, and that although it does good service in keeping down the mice, it is a
bad neighbor to the hare and rabbit warrens. Not that a weasel will do one third the mischief
that a stoat will, nor upon animals of such large growth; but it will do enough. It is a most act-
ive and persevering hunter; few trees will stop it when in search of bird's nests, which it robs not
only by sucking the eggs, but by carrying off the young. It will hunt the mole, the field-mouse,
and other small quadrupeds in their usual haunts, not only by the eye, but by scent, like a stoat,
and most amusing it is to see one of these flexible, agile little creatures tracing up the scent when
it is at fault. They will quarter the ground like a dog till they hit it off, and to lose no help
from the eye, will occasionally sit up, raising themselves on their hind-quarters to gain a more
extended view around them. Their perseverance will tire down animals larger and stronger than
themselves, nor will water stop them when their prey takes to it for safety. In they plunge, and
seldom quit their object till the fatal bite is inflicted. The brain is generally first eaten, and the
body of the victim kept as a supply near the haunt of the little hunter; but it seems very ques-
tionable whether they are addicted to the blood-sucking propensities which the vulgar attribute
to them. The probability is that this charge has been greatly exaggerated.
The last-named acute zoologist throws well-grounded doubt on the assertion that the weasel
will attack and destroy snakes; and, indeed, he believes such a notion to be entirely erroneous.
He placed a weasel and a common snake together in a large cage, in which the former had the
opportunity of retiring into a small box in which it slept. Mutual fear was manifest, and the ani-
mal kept at a distance; the snake, however, showing as much disposition to be the assailant as
the weasel, which at last gave the snake an occasional slight bite on the side or on the nose,
without, however, materially injuring the reptile, and evidently without any instinctive desire to
feed
upon it. After they had remained two or three hours together, the animals appeared almost
indifferent to the presence of each other. The snake was then removed.
“How different was this weasel's conduct,” says Bell, after relating the experiment above stated,
when a mouse was introduced into the cage! It instantly issued from its little box, and in a mo-
ment one single bite on the head pierced the brain, and laid the mouse dead without a struggle
or a cry. I have observed that when a weasel seizes a small animal, at the instant that the fatal
bite is inflicted, it throws its long, lithe body over its prey, so as to secure it should the first bite
fail; an accident, however, which I have never observed to occur when a mouse has been the vic-
tim. The power which the weasel has of bending the head at right angles with the long and
flexible, though powerful neck, gives it great advantage in this mode of seizing and killing its
smaller prey."
This destroyer becomes itself a victim to birds of prey. We have all heard the story of the
eagle and cat, and how the maddened quarry brought the mighty bird that had snatched it away
down again to the earth in the agonies of death. In the "Magazine of Natural History” a similar
anecdote is recorded of a stoat and an eagle, not, however, with any strong voucher. But Mr.
Bell, on the authority of Mr. Pindar, residing, when the event occurred, at Bloxworth, in Dorset-
shire, relates the following passage in the life of a weasel, and as there is no ground whatever for
doubt, it affords a striking instance of the murderous instinct of this little quadruped.
Mr. Pindar, while riding over his grounds, saw at a short distance from him a kite pounce on
some object on the ground, and rise with it in his talons. “In a few moments, however, the kite
began to show signs of great uneasiness, rising rapidly in the air, or as quickly falling, and wheel-
ing irregularly round, while it was evidently endeavoring to force some obnoxious thing from it
with its feet. After a sharp but short contest, the kite fell suddenly to the earth, not far from
where Mr. Pindar was intently watching the maneuvre. He instantly rode up to the spot, when
VOL. I.-40
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314
VERTEBRATA.
a weasel ran away from the kite, apparently unhurt, leaving the bird dead, with a hole eaten
through the skin under the wing, and the large blood-vessels of the part torn through."
With similar courage the weasel will attack dogs, and even men, when its nest is invaded.
This is formed of dry leaves and herbage, and is generally lodged in some snug locality, such as a
crevice in a bank, the hollow of a tree, or a dry ditch, which keeps it warm and comfortable.
Here four or five young are brought up from each birth, the number of these litters being two,
and even three, in the year.
This species sometimes, but rarely, turns white in the winter; in this state it is the Mustela
nivalis of Linnæus. Mr. Bell received one from Scotland with two white spots on each side of
the nose, which it retained throughout the summer.
In America, we have several different kinds of weasel, and one of them has been regarded as
identical with the preceding; but this opinion seems not to be well founded.
The Putorius Boccamela is a species of weasel nearly of the size of the ermine, found in Italy
and Algeria. In Asia there are the P. Hodgsonii, P. Horsfieldii, and P. Cathia.
BESAR KENNNX-
MINKS.
a
The Mink, Vison of Buffon, Mustela Vison of Linnæus, Minx Otter and Vison Weasel of Pen-
nant, the Jackash of Hearne, the Putorius Vison of De Kay, has the long, slender body of the
genus; the color, varying in different species, is generally dark brown, with a light spot under the
throat. When seen in the woods or fields the animal appears black, and hence "black as a mink"
is a proverbial expression among us. There is considerable difference in the size; thirteen inches
;
is, however, the average length of the body and head. The mink has not only the form of the
weasels
, but much of their activity and voracity. They frequently take up their abode near the
poultry-yard, where they make great havoc. They frequent the streams, where they swim well,
and
prove themselves to be expert fishermen. They not only eat fish, but frogs and crawfish, be-
sides mice and rats, the latter furnishing a good part of their living. They have a good nose,
and follow their prey by scent with the certainty of a hound. They are fond of water, preferring
small streams; they delight in rapids and waterfalls, and often make their residence at their
feet. Many of them frequent the marshes of the Southern States, where they feed on small shell-
fish and aquatic insects, with such shore birds as they can seize. The marsh-hen frequently be-
comes their prey. They sometimes ascend trees, but not often; they are neither suspicious nor
cunning, and are easily caught in traps. The young are produced in April, and from four to six
at a time. The fur was once much esteemed, but it is now of little value; some specimens, how-
ever, of peculiar fineness, and of a beautiful silver-gray, still bring large prices. This animal is
peculiar to North America, and is distributed throughout nearly its whole extent, being rare, how-
ever, in the more settled parts.
The MOUNTAIN BROOK MINK, P. nigrescens, is somewhat smaller than the preceding, the body
being about eleven inches long. In color and habits it resembles the vison. It is found in the
mountainous regions from Canada to Pennsylvania.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
315
a
The EUROPEAN Mink, N. lutreola, is a weasel of the north of Europe, somewhat smaller, and
of a darker color, than the Vison ; its habits are, however, similar, and many naturalists have re-
garded the two as of the same species.
The LITTLE NIMBLE WEASEL, Putorius agilis, is a small American species, light brown in sum-
mer and white in winter; the body is five inches long. It is found in the State of New York, but
its habits are not much known.
The Brown or Tawny WEASEL, Putorius fuscus, is found in the State of New York, and prob-
ably exists in some of the Western States. Its body and head are nine inches long; it is there-
fore two inches longer than the common weasel of Europe. Its color, which does not change in
winter, is a uniform tawny brown on the upper parts, and white beneath.
The BRINDLED WEASEL, Putorius frenatus, is of the size of the ermine; its color is yellowish-
brown above, and white beneath. It is found in Texas, California, and Mexico.
The SMALL WEASEL, Putorius pusillus, is also an American species, and one of the smallest,
being only seven inches long. It feeds on insects, mice, and birds' eggs. .
Its color is a light yel-
lowish-brown above, and white beneath. It is found in the fur countries of the north, and as far
south as the State of New York. The skin becomes white in winter far to the north, but not in
the more southern portions of its range. Richardson believed this to be the same as the common
weasel of Europe, but he was doubtless mistaken.
There are still some other American species of weasel, but their characteristics are very imper-
fectly known
TEOMAN-KEN
THE ZORILLA.
Genus ZORILLE: Zorilla.–Of this genus there is but a single species, found at the Cape of
Good Hope and Senegal, and variously denominated by different authors, as Zorilla striata, Z.
variegata, 2. Capensis, Z. Viverra, &c. It has been included in the same genus as the
skunks of America, and indeed the Nyenteck or Helictis of Asia, and the Mydaus of Java and
Sumatra, all analogous to the weasels, and all diffusing a fetid odor, have been sometimes included
in the same group. As we have placed these according to structure and appearance in separate
genera, so we now give a distinct place to the zorilla. This animal is about the size of a polecat,
and resembles it in form and habits. Its general color is black, spotted on the head, and striped
on the back with white. By some it is called the Cape Polecat. This, in fact, is its proper
designation. The term Zorilla means Little Fox, and was first given to the moufettes of South
America on account of their intolerable odor. To them it properly belongs, but Buffon used it

316
VERTEBRATA.
in application to the African animal, and it has since been applied by other writers in the same
way. One of the American skunks retains it as its popular designation.
Genus LYNCODON: Lyncodon of Gervais.—Of this there is a single species, found in Pata-
gonia. It is between the polecat and ermine in size; its appearance and habits are but partially
known.
LUTRINS, OR OTTERS.
Of this tribe, there are several genera and numerous species, all possessing the general form of
the mustelidæ, with aquatic habits, and living on fish. The teeth are sharp and strong, the tuber-
cles of the molars being very pointed, a modification necessary to enable them to secure their
agile and slippery prey.
OTTERS.
Genus OTTER: Lutra.–Of this there are several species. The Common OTTER OF EUROPE,
L. vulgaris, is the Loutre of the French, Lodra, Lodia, and Lontra of the Italians, Otter and
Fisch Otter of the Germans, Nutria and Lutra of the Spanish. The head and nose are broad and
flat; neck thick; body elongated; tail broad at the base, compressed horizontally, and tapering
to a point; the eyes, which are not large, are placed comparatively near to the nose; the ears
are very short, and the auditory opening rather narrow; the mouth is small, and the lips are ca-
pable of being firmly closed together; the whiskers are very long; the legs very short, strong,
stout, and muscular; the five-toed feet are furnished with strong, broad webs, like those of water-
fowl which have these accessories best developed. Hence Somerville terms the otter "goose-
footed.” The color is brown, deepest on the upper parts, with the exception of two small patches
of white on the lips, one on each side of the nose. This species varies in size, being from two
feet two inches to forty-two inches in length, including the tail, which is one fourth that of the
body. The usual weight of a male is from twenty to twenty-four pounds, though Pennant speaks
of one weighing forty pounds.
The natural food of the common otter is fish, for the chase and capture of which its whole
frame is beautifully adapted. How silently is the water entered! The eyes are so placed, that
whether the animal is swimming below its prey, behind it, above it, or on either side of it, the
least motion of the head and neck, brings it within the sphere of the pursuer's vision. The
whole frame-work of the animal, its short fin-like legs, oary feet, and rudder of a tail, enable
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
317
it to make the swiftest turns, nay, almost bounds in the water, according as the rapidity of its
agile prey demands a sudden downward dive, an upward spring, or a side snap. The short
fur, which is close and fine, keeps the body at a proper temperature, and the longer and outer
hairs directed backwards, enable it to glide through the water, when propelled horizontally
by its webbed feet beneath the surface, noiselessly and speedily. Easy and elegant in its motions,
there are few objects more attractive in menageries than the pond, especially if it be kept clean
and supplied with clear water, wherein the otter is seen to hunt its living prey. When it has
seized a small fish, it instantly leaves the water and devours it, beginning with the head, while
the body is held between the fore-paws. Larger fish are held down by the paws, and the head
and tail are often left uneaten. The havoc made by these animals in the rivers and ponds is
great; for they will go on killing, and eat but a small portion of each fish, if it be large, when
they find plenty of prey. When fish is scarce, and it is pressed by hunger, the otter has been
known to resort far inland, to the neighborhood of the farm-yard, and attack lambs, sucking-pigs,
poultry, and young domestic animals; the stomach of one, killed in June, has also been found,
filled with a curious collection of larvæ and earth-worms. The period of gestation is said to be
nine weeks, and the number of young produced varies from three to five. The otter's places of
refuge near rivers and lakes are beneath the roots of trees or in holes.
This animal is found generally throughout Europe. Though chiefly living amid rivers, lakes
and ponds, it is not confined to the fresh waters. They are known to frequent the sea in the
north of Scotland, and to hunt far out in the water. In the south of England—Cornwall—the
otter will go a mile from the shore, in the summer and good weather, after its prey. On the sea-
shore, rocky caves with scattered blocks, hollows, and cavities under large stones, are its haunts.
The otter is capable of domestication and attachment. Goldsmith mentions one which went
into a gentleman's pond at the word of command, drove the fish up into a corner, and having
seized on the largest, brought it out of the water to its master. Daniel, Bewick, Shaw, Bell, and
Macgillivray furnish corroborating facts. The latter has collected the following anecdotes: “Mr.
M’Diarmid, in his amusing "Sketches from Nature,' gives an account of several domesticated
otters, one of which, belonging to a poor widow, when led forth plunged into the Uur, or the
neighboring burns, and brought out all the fish it could find. Another, kept at Corsbie House,
Wigtonshire, evinced a great fondness for gooseberries, fondled about her keeper's feet like a pup
or kitten, and even seemed inclined to salute her cheek, when permitted to carry her freedoms
so far. A third, belonging to Mr. Monteith, of Carstairs, was also very tame, and though he fre-
quently stole away at night to fish by the pale light of the moon, and associate with his kindred
by the river side, his master, of course, was too generous to find any fault with his peculiar mode
of spending his evening hours. In the morning he was always at his post in the kennel, and no
animal understood better the secret of keeping his own side of the house. Indeed, his pugnacity
in this respect gave him a great lift in the favor of the game-keeper, who talked of his feats wher-
ever he went, and avowed, besides, that if the best cur that ever ran ‘only dared to grin' at his
protegé he would soon 'mak his teeth meet through him. To mankind, however, he was much
more civil, and allowed himself to be gently lifted by the tail, though he objected to any inter-
ference with his snout, which is probably with him the seat of honor.” They are, however, dan-
gerous pets; for, if offended, they will bite grievously.
As an article of food, the flesh being fishy, the otter was not forbidden by the Roman Catho-
lics. Their church permitted it to be eaten on maigre days, and Pennant saw one in the kitchen
of the Carthusians, near Dijon, under preparation for the dinner of the religious of that rigid
order, who, by their rules, are prohibited during their whole lives, from eating flesh. Mr. Mac-
gillivray states that he knew a man in the island of Harris who procured a considerable number
every year, when the skins were more in request than now, and who generally cooked the flesh,
of which Mr. Macgillivray once partook with the family. It was “dark-colored, rank, sapid
enough, but not agreeably so;" and under the skin was a layer of fat, as in the seals, which might,
he adds, "render it pleasant food to a Greenlander or starving Hebridian.”
The Irish OTTER has been elevated to the rank of a species by Mr. Ogilby, under the name of
L, Roensis, on account of the intensity of its coloring, which approaches nearly to black both on

318
VERTEBRATA.
of the sea.
the
upper and under surface; it has also less extent of the pale color beneath the throat, as com-
pared with the L. vulgaris; and there is some difference in the ears, and in the proportions of
other parts. Other naturalists regard this only as a variety. The kind spotted with white, is
called "King of the Otters" by the ignorant Scotch, who hold that it bears a sort of charmed life,
in so far that its death is never unaccompanied by the death of a man or some other living crea-
ture. The skin is considered precious as an antidote against infection, wounds, and the dangers
One of these spotted otters is at the Museum at Paris, near which place it was found.
Mr. Macgillivray says that he has heard of white otters, but had never seen an albino.
.
In the older annals of sporting in England, otter-hunting holds no inconsiderable place. Som-
crville describes it at some length, and with much unction. It is now fast dying away, but is still
kept up in some parts of Wales and Scotland.
The NAIR-NAIR, L. Nair, has the fur deep-chestnut, lightest on the sides; the lower part of the
neck and cheeks, as well as the throat, bright reddish-brown; above the eye a ruddy yellow or
yellowish-white spot. It is the Nir-nayie of the people of Pondicherry, the Water-cat or Juhl
Marjur of the Mahrattas, and is probably the species seen by Bishop Heber, who passed a row
of nine or ten large and very beautiful otters, tethered with straw collars and long strings to bam-
boo stakes on the banks of the Matta Colly. “Some,” he says, “were swimming about at the full
extent of their strings, or lying half in and half out of the water; others were rolling themselves
in the sun on the sandy bank, uttering a shrill whistling noise, as if in play. I was told that
THE OTTER.
most of the fishermen in this neighborhood kept one or more of these animals, who were almost
as tame as dogs, and of great use in fishing; sometimes driving the shoals into the nets, some-
times bringing out the larger fish with their teeth.” This is another proof, if any were wanting,
of the feasibility of taming these animals and rendering them useful to man. The nair-nair is a
native of the East Indies.
The AMERICAN OTTER, or CANADA OTTER, L. Canadensis, is the Loutre de Canada of Buffon;
Lutra Brasiliensis of Harlan; Neekeek of the Cree Indiars; and Capucca of the inhabitants of
Nootka. This animal, peculiar to America, has the fur above and below shining brown, and
much resembling that of the beaver. The size is much larger than that of the European
otter, measuring from the nose to the tip of the tail, which is eighteen inches, five feet. In

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 5. CARNIVORA.
319
a
a
its habits and food it resembles the European species. In the winter season it frequents rapids
and falls for the advantage of open water, and when its usual haunts are frozen over it will travel
to a great distance through the snow in search of a rapid that has resisted the frost. When
seen and pursued by the hunters, as it is on these journeys, it throws itself forward on its belly,
and slides through the snow for several yards, leaving a deep furrow behind it. This movement
is repeated with so much rapidity, that even a swift runner on snow-shoes has much trouble in
overtaking it. It also doubles on its track with much cunning, and dives under the snow to elude
its pursuers.
When closely pressed it will turn and defend itself obstinately. When Sir John
Richardson's party were at Great Bear Lake, in the spring of 1826, these otters robbed their nets
which had been set under the ice a few yards from a piece of open water. They generally car-
ried off the heads of the fish, leaving the bodies sticking in the net. The female brings forth one
litter in the year, consisting of two or three.
This otter is found throughout Canada and the United States, even as far south as Brazil, but
it is most abundant on the Mackenzie and other rivers near to the Arctic Sea. There appears to
be no difference between the skins obtained on the shores of the Pacific and those in the neigh-
borhood of Hudson's Bay. The fur is valuable, and is a considerable article of commerce; it va-
ries with the season. In summer the hair is very short, and then it is almost black; in winter it
becomes a rich reddish-brown, with the exception of the grayish spot under the chin. The fur is
nearly as fine as beaver-wool, but not so long, and consequently is not so well adapted for felt.
The nest in which these animals spend a good portion of the day, is sometimes made in a bank
of earth, and sometimes in the trunk of a fallen tree; it is lined with sticks, grasses, and leaves,
and is of large size, and well protected from the rains, being, at the same time, beyond the reach
of rising floods. They have a habit of sliding off wet sloping banks into the water, which is
taken advantage of by the trappers to catch them, by placing sunken steel-traps in places where
these animals are thus accustomed to amuse themselves. Godman tells us that they are fond of
sliding down hill, in winter, upon the snow banks, going on their bellies, feet first, in the manner
of a parcel of school-boys "coasting," as it is called in New England. They are said to enter
into the sport with great spirit, and to pursue it with intense eagerness and delight.
These animals are easily tamed when taken young; they are very playful, and will follow their
keeper from place to place; they will become familiar, crouching in the lap like a cat.
finement, they eat milk and bread; in a wild state they prefer fish, but sometimes feed on birds
and other game.
Specimens of this kind of otter have been described as distinct species by several authors in-
stances are the L. Brasiliensis of Ray, and the L. Californica, as well as the Lataxina mollis
of Gray. It may be remarked, that there is considerable variety in the sizes of these animals and
the shades of their color; the fur of those taken at the north is also uniformly finer and closer
than those taken at the south.
The BRAZILIAN OTTER, L. Brasiliensis, which we regard as of the same genus as the preceding,
is called Lobo de Rio, or River-wolf, by the natives. D’Azara says that it lives in troops, which,
sometimes rising to the surface of the water, lift their heads and bark like dogs, with a hoarse
voice, in a menacing and snapping manner, without, however, injuring voyagers or swimmers.
Each family seems to possess a separate domain. It spends nearly as much time in the water as
it does upon land, where it devours the fish which it has taken, and rears its young in holes
which it excavates in the banks. The same author was informed by the Payaguas Indians, who
sail continually up and down the river, and are better acquainted with this animal than others,
that the female brings forth two at a birth, covered with hair, and that many females bring forth
and rear their young at the same time, and in the same place, their usual resort throughout the
year. The motions of this otter are generally slow, and it drags, as it were, its belly and muzzle
along the ground; when it runs it is not at all swift.
D'Azara further states that a neighbor of his purchased a young whelp, which, at six months
old, was thirty-four inches long. It was permitted to run loose about the house, and was fed
with fish, flesh, bread, mandioca, and other food, but it preferred fish. It would walk into the
the street and return, knew the people of the house, came when called by name, and would fol-

320
VERTEBRATA.
low them like a dog, but its short legs soon failed it, and it grew weary. It would amuse
itself with dogs and cats as well as with their masters; but it was a rough play-fellow, and re
quired to be treated cautiously, for it bit sharply. It never harmed poultry, or any other animal,
excepting sucking-pigs, which were not safe within its reach, and it would have killed them if it
had not been prevented. It entered all the rooms, and slept always below the bed; was very
cleanly, and always visited one particular spot for the deposit of its excrements.
According to D'Azara, this species inhabits the lakes and rivers of Paraguay; he at first stated
that he did not believe that it entered salt-water, and that its geographical range did not extend
to the river Plata; but in his French abridgment he says that the species is found in that river.
Genus LATAXIE.—Under this title, some naturalists enumerate several other species of otter,
as the CAROLINA OTTER, L. lataxina ; the TRINITY OTTER, L. insularis ; the CHILIAN OTTER, L.
Chilensis ; the PERUVIAN OTTER, L. Peruviensis; the LA PLATA OTTER, L. Platensis ; the PAR-
AGUAY OTTER, L. Paroensis, &c.
Other species of otter are ranged under the generic titles of LEPTONIX, Aonyx, SARICOVIENNE,
and PTERONURE. These distinctions of nomenclature are founded upon slight peculiarities of struc-
ture, the general characteristics of all the species being similar to those we have described.
Genus ENHYDRA, SEA-OTTER, or SEA-BEAVER: Enhydris.—Mustela lutris of Lin-
neus; Mustela marina of various authors; Loutre de Kamtschatka of the French. This animal,
of which there is but one species, haunts sea-washed rocks around bays and estuaries, lives mostly
in the water, and approximates to the seals more than to the otters in its habits. Its food is lob-
sters and fish of various kinds. The female brings forth on land, and notwithstanding the gen-
.
eral marine instincts of the animal, it has been occasionally seen far inland. It is very timid,
and prefers the neighborhood of islands, where it can at once find food and shelter. It is found
in the North Pacific, from Kamtschatka to the Yellow Sea on the Asiatic side, and from Alaska
to California on the American coast.
The sea-otter has a small head, large body, short legs, short tail, webbed feet, fur thick, fine
and glossy, and generally of a brownish black, though the species vary in the depth of tint. The
length of the head and body is four feet and upwards; tail, one foot. The skins are valuable,
though less so than formerly; they are chiefly consumed in China, where they are worn as badges
of distinction by the high functionaries. Gervais says,—" According to their degree of perfection,
and the fineness and luster of the fur, their skins at the present day are valued at 800 to 1,500
francs. It appears that they decrease year by year, and the price tends to constant augmenta-
tion. In the time of Steller, a company of sailors would take eight hundred of these creatures
during an expedition. At the present time, a party of seal-catchers, who are also otter-hunters,
often do not take a single one. On the coast of Japan they are now only seen occasionally.”
Fossil MUSTELIDÆ.—The fossil remains of weasels have been found in the tertiary series in the
bone-caves and bone-breccias at various places in Europe.

un
jina
des
REDMAN-KENNY.N.Y.
SEA OTTERS.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
321
A
WALRUSES.
ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
very remark-
The order of the Pinnipedia, or Seals and Walruses, is distinguished from all other mammalia
by the peculiar structure and arrangement of the limbs. The toes of all the feet are united
almost to their extremities by the common integument, by which they are converted into broad
fin-like organs, the bones of the arm and leg being usually short, and concealed, to a great ex-
tent, beneath the skin of the body. The tips of the toes are armed with strong claws, and these
are frequently almost the only indication of their existence, although the bones are the same as
those of the most perfectly organized mammalia. The position of the hind-feet is
able; they are placed quite at the hinder extremity of the body, and thrown backwards into a
nearly horizontal position on each side of the very short tail, so as to resemble the horizontal tail
of the whale, and, like this, they constitute the principal agents in the locomotion of the animals
in their natural element, the water, where they swim and dive with the greatest facility. When
swimming, the fore-paws are applied close to the side of the body, and are only used in turning
about.
The general form of the body is particularly adapted for a residence in the water, being nearly
cylindrical
, and tapering gradually from before backward; the neck is short, and the head small
and rounded. Like the cetacea, which they resemble in their general form, the seals have the
surface of the body covered with a stratum of blubber, which serves the same purpose as in those
mammalia. The skin, however, is covered with hair of two kinds—a soft woolly down, close to
the skin, and a coat of long, smooth hairs, which lie close to the body, and form a shining coat,
offering no resistance to their passage through the water.
The skull and jaws are compact and powerful, and the former exhibits strong ridges for the at-
tachment of the muscles of the jaws. The orbits are usually continuous with the temporal fossa.
The teeth are always of three sorts, but they vary considerably in number. The incisors are usu-
ally small, but the canines are large and powerful, curved and sharp at the point, indicating the
carnivorous nature of the animals. A further evidence of this is furnished by the form of the
molar teeth, which are remarkable for being usually furnished with only a single root; their
Vol. 1.-41

322
VERTEBRATA.
a
crowns are strongly compressed laterally, with sharp cutting edges, which are usually more or
less notched, and sometimes deeply cleft, so as to form three or more distinct points.
The mouth is furnished with thick, fleshy lips, from which spring numerous long bristles. The
tongue is smooth. The nostrils are placed at the front of the snout, and are capable of being
completely closed when the animal is under water. The external ears are usually represented by
a small valve, which closes the aperture under the same circumstances. The eye
is large, full,
and expressive of intelligence, a quality which is exhibited by these animals in a very high de-
gree; and the brain, as might be expected from this circumstance, is of large size, and of a very
high type of organization. The mammæ are usually only two in number, and placed far back;
the female produces a single young one, and attends to it with great assiduity. The voice of
the seal is usually a kind of bark, whence the name of Sea-dogs is applied to them in some coun-
tries.
Though the genera are not numerous, there are great multitudes of these creatures, certain
seas and coasts swarming with them by thousands.
The habits of all the animals of this order are very similar. They live in the sea, but always
in the neighborhood of the coasts, where they wage an incessant war upon the fishes, which con-
stitute the principal food of all, with the exception of the walrus. They are not, however, like
the cetacea, entirely confined to the water, but can easily climb upon the low rocks, where they
are fond of lying in herds basking in the sun. Thus living a part of the time in the water and a
part on the land, they are what are called amphibious. When on shore they are exceedingly
watchful, and appear to have sentinels to give notice of the approach of an enemy, and plunge
into the water the moment any danger approaches them. On land, as might be expected from
the structure of their feet, their movements are very awkward; they are performed by the action
of the strong muscles of the back; the creatures hold by their fore-paws, while they curve the
back strongly, and thus draw forward the hind-feet; the latter then form the point of support, and
the head and fore-paws are pushed on by the straightening of the body. This mode of progres-
sion is evidently very laborious, and the seals never travel to any great distance on the land.
The PHOCIDÆ, or TRUE SEALS, exhibit the typical characters above described in the greatest
perfection. They are distinguished from the walrus family by the possession of incisor teeth
in both jaws, and by the moderate size of the canines. The molars are sharp-edged, and either
simple or notched; in the latter case they are usually furnished with two roots. An external
ear is present only in one genus, the Otaria, the species of which inhabit the Southern Ocean.
Nevertheless, they hear well when under water, and are easily attracted to the surface by a
noise. They are often seen in such shoals in the northern seas as to appear like a continuous
mass, and therefore are supposed to have given rise to the story of the Kraken. For the sake
of respiration, they will appear now and then on the surface, springing up with their heads and
necks, and often their whole bodies out of water. When a shoal of them comes thus to the sur-
face, the sailors call it a Seal's Wedding. They feed on fishes, crabs, and aquatic birds. They
swim with great rapidity, and, before a gale of wind, are full of frolic, jumping and tumbling
about, sometimes throwing themselves entirely out of the water, and performing many awkward
gambols, at last retiring to their wonted rocks or caverns, and there remaining till the storm is
over. They seem to have much curiosity: if people are passing in boats they often come up
very close, stare at them, and follow them a considerable time. If the people are speaking loud,
they seem to pay much attention, and to exhibit some surprise. We are told that when a church
bell rings for divine service on the coast of the Orkneys, all the seals within hearing swim directly
for the shore, and remain while the bell continues ringing, looking about with much appearance of
wonder, but without alarm. They are for the most part confined to the seas of the extreme
northern and southern parts of the world, abounding especially around those coasts which ap-
proach most closely to the two poles. Some of the northern species are, however, occasionally
seen as far south as the coasts of France, on the eastern side of the Atlantic, and as far as Long
Island on the western side. They embrace several genera.
In regard to the seals, Gosse makes the following interesting observations: "It is necessary that
they—the mammalia generally—be thus constantly bathed in air; for an interruption of the pro-
cess of respiration, for only a few seconds, would cause instant death. But the tribe before us
a

T1 Freeman
BRUNIER.S
SEALS.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
323
-
is, in its habits and motions, essentially aquatic, and though its respiration is still exclusively
ærial, yet it is suspended for long intervals, usually a quarter of an hour; and sometimes, as in
a case witnessed by F. Cuvier, extending to an hour. Notwithstanding this peculiarity, the
blood is abundant and very hot; it is, however, also very black. Intended to pursue the
fishes that glide so swiftly through the depths of ocean, these amphibia are perfectly formed
for this object; and while we find in them all the organs common to terrestrial animals, it is
highly interesting to behold how beautifully and skillfully each is modified in form to corre-
spond to the required change of habit. None can look upon a seal without being at once struck
with its fish-like shape; the rounded chest tapering away to a point, which is the most favorable
form for rapid progression in water. To counteract the chilling influence of the medium in which
they dwell, the whole body is encased in a thick layer of highly elastic fat, which also resists the
pressure of the superincumbent water at great depths, and renders the whole animal specifically
lighter,—three very important purposes. The skin is clothed with thick, downy wool; but as
this would impede swift motion, it is covered with an outer coat of close, strong, shining hair.
The nostrils are closed at will; the orifice of the ear can also be closed; and the eye is furnished
with a third eyelid, which can be drawn across it as a defense. The limbs are short, and almost
inclosed within the body, little more than the feet projecting; the toes, however, being strongly
webbed, render them very efficient as fins; and the hind pair, in particular, from their shape and
position, have a strong resemblance to the broad horizontal tail of the cetacea. In fact they an-
swer the same purpose—that of sending up the animal rapidly to the surface, by a powerful, ver-
tical stroke. The feet are scarcely used in motion on land, where yet they move with consider-
able speed. The mode in which this is effected, is another of the interesting peculiarities of this
tribe. The vertebræ of the spine are much more separated than usual, the connecting cartilages
being much larger, allowing it great freedom of curvature, and the muscles which bend it are par-
ticularly strong. In moving forward, the seal arches its spine, bringing the hinder part forward,
then pressing with the hind feet on the ground, straightens the body with a jerk; and by a repe-
tition of such apparently awkward springs as these, it manages to get along, sometimes at a
good round pace."
Though little known to science, the seals have been long known to commerce; and the pur-
suit of the animals for their oil and skins forms no inconsiderable source of national wealth.
Fleets of vessels of various sizes, manned by expert and hardy seamen, annually leave the shores
of Europe and America, bound either for the Arctic regions, the coast of Newfoundland, or the
desolate shores of extreme South America, whence they return, after long voyages attended with
incredible hardships, loaded with the valuable products of the seal. The sealing trade of the
South Sea is confined to the ships of England and the United States.
The following notes in regard to the Newfoundland seal-fishery, derived from the personal
observations of Gosse, will be found interesting and instructive: “In the month of February, the
sealing craft, usually schooners and brigs from sixty to one hundred and fifty tons, which had
been laid up and partly dismantled all the winter, are prepared for the voyage, and by the first of
March they are fitted out. The crew, according to the size of the vessel, varies from sixteen to
thirty-five hands, many of whom are provided with large guns, and the rest with stout clubs or
bats. Each man has also a "gaff,' or pole, provided with a hook at the end, to assist him in
leaping from pan to pan when among loose ice. From the first to the tenth of March they
endeavor to get out, but it frequently happens that the harbors are frozen over to the depth of
several feet. In this case the crews of all the vessels in the port unite to cut with ice-saws a
broad channel through the midst of the harbor to the open sea; and as these united crews
sometimes amount to two thousand men, it may reasonably be supposed that the broad icy
plain displays a scene of no ordinary animation and excitement. Each individual craft has to
make good its own passage into the common channel; and when all the labors are completed,
and the vessels, to the number of a hundred or more, are arranged in single file, and, with all
canvas set and flags flying at every mast and peak, are rapidly sailing down the channel, be-
fore a steady breeze in the presence of all the assembled inhabitants, the sight is most exhil-
arating. One by one issues from the narrow gorge into the open water, and soon all are seen
a

324
VERTEBRATA.
scattered in the distance, and speckling the offing with their white sails, till they are gradually
lost below the horizon. Each pursues its own course, according to the judgment of the master as
to the position of the ice of which they are in search; those immense fields which, dislodged
from the Arctic Regions in the preceding summer, have been through the winter pursuing a
southerly direction.
In some seasons, these fields keep close to the land, blockading the whole
coast as they proceed, while in others they form a loose and unconnected belt, running down at
the distance of two or three hundred miles from land.
“We will suppose, however, that a day or two's run has brought the vessel to the edge of the
field, on which myriads of seals are discovered with their new-born young. The great majority
are of one species, the HARP SEAL-P. Groenlandica—whose young, for the first two or three
weeks, are covered with a dense coat of white wool, which drops off at the end of that period,
and discovers the true fur, which is of a drab hue, variously spotted with black. The young in
this earliest stage, when they are called Whitecoats, are exceedingly fat, and the oil they produce
is more abundant and more valuable. In this state, of course, they are incapable of resistance,
and are killed by a slight blow with the 'bat.' The gun is used only to shoot the old seals, in
case the time of obtaining the whitecoats should have passed without success. Another species
is also found, though not in so great numbers, the HOODED SEAL-P. cristata—which, though
of larger size, is less valuable. As soon as a seal is killed, and sometimes, we regret to say, even
before, a circular cut is made with a sharp knife around the neck and a longitudinal one down
the belly to the tail—the skin with the surface fat is scalped off, forming altogether 'a pelt:
this alone is taken, the carcass being left upon the ice. The pelt of a young whitecoat has
often three inches of fat, and weighs forty pounds. When three or four pelts are obtained
they are laid one on another, and dragged by a rope, the fur side being undermost, to the vessel,
when they are thrown into the hold and stowed.
“ The whole adventure is full of hazard; in the excitement of the pursuit, leaps of terrific
risk are taken from field to field, across yawning chasms, whose terrors are scarcely noticed; and
sometimes night draws on, when the excited hunter, then first made aware of its approach, dis-
covers that he is many miles from his vessel, with no clue to guide his return across interminable
ice-fields. With the setting sun, the temperature has likewise rapidly gone down; and, perhaps,
the bewildered voyager has to pass the night on unsheltered ice, in an atmosphere at zero.
Frozen limbs are frequently the result of these exposures, and individuals in their attempts to
return, often drop through holes, and are seen no more. But this is not all; for sometimes a
sudden change of wind will separate fields of ice on which the men are sealing, and ere they
are aware, they are driving far out to sea, helpless and hopeless.
“But we will suppose none of these accidents to have happened, but that the hold being filled
with pelts, the vessel returns to her port: this sometimes happens in the course of ten days from
departure, but sometimes it is delayed for several weeks. Arrived, the seals are landed at the
wharf, where they were formerly received by tale; but of late years by weight, as the fairer
mode. They are now to be skinned; for this purpose a man stands before the skinning-table, an
inclined plane reaching from his middle to the ground. He seizes a peit with his left hand, the
fur being downward, then, with a sharp knife, edge outward, he boldly and dexterously cuts
between the fat and the skin, the former rolling down in large and long masses, while the latter,
though shaved clean, rarely receives a gash. A very expert hand will skin five hundred in a
day. The fat as it is skinned is removed to a stage, where it is chopped into small portions, and
then pushed into a vat beneath. Here it is allowed to remain, covered from the sun, until the
advancing heat of spring melts the fat from the cellular tissue, which, when the oil has been
drawn off, is rejected under the name of scruncheons.
“The skins, divested of fat, are salted in layers, in which state they are exported to England,
to be used either as furs, or to be tanned into coarse leather. The value of pale seal-oil in the
may average
ge £25 per ton, and salted skins £50 per thousand. A vessel of one hundred
,
and twenty tons will bring in five thousand young seals, which, averaging 6s. 6d. each, produces
£1,625. Half of this is divided equally among the crew, who, however, pay from 20s. to 30s.
each for their berth; the other half belongs to the owner, who, if he be also master, receives
island may ay

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
325
a man's share besides. A hired master has no share, but usually receives 4d. or 6d. per
seal on
the whole cargo. A few of the earliest discharged go out on a second trip, but this is rarely very
productive, as, by the middle of May, all must be home to prepare for the cod-fishery."
The seal appears, from many authorities, to possess much intelligence, combined with docility,
gentleness, and affection. F. Cuvier gives some touching details of the manners of a Marbled
Seal-P. discolor—which was living in the menagerie of the Garden of Plants. He says:
Except in some monkeys, I have never known any wild animal which was more easily tamed,
or attached itself more strongly. When it first came to us, it endeavored to escape when I
wished to touch it; but in a very few days all its apprehensions vanished; it had discovered
my
intentions, and rather desired my caresses than feared them. It was in the same inclosure
with two small dogs, which amused themselves by frequently mounting on its back, often bark-
ing, and even biting it; and, although these sports, and the vivacity of the attending move-
ments, were little in harmony with its own actions and habits, yet it appreciated their motive,
and seemed pleased with them. It never offered any other retaliation than slight blows with its
paws, the object of which was to encourage rather than repress the liberties taken. If the
puppies escaped from the inclosure, the seal endeavored to follow them. When the weather
was cold, the three animals huddled closely and kindly together. It manifested no fear of man,
nor attempted to avoid him, except to escape the being accidentally trodden upon. It would
also suffer, without anger or resistance, the food which it was devouring to be forcibly taken
away, even when hungry; and that not only by man, but also by his canine playfellows. On
the other hand, when their mess was supplied to the seals—for he had a companion-as they
lay in the same trough, a battle was the usual result, and blows with their paws followed, and,
as usually happens, the more feeble and timid left the field to the stronger."
It is well known that the seal may be tamed, and in this state shows a remarkable degree of
sagacity. It
may be taught to perform various tricks, and also to go into the sea and catch fish
for its proprietor. The following tale of a domesticated seal, mixed up with certain Irish super-
stitions, possesses a thrilling interest :
“About forty years ago, a young seal was taken in Clew Bay, and domesticated in the house of
a man whose house was situated on the sea-shore. It grew apace, became familiar with the
servants, and attached to the house and family; its habits were innocent and gentle; it played
with the children, came at its master's call, and, as the old man described it, was fond as a dog,
and playful as a kitten.
as a kitten. Daily, the seal went out to fish, and, after providing for his own wants,
frequently brought in a salmon or a turbot for his master. His delight in the summer was to
bask in the sun, and in the winter to lie before the fire; or, if permitted, to creep into the large
oven, which, at that time, formed the regular appendage of an Irish kitchen.
“For four years the seal had been thus domesticated, when, unfortunately, a disease, called in
the country the crippawn—a kind of paralytic affection of the limbs, which generally ends
fatally-attacked some black cattle belonging to the master of the house. Some died; others
became infected, and the customary cure, produced by changing them to clover pasture, failed.
A “Wise Woman” was consulted, and the hag assured the credulous owner that the mortality
among his cows was occasioned by having an unclean beast about his habitation—the harmless
and amusing seal. It must be made away with directly, or the crippawn would continue, and
her charms would be unable to arrest the malady. The superstitious wretch consented to the
hag's proposal ; the seal was put on board a boat, carried out beyond Clare Island, and there com-
mitted to the deep to manage for himself as he best could.
“The boat returned; the family retired to rest, and the next morning, the servant awakened
her master to tell him that the seal was quietly sleeping in the oven. The
poor
animal came
back over night to his beloved home, crept through an open window, and took possession of his
favorite resting-place. The next morning, another cow was reported to be unwell. The seal
must now be finally removed. A Galway fishing-boat was leaving port on her return home,
and the master undertook to carry off the seal, and not put him overboard until he had gone
some leagues beyond Innis Boffin.
“It was done-a day and night passed; the second evening closed; the servant was raking the

326
VERTEBRATA.
а
fire for the night; something scratched gently at the door; it was of course the watch-dog; she
opened the door, and in came the seal! Wearied with his long and unusual voyage, he testified
by a peculiar cry, expressive of pleasure, his delight to find himself at home, then stretching him-
self before the glowing embers of the hearth, he fell into a deep sleep.
“The master of the house was immediately apprised of this unexpected and unwelcome visit. In
this exigency, the old dame was awakened and consulted; she answered that it was always un-
lucky to kill a seal, but suggested that the animal should be deprived of sight, and a third time
carried out to sea. To this hellish proposition the besotted wretch who owned the house con-
sented, and the affectionate and confiding creature was cruelly deprived of sight on the hearth
for which he had resigned his native element! Next morning, writhing in agony, the mutilated
seal was embarked, taken outside Clare Island, and committed to the waves.
A week passed
over, and things became worse instead of better; the cattle died fast, and the infernal hag con-
fessed that her arts were useless, and that the destructive visitations upon the cattle exceeded her
skill and cure.
“On the eighth night after the seal had been committed to the Atlantic, it blew tremendously.
In the pauses of the storm, a wailing noise was at times faintly heard at the door; the servants
who slept in the kitchen concluded that the Banshee had come to forewarn them of an approach-
ing death, and buried their heads in the bed-coverings. When morning broke, the door was
opened: the seal was there, lying dead upon the threshold! The skeleton of the once plump an-
imal—for, poor beast, it perished from hunger, being incapacitated, by blindness, to procure its
customary food—was buried in a sand-hill, and from that moment, misfortunes followed the
abettors and perpetrators of this inhuman deed. The detestable hag who had denounced the in-
offensive seal was, within a year, hanged for the murder of her own grandchild.
“Every thing about the devoted house melted away: sheep rotted, cattle died, and the corn
was blighted. Of several children, none reached maturity, and the hard-hearted proprietor sur-
vived every thing he loved or cared for. He died blind and miserable. There is not a stone of
that accursed building standing upon another. The property has passed to a family of a different
name, and the series of incessant calamity which pursued all concerned in this cruel deed is as
romantic as true."
THE COMMON SEAL.
Genus CALLOCEPHALUS: Callocephalus of F. Cuvier.—Of this there are several species,
the most noted of which is the SEA-Calf, or Common SEAL, C. vitulinus, the Phoca vitulina of
Linnæus, the Veau Marin of the French, Vecchio Marino of the Italians, Meerwolf and Meerhund
of the Germans, Lobo Marino of the Spanish. The ground-color of the hair or skin, when this

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
327
animal is alive and dry, is pale whitish-gray, with a very slight tinge of yellow; when just out of
the water and wet, the ground-color is ash; after death, and as seen in museums, the ground-
color is pale yellowish-gray, the oil having penetrated the skin, and rendered the hair of a more
yellow hue; the body above is clouded and marbled with blackish-gray; space round the eyes
and muzzle, sides of the body, all the lower parts and the feet, pale grayish, becoming nearly
white beneath. There is some brown on the muzzle and upper part of the tail; whiskers mod-
erate, undulated; claws black, and rather strong ; length from three to five feet. It inhabits
the northern seas generally, and is occasionally found as far south as England, France, &c., on
the eastern coasts of the Atlantic, and as far as the United States on the western.
Farrington, writing to Pennant, gives the following description : "The seals are natives of our
coasts, and are found most frequently between Llyn, in Caernarvonshire, and the northern parts
of Anglesey; they are seen often toward Carreg-y-Moelrhon, to the west of Bardsey, or Ynys
Enlli, and the Skerries, commonly called in the British language Ynys-y-Moelrhoniad, or Seal
Island. The Latin name of this amphibious animal is Phoca; the vulgar name is sea-calf, and
on that account the male is called the bull, and the female the cow; but the Celtic appellative is
'Moelrhon,' from the word moel, bald, or without ears, and rhon, a spear or lance. They are ex-
cellent swimmers and ready divers, and are very bold when in the sea, swimming carelessly
enough about boats; their dens or lodgments are in hollow rocks or caverns near the sea,
but
out of the reach of the tide. In the summer, they will come out of the water to bask or sleep in
the sun, on the top of large stones or shivers of rocks, and that is the opportunity our country-
men take of shooting them; if they chance to escape, they hasten toward their proper element,
flinging stones and dirt behind them as they scramble along, at the same time expressing their
fears by piteous moans; but if they happen to be overtaken, they will make a vigorous defense
with their feet and teeth till they are killed.”
Dr. Borlase furnishes the following vivid description : "The seals are seen in the greatest plenty
on the shores of Cornwall in the months of May, June, and July. They are of different sizes, and
feed on most sorts of fish which they can master, and are seen searching for their prey near the
shore where the whistling-fish, wraws, and polacks resort. They are very swift in their proper
depth of water, dive like a shot, and in a trice rise at fifty yards' distance, so that weaker fishes
cannot avoid their tyranny except in shallow water. A person of the parish of Sennan saw not
long since a seal in pursuit of a mullet—that strong and swift fish; the seal turned it to and fro
in deep water as a grayhound does a hare; the mullet at last found it had no way to escape but
by running into shoal water; the seal pursued, and the former, to get more surely out of danger,
threw itself on its side, by which means it darted into shoaler water than it could have swum in
with the depth of its paunch and fins, and so escaped. The seal brings her young about the
beginning of autumn; our fishermen have seen two sucking their dam at the same time, as she
stood in the sea in a perpendicular position. Their head in swimming is always above the water,
more so than that of a dog. They sleep on rocks surrounded by the sea, or on the less accessible
parts of cliffs left dry by the ebb of the tide, and if disturbed by any thing, take care to tumble
over the rocks into the sea. They are extremely watchful, and never sleep long without moving,
seldom longer than a minute; then raise their heads, and if they hear or see nothing more than
ordinary, lie down again, and so on, raising their heads a little, and reclining them alternately in
about a minute's time.”
The KASSIGIACK, C. maculatus, inhabits the same localities as the preceding, and though some-
what differing in color, is believed to be a variety of the same species.
The ATAK, or HARP SEAL, C. Groenlandicus—the Phoque à Croissant of Buffon-has the hair
drier, closer to the leather, and more free from wool than that of the other species; each hair is flat
and lustrous. A large brown oblique band, irregularly dentilated, commences nearly above the
shoulders, where it joins that of the other side, and is carried along upon the sides and up to the
hind-legs, becoming by degrees brighter there, and losing itself in the white of the belly; the
posterior extremity approaches that of the other side at the root of the tail. Some small brown
spots are scattered about both in the gray of the back and in the pale part of the band. The
bands and spots become more and more black with age. The females and the young have the

328
VERTEBRATA.
CD
THE HARP SEAL.
skin of the same ground-color, but without bands, and with unequal, well-defined, angular, brown
spots, thrown, as it were, at hazard, on different places of the upper and lower part of the body.
The ground-color of the old male is gray-white, and his length is five feet. The face is entirely
black. According to Crantz, “when newly born this species is quite white and woolly. In the
first
year it is cream-colored; in the second, gray; in the third, painted with stripes; in the fourth,
spotted; and in the fifth, wears half-moons as the sign of its maturity.” It is found in the Frozen
Ocean, Greenland, Newfoundland, Iceland, the White Sea, and Kamtschatka.
According to Fabricius, this species is very numerous in the deep bays and the mouths of the
rivers in Greenland. They leave the coast twice a year; at first in March, returning in May;
again in June, and reappearing in September. Their young—one, rarely two, at a birth—are
brought forth in spring, and are suckled on the ice far from shore. They avoid the fixed ice, but
live and sleep in vast herds near the floating ice-islands, among which they are sometimes seen
swimming in great numbers, under the guidance of one who seems to act as leader and sentinel
for the whole. Their food consists of all kinds of fish, shell-fish included, but they prefer the arc-
tic salmon. When on the feed, and one comes to the surface to breathe, he lifts his head only
above the water, and quickly dives without changing his place. These seals swim in many atti-
tudes, on their back, on their sides, as well as in the ordinary position, and occasionally whirl
themselves about, as if in sport. They sleep frequently on the water, and are considered incau-
tious, especially on the ice.
They are said to have a great dread of the toothed whales. If a grampus perceive a seal of
any species basking on floating ice, it is asserted that he does his best to upset the ice or beat the
seal off with his fins, when the latter becomes an easy prey.
Crantz avers that this is a careless, stupid seal, and that it is the only one which the Green-
lander will venture to attack alone. He goes to hunt it in his kajak, which is in the form of a
weaver's shuttle. When he perceives a seal, he endeavors to surprise it unawares, with the wind
and sun in his back, that he may be neither heard nor seen. He approaches it rapidly, but
silently, till within four or six fathoms. He then takes hold of the oar in his left hand, and
with his right throws the harpoon. If it is fixed, the Greenlander throws the attached buoy over-
board on the same side that the seal dives, and he dives upon the instant. The struck victim
often carries the buoy under water, but, wearied and wounded, it must at last come up to breathe.
The Greenlander, who is on the watch, now attacks it with his long lance till the animal is ex-
hausted, when he releases it from its sufferings with his short lance, and then blows it up
bladder that it may swim the easier after his kajak. This is a service of danger to the seal-hunter.
If the line should be entangled, or if it should catch hold of the kajak, an oar, the hunter's hand,
or his neck, as it sometimes does when the wind is high, or if the seal should make a sudden turn
a
like a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
329
SNORR
A GREENLANDER SPEARING A SEAL.
a
to the other side of the light boat, the kajak would be drawn under the waves. Then, unless the
Greenlander has presence of mind and dexterity to disentangle himself, he is lost. Nor is this all
the danger, for the dying seal may attack him; and if it be a female followed by young ones, she
will not unfrequently turn on the pursuer, injure him, or bite a hole in his kajak and sink it.
The MARBLED SEAL, C. discolor.—This seal is a native of the coasts of France, and was at first
thought to be a variety of C. vitulinus, or one of that species exhibiting a modification of color
from age or sex. Cuvier observes that it does not appear to be a variety of the last named
species, proceeding from age and sex only; but he adds, that its cranium does not show a sensible
variation from that of the common seal. Professor Nilsson regards it as a distinct species, giving
it the name of C. annellatus. It was one of this species in the Garden of Plants at Paris of which
we have given M. F. Cuvier's interesting description.
Other species of this genus are the KENALIT or C. Oceanicus the WHITE-TAILED SEAL, C. albi-
caudus; the C. lagurus; the Rough SEAL, or NEITSEK, C. hispidus ; the URKSUK, C. barbatus ;
THIENEMAN'S SEAL, C. scopulicolus ; the C. leucopla, and the SHORE SEAL, C. littoreus.
Genus STENORYNCHUS: Stenorynchus.—Of this there are two species, the SMALL NAILED
SEAL, S. leptonyx, a native of the Falkland Islands and New Georgia, and the SEA LEOPARD, S.
leopardinis, found in the South Shetland Islands. We have little knowledge of either species.
Genus PELAGIUS: Pelagius.—Of this there is a single species, the Monk SEAL, P. monachus,
seven to twelve feet long, and found in the Adriatic. It is that species whose skins were always
carried before the Emperor Augustus as a protection against lightning, the Romans generally re-
garding seal-skins as possessing this protective power.
-
Genus STEMMATOPE: Stemmatopus.—Of this there is a single species, the CRESTED, or
HOODED SEAL, S. cristatus, remarkable for possessing, about two inches from the extremity of
the upper jaw, on the superior surface, a cartilaginous crest, which rises, increasing rapidly in
height as it
passes backwards, about seven inches high at its posterior or vertical edge, which is
separated into two planes by an intervening depression an inch deep. The superior edge is
slightly convex, and the whole structure is an elongation of the septum of the nose, the true nos-
trils opening on each side of it by an oblong figure. crest runs into the hood or sack-like
appendage of the head. The hood is strongly muscular, with an aggregation of circular fibers
round its external orifices, which are two, situated at the lower anterior part of the head. The
females and young have the crest in a very rudimentary state. The length is eight feet.
VOL. I.—42
a

330
VERTEBRATA.
THE HOODED SEAL.
This species is found on the coasts of Greenland and of North America down to the United
States. It especially haunts the open sea, and is said chiefly to visit the land in April, May, and
June. They are found for the most part on large ice-islands, where they sleep without precau-
tion; and occur in great numbers in Davis's Straits, where they are stated to make two voyages a
year, in September and March. They depart to bring forth their young, and return in June very
lean and exhausted. In July they proceed again to the north, where they appear to procure
plenty of food, for they return in high condition in September. The crested seal is said to be po-
lygamous, and to have its young on the ice. Its bite is formidable, and its voice is stated to re-
semble the bark and whine of a dog. When surprised by the hunter, it weeps copiously. Among
.
themselves they have fierce encounters, and inflict deep wounds in the conflicts, with their claws
and teeth.
This is one of the species pursued by the seal-hunters, and together with the Rough Seal, fur-
nishes the greatest number of skins taken to the markets of Great Britain. The natives of the
coasts of Greenland, Labrador, &c., clothe their women with the skins of the young, and cover
their boats and houses with the skins of the old ones. They head their hunting-spears with the
teeth, and blow up the stomachs into fishing buoys.
Genus MACRORHINUS: Macrorhinus of F. Cuvier.—Of this there is one species, the SEA
ELEPHANT and Elephant Seal of the English; the Phoque à trompe of Péron; the Elephant marin
of the French, and Bottle-nose of Pennant; the M. proboscideus of naturalists. The animals of this
species are remarkable for the nose of the male being prolonged into a kind of proboscis, which
respires violently when the creature is excited, and is elongated in the form of a tube about a foot
long when it is preparing for attack and defense. When the animal is in a state of repose it is
shrunk, and the proboscis is flaccid, giving the face a large and puffed appearance. The female
is not provided with this ornamental feature. This species is found in the southern hemisphere,
both in the Atlantic and Southern Oceans, between 350 and 55° south latitude, at Kerguelen's
Land, South Georgia, Juan Fernandez, South Shetland Islands, and Falkland Islands. A few are
captured near the Cape of Good Hope, and on the coasts of Chili and Patagonia and New Hol-
land.
This enormous animal, which, to use the expression of Mr. Lizars, “compared with any ordi-
nary seal three or four feet long, appears like an elephant when compared to a sheep,” owes its
name to its size and bulk, most probably, quite as much as to the proboscis with which the male
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
331
a
is furnished. These seals—though living mainly in salt water—are fond of wallowing in fresh-
water swamps, and resort to lakes and rivers connected with the sea, whose waters they drink
with apparent pleasure. They sleep both afloat and on the sands of the shore: when a flock re-
poses in the latter situation, some of them keep watch, and if alarmed, down they go to the sea.
Those who have seen them in progress describe their gait as very singular, their motion being a
kind of crawling, during which their body trembles like a great bag of jelly. At every fifteen or
twenty paces they halt, as if from fatigue. If any one gets before them, they stop, and if urged
to motion by repeated blows, appear to suffer much, and the pupil of the eye, which is ordinarily
bluish-green, becomes blood-red. Notwithstanding their unwieldiness, however, they have been
known to ascend low downs of fifteen or twenty feet elevation, in order to reach small ponds of
water.
The
cry of the female and of the young is said to resemble the lowing of an ox, but the hoarse,
gurgling, singular voice of the male, strengthened by the proboscis, is described as being audible
to a great distance, and as wild and frightful. To obtain shelter from the heat of the sun, when
,
lying on the shore by day, they cover themselves, by the aid of their paws, with the moist sand.
They perform a sort of migration by sea in order to avoid the extremes of heat and cold, leaving
the south in the beginning of winter for more temperate climes, and retiring southward again in
summer. About a month afterward, the females bring forth one, very rarely two, according to
Péron; generally two, according to Anson. The young weigh about seventy pounds, and are
between four and five feet long at their birth, the male, even at that early period, being larger
than the female. At this time, it is stated that the mothers are all collected near the shore, sur-
rounded by the males, who prevent them from returning to sea till the period of suckling is past,
during which operation the female lies on her side. The young grow so rapidly that they are
said to double their original dimensions in eight days, and at the end of the third year they have
attained a length of from eighteen to twenty-five feet and upwards, when they increase princi-
pally in fatness. At this period the proboscis appears in the male. Six or seven weeks elapse
before the young are conducted to sea, to familiarize them with which the whole troop abandon
the shore, swimming about for three weeks or more, when they return to the coasts for the pur-
pose of breeding. The young males stay with the females till their proboscis is developed, an-
nouncing that they have arrived at maturity. During the breeding season, bloody battles take
place among the males, in which they are often severely wounded, but rarely killed, while the fe-
males calmly wait the issue, and receive the conqueror. The period of gestation is said to be
nine or ten months.
They are a harmless race, never attacking man unless in defense of themselves and their
young
One of Anson's sailors lost his life by exasperating a mother, in whose presence he skinned her
young one. Their disposition is, however, gentle and affectionate; and a young one, petted by
an English seaman, became so attached to his master from kind treatment for a few months, that
it would come at his call, allow him to mount upon its back and put his hands into its mouth.
Their length of life is estimated at twenty-five or thirty years.
Their tongues, when salted, are considered savory and wholesome; the flesh, according to some,
is black, oily, and indigestible; others represent it as palatable and nutritious. The heart, though
tough and hard, is sometimes eaten, but the liver appears to be unwholesome. The skin, though
not valued for its fur, is extensively used for carriage and horse harness, on account of its thick-
ness and strength. But the oil is the great object for which the animal is hunted.
Genus ARCTOCEPHALUS: Arctocephalus.—Of this, one of the most noted species is the
SEA-BEAR, A. ursinus: the Ours Marin of Buffon; the Ursine Seal of various authors. It is
the size of a large bear; girth at the shoulder, five feet, near the tail, twenty inches; fur brown,
acquiring a grayish tint at the point of the hairs in old age; external ears one inch eight lines
long, conical, erect, covered with short hair, and opening by an oblong slit, which is shut in the
water; nails very slender and minute; length seven and a half feet. It is found on the islands
at the north west point of America, at Kamtschatka, and the Kurile Islands.
When these migratory seals appear off Kamtschatka and the Kuriles, early in the spring, they
are in high condition, and the females are pregnant. They remain on or about the shore for two

332
VERTEBRATA.
BEDMAN-KENNY:ENCES.N.Y.
SEA-BEAR.
a
months, during which the females bring forth. They are polygamous, and live in families, every
male being surrounded by a crowd of females—from fifty to eighty-whom he guards with the
greatest jealousy. These families, each including the young, amounting to 100 or 120, live
sep-
arate, though they crowd the shore, and that to such an extent on the islands of the northwest
coast of America, that it is said they often oblige the traveler to quit it and scale the neighboring
rocks. Both male and female are very affectionate to their young, and fierce in their defense; but
the males are often tyrannically cruel to the females, which are very submissive. If one family
encroaches on the station of another, a general fight is the consequence. They will not, in fact
they dare not, leave their stations, for if they did they must encroach on that of some other fam-
ily. Steller relates that he had been beset by these seals for six hours together, and was at last
obliged to climb a precipice to get rid of the infuriated animals, at the imminent peril of his life.
They have their war-notes and several other intonations. When amusing themselves on the
shore, they low like a cow or chirp like a cricket, after a victory, and when they are wounded, cry
like a whelp. They swim very swiftly, and are as great a terror to other seals as the sea-lion is
to them. The skin, which is very thick, is covered with hair, like that of the common seal, but
a great deal longer, standing erect, and being very compact. The skins of the young are highly
prized for clothing.
The FUR-SEAL, A. Falklandicus, is one of the most remarkable of the seals. The skin is cov-
ered with two different substances; the longest consists of hair of a grayish color, and when
this is pulled out, there is left that fine, soft, close, yellowish fur, which was once so commonly
made into caps for boys.
for boys. It was formerly a very common species on the shores of the Falkland
Islands, and other groups of islands in the southern seas. Captain Weddell, in his “Voyage
towards the South Pole," has given the best description of the habits of this seal. The male is
nearly twice the size of the female. About the middle of November the males go on shore to
wait the arrival of the females, who soon follow, to bring forth their young; the males, at this pe-
riod, have many battles, and during the gestation of their partners are most assiduous protectors
m. The female has seldom more than one at a birth, which she suckles and rears with
great affection. After the young one has been taught to swim by its mother, it is left on shore,
and remains there till its coat of fur and hair is fully grown. At first, the young are black, but
in a few weeks they become gray, and immediately after acquire their full costume. Their senses

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
333
BEZMAN-KENNYSC.M.VE
KILLING SEALS.
of smell and hearing are acute, and their instincts are as perfect as those of the common seal of
our seas.
When the islands frequented by these seals were first visited by voyagers,
the
poor
animals had
not the slightest fear of man: they would lie quite still, while their comrades were knocked on
the head and skinned; but in a few years they got intimidated, and placed themselves on rocks,
from which, unless intercepted, they could immediately dive into the sea. Weddell
says
that
“the agility of this creature is much greater than from its appearance an observer would antici-
pate. I have seen them, indeed, often escape from men running fast in pursuit to kill them.”
He refutes the absurd story that seals can defend themselves, somewhat as the Parthians did, by
propelling stones, backward, at their pursuers. It was said that the seals threw them with their
tails; he explains it in this way, that, when the animal is chased on a stony beach, it advances
by drawing the hind-flippers forward, thereby shortening the body and projecting itself by the
tail, which, when relieved by the effort of the fore-flippers, throws up a quantity of stones to the
distance of some yards.”
In the years 1821 and 1822, the number of fur-seals taken on the shores of the South Shetland
Islands, by the vessels principally of the English and Americans, was no fewer than three hun-
dred and twenty thousand; and Weddell has shown that a hundred thousand skins might have
been procured yearly for a considerable period, but for the recklessness of the hunters, who killed
the mothers before the young were able to take to the water, and pursued and took seals of every
denomination. “By this means, at the end of the second year, the animals became nearly ex-
tinct; the young, having lost their mothers when only three or four days old, of course all died,
which, at the lowest calculation, exceeded 100,000.” Captain Carmichael observes, that, owing
a

334
VERTEBRATA.
a
to the fore-feet in this species being placed near the center of the body, it can sit erect, in an atti-
tude much resembling that of a penguin.
Genus OTARIA, or PLATYRHYNCHUS: Platyrhynchus.-As several species of large seals
have been confounded under the name of Sea-bear, so several have been included under the title
of SEA-LIon. One of these, described by Forster, P. marinus, belonging to this genus, has a
thick skin; hair reddish, yellowish, or dark brown; no fur or short woolly hair under the long
hair; a mane on the neck of the male reaching to the shoulders; head small in proportion to
the body, which is everywhere equally thick-looking, as Buffon describes it, “like a great cylin-
der, more suited for rolling than walking;" ears conical, about six or seven lines long, cartilage
firm and stiff, but yet rather curled at the margin; upper lip overhanging the lower, both fur-
nished with long, coarse, black whiskers, which become white with age; length from ten to
fourteen feet; the females shorter and more slender. It is found along the shores of the Ant-
arctic islands. Another species of sea-lion is the 0. jubata, found in Kamtschatka and the
Kurile Islands; a third, the 0. leonina, is found in the Falkland Islands. Some authors also
mention the LITTLE SEA-Lion, Otaria molossina, and the 0. Guerinii, both of the Falkland
Islands,
Os sinc-ARIN
FIGHT WITH A SEA-LION.
These animals, even if of different spécies, seem to have a great resemblance. Captain Cook
states that he did not find it perilous to go among them, for they either fled or stood still. The
only danger was in going between them and the sea; for if they took fright at any thing they
would come down in such numbers that the person in the way would be run over. When he and
his party came suddenly upon them, or waked them out of their sleep, they would raise up
their
heads, snort and snarl, and look fierce, as if they meant to devour the intruder; but when the men
advanced, the sea-lions always ran away. He states that the male is surrounded by twenty or
thirty females, and that he is very careful to keep them all to himself, beating off every male
that attempts to come to his flock. Others again had a less number, some no more than one or
two; and here and there was seen one lying growling in a retired place, suffering neither males
nor females to come near him. These he judged to be old and superannuated.
Forster relates that the rocks along the shore in New Year's Harbor were covered with multi-
tudes of sea-lions. He says that they were often seen to seize each other with an indescribable
degree of rage, and that many of them had deep gashes on their backs, which they had re-

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
335
ceived in the wars. The younger active sea-lions, with all the females and the cubs, lay together.
When undisturbed, they were often observed caressing each other in the most tender manner,
and their snouts met together as if they were kissing. The same author states that they come
on shore on those uninhabited spots to breed, and that they do not feed during their stay on
land, which sometimes lasts for several weeks; they then grow lean, and swallow a consider-
,
able quantity of stones to distend the stomach. He adds that the stomachs of many of them
were found entirely empty, and those of others were filled with ten or twelve round heavy stones,
each of the size of the two fists.
These animals appear to be much less numerous than formerly; they have also, no doubt,
somewhat changed their habits since the time of Cook, for recent voyagers speak of severe bat-
tles with these huge beasts on the shores of the Antarctic islands.
Genus HALICHORUS: Halichoerus.-Of this genus is the GRAY SEAL, H. gryphus, found
in the Baltic and along the coasts of Ireland, and thence north ward to Iceland. Its coat is white
and silky; it goes in small parties, which bark somewhat like dogs. The length is seven to eight
feet. There are said to be several other species of this kind of seal, among which is the H.
Antarcticus, but they have not been verified.
It
may be added generally, that there are doubtless some species of seal not known to natural-
ists, and not included in the preceding enumeration; but the most remarkable and interesting
kinds, especially those of commercial importance, will be found in the account we have given. It
may be well to state, however, that some naturalists mention the following species: TORTOISE-
HEAD SEAL, Phoca testudinea, inhabiting the European seas; the LAKHTAK, P. Lakhtak, found
on the shores of Kamtschatka; the TIGER-SEAL, or the SEA-DOG, P. punctata, or P. maculata,
P. nigra, found along the Kurile Islands and Behring's Straits; the SEA-WOLF, Phoca pusilla,
or P. parva; the Otaria cinerea, and the 0. albicollis, all found in the Australian waters; the 0.
coronata, and 0. flavescens, their locality not known; the SEA-HOG, O. porcina, inhabiting the
coasts of Chili, and the 0. Hauvillii, found in the Falkland Isles.
THE WALRUS.
Genus WALRUS: Trichecus.—Of this there is a single species, T. rosmarus, which has the
various English names of Morse, SEA-HORSE, and SEA-Cow; the French give it the titles of
Vache marine, Cheval marin, and Bête à la grande-dent. It differs in many particulars from the
seals, and especially in the cranium and teeth. In the adult lower jaw there are neither incisors
nor canines, and the lower jaw itself is compressed anteriorly, so as to fit between the two enormous
tusks or canines of the upper jaw, which are sometimes two feet long and proportionably thick, and
directed downwards. The great alveoli, or sockets for containing these formidable teeth, produce
the characteristic form of the skull of the walrus, and make the anterior part of the upper jaw pre-
sent an immense convex muzzle, the nostrils having an upward direction, and not terminating at the

336
VERTEBRATA.
snout. All the molars are cylindrical, short, and truncated obliquely. Between the two canines
are two incisors similar to the molars, but Cuvier observes that the greater number of authors
have not considered them as incisors, although they are implanted in the intermaxillary bone;
and between them, besides, in young individuals, are two small and pointed teeth. In most other
respects there is a general resemblance between the organization of the walrus and that of the
seal; but the development of the brain is not so great in the former as it is in the latter, and the
walrus appears not to be gifted with so high a degree of intelligence as the seal, though it is far
from being stupid. In its formation the neck is short, body bulky, broadest round the chest, and
diminishing toward the very short tail; hair close; color varying with age,
the
young being
black, then becoming brown, and gradually paler and paler, till the animal in old age becomes
white; limbs very short; inside of the flippers defended by a horny kind of coat, or callus, pro-
duced, in all probability, by climbing over ice and rocks; length from ten to fifteen, or even
twenty feet in the case of the largest bulls; girth eight or ten feet and upwards; length of the
tusks when cut out of the skull generally from fifteen to twenty inches, sometimes thirty inches,
and their weight from five to ten pounds. It seems to be nearly omnivorous, devouring chiefly
marine vegetables which adhere to the bottom of the sea, and using its tusks for grubbing them
up; it also feeds on herrings and smaller fishes, shrimps, craw-fish, and the like. It is a native
of the Northern Ocean, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Hudson's Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bher-
ing's Straits. In some places it is seen in groups of several hundreds.
The tusks are a great help as ice-hooks or grapplings in assisting the animal to climb upon
the
ice from the sea. Though they swim so rapidly that it is difficult to follow them with boats, their
progress on land is awkward and tedious; their gait being a kind of jerking, probably like that
of the seals, but they can make considerable springs, and advance pretty rapidly with the help
of their teeth. They appear to be monogamous, and consequently are exempt from the ter-
rible combats which are the result of the jealousies of the polygamous seals. The female is said
to bring forth her young, one only at a birth, either on shore or on the ice. When born, the
young is about the size of a year-old pig. Till taught by fatal experience, the walrus seems to
be a fearless animal, and to be undismayed by the face of man; but he soon learns his lesson of
distrust. Still the animal is not incautious, for Captain Cook never found the whole herd asleep,
some being always on the watch. These, on the approach of the boat, would rouse those next
to them, and the alarm being thus gradually communicated the whole herd would presently
awake. In the North Pacific Ocean he got entangled with the edge of the ice, on which lay in-
numerable sea-horses. They were lying in herds of hundreds, huddling one over the other like
swine, and were roaring and braying very loud; and indeed in the night or in foggy weather
they gave
the voyagers notice of the vicinity of the ice before it could be seen. They were sel-
dom in a hurry to get away till after they had been once fired at, when they would tumble over
each other into the sea in the utmost confusion. Vast numbers of them would follow the boats
and come close up to them, but the flash in the pan of a musket sent them down instantly. Be-
fore they were put upon their guard by persecution as many as three or four hundred were killed
at a time.
That they are not without courage, or sympathy for their wounded companions, there is ample
testimony. When Martens wounded one, others speedily surrounded the boat, and while some
endeavored to pierce it with their tusks, others raised themselves out of the water and endeav-
ored to board her. Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, relates that when near a low flat
island opposite Waygat's Straits, in 1773, two of the officers went in a boat in pursuit of sea-horses.
They fired at one and wounded it. The animal was alone when it was wounded, but diving into
the sea it brought back a number of others. They made a united attack upon the boat, wrested
an oar from one of the men, and were with difficulty prevented from staving or upsetting her;
but a boat from the Carcass joining that from the Racehorse, they dispersed. Captain Phipps adds
that one of that ship's boats had before been attacked in the same manner off Moffen Island.
Sir Edward Parry encountered about two hundred in Fox's Channel, lying piled as usual over
each other on the loose drift-ice. A boat's crew from both the Fury and the Hecla went to attack
them, but they made a desperate resistance, some with their cubs mounted on their backs; and
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 6. PINNIPEDIA.
337
one of them tore the planks of a boat in two or three places. Their parental affection is great.
Captain Cook states that on the approach of the boats to the ice all the walruses took their cubs
under their fins, and endeavored to escape with them into the sea. Several, whose young were
killed and wounded, and were left floating on the surface, rose again and carried them down,
sometimes just as the people were going to take them into the boat; and they might be traced
bearing them to a great distance through the water, which was colored with their blood. They
were afterwards observed bringing them up at times above the surface, as if for air, and again
diving under it with a dreadful bellowing. One female in particular, whose young had been de-
stroyed and taken into the boat, became so enraged that she attacked the cutter, and stuck her
tusks through the bottom of it.
That the walrus is capable of a degree of domestication, in youth at least, appears from suffi-
cient testimony. The flesh is highly valued by the inhabitants of the Arctic regions, nor does it
seem to have come amiss to northern voyagers. Cook and his crew lived upon it as long as it
lasted, and there were few on board who did not prefer it to salt meat. Sir Edward Parry re-
marks that the flesh was found tolerably good, affording a variety amid the ordinary sea fare.
But the tusks, the skin, and the oil are the parts and products for which the walrus is more par-
ticularly hunted. The ivory of the first is highly esteemed, and is used in Europe and America
for artificial teeth. The skins make excellent carriage-braces, and are useful about shipping, mak-
ing very good wheel-ropes, &c. The oil is more valued than that of the whale, though not more
than twenty or thirty gallons are afforded by one animal.
It is not improbable that some of the stories of Mermen and Mermaids have taken their origin
from those who have seen walruses or seals with their heads lifted out of the water. The former,
before their tusks have grown, in such a situation, bear a strong resemblance to the human head,
especially when observed from a distance.
Vol. 1.-43

338
VERTEBRATA.
Tur
Fillkritums un
MULTE
mir
BEAVERS.
ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
The Rodentia or Gnawing animals, are all of small size, many of them the most diminutive of
their class; but the species are exceedingly numerous, and usually very prolific, so that no mam-
malia are more generally or abundantly distributed. Their most conspicuous character is to be
found in their dentition, which is very peculiar. The teeth are of two sorts, incisors and molars,
the canine teeth being entirely deficient. The incisors are two in number in each jaw; their
bases
pass far into the jaw, where usually, beneath the molar teeth, there is a permanent pulp, by
the action of which the incisors are kept constantly growing during the life of the animal, so as
to supply the continual wear going on at the extremities, where the upper and lower teeth come
in contact. The substance of the body of these teeth is moderately soft, but their anterior sur-
face is covered with a layer of very hard enamel, secreted by a membrane coating the anterior
wall of the socket. The thin layer of hard enamel which coats the front of the tooth resists abra-
sion much better than the dentine of which the body of the tooth is composed; the latter conse-
quently wears away most rapidly, and thus the enamel always constitutes a sharp projecting edge
like that of a chisel, of which the dentine forms the beveled portion.
The object of this arrangement is very apparent. These animals feed to a great extent upon
hard substances, or substances inclosed in hard coverings, such as nuts, &c.; and in order to get
at their food they require both sharp and strong teeth; the requisite sharpness is furnished by
the thin plate of enamel; but as this by itself would break away directly when applied to its or-
dinary purposes, it is strengthened by a thick layer of dentine, which, although it furnishes the
necessary support, wears away so readily as never to interfere with the efficiency of the cutting
edge.
Behind the incisors there is a large gap, beyond which the molars are situated. These vary
in number from two to six, and are usually destitute of true roots; in fact, like the incisors, they
generally continue growing throughout the animal's existence. They are often composed of
a simple prism of dentine coated with enamel; the latter is sometimes folded so as to produce
transverse ridges at the surface of the tooth, which is usually worn flat, and in some cases exhib-
its small isolated spots of enamel in the body of the dentine. These teeth are evidently adapted
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
339
for the comminution of vegetable substances, and although many of these animals are omnivor-
ous, there is no doubt that vegetable matters constitute the principal part of their nourishment.
The skull is small, and the jaws, especially the lower one, large and strong. To give full action
to the gnawing incisors, the lower jaw is articulated to the skull by an elongated condyle, which
allows it to move freely backward and forward. The head is more or less rounded, with the
snout pointed, and usually furnished with long moustaches. The opening of the mouth is small,
but the cheeks often form large pouches, in which the animals can convey food to the hoards
which they lay up in their dwelling-places. The brain is small, and exhibits scarcely any convo-
lutions, and the cerebellum is almost entirely exposed. The legs are generally short, and adapted
either for walking or climbing; the feet are furnished with four or five free toes, armed with nail-
like claws; but the thumb is never opposable. The eyes and external ears are usually of mod-
erate size, but the latter sometimes attain a great length. The skin is generally covered with soft
hair, but in some cases with bristles and spines. The tail varies greatly in its development, and
is sometimes naked or scaly, and sometimes covered with hair.
The rodents are distributed in all parts of the world, even New Holland possessing apparently
indigenous species. Very few are domesticated; but the flesh of some species is eaten, while the
.
skins of others are sought after as furs. Notwithstanding their small size, their great numbers,
their habit of storing up large quantities of provisions, and their extraordinary propensity for
gnawing, cause them to commit great devastations in many places.
THE LEPORID Æ.
a
The immense number of species included in the order of rodentia has necessitated the forma-
tion of numerous families. The first is that of the Leporide, or Hares, including the Rabbits,
and the Lagomys, or Calling-hares, and which are at once distinguished from all the other rodents
by the possession of a small additional incisor behind each of the two large chisel-like incisor teeth
in the upper jaw. They also present several other remarkable characteristics, among which we
may notice that the orbits communicate with each other through an aperture in the septum, a
structure which is characteristic of the class of birds. The maxillary bones are pierced with numer-
ous sieve-like holes, a character which is otherwise peculiar to the ruminants. The molar teeth
have a transverse ridge of enamel, so that they appear to be composed of two halves; they are
usually six in the upper and five in the lower jaw, but in some species the upper jaw has only five
molar teeth. The leporidæ are all strictly herbivorous animals.
Genus HARE: Lepus.—Of this there are numerous species. The Common HARE OF EUROPE,
L. timidus, has the inside of the mouth hairy; the tongue and nose are very thick; the upper lip
is cleft to the nostrils, which seem to unite, and to form a single opening; the eyes, which are
,
very prominent, are furnished with a nictitating membrane; the feet are covered beneath, as well
as above, with fur; the heart is proportionably large, and the cæcum about six times as large as
the stomach. Under the Mosaic dispensation, when various animals were described as clean or
unclean, according to the Levitical ritual, the hare is described as "chewing the cud," that is,
as being a ruminant animal. That the hare is not a true ruminant, furnished with the com-
pound stomachs of that class of animals, is certain; but still it says not a little for the truth of the
Bible's natural history, that the hare is still a partial ruminant, and that, while she sits on her
form, she can occasionally bring up a portion of her food, and give it a second mastication.
Hares of this species are common in most parts of Europe, though they vary considerably in
size in different places. Generally speaking, they are smaller in hot countries than in cold: and
we might expect this, because the general investiture of the whole body, feet and all, with fur,
naturally points out the hare as more an animal of cold, or, at least, temperate countries, than of
It has been observed, however, that in places not very different from each other,
either in climate or in situation, there are great differences of appearance in the common hare.
We shall afterward have occasion to advert to the Irish hare, which recent observation has
shown to differ from the hare of Britain, near as the islands are to each other; but we may men-
tion, that a very small breed exists in the island of Islay, on the west coast of Argyleshire, and a
warm ones.

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NE
Tristan
HARE AND RABBITS.
very large one on the Isle of Man, where individuals have been taken that weighed twelve pounds.
In England examples occur of hares weighing from ten to eleven pounds; but from some of the
rich districts in the east of England hares of much greater weight are frequently sent to the Lon-
don markets, some weighing as much as fourteen and fifteen pounds.
The kind provisions of nature for the preservation of this race of animals are numerous, and
calculated to command our admiration; they also afford a striking proof, among thousands

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA. .
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a
which might be adduced, of that system of compensations, that balancing of perfections and de-
fects, that equalizing of the quantity of life and destruction, on which the continued existence of
the respective tribes of animals depends. On the one hand, if the hare is exposed to the attacks
of beasts of prey, on the other it is abundantly fruitful; and, if often pursued, it is also furnished
with various sources of evasion and escape. Its ears are so contrived as to convey even remote
sounds from behind; and the eyes, as already mentioned of the class generally, are so situated as
to enable it, when it rests on its seat, to observe without difficulty, and even without much motion
of the head, a whole circle; and, though it sees but imperfectly in a straight line forward, it can
direct its vision to whatever threatens it in the way of pursuit, and the eyes are never entirely
closed while the animal sleeps. From the powerful muscularity of its limbs, it can sustain the fleet-
ness of its course for a considerable time, while the greater length of the hinder legs gives it
such a decided advantage in ascending, that, when started, it always makes to the rising ground.
Its habitual timidity, and perpetual apprehension of danger, preserve it lean, and in a condition
the best adapted to profit by that speed which forms its security. In dry or frosty weather, the
thick hairy covering to its feet also gives it an advantage over the dog which pursues it, and its
close approach in color to the soil often conceals it from the sight of man and predacious animals.
As if conscious of its resemblance to the earth on which it treads, it has frequently been known,
when closely pursued by the hounds, to squat immediately behind a clod, and suffer the dogs to
run over it, which they no sooner do than it instantly starts off in a contrary direction, and thus
deceives and eludes them. As it possesses the sense of smell in a pre-eminent degree, it is often
aware of the presence of an enemy before it can ascertain its danger by sight. The doublings
of its course are familiar to every sportsman; and though its sagacity seems to be in some re-
spects at fault, especially in exhausting its strength in the early part of the chase, and in returning
to its resting-place by the same paths, it has been frequently observed to have recourse to strata-
gems, which in the human being would bespeak not only presence of mind, but a prompt and
practical application of the reasoning principle.
If undisturbed, the multiplication of hares would prove greater than that of most quadrupeds;
for at all seasons they are capable of breeding, and from the first year of their existence, while
the term of gestation does not exceed thirty-one days, there being from two to five at a birth.
These are born well covered with hair, and with their eyes open. The hunters allege that when
the produce consists of more than one, each leveret is marked with a star-like appearance on the
forehead, which usually disappears with the first shedding of the coat, but sometimes continues to
a more advanced period. Sir Thomas Brown, in his “Treatise on Vulgar Errors," asserts, from
his own observation, that female hares frequently have in their ovaries, at the same time, young
ones of different ages, and that after those which are mature are brought forth, others remain
which are very far from the term of their exclusion. This phenomenon of superfætation in the
hare is confirmed by Buffon, who has explained it upon anatomical principles. However, the ob-
servation is at least as old as Herodotus.
The breeding-place is usually under a tuft of grass, or high brake, a bush of heath, brushwood,
or standing corn. The young are suckled by the dam for about two weeks, after which they sep-
arate, and procure their own food, making their forms at sixty or seventy paces from each other;
so that, when we meet with one young hare, we may be pretty certain of finding more within a
very short distance. The hare arrives at maturity in one year, and is supposed to live eight or
nine years; but it is presumed that a small number, comparatively, are allowed to die of old age,
for dogs of all kinds pursue them by instinct; the cat and the weasel tribes are constantly lying in
ambush, and practicing their wary arts to seize them; while birds of prey are still more formi-
dable enemies, as against them no swiftness can avail, no retreat afford security; and lastly, man,
more powerful than all, sacrifices great numbers for his pastime or his subsistence.
That the hare is, occasionally at least, an accomplished and bold swimmer, is manifest from the
following account, related by Mr. Yarrell in Loudon's Magazine: “A harbor of great extent on
our southern coast has an island near the middle of considerable size, the nearest point of which
is a mile distant from the mainland at high water, and with which point there is frequent com-
munication by a ferry. Early one morning in spring, two hares were observed to come down

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VERTEBRATA.
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,
from the hills of the mainland toward the sea-side, one of which from time to time left its com-
panion, and proceeding to the very edge of the water, stopped there a minute or two, and then
returned to its mate. The tide was rising, and after waiting some time, one of them, exactly at
high water, took to the sea, and swam rapidly over in a straight line to the opposite projecting
point of land. The observer on this occasion, who was near the spot, but remained unperceived
by the hares, had no doubt they were of different sexes, and that it was the male that swam
across the water, as he had probably done many times before. It was remarkable that the hares
remained on the shore nearly half an hour, one of them occasionally examining, as it would seem,
the state of the current, and ultimately taking to the sea at that precise period of the tide called
slack-water, when the passage across could be effected without being carried by the force of the
stream either above or below the desired point of landing. The other hare then cantered back
to the hills."
Of the common hare there are sometimes accidental varieties; there is a specimen of one of
these in the museum of the Zoological Society of London. Albinos are not uncommon.
All at-
tempts to promote a breed between the hare and rabbit appear to have been hitherto fruitless.
The hare is rarely found in very hilly or mountainous situations; neither is it often found in
places much exposed to the wind, especially when it blows from the north or south; its favorite
residence being in rich and somewhat dry and flat grounds. The hare-finders and shepherds re-
mark that the hares on the downs have a variety of seats, which they shift from time to time, as
the weather directs, generally ascending to the more elevated grounds when rain prevails. Their
food consists of various vegetables, but they seem to prefer those of a milky, succulent quality,
and to be very partial to pinks, carnations, parsley, birch, and laburnum. They will prey on the
bark of almost every tree during winter, and they are often very injurious to young plantations.
Their
cry, which has been compared to that of an infant, is seldom heard, except in cases of dis-
tress or surprise. They are taken in some countries by a call imitative of that between the male
and female.
The hare is naturally of a gentle disposition, although not very susceptible of strong attach-
ment, and when taken young, may be tamed with little difficulty. Shy and timid as it undoubt-
edly is in its native haunts, yet, when domesticated, it often assumes a forward, and even a
petulent demeanor, as has been finely exemplified by Cowper in his account of three which he
watched himself. The names he gave them were Puss, Tiney, and Bess. Tiney was a reserved
and surly hare; Bess, who was a hare of great humor and drollery, died young. "
presently familiar, would leap into my lap, raise himself upon his hinder feet, and bite the hair
from my temples. He would suffer me to take him up and carry him about in my arms, and
has more than once fallen fast asleep upon my knee. He was ill three days, during which time
I nursed him, kept him apart from his fellows that they might not molest him,—for, like many
other wild animals, they persecute one of their own species that is sick,—and by constant care,
and trying him with a variety of herbs, restored him to perfect health. No creature could be
more grateful than my patient after his recovery, a sentiment which he most significantly ex-
pressed by licking my hand, first the back of it, then the palm, then every finger separately, then
between all the fingers, as if anxious to leave no part of it unsaluted; a ceremony which he never
performed but once again upon a similar occasion.
“Finding him extremely tractable, I made it my custom to carry him always after breakfast
into the garden, where he hid himself generally under the leaves of a cucumber vine, sleeping or
chewing the cud, till evening; in the leaves also of that vine he found a favorite repast. I had
not long habituated him to this taste of liberty, before he began to be impatient for the time
when he might enjoy it. He would invite me to the garden by drumming upon my knee, and
by a look of such expression as it was not possible to misinterpret. If this rhetoric did not im-
mediately succeed, he would take the skirt of my coat between his teeth and pull at it with all
his force. Thus Puss might be said to be perfectly tamed, the shyness of his nature was done
away, and, on the whole, it was visible by many symptoms, which I have not room to enumerate,
that he was happier in human society than when shut up with his natural companions."
As an article of food, the flesh of the hare has been in high esteem from very remote antiquity;
“Puss grew
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
343
and notwithstanding the additions which modern luxury has made to the furnishings of the table,
it still maintains its character. In the opinion of Martial, the epigrammatic poet, the flesh of the
hare was superior to that of every other four-footed animal; and Horace represents the hare's
“wing" as being among the most highly prized of Roman luxuries. Moses, however, forbade the
flesh of the hare to the Hebrews, and the Koran follows this prohibition.
In those countries of middle and southern Europe which are but thinly peopled and partially
cultivated, the number of hares which are taken in the course of the year is immense, and the
skins of them form an extensive branch of commerce, being exported for the hat manufacture,
and also used locally as very warm articles of clothing. It is understood that the small kingdom
of Bohemia alone furnishes nearly half a million of skins in the course of the year, and that Aus-
tria Proper furnishes nearly double that number; while the supply from southern Russia and
western Siberia is understood to be still greater.
Though the hare is considered one of the most harmless and timid of all animals, excepting
in so far as it commits depredations upon the vegetable kingdom, it has not escaped being made
an object of superstitious dread; neither is it quite exempt from those foolish, and perhaps in-
stinctive prejudices which certain individuals of the human race have against certain animals,
which cannot, in the nature of things, do them any harm. It is reported of a celebrated French
commander, who was an exceedingly brave man, that he always fainted at the sight of a hare.
In England, when the belief in witchcraft was general, the hare was regarded as one of the most
formidable animals,—the one, in short, into which old women most frequently transformed them-
selves, by the instrumentality of the devil, in order to wreak their vengeance on the rest of man-
kind. Nor has this prejudice been entirely exploded, for there are still many of the fishing vil-
lages where a hare's foot cannot be mentioned without exciting the greatest terror,—where a
hare thrown into a boat would prevent that boat from going to sea; and where, if such a catas-
trophe were to happen as a hare to run along the beach in front of all the fishermen's huts, it
would shut them up as effectually during the day as if each were guarded by a regiment of
soldiers.
The hare in England comes under the head of game, and is protected by the game-laws the
same as pheasants and partridges. It is hunted by greyhounds, and this amusement is called
coursing, it being, next to the chase of the fox, the greatest field-sport of the English gentry. The
greyhound runs by sight; but the hare is also hunted by breeds of dogs called harriers and beagles,
which follow by scent, and run the hares down by a prolonged chase.
The VARYING HARE, L. variabilis, is nearly of the size of the preceding, the legs being an inch
shorter, the ears shorter, the long fur of a finer staple, and the body thicker and heavier. One
of the most remarkable characteristics of this animal, and one in which it agrees with the ermine
and the ptarmigan, is that it changes its color with the seasons, excepting that the tips of the ears
are black at all times. In summer, the color is grayish-fawn, and in winter it is white. This
change takes place in the following manner: about the middle of September, the gray feet begin
to be white; this color gradually ascends the legs and thighs, and spreads under the gray
which continue to increase till the end of October; but still the back continues of a gray color,
while the eyebrows and ears are nearly white. From this period the change of color advances
very rapidly, and by the middle of November the whole fur, with the exception of the tips of the
ears, which remain black, is of a shining white. The back becomes white within eight days.
During the whole of this remarkable change in the fur, no hair falls from the animal; hence it
appears that the hair actually changes its color, and that there is no renewal of it. The fur re-
tains its white color until the month of March, or even later, depending on the temperature of the
atmosphere, and by the middle of May it has again a gray color. But the spring change is
different from the winter, as the hair is completely shed.
This species, even during the most intense cold which occurs in those elevated and northern
regions of which it is a native, keeps up the character of the race in the rapidity of its circulation
and the high degree of its temperature. Even there it is as warm as one hundred and five de-
grees of the common thermometer, which is nearly ten degrees higher than in the human body.
True to this activity of its system, the Variable hare never shows the least disposition to hybernate,
in spots,

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VERTEBRATA.
or pass
into a state of torpidity, even in the severest winters; and for a great part of the year at
least—its haunts have comparatively few visitors in the winter-it evinces nearly the same fertil-
ity and disposition to breed as those of its congeners which inhabit the most fertile places.
It is altogether a very interesting animal, on account of the peculiarity of its haunts and the
determination, or rather the adaptation, with which it braves the utmost severity and duration of
the winter storms. In the winter months, even when the storms are most severe and the snow
lies longest upon the ground, these hares do not descend to the low grounds, but reside in bur-
rows under the snow. These burrows are usually made near the root of some tuft or upland
bush, by means of which a sort of chimney is kept open for the breathing of the animal, and it
feeds
upon the substance of the tuft. As it preserves its high temperature during the rigor of the
weather, it also of course keeps up its rapid circulation, and requires a corresponding quantity of
breathing and of food. Under the snow, and with their thick and white fur, these animals hava
no uncomfortable place of residence. Snow, till it melts, is a bad conductor of heat, and there-
fore the shelter of unmelted snow is really warmer than that of a hole in the earth. The white
fur of the animal prevents the escape of heat from its body to the snow around it, and the warm
air which it gives out in breathing speedily mounts up in the colder atmosphere, producing com-
paratively little effect on the breathing-chimney. In a sunny day, when the air is still and clear
over the snow, the retreats of these animals can be discovered by the little column of steam which
ascends from the breathing-chimney, and which forms a sort of miniature picture of the smoke
from the snow-house of an Esquimaux.
This species is found principally in the north of Asia, and in Russia and the mountainous parts
of central Europe, but is sometimes met with in the Alps and Pyrenees, and also in Scotland.
The Irish HARE, L. Hibernicus, is somewhat larger than the common hare; the head is rather
shorter; the ears are even shorter than the head, while those of the English hare are fully an
inch longer; the limbs are proportionally shorter; and the hinder-legs do not much exceed the
fore-legs in length. The fur is also different: it is composed exclusively of the uniform soft and
shorter hair which, in the common species, is mixed with the black-tipped long hairs that cause
the peculiar mottled appearance of that animal; it is therefore of a uniform reddish-brown color
on the back and sides. The ears are reddish-gray, blackish at the tip, with a dark line near
the outer margin. The tail is nearly of the same relative length as in the common species. Not-
withstanding these differences, however, some authors have suspected that this is a variety of the
Varying Hare.
Among the other species of this animal are the CASPIAN HARE, L. Caspicus, which frequents
the borders of that sea; the L. Altaïcus, found in the north of Europe and Asia; L. borealis,
found in Sweden, and subject to an annual change of color similar to that of the Alpine hare,
and the L. canescens, also of Sweden. M. Schimper maintains that there is a difference between
the variable hares of the Alps and of Russia, and proposes to give the former the designation of
L. Alpinus. This separation of species, however, is not established.
The L, tolai resembles both the common and the nimble hare, but the head is larger and nar-
rower than either ; its color is not changeable. The L. Thibetanus of Thibet, greatly resembles
the common hare. Beside these, two species found in Nepaul, the L. pallipes and L. cemodius,
are mentioned, though not fully described, by naturalists. The L. nigricollis is of Java; the
L. ruficaudatus of Bengal, Nepaul, and the Himmaleh Mountains; the L. macrotus of India; the
L. sinensis of China. The L. Syriacus is found on Mount Lebanon; the L. Arabicus in the deserts
of Arabia.
To this list of European and Asiatic hares we must add the following African species: The
L. Mediterraneus of Algiers and Sicily; the ABYSSINIAN HARE, L. Habessinicus ; the EGYPTIAN
HARE, L. Ægyptius, L. isabellinus or ethiopicus, found in Nubia; the RocK HARE, L. saxa-
tilis, found in the mountains, and the VLAKTE HAAS, L. Capensis, found in the plains, of the
Cape of Good Hope. Of this region also is the BARROW HARE, L. arenarius.
America is even more fertile in its variety of hares than the other quarters of the globe, at least
a dozen species being identified.
being identified. The best known is that which goes under the name of GRAY
RABBIT, L. sylvaticus, this resembles the common European rabbit, L. cuniculus, in its wild

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
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a
state, especially in the color. Hence the early English settlers called it a rabbit, and though it is
in fact a hare, it is popularly called a rabbit to this day. It is a little smaller and more slender than
the L. cuniculus ; the fur is soft, the color in summer yellowish-brown, the tips of the hair, in some
instances, though not generally, becoming white, and giving the animal a more grayish appear-
ance, in winter. The length of the head and body is fifteen inches; weight two pounds and a
half to three pounds. It lives in woods and forests, and in the thickets bordering upon cultivated
grounds. Sometimes it visits the farms and plantations, and makes free with the peas, lettuces,
and cabbages of the garden. It generally remains in its form by day, and makes its excursions
in quest of food by night.
When first started, it runs with great swiftness, but soon seeks shelter in a stone wall, a hole
in a tree, or an opening beneath the rocks. If pursued, it makes occasional doublings, and often
stops and rises on its hind-legs, and listens and looks around. It has the common habit of the
hares of stamping at night with its feet on the ground, when it is alarmed or when the males are
fighting. It has no calling note, but sometimes utters a wild shriek when wounded or when
captured. It is a prolific species, producing young three times in the season, and from five to
seven at a time. It does not make burrows for itself, but sometimes, in case of pursuit, takes
refuge in the burrows of other animals. Occasionally it is said to go into the retreat of a
skunk; but if that personage be at home, the hare pays with his life for the intrusion.
The enemies of this timid creature are numerous; the ermine and weasel destroy it by thou-
sands; the lynxes, the foxes, the hawks, the owls, the rattlesnake, the chicken-snake, and other
serpents, prey upon it by hundreds of thousands. But man is its greatest destroyer. During
the winter season the markets of the larger towns of the United States are strung with it in
abundance. It is frequently taken in box-traps and in snares, and is also hunted with and with-
out dogs.
This animal is well known in the United States, from Maine to Georgia, and westward to the
Rocky Mountains : in general it is not abundant, but in certain localities it is found in great
numbers.
The NORTHERN HARE, L. Americanus, the L. Virginianus of some authors, varies in size and
color, but is usually about twenty inches in length, and commonly weighs five or six pounds.
In summer it is reddish-brown, a color which it retains till about November, when it gradually
changes in high northern latitudes, becoming nearly pure white. In the region of New York it
retains a tinge of reddish-brown. The summer dress is assumed about the month of April.
When hunted, this hare relies upon its speed and doublings for escape. It avoids open grounds,
and resides among thickets, never taking to holes and burrows for refuge, like the
gray
rabbit.
It runs easily upon the snow, being supported by its broad furred feet. It seldom ventures into
cultivated grounds, but feeds on tender grasses, and the bark, leaves, and buds of small shrubs.
It reposes during the day, and goes forth at night; in summer, however, it may occasionally be
seen abroad in the solitary paths of the forest. Sometimes two or three may be seen together.
manifesting a social and playful humor. It has the practice of thumping on the earth, when in
fear or danger, as noticed in respect to other species. The period of gestation is about six weeks,
and three or four litters are produced in a season. When captured, it does not, like the gray
rabbit, yield without resistance to its fate, but bites and scratches vigorously.
As an article of food, this hare is not greatly prized; the fur is rather rough, and the skin,
being exceedingly tender, is not easily procured. The pelt is not of much value: the hind-feet,
however, are used as hair-brushes. This is decidedly a northern species, being found along the
eastern portion of our continent from Hudson's Bay to Virginia. It is, however, much less
abundant than the
rabbit.
The Polar HARE, or REKALEK, L. glacialis. This species is somewhat larger than the common
hare of Europe, being about twenty-six inches long, and weighing from seven to twelve pounds;
its color is light gray or brown in summer, and white in winter; the tips of the ears always remain-
ing black. It is found entirely across the American continent, from Labrador north to the
desolate waters beyond the reach of man. Living where all other food, vegetable and animal, is
wanting, it often affords temporary subsistance to the wandering Esquimaux or the lonely adven-
gray
VOL. I.-44

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VERTEBRATA.
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turer. Captain Ross says, “There is scarcely a spot in the Arctic regions—the most destitute
and sterile that can be conceived—where this animal is not to be found, and that, too, through-
out the winter; nor does it seek to shelter itself from the inclemency of the weather, by bur-
rowing in the snow, but is generally found sitting solitary under the lid of a large stone, where
the snow-drift, as it passes along, seems in some measure to afford a protection from the bitter-
ness of the blast that impels it, by collecting around and half burying the animal beneath it."
It is interesting to find that nature has so provided for this remarkable animal, that it finds a
happy existence in regions abandoned to desolation by almost every other living thing. Its coat
of fur is so thick as to repel the rain and exclude the cold; its eye is adapted to the dim
twilight that reigns in the Arctic circle for a long portion of the year, and if offended by the
glare of the sun at other seasons, it finds shelter in the shade of the dwarf trees and shrubs
that abound. In summer its skin is nearly the color of the earth, and in winter it is white as
the snow; and it is curious to observe that, while the summer is short and the winter long, so
these changes are adjusted to the length of the seasons. The Northern Hare begins to turn
white in November, and the Polar hare in September; the former resumes its brown tint in April,
and the latter in June. If these adaptations are designed to protect these animals from their
enemies, by rendering them less liable to observation, as no doubt they are, how interesting
is this provision which screens the Polar hare from the searching gaze of the golden eagle and the
snowy owl—its chief destroyers—by keeping its skin brown just so long as the earth is brown,
and changing it to white as the earth itself becomes white. And this adaptation, which reaches
even the timid, defenseless crouching hare, proceeds from a law as extensive as the universe!
The Marsh HARE, L. palustris, is somewhat smaller than the gray rabbit, the upper surface
being of a yellowish brown color in summer, and growing darker in winter; beneath it is a light
gray; length thirteen inches. It is slower of foot than other hares, and is protected chiefly by
the miry and tangled nature of its haunts. It is confined to the maritime portions of the Southern
States, and lives chiefly in marshy lands bordering on rivers and ponds, being quite numerous in
some localities. It appears never to visit the plantations, nor to dwell in the uplands. It winds
with facility among the rank grasses and overgrown shrubbery of the swamps, and not unfrequently
takes to the water and amuses itself by gambols in that element. Its nest is made of rushes,
lined with hair, and is often near the surface of the water, sometimes almost floating upon it.
The young are from five to seven at a birth.
The SWAMP HARE, L. aquaticus, is of the size of the northern hare, being about twenty inches
long, and weighing seven to ten pounds. The general color is dark grayish-brown above, and
white beneath. It is found in the Southwestern States. It frequents marshy or wet places, in
the vicinity of rivers and ponds, though occasionally seen in the high grounds. It swims with
facility, and when pursued, often escapes by taking to the water. The nests are formed of leaves
and grasses, placed on mounds in the swamps. The breeding takes place twice in a season,
and from four to six young ones are produced at a litter.
The ROCKY MOUNTAIN HARE, L. Townsendii, is somewhat larger than the preceding, the color
being light gray above and white beneath. It measures about twenty-two inches, and weighs
six to eight pounds. The form is slender and the speed great. It is found on both sides of the
Rocky Mountains. It does not change its color in winter.
The BLACK-TAILED HARE, L. callotis, L. nigricaudatus of Bennett, resembles the preceding in
its long ears, long legs, and long body, as well as in its speed, which is great. The tail is long
and black; color yellowish-brown, mottled with gray above and white beneath. Its length is
twenty inches. It is common in Mexico and the neighboring countries.
The WORMWOOD HARE, L. Artemisia, is a small species, even smaller than the gray rabbit, the
ears being very long and conspicuous; the color a reddish-gray above and white below. Its
length is twelve inches: it is found in the vicinity of Fort Walla-Walla, Washington Territory,
and derives its name from frequenting the wormwood shrubberies which abound in that region.
NUTTALL'S HARE, L. Nuttalii, is of a dark brown, mixed with light buff above and yellowish-
gray
beneath, and is but six or seven inches long. It is found in Oregon Territory, inhabiting the
thickets along streams that flow into the Columbia and Shoshonee rivers.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
347
BACHMAN'S HARE, L. Bachmanii, though smaller than the gray rabbit, greatly resembles it,
and has often been deemed as of the same species. It is grayish-brown on the sides, brown
above, and reddish-white beneath. The length is ten inches; it is found in Texas, New Mexico,
and California ; probably also in Mexico.
The CALIFORNIAN HARE, L. Californicus, is long and slender; the ears and tail long; the color
above rufous brown, beneath yellowish-white. The length is twenty-two inches. In general it
may be remarked that this hare, while partaking of the character of its family, is noted for its
fleetness and timidity. It is found in California and the southern part of Oregon.
The Texan HARE, L, Texianus, is of large size, and, on account of its large ears, received
from our troops in the Mexican war the descriptive title of Jackass Rabbit. Its color is reddish-
brown above, and white beneath; the length twenty-one inches. It is swift of foot, and its flesh
excellent. It is found in Texas, New Mexico, and Mexico.
There are several kinds of South American hares, but the only one of which we have definite
accounts is the TAPETI, L. Brasiliensis, noted for its short tail, small ears, and small size. It seems
to partake of the qualities both of the hare and rabbit. It is found in Brazil and the adjacent
countries.
వాళ
woud
awit
RABBIT.
The Rabbit : Cuniculus.—This belongs to the same family as the hare, and is by most nat-
uralists considered as of the same genus. It has, however, many traits which distinguish it from
the hare. Two prominent varieties of rabbits are known to all our readers, although no rabbit
is indigenous to our continent, and it may be remarked that no species of indigenous American
leporida has ever been reduced to domesticity. But the DOMESTIC RABBIT of Europe, L. domes-
ticus, introduced into this country by the early European settlers, is now common among us ;
while the CommoN WILD RABBIT of Europe, L. cuniculus, supposed to be the origin of the
domestic variety, has been so often described as to make us familiar with it.
The differences between this animal and the hare are numerous and striking. In a state of
nature, the rabbit is considerably less than the hare; the ears are shorter than the head; the
tail is not so long as the thigh ; and the whole action and motion of the animal are less vigorous
and fleet than those of the hare. The general color in a state of nature is yellowish-gray; red-
dish on the neck and brown on the tail, with the throat and belly whitish. The ears are gray,
and without any black on the tips. The rabbit is a native of warmer climates than the hare; and
it is altogether an animal of different habits. The hare inhabits only where there is cover, at
least to some extent, while the rabbit is met with in the open and sandy wastes.
The hares
never burrow in the ground, but the rabbits always do; and they live in solitude, while the

348
VERTEBRATA.
rabbits are generally gregarious. The young of the rabbit are produced naked and blind, in
which respects it is unlike the hare.
Rabbits have been known from the earliest periods of history, and the first or earliest accounts
which we have of them represent them as inhabiting the warm and sandy places of southern
climates, especially those near the shores of the sea. We are informed by Pliny that Spain and
Greece were those countries of Europe in which rabbits were first found; and it is related both
by him and Varro that an entire town in Spain was overturned by the incredible number of
rabbits which lodged under its foundations; and Strabo tells us that the people of the Balearic
Islands, apprehensive that their country would be rendered desolate by the vast multiplication
of these creatures, sent deputies to Rome, to implore military aid against this novel description
of enemies. The Spaniards, in subsequent periods, thinned their numbers by means of ferrets,
which they had imported from Africa. It is asserted by Spallanzani, that when the crops were
wasted in Baziluzzo, one of the Lipari Islands, by an extraordinary increase of rabbits, the inhabi-
tants had recourse to large importations of cats, which in a very short period of time entirely
destroyed them.
It is supposed that the species was originally confined to Africa, and was afterward diffused
over the warmer and milder parts of Europe and Asia. It has found in its introduction to
America a climate congenial to its constitution, and, in consequence, has very rapidly mul-
tiplied, especially in the more tropical portions of that continent. It does not thrive in Swe-
den in the open air, but requires the warmth of confinement. When only five or six months
old, rabbits are capable of breeding; their term of gestation is thirty or thirty-one days, and a
vigorous female will produce about eight young rabbits seven times in the course of a year; so
that in the course of four years her progeny, in theory, would amount to one million two hundred
and seventy-four thousand eight hundred and forty individuals. But we cannot average, in the
first instance, the amount of fertility at the maximum ; and, secondly, as we have observed in
the history of the hare, the race is obnoxious to the attacks of men, and of various predaceous
animals.
If the dam does not find a hole suited to her purpose previously to her bringing forth, she
digs one, not in a straight line, but in a zig-zag direction, enlarging the bottom of it every way,
and pulling from her own body a quantity of hair, with which she makes a warm and comfortable
bed for her young. The female during the two first days seldom if ever quits her young, unless
when pressed by hunger, at which time she eats with surprising quickness, and returns imme-
diately. When she ventures abroad, she covers up the hole very carefully, scarcely leaving any
perceptible mark of it, and conceals her charge from the male lest he should devour them. She
continues these attentions for about a month, when the young are able to provide for themselves.
She seeks to avoid all damp places, and prefers a light, sandy, dry soil to any other. .
The ordinary term of a rabbit's existence is from seven to ten years. On a dead level it finds
it difficult to make its burrow, as, in such a situation, the mold must be thrown upward to the
surface; whereas, on the side of an eminence, the declivity affords a ready fall for the earth. As
the rabbits on the island of Sor, near Senegal, do not burrow, we are tempted to suspect that
the digging of holes for themselves in colder climates is an acquired art, prompted by circum-
stances. This conjecture will appear still more probable when we reflect that domestic rabbits
never give themselves the trouble of digging, and that when a warren is attempted to be stocked
with a domestic breed, they and their offspring remain on the surface, and never begin to make
holes for their protection until they have endured many hardships and passed through many
generations.
The wild rabbit we have been describing, called by the French Lapin de Garenne, is found in
southern and central Europe, preferring elevated and rocky places, and being uniformly brown
on the upper parts, with reddish spots behind the ears, and the lower parts whitish. The domestic
kinds, agreeably to a law which applies to many other animals, are of various colors. In the
English preserves these wild rabbits often multiply to a great extent, and sometimes they may be
seen by hundreds sporting among the thickets, which are deemed their appropriate homes. Many
of them often burrow near each other, such a collection being called a warren. Poachers take
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
349
a
numbers of them by spreading nets near the mouths of the burrows and sending in ferrets to
drive the animals out. The nests of the females, as we have stated, are made of fur from her own
body, and dried leaves.
The breeding of tame rabbits, with a view to the supplying of markets, is carried on in various
parts of Europe upon a large scale. In France, the subject is treated as a branch of political
economy, and in this point of view the prolificness of the rabbit has been the theme of special
notice. A noted author, M. Despouys, in a pamphlet recently issued, sought to demonstrate
that an investment of five hundred francs may, by proper management, be made to yield an an-
nual income of twenty thousand francs.* The number of rabbits furnished to the Paris markets
amounts annually to several hundreds of thousands.
Of the domestic rabbit there are several breeds, one of which, the Lopeared Rabbit,—though it
seems really to be a deformity, is so much esteemed that one will often sell in Europe for a hun-
dred dollars; a hundred and fifty dollars has indeed been offered for a favorite specimen. There
has been some dispute as to the origin of the domestic rabbits, but as these soon become wild
when left at liberty, and finally return to the manners and appearance of the wild rabbits, there
is no difficulty in coming to the conclusion that the latter are in fact the progenitors of the do-
mestic breeds.
Besides these varieties of the Common Rabbit, there are several kinds which claim to be dis-
tinct species: such are the Sinai RABBIT, L. Sinaicus, found in Arabia Petrea, near Mount Sinai;
the ALGERINE RABBIT; the BIG-TAILED RABBIT, L. crassicaudatus, of the Cape of Good Hope, and
the L. brachyurus, found in Japan. Gervais also describes a species which is called the Rough
RABBIT, L. hispidus, whose fur is rough to the touch; it is spotted with black on a ground of
brown above, growing paler and passing into white below. Some peculiarities of structure have
led to the arrangement of this species as a sub-genus, under the title Carpolagus.
Genus LAGOMYS: Lagomys.—These animals, of which there are several species, are smaller
than the hares and rabbits, and have some resemblance to the Guinea-pig. They live in burrows,
feed on vegetable substances, lay up provisions for the winter, and have a strong voice resembling
that of the quail. The term lagomys signifies hare-mouse, and is appropriate to the curious little
animals which it designates. They constitute the sub-family of Lagomina, of some authors, having
the muzzle acute, the ears short and somewhat rounded, the soles of the feet hairy, the claws
falcular, and no tail.
The Pika, or Calling Hars, the ALPINE LAGOMYS, or RAT HARE, L. pusillus, is the Ground
Hare of the Russians, and the Barking Mouse of the Tartars; it has the head longer than usual
with hares, and thickly covered with fur, even to the tip of the nose; numerous hairs in the
whiskers; ears not long but rounded; legs very short; soles furred beneath: its whole coat very
soft, long, and smooth, with a thick, long, fine down beneath of a brownish lead-color; the hairs
of the same color, toward the ends of a light gray, and tipt with black; the lower part of the body
2
* M. Bouscaren, of the Society of Agriculture of l'Herault, has treated the subject more rationally and with a
minuteness of detail which enters alike into the moral as well as the physical well-being of the rabbit community.
The following is the result of his calculations :
Twenty-four females may furnish at five births, annually, of six each, to speak within
bounds, 720, which, at one franc and a quarter each, will yield...
... 900 francs.
From this deduct rent and care of the premises...
100
Care of the rabbits, making a suitable allowance for the manure..
... 100
Rent of twenty ares (one are being 120 square yards) of land for raising barley,
vetches, beets, &c...
50
One thousand pounds oil-cake.
50
Grape seeds and other seeds..
50
Miscellaneous expenses...
50 400
Net profits......
.... 500 francs.
The Penny Cyclopedia says: "The fertility of the rabbit may be imagined when it is remembered that it will
begin to breed at the age of six months, and produce several broods in a year, generally from five to seven or eight
at a time.” Pennant says: “Rabbits will breed seven times a year, and bring eight young ones each time. On a sup-
position that this happens regularly during four years, their numbers will amount to one million two hundred and
seventy-four thousand eight hundred and forty." We have intimated, however, that this is merely theoretical.

350
VERTEBRATA.
Skum
THE CALLING HARE.
are,
hoary; on the sides the fur is yellowish ; length about six inches; weight from three and a quar-
ter to four and a half ounces; in winter scarcely two and a half ounces.
The Calling Hares delight in the most sunny valleys and hills, where the herbage is plentiful
and delicate. They choose these localities when in the vicinity of a wood, which will afford them
a ready refuge in case of danger or alarm. Their burrows are usually formed under bushes or
tangled vegetation of some sort or other. During the day they are generally concealed in these
subterranean retreats; but they come abroad during the night, at which time they are understood
to see as well as during the day. In the morning and the evening, and at intervals during the
night, they call to each other with a cry which has been compared to that of the quail, and
which, notwithstanding the small size of the animal, may be heard at the distance of a mile. It
is on this account that the epithet “calling.” has been added to their name. The uttering of this
cry seems to be a matter of considerable exertion to them; for it is attended with a motion of the
neck and head very similar to that of the dog when he barks. When the weather is fine they
are in general silent during the day, but when it lowers, or is tempestuous, they become noisy,
and like
many other animals, a sort of natural indicators of the weather. Both the male and
female utter this cry, though the latter is silent for some time after giving birth to her young.
In the long winters of the country which they inhabit, they form galleries under the snow, by
which they reach those shrubs on the bark of which they feed, without at all appearing on the
surface. In summer they eat grass and succulent leaves; but they are often reduced to great ex-
tremities in the height of summer, when the moisture is dried up and the plants withered from
the ground. In such cases they are sometimes compelled to feed on the droppings of the larger
herbaceous mammalia; and they are equally pinched for water, of which they drink freely when
it is to be had.
These are very cleanly as well as very delicate little creatures, and keep their burrows very
neat. They are prolific, the females producing about six on the average. The time of gestation
has not been ascertained; but, from the analogy of the whole race, it is presumed to be very
short. The young are produced with the eyes closed, and without any fur on their bodies; but
the fur begins to appear about the eighth day, and the growth is very rapid. In their disposi-
tions, these little creatures are the gentlest of all imaginable animals, and though, when in a state
of nature, they are very timid, they are susceptible to kind usage, and when tenderly treated be-
come very tame.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
351
When awake, the sitting position is nearly spherical, and the animal about fills the hollow of
the hand; but in sleeping, the body is more stretched out. Like hares, they are leaping animals,
but the shortness of the hind-legs renders the leap rather slow and awkward; and they are by
no means swift upon the ground.
These curious animals inhabit the southeastern parts of Russia, and are found about all the
ridges spreading from the Ural mountains to the south, along the Irtish, and in the western parts
of the Altai mountains, but nowhere in the East beyond the Obi.
The ALPINE LAGOMYS, or ALPINE PIKA, L. Alpinus, called LADAJAC by the Siberians, is found
in the Altai mountains, and in Kamtschatka and Siberia. Its general color is reddish-yellow, in-
terspersed with much longer hairs of a black color. The part round the mouth is ash-color, and
the under parts of the legs and the ears brown, the latter being rounded in their outlines. The
length is only about nine inches and a half.
This species is very abundant in some parts of Siberia, where it is well known to the hunters.
It is found on the slopes of the steepest mountains, and even on the most inaccessible rocks; but
in all situations they prefer the humid copses, in which, in rocky and mountainous places especi-
ally, they find abundance of herbage during the whole of the summer season. They are, strictly
speaking, ground animals, and live indiscriminately in burrows excavated by themselves, in holes
of the rocks, and in the hollows of decayed trees. They are not gregarious, but are found singly,
or in pairs, or in families, according to the season. About the middle of August they begin to
collect with great diligence and industry their store of provisions for the winter. This consists
of the seeds of plants, of leaves, and of grasses, and they make their magazines in the earth, in
the holes of rocks, or in the hollows of trees. These stores are not collected by each animal
for itself; for, according to the number that may be in any particular locality, they unite in the
labor of collecting the winter store; and it is understood that so true does the collecting
instinct remain while the store lasts, that none of those who bore a part in the labor of col-
lecting are ever excluded from their share of the magazine, neither can strangers invade it, how
severely soever necessity may pinch them. These magazines are often of very considerable
magnitude, considering the small size of the animals. They frequently bear a considerable resem-
blance to a hay-rick, seven or eight feet high, and about the same in diameter; and when they
are of this size, the animals form a subterranean passage from their own dwellings to the store,
by which they can find their way when the whole is buried under the snow. These animals do
not, as we have hinted, commit any depredations upon the stores of each other, but they often
do not come off so well at the hands of the Siberian hunters, who, when provender for their
horses fails, frequently plunder these industrious little creatures.
Pallas examined, with that attention which he was in the habit of paying to all subjects con-
nected with the economy of nature, the stores collected against the season of want by these provi-
dent animals. He found that they displayed wonderful animal sagacity, both in the plants which
they selected and in the time at which they cut them down. There were no thorny plants or
ligneous stems; and the whole appeared to have been cut down at that stage of their growth at
which grasses are understood to make the best hay. If grasses or other plants which are in-
tended for this purpose are cut down too early, they are full of sap, which is not only tasteless,
but it ferments and rots the whole when gathered into a heap. On the other hand, if the
stems of annual plants stand till the grand labor of the year is over by the ripening of the seeds,
the stems which are left are sapless, and afford but little nourishment. The pikas avoid both
these extremes, and cut down their winter store when the juice of the stem has acquired its great-
est maturity and sweetness. These harmless little animals, though exposed to the peril of famine
by having their stores plundered by the hunters, have still other enemies beside the human race.
The weasel tribe, which are very numerous in that part of the world, seek the abodes of the
pikas with much assiduity, and kill them in great numbers; and, as is the case with many of the
warm-blooded animals in those northern countries, they are much infested and tormented with
the larvæ of insects.
The Gray Pika, or OGOTONA, L. Ogotona, is of a pale gray, and is found in Mongol Tartary,
especially in the Desert of Gobi, and in the regions around Lake Baikal. It is an animal of the

352
VERTEBRATA.
seen
desert, or at all events, of stony places and sandy situations. The burrows are dry, shaped after
the fashion of those of rabbits, but always with two entrances, and with these near heaps of
stones; and in the bottom of these burrows they form for themselves comfortable couches of
leaves and other vegetable matters. They are, to a very considerable extent, nocturnal animals,
and not only so, but in their nightly excursions they seek the most lonely places. The mountain
gullies, and the narrow strips of land by the banks of rivers, where they are least likely to meet
with enemies, are their chosen places, and, secure in these, they nibble the fresh bark and buds of
the shrubs. In summer, they live upon the scanty vegetation which the arid wastes produce.
As is the case with the former species, they collect stores against the winter, and the people of
Siberia look upon them as a kind of “weather-wisers," always concluding that the storm is at
hand when those little animals collect their stores with more than ordinary diligence. They do
not collect their stores into one great magazine, as is the case with the former species, but into a
number of heaps of a hemispherical shape, and about a foot in diameter each, which may
be
near their burrows from about the month of September through the winter; but as the spring
approaches they disappear, and by the time that the snow is off the ground they are nearly gone.
They are very quick and active in their motions; but they are so timid that they are not easily
tamed, and in a state of nature they are so small and feeble that they are exposed to many ene-
mies. During the day they are the victims of birds of prey, and in the night, the time when in
general they are most abroad, they are captured by lynxes, martens, and various others of the
weasel tribe.
The NORTHERN Lagomys, L. Hyperboreus, is less than five inches long, and is of a grayish-
brown color; it is found at the northeastern extremity of Asia. The Russet Lagomys, or Red-
DISH SULGAN, L. rufescens, inhabits the rocky hills of Cabul; the Indian SULGAN, L. Roylii, is
found in the Himmalayan Mountains; the RED-SHOULDERED SULGAN, L. Nepalensis, is a native of
Nepaul.
In our country there is a single species of Lagomys, the LITTLE CHIEF HARE, L. princeps.
This inhabits the Rocky Mountains from latitude 52° to 60°. N. It frequents heaps of stones, in
the interstices of which it makes its way with facility. At sunset, it often mounts a stone and
calls its mate by a shrill whistle; when surprised by man, it utters a similar cry. It feeds on
vegetables; its other habits are little known.
apg
mm
Ova
THE COMMON EUROPEAN SQUIRREL.
THE SCIURID Æ.
This family, named from Sciurus, a Squirrel, includes not only the diversified and interesting
tribe of Squirrels, but the Marmots and Spermophiles, animals having affinities with them, but
in some cases, differing from them in certain important characteristics.
Genus PTEROMYS: Pteromys, or Flying-Marmots.—The term Pteromys is derived from the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
353
Greek pteron, wing, and mus, a mouse, and is used to designate certain animals called Taguans,
and known as Flying Squirrels, but which might very properly be called Flying-Marmots. They
are found in Asia and the adjacent isles, the flying-squirrels similar to those common in Amer-
ica, called Assapans, being of a different genus, Sciuropterus, which will be hereafter noticed.
The form of the head in the genus Pteromys is like that of the marmots, but the ears are
smaller, the body is more slender, and the tail is long and plume-like. A thin membrane, cov-
cred with fur, extends from the fore to the hind-legs on each side, this being spread out and serv-
ing as a kind of parachute to support them in leaping from tree to tree, by which means they
perform a kind of flight. They are very lively, running about on the trees with great vivacity,
in this respect resembling the squirrels. Most of them are distinguished by the brilliancy of their
hues. Their size is that of the marmots, and flying-marmots would in fact be their appropriate
title, the term flying-squirrel being more descriptive of the smaller species.
The GREAT FLYING-SQUIRREL, P sagitta, is the Flying-Cat of Nieuhoff; the Felis volans of
Brisson, and the Taguan or Grand Ecureuil Volant of Buffon. It has a small rounded head;
cloven upper lip; small blunt ears; two small warts at the outmost corner of each eye,
with hairs
growing out of them; neck short; four toes on the fore-feet, and instead of a thumb, a slender
bone, two and a half inches long, lodged under the lateral membrane, serving to stretch it out;
thence to the hind-legs extends the membrane, which is broad, and a continuation of the skin of
the sides and belly; the membrane extends along the fore-legs, and stretches out near the joint
in a winged form; five toes on the hind-feet, and on all the toes sharp, compressed, bent claws;
tail covered with long hairs disposed horizontally; color of the head, body, and tail, a bright bay,
in some parts inclining to orange; breast and belly of a yellowish-white; length, from nose to
tail, eighteen inches; tail, fifteen inches. This species inhabits Java and others of the Indian
Islands. It leaps from tree to tree as if it flew; and it is said will catch hold of the boughs with
its tail.
The BRILLIANT PTEROMYS, P. nitidus, is of a deep chestnut color above and bright red below;
the body is fifteen inches long, and the tail seventeen inches. It is found in Java and Borneo.
The P. genilubris, P. elegans, and P. lepidus, resemble the P. sagitta, and are found in Java.
The P. petaurista is found in the Moluccas and Philippines; the P. inornatus in Cashmere. All
these animals appear to repose in holes in the trees during the day, and at night to go forth and
feed on fruits and vegetables. Some of them hibernate, but their habits are not fully known,
,
and there are doubtless several species not yet verified.
Genus SCIUROPTERUS: Sciuropterus.—This includes the AssAPANS, or true Flying-Squir-
rels, which have a form resembling the common squirrels, with a lateral membrane similar to
that of the Pteromys. By means of this they make enormous leaps, sometimes of fifty yards or
more, from tree to tree, usually at first descending, and then rising and alighting, in the manner
of birds about to terminate their flight. They are easily distinguished from the Pteromys by the
naturalist: the eyes are remarkably full; the cranium is formed like that of the squirrels, and not
like that of the marmots; the side membranes terminate near the wrist with a rounded lobe,
while those of the pteromys end in a projecting point; and finally, the molar teeth resemble those
of the squirrels more than those of the pteromys, having the sinuosities of the enamel much more
complicated. Species are found in the temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and America, but not in
the Asiatic isles, the chief seat of the flying-marmots.
The MINENE, or EUROPEAN FLYING-SQUIRREL, S. Sibiricus, called by some naturalists Sciur-
opterus Polatouche, is the Sciurus volans of Linnæus; the Polatucha and Letaga of the Russians;
Polatouche of the French; König der Grauwerke, or King of the Squirrels, of the Germans.
,
The eyes are prominent, the lids being edged with black; the membranes extend to the base of
the fore-feet, forming a large wing-like expansion on each side; tail full and rounded at the ex-
tremity; body above of a fine gray color; beneath, pure white; total length about ten inches, of
which the tail, measured to the end of the hair, is somewhat more than five. It is a native of
Finland, Lapland, the Russian dominions from Livonia to the river Kolyma, or Kowyona, in the
north-east of Siberia. This species haunts the woody, mountainous country, feeding on the buds
and fruit of the birch-trees, and on the cones of the fir tribe. It is a solitary animal, and does
VOL. I.-45
a

354
VERTEBRATA.
FLYING-SQUIRREL.
not affect the company of others of its own kind, nor does it retire in the winter, at which season
it wanders about. Its dwelling is in the hollows of trees, and its nest is generally made of moss
from the birch. It raises the tail when at rest, but when it takes its flying leaps, extends that
inember.
This is the only flying-squirrel known in Europe, but in Northern Asia, and also as far south
as Northern India and Nepaul, there are other species, among which are mentioned the S. noble,
the S. frangé, &c.
In America there are several species, among which is the S. volucella, or COMMON FLYING-
SQUIRREL, familiar to the inhabitants of the United States, and certainly one of the most curious,
soft, gentle, and beautiful of living things. The head is short and rounded, nose blunt, eyes prom-
inent, ears nearly naked; body and head four and a half inches long; tail, with the fur, four and
three-quarters inches; spread of the fore-legs, six inches, and the hind-legs, seven. The fur is
soft and silky, the tail flat and distichous, the color brownish-ash, touched with cream-color above,
and white beneath.
These squirrels are very numerous, but being chiefly nocturnal in their habits, they are not so
frequently seen as some others. They are found in all the Atlantic States, in Canada, Texas, and
Mexico. They inhabit the woods, making their nests in the vacant hollows of trees, and some-
times in crevices in the eaves and roofs of houses; they feed on nuts and seeds, and occasionally,
it is said, on flesh, if it falls in their way. In the north they produce young once a year, at the
south twice, three to six at a time. The period of gestation is about a month. If one of the
young is taken from the nest, the mother on finding it lays it on its back, when it takes her round
the neck with its fore-legs, while she grasps its thigh in her mouth, and thus she proceeds rapidly
to deposit it again in its nest. These animals, though shy and solitary, readily become tamed,
and are exceedingly pleasant little pets.
During the day, these squirrels remain in their nests in repose, the glare of the sun being pain-
ful to their eyes, which stand out like those of the owl. But at evening they issue from their
hiding-places, and display the most wonderful activity. They are social creatures, and large num-
bers usually congregate in the same locality. An unobservant person might pass through their
haunts for years, in the daytime, and not dream of their existence; but if he will pause here at
nightfall, he will be struck with wonder and admiration at the scene they present. They come out,
sometimes by dozens, from the tall trees, and commence flying in all directions. They start from

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
355
an elevated position—usually the very top of a tree-stretch out their legs, thus expanding their
flying-membranes, spread their tails, and launch forth with a spring or jump, usually taking aim
at the trunk of some tree at the distance of forty or fifty yards. They glide swift as an arrow,
gradually descending, until, seeming to be near the earth, they suddenly turn upwards, and alight
on the body of the tree to which their flight was directed. Some of them may be seen flying
back to the same tree from which they started, again and again repeating this operation, and evi-
dently enjoying the performance as a matter of sport. Others having alighted on one tree, ascend
to its top and glide to another; again mounting and starting, and thus proceeding in a direct
line, they will travel a quarter of a mile in an exceedingly short space of time.
Such is the scene occurring every night, during the warm season, in a thousand places in our
American forests. We—animals of the daylight—are apt to fancy that the whole world of ani-
mated nature sympathizes with us, and that all go to their repose as we do, in the hours of dark-
ness, forgetting that to innumerable species the day is the time of darkness and sleep, and night
the season of light and activity and enjoyment. It is in the night that whole tribes of animals,
foxes, weasels, martens, skunks, lynxes, wild-cats, cougars,—to say nothing of owls, goat-suckers,
and the multitudinous race of moths,—wake from their slumber and go joyously forth on their
various adventures, whether of love, feast, or frolic. Whoever would comprehend the whole field
of nature, must not be content to look merely upon the surface, and that by daylight: he must
reflect
upon
what passes beyond the reach of sight, whether in the shadows of night, or in the
recesses of the earth; in the soil and the sod; in caves and rocks, and in the sea.
The Oregon FLYING-SQUIRREL, Pteromys Oregonensis, is somewhat larger than the preceding,
the length of the body being nearly seven inches. Its general color is brown above and white
beneath. Its habits are little known; but they are, doubtless, very similar to those of the pre-
ceding species. It is found on the Rocky Mountains, in the region of the Columbia River, as well
as west and north of that locality.
The SEVERN RIVER FLYING-SQUIRREL, Pteromys Sabrinus, is one-third larger than the P.
volucella, the body being eight inches in length; its color above is a dull, yellowish gray, with
irregular patches of a darker shade, and white, with a tinge of buff, beneath. On the whole, it
bears a considerable resemblance to the European flying-squirrel. It is common at Quebec and
the vicinity, and along the shores of Lake Huron. A curious instance is recorded in which a
brood of young squirrels of this species were kept in confinement for some months. The mother
suckled her young ones by clinging with her fore-feet to the perch of the cage, letting her body
hang down, while the little ones stood on their hind-legs and took their meal from her breast.
This brood was procured by some laborers, who, in clearing a wood by setting it on fire, saw the
mother carry them, one by one, from the burning trees, to a place of safety. When they took
her, she was found to be singed. This good and devoted mother had three of her young ones
killed by the rats, which got into the cage at night; and she herself had one of her thighs
broken, and a part of her flesh eaten from her body to the bone; yet she was found in the morn-
ing clinging to her little ones and trying to nurse them!
The Rocky MOUNTAIN FLYING-SQUIRREL, Pteromys Alpinus, is still larger than the preceding,
the body being eight and a half inches long; the general color is yellowish-brown, on the back;
on the throat and belly, a grayish-white. It is found in the thick pine woods of the Rocky
Mountains, about latitude 42°. It is very shy, and seldom ventures from its retreat, except at
night. It seems to be of a heavier mould than the other species, and its flying membrane is also
of comparatively less size; whence, it is inferred, that its power of supporting itself, in gliding
through the air, is inferior to that of some other kinds.

356
VERTEBRATA.
سر
VIGO
SUSEMIHL.D
miss
MARMOTS.
a
Genus MARMOT: Arctomys.—Marmot is the popular name of the best-known European
species of this genus, and Arctomys means bear-rat, a rat having a body resembling the bear, which
is an excellent description of these animals. Like the rest of the order, they are without canine
teeth, and in the sharpness of the incisors of the lower jaw, they bear some resemblance to the
great family of rats and mice, though, in other respects, they bear a stronger resemblance to the
squirrels; their external forms, and also their manners, are, however, peculiar. They have five
grinders on each side in the upper jaw, and four in the under, the summits of which have sharp
tubercles, so that they seem capable of subsisting on insects, and even on the flesh of larger ani-
mals, as well as on vegetables. Their bodies are thick and clumsy, their legs short and thick, their
head flat, their ears short and blunted, and their tail short and apparently incapable of motion.
At all seasons they are ground animals, and spend the whole of their time, except what is taken
up in feeding, in their burrows, which they dig with great ease and rapidity, and to a considerable
depth, always sloping downward, so that the dwelling may be beyond the reach of the intense
cold of the winter, and yet so contrived as to be in no danger of filling with water during the
“rains or the melting of the snow.
Some of them are animals of considerable size, not less than the cat, but differently formed.
Though easily taken, as their progressive motion is slow, and it is not very difficult to dig them
out of their burrows, they are of little value to mankind as game. In autumn, when they are fat,
they are sometimes eaten, but they are not very palatable to those who have a choice of food.
The EUROPEAN or ALPINE MARMOT, A. marmotta—the Mus marmotta of Linnæus—inhabits,
as its name implies, the Alps, and some of the other lofty mountains of Europe; but it is not
found even in the most mountainous parts of the British Islands. It is about sixteen inches long
from the nose to the root of the tail; its color is subject to some variation ; but the prevailing
hue on the upper part is dark gray, with the tip of the tail black. The feet are whitish, the
part surrounding the muzzle whitish-gray, and the under part of the body bright brownish-red.
Its large head, its squat, clumsy body, and its short thick legs, give it what one would be apt to
consider an expression of stupidity; but in the case of no animal is the external appearance more
at variance with the facts.
In a state of nature it conducts the making of its burrow with greater neatness, and keeps it in
better order than most of the burrowing rodentia, and its domestic economy is scarcely inferior to
that of the beaver itself. In fact, though the hut of the beaver is a structure reared, and the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
357
e na REOMAN-KENNY.ENGRS.N.Y:
CATCHING A MARMOT IN SWITZERLAND.
burrow of the marmot is excavated, there is an ingenuity in the one burrow which is not found
in the other. It always consists of two galleries, the one of which contains the dwelling and the
entrance to the dwelling; and the other, which meets this, but has a greater inclination and
opens further down the slope, and at a lateral distance, is a sewer or drain, by means of which
the inhabited portion is always kept dry and comfortable. The nest consists of a great quantity
of dried grass and moss, and is made sufficiently large for holding a considerable number of the
animals, which keep one another warm during the inclement season, which is often very severe
in the elevated places which these creatures inhabit.
All the society which inhabit the same burrow work in concert, both in preparing it and stock-
ing it with those provisions which are necessary before they pass into a dormant state for the
winter, and after they awake in the spring, and before the fields are fit for their support. It is
very generally said, that in carrying home their stores, one of the society allows the others, and
even invites them, to use his body as a sort of sledge. He turns on his back, and is loaded with
as much of the dry grass, or moss, or other necessary of a marmot's life, as he can hold together
with his
paws. When he is thus loaded, his comrades seize him by the tail and pull him along
with his load, he contriving to keep steadily on his back all the time. As those which act as
horses to this singular sledge get tired, they are relieved by others; and if "Sledge” himself gets
exhausted, another is loaded, and so on, until the load is safely conveyed to the burrow.
The food of these creatures consists of roots, and vegetables, and occasionally of insects. From
five to a dozen lodge in one chamber. They retire for hibernation early in October, stopping up
the mouths of their burrows with earth. Here they lie, in a dosing, but not utterly unconscious

358
VERTEBRATA.
BU
.
ang
muy
있
​THE EUROPEAN MARMOT.
state, until the warm sun of April calls them to activity. They are playful in disposition, but
when angry, or before a coming storm, they utter a shrill, piercing whistle.
The marmot of the Alps is easily tamed; and, in a domestic state, it is a very docile, gentle,
and intelligent creature, and may be taught many little tricks, all of which are amusing, and none
of them offensive. It is a common pet, and especially with the young Savoyards, who often travel
to different parts of Europe, picking up a comfortable living by showing off the humors of one of
these creatures and singing their native songs. On all the great thoroughfares of the cities of
continental Europe-Paris, Vienna, Berlin—these Swiss showmen may be seen, and appear to be
always welcome to the populace. Some of them acquire money enough to return to their moun-
tain homes and live in rustic comfort for the rest of their days.
This species are not so productive as some of the other rodentia, there being only one litter in
the
year, each litter consisting, in general, of three or four; but the animals are subject to fewer
casualties than one would suppose, in the cold places which they inhabit, and where the keen
eyes of eagles and vultures and other powerful birds of prey may be supposed to be frequently
upon them. They are very vigilant; and it is understood that when they are engaged in their
labors, they always have a sentinel posted on some rock or other eminence, who keeps careful
watch, gives notice of danger before it is near, and has himself some little place into which he can
retire and remain till the danger is over.
The Polish MARMOT, or BOBAC, A. bobac, is nearly of the same size with the former, but is
different in color. The general hue is yellowish-gray, mottled with brownish-black, with the
under part of the body yellowish-russet, and the throat and tail reddish. A portion round the eyes
is brown; and that round the muzzle is silver-gray. It is to be remarked, however, that there
is a variety which is nearly black. Many of the skins come to the European markets from Odessa.
a
The native localities of this species are further to the north than those of the marmot of the
Alps; for it is found from Poland to Kamtschatka, and thence to the south as far as Thibet. It
does not inhabit such elevated places, however, as the Alpine marmot; and, therefore, though it
is found in higher latitudes, it does not follow that it is in a colder climate. It is also careful in
selecting the exposure of the situation in which it forms its burrow, and also in the kind of soil
in which it is made. It always builds or burrows in a bank sloping to the south, and in dry soil.
The burrow is deep, and lodges a colony of from twenty to fifty individuals. The quantity of
dried grass introduced into these social burrows is very great; and they are said to be very
indus-
trious in their labors.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
359
XORR
WOODCHUCKS.
The LONG-TAILED MARMOT, A. caudatus, says Gervais, is found in Asia, in the valley of the
Gombour; Jacquemont met with it seventeen thousand feet above the level of the sea. It makes
its burrows, which usually open among the rocks, in countries well stocked with vegetable pro-
ducts. Here it accumulates great quantities of dried herbage, which serves it for food during its
winter confinement, the first and latter part of which it is not probably dormant. When it comes
forth, in the spring, it is observed to be
very
lean.
The MARYLAND MARMOT, or Woodchuck, has had the usual honor bestowed on the noto-
rious—that of receiving various popular names, to which may be added, in this case, an
equal variety of scientific names. In Canada, it is called Ground Hog, Siffleur, and sometimes
Marmot ; in Hudson's Bay, Thick-wood Badger, Tarbagan, by the Russians of Russian America;
Weenusk, by the Crees, and Kath-hillo-kooay, by the Chippeways. Linnæus called it Mus
Monax ; Buffon, Marmotte de Canada ; Pennant, Quebec Marmot; Pallas, Mus Empetra ;
Goodman, Richardson, and others, Arctomys Empetra, which is its present accepted scientific
designation. Woodchuck is the popular title throughout the United States.
Despite this multiplicity of titles, this animal is not particularly interesting in its character. It
resembles the Alpine Marmot, though it is somewhat larger. It is, however, destitute of the
amusing qualities of that species; it is not easily tamed, and, under all circumstances, is a rather
surly creature. The body is thick and squat, and the legs so short that the belly seems to graze
the ground. The size varies from sixteen to twenty inches, eighteen being the average; the tail
is four inches. The color also differs in different specimens; the body being generally brownish-
gray above, and reddish-brown below. The head, tail, and feet are blackish-brown; the nose and
checks ashy-brown. They are fond of sitting erect on their haunches, letting their fore-feet hang
loosely down. They maintain an erect position in feeding, bending the head and neck forward
and sideways. They remain the greater part of the day asleep in their burrows, occasionally,
however, coming out and looking around. In the evening, they go forth and feed on grass of
different kinds, fruits, and vegetables. In New England, they are common among the cultivated
grounds, and do much damage in the clover-fields, not only eating the grass, but treading it down;
they often make great havoc among the pumpkins and the Indian corn when it is in the milk.
From three to eight young are produced at a time; they advance rapidly, and in three weeks
may be seen playing around the burrows.
The woodchuck is not often found very far from his burrow in the daytime. When thus sur-
prised, he runs very fast, and if not seriously frightened, stops, and perhaps squats on the ground;

360
VERTEBRAT A.
looking slyly around to see if he is noticed. In case of extremity, he takes refuge in a stone
wall, or the crevice of a rock, and on being closely approached, he utters a kind of gurgling sound,
mingled with chattering; at other times he has a shrill, whistle-like note, whence the French-
Canadian name of Sifleur, whistler. In defending himself, he bites severely, and makes desper-
ate battle with a dog, often with such success as to escape. His walk is plantigrade, but he occa-
sionally climbs trees and bushes to the height of a few feet, and sometimes takes a nap in the
sun, while reclining on one of the branches. He cleans and combs his face, sitting on his hind-
legs, in the manner of a squirrel, and licks down and smoothes his fur in the manner of a cat.
His hide is loose and tough, and was formerly much in vogue for whip-lashes; it is still occasion-
ally used for that purpose. The fur is of no value. The flesh is flabby, and, though of a rank
flavor, when cooked like roast-pig it can be eaten, if one has a vigorous appetite. In summer it
is very fat.
This species becomes torpid about the latter part of October; they are solitary in their habits,
and do not congregate in societies, like the other marmots, beyond the members of one family.
It is believed that they eat nothing during the period of their hibernation. Their burrows are
usually on the slope of a hill, frequently near the root of a tree, sometimes beneath rocks, and
often in stone walls. They extend from twenty to thirty feet from the openings, descending
obliquely at first, four or five feet, and then gradually rising to a large, round chamber, which is
used as a sleeping-place for the family; here, also, the female produces and rears her
farmers of New England take them sometimes by pouring water in and drowning them out; fre-
quently they are shot with rifles; more frequently still they are caught in steel-traps, set at the
mouths of their burrows, these being sprinkled over with sand or light grass. One farmer in
Litchfield county, Connecticut, told me that he caught sixty-four on his own grounds in a single
a
young. The
season.
a
a
We have read an interesting account of a woodchuck that was kept in confinement for two
years. At first, it was wild and ill-natured, keeping itself concealed during the day, but making
attempts to escape at night. At last, it became reconciled to its situation, and lived in the kitchen
on good terms with the cook, the cat, and the dog. It now occupied a box with a straw bed.
When winter approached, though the box was in a warm corner of the kitchen, the animal ar-
ranged its bed carefully, rolled itself into a ball with its nose buried in its abdomen, and
became completely torpid. Thus it remained for six weeks.
Thus it remained for six weeks. It was then taken out and rolled
upon the carpet, not showing the least sign of animation. It was laid by the fire, and in about
half an hour it slowly raised its head, looked round, and attempted to find its house. It was re-
stored to its bed, where it remained in its strange repose till spring.
What a wonderful provision of nature is this for those quadrupeds that inhabit a cold region,
and which, living on green vegetables and juicy fruits, would perish, where the earth is bound
in ice and snow for half the year, if compelled to obtain their daily meal! How wise, how all-
knowing is the Author of Nature, who can conceive the design of sustaining animal life without
food for half a year; how wonderful His skill who can so adapt means to ends as to accomplish
this miracle, and make it a familiar example in a great variety of species !
The woodchuck is extensively distributed, being found in the Canadas, and thence south to the
Carolinas, and west as far as the Rocky Mountains. In some places it is scarce, in others, it is
very abundant.
The HoARY MARMOT, A. pruinosus, is also sometimes called Ground-Hog and Whistler, the latter,
indeed, seeming to be its proper descriptive title. The Crees name it Quisquis-qui-po, and the
Chippeways Deh-ie. It somewhat resembles both the Alpine and Maryland marmots; its length
is eighteen to twenty inches; its hair, long and dense, is hoary on the breast and shoulders, the
hinder parts being a dull reddish-brown; the tail, which is bushy, is blackish-brown. It inhabits
the Rocky Mountains, from latitude 45° to 62°, and probably farther north and south, as well as
east and west. It is not found in the lower country. It burrows in sandy soil, generally in the
sides of grassy hills, and may be frequently seen cutting hay in the winter, but whether for food
or fer lining its burrows is not known. While a company of them are thus occupied, they have
a sentinel on the look-out upon an eminence, who gives the alarm in case of the approach of

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
361
a
danger, by a shrill whistle, which may be heard at a great distance. This signal of alarm is re-
peated from one to another as far as their habitations extend. They feed on roots and herbs; the
female has two or three young at a time, and sits on her hind-legs to nurse her progeny. They
remain in their burrows in winter.
The Indians catch these animals by setting traps at their burrows, and esteem their flesh as
good eating By sewing a number of their skins together, they make good blankets. A speci-
men of this kind of marmot was lately in the Zoological Gardens of London.
LEWIS'S MARMOT, A. Lewisi.—This animal is of the size of the gray rabbit; the color is red-
dish-brown, the feet being barred with white; the tip of the tail is white. The length of the body
is sixteen inches; the tail, with the hair, five inches. The habits of this species are little known;
they, however, burrow in the earth, subsist on grain and grass, and sometimes ascend the trunks
of trees for a short distance. They are found in Oregon.
Genus SPERMOPHILE: Spermophilus.—This term is derived from the Greek sperma, seed,
and phileo, to love, and therefore means that these are seed-lovers, or feeders upon grain. They
OND
THE SOUSLIK.
resemble the squirrels somewhat, but more the marmots, being, like them, burrowing animals,
and at the same time distinguished from them by having cheek-pouches. Hence they may be
called Cheek-pouched Marmots. There are several species in Europe, Asia, and North America.
The SOUSLIK, S. citillus, is about eight inches long, and the tail one-third as long; its color
is grayish-brown, marked with white rounded spots above; the color beneath is white. It lives
solitary in burrows in the earth; feeds on grain and seeds, and frequently causes great destruc-
tion to the crops. It is found in Bohemia, Hungary, and Ireland, and in some places in such
abundance as to be a great pest to the farmers. It is said to be very fond of salt, and the term
Souslik, meaning dainty-mouth, is given it in consequence. Many of them are caught on board
the salt-vessels which navigate the Volga; the greediness of their appetite rendering them almost
insensible to danger.
Four species of Spermophile are known in Europe, and are found in Western Asia: the S.
musicus, S. musogaricus, S. fulvus, and S. undulatus. The S.concolor is a species found in Persia,
which ravages the granaries and corn-fields to obtain the means of storing its burrows, on which
account the inhabitants make active war against it, yet without sensibly diminishing its numbers,
VOL. I. 46

362
VERTEBRATA.
More than a dozen species of this genus are found in North America. One of the most inter-
esting is PARRY'S MARMOT-SQUIRREL, S. Parryi. This is the Seek-seek of the Esquimaux, and
the Tho-thiay, or Rock-Badger, of the Chippeways. The ears are very short; body thickly
spotted above with white on a gray or black ground; pale rust-colored beneath; face chestnut-
colored; the tail one-third longer than the hind-feet, stretched out flat, black at the extremity,
with a narrow white margin, rust-colored beneath; length of head and body, eight inches six
lines; of the vertebræ of the tail, one inch six lines.
Richardson tells us that this Spermophile inhabits the Barren Grounds skirting the sea-coast
from Fort Churchill in Hudson's Bay round by Melville Peninsula, and the whole northern ex-
tremity of the continent to Behring's Straits, where specimens precisely similar were procured by
Captain Beechey. It is abundant in the neighborhood of Fort Enterprise, near the southern
verge of the Barren Grounds, in 65° north latitude, and is also plentiful on Capo Parry, one of
the most northern parts of the continent. It is found generally in stony districts, but seems to
delight chiefly in sandy hillocks among rocks, where burrows, inhabited by different individuals,
may be often observed crowded together.
One of the society is generally observed sitting erect on the summit of a hillock, while the
others are feeding in the neighborhood. Upon the approach of danger he gives the alarm, and
they instantly hurry to their holes, remaining, however, chattering at the entrance until the ad-
vance of the enemy obliges them to retire to the bottom. When their retreat is cut off they be-
come much terrified, and, seeking shelter in the first crevice, they not unfrequently succeed only
in hiding the head and fore part of the body, while the projecting tail is, as is usual with them
under the influence of terror, spread out flat on the rock. Their cry in this season of distress
strongly resembles the loud alarm of the Hudson's Bay squirrel, and is not very unlike the sound
of a watchman's rattle. The Esquimaux name of Seek-scek is an attempt to express this sound.
Hearne states that they are easily tamed, and very cleanly and playful when domesticated. They
never come abroad during the winter.
3.W.CRR
PRAIRIE MARMOTS AND BURROWING OWIS.
The PRAIRIE Dog, S. Ludovicianus, is sometimes called the Wish-ton-wish, and sometimes the
Prairie Marmot, or Prairie Marmot-Squirrel. Its appearance is m
Its appearance is much like that of the marmots,
being short, thick, and clumsy; but its cheek-pouches, though only three-fourths of an inch deep,
place it with the spermophiles. Its body is about thirteen inches in length; on its back the
color is reddish-brown, mixed with gray and black; beneath it is a dirty white. In several re-

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
363
a
a
spects its natural history is alike curious and interesting. It lives in burrows on the prairies of
the Missouri and Platte rivers, and also farther south in Texas, New Mexico, and on the borders
of Sonora and California. Often several hundreds of families are collected together in villages,
called “Dog-towns” by the trappers and hunters. Before each hole there is a small mound, on
which the marmots may be often seen sitting on their hind-legs, or stretched up and looking
about. They are noisy creatures, uttering a sharp "chip, chip, chip,” called barking. At each cry
they jerk the tail, as if it cost them an effort to speak so loud. The holes go down at an angle
of forty degrees for some distance, and then diverge sideways and upward. At the end of their
burrows there is a bed of dry grass. They are very watchful, and if a person approaches they
dive into their holes. If one will wait for fifteen minutes they will peep out, sometimes uttering
a whistling note. They appear to feed more by night than by day. In the colder regions in-
habited this animal, it is believed that it hibernates, but not in the warmer. The flesh is said
to be sweet, tender, and juicy.
One of the most remarkable circumstances in respect to the prairie-dog is, that their burrows
are the resort of burrowing owls and rattlesnakes, these creatures sometimes apparently living in
the holes with the marmots; and yet there is good evidence that they sometimes devour them.
Lewis and Clark dug out a rattlesnake from a burrow which had a marmot in his stomach. There
is reason to believe, also, that the owls feed on the young marmots, and sometimes even on the
full-grown ones. It is supposed, furthermore, that they enter the burrows and eat the remains of
such marmots as die there, and thus they serve as scavengers of the village. Nevertheless, the
owls and marmots seem to live on the best terms with each other, and the rattlesnakes are at
least tolerated, probably as hangers-on whom it is difficult to get rid of.
The following sketches, from Kendall's narrative of the Texan Expedition to Santa Fe, are
written with equal truth and humor, and give an excellent account of one of the large marmot
villages: “We had proceeded but a short distance, after reaching this beautiful prairie, before we
came upon the outskirts of the commonwealth. A few scattering dogs were seen scampering in,
their short, sharp vells giving a general alarm to the whole community. The first brief cry of
danger from the outskirts was soon taken up in the center of the city, and now nothing was to
be heard or seen in any direction but a barking, dashing, and scampering of the mercurial and
excitable denizens of the place, each to his burrow.
“Far as the eye could reach the city extended, and all over it the scene was the same. We
rode leisurely along until we had reached the more thickly settled portions of the place. Here
we halted, and after taking the bridles from our horses, to allow them to graze, we prepared for
a regular attack upon the inhabitants. The burrows were not more than ten or fifteen yards
apart, with well trodden paths leading in different directions, and I even fancied I could discover
something like regularity in the laying out of the streets.
“We sat down upon a bank, under the shade of a musquit, and leisurely surveyed the scene be-
fore us. Our approach had driven every one to his home in our immediate vicinity, but at the
distance of some hundred yards, the small mound of earth in front of each burrow was occupied
by a dog, sitting erect on his hinder legs, and coolly looking about for the cause of the recent
commotion. Every now and then, some citizen more adventurous than his neighbor would leave
his lodgings, on a flying visit to a friend, apparently exchange a few words, and then scamper
back as fast as his legs would carry him.
“By and by, as we kept perfectly still, some of our near neighbors were seen cautiously poking
their heads from out their holes, looking craftily, and at the same time inquisitively, about them.
Gradually a citizen would emerge from the entrance of his domicile, come out upon his observa-
tory, peek his head cunningly, and then commence yelping, somewhat after the manner of a
young puppy, a quick jerk of the tail accompanying each yelp. It is this short bark alone that
has given them the name of dogs, as they bear no more resemblance to that animal, either in ap-
pearance, action, or manner of living, than they do to the hyena.
“We were armed, one with a double-barreled shot-gun, and another with one of Colt's repeat-
ing-rifles, of small bore, while I had my short, heavy rifle, throwing a large ball, and acknowledged
by all to be the best weapon in the command. It would drive a ball completely through a buf-

364
VERTEBRATA.
a
falo at the distance of one hundred and fifty yards, and there was no jumping off, or running
away by a deer, when struck in the right place; to use a common expression, he would never
know what had hurt him. Hit one of the dogs where he would, with a small ball, he would
almost invariably turn a peculiar somerset, and get into a hole; but by a ball from my rifle the
entire head of the animal would be knocked off, and after this there was no escape. With the
shot-gun, again, we could do nothing but waste ammunition. I fired at one dog, not ten steps
off, having in it a good charge of buckshot, and thought I must cut him into fragments. I
wounded him severely, but with perhaps three or four shot through him, he was still able to
wiggle and tumble into his hole.
“For three hours we remained in this commonwealth, watching the movements of the inhabit-
ants, and occasionally picking off one of the more unwary. No less than nine were got by the
party, and one circumstanee I would mention as singular in the extreme, and showing the social
relationship that exists among those animals, as well as the kind regard they have for one an-
other. One of them had perched himself upon the pile of earth in front of his hole, sitting up, and
exposing a fair mark, while a companion's head was seen poking out of the entrance, too timid,
perhaps, to trust himself farther; a well-directed ball from my rifle carried away the entire top of
the former's head, knocking him some two or three feet from his post, perfectly dead. While re-
loading, the other boldly came out, seized his companion by one of the legs, and before we could
reach the hole, had drawn him completely out of sight. There was a touch of feeling in the lit-
tle incident, a something human, which raised the animal in my estimation, and ever after I did
not attempt to kill one of them, except when driven by extreme hunger.
“Prairie-dogs are a wild, frolicsome, mad-cap set of fellows when undisturbed, uneasy, and ever
on the move, and appear to take especial delight in chattering away the time, and visiting from
,
hole to hole to gossip and talk over each others' affairs; at least, so their actions would indicate.
When they find a good location for a village, and there is no water in the immediate vicinity, old
hunters say they dig a well to supply the wants of the community. On several occasions, I crept
close to their villages, without being observed, to watch their movements. Directly in the center
of one of them, I particularly noticed a very large dog sitting in front of the door or entrance to
his burrow, and by his own actions and those of his neighbors, it really seemed as if he were the
president, mayor, or chief; at all events, he was the big dog' of the place.
“For at least an hour I secretly watched the operations in this community. During that time,
the large dog I have mentioned received at least a dozen visits from his fellow-dogs, which would
stop and chat with him a few moments, and then run off to their domicils. All this while, he
never left his post for a moment, and I thought I could perceive a gravity in his deportment not
discernible in those by whom he was surrounded. Far is it from me to say that the visits he re-
ceived were upon business, or had any thing to do with the local government of the village, but it
certainly appeared so. If any animal has a system of laws regulating the body politic it is cer-
tainly the prairie-dog."
Mr. Kendall further tells us that this animal enters his burrow with a half-somerset, knocking
his hind-feet together as he pitches headlong into the blackness below. Before the spectator has
recovered from the laugh which this drollery excites, he will see the dog stealthily thrust his
head out with a gaze of curiosity and impertinence.
The LEOPARD SPERMOPHILE is one of the most beautiful of all the striped species of spermo-
phile. It resembles the chipping-squirrel in size and appearance, but exceeds that pretty creature
in the splendor of its skin. The general color is bright reddish-brown, but along the back are five
deep brown stripes, each having a row of square white spots running through it. These dark-
colored stripes are separated from each other by straight lines of yellowish-white. There are,
also, on each side, two less distinct brown stripes, not spotted. Thus the skin of this animal pre-
sents nine dark stripes—five of them spotted—and eight yellowish-white stripes.
It is not strange that a creature thus distinguished should have attracted great attention.
Schoolcraft calls it the Leopard Ground-Squirrel, which is a good descriptive title; Godman
calls it Hood Marmot ; Harlan denominates it Arctomys tredecim-lineatus, or Thirteen-lined
Marmot; Gervais, Spermophile à treize lignes. The body is six inches long; the tail, with the
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365
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hair, four and a half. It is found in the prairies cast of the Rocky Mountains, from lat. 55° south
to Mexico, and often takes up its residence near the grounds of the settlers. It is lively as it is
beautiful, making deep, winding, bifurcated burrows in the earth, at the mouth of which it may
be often seen. If any one approaches it darts into its hole, and continues to utter a chirping
sound of anger and warning. Like the other spermophiles it uses its cheek-pouches to carry off
nuts and other things to its nest. The females produce from five to ten young at a birth, about
the first of June.
wia
PEREVAL.
THE LEOPARD SPERMOPHILE.
The ANNULATED SQUIRREL MARMOT, S. annulatus, is of a reddish-brown, speckled below with
black. The length of the body is eight inches; the tail, including the hair, nine inches. This is
annulated with seventeen to twenty bands of black. In its structure and character it seems a sort
of connecting link between the squirrels and marmots : it has the lightness of form of the first and
burrows like the last. It has cheek-pouches, which gives it a place among the spermophiles,
This species are found on the western prairies.
FRANKLIN'S MARMOT SQUIRREL, S. Franklinii, is yellowish-brown, thickly speckled with black
above; below it is greyish-white. The length is nine and three-quarter inches; the tail, with the
hair, five and three-quarters. It inhabits the plains in the western British territories and Oregon,
and burrows among thickets in the sandy soil. Like most of the spermophiles, it has a harsh,
whistling note, expressive of alarm or anger.
SAY's MARMOT SQUIRREL, S. lateralis, is the Arctomys lateralis of Richardson, and the Small
Gray Squirrel of Lewis and Clark. It is a true spermophile, though resembling the Tamirs, of
which the Chipping-Squirrel is a familiar example. Above, it is brownish-ash; the sides and belly
are yellowish-white. On each side of the body is a light longitudinal stripe, banded on both
sides by a dark stripe, giving it the appearance of having four black stripes running along the
back. The general effect is very beautiful. The length of the body is eight inches, and the tail,
with the hair, three inches and a half. It is found in the Rocky Mountains, about latitude 57º.
PEALE'S SPERMOPHILE, S. Pealei, is a species which appears to have been discovered by Pike's
Exploring Expedition, but neither its habits nor locality are known. It is somewhat larger than
the chipping-squirrel, and has four brown and five white stripes. Its length is six and a half inches.
The MEXICAN MARMOT SQUIRREL, S. Mexicanus, the S. spilosoma of Bennett, is reddish-brown,
spotted with white above; the under parts are a pale buff-white; the length ten inches. This is
a beautiful and interesting species, lively as a squirrel in its disposition and movements, with a
very bright and sagacious expression of countenance. When domesticated, it becomes gentle and
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366
VERTEBRATA.
a
affectionate, preserving all its native love of gaiety and frolic. It feeds standing on its hind-legs,
like a squirrel, using its paws as hands. It will eat grasses, grain, fruits, and cooked food generally.
It has a sort of human nature about it, for, when threatened, it chatters, grits its teeth, and be-
comes furious; but, if fed and caressed, it is speedily restored to its good-natured and pleasant
ways. It makes a nest of tow, or other soft materials, and is fond of burying itself in it, even in
warm weather. It sleeps luxuriously, sometimes on one side, and sometimes on its back, occasion-
ally yawning and stretching like a lazy boy.
This species is common in Mexico, where it is called Urion—a term, however, applied to some
other burrowing animals. It is also met with in Texas and California. It inhabits wooded dis-
tricts, but is a frequent pet on the plantations. The Mexican women fondle it, and permit it to
run over their shoulders and nestle in their bosoms.
The LONG-TAILED SPERMOPHILE, S. macrourus, is thirteen inches long, and the tail, with the
hair, ten inches. The fur is coarse, and mottled with black and grayish-white along the back and
sides; the feet and under parts are light gray, with dusky freckles. The tail is moderately bushy.
It is a very lively species, climbs trees with facility when it has need, and feeds on grain, grasses,
nuts, and roots. It is found in Northern Mexico, and in some parts is abundant. There appears
to be a standing grudge between the woodpeckers and this spermophile, the former often combining
to the number of half-a-dozen in an attack upon him. They dart at him, and snap their long
.
sharp bills around his head, and, doubtless, often give him a pungent tweak. The cause of this
hereditary quarrel may be, that the spermophile often takes possession of the hole which the
woodpecker has chiseled out of a dry trunk or limb of a tree, unscrupulously appropriating the
premises, and all the hereditaments, to his own use and behoof.
HARRIS'S MARMOT SQUIRREL, S. Harrisii, is of the size of the chipping-squirrel. It has a
narrow white stripe running along on each side of the back, the ground being yellowish-gray;
the under surface is ashy-white. The length of the body is a trifle less than six inches; the
tail, with the hair, four and a half inches. Its habits are little known. It is found on the west-
ern slope of the Rocky Mountains, within the verge of Oregon.
TOWNSEND'S SPERMOPHILE, or the AMERICAN SOUSLIK, S. Townsendii, is of the size of the
common red squirrel. The upper surface is brownish-gray, sprinkled with white; beneath it is
yellowish-gray; length, eight to nine inches; tail, with the hair, one inch and a half. It greatly
resembles the souslik of Europe and Asia, the spots on the skin, however, being finer and more
numerous and irregular. It is found in Oregon, and, in summer, is numerous along the banks of
the Walla-Walla; it gets very fat, and is devoured by the Indians. It appears to retreat to its
holes early in the autumn, where it lives in families. After its hibernation, it comes forth in the
spring greatly emaciated.
DOUGLASS' SPERMOPHILE, S. Douglassii, has a short head and long ears, the body being pale
brown, with faint transverse bands of brown and white. It has in general a squirrel-like appear-
ance, but its coarser fur and cheek-pouches mark it as a true spermophile. The length of the
body is about fourteen inches; the tail, with the hair, nine inches. It is found on the banks of
the Columbia River.
BEECHEY'S SPERMOPHILE, S. Beecheyi, resembles the preceding, and is found in California.
The Tawny AMERICAN MARMOT, or RICHARDSon's SPERMOPHILE, S. Richardsonii, is yellowish-
gray on the back; beneath, pale grayish-orange. The ears are very short; the body short and
thick, being only nine inches and a quarter long; the eyes are large, the legs short, the tail
bushy. It resembles the squirrels, but is less active in its movements and less elegant in its atti-
tudes. It inhabits the sandy prairies along the branches of the Saskatchewan river, and the
Rocky Mountains from latitude 45° to 38°. The burrows are usually situated on some sandy hum-
mock; the earth scooped out is formed into a little mound, on which the animal sits, so that he
may overlook the surrounding group and reconnoiter before he ventures to make an excursion.
Four or five live in a burrow; they appear to hibernate. They feed on young buds in spring, and
tender herbaceous plants in summer, and in winter on leguminous plants and the seeds of grasses.
This little remote, harmless creature, like most of its kind—indeed, like almost every other
wild animal under the sun-nay, like man himself-seems to live in the midst of fear and danger.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
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It is the prey of the badgers, which pursue it even to the depth of its burrows; of falcons, which
pounce down upon it from the air, and the arrows of the Indians, which reach it from a distance.
The first lessons of life, everywhere, are comprised in the proverb look c'er you leap, and how well
animals-beasts, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects—learn and practice them is evinced in their sharp,
watchful, fearful looks on every occasion, and especially in the sly, circumspect manner in which
they go forth, and the trembling alacrity with which they retreat to their hiding-places on the
slightest intimation of danger. A few only of the stronger and more audacious species seem insensi-
ble to fear; all the rest live surrounded with dangers, and obtain subsistence only in the midst
of perpetual apprehension. The tame animals are, for the most part, free from these mental har-
assments, but they pay the price in being sacrificed to man as his pleasure or his whims may
dictate. Man's difficulties are different in form and kind, yet are they equally dreadful and nu-
merous. He is exempt from fear of the claws and teeth of rapacious animals, but he is exposed
to the attacks of equally destructive social vultures and tigers, and even if he escape these, he is
supposed to be surrounded with the invisible feræ of the spiritual life. And yet, after all, says
the philosophical Paley, “this is a happy world.” So, indeed, it is, to bird, and beast, and creep-
ing thing, and to man also, despite all its dangers and all its cares-
For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey,
This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned;
Left the warm precincts of the cheerful clay,
Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind?
PALM-SQUIRRELS.
Genus TAMIAS: Tamias, the Ground-Squirrels.—Most naturalists consider the Tamias-a
term signifying keeper of stores—as merely a sub-genus of the squirrels; they have, indeed, a
great resemblance to these animals, and are usually called squirrels, but as they have a more
lengthened cranium, with check-pouches, and are at least partially carth-burrowers and dwellers
in the ground, beside certain peculiarities in their dentition and in the formation of the cars
and tail, they may fairly be regarded as constituting a genus by themselves.
One of the best known is the PALM-SQUIRREL, Sciurus palmarum of Linnæus, and the Pal-
miste of Buffon. It has plain ears; an obscure pale yellow stripe on the middle of the back,
another on each side, a third on each side of the belly; the two last at times very faint; the rest
of the lair on the sides, back, and head, black and red, very closely mixed; that on the thighs and
legs more red; belly pale-yellow; hair on the tail does not lie flat, but encircles it, is coarse, and
of a dirty yellow, barred with black; length about thirteen inches, of which the tail measures six
inches. This is the description of Pennant. Mr. Bennett has figured two varieties in his “Zoo-
logical Gardens:” one was perfectly black, and exhibited no traces of the usual stripes; the other

368
VERTEBRATA.
had red eyes, and appeared to be an albino: it was of a dull reddish-white, marked with three
very faint stripes of a still lighter huc. They were presented to the society in 1828, and are
represented in the above engraving.
The palm-squirrels, which derive their name from being often seen on palm-trees, are common
in East Indian towns and villages, oſten being seen running about the roofs of houses and old
walls. The female places her young in holes of the latter. They are great destroyers of fruit,
and are very familiar, entering houses to pick up the crumbs. They are easily tamed, and
become interesting pets. They live in holes in the ground, but are exceedingly fond of running
.
aboutson elevated places, on the roofs of lofty houses and tall trees. Pennant states that Gov-
crnor Loten informed him that they lived much in the cocoa-tree, and were very fond of the
Sury, or palm-wine, which is procured from it; on this account it obtained, among the Indians,
the name of Suricatsje, or the Little Cat of the Sury.
THE TAMIA STRIATA.
The BURUNDUK, Tamias striata, called Rugerück by the Tartars, is found in the northern parts
of Europe and Asia. It is about five inches long, and of a fawn-color above, striped with five
brown and two white bands; beneath, it is white. It is more wild than the preceding, and
though it is lively, it has not the agility of the squirrel. It seldom climbs trees, except to escape
an enemy or secure some favorite fruit. It makes its burrow below the roots of trees, in which
it stores nuts and dry fruits. It is said, also, to fill other magazines in the same way. In trans-
porting its supplies, it uses its ample cheek-pouches. Its nest is well lined with soft grass, and
we may suppose it passes the winter comfortably, though confined to its underground home.
It has a great resemblance in size, appearance, and habits to our little chip-squirrel, and
has been considered of the same species by some authors; but recent examinations seem to ren-
der it highly probable that it is a distinct species.
Other foreign species of Tamias are the BURROWING-SQUIRREL, Sciurus fossor, of Senegal,
with several other species found in Abyssinia; Lary's SQUIRREL, Sciurus insignis, of Java and
Sumatra; DELESSERT'S SQUIRREL, Sciurus Delessertii, of Hindostan.
Of the American species of Tamias, the Sciurus Lysteri, the well known CHIPPING-SQUIRREL,
or STRIPED SQUIRREL, the Hackee, or Chip-muck of the United States, the Ohiohin of the Hurons,
the Striped Dormouse of Pennant, is the most interesting. Its color is brownish-gray above, with
five longitudinal black stripes and two yellowish-white ones along the back; the under surface is
white; the length of the head and body is about six and a half inches; the tail, with the fur, four
and a half. It lives in holes in the earth, and is usually seen on the ground, or on rocks, fences,
and stumps, and is hence often called the Ground-Squirrel. Though not becoming tame upon
domestication, and being often seen in the most solitary woods and forests, it is even more com-
mon near the abodes of men, especially in the villages, where it may be seen around the farms
and gardens, and even running along the fences of the streets. It is not swift, but is lively and
playful, and though careful not to allow a very close approach, it will come out of its holes and
look at a stranger, and often pursue its avocations without being disturbed by his presence.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: 369
:
ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
a
In the autumn this creature may be seen around the fields of Indian corn, and in the walnut
and chestnut woods, filling his ample cheek-pouches, and carrying off his store to his granaries.
His hole is generally placed near the roots of trees, or in a decayed stump, or among a heap of
rocks, or in a bank of earth, and usually near the forests or fields from which he draws his sup-
plies. Sometimes his retreat has two or three openings; it usually descends almost perpendicu-
larly at first; then it rises with one or two windings, and at last, at the distance of eight or ten
feet, terminates in a chamber lined with leaves, amid which the animals sleep. Three or four
occupy the place together. There are several side-galleries, where the stores of wheat, buckwheat,
hazel-nuts, acorns, Indian corn, grass-seeds, walnuts or chestnuts, according to the productions of
the locality, are deposited. They are exceedingly provident, continuing to add to their supplies
till forced into their houses by the inclemency of the weather. Often their stores are much be-
yond the necessities of the winter. The squirrels hibernate in these retreats, and become some-
what sluggish, but do not approach the unconscious torpidity of the marmot. The young, four
birth, are produced in the spring, and beautiful little creatures they are when first led
forth by the mother.
The Chipping-Squirrel rarely climbs trees, unless to escape pursuit, or perhaps occasionally to
get at some desired fruit. It has a sharp chip, often changed into a gurgling sound when the
animal escapes into his hole or conceals himself amid the recesses of a stone wall—seeming, in
fact, to be a sort of scoffing laugh at the impertinence of the assailant. On other occasions, its
chip becomes a sort of song, in which several squirrels in different parts of the forest seem to an-
swer one another, and thus to fill the woods with a kind of merry chorus. Though not familiar,
and seldom or never becoming reconciled to confinement, preserving always a rather sullen ap-
pearance, still this little creature is a general favorite. His voice is associated with the woods
and bright spring and autumn mornings, and especially with those happy days of youth when
every wood-ramble was an adventure, and even a chip-squirrel was game.
This animal commits no depredations upon the garden, the orchard, or the farm; if he ven-
tures into the grain-field it is only as a gleaner. Nor is he included in the list of legitimate game,
being quite beneath the notice of the sportsman. Even the dog rarely condescends to bestow
upon him more than a bark, seldom having an opportunity of giving him a bite, -thanks to the
caution of the squirrel in always keeping near a retreat and an admirable celerity in reaching it.
Yet, despite these immunities, the chip-squirrel lives a life of unceasing peril. The woods that
he occupies are the haunts of hawks of many kinds, perchance of foxes, wild-cats, lynxes, minks,
and weasels, all thirsting for his blood. He never peeps from his hole but with the apprehension
that these, or some of these, are ready to pounce upon him. Nor is he altogether safe even in
his deep, winding burrow, intrenched as it may be in roots and rocks, for often the murderous
weasel enters his den and strangles him in his bed.
Townsend's GROUND-SQUIRREL, T. Townsendii, is somewhat larger than the preceding, the
body measuring nearly seven inches. The tail is long—with the hair, measuring five inches. The
upper surface is a dusky brown, with five black stripes along the back; the under surface is of a
light ashy hue. Though in several respects different from the chip-squirrel, its habits seem to be
very similar to those of that animal. Like that, it often mounts a stump in the woods, and, for a
long time, keeps up a continual clucking, being answered by another in a different part of the
forest. The note resembles that of the dusky grouse, and hunters are frequently deceived by it.
.
It is found in the Rocky Mountains, from the thirty-seventh to the forty-fifth degrees of lati-
tude.
The Four-LINED SQUIRREL, T.quadrivittatus, is smaller than the chip-squirrel, but resembles
it in appearance. Its sides are reddish brown; beneath it is white; along the back are five dark
brown stripes and four light ones. The head and body are a trifle over four inches long. It
is found in the northwestern regions, as far as lat. 50°; and southward along the Rocky Moun-
tains to the source of the Arkansas river. It is like the chip-squirrel, lively and restless, living
in burrows with several openings, usually made at the roots of trees. It often annoys the hunter
by giving notice of his approach to the wild inhabitants of the woods, by its angry, chirruping
cry. In autumn, it is seen with its cheek-pouches filled with seeds, carrying them to be stored
VOL. I.-47
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370
VERTEBRATA.
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a
in its retreat for the winter supply. Sometimes it mounts the trees, but generally is seen upon
the ground.
Sir Francis Head gives us the following account of his meeting with a squirrel in Canada, prob-
ably one of this species. “I was waiting the approach of a large flock of wild-fowl; but a little
villain of a squirrel on the bough of a tree close to me, seemed to have determined that even now
I should not rest in quiet; for he sputtered and chattered with so much vehemence, that he
attracted the attention of my dog. This was truly mortifying; for he kept his eyes fixed on the
squirrel. With my hand, I threatened the little beast; but he actually set up his back and defied
me, becoming even more passionate than before; till, all of a sudden, as if purposely to alarm the
game, he dropped plump within a couple of yards of Rover's nose. This was too much for the
latter to bear, so he gave a bounce and sprang upon the impertinent squirrel; who in a second
was out of his reach, cocking his tail and showing his teeth, on the identical bough where he had
sat before. Away flew all the wild-fowl, and my sport was completely marred. My gun went
involuntarily to my shoulder to shoot the squirrel; but I felt I was about to commit an act of
sheer revenge on a courageous little animal, which deserved a better fate. As if aware of my
hesitation, he nodded his head with rage, and stamped his fore-paws on the tree; while in his
chirruping, there was an intonation of sound which seemed like contempt. What business had
I there, trespassing on his domain, and frightening his wife and little family, for whom he was
ready to lay down his life? There he would sit in spite of me, and make my ears ring with the
sound of his war-whoop, till the spring of life should cease to bubble in his little heart.”
Genus SQUIRREL: Sciurus.—From the Ground-Squirrels we now come to the Tree-Squir-
rels, which are, at the same time, the True Squirrels. They are a numerous, very pretty, and
highly amusing genus of rodent animals, of small size, which reside and find their food chiefly in
trees, and are as much at home there as the handed animals, which they in general surpass in the
velocity of their motions, while their aspect is as pleasing as that of the monkeys is repulsive.
Squirrels are exceedingly numerous as a genus, and their characters at once distinguish them
from all the rest of the rodentia.
They are all possessed of clavicles, which enable them to use their fore-legs like arms, either in
grasping or in conveying substances to the mouth, but in doing so they have to use both legs, as
the
paws are not sufficiently prehensile to be used as hands. The character from which they
get the name Sciurus, which means “shadowing tail," and of which the common term squirrel is
merely a corruption, is the form of the tail. This tail is very long, and it is usually covered with
long hair, or fur, which diverges into two parts on the under side, something after the man-
ner of the two webs of a feather; and the length is generally sufficient to overshadow the whole
body, when the tail is brought forward curving over the back. The gnawing-teeth, in the lower
jaw of the squirrels, are very much compressed. The hind-feet have five toes, and the fore-feet
four, but sometimes the inner toe also appears on the fore-feet as a simple tubercle; they have
four tuberculous teeth on each side of both jaws, and a small one in advance of the rest in each
side of the upper jaw, but it falls out at rather an early age. The claws upon their toes are
crooked and very sharp-pointed, so that they can take hold of small inequalities of the bark of
trees, and the toes have a certain degree of lateral motion, by means of which they can grasp to-
ward the center of the foot.
They are very agile, formed for climbing and leaping, and even when they are in a state of
confinement, and abundantly fed, they do not feel at home unless they have in their cage a small
mill, or tread-wheel, upon which they can exercise themselves. Their spine is very elastic, and
accords well with the ready action of the joints of their limbs, so that they are nearly as nimble
on the ground as they are in climbing and scrambling about among the branches. Their action
upon the ground is not running but leaping, in which the elasticity of the spine comes into play
at every step; and their action is something intermediate between that of the hare and the jerboa,
less of a running action than the first, and less of a set of boundings from the hind-feet than the
second. Their limbs are all articulated, so that they can be stretched outward, which prevents
that steady motion parallel to the mesial plane of the body which is essential in an animal which
has habitually to walk the ground.
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But while their members are thus not of a walking character, neither do they resemble the
flying extremities of the bats, nor the climbing ones of the handed animals or the sloths. Their
feet, both the fore ones and the hind, are fitted for making a firm plant on a very slender branch,
either longitudinally or across. This, of course, is done by a sort of grasping; but still it partakes
much more of the character of a mere plant than that of the handed animals, and is performed in
a correspondingly shorter time. Their motion along the small twigs near the top of a row of tall
trees is thus a kind of running, and running which is very neatly as well as very swiftly performed.
Their hind-legs are a little longer than their fore, but only a mere trifle, as their running style
of motion requires that they should have nearly equal command and use of all their legs. In
this may be seen the difference between them and the hares and jerboas on the one hand, and
the tree-apes, which have not the tails prehensile, on the other. The leaping animal has the hind-
legs long, and the muscular action of the body very much concentrated upon them. The climb-
ing animal has the fore-legs long, and the concentration upon them. The squirrel holds an inter-
mediate place, and this is the reason why we consider its motions on the ground more graceful
than the leaping of the jerboa, and its motion in the tree more so than the climbing of the ape.
Their motions are indeed quite a study in animal mechanics; and on account of their lightness,
their gentleness and cleanliness, they are a very pleasing study.
The
eyes of the squirrels are bright and large for the size of the animals, and there are some
peculiarities in them which are worthy of attention. The pupils are large and rather oval, with
the largest diameter placed in a horizontal direction; and there is no color reflected from the
choroid membrane. Hence it is probable that their vision is very keen, and that they can see an
object clearly with very little light. They require this, for they have to find their food, and also
their footing, the latter often very quickly, in the close shade of the leaves. It is probable that
their hearing is as acute, for their ears are remarkably well developed, and they often terminate
in tufts of fur, which are generally regarded as increasing the acuteness of the sense.
In woods, their chief food is nuts and other small fruits; but they are also fond of the sac-
charine juices of plants; and in some parts of our country, where they are numerous, they do
serious damage to the plantations of Indian corn. They are animals of temperate, and even of
cold countries, as well as of warm ones. They abound so much in many places of the north that
they are caught in traps, as well for their flesh as their skins. The great natural forests are
their chief abodes, where they dwell in solitude or in society, according to the species. But even
the most solitary of them are usually found in pairs, which are understood to associate for
life. Their nests are usually little spherical cabins, formed of twigs and leaves near the tops of
the highest trees, and with the opening above. In such places they and their young are out of
the reach of all quadruped foes; but they occasionally become the prey of ravenous birds, when
these roam on the wing over the forest; and yet the situations in which they are placed render
them pretty secure from these foes also. With the exception of Australia and the remote islands,
squirrels of one species or another are found in all parts of the world; in Europe from Lapland
to the extreme south; in all parts of Asia, Africa, and North America; and they are generally as
abundant as they are widely distributed, for the woods which suit their economy often swarm
with them.
The Common SQUIRREL OF EUROPE, S. vulgaris, called “The Squirrel" by the English, is the
Ecureuil of the French; Scojattolo, Schiarro, and Schiaratto of the Italians; Arda, Ardilla, and
Esquilo of the Spaniards; Eichhorn and Eichhörnchen of the Germans; Inkhoorn of the Dutch ;
Ikorn and Graskin of the Swedes; Ekorn of the Danes. Its length, including the tail, which
measures about six inches three lines, is about fourteen to fifteen inches. Its general color is a
bright red, varied with gray on the flanks. Mr. Bell, after stating that it is liable to considerable
variety of color, becoming gray in the northern regions, and quoting the passage in “Lachesis
Lapponica," which relates how the inhabitants of the Lapland Alps procure a number of these
species in their gray or winter clothing for the sake of their skins, proceeds to remark that even
in England a certain degree of change takes place in the color of the fur in spring and autumn.
In summer the fur is coarser and more uniformly red, and the pencils of hairs on the ears are
lost; in winter a grayish tint appears on the sides; the pencils on the ears are long and well de-

372
VERTEBRATA.
veloped, and the fur is softer and fuller. In July, and not till then, the summer change is per-
fect. This species is found generally in Europe and the north of Asia.
“This animal,” says Pennant, “is remarkably neat, lively, active, and provident; never leaves
its food to chance, but secures in some hollow tree a magazine of nuts for winter provision. In
the summer it feeds on the buds and young shoots, and is particularly fond of those of the fir and
pine, and also of the young cones.
.
It makes its nest of the moss or dry leaves, between the fork
of two branches, and brings four or five young at a time. Squirrels have their pairing time early
in the spring, when it is very diverting to see the female feigning an escape from the pursuit of
two or three males, and to observe the various proofs they give of their agility, which is then ex-
erted in full force." This species is a great favorite in a state of domesticity, maintaining all its
pleasing airs and graces, and becoming quite tame and familiar. It is a common pet in cages,
and has been known to be so attached to its master as to follow him through the fields, and even
the streets of a town.
The LITTLE GRAY SQUIRREL, of Northern Europe, has been supposed by many naturalists to
be a mere variety of the preceding. Its fur is exceedingly soft and light, and is of a beautiful
gray, tinged with fawn. As if conscious of this beauty, it spends much time in dressing its fur.
It lives on nuts, and has a sharp cry, which often betrays it to the hunter.
The ALPINE SQUIRREL, S. Alpinus, is found in the Alps and Pyrenees; it is of a deep brown,
above spotted with light fawn; below it is a pure white. In size and habits it resembles the
common squirrel.
The CAUCASIAN SQUIRREL, S. Caucasicus, is found in the Caucasian Mountains and in Asia
Minor. Its color is a grayish-brown above, and yellowish-brown below.
The MADAGASCAR SQUIRREL, S. Madagascarensis, is nearly twice the size of the European squir-
rel; it is nearly black above, and yellowish-white beneath. The tail is the length of the body.
a
rang
Hertti
WORICES
THE BARBARY SQUIRREL.
The BARBARY SQUIRREL, S. Getulus, is about the size of the European squirrel, being nearly
ten inches in length. It is grayish-brown, with four white longitudinal bands along the back. It
inhabits Northern Africa, and lives on the palm-trees. The S.cepapi is yellow above, marked with
blackish-brown; below it is yellowish-white; length fifteen inches, with the tail. It is found in
Southern Africa. There are also in Africa the S. Abyssinicus and S. annulatus, which are
thought by Ehrenberg to differ from the common squirrels, and to constitute a distinct genus, to
which he gives the name of Xerus.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
373
hone
A.DEL.ET SO.
THE MALABAR SQUIRREL.
Asia has probably twenty species of squirrels, among which is the MALABAR SQUIRREL, S. max-
imus, the largest of the genus, being the size of a cat. A part of the body above is brilliant
red and a part intense black; the under parts are of a bright yellow. It is almost as brilliant
as a macaw, while it has all the grace and vivacity of the squirrels. It lives upon the palm-
trees along the coast of Malabar.
The INDIAN SQUIRREL, S. Bombayus, is sixteen inches long, and has a tail seventeen inches.
It is found in Bombay, and by some is supposed to be a variety of the Malabar squirrel.
PREVOST'S SQUIRREL, S. Prevostii, is nearly of the size of the European squirrel; it is black
above, yellow on the flanks, and chestnut-color beneath. It is found in India. Here, also, is
found the INDIAN RED SQUIRREL, S. erythræus, it is a little larger than the preceding, and is
yellow and brown above and fawn below.
LESCHENAULT'S SQUIRREL, S. Leschenaultii, is somewhat larger than the European squirrel; it
is a foot long, and has a tail of the same length. It is a light brown above, and yellowish-
white below, and is a native of Java. Here also is found the BANANA SQUIRREL, S. plantani,
seven inches long, gray above, and yellow below; and the S. bicolor, red above and fawn be-
neath. The S. auriventer is of Sumatra.
.
The DANDOLE ANA, or RAKEA, S. Ceylanensis, greatly resembles the Malabar squirrel; its skin
is black above and yellow below; it is a native of Ceylon.
The S. hypoleucus and S. ephippium are of the Sunda Isles.
North America rivals Asia in the number of its species of squirrels, there being about twenty
kinds described and verified. The RED SQUIRREL, or CHICKAREE, which has acquired the absurd
name of Hudson's BAY SQUIRREL and S. Hudsonius, in the books, is the COMMON SQUIRREL OF
THE UNITED STATES, being familiarly known in nearly every state in the Union. It is about
eight inches long, with a tail, including the hair, about six inches long. The color is a reddish-
brown on the upper surface, often with a tinge of gray; beneath it is white.
In its habits it is lively and restless to a remarkable degree, running along the fences and
branches of the trees, often leaping from one tree to another with the greatest lightness and agil-
ity, and, as if these exertions were not enough to exhaust its exuberant spirits, it keeps constantly
a
a
.

374
VERTEBRATA.
mu
with
RED SQUIRREL.
CHIP-SQUIRREL.
CAT-SQUIRREL.
MIGRATORY SQUIRREL.
moving its tail in spasmodic jerks. It lives singly or in pairs, though several are usually found
on the same grounds; it occupies alike the forests, the fields, and orchards, and occasionally
the streets of the villages. It has a sort of impertinent familiarity in its ways toward mankind,
sometimes coming upon the trees near the houses, and if set upon by the dog, or watched by the
cat, or assaulted with a stone from a boy, it is likely to commence a chattering salutation or ora-
tion, consisting of “chickaree-chickaree-quilch-quilch-chickaree-chickaree,” continued for twenty
minutes, during which time it seems to exhaust the whole vocabulary of abuse and vituperation.
During this performance it keeps jumping about in the tree, its tail jerking, its head downward, and
its gleaming eyes looking upon the object of its denunciation with a droll mixture of fun and
fierceness. All this while it leaps and jumps and flies from place to place, seeming to consider it
all a frolic himself, while he desires the object of his addresses to look upon it as a terrific display
of threatened vengeance. The general reputation of the animal is that of a sharp Yankee squirrel,
full of conceit, vivacity, impertinence, and selfishness; he harms nobody, yet is not a favorite;
when taken into captivity, he does not become tame; he manifests attachment to nobody, and
seems constantly absorbed in two desires: one for food, and one to get away and enjoy his lib-
erty. His flesh is not much esteemed, and he is generally permitted to pass by unharmed by the
sportsmen. Nevertheless, the chickaree, at liberty and sporting in his native haunts, is always an
object of interest, for he is really a beautiful example of that combination of grace, vivacity, and
energy which characterize his genus. He also maintains his active habits through the whole year,
alike in spring, summer, and autumn, and even amid the snows of winter; certainly, it would not
be easy to name another vagrant of the field or forest which contributes more to enliven the land-
scape than the chickaree. He is often, during the cold season, the only living thing that is seen
in the woods; but for him all nature would often seem to have been entombed beneath the snow.
In looking closely at the economy of this animal, we find many things to admire. He is exceed-

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
375
ingly neat and cleanly in his person: while enjoying to the full the bounties of summer, he takes
good care to lay up an ample store for the winter. He feeds on walnuts, chestnuts, butter-nuts,
hazel-nuts, and seeds of various kinds, sometimes taking a bite out of the best side of a sweet
apple, or making a meal of Indian corn from the fields, without asking leave of the proprietor.
Hoards of nuts are deposited by these provident creatures in certain hiding-places, as under the
leaves, beneath logs, amid heaps of brush, in holes in the ground, or in the recesses of a hollow
tree, and are resorted to in case of need. Their activity and industry are indeed admirable. Be-
fore the nuts are fully ripe they are up and out by break of day, and having ascended the treo,
proceed to gnaw off the stems containing the fruit. Having thus dropped a sufficient quantity,
they descend, gather the fruit, and having made a breakfast, carry the rest to their granaries.
When the fruit has matured and fallen to the earth, they are as busy as farmers in the time of
harvest. The quantity they collect and store away is sometimes enormous; a bushel and a half
of hickory-nuts have been found in a single depository in a hollow tree. Sometimes the hogs
root out the nuts that are less securely housed, and what would have sufficed for a squirrel during
a winter, makes but a single meal for the fortunate but gluttonous finder.
The Red Squirrel is found from Labrador to the Carolinas, and is especially common in the
Eastern and Middle States. He accommodates himself to his situation in respect to his abode;
if he chooses to make his nest in some out-house around a farm, he will construct it of the feath-
ers which chance to be at hand; in the woods, he builds a nest of twigs, interwoven with leaves,
in the high fork of a tree; or perchance he contents himself with some natural hollow in the
branch or trunk of a tree. If he lives in a northern region, where the winters are long and
severe, he will dig for himself a comfortable burrow in the ground. Though not loving the water,
in case of need he can swim and dive, and make a respectable figure in both exercises.
In short,
the chickaree is a shrewd, lively, dexterous, industrious, Yankee squirrel, taking excellent care of
Number One, and caring little about any body else.
The Common GRAY SQUIRREL OF THE UNITED STATES, sometimes called the Northern Gray
Squirrel, and sometimes the Migratory Gray Squirrel—the S. leucotis of De Kay-next to the
red squirrel, is the most common species in the New England and Middle States. It is at the
same time a beautiful animal, and much esteemed as game, and hence is an object of general
interest. The upper surface is of a hoary gray, with tawny shades on the feet and neck; the
under surface is white. This is the common appearance, but it is subject to many variations; in
some cases, a tawny tinge, or shade of brown or yellow, spreads over parts, or over the whole an-
a
wams
THE BLACK VARIETY OF THE GRAY SQUIRREL.
imal, while in others, these shades are altogether wanting. There is also a variety called the
Black Squirrel, of the same form and size as the Gray Squirrel; its color is a brownish black,
the animal appearing quite black on the trees. In summer, its color is somewhat faded. It is

376
VERTEBRATA.
a
rare in the New England States, and is nowhere so common as the gray squirrel; it is, however,
often seen in the western parts of New York and Pennsylvania. It lives and breeds with the gray
squirrel; is of the same size, form and habits; both white and gray are sometimes found among
the
young
in the same nest.
The Gray Squirrel is ten to twelve inches long; the tail, which is bushy and very beautiful, ten
to eleven inches. It is active and sprightly, living mostly in old forests where there are large
trees of hickory, chestnut, or oak, and whether seen running aloft among the branches of these
trees, or speeding over rocks, fallen trunks, and stumps upon the earth, is a truly splendid example
of the genus to which it belongs. It goes abroad at sunrise for its food, and may be seen intently
.
engaged in scratching amid the leaves, or scampering over the ground, or bounding with incred-
ible leaps among the tree-tops. It frequently amuses itself by quacking or barking, its voice at
such times ringing through the woods and often betraying it to the hunters. In the middle of:
the day it reposes in its nest, coming forth again a few hours before sunset to pursue its sports or
its labors.
Its habitation for the summer is usually a nest of leaves in the fork of a tree; in winter, it occul-
pies some hollow space in the branch or trunk of a tree, this being retained till the young, five or
six in number, are produced, in May or June. They remain in the parental home, or under the
parental charge, till the next spring, when they pair off and go to housekeeping for themselves.
If taken young, these animals become somewhat tame, and are amusing and pleasing pets. They
are often kept in cages with a revolving cylindrical box attached, in which they may be seen, as
in a treadmill, exercising themselves with the greatest animation for several hours of the day.
Sometimes these animals have been so far domesticated as to breed in the grounds around the
house, coming to be fed when called, and running familiarly over the person. In Philadelphia,
a numerous colony of these squirrels has been bred in an inclosed square, and are objects of the
greatest interest and curiosity.
The Gray Squirrel feeds principally on nuts, grain, and seeds, though occasionally devouring
the larvæ of insects; in the West, where it is abundant, it sometimes makes great havoc in the
fields of Indian corn. In western Pennsylvania it was formerly a great pest, and in 1749, a pre-
mium of three pence being offered by the government for each squirrel killed, 640,000 were de-
stroyed. They are far less abundant now, but in some of the unfrequented parts of our country
they are still numerous. Even in New England they are found in most of the old forests, and in
the autumn the shooting of gray squirrels is still a favorite sport.
The most remarkable feature in this species of squirrels is its occasional migrations, in great
multitudes, over mountains and streams, across cleared fields and dense woods, seeming to be
guided by some necessity as to food, or some imperious but inscrutable instinct. They have nat-
urally a strong love of home and an innate dread of water; but under the impulse of such a move-
ment, these creatures forsake their birth-places and venture into unknown regions, and launch
themselves upon the bosom of the broadest rivers, often with a fatal result. These emigrations
usually take place in autumn, and a multitude of these creatures, gathered from all the surround-
ing districts, may be seen pouring along like a stream, and sweeping over the fields and devouring
every thing that comes in their way. It has been said, that on coming to a river each squirrel
takes a piece of bark, and seating himself upon it as a boat, or placing it beneath his chin as a
float, hoists his tail as a sail, and thus passes safely and speedily across. This beautiful story is,
however, a mere fiction. These creatures, on coming to the water, after some little hesitation
and running to and fro, launch into the waves, and paddle across as they may. They are poor
swimmers, sink deep, and advance with considerable difficulty. In October, 1833, as I was de-
scending the Ohio in a steamboat, one of these migrations—though not remarkable for the extent
of the numbers—was in progress. When we were in the region of Marietta, we saw hundreds
perhaps thousands—of these creatures in the water, making for the southern or Kentucky shore.
In all cases, we only saw the nose above water; many were dead and drifting down the stream;
many were on the Ohio side, hesitating upon the banks, or resting on the trees, while we could
see hundreds on the Kentucky side creeping, exhausted, upon the sandy banks, where, sad to re-
late, were men and boys with clubs ready to dispatch them. Similar accounts have often been
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
377
,
given; the march of far greater numbers has often been witnessed, but the cause of such strange
movements is hidden in mystery.
The BLACK SQUIRREL, S. niger, must be distinguished from the Black Squirrel we have men-
tioned in the preceding article, and which is only a variety of the Gray Squirrel; the animal we
now describe constitutes a distinct species. It is a little larger than the gray squirrel, being
thirteen inches long, with a tail, including the hair, of the same length; the color is a glossy
black, with a few straggling tufts of white hair. It is a lively and beautiful species, resembling
the preceding in its habits. As the gray squirrel retreats before the red squirrel, so the black
squirrel gives place to the gray squirrel. It is found in western New York and on the borders of
Lake Champlain, and probably extends north and west to Lake Superior. The difficulty of dis-
tinguishing it from the black variety of the gray squirrel has prevented the exact determination
of its geographical limits.
The CAROLINA GRAY SQUIRREL, S. Carolinensis, is smaller than the gray squirrel we have de-
scribed, the body being but nine and a half inches long, and the tail, to the ends of the hair, of
equal length. It is of a rusty gray color above, and white beneath. In size and habits it resem-
bles the chickaree. It is very abundant in the swamps of Carolina, usually making its nest in the
trunk of a decayed cypress, and lining the same with Spanish moss or leaves. It often utters a
bark as it leaps from tree to tree, or scratches for food among the leaves. It has the peculiarity
.
of being abroad in the evening. On moonlight nights it pursues its gambols among the trees,
often paying a penalty, however, by being snapped up by the owls. At other, and indeed at all
times, this animal seems to stand in peril from a multitude of dangers. The rattlesnake, the
black snake, and the chicken-snake, dart upon it from their ambush of grass and leaves; the gray
fox and the wild-cat often seize upon it either by stratagem or stealth; the lynx pounces upon
it
from behind logs or heaps of brushwood. It would seem that existence thus encompassed with
perils would hardly be worth the possession, but nevertheless, this little animal enjoys life while
it lasts, and knowing nothing of to-morrow, darkens not its existence by evil bodings of the future.
The Fox-SQUIRREL, S. vulpinus, or capistratus, is a large, stout-built species, with coarse
hair, subject to many varieties of color. The most common is the Gray Variety; this is light
gray above and white beneath, with a white nose and white ears. The next is the Black Variety,
which is white on the nose and ears, the rest, including the tail, being black. The Mottled Va-
riety has the nose and ears white; head, belly, and thighs black; the tail and back dark gray.
The Alabama Variety has, like all the rest of the species, the ears and nose white; the back is a
rusty blackish-brown; the neck and head black; thighs and belly a bright russet color. These
diversities of color have led to some confusion among naturalists, as the different varieties have
been regarded as different species.
The Fox-Squirrel is fourteen and a half inches long; the tail, with the fur, an inch longer. It
is a southern species, being common in the Southern States, yet occasionally found as far north
as New York. It feeds on acorns, and nuts, and cones of pines; lives in forests of pines, mingled
with oaks and hickories, and in the time of green corn makes long visits to the fields, and feasts
on the luscious ears. It builds its nest in the hollow of some aged tree, usually an oak, and pro-
duces young in March or April. He lays up no stores in winter, and at that season goes abroad
but seldom, and only in the middle of the day, evidently having the power of sustentation, during
this partial hibernation, with little food. Toward spring he feeds on the buds of various trees.
When surprised in the woods, he usually makes a rapid retreat to the hollow of a tree; if he fan-
cies himself unperceived, he seeks concealment by lying flat on the limb of a tree.
He has a
kind of bark, which he sometimes utters as a sort of defiance on the close approach of a dog or
hunter. He fights severely, and will often beat off a small dog. His hide is tough and he is tena-
.
cious of life, and when in the top of a tall pine is brought down with difficulty by a shot-gun. His
flesh is not greatly prized.
This species, like other squirrels, is infected with troublesome larvæ during the summer. He is
a late riser, and of a rather lazy habit for a squirrel, and perhaps suffers more than others from
His size and length, however, keep him from the attacks of the hawks, and as he is
not out at night, escapes the owls, wild-cats, and foxes.
a
VOL. 1.-48
this cause.

378
VERTEBRATA.
The CAT-SQUIRREL, S. cinereus, is smaller than the fox-squirrel, yet larger than the gray squir-
rel, being a trifle over a foot long, with a tail about an inch shorter. It varies in color from light
gray to nearly black; the prevailing colors are, however, gray, orange, and nearly black. Its
form is peculiarly stout; the fur is somewhat woolly; the tail broad and flat. Its habits resemble
those of other squirrels, though it moves with less activity; it is fat in autumn, and its flesh is more
valued than any other species. It is found sparsely in the tall aged forests of the Middle States.
DOUGLASS' SQUIRREL, S. Douglassii, resembles the chickaree, being, however, one-quarter
larger, that is, somewhat over nine inches in length, with a tail six inches, including the fur. Its
color is dark brown above and buff beneath. It abounds along the banks of the Columbia River,
and lays up abundance of acorns and pine cones as food for winter, during which time it is impris-
oned in its nest.
The RED-Bellied SQUIRREL, S. ferruginiventris, is a trifle smaller than the Carolina gray squir-
rel, being nearly nine inches long, with a tail ten inches, including the fur. Its color is light gray
above, though brown on the shoulders; beneath, it is a bright russet. It is a native of California,
but its peculiar habits are little known.
RICHARDSON'S COLUMBIA SQUIRREL, S. Richardsonii, is a beautiful little animal, six and a quar-
ter inches long, with a rather short tail. Its color is a rusty gray above, and whitish beneath.
It frequents the pine-trees in the high Rocky Mountains west of the great chain, and feeds upon
the buds of the cones, which are large, white, and nutritious, and are esteemed good food by the
Indians. It has a loud, jarring chatter, and frequently comes down from the trees nearly to the
foot to reconnoiter a passenger, and if it disapproves, gives him a fierce scolding.
The DoWNY SQUIRREL, S. lanuginosus, is a trifle stouter than the chickaree, being nearly
eight inches long, with a tail six inches. It is a beautiful creature, its fur being thick, soft and
downy, superior in this respect to any other species. It is light chestnut-brown above, silver-
gray on the sides, and pure white beneath. Its habits are little known; it, however, burrows in
the earth, and appears to approach the spermophiles in its characteristics. It is found in the
north western parts of North America, from Oregon to the Russian settlements.
The WEASEL-LIKE SQUIRREL, S. mustelinus, is thirteen inches long, with a tail thirteen inches;
its color is glossy black; its body is long and slender; it inhabits the pine-forests of California,
and feeds on the cones; it hides itself with great cunning and alertness in the thick evergreen
foliage, and hence is rarely caught. Its young, like those of all other squirrels, are born blind,
but of its other traits of character and habits we have no particular information.
AUDUBON'S SQUIRREL, or LARGE LOUISIANA BLACK SQUIRREL, S. Auduboni, is eleven and a
half inches long, with a tail of the same length. The fur is harsh, but glossy, black above, and
brownish beneath. It frequents high grounds, and displays the usual vivacity of the
genus. It
is found in Louisiana, and is sometimes brought to the market of New Orleans.
COLONEL ABERT'S SQUIRREL, S. Aberti, is thirteen inches long, tail eleven inches; the general
color is dark gray above and white beneath. It is found in New Mexico.
The CALIFORNIA GRAY SQUIRREL, S. fossor, is twelve and a half inches long, the tail ten
inches. The body above is light gray; beneath, white. It is a beautiful species, found in the
pine-woods of California, where it lives on nuts, roving about from one locality to another. It
has the habit of running much on the ground, and has a bark similar to that of the gray squirrel,
which it often exercises on hearing the whistle of the Carolina partridges.
FREMONT'S SQUIRREL, S. Fremonti, is about as large as the chickaree, the tail being shorter
than the body; the color is light gray above, and ashy-white below. The body is rather short
and stout; the fur long and soft. It is found in the Rocky Mountains.
Sooty SQUIRREL, S. fuliginosus, is ten inches long, and the tail eight and a half inches; color,
black above, tinged with yellowish-brown; below, reddish-brown. It appears, however, to be sub-
ject to some variations of color. It is found in the swampy regions of Louisiana and Mississippi.
COLLIE'S SQUIRREL, S. Collæi, resembles the gray squirrel; it is nearly eleven inches long, with
a tail nine and a half inches; above, its color is a mixture of brownish-black and yellow; below,
cream-white. It is found in southern California and the adjacent parts of Mexico.
The DUSKY SQUIRREL, S. nigrescens, is a large species, nearly equal to the cat-squirrel, with
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
379
a
a
a
an enormous length of tail; above, it is grayish-black; below, dusky yellow, the same color ex-
tending up the sides. The length of the body is twelve inches and a quarter; the tail, fifteen
inches and a quarter. It is found in California.
The SOFT-HAIRED SQUIRREL, S. mollipilosus, is eight and a half inches long, the fur long and
soft, of a dark brown above, and ash-color below. It is found in the north western parts of Cali-
fornia.
The LONG-HAIRED, or WOOLLY SQUIRREL, S. lanigerus, has a stout body, and long, coarse
hair, brownish-gray above and pale-brown below. Its length is nearly twelve inches, and its tail
of equal length. It is found in the high northern portions of California.
The HARE-SQUIRREL, S. leporinus, is nearly twelve inches long, and the tail twelve and a
half inches. It is grayish-brown above, like the European hare, whence its name; below, it is
white. It is beautifully furred, and the long tail, bordered with white, gives it a splendid ap-
pearance.
Lewis's SQUIRREL, S. annulatus, is of a yellowish-gray above, and of a reddish-yellow below.
The tail is thick and bushy, and annulated with black and white bands. This species was discov-
ered by Lewis and Clark, in their northwestern tour, but we have no details of its habits or pre-
cise locality.
CLARK's SQUIRREL, S. Clarkii, resembles the S. fossor, previously described, and is perhaps
of the same species.
The Red-TAILED SQUIRREL, S. rubricaudatus, is thirteen inches long, with a tail of nearly the
same length, and of a red color; the body is light gray above, and a dirty buff below. It is
found in the Western States.
The ORANGE-BELLIED, or GOLDEN-BELLIED SQUIRREL, S. sub-auratus, is ten and a half inches
long, and the tail twelve inches; the color, gray above, with a tinge of yellow; below, a golden
yellow. It lives in the deep forests of Louisiana, and probably in Texas and Mexico.
Say's SQUIRREL, S. Sayi, is a grayish-black above; beneath, it is a bright fawn-color; length
of the body, twelve inches; of the tail, thirteen inches. In size and form it resembles the cat-
squirrel, and is found in the state of Indiana and the adjacent territories, where it feasts on pekan
and other nuts, and sometimes commits considerable depredations upon the Indian corn crops.
The preceding descriptions are according to recognized authorities; Baird, however, regards
several of these squirrels as mere varieties, and reduces the number of North American species to
about a dozen.
There are several kinds of squirrel in South America, some, perhaps, identical with those we
have described as belonging to North America. Of the species peculiar to that part of the con-
tinent is the GUERLINGUET SQUIRREL, S. æstuans, found in Guiana and Brazil; it is of the size of
the common European squirrel, of an olive-gray color, and feeds on the fruits of the palms. This
has been made by F. Cuvier the type of a genus which he calls Macroxus, of which there are
other species in India, Sumatra, Africa, and South America.
Among the South American species are the S. stramineus, of Peru, the hair of which is of a
blackish hue, but having a golden straw-color at the tips, and the S. igniventris, of Bolivia, per-
haps the same as the s. ferruginiventris, that we have described as of the United States.
THE CASTORID Æ.
Of this family there is but a single genus, that of the BEAVER, or CASTOR, Castor, and
a single species, C. fiber, of Linnæus. It is found in Northern Asia and Northern Europe, and in
North America, and though there are some slight differences in appearance and habits, all are re-
garded as one species. The American variety is often called the C. Americanus. This animal was
noticed by Herodotus and Aristotle, and Pliny gives a good account of it, and speaks of the casto-
reum which it yields, and which it appears was as much valued for medicine by the ancients as
the moderns. He says that in his time the dealers in it resorted to various frauds and adultera-
tions, as is done in our day in respect to many articles of merchandise. He tells an absurd story
to the effect that the beavers being hunted chiefly for this drug—for at that period the fur does

380
VERTEBRATA.
BEAVER.—(See p. 338.)
a
not seem to have been greatly prized—and knowing this fact, were accustomed to bite off the
part that yielded it!
This animal is furnished with two incisors and eight molars in each jaw, twenty in all; and is
particularly distinguished from all the rest of the rodentia by a broad horizontally-flattened tail,
which is nearly oval and covered with scales. There are five toes on each of the feet, but those
of the hinder ones—somewhat resembling those of a goose-only are webbed, the webs extending
beyond the roots of the nails. The second toe of these last is furnished with a double nail, or
rather two, one like those of the other toes, and another beneath it, situated obliquely, with a
sharp edge directed downward. There is also a less perfect double nail on the inner toe of the
hind-feet.
The incisor teeth of the beaver are broad, flattened, and, as in most of the order, protected an-
teriorly by a coat of very hard orange-colored enamel, the rest of the tooth being of a compara-
tively soft substance, whereby a cutting, chisel-like edge is obtained; and, indeed, no edge-tool,
with all its combinations of hard and soft metal, could answer the purpose better. In fact, the
beaver's incisor tooth is fashioned much upon the same principle as that followed by the tool-
maker, who forms a cutting instrument by a skillful adaptation of hard and soft materials till he
produces a good edge. But the natural instrument has one great advantage over the artificial
tool; for the former is so organized that as fast as it is worn away by use, a reproduction and pro-
trusion from the base takes place, and thus the two pairs of chisel-teeth working opposite to each
other are always kept in good repair, with their edges at the proper cutting angle. When in-
jury or disease destroys one of these incisors, its opposite, meeting with no check to resist the
protrusion from behind, is pushed forward into a monstrous elongation. So hard is the enamel,
and so good a cutting instrument is the incisor tooth of the beaver, that, when fixed in a wooden
handle, it was used by the Northern Indians to cut bone, and fashion their horn-tipped spears,
&c., till it was superseded by the introduction of iron, when the beaver-tooth was supplanted by
the English file.
The power of these natural tools is such, that a beaver will bite off a sapling of the size of a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA. 381
walking-stick at a single effort of its teeth. Lewis and Clark, who saw their effects on the banks
of the Missouri, make the following statement: “The ravages of the beaver are very apparent;
in one place the timber was entirely penetrated for a space of three acres in front on the river,
and one in depth, and great part of it removed, although the trees were in large quantities, and
some of them as thick as the body of a man."
Richardson thus speaks of this part of their operations : “When the beaver cuts down a tree it
gnaws it all round, cutting it, however, somewhat higher on the one side than the other, by which
the direction of its fall is determined. The stump is conical, and of such a height as a beaver
sitting on his hind-quarters could make. The largest tree I observed cut down by them was
about the thickness of a man's thigh-that is, six or seven inches in diameter—but Mr. Graham
says that he has seen them cut down a tree which was ten inches in diameter." This is, no
doubt, an exaggeration, or at least very uncommon. Beavers have no canine teeth.
The length of the head and body of a beaver is thirty-six to forty inches; the tail is about
eleven inches. In the pairing season it utters a kind of cry resembling a faint groan. Owing to
the shortness and inequality of its limbs, the gait is waddling and ungraceful; this effect is in-
creased by the clumsiness of its figure, and the difficulty it seems to have in dragging after it its
cumbrous tail. The latter, however, becomes useful in the water, where the animal spends the
greater part of its time, sometimes being employed as a paddle, and sometimes as a rudder. The
color is a reddish-brown; there are varieties, however, some of which are flaxen-colored, and some
black. There are albinos which are white. The scientific names of these are, C. f. varia, C.
f. nigra, and C. f. alba.
The young of the beaver, five to seven at a birth, are produced in April or May, the eyes being
open; in a month, they follow their mother into the water, but remain with her a year, sometimes
two years, being kept in a place of safety. Sometimes a dozen beavers dwell together. They
are caught at all seasons, being fat in autumn, but falling off in winter. They have been found
weighing from thirty to sixty pounds. Their common food is the bark of trees-birch, willow,
and cotton-wood—and the roots of aquatic plants, especially the pond-lily; in summer they wan-
der some distance from the water, and feed on berries, leaves, and various kinds of herbage. They
are said occasionally to devour fish, but this is not probable. Their fur consists of two sorts, one
composed of long, stiff, and elastic hair; the other, of a fine, soft, compact down, which gives ex-
traordinary value to the skin.
It
appears
the beavers there are some lazy ones which do not, or will not, assist in
the general labors of the association. These, as might be expected, are all males, and are beaten
off by the community, and often are injured by having their tails cut off, and by other wounds.
It has been suggested that they are disappointed lovers, and strange as it may appear, there seems
some reason for this idea. Pennant says they are called old bachelors. They do not build dams,
but dig holes from the water, running obliquely toward the surface of the ground. From these
they emerge, when necessity requires, to obtain food. They do not seem to set much value on
life, and are easily caught by the hunters and trappers.
The drug called castoreum, and which is an unctuous substance, of a strong, musky odor, is ob-
tained from two glandular sacks, situated near the anus. On this subject Richardson says: “I
have not had an opportunity of dissecting a beaver, but I was informed by the hunters that both
males and females are furnished with one pair of little bags containing castoreum, and also with
a second pair of smaller ones betwixt the former and the anus, which are filled with a white fatty
matter, of the consistence of butter, and exhaling a strong odor. This latter substance is not an
article of trade; but the Indians occasionally eat it, and also mingle a little with their tobacco
when they smoke. I did not learn the purpose that this secretion is destined to serve in the
economy of the animal; but from the circumstance of small ponds, when inhabited by beavers,
being tainted with its peculiar odor, it seems probable that it affords a dressing to the fur of these
aquatic animals. The castoreum in its recent state is of an orange-color, which deepens, as it
dries, into bright reddish-brown. During the drying, which is allowed to go on in the shade, a
gummy matter exudes through the sack, which the Indians delight in eating. The male and fe-
that among
а

382
VERTEBRATA.
a
a
male castoreum is of the same value, ten pairs of bags of either kind being reckoned to an Indian
as equal to one beaver-skin. The castoreum is never adulterated in the fur countries.”
It
appears that the castoreum, which is called bark-stone by the traders, is used by the hunters
in baiting their traps, because the beavers are exceedingly fond of the odor. The end of a small
stick, chewed or crushed, is dipped in the castoreum, which is kept in a horn; it is then set in the
water, with the anointed end above the surface, and the trap beneath. The beavers scent the
castoreum for a hundred yards or more, and so much are they delighted, that they draw in a long
breath, and utter a cry of joy as they imbibe the delicious fragrance. On approaching the delu-
sive bait, they are caught in the trap.
The traveler we have just quoted gives the following account of the flesh, which, as much has
been said of its delicacy as food, is interesting: “The flesh of the beaver is much prized by the
Indians and Canadian Voyagers, especially when it is roasted in the skin, after the hair has been
singed off. In some districts it requires all the influence of the fur-trader to restrain the hunters
from sacrificing a considerable quantity of beaver fur every year to secure the enjoyment of this
luxury; and Indians of note have generally one or two feasts in the season, wherein a roasted
beaver is the prime dish. It resembles pork in its flavor, but the lean is dark-colored, the fat oily,
and it requires a strong stomach to sustain a full meal of it. The tail, which is considered a great
luxury, consists of a gristly kind of fat, as rich, but not so nauseating, as the fat of the body."
Of the sagacity, ingenuity, and social polity of this animal many wonderful tales have been
told; except its instinct of building, however, it is not distinguished for intelligence. The follow-
ing excellent account, by Hearne, the traveler in North America, though it dissipates these fic-
tions, presents many curious and interesting details. “The beaver," he says, “being so plentiful,
the attention of my companions was chiefly engaged on them, as they not only furnished delicious
food, but their skins proved a valuable acquisition, being a principal article of trade, as well as a
serviceable one for clothing. The situation of the beaver-houses is various. Where the beavers
are numerous, they are found to inhabit lakes, ponds, and rivers, as well as those narrow creeks
which connect the numerous lakes with which this country abounds; but the two latter are gen-
erally chosen by them when the depth of water, and other circumstances, are suitable, as they
have then the advantage of a current to convey wood and other necessaries to their habitations,
and because, in general, they are more difficult to be taken than those that are built in standing
water. They always choose those parts that have such a depth of water as will resist the frost in
winter, and prevent it from freezing to the bottom. The beavers that build their houses in small
rivers or creeks, in which water is liable to be drained off when the back supplies are dried up by
the frost, are wonderfully taught by instinct to provide against that evil by making a dam quite
across the river, at a convenient distance from their houses.
“The beaver-dams differ in shape according to the nature of the place in which they are built.
If the water in the river or creek have but little motion, the dam is almost straight; but when the
current is more rapid, it is always made with a considerable curve, convex toward the stream.
The materials made use of are drift-wood, green willows, birch, and poplars, if they can be got;
also, mud and stones, intermixed in such a manner as must evidently contribute to the strength
of the dam; but there is no other order or method observed in the dams, except that of the work
being carried on with a regular sweep, and all the parts being made of equal strength. In places
which have been long frequented by beavers undisturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, be-
come a solid bank, capable of resisting a great force, both of water and ice; and as the wil-
low, poplar, and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by degrees form a kind of regular
planted hedge, which I have seen in some places so tall that birds built their nests among the
branches.
“The beaver-houses are built of the same materials as the dams, and are always proportioned
in size to the number of inhabitants, which seldom exceeds four old, and six or eight young ones;
though by chance I have seen above double the number. Instead of order or regulation being
observed in rearing their houses, they are of a much ruder structure than their dams; for, not-
withstanding the sagacity of these animals, it has never been observed that they aim at any other
convenience in their houses than to have a dry place to lie on: and there they usually eat their

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
383
victuals, which they occasionally take out of the water. It frequently happens that some of the
large houses are found to have one or more partitions, if they deserve that appellation, but it is
no more than a part of the main building, left by the sagacity of the beaver to support the roof.
On such occasions, it is common for those different apartments, as some are pleased to call them,
to have no communication with each other but by water; so that, in fact, they may be called
double or treble houses, rather than different apartments of the same house. I have seen a large
beaver-house built in a small island that had near a dozen apartments under one roof; and, two
or three of these excepted, none of them had any communication with each other but by water.
As there were beavers enough to inhabit each apartment, it is more than probable that each fam-
ily knew their own, and always entered at their own doors, without any further connection with
their neighbors than a friendly intercourse, and to join their united labors in erecting their sepa-
rate habitations, and building their dams where required.
“So far are the beavers from driving stakes into the ground when building their houses, as has
been asserted, that they lay most of the wood crosswise, and nearly horizontal, and without any
other order than that of leaving a hollow or cavity in the middle. When any unnecessary
branches project inward, they cut them off with their teeth and throw them in among the rest,
to prevent the mud from falling through the roof. It is a mistaken notion that the wood-work is
first completed and then plastered; for the whole of their houses, as well as their dams, are, from
the foundation, one mass of mud and wood, mixed with stones, if they can be procured. The
mud is always taken from the edge of the bank, or the bottom of the creek or pond near the door
of the house; and though their fore-paws are so small, yet it is held close up between them under
their throat; thus they carry both mud and stones, while they always drag the wood with their
teeth. All their work is executed in the night, and they are so expeditious, that in the course of
one night I have known them to have collected as much as amounted to some thousands of their
little handfuls. It is a great piece of policy in these animals to cover the outside of their houses
every fall with fresh mud, and as late as possible in the autumn, even when the frost becomes
pretty severe, as by this means it soon freezes as hard as a stone, and prevents their common
enemy, the wolverene, from disturbing them during the winter; and as they are frequently seen
to walk over their work, and sometimes to give a flap with their tail, particularly when plunging
into the water, this has, without doubt, given rise to the vulgar opinion that they use their tails
as a trowel with which they plaster their houses; whereas, that flapping of the tail is no more
than a custom which they always preserve, even when they become tame and domestic, and more
particularly so when they are startled.
“Their food consists largely of the root of the common yellow water-lily. They also eat the
bark of trees, particularly those of the poplar, birch, and willow; but the ice preventing them from
getting to the land in the winter, they have not any bark to feed on in that season, except that
of such sticks as they cut down in summer, and throw into the water opposite the doors of their
houses, and as they generally eat a great deal, the roots above mentioned constitute a principal
part of their food during the winter. In summer they vary their diet by eating various kinds of
herbage, and such berries as grow near their haunts during that season. When the ice breaks
up in the spring, the beavers always leave their houses, and rove about until a little before the
fall of the leaf, when they return again to their old habitations, and lay in their winter stock of
wood. They seldom begin to repair their houses till the frost commences, and never finish the
outer coat till the cold is pretty severe, as has been already mentioned. When they erect a new
habitation, they begin felling the wood early in the summer, but seldom begin to build until the
middle or latter end of August, and never complete it till the cold weather be set in.
“Persons who attempt to take beaver in winter should be thoroughly acquainted with their
manner of life, otherwise they will have endless trouble to effect their purpose, because they have
always a number of holes in the banks, which serve them as places of retreat when any injury is
offered to their houses, and in general it is in those holes that they are taken. When the beavers
which are situated in a small river or creek are to be taken, the Indians sometimes find it neces-
sary to stake the river across, to prevent them from passing; after which, they endeavor to find
out all their holes or places of retreat in the banks. This requires much practice and experience

384
VERTEBRATA.
to accomplish, and is performed in the following manner: every man being furnished with an ice-
chisel, lashes it to the end of a small staff about four or five feet long; he then walks along the
edge of the banks, and keeps knocking his chisel against the ice. Those who are acquainted with
that kind of work well know by the sound of the ice when they are opposite to any of the bea-
vers' holes or vaults. As soon as they suspect any, they cut a hole through the ice big enough
to admit an old beaver, and in this manner proceed till they have found out all their places of
retreat, or at least as many of them as possible. While the principal men are thus employed,
some of the understrappers and the women are busy in breaking open the house, which at times
is no easy task, for I have frequently known these houses to be five or six feet thick, and one in
particular was more than eight feet thick in the crown. When the beavers find that their habita-
tions are invaded, they fly to their holes in the banks for shelter; and on being perceived by the
Indians, which is easily done by attending to the motion of the water, they block up
the entrance
with stakes of wood, and then haul the beaver out of its hole, either by hand, if they can reach
it, or with a large hook made for that purpose, which is fastened to the end of a long stick.
“In this kind of hunting, every man has the sole right to all the beavers caught by him in the
holes or vaults; and as this is a constant rule, each person takes care to mark such as he discov-
ers by sticking up a branch of a tree, by which he may know them. All that are caught in the
house are the property of the person who finds it. The beaver is an animal which cannot keep
under water long at a time, so that, when their houses are broken open, and all their places of
retreat discovered, they have but one choice left, as it may be called, either to be taken in their
house or their vaults; in general, they prefer the latter, for where there is one beaver caught in
the house, many thousand are taken in the vaults in the banks. Sometimes they are caught in
nets, and in summer very frequently in traps.
"In respect to the beavers dunging in their houses, as some persons assert, it is quite wrong,
as they always plunge into the water to do it. I am the better enabled to make this assertion
from having kept several of them till they became so domesticated as to answer to their name,
and follow those to whom they were accustomed in the same manner as a dog would do, and they
were as much pleased at being fondled as any animal I ever saw. In cold weather they were
kept in my own sitting-room, where they were the constant companions of the Indian women and
children, and were so fond of their company, that when the Indians were absent for any
consider
able time the beaver discovered great signs of uneasiness, and on their return showed equal marks
of pleasure by fondling on them, crawling into their laps, lying on their backs, sitting erect like a
squirrel, and behaving like children who see their parents but seldom. In general, during the
winter, they lived on the same food as the women did, and were remarkably fond of rice and
plum-pudding; they would eat partridges and fresh venison very freely, but I never tried them
with fish, though I have heard they will at times prey on them. In fact, there are few graminiv-
orous animals that may not be brought to be carnivorous.”
Of the habits of the beaver in a state of confinement, M. Broderip furnishes us with the follow-
ing interesting account, relating to one taken to London some years ago :
“The animal arrived in England in the winter of 1825, when very young, being small and
woolly, and without the covering of long hair which marks the adult beaver. It was the sole
survivor of five or six which were shipped at the same time, and it was in a very pitiable condi-
tion. Good treatment quickly restored it to health, and kindness soon made it familiar. When
called by its name, 'Binny,' it generally answered with a little cry, and came to its owner. The
hearth-rug was its favorite haunt, and thereon it would lie stretched out, sometimes on its back,
sometimes on its side, and sometimes flat on its belly, but always near its master.
“The building instinct showed itself immediately it was let out of its cage, and materials were
placed in its way; and this before it had been a week in its new quarters. Its strength, even be-
fore it was half-grown, was great. It would drag
It would drag along a large sweeping-brush or a warming-
pan, grasping the handle with its teeth, so that the load came over its shoulder, and advancing
in an oblique direction till it arrived at the point where it wished to place it. The long and large
materials were always taken first, and two of the longest were generally laid crosswise, with one
of the ends of each touching the wall, and the other ends projecting out into the room. The

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
385
area, formed by the crossed brushes and the wall, he would fill up with hand-brushes, rush-
baskets, books, boots, sticks, clothes, dried turf, or any thing portable.
“ “ As the work grew high, he supported himself upon his tail, which propped him up admirably,
and he would often, after laying on one of his building materials, sit up over against it, appearing
to consider his work, or as the country people say, 'judge it. This pause was sometimes followed
by changing the position of the material “judged, and sometimes it was left in its place. After
he had piled up his materials in one part of the room, for he generally chose the same place, he
proceeded to wall
tip
the
space
between the feet of a chest of drawers which stood at a little dis-
tance from it, high enough on its legs to make the bottom a roof for him, using for this purpose
dried turf and sticks, which he laid very even, and filling up the interstices with bits of coal, hay,
cloth, or any thing he could pick up. This last place he seemed to appropriate for his dwelling;
the former work seemed to be intended as a dam.
“When he had walled up the space between the feet of the chest of drawers, he proceeded to
,
carry in sticks, clothes, hay, and cotton, and to make a nest, and when he had done, he would
sit
up
under the drawers and comb himself with the nails of his hind-feet. In this operation, that
which appeared at first to be a malformation was shown to be a beautiful adaptation to the ne-
cessities of the animal. The huge webbed hind-feet of the beaver turn in so as to give the appear-
ance of deformity; but if the toes were straight, instead of being incurved, the animal could not
use them for the purpose of keeping its fur in order, and cleansing it from dirt and moisture.
“Binny generally carried small and light articles between his right fore-leg and his chin, walk-
ing on the other three legs; large masses, which he could not grasp readily with his teeth, he
pushed forward, leaning against them with his right fore-paw and his chin. He never carried
any thing on his tail, which he liked to dip in water, but he was not fond of plunging in the
whole of his body. If his tail was kept moist, he never cared to drink; but if it was kept dry, it
became hot, and the animal appeared distressed, and would drink a great deal. It is not impos-
sible that the tail may have the power of absorbing water like the skin of frogs, though it must
be owned that the scaly integument which invests that member has not much of the character
which generally belongs to absorbing surfaces.
“Bread, milk, and sugar formed the principal part of Binny's food, but he was very fond of
succulent fruits and roots. He was a most entertaining creature, and some highly comic scenes
occurred between the worthy but slow beaver, and a light and airy macauco that was kept in
the same apartment.”
The history of the beaver, in connection with man, is a tale of persecution and destruction for
twenty centuries or more, without the mitigation, as in the case of domestic animals, of services
rendered in its behalf. The beaver is everywhere a wild animal, and yet entirely inoffensive,
offering no provocation by attacking either the life, comfort, or industry of man. But it offers
the extraordinary temptations of edible flesh, a precious drug, and an almost priceless pelt! For-
merly, it built its villages in all the north of Europe, in the same manner, and doubtless in as
great numbers, as in North America. It was then the gentle, ingenuous, thrifty possessor of the
banks of rivers, and streams, and lakes, and ponds, in the boundless wilds yet unknown to man.
How secure, how ample its dominions then; how narrow its tenements, how persecuted its exist-
ence now!
Wherever it
may be every man's hand is raised against it. Hunters and trappers
pursue it to its most hidden retreats; every crafty device is employed for its capture. If it lingers
yet in its old haunts-possessed in fee by its ancestors for thousands of years—now in the vicin-
ity of human settlements, it is as a timid, trembling, and almost solitary fugitive, venturing abroad
only at night, and then with the consciousness that every step is taken in peril of its life.
It has been made a matter of question whether the European beaver is of the same species as
the American. It is said that along the Rhine, Danube, and other rivers of Europe, it does not
associate and build huts as in America, but lives in burrows, like the musk-rat. There can be no
doubt, that being greatly reduced in numbers, and annoyed by the vicinity of man-whose culti-
vation comes to the doors of its retreat-it has in some degree changed its natural habits. Pink-
erton gives the following translation from a Swedish writer of 1767, describing the beaver of the
Vol. 1.-49
a
a

386
VERTEBRATA.
a
a
north of Europe, by which—though the account is no doubt exaggerated—it appears that in their
chief peculiarity they there display the same instincts as their American congeners:
“The beaver is instinctively led to build his house near the banks of lakes and rivers. He
saws with his teeth birch-trees, with which the building is constructed; with his teeth he drags
the wood along to the place destined for building his habitation; in this manner one piece of tim-
ber is carried after another where they choose. At the lake or river, where their house is to be
built, they lay birch-stocks or trunks, covered with their bark, in the bottom itself, and forming a
foundation, they complete the rest of the building with so much art and ingenuity as to excite
the admiration of the beholders. The house itself is of a round and arched figure, equaling in its
circumference the ordinary hut of a Laplander. In this house the floor is for a bed, covered with
branches of trees, not in the very bottom, but a little above, near the edge of a river or lake; so
that, between the foundation and flooring, on which the dwelling is supported, there is formed, as
it were, a cell, filled with water, in which the stalks of the birch-tree are put up; on the bark of
this, the beaver family who inhabit this mansion feed. If there are more families under one roof,
besides the laid flooring, another, resembling the former, is built a little above, which you may
not improperly name a second story in the building. The roof of the dwelling consists of branches
very closely compacted, and projects out far over the water. You have now, reader, a house con-
sisting and laid out in a cellar, a flooring, a hypocaust, a ceiling, and a roof, raised by a brute an-
imal, altogether destitute of reason, and also of the builder's art, with no less ingenuity than com-
modiousness."
In confirmation of the preceding description—or at least in evidence of the building propensity
of the European beaver—we copy the following anecdote, related by Geoffroy St. Hilaire: “One
of these beavers from the Rhône was confined in the Paris menagerie. Fresh branches were reg-
ularly put into his cage, together with his food, consisting of vegetables, fruits, &c., to amuse him
during the night, and minister to his gnawing propensity. He had only litter to shield him from
the frost, and the door of his cage closed badly. One bitter winter-night it snowed, and the snow
had collected in one corner. These were all his materials, and the poor beaver disposed of them
to secure himself from the nipping air. The branches he interwove between the bars of his cage,
precisely as a basket-maker would have done. In the intervals he placed his litter, his carrots,
his apples, his all, fashioning each with his teeth so as to fit them to the spaces to be filled. To
stop the interstices he covered the whole with snow, which froze in the night, and in the morning
it was found that he had thus built a wall which occupied two-thirds of the doorway."
While the beaver has thus been exterminated in Europe, except that a few linger along the
borders of the rivers in the more thinly settled portions, and somewhat greater numbers exist in
the forests of the north, in North America a similar process has been going on. Where, half a
century ago, a hunter or trapper could kill four hundred in a year, they are already scarce, and
are only to be found in sufficient numbers to make the pursuit a profession in the distant solitudes
of the northwest. It was formerly spread over the whole of North America, and as appears, was
so plentiful even in what constitutes the present State of New York, that two centuries ago,
from
eight to ten thousand skins were annually taken. The trade in beaver-skins was, indeed, one of
the leading inducements to the early settlements and migrations of the colonists, English and
French. Catesby speaks of it as found in Carolina, and Bartram in Florida; and the names of
Beaver River, Beaver Creek, Beaver Dam, all over the country, show the universality of its dis-
tribution throughout the whole United States. A few are still found in remote and unsettled
parts as far south as Virginia, and thence northward through most of the Middle and Eastern
States. In the Canadas, where it was once so abundant, it is rare, and is only plentiful in the
vast wilds of the northwest—its range extending across the continent, and as high as 68° north
latitude—the hunting-grounds of the Indians. Here there are still men who pursue the life of
hunters and trappers, but while they are exposed to many hardships, and to the dangerous hos-
tility or fatal caprice of the Indians, they rarely obtain a compensation, and never a fortune.
Formerly, a skillful trapper obtained eighty beavers in the autumn, sixty in the spring, and three
hundred in the summer, but less than half that number is now the usual fruit of a season's labor.
The Indians are the chief pursuers of this, as well as the other fur-bearing animals of the North
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
387
and West at the present time, their peltry being chiefly collected by the agents of the Hudson's
Bay Company.
In Europe, the beaver-skin was used for clothing as far back as the age of Herodotus. The
.
existence of the beaver in England is indicated as early as the time of Alfred the Great, who speaks
in his writings of its curious building instincts. In 1638, Charles I. issued a proclamation pro-
hibiting the use of any materials except beaver-stuff or beaver-wool in the manufacture of hats,
and forbidding the making of the hats called demi-castors, unless for exportation. This procla-
mation was an almost exterminating death-warrant to the beavers in the American Colonies.
They were speedily swept away from the more southern ones, and the traffic became for the most
part confined to Canada and Hudson's Bay. From this time the imports into Europe appear to
have varied from 100,000 to 150,000 skins a year. London became the great market for these
furs, and the average importations from 1783 to 1840 were about 140,000. The annual con-
sumption of the whole world probably did not exceed 150,000.*
* STATISTICS OF THE Fur TRADE.-Since the above was written, we have taken some pains to collect facts on this
subject, and by the kindness of one of the leading American houses in New York connected with this business, with
other opportunities, we are able to offer the following interesting facts:
IMPORTATION OF FURS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY IN 1858, AND OFFERED FOR SALE
IN LONDON IN JANUARY AND MARCH, 1859.
Kinds.
of skins.
No. of Total
skins. 1858.
Total
1857.
Total
1856.
Value in
1859.
Kinds.
of skins.
No. of Total
skins. 1858.
Total
1857.
Total
1956.
Value in
1859.
Beaver..
Badger
Bear.
Fisher.
Fox-Silver.
Cross..
Red....
White.
Kitt...
Lynx....
Collected from vari-
ous sources.
(6
72,241 67,644 61,789 $1 25 per lb. Martin....
1,285 1,090 785 0 60 each. Mink.....
3,566 3,199 3,796 7 00 each. Musquash..
5,168 4,886 4,885 6 00 each.
Otter..
894
826 78025 00 each. Rabbit.
3,307 2,718 2,637 7 00 each. Skunk...
10,295 8,851 9,644 1 25 each. Swan skins..
1,542 2,158 3,354 0 60 each. Wolf .....
5,546 9,811 5,668 0 35 each. Wolverine ..
28,102 26,794 18,907 2 40 each.
108,752 110,848 144,235 $2 50 each.
40,336 43,318 40,368 1 27 each.
219,829 290,112 280,517 0 14 each.
9,968 9,822 8,958 4 50 each.
54,516 60,929 70,626 3 a 4c. each.
8,460 8,124
1 50 each.
829 775
0 25 each.
12,007 6,789 8,720 1 50 each.
697 648 617) 2 00 each.
Collected from vari-
ous sources.
66
66
This does not embrace the Columbia River importation, which includes about 18,000 beaver-skins annually; and
of the other kinds, about fifteen per cent. on the preceding numbers.
On the 26th of January, 1859, C. M. Lampson & Co., an American house in London, offered for sale 10,000 beaver-
skins and 350,000 musquash skins, and in March, the following:
200,000 Raccoon-skins.
5,000 Mink-skins.
10,000 Red Fox-skins.
200 Cross and Silver Fox-skins,
2,000 Martin-skins.
1,000 Otter-skins.
1,000 Lynx-skins.
1,000 Bear-skins.
700 Fisher-skins.
1,000 Skunk-skins.
10,000 Opossum-skins.
This is a half-yearly sale, so that the numbers must be doubled. These tables furnish the elements of a calculation
of the furs of the above kinds, annually imported into London from America, for these two concerns engross the
entire trade. To these must be added the furs retained in the United States for consumption there. The amount
of the European and Asiatic furs of these kinds is trifling in comparison with the preceding amounts.
The whole number of beaver-skins annually produced can thus be pretty accurately ascertained. The importation
of the Hudson's Bay Company alone, for 1858, is 72,241 skins; for Columbia River, 18,000; Lampson & Co. sell 20,000 ;
retained for use in the United States, 5,000; and the Russian America skins sent to the United States and used there,
4,000. Thus we have 119,241 beaver-skins as the product of North America for the year 1858. This exceeds the
average; the product throughout the world may be one hundred thousand skins annually. Owing to the substitu-
tion, for the manufacture of hats, of silk and Nutria fur—the skins of this animal selling at forty cents the pound, (see
page 408,)-the demand for beaver has greatly diminished within the last ten years, and the present annual product
is but about two-thirds what it was formerly. The price was $7 a pound in 1832, in 1844 $4 50; it is now $1 25.
This reduction of value has abated the zeal with which these animals have been pursued, and it is a curious fact that
in some localities, especially in British America, they are actually on the increase. Within the United States,
the Indians, having ceded their lands to the government, and receiving annual stipends from the same, have
greatly relaxed their energy and enterprise in hunting and trapping; but the extending settlements of the whites
have even more than supplied their place, as the white man pursues wild animals from the spirit of the chase, with-
out exclusive regard to the money profits they may yield. The beaver territory is much more contracted than it was.
Twenty years ago Kansas and Nebraska produced a considerable amount of beavers ; at present their yield is
trifling. In 1830 the Lake Superior Indians annually procured furs to the value of $150,000; now the annual product
of the same region is not more than one-fifth of that value. All things considered, we think the beaver at the pres-
ent time is actually diminishing, though, as we have said, in certain places it may be on the increase. It must
be remembered that about 100,000 are annually killed, almost wholly in North America, and that in a territory very
inuch contracted from what it was half a century ago, when the annual product was 150,000.
The musquash-skins are chiefly supplied from the U. S. ; Lampson & Co.'s sales are about a million a year.

388
VERTEBRATA.
7763
Fy
کم
יוני גשם
SR
mu
THE HYSTRICID Æ.
This family embraces a number of tribes, all bearing more or less resemblance to the well-known
Porcupine, whose scientific name is Hystrix, and thus furnishes the title of the group. Most of
these have some resemblance to the hog, from the nature of their hair, the form of their body,
and their manner of walking, as well as in some less important particulars. Their size, though
less than that of the hog, is still superior to most other rodents. They all have four pair of molar
teeth, the crowns of which exhibit sinuosities more or less complicated. The cranium and jaws
also present some peculiarities. The tribes included in this family we shall notice under the
names of Caviens, Celogenyens, Dasyproctiens, Hystriciens, Aulacodiens, Erethizoniens, Chinchil-
liens or Callomyens, and Anomaluriens.
THE CAVIENS OR CAVIINA.
This tribe has the following characteristics : molar teeth rootless, divided by folds of enamel
so as to form lobes having acute angles; the series of molars on opposite sides of the upper jaw
converging, and nearly meeting in front; incisor teeth comparatively short, those of the lower
jaw not being extended backward as far as the springing of the angular portion, or descending
ramus; four toes to the fore-feet, and three to the hind; tail wanting, or rudimentary; upper
lip entire;" a strongly-developed horizontal ridge on the outer surface of the lower jaw; the
angular portion of this jaw produced much beyond the condyloid portion, descending below
the level of the dental portion, and with a curved lower margin; clavicles wanting.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
389
THE CAPYBARA.
Genus HYDROCHERUS: Hydrochorus.—Of this there is a single species, the CAPYBARA, H.
capybara, which has had the various designations of Water-hog, Tailless Hippopotamus, and
Short-nosed Tapir : it is called Cabiai by the French. It measures at least three feet from the
muzzle to the hinder part, and has no tail. The general shape of the body is thick, and, as one
would say, pig-like; but the head is that of rodent animals generally, and like the rest of these,
the upper lip is furnished with mustaches. The hairs on the upper part of the head and body,
and the outsides of the legs, are black at the roots, and also at the points, while the intermediate
part is yellow. The insides of the legs, a portion of the under part, and also round the eyes,
is
entirely yellow and the mustaches are black. The mixture of these two colors gives a dinginess
to the animal, and its expression at the same time is rather dull and heavy. The hair is also
somewhat bristly in its texture, and sparely scattered over the body of the animal; and this in-
creases its pig-like appearance; the ears are small and rounded. The female has twelve mammæ,
which are situated partly on the breast and partly on the belly; the upper lip is divided, though
not so much as in the hare, but still in the closed mouth it shows the teeth partially; the eyes
are large, and of a black color; the nose, the ears, and the naked portion of the legs, are blackish
ash-color. The color of the hair changes with age, and in very old specimens the root is black,
the middle brown, and the point red. In consequence of these changes, which are in general at-
tended with an increase of size, several varieties have sometimes been described, but there is every
reason to believe that there is only one species.
The capybara is found in the neighborhood of the great rivers of Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay.
It feeds on fruits and herbs, is nocturnal in its habits, wanders about in large droves making a
loud clamor, swims rivers and torrents in search of food, sometimes catches and eats fish, and is
killed in large numbers by the hunters. Its flesh is oily and of a fishy flavor, on which account
it is permitted by some Catholics on meagre days; the head is considered a delicacy; indeed, the
whole animal is eaten and relished by some of the South Americans. The capybaras are easily
tamed, and become gentle in confinement, coming at call, and following those who serve them;
but their dull appearance, slow motions, aquatic habits, and an offensive odor which they emit,
prevent their becoming favorites.
Genus DOLICHOTIS: Dolichotis.—Of this there is one species, the PATAGONIAN CAVY, D.
Patagonica. This is a burrowing animal, but sometimes avails itself of the excavations of the

390
VERTEBRATA.
THE PATAGONIAN CAVY.
com-
viscacha for a retreat. It wanders at times to great distances from its home; on these occasions,
two or three are usually seen together. The animal in its mode of running greatly resembles the
rabbit, but though its limbs are long it does not run very fast; it sometimes, though seldom,
squats after the manner of the hare, is very shy and watchful, and feeds by day. The eyes,
like
those of the Kangaroos, are defended from the direct rays of the sun by well-developed eye-lashes,
which is not the case with ordinary cavies. It generally produces two young at a birth, and brings
forth in its burrow; its flesh is white when cooked, but rather dry and tasteless. The long legs
and rather long erect ears, combined with the general form of the head, and the short recurved
tail, have caused this animal to be very generally mistaken for a hare by casual observers. Its
fur is soft, and its color brown on the back and fawn on the sides. For size it surpasses
the
mon hare, full-grown individuals weighing from twenty to thirty pounds, and indeed the Patago-
nian Cavy must rank among the largest of the rodent tribe, though surpassed by its aquatic con-
gener, the capybara.
It is found in Patagonia on the east coast, from latitude 37° to 48° south. Darwin says it “is
found only where the country has a desert character. It is a common feature in the landscape of
Patagonia to see in the distance two or three of these Cavies hopping one after the other in a
straight line over the gravelly plains thinly clothed by a few thorny bushes and a withered
herbage.”
Genus KERODON: Kerodon.—Of this there is a single species, the Rock Cavy, K.rupestris,
the Kerodon Moco of F. Cuvier. In this animal the fur is soft, its general hue gray, tinted with
rufous on the hinder part of the back; throat white, chest whitish; abdomen white, suffused with
pale ocherous yellow. It inhabits the interior of Brazil, and is confined to rocky districts, where
it seeks its retreat in holes among the fragments of the rocks. It is frequently met with at Bel-
monte, Rio Pardo, and Rio de St. Francisco, being found near the rivers, but always in the higher
parts of their course. Its flesh is said to be well-flavored, on which account it is sought by the
Indians, to whom it is known by the name of Hoke; by the Portuguese it is called Mokô. It is
superior in size to most other cavies, stands higher on its legs, and is remarkable in its group
for
the comparative softness of its fur, and the structure of the nails of its toes.
Genus CAVIA: Cavia, or COBAYE, according to Gervais.—Of this there are several species,
all called Cavies, the most noted of which is the RESTLESS CAVY, C. aperea; the Cochon d'Inde

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
391
- NC3นา
THE ROCK CAVY.
а
of Buffon; the Ferkel-maus of the Germans. It is sometimes called Coui-coui, from its cry. There
is both a wild and a domestic breed. In a wild state, it has the incisors white; fur long, and
somewhat coarse, and on the upper parts of the sides and body distinctly penciled with black and
dirty yellow; chest gray-brown, throat and abdomen pale, dirty yellow, or sometimes brown-gray.
It is of the size of a large rat, its legs very short, its neck short, and its body very clumsy. It has
no tail. It inhabits the banks of the Rio de la Plata, and extends northward into Paraguay,
Bolivia, and Brazil. It is known by the name of Aperea, and it is exceedingly common in the
neighborhood of several towns on the banks of the Rio de la Plata, sometimes frequenting the
sand hillocks, or the hedge-rows formed of the Agave and Opuntia ; but marshy places, covered
with aquatic plants, appear to be preferred.
Where the soil is dry, it makes a burrow, but otherwise lies concealed amid the herbage. It
generally comes out to feed in the evening, and if the day be gloomy, it will likewise make its
appearance in the morning. Mr. Bridges states that this animal in Bolivia is confined to the low
lands, and in this respect differs from the Cavia Boliviensis, which is always found at a consider-
able elevation. It is not uncommon in fields in the neighborhood of Chuquisaca and Cochab-
amba, and takes shelter among the loose stones of the walls by which the fields are inclosed. In
Paraguay it generally frequents moist situations, and near the borders of forests, but it never
occurs either in the forests or in the open fields. It lives in little societies of from six to fifteen
individuals, in the impenetrable groves of bromelias, and its presence is detected by numerous
little beaten paths which it forms among these plants. It feeds early in the morning and after
sunset in the evening, but never strays far from its home. It is stated that it breeds but once in
the year, and then has but one or two young.
The DOMESTIC GUINEA-PIG, or COBAYA, or Anema, the Mus porcellus of Linnæus, is probably
the descendant of the wild species just described, though this some naturalists doubt, as the
Aperea is said to breed but once a year, and to produce only one or two at a time, while the do-
mestic animal is prolific as a rabbit; the color, also, of the tame variety is greatly diversified. In

392
VERTEBRATA.
பரர்
INDIAN CATCHING A WILD GUINEA-PIG.
reply, it may be said that some doubt rests upon the facts as to the breeding of the Aperea, and
even if its habits vary from those of the Cobaya, it may be that a change of life has produced
this alteration. The change of color is analogous to the changes in various other domestic animals.
Before we proceed to describe this animal, we may note the inaccuracy of its popular title,
Guinea-Pig; it is not from Guinea, neither is it a pig. Perhaps Guinea was mistaken for Gui-
ana, from which country it is possible the creature was first introduced into Europe; the name of
pig may be forgiven, as the creature certainly somewhat resembles a very small denizen of the sty.
Among the domestic Guinea-pigs, some are almost entirely white, others spotted with black
and fawn-color, with yellow, tawny, &c. The body is short and thick; the neck is not distin-
guishable from the head and trunk; the ears, which are large, naked, and transparent, are in a
great measure concealed by the hairs on the upper part of the head; the eyes are round, large,
and prominent; the head and nose resemble those of the hare and rabbit; the teeth are similar
to those of the rat, but they are placed obliquely outward in the upper, and obliquely inward in
the lower jaw; and the hair is long, hard and smooth.
Among the most remarkable of the characters of this animal may be recorded its precocity and
fertility; for though it attains not its full growth till eight or nine months, it is capable of propa-
gating in five or six weeks after birth. The female goes only three weeks with young; her first
litter consists of two, which corresponds with the habit of the wild species; her second of four or
five, and her subsequent ones of seven or eight, or even sometimes of ten or eleven. It is curious
that the mother has but two mammæ. She gives suck only for twelve or fifteen days, and chases
away
her
young if they remain longer by her, or, if they prove refractory, she permits the male
to abuse and kill them. Her parental attachment, indeed, seems to be much weaker than in
most other species; for she will often suffer her young to be taken from her, and even devoured

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTI A.
393
Bi
GUINEA-PIGS.
as soon as they are born, without betraying the least concern. As she breeds once in the two
months, it has been calculated that a single couple may prove the source of one thousand individ-
uals in the course of a year. To check this excessive fecundity, nature has provided that many
of them should fall a sacrifice to cold and moisture, to the feeble and short-lived affection of their
parents, to their quarrels with one another, and to their incapacity of defending themselves against
cats and other beasts of prey. Their life is almost an incessant round of eating, sleeping, and re-
producing their kind.
Buffon asserts that they never drink, but this not correct, for they are very fond of milk, and,
in default of it, have recourse to water. They readily feed on all sorts of herbs, but prefer parsley
and the tops of carrots even to bread or flour. They are also very fond of apples and other fruits,
and will feed on grain, and tea-leaves. They eat precipitately, like rabbits, and very often, and
but little at a time. They sleep with their eyes half open, like the hare, and continue watchful
if apprehensive of danger. Their usual cry resembles the grunting of a young pig; but they also
express pleasure or pain by appropriate sounds. They are very susceptible to cold, and will press
together to avoid its effects. Though naturally tame and gentle in their deportment, they are
incapable of strong attachment. They seem to be governed by instinct, and to have less of
what may be called intelligence than almost any other rodent. They love dark and intricate re-
treats, and seldom venture out of concealment when danger is at hand. They are at great pains
to keep themselves and one another clean, frequently licking and smoothing their own and their
neighbors' fur.
With scarcely sufficient courage to defend themselves against the attacks of a mouse, their ani-
mosities against those of their own species are obstinate and violent, and generally originate in a
desire of possessing the warmest corner, or the most agreeable food. The males also have sharp
conflicts of gallantry. Their mode of fighting is very singular, for one of them seizing the neck of
its antagonist with its teeth, attempts to tear off the hair, while the other turns its posteriors to
the aggressor,
kicks
up behind like a horse, and scratches his rival's flanks even to the effusion of
blood. The only battles which they fight are, however, with one another; for they may be taken,
and even killed, without offering any resistance, farther than very feeble attempts at escape.
Vol. 1.-50
a

394
VERTEBRATA.
These animals are not eaten, and the chief reason for their being propagated, as they are to a
considerable extent, is, that they are exceedingly smooth, gentle, and pretty, are very productive,
and easily kept. They have a disagreeable smell, but this is supposed to be compensated for by
disgusting rats and mice so that they will desert the place which they inhabit.
The other species of Cavia are as follows: Spıx's Cavy, C. Spixii, and the BRILLIANT CAVY,
C. fulgida, both of Mexico; the YELLOW-TOOTHED CAVY, C. flavidens, of Bolivia, found abun-
dantly in the plains around Lake Titicaca, and called C. Boliviensis by some authors, and Galea
musteloides by Meyen; Cutler's Cavy, C. Cutleri, of Peru, and the SOUTHERN Cavy, C. Australis,
found from Paraguay to the Straits of Magellan. This latter is described as living in deep bur-
rows, made in sandy places covered with shrubs, and usually near the habitations of man. It is
lively, but timid, seldom quitting its retreats, except at night. The Indians call it Sahal, and
the Spaniards Tucu-tucu. Bennett gives this species the scientific name of Kerodon Kingii.
އަ)
Bammare
A sc.
THE BROWN PACA.
THE CELOGENYENS OR PACAS.
The Pacas resemble the capybaras, though the former are omnivorous and the latter herbivor-
ous; they also approach the agoutis, being closely allied to them by their general form and the
similarity of their organization. The dental and generative systems in both are very nearly alike;
neither have clavicles, nor indeed has the capybara; and though the agouti has only three toes on
the hind-feet, the two additional hind-toes of the Paca are hardly more than rudiments. The great
differences consist in the zygomatic development, the folding back of the skin under the zygomatic
arch—and the consequent bluff appearance of the head—the cheek-pouches, and the fur.
Under this head we have to mention but the single genus, PACA or CELOGENYS, Calogenys,
and a single species, the PACA, often called the Brown PACA ; the Spotted Cavy of Pennant and
Bewick; the Pag of the Brazilians; the Paig of the inhabitants of Paraguay. It is called Pak
by the colonists of Cayenne, and Water-hare by those of Surinam. It is the Mus paca of Linnæus;
the C. subniger of F. Cuvier. Some naturalists mention another species, C. fulvus, but it is doubt-
less only a variety of the C. subniger.
This animal, which is found in Brazil and the adjacent countries, and which once existed in
the West Indies, has a thickset, stubby appearance, with a clumsy gait, though its movements are
prompt and sudden. The fur is composed of silky hairs, very short, thin, and stiff, of a blackish-
brown on all the upper parts of the body, excepting four rows of parallel spots, which begin at
the shoulders and terminate at the haunches; the spots of each row are so approximated, that
when viewed in a particular direction they seem to form an uninterrupted line, and the row near-
est the belly is almost confounded with the color of that part, which is white; the under parts of
the lower jaws, the internal surface of the limbs, and the claws are also white. The length of the
body is twenty-one inches; the height, twelve inches.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
395
a
In a state of nature the habitation of the Paca is in low humid forests, and in the neighbor-
hood of water. The animal digs a burrow like the rabbit, but much less deep; indeed, it is so
near the surface, that the foot of the pedestrian often breaks through, and, sinking into the tun-
nel, drives out the tenant. There are generally three issues to a burrow, and the apertures of these
the animal covers with dry leaves and branches. To take it alive, the hunter stops two of these
openings and digs into the third; but when the penetralia are reached, the hapless besieged
makes a most determined resistance, fighting the enemy with ferocity, and trying to bite. When
undisturbed, it often sits up and washes its head and whiskers with its two fore-paws, which it
licks and moistens with its saliva at each ablution, like a cat; and with these fore-paws, as well
as with the hind ones, it often scratches itself and dresses its fur. Though heavy and corpulent,
it can run with a good deal of activity, and often takes lively jumps. It swims and dives with
great adroitness, and its cry resembles the grunting of a young pig. Its food consists of fruits
and tender plants, which it seeks in the night, hardly ever quitting its burrow in the day, the
strong light of which, as is the case with other nocturnal animals, being oppressive to its eye. The
planter often rues the visits made by these midnight foragers to his sugar-canes. The female is
said to bring forth at the rainy season, and to produce but a single young one, which stays a long
time with the mother. The Pacas are very cleanly creatures, never dropping their excrements
near their dwellings, but going to a considerable distance for that purpose. The flesh is stated to
be of good flavor, but as it is very fat and rich, it soon cloys; it is prepared for cooking by being
scalded like a sucking-pig. Its skin is of no value to the furrier; but its thickness might make
it available in the useful arts.
Cuvier thinks that this animal might be made to form a very good acquisition in the depart-
ment of domestic economy. He had the opportunity of studying the habits of one in the Garden
of Plants, and says that in captivity no creature can exhibit less intelligence. When offended, it
throws itself violently at the object which has displeased it, and then makes a grumbling, which
breaks out into a kind of barking; and when it is not eating it is sleeping. But it requires a soft
and well-made bed, and, to obtain this, it collects with its mouth hay, herbage, straw, any thing,
indeed, that suits its purpose, of which it makes a little heap, and then lies down in the center of
it. This bed it never defiles, but goes to the extremity of its cage the farthest removed from it,
and constantly resorts to the same spot for the same purpose. It feeds on vegetables, but does
not refuse meat.
If the Paca is little favored on the side of intelligence, it appears on the other hand to be re-
compensed by a large share of instinct. Mr. Bennett, from his observation of one which lived for
some months in the Garden of the Zoological Society, in London, states that it is quiet and con-
tented in captivity. Buffon, who kept one for some time in his house, found it mild and familiar.
a
THE AGOUTIS, OR DASYPROCTIENS.
Of this tribe there is a single genus, AGOUTI: the Dasyprocta of Illiger, and Chloromys of
Cuvier. The most prominent zoological characters of the species are found in the nature and
conformation of the feet and toes. The toes are provided with powerful claws, and yet the animals
make no use of them in digging or burrowing; they are pretty long, and separate from one
another, enabling them to hold their food between their fore-paws, and in this manner to convey
it to their mouth. Like all other animals which are thus accustomed to use the fore-paws as
hands, they have a habit of sitting upright upon their hind-quarters to eat, and frequently also
assume the same position when they would look around them, or are surprised by any unusual
sound or occurrence. Their food is exclusively of a vegetable nature, and consists most commonly
of wild yams, potatoes, and other tuberous roots; in the islands of the different West India groups
they are particularly destructive to the sugar-cane, of the roots of which they are extremely fond.
The planters employ every artifice for destroying them, so that at present they have become com-
paratively rare in the sugar islands, though on the first settlement of the Antilles and Bahamas
they are said to have swarmed in such countless multitudes as to have constituted the principal
article of food for the Indians. They were the largest quadrupeds indigenous to these islands

396
VERTEBRATA.
Com
warna
MA
wydaw
AGOUTIS.
upon their first discovery. The same rule of geographical distribution holds good generally in
other cases, namely, that where groups of islands are detached at some distance from the main-
land of a particular continent, the smaller species of inhabitants are usually found spread over
both, while the larger and more bulky are confined to the main-land alone, and are never found
to be indigenous in the small insulated lands.
Though the Agoutis use their fore-paws as hands to hold their food while they eat, yet their
toes are nevertheless rigid and inflexible, and their claws large, blunt, and nearly straight. They
are consequently deprived of the power of ascending trees; and as they also do not construct bur-
rows, they wander at large among the woods, sheltering themselves beneath fallen timber, or in
the hollow of some decayed tree. Here they produce and nurture their young, bringing forth,
according to some accounts, three or four times in the year; according to others, never having
more than a single litter in the same season, and even that consisting of not more than two or
three individuals. It is probable, however, from the amazing number of these animals found in
all the hotter parts of South America, notwithstanding the destruction made among them by
small carnivorous animals, as well as by the Indians, and likewise from the close affinity which
they bear to the hare and rabbit, that the Agoutis are tolerably prolific. The young are brought
forth with their eyes closed, as in the case of most of the Rodentia and Carnivora ; but they are
covered with hair, or rather small bristles, of the same color as the mother; they soon acquire the
use of their limbs, and learn to shift for themselves.
The hind-legs of the Agoutis are considerably longer than the fore, and their pace
is tolerably
rapid for a short distance. But they seldom trust to speed of foot for their safety, but seek for
shelter and security in the first hollow tree, or under the first rock they meet with. Here they
allow themselves to be captured, without any other complaint or resistance than the emission of
a sharp, plaintive note. The head of the Agouti is large, the forehead and face convex, the nose
swollen and tuberous, the ears round, short, and nearly naked, and the eyes large and black. The
hair is annulated in different degrees with black, yellow, and green; it is generally coarse and
bristly, like the weak spines of a hedge-hog, though in one species it approaches in fineness to the
fur of the rabbit; the tail is most.commonly a mere naked stump or tubercle, which in the Acou-
chy alone attains any apparent length, and is covered with a few short, scattered hairs. The teeth
are twenty in all, namely, two incisors and eight molars, four on each side, in each jaw. Of this
genus there are several species.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
397
The Common AGOUTI, D, acuti, sometimes called the Long-nosed or Yellow-rumped Cavy,
from its long nose and the prevalent color of its back and shoulders, is the size of a middling
hare, being one foot eight inches in length, and about eleven or twelve inches high at the croup.
The head resembles that of the rabbit, the nose is thick and swollen, the face arched, the upper
lip divided, the ears round and naked, the eyes large, the upper jaw considerably longer than the
lower, and the tail a naked flesh-colored stump. The hairs of the upper and fore parts of the
body are annulated with brown, yellow, and black, which gives the animal a speckled yellow and
green appearance on the neck, head, back, and sides.
Bo
DEL ET SO.
THE BLACK AGOUTI.
a
The Black or CRESTED AGOUTI, D. cristata, is considerably smaller than the common agouti,
being about the size of a rabbit, while that species approaches the dimensions of the hare. Its
general proportions and form, however, are the same; but the hairs of the back and sides, instead
of being annulated with various-colored rings as in that species, are nearly uniform black, while
the long hairs of the croup are perfectly so; the belly and legs are equally covered with short
dark hair. There is not any appearance of crest, and the tail is still shorter than in the common
agouti. Both this species and the preceding seem to inhabit the same climates—Surinam, Guiana,
and Brazil; the common agouti, however, appearing to have a rather more extensive range, and
to be likewise found in the West India islands, and even as far south as Paraguay.
The Acouchy, or OLIVE AGOUTI, D. acuschy—the Mus leporinus of Linnæus—is considerably
smaller than either of the foregoing species, and is at once distinguished by the greater length of
its tail, which is upward of two inches in length, not much thicker than a crow's quill, and cov-
ered with short scattered hairs like those on the tail of a rat. In other respects it is of the same
form as the other Agoutis: has the same naked round ears, the same large black eyes, and
the same olive-green color, mixed with yellow and black. The hairs of the croup are not so long
, .
as in the agoutis, but are perfectly black; and all the under parts of the body, the breast, belly,
and interior of the arms and thighs, straw-colored with a tinge of red. The hair of the legs and
feet is short and black, and that of the body much finer in quality than the hair of the Agoutis.
It inhabits some of the West India islands, Guiana, and the northern parts of Brazil.
The WHITE-TOOTHED AGOUTI, D. croconata, is a species founded by Wagler upon a specimen
brought by Spix from the river Amazonas. It is about the same size as the common agouti, but
it differs in its incisor teeth being entirely white, in having the tarsi shorter, the nails shorter, and
the general hue of its fur much richer. The D. prymnolopha is a species described by Wagler,
which inhabits Guiana. It is very beautiful, and is readily distinguished by the broad black band
which runs along the hinder half of the back, and which is continued to the tail.
The Sooty AGOUTI, D. fuliginosa, is called D. nigricans by Natterer, and D. nigra by Dr.

398
VERTEBRATA.
Gray. It is readily distinguished by its black color and large size. It inhabits the northern prov-
inces of Brazil.
Azara's AGOUTI, D. Azaræ, inhabits Paraguay, Bolivia, and the southern parts of Brazil.
Waterhouse thinks it identical with Dr. Gray's D. punctata.
REUMAN-KENNY.S.
THE PORCUPINE.
THE PORCUPINES OR HYSTRICIENS.
This tribe is divided into the Porcupines proper and several other groups, which we shall notice
under their respective generic heads.
Genus PORCUPINE: Hystrix.—This includes certain rodents whose covering consists for the
most part of a kind of offensive and defensive armor, in the shape of spines or quills, instead of
hairs, somewhat after the manner of the hedge-hogs. Their molars are four in number, with a
flattened crown, variously modified by layers of enamel, which leave deep intervals; their tongue
is rough, with spiny scales; the tail is short, and the feet plantigrade. Many of the species live
in burrows, and have much the habits of rabbits. Their grunting voice, joined to their large and
truncated muzzle, has caused them to be compared to the hog, whence their French name Pore-
Epic, meaning Spiny-pig. From this we have derived the English name, having a similar sig-
nification.
The most celebrated species is the Common PORCUPINE OF EUROPE, H. cristata, often called
the Italian Porcupine, because, at present, it is most commonly found there, and the African
Porcupine, because the ancients regarded it as having been first brought from Africa to Europe.
It is called Istrice by the Italians, and Porcopick by the Germans. When full-grown it is about
two feet in length, the longest spines exceeding a foot. The general color is grizzled dusky-black,
resulting from an intermixture of various shades of white, brown, and black; upper part of the
head and neck furnished with a crest of long lighter-colored hairs, capable of being raised or de-
pressed at pleasure; hair on the muzzle and limbs very short, almost black on the limbs; that of
the neck and under parts brownish, and of considerable length; on the fore-part and sides of the
neck a whitish band; all the remaining parts of the back and sides, including the rump
and
up
per parts of the hinder-legs, armed with spines, which are longest on the center of the back. The
spines, almost of the thickness of a goose-quill in the middle, are supported at the base by a slen-
der pedicle, and terminating in very sharp points, striated longitudinally, and ringed alternately
with black and white; the rings an inch or more broad. Their usual position is lying nearly flat
upon the body, with the points directed backward; when the animal is excited, they are raised
by means of the subcutaneous muscles almost at right angles with the body, and then present a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
399
a
very formidable appearance. They are not capable of being detached by the animal. The tail-
quills are, as it were, cut off in the middle, and are consequently open at the ends, and produce a
loud rustling noise when the animal agitates its tail.
The Porcupine is a nocturnal animal, sleeping in the burrow which it digs, and to which there
are several openings, during the day, and coming forth at nightfall to seck its food, consisting
principally of roots, fruits, and tender leaves. Its usual food near the Cape, where it is called
Yzer-Varken, is the root of that beautiful plant, the Calla Æthiopica, which grows even in the
ditches about the gardens; but it will frequently deign to put up with cabbages and other vege-
tables, and sometimes commits great depredations in the gardens themselves. It undergoes a
partial hibernation, but its sleep is not of long duration, for it ventures abroad again at the very
commencement of spring. The young are produced in August, and have very small spines.
The ancients were acquainted with the Porcupine, and Aristotle alludes to the story of its
power in shooting its quills to a distance at its enemy, showing that this illusion had thus early
taken possession of the popular mind. The tale is dwelt upon by Pliny with his usual love of
the marvelous, and Ælian, Oppian, and Claudian have repeated the story with exaggerations. In
suddenly raising his spiny armor, a loose quill may be detached by the Porcupine, but the power
of ejaculation to a distance does not exist.
The use of the quills is simply that of a defensive armor, but as this seems a cumbrous device
for such a purpose, we are led to insist on finding other advantages to be derived from them.
Hence, Thunberg tells us that he was informed that the Ceylonese Porcupine had “a very curious
method of fetching water for its young, namely, the quills in the tail are said to be hollow, and
to have a hole at the extremity, and that the animal can bend them in such a manner as that they
can be filled with water, which afterward is discharged in the nest among the young.” Such
inventions, to help nature out, so as to satisfy a narrow conception of her works, are doubtless the
source of many of the common-place errors in respect to animals of peculiar organization; but the
truth certainly is, that the Porcupine finds his quill armor an exceedingly convenient, useful, and
effective defense, and he would be as imperfect without it as a wasp without its sting, or a cock
without his
spurs. The Porcupine is an exceedingly stupid creature, and hence, no doubt, nature
supplied him with his formidable covering as a compensation for his lack of brains; as an indis-
pensable provision in order to put him on a level with other brutes of his order. The mode by
which nature equalizes her favors are infinitely diversified: some animals she endows with in-
stincts, some with gifts analogous to reason, some with strength, some with dexterity, some with
defensive or offensive weapons. The hare has speed, the squirrel activity, the marmot caution,
the beaver ingenuity, the rat most or all of these qualities; the Porcupine, destitute of all, has
his quiver of arrows, which he shakes in the face of his foe, to frighten him if he is a coward,
and to pierce him if he has the courage to make an attack. In case of need, he will run back-
ward at his enemy, and thus strike his sharp-pointed arrows into him. Without his quills, the
Porcupine would seem to be a singularly unmeaning, uncouth, and helpless sot; with them, he
has a position in history, and figures in literature as the emblem of human fretfulness and conceit.
The geographical distribution of the common Porcupine appears to be extensive. It is found
wild in Italy, and is sometimes brought into the markets of Rome, where it is eaten, though its
flesh is not highly esteemed; it is very rare in all the rest of Europe. It inhabits India, the sand
hills along the southwestern shores of the Caspian Sea, Southern Tartary, Persia, Palestine, and
the greater part of Africa.
The other species of this genus are the WHITE-TAILED PORCUPINE, H. leucurus, the Sayal of
the Mahrattas, described by Colonel Sykes, and the H. Hodgsoni, or CRESTLESS NEPAUL PORCU-
a
PINE.
Genus ACANTHION: Acanthion. Of this there are two species, very imperfectly known: the
A. Javanicum, found in Java, and resembling the H. cristata, but somewhat larger, and the A.
Daubentonii, probably a native of Africa, also resembling the H. cristata, but even larger than
the A. Javanicum.
Genus ATHERURE: Atherurus.—Of this genus there are two known species, the most noted
:
of which is the FASCICULATED PORCUPINE, A. fasciculatus, the Malacca Porcupine of Buffon.

400
VERTEBRATA.
2
THE FASCICULATED PORCUPINE.
THE CANADA PORCUPINE
The differences between this species and the common Porcupine are obvious at the first glance.
Its general color is nearly the same, but with less intermixture of brown. The upper parts of the
body, the outer sides of the limbs, and the head, neck, and face, are of this dusky hue; but the
under parts, inside of the limbs, fore part of the neck, and throat, are of a grayish-white, with the
exception of a darker band which crosses the breast in front of the fore-legs. The spines com-
mence upon the back of the head, where they are little more than an inch in length, and extend
to the root of the tail, occupying nearly the whole of the back and sides. The longest are scarcely
more than from four to five inches in length, and extend to the root of the tail, occupying nearly
the whole of the back and sides. They are mostly white at the base and black toward the ex-
tremity, but many of them are black throughout, and others black above and white beneath. All
of them are marked on the upper surface by a deep and broad groove running the whole of their
length, and terminate in very sharp points. The skin in which they are implanted appears per-
fectly white, and where the spines are most numerous is scarcely furnished with a single hair. A
few slenderer spines, running into long black bristles, are occasionally intermixed with the others.
The greater part of the tail is bare both of hairs and spines, and covered only by flat blackish
scales, disposed in rings, the tip alone being surmounted by a tuft, or fascicle, or bundle of long
flat bristles, having the form neither of hairs nor of quills, but bearing a close resemblance to nar-
row slips of parchment cut in an irregular manner. This tuft or fascicle is of a whitish color, and
about two inches in length. The entire length of the body in a specimen lately at the Zoological
Gardens of London was little more than a foot, and that of the tail from four to five inches. The
whiskers were very long; the eyes small and black, and the ears short, round, and naked. Like
the rest of its tribe, this species sleeps during the day, and becomes in some degree active only
on the approach of night. Its intelligence is equally limited, and its manners equally fretful with
those of the common species, like which, it raises its spines when irritated or disturbed, stamps
with its feet upon the floor of its cage, and swells and looks big in its defensive armor. It is found
in the Celebes Islands, and the Isles of the Indian Archipelago.
а
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
401
The LONG-TAILED ATHERURE, A. macrurus, the Hystrix Orientalis of Brisson, is found in Ma-
lacca; it is smaller than the preceding, but has been only obscurely described. The A. Africanus,
is of Fernando Po, and the A. armatus of Gambia.
CLOEN
SWINDER'S AULACODE.
Genus AULACODE: Aulacodus.—Of this there is a single species, the GROUND-Rat or Swin-
DER’S AULACODE, A. Swinderianus: this is of the size of a rabbit, of a brown color, with short legs
and a long body, covered with short spines of nearly uniform length. The tail, of medium length,
is covered with similar spines. A specimen has been furnished from Sierra Leone to the London
Zoological Gardens. It is found on the western coast of Africa, and also in Southern Africa.
Genus ERETHIZON: Erethizon.—Of this there is a single species, the CANADA PORCUPINE,
E. dorsatus ; the Hystrix Hudsonii of Brisson; the Urson of Buffon, and the only animal of the
family of Hystricidæ found in North America. In this the ears are short and hid in the fur;
head, body, legs, and upper part of the tail covered with rather coarse, long, dark-brown hair; on
the upper part of the head, back, body, and tail, a dense mass of sharp, strong quills, the longest
on the back, the least toward the head and sides; the longest four inches, but all nearly hid in
the hair. Intermixed are some stiff, straggling hairs, three inches longer than the rest, tipped with
dirty white; under side of the tail white; four toes on the fore-feet, five behind, each armed with
long claws, hollowed on their under side. The form of the body is very clumsy, resembling that
of a beaver, but in size it is smaller, averaging from twenty-four to thirty inches. The color, also,
is subject to great variations, the long hairs on the sides, shoulders, and forehead being sometimes
of a yellowish-brown, and sometimes of a dirty white. In most cases, however, it appears that
the hips and under-surface of the tail, as well as the body, are a blackish-brown.
The great peculiarity of this animal consists in his spines, or quills, which are cylindrical in
shape, sharp at the extremity, and pointed at the root. They are very easily detached, and are
erected at pleasure. They are barbed with numerous reversed hooks or prickles, which, when
once the shaft is imbedded in the flesh, constantly work deeper and deeper into it. The spines
are from one to four inches in length, the longest on the back as above stated. They cover the
whole upper surface, the under surface being clothed with hair, intermixed with fur of a softer
texture. In old animals, the whole body above is a mass of spines, with tufts of hair six inches
long on the shoulders, sides, and forehead. The eyes are small, the tail short, and covered above
Vol. 1.-51

402
VERTEBRATA.
a
with spines; the feet are plantigrade; the mammæ are pectoral, and four in number. The nest
is made in hollow trees, or in caverns beneath the rocks. The young are produced in April or
May, usually two at a time.
This animal is extremely sluggish in its movements, and often will not take the trouble to run
away from dog or man, being, in this respect, very much like the skunk. As the latter relics on
his liquid shaft, addressed to the nose, the former seems to put his trust in his thousand barbed
arrows, which threaten the flesh. Of the two, the porcupine has the advantage, for when at-
,
tacked by a dog, wolf, cougar, or other ferocious beast, it presses its nose downward, erects its
quills, and brandishing its tail, stands ready for the onslaught. If the assailant is inexperienced,
and unwarily seizes the hostile party with its mouth, he instantly retreats, with a howl of pain
and dismay, for his nose, lips, jaws, and tongue are stuck full of the barbs of the porcupine.
Unless some one extracts them, they work deeper and deeper, and often result in the death of the
sufferer. Lynxes, wolves, and cougars have been found dead, or dying in the woods, from the
effect of porcupine quills thus inserted in the fleshy parts of the mouth. The Indians of the
North are said to have a deadly hatred of the porcupine, on account of the mischief it inflicts in
this way on their dogs.
Richardson, in describing this animal, says: “It is readily attacked by the Indian dogs, and
soon killed, but not without injury to its assailants, for its quills, which it erects when attacked,
are rough with minute teeth directed backward, that have the effect of rendering this seemingly
weak and flexible weapon a very dangerous one. Their points, which are pretty sharp, have no
sooner insinuated themselves into the skin of an assailant, than they gradually bury themselves,
and travel onward until they cause death by wounding some vital organ. These spines, which
are detached from the porcupine by the slightest touch, and probably by the will of the animal,
soon fill the mouths of the dogs which worry it, and unless the Indian women carefully pick them
out, seldom fail to kill them. Wolves occasionally die from the same cause. The Canada porcil-
pine makes its retreat among the roots of an old tree, and is said to pass much of its time in
sleeping When disturbed, it makes a whining or mewing noise. It pairs in the latter end of
September, and brings forth two young ones in April or May. Its flesh, which tastes like flabby
,
pork, is relished by the Indians, but is soon nauseated by Europeans. The bones are often deeply
tinged with a greenish-yellow color. Like other animals which feed on coarse vegetable sub-
stances, it is much infested by intestinal worms. The quills or spines are dyed of various bright
colors by the native women, and worked into shot-pouches, belts, shoes, and other ornamental
articles of dress.”
The Canada porcupine feeds on vegetables of various kinds, especially the bark and leaves of
trees, preferring the birch, elm, bass, cotton-wood, hemlock, willow, larch, and various kinds of
fir. It easily climbs trees, and when once it has begun to feed on a tree, it usually does not leave
it, except at night to sleep in its bed, till it has stripped it from top to bottom. It is said that a
single porcupine will thus denude a hundred trees in a season. Sometimes considerable patches
of forest are found dead as if scorched by fire, having been gnawed bare by the porcupine. This
animal is also fond of sweet apples and young
Indian corn. In feeding, it sits on its haunches,
and brings its food to its mouth with the fore-paws. It is capable of being domesticated, in
which state it eats cabbages, turnips, potatoes, and even bread. It utters a growl when offended,
and at night is heard to break out in low, querulous shrieks. It shows no attachment, and little
intelligence, but is a mild, inoffensive creature, always supporting an air of surly indifference,
with a tinge of stupid, awkward self-importance. Its greatest desire seems to be, to be let alone.
This animal is found in the Canadas, and north as far as latitude 67º. In some places it is
still abundant, but is everywhere becoming more and more rare. It was once common in the
northern parts of New York and Ohio, but is now scarce in those parts. It is not found south
of these localities. In the Northwestern States it is frequently met with.
Genus SPHIGGURE: Sphiggurus.—Of this genus there are several species, all of which are
climbers, with a prehensile tail partly naked. They are covered with short, sharp spines, con-
cealed by the hair, on which account they are denominated Hystrix insidiosa. If handled with-
out caution, they inflict severe wounds. The most noted species is the Coury, S. insidiosus,
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
403
COUIY, OR SPHIGGURE.
described by Buffon under the name of Coendou, to which animal it has some analogy. It is
about eighteen inches long, and the color is brown. Its movements are slow, and sometimes it
continues twenty-four hours without a change of place. It is essentially a climber, and one
described by Azara, in a state of domesticity, never walked on the floor, or on a flat surface, but
crawled over the backs of the chairs, and placed itself on the window-shutters, where it remained
for a long time. It ate sitting on its haunches, taking its food in its fore-paws. It was fed on
,
...
bread, maize, manioc, herbs, and leaves, with flowers and fruits of various kinds.
The other known species are the S. spinosus, S. villosus, S. melanurus, and S. bicolor, all of
various parts of South America. They resemble the S. insidiosus, and indeed all are regarded as
the same species by some naturalists.
Genus CHETOMYS: Cheetomys. Of this there is a single species, the C. sub-spinosus, having
cylindrical, sharp-pointed spines; the body thin and long, tail large, color a grayish-brown. The
size is nearly that of the Couiy, the body measuring about eleven inches, and the tail ten.
It is
found in Brazil.
Genus SYNETHERE, or COENDOU: Synetheres. Of this, the most noted species is the
COENDOU, or BRAZILIAN PORCUPINE, S. prehensilis. It is the Cuandu of Marcgrave and Piso ;
the Orico Cachero and Espinho of the Portuguese; the Hoitzlacuatzin of Hernandez, and is thus
described by Pennant: nose short and blunt; long white whiskers; beneath the nose a bed of
small spines; top of the head, back, sides, and base of the tail, covered with spines; the longest
on the lower part of the back and tail, three inches in length, very sharp, white, barred near their
points with black; adhere closely to the skin, which is quite naked between them; are shorter
and weaker as they approach the belly; on the breast, belly, and lower part of the legs are con-
verted into dark-brown bristles; feet divided into four toes; claws very long; on the place of the
thumb a great protuberance; tail eighteen inches long, slender, and taper toward the end; the

404
VERTEBRATA.
kap
BE
COENDOU, OR BRAZILIAN PORCUPINE.
last ten inches almost naked, having only a few hairs on it; has, for that length, a strong pre-
hensile quality.
The Brazilian Porcupine appears very much to resemble the Canada Porcupine in its habits,
living in woods, sleeping by day, and feeding on fruits, &c., by night. Marcgrave states that its
voice is like that of a sow. The quills are stated to have the same penetrating and destructive
quality as those of the Canadian species. It is a sluggish animal, climbing trees very slowly, and
holding on with its prehensile tail, especially in its descent. It grows very fat, and the flesh is
said to be white and well-tasted. Our cut is taken from a living specimen in the Gardens of the
Zoological Society, Regent's Park. It is found in Brazil, Guiana, and Mexico.
It is supposed that there are several other species; the C. Boliviensis is mentioned by some
naturalists. Brandt speaks of another species, which he includes under the generic name of Cer-
colabes, and the specific name of Platycentrotus.
THE CAPROMYENS.
a
This tribe, which belongs exclusively to America, comprehends several species, which in some
cases have soft fur, and in others have their covering interspersed with small, weak spines. They
have generally the appearance of large rats, and live on vegetable food.
Genus ECHIMYS: Echimys, or Spiny-rats.—This genus, which is analogous to the Lon-
cheres of Illiger, embraces numerous species, of which the most noted is the CAYENNE ECHIMYS
E. Cayennensis, the E. setosus of Geoffroy, and the Loncheres anomala of Kuhl. The head and
body of this animal are about six inches long, and the tail of equal length; the cars are large; tarsi
long, upper parts of the body chiefly covered with spines; sides likewise with spines, but with a consid-
erable admixture of hairs; upper parts of the animal of a dusky-brown color; sides of the body, and
more especially of the head, suffused with rufous; under parts white. It inhabits Guiana and Brazil.
The WHITE-SPINED ECHIMYS, E, albispinus, has the tail scaly and with short hairs; head,
upper parts and sides of the body, with spines, those on the upper parts black at the extremity,
and those on the flanks white; general hue on the upper parts brown, and of the flanks rufous ;
the whole under parts are pure white. It inhabits Bahia and Brazil.
The STRONG-SPINED ECHIMYS, E. hispidus, is about equal in size to the common black rat; the
tail very nearly equal to the head and body in length, and well covered with longish hairs, ex-
cepting at the base; ears small; broad and strong spines cover the whole upper parts and sides
of the animal, commencing on the back of the head; upper parts rusty-brown; feet, sides, and
under parts of the body rust-colored. It inhabits Bahia and Brazil.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
405
DU
BEEFDHEIR
THE CAYENNE ECHIMYS.
The SHORT-TAILED ECHIMYS, E. brachyurus: the E. spinosus of Desmarest, and the Loncheres rufa
of Lichtenstein, has the spines narrow and hidden by the fur; ears moderate; tarsus long; general
color rich brown; under parts dirty white; feet dark brown. Its length is ten inches, the tail
three inches. It burrows in the earth, and has spines mixed and matted with the hair, which is
of two kinds, one soft and the other rough. The spines are easily detached. It inhabits Para-
guay and Bolivia.
The SPINELESS Echimys, E. inermis, has the feet moderately long; tail rather shorter than
the head and body taken together, and clothed with long hairs, which entirely hide the scales;
fur soft, and without any mixture of soft hairs; general hue brown-yellow; under parts yellowish-
white. It inhabits Bahia and Brazil.
The CAVE ECHIMYS, E. antricola, the Nelomys antricola of Lund, has the body stout, the
muzzle thick, ears short, tail long, and well clothed with hairs; upper parts of the animal gray-
brown, with an admixture of rusty yellow; under parts white; the hairs of the fur harsh and de-
pressed. It inhabits the interior of Brazil.
Other species, held to be doubtful by some naturalists, are the E. myosuros, the Loncheres
myosuros of Lichtenstein, the Mus leptosomus and Mus cinnamomeus of the same author, and
the Loncheres longicaudata of Rengger.
Genus CERCOMYS: Cercomys. Of this there is a single species, the BRAZILIAN CERCOMYS,
C. cunicularius. It is of a deep brown color above, paler on the flanks and cheeks, and whitish
beneath; it is without spines. The length of the body is three to four inches, and the tail nearly
the same.
The dentition is peculiar. It is found in Brazil.
Genus NELOMYS: Nelomys; the Loncheres of Jourdan.—The animals of this species have
their covering more or less spiny, and the tail often furred. They resemble the Echimys, and are
treated only as a subgenus by Gervais. There are several species.
The CRESTED NELOMYS, N.cristatus, is the GOLDEN-TAILED RAT of Buffon. In its size and the
form of its tail it bears no inconsiderable resemblance to the common rat, the body being eight
inches long and the tail a trifle longer. Its color is maroon, with a purple ground, very deep on
a

406
VERTEBRATA.
BRAZILIAN CERCOMYS.
a
the back, the sides, and sides of the head, but lighter on the under part. This color extends along
the tail for a short distance from its base; but the principal part of that organ is of a rich orange,
and there is a spot of the same color on the face. There is a portion of the tail between the ma-
roon and the orange of a black color, and the hair upon the whole of the tail is short and fine, .
an
THE CRESTED NELOMYS.
The head is large in proportion to the size of the animal; the muzzle and facial line are straight;
the eyes are very small; and though the ears have large openings, they do not rise much,
if at all, above the level of the head. At the corners of the upper jaw there are tufts of brown
hair forming a sort of whiskers, which are longer than the breadth of the head. The hair on the
back of the animal is coarse and strong, and more than an inch in length, and bears some resem-

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
407
blance to shining pins. It continues on the sides and flanks, but is wanting on the lower part of
the body, which is covered with softer and smoother hair. On this part of the body it is very
short, not exceeding one twenty-fourth part of an inch in length.
The female has eight mamma, which indicates a progeny rather numerous, though little is
known of the manners of the species. It is understood, however, that they are subject to consid-
crable variety of color, either in different individuals or at different ages; for some have been
brought to Europe in which the produced and flattened hairs on the upper part were brown, and
not maroon; but as these were smaller in size than the more richly colored ones, it is probable
that they were in an immature state. This species lives in the woods under trees, and is supposed
to subsist chiefly upon fruits.
Besides this species, there are the STRAW-COLORED NELomys, N. paleaceus, found in Brazil ;
BLAINVILLE's NELOMYS, N. Blainvillii, found in the province of Bahia; the N. didelphoïdes, N.
armatus, and N. semi-villosus.
ba
E SNILLA
DACTYLOMYS.
Genus DACTYLOMYS: Dactylomys.—Of this there is a single species, the D. typus of Is.
Geoffroy, and the Echimys dactylinus of E. Geoffroy. It is more than nine inches from the muz-
zle to the insertion of the tail, and the tail itself is twelve inches. The hair upon the body is hard
and dry, but not spinous; that on the front is flattened, but on the hinder part it is longer and
rougher, and on the upper part of the neck it stands up like a sort of crest. The middle toes af
the feet are much larger than the outer ones; the nails on the toes of the fore-feet are flat, some-
thing in the form of those of the sapajous; but on the hind-feet, which have five toes, they are
very strong and crooked; the tail, throughout the whole of its length, is naked of hair, and scaly.
The manners of this species are very little known.
Genus LASIUROMYS: Lasiuromys. Of this there is but one species, the Hairy LASIURO-
MYs, L. villosus, which is found along the Amazon, and is of a reddish-gray color, and is supposed
to be a tree-climber; it is about eight inches long, and its tail seven.
Genus CAPROMYS: Capromys.—The animals of this genus are of a heavier mould than the
preceding; their covering is not spiny, but the hair is rough; the tail is rather long and scaly, and
a

408
VERTEBRATA.
the mustaches strong. They have a movement similar to that of the rats, live in the woods and
plantations, and have often been compared to rabbits. They are herbivorous, and easily climb
trees. There are three species, all of the Island of Cuba.
FOURNIER'S CAPROMYS, or the SHORT-TAILED CAPROMYS, C. Fournieri, the Isodon pilorides of
Say, is blackish-brown above, and grayish-white beneath; the body is fourteen inches long, and
the tail, which is scaly like that of the rats, is six. It is called Hutia Congo in Cuba, and is capa-
ble of being tamed.
The PREHENSILE-TAILED CAPROMYS, the Capromys prehensilis, is known in Cuba by the name
of Hutia Carabali, and is said to confine itself to parts of the forests which are remote from the
habitations of man, and to be more shy and less tamable than the preceding. Like this, it is
,
an expert climber, and confines itself to the uppermost branches of trees. The tail, which is of
moderate length, is prehensile at the extremity; the animal, assisted by this organ, is enabled to
cling with security to the small twigs of the trees, or to the parasitic plants with which they are
overgrown, and among which it usually conceals itself.
PoEY's CAPROMYS, C. Poeyri, is of a chestnut-color, spotted with red and yellow.
Genus PLAGIODONTIA: Plagiodontia.—Of this a single genus is known, the P. ædium. It
inhabits the Island of St. Domingo, and is nearly allied to the capromys of the neighboring Island
of Cuba. Its short and naked tail, combined with certain differences observable in the structure
of the molar teeth, furnish the chief distinguishing characters. It is generally of a light-brown
color above, and whitish-yellow below. It often visits the houses by day, but departs at night.
It lives on fruits and vegetables, and like other animals which have a vegetable diet, is good food.
a
110545
THE COYPU.
Genus MYOPOTAMUS: Myopotamus.—Of this there is a single species, the well-known
Coypu, M. Coypus; the Coypu Rat of Shaw. This has ears of moderate size; fur long; up-
per parts of the animal penciled with dusky and brownish-yellow in about equal proportions;
sides and under parts of the prevailing tint, brown-yellow; tip of muzzle and chin white; a
yellow patch immediately beneath the ear opening; feet dusky-brown. In size it is nearly equal
to the beaver, and bears a considerable superficial resemblance to that animal; its tail, however,
is cylindrical, has a scaly skin, and is scantily clothed with hairs, short and stiff, like that of the
rat. The hair is fine and silky, and has at the base a wool similar to that of the beaver; it is

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
409
used, in fact, for the same purpose as the fur of the beaver. An immense trade is carried on from
South America in the skins of the Coypu, which are called La Plata Beaver; they are also called
Ragondin and Nutria. Gervais calculates that three millions of these skins are annually sup-
plied. These animals are nocturnal, and are hunted at night by dogs.
The body of the Coypu is twenty-four inches long and its tail fifteen; the female produces six
or seven at a birth. Its food is vegetable, and its character gentle. It is capable of being tamed,
and in this state shows much docility. It inhabits the banks of the rivers and streams of a great
portion of South America, occurring on both sides of the Andes. On the eastern side it extends
from Peru southward to 43° south latitude. On the west it ranges from the valleys of Central
Chili to Tierra del Fuego. In the Chonos Archipelago, it lives exclusively along the bays and
channels which extend between the innumerable small islets of that group. It makes its bur-
rows within the forest, at a short distance from the rocky beaches.
The inhabitants of Chiloe, who sometimes visit this archipelago for the purpose of fishing, state
that the Coypus here do not live solely on vegetable matter, as is the case with those inhabiting
rivers, but that they sometimes eat shell-fish. The Coypu is said to be a bold animal, and to fight
fiercely with the dogs employed in chasing it. Its flesh is white and well-flavored. Buenos
Ayres appears to be the center of the trade in the furs of this animal.
IV sini
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CHINCHILLAS.
THE CHINCHILLIENS.
This tribe comprises three genera, all belonging to South America, and all distinguished for
the softness of their fur.
Genus LAGOSTOMUS: Lagostomus.—Of this there is a single species, the VISCACHA or Bis-
CACHA, L. viscaccia, and which serves as the type of the genus Callomys of Is. Geoffroy. It some-
,
what resembles the rabbit, but has smaller cars, and a tail one-fourth the length of the body.
Its fur is full, thick, and fine, but less delicate than that of the chinchilla. It is a brownish-gray
above, passing into white beneath; the hair of the tail is dry and rough to the touch. These
animals are found in abundance on the pampas of Buenos Ayres, where they are hunted and
killed in large numbers, because they dig up the soil, injure the crops, and furnish a valuable
fur, used for making caps. Their flesh is not eaten. They live in societies, move in leaps some-
what like the kangaroo and jerboa, seldom quit their native locality, feed on grains and fruits,
and especially a kind of grass resembling lucerne; sit on their haunches, carry food to the mouth
with the fore paws, have various cries, and bring forth four or five young at a birth.
men taken to London ate bread, carrots, and various other vegetables.
VOL. 1.-52
A speci-

410
VERTEBRATA.
Darwin furnishes us with the following account: “Near Buenos Ayres these animals are ex.
ceedingly common. Their most favorite resort appears to be those parts of the plain which,
during one half of the year, are covered with great thistles to the exclusion of other plants.
The Guachos affirm that it lives on roots, which, from the great strength of its gnawing teeth
and the kind of localities frequented by it, seems probable. As in the case of the rabbit, a few
holes are commonly placed together. In the evening the Viscachas come out in numbers, and
there quietly sit on their haunches. They are at such times very tame, and a man on horseback
passing by seems only to present an object for their grave contemplation. They do not wander
far from their burrows. They run very awkwardly, and when hurrying out of danger, from their
elevated tails and short front-legs, much resemble great rats. Their flesh, when cooked, is very
white and good, but it is seldom used. The Viscacha has one very singular habit, namely, drag-
ging every hard object to the mouth of its burrow. Around each
group
of holes
many
bones
of cattle, stones, thistle-stalks, hard clumps of earth, dry dung, &c., are collected into a heap,
which frequently amounts to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain. I was credibly informed
that a gentleman, when riding in a dark night, dropped his watch; he returned in the morning,
and by searching in the neighborhood of every Viscacha hole on the line of road, as he expected
soon found it. This habit of picking up whatever may be lying on the ground anywhere near
its habitation must cost much trouble. For what purpose it is done I am quite unable to form
even the most remote conjecture; it cannot be for defense, because the rubbish is chiefly placed
above the mouth of the burrow, which enters the ground at a very small inclination."
AW
Terra
کاربری یا
سره ي
curen
CUVIER'S LAGOTIS.
Genus LAGOTIS: Lagotis.—Of this there are two known species. Cuvier's Lagotis, L. Cuvieri,
resembles the preceding, but the body is more slender, the ears longer, and the tail much larger. Its
general appearance reminds one of the hare. The body above is yellow, with a faint tinge of
green,
in parts slightly mottled with black; below it is a golden yellow, with a faint reddish
wash; the mustaches are black. The fur is exceedingly fine and soft to the touch, and the
Indians make blankets and mantles of it. The tail is carried stretched out, and its joints are
slender and scaly. The flesh is eaten by the Indians. It lives in rocky and stony places, feeds
on herbs and shrubs, and digs burrows with two flats or stories, one above the other. It appears
that this is also sometimes called Viscacha. It is very abundant on the western slopes of the
Andes, from latitude 18° to 30° south.
The Lagotis pallipes is found in the rocky valleys of Chili. To these two species, Mr. Gay
adds a third, L. criniger ; but whether it is in fact a distinct species, is not determined.
Genus CHINCHILLA: Chinchilla.—Lichtenstein gives this the generic name of Euryotis.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7 411
7
RODENTIA.
There is a single species, the C. lanigera, which produces the well-known chinchilla fur. This is
described by Molina, as follows:
“ The chinchilla is another species of field-rat, in great estimation for the extreme fineness of
its wool, if a rich fur as delicate as the silken webs of the garden-spiders may be so termed. It
is of an ash-gray, and sufficiently long for spinning. The little animal which produces it is six
inches long from the nose to the root of the tail, with small pointed ears, a short muzzle, teeth
like the house-rat, and a tail of moderate length, clothed with a delicate fur. It lives in burrows
w
ran
ALOMANSKENNY.SCWY
CHINCHILLAS.
underground, in the open country of the northern provinces of Chili, and is very fond of being
in company with others of its species. It feeds upon the roots of various bulbous plants which
grow abundantly in those parts; and produces twice a year five or six young ones.
It is so
docile and mild in temper that, if taken into the hands, it neither bites nor tries to escape, but
seems to take a pleasure in being caressed. If placed in the bosom, it remains there as still and
quiet as if it were in its own nest. This extraordinary placidity may possibly be rather due to
its pusillanimity, which renders it extremely timid. As it is in itself peculiarly cleanly, there
can be no fear of its soiling the clothes of those who handle it, or of its communicating any bad
smell to them, for it is entirely free from that ill odor which characterizes the other species of
rats. For this reason it might well be kept in the house with no annoyance, and at a trifling
expense, which would be abundantly repaid by the profits on its wool. The ancient Peruvians,
who were far more industrious than the modern, made of this wool coverlets for beds and valu-
able stuffs. There is found in the same northern provinces another little animal with fine wool,
called the Hardilla, which is variously described by those who have seen it; but as I have never
observed it myself, I cannot determine to what genus it belongs.”
Bennett expresses the opinion that the Hardilla is the same as the chinchilla. In describing a
specimen of the latter in the London Zoological Gardens, he says, “ that it usually sits upon its
haunches, and is even able to raise itself up and stand upon its hinder feet. It feeds in a sitting
posture, grasping its food and conveying it to its mouth by means of its fore-paws. In its temper
it is generally mild and tractable, but it will not always suffer itself to be handled without re-
sistance, and sometimes bites the hand which attempts to fondle it when not in a humor to be
played with. Although a native of the alpine valleys of Chili, and consequently subjected in its
own country to the effects of a low temperature of the atmosphere, against which its thick coat
affords an admirable protection, it was thought necessary to keep it during the winter in a mod-
erately warm room, and a piece of flannel was even introduced into its sleeping apartment for its
greater comfort. But this indulgence was most pertinaciously rejected, and as often as the flan-

412
VERTEBRATA.
nel was replaced, so often was it dragged by the little animal into the outer compartment of its
cage, where it amused itself with pulling it about, rolling it up, and shaking it with its feet and
teeth. In other respects it exhibits but little playfulness, and gives few signs of activity; seldom
disturbing its usual quietude by any sudden or extraordinary gambols, but occasionally displaying
strong symptoms of alarm when startled by any unusual occurrence.” A second specimen being
presented to the Society, it was put into the same cage as the preceding, when a scufiling fight
occurred between the two, which led to their being kept apart. They were fed on dry hay and
clover, grain and succulent roots. Several litters have been produced in the London menagerie.
The fur of this species is a considerable article of commerce. For muffs, tippets, linings to
cloaks and pelisses, and trimmings for the same, it is sold extensively, and at a comparatively high
price. The annual import of the skins into England, in 1851, was 85,000. The skins which
come from Upper Peru are rougher and larger than those from Chili, but not always so beau-
tiful in color. Great numbers of these animals are caught in the neighborhood of Coquimbo
and Copiapo, generally by boys with dogs, and sold to traders, who bring them to Santiago and
Valparaiso, from whence they are exported. The Peruvian skins are either brought to Buenos
Ayres from the eastern parts of the Andes, or sent to Lima. The extensive use of this fur has
occasioned a very considerable destruction of these animals.
Some naturalists have mentioned an animal of Peru rather larger than the preceding, but very
much resembling it, to which they give the name of C. brevicaudata, and believe it to be a dis-
tinct species of chinchilla ; but this is not yet decided.
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PELE'S ANOMALURE.
THE ANOMALURES.
Of this tribe there is the single genus, ANOMALURE, Anomalurus, and two species. Fraser's
ANOMALURE, A. Fraseri, the Pteromys Derbianus of Gray, is a most extraordinary creature,
found in the island of Fernando Po. It resembles the flying-squirrel or Pteromys, in having a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
413
flying-membrane on each side, and using them in the manner of that animal, in gliding from tree
to tree. It has, however, beneath the base of the tail, which is long and plume-like, a series of
horny imbricated scales, ten in number, which appear to serve as a defense to the animal as it
alights upon the trunks of the trees in its leaps or flights. It is lively and graceful in its motions,
climbs the trunks and branches of trees with dexterity, and launches itself with great precision
of aim from one tree to another. In the length of its flights it even surpasses the Pteromys.
Its fur is long, especially on the back; the color is red, spotted with brown; below it is light
yellow. This animal, whose body is eighteen inches long, and the tail about the same, resembles
alike the squirrels and the dormouse, but its dentition places it with the Hystricidæ.
PELE'S ANOMALURE, A. Pelei, resembles the preceding, and is found on the western coast of
Africa.
Vio
THE BRAZILIAN CTENOMYS.
THE CTENOMYDES.
Of this family there are several genera, all South American; some of them climb the trees,
living, like the dormouse and the squirrel, upon nuts and fruits. Some run upon the ground, and
others burrow beneath the soil. They have affinities with both the Chinchilliens and Pseudos-
tomides.
Genus CTENOMYS: Ctenomys. - The animals of this genus have a rather long body, ears
small and nearly hidden in the fur, tail about one-fourth the length of the body. They resemble
the campagnols, or field-mice, but are of much larger size.
The Brazilian CTENOMYS, C. Brasiliensis, is reddish above and white beneath ; body six inches
long, the tail two inches. It lives near water, and mines the earth with its numerous galleries.
It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, and the Argentine Republic. It is common in the sandy valleys of
the western slope of the Andes, 12,000 feet above the level of the sea.
The C. Boliviensis and C. Nattereri, noticed by some writers, are the same as the preceding.
The MAGELLAN CTENOMYS, C. Magellanica, resembles the preceding, and is found in the dry
sandy plains of Patagonia, where it burrows in the soil so as to make it dangerous for travelers
on horseback.
Genus PEPHAGOMYS: Pæphagomys.—Of this there is a single species, the BLACK PEPHA-
GOMYS, P. Ater : this is five inches long, of a black color, and has nearly naked cars; it feeds

414
VERTEBRATA.
on vegetable substances, and perforates the earth with its burrows, like the preceding. It is
partly nocturnal in its habits, and is found in Chili, where it is called Cururo. It is probably the
BLUE RAT, Mus coeruleus of Molina, and certainly the Spalacopus Poppigii of Wagner.
1
-17
EREDMANEKENNY.ENG.N.Y.
THE BLACK PEPHAGOMYS.
Genus SCHIZODON: Schizodon.—Of this there is one species, the Brown SCHIZODON, S.
fuscus, which has rather a slender body, eight or nine inches long, tail less than half the length
of the body, color grayish-brown above, and grayish-fawn below. It is found in Chili.
FREDMAN SKENUTEN
CUMING'S OCTODON.
Genus OCTODON or OCTODONTE: Octodon, referred to the Hystricidæ by Waterhouse,
embraces several species, which derive their generic name of Octodonte, meaning eight-toothed,
from the number of the molar teeth, the crowns of those below having at the same time nearly
the form of the figure 8.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
415
Cuming's Octodon, O. Cumingii or 0. degus, the Sciurus degus of Molina, in size and
shape resembles the water-rat. The fur is long and moderately soft ; upper parts of the body
penciled with black and pale brownish-yellow; dirty white beneath. The length of the body is
four and a half inches; that of the tail two inches. It is a native of Chili, and may be seen by
hundreds in the hedgerows and thickets in the central parts of that country, where they make
burrows close together, leading one into the other. They feed by day in a fearless manner, and
are very destructive to fields of young corn; when disturbed, they all run together toward their
burrows, in the same way that rabbits do when feeding outside a covert. When running they
carry their tails elevated; they may be often seen seated on their haunches, like squirrels. They
lay up a store of food for the winter, but do not become dormant. Occasionally they climb
among the branches of the bushes. They have a very extended range, from 28° N. latitude to
the 35th parallel south. In the province of Coquimbo, where the country is sterile, they take
up their abode among the loose stones on the sides of the mountains, and are frequently met with
in the holes of the chinchillas. Their food consists of the herbage which grows at the roots of
the hedges; in the winter months, when pressed by hunger, they feed upon the tender bark of
the Mimosa Cavenia, and also on that of the Cestrum Palqui. They breed but twice in the
year, and have from four to six young at a birth.
Bridges's OCTODON, 0. Bridgesii, has the fur very long and moderately soft; upper parts
strongly penciled with brown, yellow, and black; abdomen white suffused with pale brown, yel-
low, or cream-colored. It inhabits Chili.
The DORMOUSE OCTODON, 0. gliroïdes.- In this species the fur is soft, ashy-gray on the upper
parts of the body, and white beneath ; is a very pretty animal, the body being five inches long,
and the tail three and a half. It is found in the Bolivian Andes, 10,000 feet above the level of
the
sea, where it may be seen among the cactus hedgerows.
Genus ABROCOME: Abrocoma.—The animals of this genus, of which there are two species,
seem to form a transition from the Ctenomydes to the Chinchilliens. CUVIER'S ABROCOME, A.
Cuvieri, is grayish-yellow above, and gray beneath. It is seven or eight inches long, and is
found in Chili. BENNETT'S ABROCOME, A. Bennettii, resembles the preceding, and is also found
in Chili.
REUMANEKENNYINXUL
CANADA POUCHED-NAT.
CHE PSEUDOSTOMIDES, OR POUCHED RATS.
This family comprises several small rodents, all of which are American, and some of which
are burrowers, and others climbers. They possess large check-pouches, and are divided into two

416
VERTEBRATA.
tribes, the Saccophoriens and Saccomyens. We shall notice them under six genera, the two first
of which belong to the Saccophoriens, and the four last to the Saccomyens.
Genus SACCOPHORUS: Saccophorus.—This term—which is nearly synonymous with the
Pseudostoma of Say, the Geomys and Diplostoma of Rafinesque, the Ascomys of Lichtenstein, and
the Saccomys of F. Cuvier-means Sack-Bearer, and includes various small animals found from
Canada to Mexico. They are partially nocturnal, hibernate, and become somewhat dormant in
winter, in cold but not in warm countries, and use their cheek-sacks or pouches, which generally
open externally, for the purpose of bringing food to their burrows. They are all vegetable eaters.
The CANADA POUCHED-RAT, or the PURSED-SACCOPHORUS, S. bursarius, is of a reddish-brown
color above, and dark-brown below; the body, which is stout and cylindrical, is seven or eight
inches long, the tail two and a quarter. The cheek-pouches, one on each side, open externally,
so that food in the pouches has to be taken out and carried round to the mouth; they are very
large, being three inches deep, and lined with hair. The eyes are small, the ears short and hardly
visible. The fur is thick and soft. It digs extensive burrows in sandy places, much in the man-
ner of the mole, though lower down. At distances of some twenty yards apart, it has openings,
usually near some spot covered with grass or vegetables. It sometimes frequents gardens, where
it eats the roots of the plants and gnaws the bark of the peach-trees. Sometimes it destroys large
numbers of fruit-trees, plums, pears, and apples. The pouches are used to convey food to its bur-
rows; it can travel nearly as fast backward as forward; it bites severely, and resists an attack
uttering sharp screams. These creatures fight among themselves with their snouts like hogs. They
feed sitting on their rumps, using their fore-paws like hands; they clean their hair, whiskers, and
body like rats and squirrels. They feed on vegetables of various kinds; the nest is usually rounded,
formed of soft substances, lined with the hair of the female, and is placed in the center of several
converging galleries. The young are five to seven at a birth, and are produced in March or April.
This species is found in Canada, and thence westward to the Pacific, and southward, in certain lo-
calities, to Arkansas. It is common in Illinois and Missouri; at the latter place it is cailed Mulo.
There are many other species of pouched rats in North America, but the only ones mentioned
by Gervais under this genus are the S. Mexicanus and S. Botto, the first found in Mexico and the
last in California. M. Leconte, in a recent work, enumerates eleven species for the United States
and Mexico, arranging them under the genus Geomys. Other writers notice the following under
the generic name of PSEUDOSTOMA, including those mentioned by Gervais and Leconte. The
cheek-pouches, generally, open outside of the mouth.
The COLUMBIA POUCHED-RAT, P. Douglassii—the COLUMBIA Sand-Rat of Richardson—is six
inches and a half long, is of a dusky-brown color, and of a lighter shade beneath. It is found west
of the Rocky Mountains, from the sources of the Missouri to Fort Vancouver. It burrows in the
sand-hills, and feeds on nuts, acorns and grasses; in the vicinity of the settlements it commits
great havoc in the potato-fields, alike by eating and carrying off in its pouches large quantities
of the potatoes.
The MOLE-SHAPED POUCHED-RAT, P. talpoides, is grayish-black, seven inches long, and is found
from Hudson's Bay to the Saskatchewan.
The Camas RAT, P. Borealis—the Geomys Townsendii of Richardson—is called Gauffre by
the French, and hence Gopher by the Americans, a term also applied to several other species;
it is of a pale yellowish-gray, seven and a half inches long, and derives its common name from
its fondness for the Quamash or Camas plant, Scilla esculata. It is exceedingly voracious, and,
like all other pouched-rats, feeds on nuts, roots, grasses, and seeds, and makes burrows, not far
beneath the surface of the ground, to a great distance. It is said that in digging its burrows it
uses its large cheek-pouches like bags to bring up the earth, emptying them at the mouth of the
burrow. Like others of this tribe it is to a certain extent gregarious, many of them being always
found in the same locality. This species is common near the Columbia River in Oregon.
The SOUTHERN POUCHED-RAT, P. Floridana, is of a brownish-yellow above and gray
beneath;
its length is between eight and nine inches. It resembles the Canada pouched-rat, and is prob-
ably the species named the Georgia Hamster by Rafinesque and others. Its cheek-pouches, how-
ever, open into the mouth. It is found in Florida, Georgia, and Alabama.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
417
lin
THE CAMAS RAT, OR GOPHER.
a
The Reddish Pouched-RAT, P. fulvus, is of a light reddish-brown above and whitish beneath.
Its length is five inches, and is found in the western parts of New Mexico.
The CHESTNUT-CHEEKED POUCHED RAT, P. castanops, is of a pale yellowish-brown, is eight
inches long, and is found on the southwestern prairies.
The P. hispidum is of a reddish-brown color, eleven inches and a half long, and is found in
Mexico.
LEADBEATER'S SAND-RAT, P. umbrinus, is of an amber-brown above, and gray beneath; it is
seven inches long, and is found in Louisiana.
The MEXICAN POUCHED-RAT, P. Mexicanus, noticed by Gervais, as already mentioned, is eleven
inches long, with shiny hair of a cinereous blackish color.
THE SEWELLEL.
To this list we may add the TUFT-TAILED POUCHED-RAT, the Perognathus peniciliatus of
Woodhouse, which is three and a half inches long, with a tail a trifle longer. It is found in New
Mexico. The Saccophorus Botto, mentioned by Gervais, is probably the same as the Geomys
rufescens of Leconte.
VOL. 1.-53

418
VERTEBRATA.
a
Genus APLODONTIA : Aplodontia.–Of this there is a single species, the SEWELLEL of Lewis
and Clark—the Arctomys rufa of Griffith's Cuvier- A. leporina, digging burrows and living in
small societies in the neighborhood of the Columbia River, and abundant near the Great Falls.
It is about the size of the gray rabbit, being fourteen inches long, with a tail half an inch long.
It is of a reddish-brown color, and has no cheek-pouches; the eye is small, and the fur thick and
soft, resembling that of the musquash. The skins are much used by the Indians for robes. It
feeds on vegetables, and is said occasionally to climb trees, but only for a short distance, as is the
case with the woodchuck. It produces four to five young at a birth. .
The preceding genera belong to the Saccophoriens ; the following to the Saccomyens.
Genus SACCOMYS: Saccomys.—Of this there is a single species, the S. anthophilus, found
in South America. It is of the size of a common rat, and of a brownish-fawn color; feeds chiefly
on flowers, and has large sacks opening externally at the sides of the mouth.
Genus HETEROMYS: Heteromys, including two species.—Thomson's HETEROMYS, the Mus
anomalus of some authors, which is of a brownish chestnut-color, has weak spines mingled with
its hair, and a very long, scaly, black tail. It is of the size of the common rat, and is found in
the Island of Trinidad, West Indies. DESMAREST'S HETEROMYs is four inches long, with a tail
a trifle shorter. It is of a nut-brown color, has rough hair, and moderate-sized cheek-pouches.
It is found in Colombia.
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RENMAN KENY.SC.N.V.
PEDETIENS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA.—(See p. 421.)
Genus DIPODOMYS: Dipodom:ys. This term is from the Greek dipous, two-footed, and mus,
a mouse, and alludes to the fact that the animals to which it is applied move on two feet. They
are in fact a kind of Pouched Jerboa-mouse, having long hind-legs, on which they move like the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
419
jerboa, with a tail long and tufted at the end, and living on vegetable food. Their cheek-pouches
open externally.
Phillips's POUCHED GERBO A-MOUSE, D. Phillipsii, is about as large as the chip-squirrel, having
a body five inches long and a tail six and a half inches; the color is light-brown above and white
beneath. The whiskers are rigid and numerous, hind-legs very long, the fur silky, the eyes bright,
the form and appearance like a very minute kangaroo. It hops about on its hind-legs, often
taking considerable leaps. It lives in holes in the arid plains of Sonora and Southern California,
seeming to prefer stony slopes, and frequently comes around the tents of travelers with a sort of
confiding gentleness and familiarity. It seems to go forth chiefly at nightfall.
Several other species of this genus have been recently discovered. Ord's POUCHIED-MOUSE, D.
Ordii, is dark-brown above and white beneath ; the tail is short and tufted at the end; it is a
little smaller than the preceding, and is found in the vicinity of El Passo.
The AGILE DIPODOMYS, D. agilis, is ten and a half inches long, the tail six and a half; the
color a yellowish-brown above; on the sides and beneath it is white; eyes large; large external
cheek-pouches; hind-legs very long. It is a beautiful species, leaps with surprising agility, some-
times ten feet at a bound. It forms extensive burrows, and is difficult to be captured. It abounds
in the cultivated fields and vineyards near Puebla de los Angelos, California.
HERMANN'S DIPODOMYS, D. Hermannii, is found in the Sierra Nevada, but is little known.
Genus MACROCAULUS: Macrocaulus, presents a single species, M. halticus ; this has the
body four inches, and the tail six inches long. It is found in Mexico, but has not been fully de-
scribed.
a
EREDMANEKENNYESC
JERBOAS.
THE DIPODID Æ.
This curious family embraces three tribes of small animals : thc Jerboas, Pedetiens, and Cteno-
dactyliens.
THE JERBOAS OR JERBOID Æ.
This tribe has been divided into several genera by some naturalists, as Scirtopodes, Scirtomys,

120
VERTEBRATA.
SMAN
mm
JERBOAS.
Alactaga, and Acontion, but we shall group them under the single genus, JERBOA, Dipus. These
animals have the head large and rabbit-like; the ears long and pointed; the eyes full; the tail
very long, covered with short hair and tufted at the end, this member being used in leaping and
walking; the fur is soft and delicate; the fore-feet are very small; the hind-legs are long, and the
hind-feet large and strong, and covered with hair. They seem expressly designed to live on
desert wastes, where they are usually found. Four species are known.
The GERBO, or EGYPTIAN JERBOA, D. sagitta, seems to have excited the curiosity of man-
kind from the earliest times. Aristotle speaks of it as an Egyptian rat that walks on two feet,
and Pliny calls it a walking-biped. In size it is equal to a small rat, the body being five inches
long and the tail seven; the general color is a pale tawny-yellow, passing into a lighter tint, and
finally into white below. It is found in Egypt, Nubia, parts of Syria, and Barbary, living in troops
on the arid deserts, digging long burrows in heaps of sand, and often amid crumbling ruins. In
these burrows they make their nests and rear their young. Their food consists of grain, bulbous
roots which they dig up with their fore-paws, and of other vegetables. They hibernate, but are
dormant for only a short time. Their flesh is unsavory, but is still eaten. When undisturbed,
their common manner of sitting is on their haunches, their short fore-paws hanging down like
those of the Kangaroo. So powerful are their teeth that they speedily gnaw through the hardest
wood. They are partially nocturnal in their habits, are exceedingly timid, and hasten to their
burrows upon the slightest alarm. So great is their speed in flying across a plain that they will
outstrip a greyhound. In making each leap they spring from the hind-feet, the impetus being
given by the powerful muscles of the thighs, while the tail serves as balance and rudder. So es-
sential is the tail, that when deprived of it the animal seems to be afraid to leap, and indeed to
have lost its power. In springing, the fore-paws are pressed close to the breast; they descend,
however, upon them at each bound, but such is the celerity of the movement that the eye
is de-
ceived, and the fore-paws seem not to be used at all in the act of running.
The DARK-BANDED JERBOA, D. Indicus, is thus described by General Hardwicke: “ These ani-
mals are very numerous about cultivated lands, and are particularly destructive to wheat and bar-
ley crops, of which they lay up considerable hoards in spacious burrows near the scenes of their
plunder. They cut the culms of the ripening corn just beneath the ears, and convey them thus
entire to one common subterraneous repository, which, when filled, they carefully close, and do
not open for use till supplies abroad become distant and scarce. Grain of all kinds is their favor-
ite food; but in default of this they have recourse to the roots of grass and other vegetables.
About the close of day they issue from their burrows, and traverse the plains in all directions to

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
421
a
a considerable distance; they run fast, but oftener leap, making bounds of four or five yards at a
time, carrying the tail extended in a horizontal direction. When eating, they sit on their hind-
legs like a squirrel, holding the food between their fore-feet. They never appear by day, neither
do they commit depredations within doors. I have observed their manners by night, in moon-
light nights, taking my station on a plain, and remaining for some time with as little motion as
possible. I was soon surrounded by hundreds at the distance of a few yards; but on rising from
my seat the whole disappeared in an instant, nor did they venture forth again for ten minutes
after, and then with much caution and circumspection.
“ A tribe of low Hindus, called Kunjers, whose occupation is hunting, go in quest of these ani-
mals at proper seasons, to plunder their hoards of grain, and often, within the space of twenty
yards square, find as much corn in the ear as could be crammed into a common bushel. They
inhabit dry situations, and are often found at the distance of some miles out of the reach of water
to drink. In confinement this animal soon becomes reconciled to its situation, and docile; sleeps
much in the day, but when awake feeds as freely as by night. The Hindus above mentioned es-
teem them good and nutritious food.”
There are many other species of Jerboa, as the D. Mauritanicus of Algeria; D. jaculus, D.
hirtipes, and D. bipes, of Egypt; D. telum of Tartary; D. lagopus of Bokhara; D. brachyurus,
D. minutus, D. platurus, of Russia. F. Cuvier mentions the Alactaga arundinis of Algeria, and
Gray a species of Alactaga in India. A species has also been discovered in Australia by Sir
Thomas Mitchell, which has received the title of D. Mitchellii. It is of small size, and in other
respects resembles the Jerboas we have described. The Canada Jumping-mouse has sometimes
been called a jerboa, but America has no true species of this genus.
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THE CAPE HELAMYS.
THE PEDETIENS.
This tribe consists of two genera, the Pedetes and Petromys.
Genus PEDETES: Pedetes. These animals have a large head, a long body, long pointed ears,
large eyes, and long hind-legs used for leaping, as in the jerboa.
The HELAMYS, P. Capensis, is the GRAND GERBO of Allamand; Spring-Has, or Jumping-Hare
of the Dutch; and Aerdmannetje of the Hottentots; the Dipus Caffer of Gmelin and others. It

422
VERTEBRATA.
is of a bright yellowish-tawny color above, varied with blackish; white below, with a line of the
same color in the fold of the groins; legs brown; tail reddish above at its origin, gray below, and
black at the tip; length from the nose to tail about one foot two inches; of the tail, near fifteen
inches; of the ears, three inches. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, where it sleeps during
the day, going forth by night; it moves by jumps on its hind-legs, like the jerboa, often leaping
twenty or thirty feet at a bound. It eats sitting nearly upright, with the hind-legs extended hori-
zontally, and using the small fore-feet to bring the food to its mouth. It feeds on vegetables, and
is excessively timid, burying itself in its burrow upon the slightest alarm. It is a very strong an-
innal, and with the fore-feet, which are admirably formed for digging, burrows so expeditiously as
quickly to hide itself.
REDUANCKLNUY.CNGRS.N.Y.
THE PETROMYS TYPICUS.
Genus PETROMYS: Petromys.—These animals move upon the hind-legs, which are not much
larger than the fore-ones; the tail is nearly as long as the body. One species only is known, the
Rock-Rat, P. typicus, which is but about seven inches long, and the tail five and a half inches; it
is of a reddish color, and builds its nest among the stones and in the crevices of the rocks. It is
found in southwestern Africa, in the region of Orange River.
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THE CTENODACTYLIENS.
These consist of the single genus Ctenodactylus, and the single species C. Massonii, of the size
of a small rabbit, of a gray color, with a short tail, and found in Southern Africa.
THE MYOXIDES.
Of this family the Dormouse is the type, and constitutes the principal member of the genus.
All the species belong to the Eastern Hemisphere.
Genus MYOXUS: Myoxus, the Loir of Gervais: this comprises the DORMOUSE or SLEEPER of the
English: M. avellanarius of naturalists. It is the Muscardin, Croque-Noix, and Rat-d'Or of the
French; Moscardino of the Italians; Liron of the Spanish; Rothe Wald-Maus, Hasel-Maus, and
Hasel-Schläfer of the Germans. It has been placed
It has been placed by some naturalists among the squirrels,
which it resembles in its form and appearance. It is the smallest species in the genus, being
about three and a half inches long, and the tail of equal length. The head is rather large, the
eyes large, black, and prominent; muzzle not blunt; ears broad, about one-third the length of
the head; body plump and round; tail flattened, the hairs rather long and bushy; head, back,
sides, belly, and tail, tawny red. Its favorite retreats are dense thickets, bushy dells, and tangled
hedgerows, though it sometimes lives in the forests. There it constructs its easy dormitory, and
there providently lays up its winter store, consisting of acorns, beech-mast, corn, young hazel-nuts,
haws, &c. It seems inclined to be gregarious, ten or a dozen, or even more, of their nests being

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: OR D'ER 7. RODENTIA.
423
he
TURUT
THE DORMOUSE.
a
a
usually built in the shrubs of a thicket or wood. It climbs trees, and often makes its nest in the
fork of a tree or shrub.
a
It takes its food holding it in its hands, and sitting on its haunches like a squirrel, and often
suspends itself by its hind-feet, in which position it feeds as easily and comfortably as in the more
ordinary attitude. Toward the winter it becomes exceedingly fat, and having laid up a store of
food, retires to its little nest, and coiling itself up into a ball, with the tail over the head and back,
becomes completely torpid. A mild day occasionally calls it into transient life; it then takes a
fresh supply of food and relapses into its former slumber; and finally awakening in the spring, at
which time it has lost much of its fat, it enters upon its usual habits, and the enjoyment of the
conjugal and parental affections. The young, which are generally about four in number, are born
blind; but in a few days the eyes are opened, and in a short time they are enabled to seek their
food independently of the parent's care. There is reason to believe that, in some cases at least,
the dormouse has a second brood early in the autumn. It is nocturnal in its habits.
We are told that a dormouse having been taken in its nest in the middle of December, the
heat of its captor's hand and the warmth of the room completely revived it, and it nimbly scaled
the furniture, finding no difficulty in ascending and descending the polished backs of the chairs,
and leaping from chair to chair with great agility. On being set at liberty it sprang at least two
yards to a table. It did not seem alarmed at being taken into the hand. In the evening it was
placed with its nest in a box, and the next morning had relapsed into torpidity. Another account
informs us that a dormouse, which had been sent a distance of one hundred and forty miles, was
apparently but little disturbed by its ride. From that time till the first of April, it slept in
its snug dormitory, a deal-box lined with wool, when it awoke, and readily ate of apples and nuts.
It was easily alarmed, being more timid than tame, but showed no signs of anger on being taken
in the hand. As it slept the greater part of the day, its habits could not then be studied; but
toward evening it woke up, and was very lively and frolicsome, running, on being let out of its
cage, up the bell-rope, where it would sit for hours in the folds of the knot, timidly watching the
movements of the persons around. It is found all over Europe, and is common in England, where
the other species are not found.
Gervais notices as a distinct species of Dormouse the Loir Glis, M. Glis, which he describes
as being five inches long, with a tail four inches, and found in Greece, Italy, Spain, France, and
a

424
VERTEBRATA,
THE GLIS.
Austria. This he considers as probably the Glis of the ancients, noticed by Aristotle, Pliny, and
others. Its flesh seems to have been relished by the Romans, who fattened it for food, Varro
having left instructions how to build warrens for it, and Apicius how to convert it into ragouts.
The moderns, however, find it rank and offensive. Other authors consider the common dormouse,
above described, as the Glis, and do not notice the Loir Glis, now under consideration.
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THE CAPE GRAPHIURE.
The LEROT, or GARDEN DORMOUSE, M. nitela, is a native of the temperate portions of Europe,
and is found as far north as Poland and Prussia. It is five inches long, the tail four inches; the
color is reddish-gray above and white beneath. Gardens, orchards, and vineyards are its favorite

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
425
resorts, where it makes sad havoc, especially among the wall-fruits, peaches, pears, apricots, &c.
Its winter store consists of nuts, peas, beans, and the like. These are collected in some hidden
recess, where ten to twelve individuals assemble to pass their winter's sleep. The summer nest is
made in cavities in walls or holes in trees. The young are four or five in number.
Other species of Dormouse are as follows: the DRYAD DORMOUSE, M. dryas—the M. nitedula
of Pallas, found in the forests of the Caucasus, and in the valley of the Volga, held by some to be
a variety of the Lerot; the M. orobinus of Sennaar; the M. Coupeii of Senegal; the M. murinus
of the Cape of Good Hope and Mozambique. These African species constitute the genus Eliomys
of Wagner.
The M. elegans or M. lineatus is found in Japan.
Genus GRAPHIURE: Graphiurus.—Of this two species are named: the CAPE GRAPHIURE,
G. Capensis, resembles the dormouse in appearance; it is of a grayish-brown, and of the size of the
Lerot; its habits are not known. It was discovered at the Cape of Good Hope by M. Catoire.
Ogilby notices a second species under the name of G. elegans, also of Southern Africa.
REDWAN-KENNY ENGINY.
THE BLACK RAT.
THE MURID Æ.
The MURIDÆ, deriving their name from Mus, a rat or mouse, form the most extensive family
of all the rodents, comprising, when taken in its largest sense, a great number of genera and species,
which, though none of them attain to any considerable size, become worthy of serious notice from
their prodigious multiplication, and the destructive influence which they exert over vegetation
and the fruits of the labor of the agriculturist. The type of this family is found in the genus
Mus, to which our common rats and mice belong. Their general characteristics are that the
tail is more or less elongated, and usually naked; the eyes are of moderate size, and the external
ears distinctly developed ; the hind-legs are the longest, and possess five complete toes, while the
anterior feet have only four toes and a sort of wart, which represents the thumb; the lower
incisor teeth are narrow and pointed; the angle of the lower jaw is rounded, and the clavicles are
complete. These animals generally hold their food in their fore-paws while they eat, sitting
upon their haunches during the operation. They are all burrowing animals, and most of them
VOL. 1.-54

426
VERTEBRATA.
swim well. The species are not only exceedingly numerous, but very generally distributed in all
parts of the world; some are even indigenous to Australia. Under this head we shall first notice
the tribe of Rat-Moles, and then the Muriens, of which the principal types are the Field-mice and
common Rats and Mice.
THE RAT-MOLES.
This tribe are all burrowers, have a large head, the
tail short or altogether wanting, and the eyes very small.
.
There are several genera, as Bathyergus, Georychus,
Rhizomys, Siphneus, Spalax, and Heliophobius.
Genus HELIOPHOBIUS: Heliophobius.-Of this
there is a single species, H. argenteus, which is the only
one of the Rodentia which has five pairs of molars in each
jaw. It is little known beyond its appearance; it is of a
silver-gray color, and has a head and feet not easily de-
scribed, and of which we therefore present engravings.
Genus BATHYERGUS: Bathyergus.—These animals,
belonging to Africa, have no external ears; they have
HEAD OF HELIOPHOBIUS.
extremely small eyes, a short tail, and a squat body;
they burrow and form galleries, like the moles, in sandy
wastes, generally near the sea.
These are the proper
Rat-moles. There are several species, as follows:
The Coast Rat, or CAPE MOLE, the Great Cape Mole
of Buffon, the Zand Moll of the Dutch, and Kauw-
Houba of the Hottentots, B. maritimus, is nearly the
size of a rabbit, being thirteen inches long, and its tail a
little more than one inch. It perforates the earth with
its long, horizontal galleries in such a manner that
persons often break into them and sink up to their
knees, and rendering it exceedingly dangerous to ride
among them. It lives on roots and bulbs, and is found
in the region of the Cape of Good Hope, especially in
the sand-flats near the sea. It is of a reddish-gray color.
The HOTTENTOT BATHYERGUS is of a brownish-gray,
and is half the size of the preceding; this also is found
near the Cape. Two other undescribed species are men-
tioned by naturalists: one is called B. Buffonii ; the
other is yet unnamed.
Genus GEORYCHUS: Georychus.—Of this there is
a single species, the G. Capensis; this is five inches long,
with a tail two-thirds of an inch. It lives in burrows,
and generally resembles the Bathyergus. It is found in
South Africa.
FEET OF HELIOPHOBIUS.
There are several species of field-mice, arranged under
this
genus by some authors, which we shall notice under the head of Lemmings.
Genus RHIZOMYS: Rhizomys. These animals have a long body, small eyes, and short
tails, and resemble the rat-moles. A single species only is well known, the BAMBOO-RAT,
R. Sumatrensis, the body of which is thirteen or fourteen inches long, and the tail five;
the general color is a light yellowish-gray; it has been erroneously referred to Sumatra and
Java; its true habitat is in the dense and almost impenetrable bamboo thickets of Malacca.
It feeds on the young roots of that plant, and on various fruits. It lives in burrows, from which
it only issues at night. This animal is described by Temminck under the name of the Deccan
Nyctocleptes, and is probably the same as the R. Chinensis of Gray. The Mus talpinus, of Pallas,
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FACE OF HELIOPHOBIUS.
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CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA
427
THE MALACCA RHIZOMYS.
has been referred to this genus, and Hodgson speaks of a species found in Nepaul; but neither
of these has been sufficiently described to be positively arranged under this head.
Genus SIPHNEUS: Siphneus.—Of this a single species only is known, the Zokor of South-
ern Russia, S. zokor, the Mus spalax of Pallas, chiefly found in the steppes of the Irtish. It
forms subterranean galleries, like the moles, and feeds on roots and bulbs. It is of a grayish-red
color, and is eight inches long.
kur
REUMAN-KENNYON
BATHYERGUS.
THE ZEMNI.
Genus SPALAX.—Of this but a single species is well known, but it is one of the most remark-

428
VERTEBRATA.
a
able creatures in the whole circle of mammalogy. This is the ZEMMI or ZEMNI, S. typhlus, the
Mus typhlus of Pallas; the Podolian Marmot of Pennant; the Blind Rat of Shaw. Its length is
about seven or eight inches, there being no tail; the head is broader than the body; no aperture
for the eyes, which, no bigger than poppy-seeds, are hid beneath the skin, so that the animal is
entirely destitute of the sense of sight! There are no external ears; the end of the nose is
covered with a thick skin; nostrils very remote, and placed below; limbs very short; claws short;
hair or fur short, thick, and very soft, dusky at the bottom and cinereous-gray at the tip ; space
about the nose and above the mouth, white. In compensation for its want of sight, it is said that
the hearing of the spalax is very acute.
This species, which is no doubt the spalax of Aristotle, and which he found to be without the
power of vision, the Russians name Slepez or the Blind, and the Cossacks Sfochor Nomon, signi-
fying the same defect; it burrows extensively beneath the turf, driving at intervals lateral passages
in its search for roots, particularly that of the bulbous Chærophyllum. Openings to the surface
occur at distances of some yards from each other, and there the earth is raised into hillocks,
sometimes of two yards in circumference, and of considerable height. It works stoutly and
rapidly, and on the approach of an enemy instantly digs a perpendicular burrow. Though it
it lifts its head in a menacing attitude toward an assailant, and, when irritated, snorts
and gnashes its teeth, but emits no cry: its bite is very severe. In the morning it often quits its
hole, and during the season of love basks in the sun with the female. It is worthy of notice that
there runs a superstition in the Ukraine that the hand which has suffocated one of these animals
is gifted with the virtue of curing scrofula or the King's Evil, in the same way that it was sup-
posed to vanish before the royal touch of the Stuarts in England.
It is found in the southern parts of Russia, from Poland to the Volga, but not to the east of
that river; it is common from the Sysran to the Sarpa, and frequent along the Don, even to its
origin, and about the town of Resk, but not in the sandy parts.
It is supposed that two other species exist, but they are not authentically described.
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SHORT-TAILED FIELD-MICE.
THE MURIENS, OR RATS AND MICE GENERALLY.
This tribe is more numerous in species than that of any
other
among
the mammals, and though
considerable differences exist among them, they all possess the general characteristics of Rats or
Mice.
Genus LEMMING: Lemmus. Of this there are several species, the most celebrated of
which is the LAPLAND LEMMING, L. Norvegicus. This is confined to Lapland and Norway. It is

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
429
a
a
about seven inches long, with a tail half an inch. It burrows in the earth, making its nest of
moss; from four to eight young are produced twice a year; its color is yellow, variegated with
black. It is sometimes called the Norway Rabbit. It is celebrated for its occasional migrations
—that is, once in four to ten years—in immense numbers. They proceed in a straight line, a few
yards apart, each one usually tracing a shallow furrow in the soil as he goes. They devour all the
herbs and roots in their passage. If they come across a man they glide between his legs; if they
meet with a hay-stack they gnaw through it; if they come to a rock they go round it in a semi-
circle, and then resume the straight line of their march. On coming to a lake or river, or an arm
of the sea, they swim directly across; if they encounter a boat they climb over it, so as not to be
diverted from their advance in a direct line. It is curious that they avoid the habitations
of men. They proceed by night and halt by day. Woe to the place where they stop, for in
a few hours meadows, gardens, and corn-fields are dry and barren as if scorched by fire. As
they take the inhabitants by surprise, no effectual defense can be offered. They resist fiercely,
and will bite the stick or hand that removes them, crying and barking like little dogs, when
defending themselves. Multitudes of them are, however, destroyed in their progress by man.
It is asserted that among them a female may be often seen with one young one in her mouth
and another on her back. The number that proceed in this manner is beyond computation.
They descend in two directions from the Scandinavian Alps, which are their native home, one
stream directing its march from east to west toward the North Sea; the other from west to east
toward the Gulf of Bothnia. After a time they set out to return, but their numbers are so re-
duced that they are scarcely observed. Very few survive to reach the mountain homes from
which they departed. The cause of these migrations is utterly inscrutable. They seem to pro-
ceed from some instinct that acts like an uncontrollable destiny, urging them on through difficulty,
danger and suffering to an inevitable doom. In general, the instincts of animals are seen to
be founded in truth and reason, and to conduce to the advantage of the creatures on whom they
act; but in this case it seems like an hallucination, and ends in destruction. The migrations of
the gray squirrels of the United States have some analogy to these we are describing, but they
THE LAPLAND LEMMING.
may reasonably be supposed to be the result of a general necessity in respect to food; but no
such explanation is possible in respect to the Lapland Lemmings. It has been suggested that
by a mysterious but still prophetic instinct, they are advised of the approach of a winter of
unusual severity, and that they migrate to avoid it. Thus it is stated, that in 1742 a vast migra-

430
VERTEBRATA.
a
tion took place in Norway from the Circle of Umea to that of Lula, and that the winter accord-
ingly was very severe in the former and mild in the latter, though this was farther to the north.
But if this be so, still the instinct only leads to destruction; for even if they find a milder climate,
as we have shown, they only go to their ruin. An instinct which leads a whole tribe of animals
-millions in number, and at frequent intervals—through fatigue, wounds, privation, and anxiety,
to premature and violent death, does not seem to be beneficent, and in its result, in this sense, is a
direct contradiction of its motive. Such are not usually the ways of Providence.
Pallas includes two other species of Lemming under the generic name of Myodes; there are the
M. lagurus of Central Asia, and the parts of Europe nearest to it, and the M. torquatus of North-
ern Russia. Nilsson names a species which he calls Lemmus semitricolor, in the same division.
There are several species of Lemming in North America, described by some naturalists un-
der the generic name of Georychus. The Hudson's Bay LEMMING, the Hare-tailed mouse of
Hearne and Mus Hudsonius of Pallas, the Arvicola Hudsonia of Richardson, is five and a quarter
inches long, the tail half an inch; color, reddish-brown in summer and white in winter. In sum-
mer it burrows in the ground, usually beneath stones and in dry ridges; in winter it inhabits a
nest of moss upon the ground, and seldom ventures abroad. It is an inoffensive creature, and on
being captured becomes tame and gentle and as fond of being caressed as a kitten. It is a
native of Sahara and the contiguous northern regions.
S.
THE TAWNY LEMMING.
The Tawny LEMMING, the Arvicola helvolus of Richardson, is smaller than the preceding, and
resembles the Lapland Lemming. It is found about latitude 56° in mountainous districts of the
north western British territories,
BACK'S LEMMING, Arvicola trimucronatus of Richardson, is five inches long, with a tail half an
inch ; it is found near the Great Bear Lake.
The GREENLAND LEMMING, Mus Grænlandicus of Richardson, is about six inches long, and is
found in the polar regions of North America.
Genus ARVICOLA : Arvicola.—This word is derived from the Latin arvum, "a field," and colo,
“ to inhabit," and embraces the numerous species of Field-Mice. It is equivalent to the term Cam-
pagnol of Gervais and other French authors. The word Vole is popularly applied to many of the
species, as “ Field-Vole," " Weter-Vole," &c. These animals are of small size, have a short tail,
burrow in the earth, feed on grain, bulbous roots, and grasses, and neither climb trees nor become
dormant in winter. They inhabit every quarter of the globe. About forty species are known,
one-half of which are natives of North America.
The Common EUROPEAN FIELD-Mouse, or SHORT-TAILED FIELD-MOUSE; the Campagnol of
Buffon— A. arvalis—the Mus arvalis of Linnæus, is of the size of the common mouse ; ears long,
eyes prominent, tail one-quarter the length of the body, color a yellowish-fawn mixed with gray.
It is subject, however, to varieties of color, some being black and others white, and others still a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
431
yellowish-white; some are also marked with white on the ordinary color. It is common in all
parts of Europe, and despite its small size, is the scourge of the farmers. It lives in cultivated
plains, especially in the grain-fields. In summer it attacks the cereals, cutting down the stalks to
get the ears; when these are harvested it eats the roots of grass, and especially those of the young
clover; it then makes an onslaught upon the carrots and other leguminous vegetables; when au-
tumn approaches it devotes itself to the seeds. When the earth is frozen it migrates to the barns,
and revels among the hay and grain. Some seasons—that is, about once in five years—the num-
bers are so great as to become devastating to the harvests; at other times they are more rare. It
has been estimated that in La Vendée, in France, during the years 1816 and 1817, they destroyed
crops to the value of three millions of francs, and they were equally destructive in some other
parts. They are very unequally distributed, in some places being abundant, in others sparsely
scattered over the country. Italy is said to be the only part of Europe where they are not found.
They extend into Siberia as far as the Obi. They are most common in the plains, but are found in
mountainous countries, even so high as the hospital of Mt. St. Gothard, 6,000 feet above the level
of the sea. This little creature is gentle, soft, graceful, but as it feeds on the same things that
man feeds on, and as, moreover, it takes without liberty the fruits of man's labor, it is everywhere
an object of hatred. Millions of them are destroyed by the inundations which take place in
countries traversed by mountains, and other millions are destroyed by the agency of man. Small
and insignificant as it is individually, on account of its immense numbers it forms the staple ar-
ticle of food to innumerable hawks and herons, cats, weasels, owls, and other flesh-eaters; and
thus it performs a considerable part in the great theater of animal life.
The A. agrestis, called A. neglecta by Thompson, and A. arenicola by Selys, is a large species,
found in Scotland and the northern parts of Europe. This is to be distinguished from the A.
agrestis of the Penny Cyclopedia and other authorities, which give this title to the A. arvalis.
The A. fulvus is of the size of the preceding, and is sometimes found mingled with it. It is a
native of the western parts of France and of Belgium. The A. incertus, A. Selysii, A. glareolus,
A. Nageri, A. Savii ; the A. subterraneus, A. socialis, A. ceconomus, A. duodecim costatus, A. ru-
bidus, A. leucurus, A. nivalis, and A. terrestris, are all European species, bearing a general resem-
blance to the common field-mouse, but less numerous and less generally distributed.
The WATER-RAT, or WATER-VOLE, Mus amphibius, or aquaticus, is about the size of the black
rat, from which it is easily distinguished by its larger head, its shorter tail, and its more rufous tinge.
It is about five inches long, and the tail half that length. Its fur is soft, and of a slightly reddish-
brown above and deep ash-color below; the tail is covered with rough scales. It is fond of the water,
and swims well, though its feet are not palmated. It is found along the borders of rivers, lakes,
and streams, as well as of bays and lagoons connected with the sea.
It breeds twice a year,
and produces six to eight at a birth. It feeds on vegetables, and is found in various parts of
Europe.
The A. destructor, or A. Musignani, is of the size of the preceding, and differs from it but little
in appearance. It is common in Italy, and especially in Tuscany, where it is a national pest. It
is said that in 1837-8 this species being driven from their retreats by inundations in this country,
spread themselves over the cultivated lands and destroyed four-fifths of the crops. When an at-
tempt was made by the government to redeem the Maremma marshes by dykes, these creatures
presented almost fatal obstacles by eating the roots of the trees and shrubs planted upon them in
order to protect them. The A. monticola resembles the preceding, and inhabits the Pyrenees.
We now proceed to notice very briefly the common species of American Arvicola. Wilson's
MEADOW-MOUSE, A. Pennsylvanica, is brownish-fawn above and grayish-white beneath; fur long
and fine; length five inches, tail one and three-quarters. It is found in all the meadows of the
United States, where it traces winding, shallow paths in the earth among the grass leading to and
from its nest, usually in a stump, or some little elevation along a ditch. If the soil is here dug up,
the mouse and its family of six to ten individuals may be found. The food of this species consists
of roots, bulbs, grasses, and in the season, of seeds, those of the red-top and herds-grass being among
its favorites. It does not invade the upland grain-fields, but when the winter has destroyed or
locked up the roots on which it usually subsists, it attacks the stems of shrubs and fruit-trees, and

432
VERTEBRATA.
a
thus does some damage to the farmers, wherefore—though it is a very pretty, soft, gentle, and
well-meaning creature—it is held in disesteem by that large and influential class of persons.
This species, which is rather nocturnal in its habits, builds its nest near the surface of the
ground, and brings forth from two to five at a birth. The young sometimes adhere to the teats
of the mother, and she may be seen thus dragging them along on the ground. They live in low
grounds, and do not visit dwellings or outhouses, at least in the United States, though they are said
to do so in Canada. They are easily tamed, and in this state, sit on their haunches and comb
and clean their fur, and come to the bars of their cage for food. This, as well as all other species
of mice, are devoured in large numbers by owls, hawks, and various kinds of small carnivora.
The YELLOW-CHEEKED MEADOW-MOUSE, A. xanthognatha, is eight inches long, dark brown
on the back and silvery-gray beneath, lives in low grounds, and burrows in banks near ponds and
water-courses, and makes long galleries; it is partially nocturnal, and feeds on roots and grasses.
It is found in Labrador and around Hudson's Bay.
DRUMMOND'S MEADOW-MOUSE, A. Drummondii, is a little over four inches long, and is found
in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains.
Baird's ARVICOLA, A. austerus, is five and a half inches long, and inhabits the State of Wis-
consin.
The NORTHERN MEADOW-MOUSE, A. Borealis, is four and a half inches long, and lives near the
Great Bear Lake.
The CALIFORNIA MEADOW-MOUSE, A. edax, is five and a half inches long, and is found in Cali-
fornia.
The CALIFORNIA ArvicoLA, A. Californica, is somewhat larger than the preceding, and is found
in the same region.
The WESTERN MEADOW-MOUSE, A. occidentalis, is a trifle over four inches long, and is found
in Oregon.
The JERSEY FIELD-MOUSE, A. campestris, is three and a half inches long, and is found in New
Jersey
The Sonora FIELD-MOUSE, A. Sonoriensis, is three and a quarter inches long, and is found in
Sonora.
The RED-SIDED FIELD-MOUSE, A. rubricatus, is found on the shores of Behring's Straits.
The Glossy FIELD-MOUSE, A. De Kayii, is three inches and three-quarters long, and is found
in the western part of the State of New York.
WOODHOUSE's FIELD-Mouse, A. apella, is four and a half inches long, and is found in Penn-
sylvania.
The OREGON MEADOW-MOUSE, A. Oregoni, is a very minute species—three inches long-and
is found near the Columbia River, in Oregon.
PEAL'S MEADOW-MOUSE, A. montana, is four and a half inches long, and is found in California.
The SHARP-NOSED ARVICOLA, A. nasuta, is five inches and three-quarters long, and is found
from Massachusetts westward to Michigan.
The RICE MEADOW MOUSE, A. orizivora, is five inches long, and lives in the rice fields of
Georgia and South Carolina.
RICHARDSON'S MEADOW-MOUSE, A. Richardsonii, is seven inches long, and is found near the foot
of the Rocky Mountains.
The A. Texana is but a trifle over two inches long, and is found near El Passo.
The TEXAN MEADOW-MOUSE, A. Texiana, is four and a half inches long, and is found in Texas,
along the rivers Brazos and Grande.
LECONTE'S PINE-Mouse, A. pinetorum, has some resemblance to Wilson's Field-Mouse, and is
found in some of the Atlantic States.
Genus ONDATRA: Ondatra.–Of this there is a single species, the well known MUSKRAT or
MUSQUASH, 0. Zibethica, the Castor Zibethicus of Linnæus, found only in North America. Its
head, neck, and legs are short, and its thighs hid in its body. Its length is fifteen inches, its tail
ten; its color reddish-brown above and ashy gray beneath. The fur is short and downy, and was
formerly much used as a substitute for beaver; it is still in demand, and the animal is every-
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
433
REDMANEKENNY:ENGRS:NY.
THE MUSK-RAT.
where more or less an object of pursuit. It is endowed with a strong musky smell, but not
very offensive; the flesh is tolerable food. It lives along the banks of ponds and rivers, some-
what in the manner of the beaver, building its winter-houses of mud in a conical form, with an
entrance under water and a dry chamber above. It is a good swimmer though its feet are not
webbed. In summer it digs burrows along the banks of lakes and streams, forming branched
canals many yards in extent, and making a nest at the extremity, where the young are produced
-three litters in a season, and three to five at a time. It may be observed that their modes of
building, burrowing, and living, vary considerably in different localities—a fact no doubt owing
to the varying necessities of their situation. Their food consists of grasses, roots of various kinds,
tender shoots of the bulrush, and reed-mace, acorns, spice-wood, and sometimes, when dwelling
near human cultivation, turnips, parsnips, and carrots; they also occasionally eat mussels. In
winter, when hard pressed, they sometimes devour each other; when one is wounded the rest set
to and eat him.
This is doubtless a dark streak in their character: for the rest, they are mostly a gentle folk,
pursuing their avocations by night, in a manner so quiet that they seldom intrude on the notice
of mankind. They are of a sportive humor, and in the mild season, when the lakes and ponds
are open, they may be seen—especially if moonlight favors the observation—disporting on the
surface of the waters, swimming, diving, and circling, with all the frolicsome humor of children.
While some thus give themselves up to merriment, others are occupied in the graver but not less
agreeable task of finding their food along the banks. It is said that one of them, at such a time,
seated on a bank, looks exceedingly like a ball of earth. It is noticed, too, that in diving, they
make a smart stroke of the tail in the water, which seems to be an imitation of one of the tricks
of the beaver. They do little damage to man, except in a few cases, when they dig up the borders
of streams and ditches, yet on account of their fur they are objects of ceaseless persecution. A
multitude of devices are brought into requisition for their capture: they are sometimes caught in
traps and sometimes shot with guns; they are dug out and seized by dogs; the Indians spear
them in their beds. They are found throughout the Atlantic States in more or less abundance,
and are distributed northward through the British territories to the latitude 69° north. In the
far Northwestern regions large numbers are taken by the Indians, who make the hunting of them
a part of the business of their lives. Several hundred thousand skins are annually obtained.
VOL. 1.-55

434
VERTEBRATA.
REOMAN-KENNY ENGAS.N.Y.
THE HAMSTER.
a
young, and
Genus CRICETUS: Cricetus.— The animals of this genus greatly resemble the true rats. The
most noted species is the EUROPEAN Hamster, C. frumentarius of Pallas. It is of a reddish-brown
color above; black below, with three large whitish spots on the sides; feet white; a white spot
on the throat, and another on the breast; but variations in color are not uncommon, one variety
being black. The length is about nine inches; tail three inches. It is supplied with ample
cheek-pouches, and is distributed over the most of Europe and Asia.
The hamsters are serious pests to the farmers. The quantity of grain which they consume
is enormous, nor does the destruction stop with satiety of appetite; they never forget their
hoards, and fill their two cheek-pouches till they seem bursting with the booty. They are also
said to be very fond of the seeds of liquorice. Their dwellings are under the earth; their mode
of constructing them being as follows: They first form an entrance, burrowing down obliquely;
at the end of this passage one perpendicular hole is sunk by the male, the female sinking several:
at the end of these they excavate various vaults—some as lodges for themselves and
some as storehouses for their food. Every young one is said to have its separate apartment ;
each sort of grain its different vault. The “living apartments," as they may be called, are lined
with straw or grass. The vaults are said to be of different depths, according to the age of the
constructor: a young hamster, it is stated, makes one scarcely a foot deep, an old one sinks to the
depth of four or five feet. The whole structure is sometimes eight or ten feet in diameter.
From the mode of proceeding in their work, the reader will be prepared for the statement that
the male and female live in separate apartments; and, indeed, it appears that, excepting at the
short season of courtship, they have very little or no intercourse. Pennant gives them a very
unamiable character. “The whole race," says that zoologist, “is so malevolent as to constantly
reject all society with one another. They will fight, kill, and devour their own species, as well
as lesser animals; and so may be said to be carnivorous as well as granivorous. If it happens
that two males meet in search of a female, a battle ensues; the female makes a short attachment
to the conqueror, after which the connection ceases. She brings forth two or three times in a
year, and produces from sixteen to eighteen young ones at a birth : their growth is very quick,
and at about the age of three weeks the old one forces them out of the burrows to take care of
themselves. She shows little affection for them; for if any one digs into the hole, she attempts
to save herself by burrowing deeper into the earth, and totally neglects the safety of her brood;
on the contrary, if attacked in the season of courtship she defends the male with the utmost fury.”
The harvest of these animals commences in August. Grains of wheat, ears of wheat, peas and
beans in the pods, all find their way into their cheek-pouches, which will hold a quarter of a pinta

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
435
The forage is carefully cleaned in their burrows, and the husks and chaff carried out. When all
is in order, they stop up the entrance and prepare for their hibernation, which lasts during the
whole of the severe weather; the provision they have made having been collected for the pur-
pose of their support before their torpidity actually commences, and also in the spring before
there is a supply for them in the fields. If all tales be true, they are a bold generation, and
will jump at a horse if he tread near them, and hang by his nose so as to be disengaged with
difficulty. Their voice is said to be like the barking of a dog. Fierce as they are, they quail
before their deadly enemy the polecat, which, chasing them into their holes, destroys them un-
relentingly. Notwithstanding this check, they are so numerous in some seasons, in some places,
as to occasion a dearth of corn. The fur of the animal is said to be valuable; and the peasant,
when he goes “hamster-nesting” in the winter, not only possesses himself of the skin of the plun-
derer, but of the plunder, which sometimes amounts to two bushels of good grain in a single
magazine. Buffon, quoting Sulzer, says that in Gotha, in Germany, where these animals were
.
proscribed by the government, over 80,000 were captured in a single year.
Beside this notorious species other hamsters are found in Europe and Asia, as the C. arenarius,
C. phæus, C. accedula, and, according to Brandt, C. nigricans. The Canada pouched-rat, S.
bursarius, which we have described at page 415, is erroneously considered a hamster by Desma-
rest and F. Cuvier, who give it the title of Cricetus bursarius.
REDMAN:KENNYINA
A GERBIL,
Genus GERBILLUS: Gerbillus.—Of this genus there are more than twenty species, all
belonging to the Eastern Continent. They are somewhat rat-like in appearance, but are noted
for the elegance of their forms, the length of their tail and hind-legs, and the lightness of their
movements. Some live in cultivated districts; all burrow in the earth, where they hoard up pro-
visions, and all are nocturnal in their habits. Their general color is fawn.
The HERINE GERBIL, G. Indicus, confined to India, is eight or nine inches long, of a grayish
fawn above, irregularly mixed with black; below it is white. It establishes itself in burrows
near the grain fields, where it collects immense stores of barley and wheat, to which it has re-
course during the dry season when the country is destitute of vegetation. It has, in common
with several of the genus, an offensive smell.
Other species are the Tamaris GERBIL, G. tamariscinus, inhabiting the coasts of the Cas-
pian; the SOUTHERN GERBIL, G. meridianus, the Mus longipes of Pallas, found in Southern Rus-
sia; the G. opimus, found in Europe and Asia, in the region of the Caspian ; the G.otarius, found

436
VERTEBRATA.
in India; the EGYPTIAN GERBIL, G. Ægyptiacus, the Dipus Gerbillus of Olivier; the GERBIL
OF THE PYRAMIDS, G. pyramidum, both found in Egypt; Burton's GERBIL, G. Burtoni, of
Eastern Africa; the SHORT-TAILED GERBIL, G. brevicaudatus, and the AFRICAN GERBIL, G.
afer of Gray, both of Southern Africa; the G. pygargus, of Upper Egypt and Senegal; Shaw's
GERBIL, G. Shawii, of Northern Africa. There are other species, not fully described, in Alge-
ria, bordering on the Desert of Sahara.
Genus PSAMMONYS: Psammonys of Rappel.—This comprises a single species, the P. obesus,
the size of a common rat, resembling both the field-rat and the gerbil, and found in India and
Arabia.
/
SMINTHUS LORIGER.
Genus SMINTHUS: Sminthus. This contains the S. loriger—described by Nordmann—two
and a half inches long, with a tail of nearly equal length. It is of a grayish-brown, with a black
a
band running along the back. It is dormant in winter. The Mus betelinus of Pallas is referred
to the same genus by Nilsson.
an
CAFFRARIAN OTOMYS.
Genus MERIONES: Meriones.—Under this term, used by Illiger as synonymous with Ger-
billus, and which is equivalent to the Jaculus of Wagler, is included but a single species, the
LABRADOR or CANADA JUMPING-MOUSE, which is sometimes called the Canada Jerboa ; it is the
Gerbille du Canada of F. Cuvier; the M. Labradorius of Richardson; the M. Americanus of De

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
437
Kay; the Dipus Americanus of Barton; Dipus Canadensis of Davies, and Canadian Gerbo of Shaw.
It is about two inches and a half long, with a tail four and three-quarters; the color is reddish-
brown above and white beneath; its hind-legs are very long, and the fore ones short, as in the
jerboa. It is found in the Atlantic States as far south as Virginia, and north to the latitude of
62°, but is nowhere abundant. It produces several times in the summer, three or four at a birth,
and as in the case of some other mice, the female may sometimes be seen dragging her young by
her teats along the ground. It feeds on seeds and grain, and is often met with in fields of wheat
or rye, and is not unfrequently turned up by the plough of our farmers. It runs by long jumps
or leaps, in a zig-zag manner, with great speed, on its hind-legs, putting its fore-legs to the ground
at each bound. It lives in burrows, the nest being composed of fine grass mixed with feathers,
wool, or hair, eight inches below the surface. Its haunts are usually in cultivated fields, though
it is often met with in the woods. It is strictly nocturnal, lays up stores, and hibernates, becom-
ing dormant in cold regions during the rigors of winter. It is on the whole a gentle, timid, mi-
nute creature, living often on the labors of man, but it is not so numerous or so greedy as to take
beyond what he can well spare.
Genus OTOMYS: Otomys.—The animals of this genus, which is called Euryotis by Brandt,
have the aspect of the true rats, but have larger ears and shorter tails. The CAFFRARIAN OTOMYS,
0. unisulcatus, is of a grayish-fawn, six inches long, with a tail two and a half inches. It is
found at the Cape of Good Hope. The other species named are the 0. bisulcatus and the 0. al-
bicaudatus.
2
BARESTE
CUMMING'S PHLEOMYS.
Genus PHLEOMYS: Phlæomys, comprises a single species, resembling the Capromys in exter-

438
VERTEBRATA.
nal appearance, but having the distinctive organization of the Muriens. The only known species
is Cumming's PALEOMYS, P. Cummingii, found in the Island of Lucon, one of the Philippines,
where it is called Parout by the natives. It is a rare species, even in its native island, and its
habits are little known. It is nine inches long, with a tail three inches, and is not only an animal
of considerable size, but of vigorous character, defending itself from dogs and men with great
savageness. It lives on roots and the shoots of plants, but does not dig burrows.
TRUCK GROOTSTECH
US
THE BROWN RAT.
Genus MUS: Mus—this word being the Latin for Mouse. We have already treated of numer-
ous genera and a multitude of species which bear the general designation of Rat or Mouse ; we
now come to those to which these names more truly belong, and of which the domestic Rats and
Mice are the types—animals possessing an energy of character which has carried their species over
the whole globe. These consist of three well known species: the Common Mouse of our houses,
Mus musculus; the Souris of the French; the Maus and Hausmaus of the Germans, and Sorgio
di Casa of the Italians; the BLACK Rat, Mus rattus ; the Rat of the French; Ratze of the Ger-
mans; Rot of the Dutch, and Ratto of the Italians; and the Brown Rat, Mus decumanus; the
Surmulot of the French. While those we have described have been the comparatively gentle,
timid eaters of roots, fruits, and seeds, living for the most part in houses of their own construction
--some in meadows, some in fields, some in forests, but all apart from man, and all feeding on
vegetables gathered by themselves, though occasionally from the treasuries of man—those we are
now to notice are devourers alike of fish and flesh, fruits and vegetables; omnivorous in fact, and
possessing at once the greediness, activity, cunning, audacity, and perseverance which have en-
abled them, while inciting the rage, to defy the vengeance of man, at the same time persisting in
being his companions, living in his houses, feeding in his larders and granaries—in short, making
him their servant and drudge—their steward, farmer, gardener, brewer, baker, butcher, and banker.
“Where thou goest I will go; where thou dwellest I will dwell,” is the practical language of the
Rat and the Mouse to civilized man, and in spite of cats, terriers, traps, and ratsbane, they have
for centuries fulfilled this devout and affectionate promise.
The Common Domestic Mouse is not indigenous to our continent, but was brought hither in
European ships, after the discovery of America. The same is doubtless the fact in relation to the
two species of Rat which infest our houses, the Black Rat and the Brown Rat, the latter called the
Norway Rat. Historically, the mouse takes the precedence, figuring in the literature of remote
antiquity, while the rat has been only known to modern times. The mouse is only mentioned
incidentally in the Scriptures as unfit for the Hebrew to eat—that is in the Levitical law; but

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
439
it is introduced as a character in some of the ancient Grecian fables, and in the Batrachomyo-
machia, or "Battle of the Frogs and Mice,” which is usually ascribed to Homer, and which is
one of the best burlesque satires on wars and heroes that ever was written, we find them
named after the different kinds of stores and provisions upon which they levied their contri-
butions. In the original strife of these mighty combatants, the folly of the mice in being per-
suaded to
go
into the pond, for which nature had not fitted them, might forcibly bring to our
mind the invasion of Russia by Napoleon, and the fatal consequences of his temerity. There is also
something at once ludicrous and significant in the final destruction of the mice by the crabs,
which are aquatic animals, and of the frogs by the storks, which are land ones. The fable of
the Lion and the Mouse,* in which the monarch of the forest is compelled to beg of this little ani-
THE LION AND MOUSE-FROM GRANDVILLE.
mal to release him from the net of the hunter, is also full of point. Thus the ancients, if they
were inferior to the moderns as zoologists, so far studied and understood the manners of animals
as to draw from them useful moral lessons. The fables in which birds and beasts talked like men,
have unfortunately fallen into disrepute in modern times, having given place to a coarse taste for
caricature; but Grandville in France, and Landseer in England, have furnished the world with en-
gravings of various animals—dogs and horses, wolves, foxes, bears, and tigers—in a manner to
satirize the follies and vices of men through the similitudes of brutes, with even more humor than
the written fables of Lafontaine, and quite as much effect.
The mouse is no less honored in Roman literature, for the poet Horace, in one of his most
* Lafontaine has modified the ancient Greek fable: he represents the royal lion as going forth, when a giddy
mouse is near being trampled to death beneath his feet. The mouse pleads for its life, and the lion grants it. After-
ward the lion, being caught in a net, is set at liberty by the mouse. The double moral is conveyed that we often
need the assistance of those whose position is beneath our own, and that patient industry will often do more than
mere strength.

440
VERTEBRATA.
agreeable compositions, gives us an amusing description of the Country Mouse, Mus Rusticus,
showing his grave hospitality to his friend, the City Mouse, Mus Urbanus, the feast being held
in a “poor hole,” in the side of a rugged mountain. The moral of the story is somewhat Hora-
tian, which is, that in this world of vicissitude it is best to be jolly when we can; a maxim, by
the way, quite as wise and quite as virtuous as the rule of some people, deemed the salt of the
earth, who think it is best to be always miserable.
The Common Mouse seems to have been indigenous to Europe, but it was first introduced here
by the European emigrants some three centuries ago. It is now distributed over the world,
wherever civilization and commerce have extended. It is one of the minutest of quadrupeds,
being but about three inches long, with a tail a trifle shorter; it is also a soft, gentle, pretty
animal. Buffon describes it with equal truth and felicity: “By nature timid, by necessity fami-
liar, its fears and its wants are the sole springs of its actions. It never leaves its hiding-place but
to seek for food; nor does it, like the rat, go from one house to another, unless forced to it; nor
does it by any means cause so much mischief. When viewed without the absurd disgust and ap-
prehension which usually accompany, or are excited by the sight of it, the mouse is a beautiful
creature; its skin is sleek and soft, its eyes bright and lively; all its limbs are formed with exqui-
site delicacy, and its motions are smart and active.”
The fecundity of the mouse is great, and readily accounts for its continued existence, distribu-
tion, and increase, despite all the devices of man, and even the employment of other animals, as
cats, dogs, and ferrets, for its destruction. Aristotle tells us that he confined a female mouse in
a vessel of corn, and not long after he found the number had increased to one hundred and
twenty. Mice breed at all seasons, and several times in the year, producing from four to ten at
a birth; even seventeen have been known to be produced. These are born blind and naked;
.
they are at first little pink transparent things, three of which will go into a lady's thimble, but in
fifteen days they are sufficiently advanced to take care of themselves. There are several varie-
ties, one of which is white, with red eyes; this is a true albino, and its peculiarities being propa-
gated by generation, many of them are bred for pets. Persons who have an instinctive horror of the
common brown mouse have often a fancy for these White Mice. The mouse is said to be fond of
music, and an instance is related in which one of these creatures, on hearing a man playing on a
violin, ran out of its hole, scampered about the floor as if distracted, and after various antics,
finally fell down dead.
We have alluded to the foolish dread which some people seem to have of the mouse. Captain
Hall tells an anecdote of a tiger which he saw in a cage at Nagore, which shows that a similar
dread is entertained by even that ferocious brute :-“What annoyed him far more than our poking
him
up
with a stick, or tantalizing him with shins of beef or legs of mutton, was introducing a
mouse into his cage. No fine lady ever exhibited more terror at the sight of a spider than this
magnificent royal tiger betrayed on seeing a mouse. Our mischievous plan was to tie the little
animal by a string to the end of a long pole and thrust it close to the tiger's nose. The moment
he saw it he leaped to the opposite side, and when the mouse was made to run near him, he jam-
med himself into a corner, and stood trembling and roaring in such an ecstasy of fear that we
were always obliged to desist from sheer pity to the poor brute. Sometimes we insisted on his
passing over the spot where the unconscious little mouse ran backward and forward. For a long
time, however, we could not get him to move, till at length, I believe by the help of a squib, we
obliged him to start; but instead of pacing leisurely across his den, or making a détour to avoid
the object of his alarm, he generally took a kind of flying leap, so high as nearly to bring his back
in contact with the roof of his cage." It is possible that the observation of some such display on
the part of a lion or tiger may have suggested the ancient fable of the Lion and the Mouse, to
which we have already alluded.
The Common Mouse is in America precisely what it is in Europe. We do not conceive it ne-
cessary, therefore, to give it a distinct notice.
Among the other European species of mouse belonging to this genus is the LONG-TAILED FIELD-
Mouse, Mus sylvaticus, the Mulot of the French. This is somewhat larger than the common
mouse, and also larger than the Short-tailed Field Mouse, the Arvicola arvalis, described at page 430,
a
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
441
FREDMAN-KENNY
THE LONG-TAILED FIELD-MOUSE.
with which it is often confounded, it being four to five inches long, and the tail nearly the length
of the body. Its color is a yellowish-fawn above and white below; the eyes are large and prom-
inent; the ears large. It lives in the woods and fields in summer, but in winter resorts to the
granaries. As the common mouse sometimes dwells in gardens, and even in fields and forests, so
this species occasionally takes up its abode in houses. It is a most destructive species, and a
great pest to the horticulturist, the agriculturist, and the planter. It is very prolific, bringing
forth from seven to ten at a birth, and is not always stinted to one brood in a year. The hoards
that it collects in its subterranean retreats—which are sometimes the results of its own labor, but
more frequently excavations which it finds ready made, but which it enlarges, such as those under
roots of trees, old mole-runs, &c.—are enormous for the size of the animal, and Pennant is of
opinion that the great damage done by hogs in rooting up the ground is caused chiefly by the
search of the swine for the concealed treasure of the Field-Mouse. It is an inhabitant of the
whole of temperate Europe and parts of Asia.
THE HARVEST MOUSE,
The Harvest Mouse, Mus minutus, or Mus messorius—the Rat Nain of the French-the
smallest of mice, and perhaps the very minutest of mammalia, an English half-penny weighing
VOL. I.-56

442
VERTEBRATA.
down two of them,—lives in the fields and makes his little nest two or three feet from the ground
on several standing stalks of wheat, bound together by grass. Dr. Gloger describes one of these
nests as beautifully constructed of the panicles and leaves of three stems of the common reed, inter-
NEST OF THE HARVEST MOUSE.
a
woven together, and forming a roundish ball, suspenaed on the living plants, about five inches
from the ground. On the side opposite the stems, rather below the middle, was a small aperture, ,
which appeared to be closed during the absence of the parent, and was scarcely observable even
after one of the young had made its escape through it. The inside, when examined with the
little finger, was found to be soft and warm, smooth, and neatly rounded, but very confined; it
contained only five young; but another which he found was less elaborately formed, yet it shel-
tered no less than nine. The panicles and leaves were slit into minute strips or strings by the
teeth of the animal in order to assist the neatness of its weaving. Mr. Macgillivray found one of
these nests in Fifeshire, composed of dry blades of coarse grass arranged in a globular form, and
placed in the midst of a tuft of Aira coespitosa, nine inches from the ground; it contained six or
seven young, naked and blind. The food of this little mouse consists of corn and grass-seeds, in-
sects and earth-worms. It is very prolific, and breeds in confinement, but in that case destroys
its young. This species is distributed throughout the cultivated fields of Europe from France to
Finland, and eastward to Siberia.
Among the other species of this genus in Europe are the following : M. vagus, found in Russia;
M.agilis, in Germany; M. agrarius, in Germany and Russia ; M. Pecchioli, in Southern Italy; M.
hortulanus, in the Crimea; M. leucogaster, in Switzerland; M. tectorum, M. frugivorus, and M.
dicrurus, of Italy.
The Black Rar and Brown Rat are doubtless both of Asiatic origin, but they are now
better known and more widely distributed in other parts of the world, and especially in Europe
and America. The ancient Greeks and Romans were not acquainted with either of these species.
The Black Rat was introduced into Europe about the time of the Crusades, and the Brown Rat
during the eighteenth century. Both these species are omnivorous; both prepare nests of leaves,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA
443
straw, and hay for their young; the young of both are born blind and naked; both are exceed-
ingly prolific. The Black Rat is grayish-black above and ash-color beneath; its length is seven
to eight inches; the tail a trifle more. The Brown Rat is nine to eleven inches long; the tail
about eight; it is grayish-brown above and grayish-white beneath.
“There are," says an exceedingly amusing English author,* “two kinds of rats known in Great
Britain—the Black Rat and the Brown Rat. The Black Rat, or, as it is sometimes called, the
old English rat, does not seem to be an aboriginal occupier of the British soil. The earliest men-
tion of it is by Genner, in his Historia Animalium, published at Zurich about the year 1587. It
is probable that it was introduced into this country from France, the Welsh name for it being to
this day, as I have it from a gentleman of Welsh extraction, Llygoden Ffrancon—the French
mouse ;' and I am, moreover, given to understand, on good authority, that it still abounds in the
barns and granaries scattered throughout Normandy. We all know the common Brown Rat
when we see it; the Black Rat is a different looking animal; he is much slighiter in make, his
upper jaw projects further over the lower jaw than it does in the Brown Rat; his ears are much
larger, and his tail very much longer than in his first cousin, and lastly his color is a jet black,
with numerous long hairs projecting out from the lower fur-like coat. He is a very
He is a very timid crea-
ture, and rarely shows fight; he is, in fact, not very powerful, but his want of strength is made
up by his excessive activity. I have examined several, and found their bodies a mass of muscle
without a particle of fat.”
It is a fact that may as well be frankly admitted, that, in the whole code of animal legislation,
there is no such thing recognized as any sort of kindness to the “disabled and the aged,” but
quite the contrary. Dogs always worry the dog that is down; the herd forcibly eject the stricken
or the hunted deer; and, among animals of every kind, the weak are always driven to the wall.
This is not only what actually is, but, if the expression may be allowed, it is what should be.
There is no place in the economy of nature for an old and useless animal, any more than there is
for a withered leaf, farther than the gathering of it to the common store of materials. This does
not apply to human beings, because there is a part in them which does not share in the “dis-
abled and aged” state of the body, though its connection with material nature is of course weak-
ened by bodily decay; and, for the sake of this, the existence of which is demonstrated by Christi-
anity only, “Christian men" are bound to cherish the aged to the very last. With animals it is
quite the reverse; their affection, if instinct ought under any circumstances to get such a name,
is all for the young and the vigorous; and their attacks are directed against the feeble and the
exhausted. If there is any hospitality in them it is Homer's hospitality—“Welcome the coming,
.
speed the going;" and many of them—and the rats and mice among the rest—even in the most
small and delicate of their species, have no objection to Malthusianize, by applying the “positive
check," and eating the superabundant population of their own nests.
That rat eats rat is indeed as well established as any other fact in natural history; it is especi-
ally true that the Norway Rat has waged such war on his cousin the Black Rat, which was his
predecessor in Europe and America, that the latter has become scarce where it once abounded,
and in some places is absolutely extinct. Several illustrations of this process of destruction on the
part of the Norway Rat are furnished by the writer just quoted, among which is the following:
“Some years ago a London rat-catcher shut up together in a cage the result of his day's work,
consisting of several dozen rats, of both species, and put them away carefully for the night, their
intended fate being to afford sport to his employer's dogs the next morning. What was his as-
tonishment, when he came to fetch them, to find none but brown rats remaining! these canni-
bals having cruelly devoured all their sable brethren.”
In proof of the general cannibal propensities of rats we have the following: “I once had three
rats brought to me in a cage; in removing one it got hurt. I fed them, and put them into a
stable. The next morning there were only two rats in the cage, the injured rat having been set
* F. T. Buckland, son of the celebrated geologist, Dr. Buckland, who has recently published a very clever little
work entitled “Curiosities of Natural History." It consists of free jottings down of his own observations and expe-
rience in respect to various animals, and furnishes a large amount of curious knowledge, related in an easy, and at
the same time spicy manner.

444
VERTEBRATA.
upon and slain by his fellow-prisoners. They had not only slain him, but had actually begun to
eat him, choosing the head to begin upon. Wishing to see the result, I left him, and in the
course of the day, although well supplied with bread and milk, these cannibals had nearly de-
voured their friend. I have preserved the bones as proof of the fact. I afterward ascertained
that it was one only of these rats that was murderously inclined, for he killed and ate every rat
put in to him. In the course of about a month, this brute killed five rats that were put into his
cage. He always began at the neck, just behind the ear. A gentleman at Clapham, to whom I
gave some rats, had bred a number in a squirrel's cage, which was hung up in a garden. One
morning, not long ago, he looked at the rat in it—a white female with young. Instead of the
white rat, he found a great brown male of the common kind coiled up in the nest. The white one
was gone, and the young ones all killed and partly devoured. This brown rat must have climbed
up a perpendicular smooth iron bar to get at the cage. Out of the hole in the cage, where the
intruder got in, the white mother might have got out if she liked, but she preferred staying at
home and looking after her young ones.
“I was witness to the following circumstance: a dog had been killing some rats for a match,
and one wounded rat was left alive in the rat-pit. Twenty other rats were then placed in for
another dog. These fresh comers found out the wounded one, and instantly, though there were
many people looking on, set upon him and killed him then and there. One of the rats seemed
to take the part of the wounded one, but a gigantic rat left the wounded one he was murdering
and attacked the would-be rescuer and killed him also. This seems a wise provision, though, at
first sight, a cruel one. If a wounded rat got into a hole, he would linger there perhaps many
days in a dying state. His fellow-rats, however, soon find him out and put him out of his misery.
At the same time it is a salutary check upon their increase, for a colony of rats has thus in itself
the elements of self-destruction. Were all to live, there would not be sufficient food for their ex-
istence; some must die, and those are killed who are disabled from foraging for themselves. In
this way, too, one poisoned rat often kills more; his neighbors eat his body, and with it the poi-
But it appears that the rats have found out what poison is, for a gentleman with whom I
was conversing on the subject informed me that he knew a case where poison having been placed
down for rats, a pair of old ones drove their young away from it, and filled up the holes where it
was placed, so that they should not get at it."
The following sketches will be found interesting: “There are two exhibitions of Happy Families?
in London; one stands at Charing Cross and about the streets, the other remains permanently at
Waterloo Bridge. They both claim to be the original 'happy family,' but I think the man at the
bridge has the greatest claims to originality. He is the successor to the man who first started
the idea, thirty-six years ago—Austin by name; the present owner has exhibited eight years, and
always in the same place. Both of these men told me that black rats were very scarce things
indeed; one of them had to give half a crown for a single one. He afterward got another, but
finding they would not breed in captivity, he turned them out under the floor of his room, to give
them a better chance of breeding; the result of the experiment he promised to let me know.
"I have been informed that a gentleman who was in the habit of crossing London Bridge early
in the morning some years ago, frequently saw whole colonies of black rats out on the mud banks
by the river side at low-water; lately, however, they have all disappeared, killed, most probably,
by the increasing numbers of the Norway rats from the large granaries and store-houses that have
sprung up near the bridge.
“An intelligent rat-catcher informs me that the present head-quarters of the old English black
rat is the Isle of Dogs—in the Thames, below London—that they abound there in the numerous
ditches, and come out to feed upon what is left by the tide. In his opinion these black rats
are not aboriginal in England, but came over originally from Jersey in ships. They thrive,
he tells me, in marshy places, particularly where the water is brackish, and there are many such
,
places in Jersey. I have not yet had an opportunity of verifying his assertion. My friend Mr.
Coulson, of Clifton, Bristol, most kindly sent me up five beautiful young black rats from Bristol
they were in a large iron cage, and when excited moved about the cage more like birds than rats.
I never yet saw other creatures with four legs so active as they; their tails are remarkably long,
son.

CLASSI. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
445
a
a
and they use them as levers to spring by when about to jump. Opening the cage to examine
them, one escaped, running under my hand. It took myself, three other persons, and two dogs,
three-quarters of an hour hunting in my room to catch him again—so active was the little brute.
We were obliged finally to kill him to get him at all; one of my friends present very appropri-
ately called him 'black lightning.
“The other species of rat, now so universally known and generally esteemed a pest by all, is
commonly supposed to have come from Norway, and is therefore called the Norway rat. This is
a strange mistake, for it would imply that this animal was aboriginal in that country; whereas,
in fact, at the time when the name was first applied to it, it was not even known to exist there,
How this mistake arose I know not, except from the fact that there exists in Norway a little ani-
mal, not unlike a rat, called a lemming, described in a treatise entirely devoted to it by the cele-
brated Danish historian and antiquary, Wormius, about the seventeenth century. This may be
the origin of the name; but, however, it made its appearance in Paris about the middle of the
eighteenth century, and in England not many years earlier. It is now agreed by most natural-
ists that it is a native of India and Persia; that it spread onward into European Russia, and was
thence transferred by merchant-ships to England and elsewhere.
“The rat is a most strict observer of the law "Be fruitful and multiply; for Madame la Ratte
is generally in an interesting condition thrice a year, and on these occasions she does not look
forward to nursing one helpless little individual, but thirteen or fifteen small unfortunates. I have
had practical demonstration of the aptness of this family for propagating its species. In cleaning
out the cage containing a little happy family of five rats, of variegated colors—all of which were
perfectly tame, and lived in peace and harmony—I felt something among the hay, warm and soft;
on taking it carefully out, it proved to be a little tiny rat, hairless and eyeless, but nevertheless
endowed, like a biped baby, with the full and audible use of its infant lungs. On hearing its
cries, the mother—a beautiful snow-white rat, upon whose head maternal cares were pressing at
the early age of eight weeks—rushed forward, and seizing her screaming infant between her teeth,
hastily ran off with it. Upon further examination, ten other young innocents were found care-
fully packed up in the corner of a cigar-box, which had been placed in the cage for the use of the
colony in general, but which had been kindly vacated by the other considerate rats in favor of
the lady who was literally in the straw. The owner is happy to announce that the mother and
her little family are all doing well. Such, indeed, is the amazing fecundity of this animal, that
they would soon overrun the whole country, and render all our attempts to destroy them fruit-
less, had they no enemies to lessen their numbers. But this baneful increase is happily counter-
acted, not only by numerous foes among other animals, but by their destroying and eating each
other. The same insatiable appetite that impels them to indiscriminate carnage, also incites the
strongest to devour the weakest, even of their own kind; and a large male rat is as much dreaded
by its own species as the most formidable enemy.
“During summer the rat resides chiefly in holes on the banks of rivers, ponds and ditches; but
on the approach of winter they visit the farm-houses, and enter the corn-ricks and barns, where
they devour much of the corn, and damage more than they consume. They are very fond of pig-
sties, running about among the pigs, picking up the leavings of the oatmeal out of the troughs,
and even nestling down near to the warm body of the fat unwieldy porkers, whose obese sides
make not bad pillows for his impudence—the rat.
“On one occasion, when a boy, I recollect secretly borrowing an old-fashioned flint-gun from
the bird-keeper of the farm to which I had been invited. I ensconced myself behind the door of
the pig-sty, determined to make a victim of one of the many rats that were accustomed to disport
themselves among the straw that formed the bed of the farmer's pet bacon-pigs. In a few min-
utes out came an old patriarchal-looking rat, who, having taken a careful survey, quietly began
to feed. After a long aim, bang went the gun—I fell backward, knocked down by the recoil of
the rusty old piece of artillery. I did not remain prone long, for I was soon roused by the most
unearthly squeaks, and a dreadful noise as of an infuriated animal madly rushing round and round
the sty. Ye gods! what had I done? I had not surely, like the tailor in the old song of the
Carrion Crow,

446
VERTEBRATA.
Shot and missed my mark,
And shot the old sow right bang through the heart?
a
a
But I had nearly performed a similar sportsman-like feat. There was poor piggy, the blood flow-
ing in streamlets from several small punctures in that part of his body destined, at no very dis-
tant period, to become ham, in vain attempting, by dismal cries and by energetic waggings of his
curly tail, to appease the pain of the charge of small shot which had so unceremoniously awaked
him from his porcine dreams of oatmeal and boiled potatoes. But where was the rat? He had dis-
appeared unhurt; the buttocks of the unfortunate pig, the rightful owner of the premises, had
received the charge of shot intended to destroy the daring intruder.
“To appease piggy's wrath, I gave him a bucketful of food from the hog-tub; and, while he
was thus consoling his inward self, wiped off the blood from the wounded parts, and said nothing
about it to any; no doubt, before this time, some frugal housewife has been puzzled and aston-
ished at the unwonted appearance of a charge of small shot in the center of the breakfast ham,
which she procured from Squire Morland, of Sheepstead, Berks.
“The frequenters of the Zoological Gardens in Regent's Park, may, if the room be quite quiet,
and the sun warm, observe numerous rats in the den of the rhinoceros. I have frequently watched
them playing about, and running backward and forward over his thick armor-like hide, as he
lies basking in the pleasant sunshine. He evidently thinks them quite beneath his notice, for he
makes no efforts to drive them away, beyond occasionally flapping his great ear when they tickle
him in any tender part. They come to the rhinoceros's house for the same purpose that they go
to the pig-sty, viz., to get what they can from the leavings of their superiors. The keeper informs
me that he not unfrequently finds dead rats crushed quite flat in the straw under the place where
the rhinoceros has been sleeping. The poor rat has but a small chance of escape when the huge
carcass of the great beast comes plump down upon him, and settles itself there for a good long
sleep. Rats, too, are also found killed in the same manner in the straw bed of the elephant.
These rats probably come out of the straw thatch which covers the building where the rhinoceros
and elephant live; they are common also in the deer-house, where they come for the oats, of
which they are particularly fond.
“If
any person wishes to keep rats alive a long time in a cage, let him give them plenty of oats
and plenty of water, for the absence of water will kill them in a very few hours. A fine full-grown
rat was brought to me; it appeared in perfect health and vigor, and when I went near it, it ran
about the cage uttering its peculiar cry of alarm, and fixing itself in an attitude of defense up
one corner of the cage. I introduced a spoonful of water to it, and in a moment it seemed to for-
get its ferocity, for it came up hesitatingly at first, and tasted the water; gaining courage, it soon
took hold of the spoon with its fore-paws to steady it, and greedily drank up all the water. I
.
gave
it two or three spoonfuls more, and then some wet bread; the next day it had again some wet
bread, but not any water. On looking at it the next morning I found my poor rat in the agonies
of death. I took it out of its cage and poured some brandy down its throat, at the same time
putting its hind-feet in hot water, but in vain; it died in my hand. I could find no internal cause
for its death; but on consulting a rat-catcher he informed me that it died for want of water with-
out a doubt. I must therefore confess that I unwittingly was the cause of its dying, and for the
future I shall know better how to act toward captive rats. One great reason why they are so
abundant at the Zoological Gardens is, that they have free access to water from the banks of the
Regent's canal, as well as plenty of food, which they purloin from the animals. In the deserts of
Africa there are numerous colonies of rats and mice of different kinds; now how do these little
beasts live during the droughts without water? The all-wise and ever kind Creator has provided
for their wants. An African traveler, Campbell, writes—I was surprised how so many mice
could have lived without water, till I observed them rolling berries from succulent plants into their
holes. On examining one of the largest of these berries I found it contained about three tea-
spoonfuls of water. This is a provision God has made to supply the wants of these little animals.
Man, too—the poor Bushman—is supplied with water from a similar source, for he finds growing
—
in arid and dry places natural water reservoirs in the shape of ‘melons, which being roasted yield
good water.'
in

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
447
“Rats, when hard pressed for food, are not particular as to what they eat. In extremities they
will attack and devour human flesh. An instance, corroborating this fact, came to my personal
knowledge and inspection about Christmas-time, 1851. The body of an unfortunate pauper, whose
frame was emaciated to the last degree by famine and want, was brought to one of the theaters
of anatomy in London, for dissection. When the corpse was placed on the table, it was found
that the whole of the lips and parts of the ears were wanting; in the place of the eyeballs were
empty sockets; the parts also covering the palmar surface of the fingers were gone, only the bones
and nails being left. Besides this, marks of teeth were visible on various other parts of the budy.
How came all this mutilation? What had caused this fearful disfigurement? Upon inquiry, it
was ascertained that this poor victim of starvation had been taken in from the streets, friendless
and unknown, into a workhouse—there he had died, and had been carried to the dead-house
pre-
vious to removal to a dissecting-room. The rats—for, living in a workhouse, we may suppose
that they, too, did not get too much to eat—had found out the corpse, and in the space of one
night had committed all this havoc, devouring the most tender parts of the body; at least, I sup-
pose they had found the parts that were missing were the most dainty morsels, for the marks of
their sharp teeth showed that they had had a taste of nearly every other part of the body. After
this event, means were taken to prevent the ingress of the rats into the dead-house, and a similar
case has not since occurred.
a
HAWK AND RAT.
“Rats will sometimes attack living men, though in this case fear, and not hunger, is their mo-
tive. Mr. Mayhew writes as follows :About that time a troop of rats flew at the feet of another
of
my
informants-one of the men who work in the London sewers—and would have no doubt
maimed him seriously, “but my boots," said he, “stopped the devils.” “The sewers generally
swarm with rats,” said another man: “I runs away from 'em, I don't like 'em. They in general
gets away from us; but in case we comes to a stunt end where there is a wall and no place for
'em to get away, and we goes to touch 'em, they fly at us. They're some of 'em as big as good
sized kittens. One of our men caught hold of one the other day by the tail, and he found it try.
ing to release itself, and the tail slipping through his fingers; so he put up his left hand to stop
it, and the rat caught hold of his finger, and the man's got an arm now as big as his thigh.")
99999

448
VERTEBRATA.
After so many things said against rats, it is a relief to find something in their favor. “The rat,
says our entertaining author, “is one of the most tormented of created animals; he has many ene-
mies and very few friends; wherever he appears his life is in danger from men, dogs, cats, owls, hawks,
&c., who will have no mercy on him. These perpetual persecutions oblige him to be wary in his
movements, and call for a large amount of cunning and sagacity on his part, which give his little
sharp face a peculiarly knowing and wide-awake appearance, which the most superficial observer
must have noticed. Though, poor creature, he is hated and killed by man, his sworn foe, yet he
is to that same ungrateful race a most useful servant, in the humble capacity of scavenger; for
wherever man settles his habitation, even in the most remote parts of the earth, there, as if by
magic, appear our friends the rats. There were thousands of rats in the camp before Sevastopol,
and a rat-hunt in the trenches was not an uncommon occurrence. Again, they swarm at the
camp at Aldershot; the sentries see them at night going to the nearest water to drink. The rat
quietly takes possession of the out-houses, drains, &c., and occupies himself by devouring the re-
fuse and filth thrown away from the dwelling of his master—under whose floor, as well as roof, he
lives. This refuse, if left to decay, would engender fever, malaria, and all kinds of horrors, to the
destruction of the children of the family, were it not for the unremitting exertions of the rats to
get rid of it, in a way no doubt agreeable to themselves, namely, eating it. Let us take an ex-
ample. The sewers adjoining a connected series of slaughter-houses, as Newgate-market, White-
chapel, Clare-market, &c., are often nearly choked up with offal and the foul refuse of animal
matter, swept into them by the careless butchers. It may be imagined what fearful maladies
would arise from this putrid mass if it were allowed to stay there neglected. How is this evil
result prevented ? Why, by the poor persecuted rats, who live there in swarms, and devour every
morsel of concentrated cholera as it comes down to them, profiting thereby themselves and the
inhabitants of the houses who reside above their haunts.''
The following facts are exceedingly curious: “When in Paris, I paid a visit to the horse-
slaughtering place at Montfaucon; there I saw from fifteen to twenty horses, tied up in a row,
a ,
all to be killed that day. I was told that sometimes they slay double that number. The horse
being killed, and the skin taken off, the carcass is cut up with hatchets, and thrown into a
huge metal tub, big enough to contain the bodies of several horses; when it is full, the top is
fixed on, and steam turned into it. After a time the lid is again taken off, and it is found
that the steam has quite separated all the flesh from the bones, which are beautifully white.
The bones are then picked out and placed in stacks; the flesh is thrown out by shovels, and
spread out widely on floors, to which the air has free access. It soon becomes quite hard and
dry, and is then sent off in sacks to the chemist, who, operating on it, soon converts it into prus-
siate of potash, and this again into Prussian blue. The bones are ground up in a mill for manure;
so that, in a comparatively short space of time, the horse, having worn out his energies in the
service of man, and being of no further use, is converted, one half into Prussian blue, the other
into loaves of bread, through the medium of the wheat which absorbs his powdered skeleton.
Thus the Frenchman practically carries out the threat of the ogre, who, when he smelt the Eng-
lishman, pronounced the following anathema against him-
Fe fa fum;
I smell the blood of an Englishman;
Be he alive or be he dead,
Tu grind his bones to make my bread.'
Pll
'
“In the place where these bones are stacked were plenty of rats. It is walled round, and in the
inside of the wall are several holes left. When the bones are taken out, the rats, finding them-
selves becoming exposed, endeavor to conceal themselves in the holes. These holes are only just
deep enough to contain half their bodies, and their taiis are left exposed, capital handles for the
men to catch them by. They are placed, when caught, in cages, and carried off. But what
becomes of them? We have heard that their skins are used to make gloves. I have inquired
in many glove-shops in London for gloves of this description, and friends in Paris have also made
the same inquiries, but without success. Either they are not used for this purpose, or, what is
more probable, the glove-dealers won't own to rat-skins in their gloves.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
449
a
“An ingenious individual of Liskeard, Cornwall, has for some time past been exhibiting himself
in a dress composed from top to toe of rat-skins, which he has been collecting for three years
and
a half. The dress was made entirely by himself; it consists of hat, neckerchief, coat, waistcoat,
trousers, tippet, gaiters and shoes. The number of rats required to complete the suit was six
hundred and seventy, and the individual, when thus dressed, appears exactly like one of the Es-
quimaux described in the travels of Parry and Ross. The tippet, or boa, is composed of the pieces
of skin immediately round the tails of the rats, and is a very curious part of the dress, containing
about six hundred tails and those none of the shortest."
“The tail is indeed a most useful appendage to the rat: it is composed of a chain of small
bones, with a multitude of muscles to move them. Many minute scales and short hairs
cover it, and thus constructed it becomes prehensile, as the tails of many monkeys and lemurs;
in fact, a sort of hand to the rat, by means of which he is enabled to crawl along the tops
of railings, and along narrow ledges of walls, balancing himself by it, or entwining it round
the projecting portions of the difficult passages along which his course lies. By means of it, too,
he is enabled to spring up heights otherwise inaccessible, using it on these occasions—like the
kangaroo—as a lever, or rather as a projectile spring. When, moreover, according to a story
which requires confirmation, the delicious oil or sweet wine lies beneath his reach in the long-
necked bottle, his ever-useful tail serves him in good turn; he dips it into the coveted fluid, and
1;
then enjoys the reward of his sagacity, and says to himself, as he licks it up, 'What's a rat with-
out a tail?!"
It has been said that the rat, in imitation of some other animals, uses his tail to catch fish, a
statement, to say the least, very apocryphal. Nevertheless, fiction or fact, it has been turned to
moral account in the following fable:
“A rat with greedy appetite,
Went fishing with his tail one night;
He once had seen a fox do that,
And if a fox, why not a rat?
For surely he is quite as knowing
As any other beast that's going.'
Cocking his eye in fond conceit,
That he knew fish as well as meat.
He silent sat upon the shore,
And bobbed for half an hour or more.
At last, a hungry bite he felt,
And deemed it roach, or perch, or smelt.
Eager, but cautious, did he wait
To let his prey grasp well the bait;
Then, like a fisher skilled and nice,
He jerked; but lo! as in a vice
His tail stuck fast; and, strange as true,
The more he pulled the worse it grew!
This
way
and that in vain he turned;
In vain he jerked, and jumped, and squirmed-
In vain he yelled with pain and grief-
In vain cried murder, fire, and thief!
In vain; for lo! an oyster vast
Had caught his tail, and held it fast!
At length, the rat perceived the case,
And putting on a smiling face-
Staying meanwhile his tears and groans,
Though pain and terror thrilled his bones-
Addressed the oyster thus: 'My friend,
There's some mistake; my latter end
Was never made for feast or fete-
I only put it in for bait,
And as you've taken it, I opine
That you are caught, and so are mine:
I pray you, therefore, oyster tender.
Just come ashore, and thus surrender.'
The oyster answered not a wink,
But in the wave began to sink;
VOL. I.-57

450
VERTEBRATA.
Down, down by slow degrees he went
To the wild rocks in sheer descent,
Dragging the rat, 'mid cries of slaughter,
Beneath the dark and stormy water.'
He sank, and o'er him danced the bubbles
In mockery of all his troubles;
Nothing was left but this, his story,
And the plain truth it sets before you-
The cunning rat, who apes the fox,
And risks his tail among the rocks ;
Heedless of dangers dark and awful,
In search of pleasures all unlawful
Is by a stupid oyster caught,
And made the prey of him he sought:
Ye cunning human rats beware,
Unlawful pleasures should you dare
To seek along the shores of sin,
Lest some huge oyster pull you in!”
Although our history of rats is getting long, we cannot deny ourselves or our readers the pleas-
ure of a few more extracts : “Rats have a remarkable instinct for finding out where there is any
thing good for food; and it has been often a subject of wonder how they manage to get on board
ships laden with sugar and other attractive cargoes. This mystery has, however, been cleared
up, for they have been seen to come off shore to the ship by means of the rope by which she is
moored to the quay, although at some distance from the shore. By the same means they will
leave the ship when she comes into port, if they find their quarters filling or filled with water ;
hence, the saying that órats always leave a sinking ship’ is perfectly true. If, however, the ship
be water-tight, they will continue breeding to an enormous extent. M. de St. Pierre informs us,
-
that on the return of the Valiant, man-of-war from the Havannah, in the year 1766, its rats had
increased to such a degree that they destroyed a hundred weight of biscuit daily. The ship was
at length smoked between decks, in order to suffocate them, and six hampers were for some time
filled every day with the rats that had thus been killed.
“Rats are not altogether selfish animals: having found out where the feast is stored, they will
kindly communicate the intelligence to their friends and neighbors. The following anecdote will
confirm this fact. A certain worthy old lady, named Mrs. Oke, who resided at Axminster sev-
eral years ago, made a cask of sweet wine, for which she was celebrated, and carefully placed it
on a shelf in the cellar. The second night after this event she was frightened almost to death by
a strange unaccountable noise in the said cellar. The household was called up, and a search
,
made, but nothing was found to clear up the mystery. The next night, as soon as the lights
were extinguished and the house quiet, this dreadful noise was heard again. This time it was
most alarming; a sound of squeaking, crying, knocking, pattering feet; then a dull scratching
sound, with many other such ghostly noises, which continued throughout the live-long night.
The old lady lay in bed with the candle alight, pale and sleepless with fright, anon muttering her
prayers, anon determined to fire off the rusty old blunderbuss that hung over the chimney-piece.
At last the morning broke, and the cock began to crow. "Now,' thought she, “the ghosts must
disappear.' To her infinite relief the noise really did cease, and the poor frightened dame ad-
justed her nightcap and fell asleep. Great preparations had she made for the next night; farm
servants armed with pitchforks slept in the house; the maids took the family dinner-bell and the
tinder-box into their room ; the big dog was tied to the hall-table. Then the dame retired to
her room, not to sleep, but to sit up in the arm-chair by the fire, keeping a drowsy guard over
the neighbor's loaded horse-pistols, of which she was almost as much afraid as she was of the
ghost in the cellar. Sure enough her warlike preparations had succeeded; the ghost was cer-
tainly frightened; not a noise, not a sound, except the heavy snoring of the bumpkins, and the
rattling of the dog's chain in the hall could be heard. She had gained a complete victory; the
ghost was never heard again on the premises; and the whole affair was soon forgotten. Some
weeks afterward some friends dropped in to take a cup of tea, and talk over the last piece of gos-
sip. Among other things the wine was mentioned, and the maid sent to get some from the cel-
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
451
6'Tis all gone.
lar. She soon returned, and gasping for breath, rushed into the room exclaiming—"
ma'am;' and sure enough it was all gone. The ghost has taken it! Not a drop was left, only
the empty cask remained, the side was half eaten away, and marks of sharp teeth were visible
round the rugged margins of the newly made bung-hole.
“This discovery fully accounted for the noise the ghost had made, which caused so much alarm,
The aboriginal rats in the dame's cellar had found out the wine, and communicated the joyful
news to all the other rats in the parish; they had assembled there to enjoy the fun, and get very
tipsy—which, judging from the noise they made, they certainly did-on this treasured cask of
wine. Being quite a family party they had finished it in two nights, and having got all they
could, like wise rats they returned to their respective homes, perfectly unconscious that their
merry-making had nearly been the death of the rightful owner and founder of the feast.' They
had first gnawed out the cork, and got as much out as they could; they soon found that the more
they drank the lower the wine became. Perseverance is the motto of the rat, so they set to work
and ate away the wood to the level of the wine again. This they continued till they had emp-
tied the cask; they must then have got into it and licked up the last drains, for another and less
agreeable smell was substituted for that of wine. I may add, that this cask, with the side gone
and the marks of the rats' teeth, is still in my possession."
As evidence that rats may be tamed, we have the following: “A gentleman traveling through
Mecklenburg about forty years ago, was witness to a very singular circumstance in the post-house
at New Hargard. After dinner, the landlord placed on the floor a large dish of soup, and gave
,
a loud whistle. Immediately there came into the room a mastiff, a fine Angora cat, an old raven,
and a remarkably large rat, with a bell about its neck. They all four went to the dish, and with-
out disturbing each other, fed together, after which the dog, cat, and rat lay before the fire, while
the raven hopped about the room. The landlord, after accounting for the familiarity which ex-
isted among these animals, informed his guest that the rat was the most useful of the four, for the
noise he made had completely freed the house from the other rats and mice with which it had
previously been infested.
“When carrying on my observations on rats, I bought a pair of piebalds, and put them in a
I
Ward's case, which formed a capital cage for them. In the course of a few weeks my colony in-
creased to an enormous extent: I had specimens of almost every kind of rat—the pure
white
albino rat with pink eyes, the common brown rat, the true black rat, and the snake or ship-rat.
I had to pay several shillings for my black rat, but he was a fine beast. By taking trouble I ob-
tained some very remarkable crosses: I had one litter half albino half black—the white the color
of snow, the black the color of coal. Their physiognomy, too, was very peculiar, and a rat from
this lot might readily have been taken for a new species; they were really very pretty creatures.
I could never obtain a cross between a black and a brown rat, except through the medium of a
hybrid in whom the blood of the black breed existed. Of the cross between the brown and white
rat I had many live specimens, so many, indeed, that periodically I took a bagful to the Zoologi-
cal Gardens, for the benefit of the snakes. All my rats knew me well. The moment I came to
the room they swarmed round the door of the cage, and I was obliged to keep them back while
I put in their food, as a huntsman does his hounds. At feeding-time there was not a single
rat in the cage that I could not take up and handle with impunity; they never offered to bite
me. If, however, a stranger tried to touch them, they were all up on their hind-legs in a fighting
attitude in a moment.
“ Talking of tame rats, I knew a worthy whipmaker who worked hard at his trade to support
a large family. He had prepared a number of strips of leather, by well oiling and greasing them.
He carefully laid them by in a box, but strange to say, they disappeared one by one; nobody
knew any thing about them, nobody had touched them.
“However, one day as he was sitting at work in his shop, a large black rat, of the original
British species, slyly poked his head up out of a hole in the corner of the room, and deliberately
took a survey of the whole place. Seeing all quiet, out he came, and ran straight to the box
wherein were kept the favorite leather strips. In he dived, and quickly reappeared, carrying in
his mouth the most dainty morsel he could find. Off he ran to his hole, and quickly vanished.
.
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452
VERTEBRATA.
a
Having thus found out the thief, the saddler determined to catch him. He accordingly propped
up a sieve with a stick, and put a bait underneath ; in a few minutes out came the rat again,
smelling the inviting toasted cheese, and forth with attacked it. The moment he began nibbling
at the bait, down came the sieve, and he became a prisoner. "Now, thought he, ‘my life depends
upon my behavior when this horrid sieve is lifted up by that two-legged wretch with the apron
on, who so kindly cuts the greasy thongs for me every day; he has a good-natured looking face,
and I don't think he wants to kill me. I know what I will do.'
“The whipmaker at length lifted up the sieve, being armed with a stick ready to kill Mr. Rat
when he rushed out. What was his astonishment to see that the rat remained perfectly quiet,
and, after a few moments, walk quietly up on his arm, and look up in his face, as much as to say,
'I am a poor innocent rat, and if your wife will lock up all the good things in the cupboard, why
I must eat your nicely-prepared thongs; rats must live as well as whipmakers. The man then
said, “Tom, I was going to kill you, but now I won't; let us be friends. I'll put you some bread
and butter every day if you will not take my thongs and wax, and leave the shopman's breakfast
alone; and—but I am afraid you will come out once too often; there are lots of dogs and cats
about who won't be so kind to you as I am ; you may go now.
“He then put him down, and Mr. Rat leisurely retreated to his hole. For a long time after-
ward he found his breakfast regularly placed for him at the mouth of his hole, in return for which
he, as in duty bound, became quite tame, running about the shop, and inquisitively turning over
every thing on the bench at which his protector was at work. He would even accompany him
into the stables when he went to feed the pony, and pick up the corn as it fell from the manger,
keeping, however, a respectable distance from the pony's legs. His chief delight was to bask in
,
the warm window-sill, stretching his full length to the midday sun. This unfortunate though lux-
urious habit proved his destruction, for one very hot day, as he lay at his ease taking his siesta,
the dog belonging to the bird-shop opposite espied him afar off, and instantly dashed at him
through the window. The poor rat, who was asleep at the time, awoke, alas! too late to save
his life. The cruel dog caught him, and took him into the road, where a few sharp squeezes and
shakings soon finished him. The fatal deed being done, the murderous dog left his bleeding vic-
tim in the dusty road, and with ears and tail erect, walked away as though proud of his perform-
The dog's master, knowing the history of the rat, had him stuffed, and his impaled skin,
with a silver chain round the neck, forms to this day a handsome addition to the shop-front of
the bird-shop in Brompton.”
A report was published some months ago, in the Gazette des Tribunaux, of Paris, of a trial
which had taken place there between a gentleman and a Zouave who had served in Africa, the
latter having sold the former a new species of animal which he called the Trumpet Rat: that is,
a rat with a trunk or proboscis, nearly an inch long, upon his nose. The suit was for damages, on
the ground that the plaintiff was imposed upon, inasmuch as this specimen was produced by arti-
ficial means. The case, as given by the author we have so liberally quoted, was as follows:
“The Plaintiff—Gentlemen, this individual has cheated me out of a hundred francs, and has,
at the same time, willfully abused my confidence. He knows that I am much interested in geol-
ogy, antiquities, natural sciences. I have collections of fossils, of medals, of shells, of rare ani-
mals, of curious plants. One day he called upon me and said, “Sir, I have a kind of animal which
has never been mentioned by any naturalist.” “What is it, sir ?” “It is 'the Trumpet Rat.?"
“What do you call the trumpet-rat?"
call the trumpet-rat?” “Sir, as the name indicates, it is a rat which has a trum-
pet.” "Where is it?" "On his nose, like a rhinoceros.” “And you have it alive?” “Alive
and well; if you wish to see it, you have only to come to my house.” “Directly; come along."
**"I was very anxious to see this strange animal. We arrive at his house, and he shows me in
a cage an enormous rat, very lively and in good condition, and which really had on its nose a
sort of slender excrescence about two centimetres long—two-thirds of an inch-covered with hair
like the body of the animal, with vertebræ in it, and, a most extraordinary thing, larger at the
summit than at the base, the contrary to what it ought to be in the usual course of things. I
ask to examine this phenomenon; he puts it in my hand, and holds its paws and head that I
might examine at my ease this extraordinary trumpet. I ask him if it was not a cheat, and a
ance.
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
453
mystification, and to convince myself I take a pin and force it into the trumpet. The animal
cried out, winced, and a drop of blood came from the prick. The experiment was conclusive—it
was really a trumpet forming a part of the rat.
"I wonder. I ask this man if he would sell his rat. He answers in the affirmative. I ask
his price. Fifty francs. I pay it without any bargaining, and I bring the animal home. I in-
vite
my friends and servants to see it; the cry of admiration was universal—I was enchanted.
“Some one says to me, “You ought to procure a female,"—this was a male. I had thought
of that, but having seen but one rat at the house of the person who sold it to me, I concluded
,
that he had no more. I determined, therefore, to go directly to see, and I ask him if it were
possible to get a female. “Nothing easier," he answered me; "I have written to Africa, and
they have sent me many trumpet-rats, of which I have two females.” With these words, he
brings out a cage full of rats like that which he had sold me. He chooses me a female, for which
I
pay him fifty francs. I carry it off more enchanted than ever.
.
it off more enchanted than ever. Some months afterward the
female has young; I look at them, they had not trumpets! I say to myself, “Without doubt
they will sprout hereafter like the elephant's tusks.” I wait one month, two months, six months;
every day I look at the nose of my rats, but the trumpet never appeared.
“In a house where I go frequently I make the acquaintance of an officer who had served a
long time in Africa. “Tell me," I says to him one day—“you have been in Africa—do you
know the trumpet-rats?” “Perfectly," he answers me. “Ah! then you can inform me." I then
tell him my story. Then this gentleman began to laugh as though his sides would split. I say
to myself, “ Certainly then I have been duped.” When he was calm I beg him to explain the
motive of his hilarity. Then he tells me what follows: the trumpet-rat, he tells me, is not a su-
pernatural thing, it is an invention due to the leisure moments of the Zouaves. This is how they
make them: you take two rats; you tie their paws firmly on a board, the nose of one close to
the end of the tail of the other; with a pen-knife or a lancet you make an incision into the nose
of the rat which is hindermost, and you graft the tail of the first into the nose; you tie firmly
the muzzle to the tail, and you leave the two rats in this position for forty-eight hours. At the
end of the time the union has taken place, and the two parts are grown together; then you cut
off the tail of the rat which is in front to the required length, and let him go, but still keep the
,
other tied to the board, but with his head loose, and you give him something to eat. At the end
of a month or more the wound is perfectly healed, and the eyes of the most curious scrutators
would not see a trace of the grafting. This is what these Zouaves do; the rats have no trumpet,
you have been deceived—les rats n'ont pas de trompe ; vous avez été trompé.
“On the part of the defendant, it was urged that he had certainly made up the rats as has been
stated, but he affirms that he had not sold them to the plaintiff as rats born with a trumpet.
“The President—'Is this true, M. Triguel ?'
"M. Triguel_“You understand, sir, after the experiment which I made with the prick of the
pin, which bled and made the animal cry, I ought to believe that the trumpet was natural.?
I
“The President— Then the defendant told you that it was a particular kind of rat ?'
“The Plaintiff_“Yes, without doubt.
“The Defendant— In fact, it is a particular kind of rat.
“Verdict for the Zouave, the trumpet-rat maker.”
We have no reason to doubt that such a case as this actually occurred, but that the rat in
question was produced in the manner which the report seems to imply, that is, by tying one rat
down and making another rat's tail grow on to his nose, we very much doubt. There is a kind
of rat or mouse in Africa which nature has endowed with a trumpet or proboscis of its own, called
the Rat à trompe by the French, an account of which we have given at page 142. We suspect
that if the whole truth were known, it would appear that one of this species, and not an artificial
rat, was the subject of the trial in question.
The number of rats collected in the sewers of the larger cities of Europe—which are indeed of
such extent as to be like underground cities—is absolutely appalling. Here, for the most part
secure in the possession of their hideous abodes, they feed and fatten on every species of offal,
carrion, and filth. Every person who has read the “Mysteries of Paris" must recollect the scene
a

454
VERTEBRATA.
a
in which Rodolph, the hero of the story, is plunged into a cellar, where, amid the rising waters
which threaten to drown him, he is beset by rats. This fanciful picture is but a representation of
the possible truth. One of the centers of attraction to these brutes in the French capital, is the
establishment at Montfaucon—already mentioned—for the killing of disabled horses. It was pro-
posed some years ago to remove this to a greater distance from the city, but it was objected
that the immense number of rats that had long congregated there would be dangerous to the
inhabitants in the vicinity. A government examination was ordered, and the facts reported are
startling. It appeared that the carcasses of the slaughtered horses, sometimes to the amount of
thirty-five per diem, are found next morning picked to the bare bone by the rats. A part of this
establishment is inclosed by solid walls, at the bottom of which several holes are made for the
entrance and exit of these vermin. Into this place Dusuassois, the proprietor, put the dead bodies
of two or three horses, and having stopped up all the holes toward midnight, with as little noise
as possible, he, with several workmen, each bearing a torch in one hand and a stick in the other,
suddenly entered the inclosure, shut the door, and began a general massacre. Wherever a blow
was directed, even without aim, a rat was killed; and those which attempted to escape by run-
ning up the walls were quickly knocked down. The dead of one night amounted to 2,650; the
result of four hunts was 9,101; and by repeating the experiment at intervals of a few days, Dusu-
assois destroyed 16,050 rats in the space of a month. Now when it is recollected that the yard
in which these numbers were killed does not contain more than a twentieth of the area over
which the dead horses are spread, some idea may be formed of the multitudes that infest this
place; indeed, the adjoining fields and eminences are riddled with their burrows, and their paths
thereto
may be traced from the inclosures where the horses are slaughtered. It is probable that
the rats of both Paris and London greatly exceed in number the human inhabitants.
We have a few facts to add to this long account in respect to the Black and Brown Rat, both
of which, long since domesticated in America, have become denizens of every part of the country.
Of the size, appearance, and habits of the former, it may be said they are the same as in that of
Europe. It is alike prolific and voracious; its winter abodes are barns and granaries, cellars and
outhouses, pig-sties and stables. In the summer it usually quits these haunts, and lives in the
woods and fields, but with the cold season it returns, making depredations not only in the pantry,
the larder, and the potato-bin, but in the granary, and even among eggs, ducks and chickens, if
such come in its way. It is less destructive in its nature than the Norway Rat, and has greatly
diminished before the superior strength and voracity of that species, but in some localities it still
exists in formidable numbers, and is a great pest.
The American Norway Rat is also the same as its European brother. The stories of the fierce-
ness and voracity of the latter, some of which we have repeated, could be easily rivalled in respect
to the former. It has been said that the toes and parts of the feet of bed-ridden persons have
sometimes been eaten away by the Norway Rat of Europe; thus the old German rhyme says-
“A Saxon duke had grown so fat,
'Tis said that many a mouse and rat
Ate grots and labyrinths to dwell in
His palsied parts, without his feeling.”
In this country instances are recorded of the American species having attacked men while
asleep, and persons are sometimes met with showing a piece of the ear or of the nose bitten out
in their childhood by these vicious brutes. They are exceedingly pugnacious, and when several
of them are together they are frequently seen fighting, biting, and squabbling among themselves.
They are very abundant in New York and other large cities, especially along the wharves and
docks, where they grow very large, and are called Wharf-Rats.
Among the African species of this genus is the BARBARY MOUSE, M. Barbarus, called Phar-
azef, or the Palmetto Mouse, by the natives. It is of a grayish-fawn color, with ten longitudinal
brown stripes along the back. Gervais says it is in size between the field-mouse and the black
It is an exceedingly pretty animal, feeding on seeds and grain, and may be easily tamed,
when it becomes familiar and pleasing. It produces six to eight young at a birth, and is common
rat.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
455
THE BARBARY MOUSE.
in Northern Africa. The M. pumilio is of Southern Africa, the stripes of which are less numer-
ous than those of the preceding.
The RAT OF THE NILE, M. Niloticus, is seven inches long, the tail four; the color, brown mixed
with fawn, above; below, it is a grayish-yellow. It lives along the borders of rivers.
The ALEXANDRIA RAT, M. Alexandrinus, resembles the brown rat in size, color, and habits. It
is a native of Egypt, and is said, within the last century, to have been introduced into Eastern
Europe. Hence M. Selys includes it in the European species, under the title of M. tectorum.
Besides the common mouse and the black and brown rats, which are the same with us in size,
color, and habits as in Europe, we have in America several species of this genus which deserve
notice. The WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE, M. leucopus, is an exceedingly pretty animal, two and a
quarter inches long, with the tail a trifle longer. It is a yellowish-brown above, the feet and belly
white. It is believed, next to the common mouse, to be the most widely distributed species in
North America. It is found in every state in the Union, and north as far as Labrador. It is very
nimble, builds its nests, with an entrance from below, sometimes on shrubs, sometimes on the low
drooping branches of trees, and lives on seeds, grain, and grass, of which it lays up stores. It is
nocturnal in its habits, and avoids houses, living in woods, thickets, and fields. It generally digs
a burrow, but sometimes appropriates to its use the deserted nests of birds, and sometimes occu-
pies the vacant burrows of the smaller quadrupeds.
The Asiatic species of this genus are numerous. Among them we might include the Black and
Brown Rats, already described, they doubtless having originated in that quarter of the globe.
Their migration from village to village, and from town to town, until they became recognized as
the "old inhabitants” of Europe, was the work of centuries. There are still other species, some
of which belong to the genera which we shall soon notice, and where they will be described.
We now turn to America. The AMERICAN HARVEST MOUSE, M. humilis, is about two inches
and three-quarters long, with a tail two inches; its color is reddish-gray above, yellowish-white
beneath. In several respects it approaches the genus Arvicola. It is sparingly distributed from
New York to South Carolina.
The ORANGE-COLORED MOUSE, M. aureolus, arranged by some naturalists under the subgenus
Calomys, of Waterhouse, is four and a quarter inches long; orange color above and buff beneath ;
found in Georgia and South Carolina.
The MISSOURI MOUSE, M. Missouriensis, is four and a half inches long, light fawn above and
white below; found in Missouri.
The CAROLINA MOUSE, M. Caroliniensis, is two and a half inches long, of a light lead-color,
and is found sparingly in the low grounds of some of the maritime districts of South Carolina.
LECONTE's Mouse, M. Lecontei, is two and a half inches long, of a reddish-brown above and
fawn below, and is found in Georgia.

456
VERTEBRATA.
THE MICHIGAN MOUSE, M. Michiganensis, is, above, light grayish-brown; below, of a whitish
color. Its length is four inches.
These and some other American species in California, and other frontier parts of the United
States, are arranged by Baird under several generic heads.
The Wood Rat, or Cotton Rat, arranged by Say and Ord under the generic name of SIGMO-
Don, and to which they give the specific title of hispidum—the Arvicola hispidus of Godmanis
six inches long, with a tail four inches; above it is yellowish-brown; beneath, ash-color. It is
very abundant in the Southern States, where it prefers hedges, ditches, and deserted fields to gar-
dens and cultivated lands; it feeds on seeds, grass, and vegetables, but relishes flesh, and readily
devours birds that fall wounded in the fields; it also eats crayfish which it gets from the ditches.
It is very voracious, attacks and devours other species of mice and rats, also killing and eating its
own species. It is exceedingly prolific, lives in burrows, and is nocturnal in its habits. This, like
many other species of mice, forms the staple food of foxes, wild-cats, owls, hawks, and other flesh-
eaters.
bre
DENDROMYS TYPICUS.
a
We now turn to various species of rat-like animals, but of genera distinct from the preceding.
The Genus DENDROMYS: Dendromys, includes two African species, the D. typicus and D.
melanotis, which are the size of common mice, and are of a pearly-gray color, and have a black
band running along the back.
Genus ACOMYS: Acomys. Of this there are several African species. The Cairo MOUSE,
A. Cahirinus, is mentioned by Aristotle, and is of the size of a common mouse; the fur is spiny,
and of an ash-color on the back; below it is softer, and of a lighter shade. It is found in Syria.
The A. spinosissimus is found in Mozambique.
Genus CRICETOMYS: Cricetomys.—There is only one well known species of this genus, the
C. Gambianus. It is larger than the brown rat, and has cheek-pouches; it burrows in the earth,
but climbs trees to obtain fruits, on which it feeds. It is found in Fernando Po and Kordofan.
M. Rappel calls it the Goliath Rat. Species of Cricetomys are also found in Mozambique.
Genus SACCOSTOMYS: Saccostomys.—Of this there are two species, S. lapidarius and S.
fuscus; they are distinguished by cheek-pouches.
Genus PELOMYS: Pelomys.—Of this there is one species, P. fallax, having the incisors
furrowed like those of the Gerbils. The two preceding genera are of Mozambique.
Genus STEATOMYS: Steatomys.—Of this there are two species, the S. edulis and S. Krebsii,
having incisors resembling those of the preceding, but with short tails. These are African. There

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
457
THE CAIRO MOUSE.
are a large number of Asiatic species, some of which are as small as the common mouse; others are
of much larger size. The CARACO RAT, M.caraco, found in China, Mongolia, and Siberia, is a
quarter larger than the brown rat, and lives, like that species, in the houses.
The GIANT RAT, M. giganteus, is twenty-seven inches long, with a tail thirteen inches. It
appears like a Brown Rat dilated to enormous proportions; its weight is three pounds. It is found
in many places on the coast of Coromandel, in Mysore, and in several parts of Bengal between
Calcutta and Hurdwar, and is called Bandicoot by the natives, though this name has been appro-
priated by the English to a marsupial animal that resembles it. It is partial to dry situations,
and is hardly ever found distant from habitations. The lowest caste of Hindoos eat the flesh of this
rat in preference to that of any other species. It is a most mischievous animal, burrows to a great
depth, and will pass under the foundations of granaries and storehouses if not deeply laid. Mud
or unburnt brick walls prove no security against its attacks, and it commonly perforates such
buildings in all directions. It is destructive in gardens, and roots up the seeds of all leguminous
plants sown within its haunts. Cucurbitaceous plants and fruits also suffer by its depredations.
When grain and vegetables are not within its reach, or are scarce, it will attack poultry; but the
former are its choicest food. Dr. Gray remarks that the geographical range of this animal must
be very extensive, as a species has been transmitted to the British Museum from Van Diemen's
Land.
The PERCHAL RAT, M. Perchal, resembles the preceding in size and habits, and is found at Pon-
dichery. It is distinguished by rigid hairs along the back.
The TIKUS-WIROK, M. setiger of Horsfield, has been considered as the young of this species, but
Dr. Gray shows this to be an error. It is found in Java, on the confines of woods and forests, and
rarely approaches the villages and dwellings of the natives, who describe it, however, as a bold
and mischievous animal. It is remarkable for the robustness of its form, and the size and strength
of its front teeth; its nose is evidently employed in burrowing the ground in search of its food,
and its tail has the character of those species which are in the habit of frequenting the water.
VOL. I.-58

458
VERTEBRATA.
HAPALOTIS ALBIPES.
Genus NEOTOMA: Neotoma. This includes the FLORIDA RAT, N. Floridana : it is of a lead
color above and white below. It is eight inches long, partially nocturnal in its habits, is harm-
less and inoffensive, and lives in burrows, feeding on fruits and vegetables. It is found in the
Southern and Southwestern States.
در تماس
د)
Nil
win
REDMAN -KENNY NY,
THE WHITE-BELLIED HYDROMYS.
There are several other species of Neotoma, as the Bush Rat, N. Mexicana, found in Lower
California; the Neotoma Kescipes, size of the Norway Rat, found in California; and the Rocky
MOUNTAIN Rat, N. cinereu, found on the Pacific coast.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 7. RODENTIA.
459
DRUMMOND'S NEOTOME, N. Drummondii, is nine inches long, yellowish-brown in winter and
ash-color in summer, and is found in the Rocky Mountains from 30° to 70° north latitude. Gray
makes of this a genus which he calls TEONOMA, which is only an anagram of Neotoma.
The Genus OXYMYCTERUS: Oxymycterus, contains several South American species,
among which are the 0. nasutus, of the La Plata country, and 0. scalops, of Chili.
The Genus AKODON comprises the A. Boliviense, of Bolivia and Peru.
The Genera REITHRODON, PHYLLOTIS, and ELIGMODONTIA embrace various South
American species, but of no interest or importance. The Genus HOLOCHILUS includes the
BRAZILIAN RAT, the Mus Brasiliensis of Geoffroy, which is of the size of the Brown Rat. The
YELLOW RAT, Mus lutescens, resembles the preceding. The Pilori Rat, Mus pilorides, is still
larger, and is in many respects peculiar. It is black above and white below, and is found not
only in Brazil but in the West Indies.
We now come to the New Holland Muriens. The Genus HAPALOTIS presents several spe-
cies. The H. albipes is nearly of the size of a rabbit, but of a mouse-like form, and is chiefly
found in New South Wales. The H. Gouldii and H. melanura are of New Holland.
Genus HYDROMYS: Hydromys.—Of this there are two species, the YELLOW-BELLIED HY-
DROMYS, H. chrysogaster, and the WHITE-BELLIED HYDROMYS, H. leucogaster. Both are of a
chestnut color above, but one is yellow and the other white, beneath. They are found along the
Swan River.
a
MUS ALBOCINEREUS.
Beside the animals forming the two preceding genera, Australia has been found to possess a
number of veritable species of the Mus genus. The distinguished naturalists Gray and Gould
have given us descriptions of several, among which we may mention the Mus albocinereus, Mus
Australis, and Mus Grayi. These are all of small size.
Genus PITHECHEIRUS: Pithecheirus. This includes one animal, the P. melanurus, which
has puzzled the naturalists, inasmuch as it resembles alike the rats and the opossums, yet cannot be
admitted into the department of either, as it has not the feet of the former nor the tail of the lat-
Its body is a uniform brown color, the tail being black. It is the size of a large rat, and is
found in India and some of the Asiatic islands.
Fossil RODENTIA.—The number of known species of Rodentia now existing is at least six hun-
dred; from the fossil remains which have been discovered of Hares, Porcupines, Agoutis, Cavies,
Dormice, Spermophiles, Jerboas, Gerbils, Field-Mice, Lemmings, Water-Rats, &c., we have rea-
ter.
a

460
VERTEBRAT A.
الله
BRUNIER-
PITHECHEIRUS MELANURUS.
son to suppose that the geological age of the world anterior to man was abundantly supplied with
various families and tribes of this numerous and diversified order of animals.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 8. EDENTATA.
461
EB.
ORYCTEROPUS CAPENSIS, OR AARD-VARK, AMONG THE ANT-HILLS.
ORDER 8. EDENTATA.
The word EDENTATA is derived from the Latin, and signifies without teeth; hence its applica-
tion to this remarkable order, whose distinguishing characteristic is the total absence of the inci-
sor teeth in all the species, with the exception of one Armadillo, in which a single tooth is found
in each intermaxillary bone, but placed so completely at the sides, that the front of the mouth
is quite destitute of teeth. The canine teeth are also deficient in most of the species, and some
are even destitute of molars, so that the jaws exhibit no trace of teeth. The teeth that do exist
are exceedingly simple in their construction and quite destitute of roots, and the formation of
all the teeth is very similar. The structure of the skeleton varies considerably according to the
particular habits of the animals; in some it is adapted for terrestrial progression, while in others
it is remarkably fitted for climbing upon trees. The toes are furnished with
The toes are furnished with very long and pow-
erful curved claws. The skin is sometimes covered with hair, sometimes with horny or even bony
scales or plates; the external ear is frequently wanting, and the tail varies greatly in its develop-
ment, being sometimes of great length, sometimes rudimentary. The mammæ are two in num-
ber, and placed on or near the breast, and with the exception of the Armadillos, the species always
produce a single young one at a birth.
The Edentata are all confined to the tropical parts of the world, and principally to the southern
hemisphere. They are sluggish animals, for the most part nocturnal in their habits; some of them
live upon vegetable and some upon animal food; the former are arboreal in their habits, while
the latter are terrestrial, and generally burrow in the earth. They are mostly of small or mod-
erate size; but the remains of some gigantic extinct species have been found in South America,
which is the country in which the existing Edentata most abound. These are grouped in five
families, as follows: the Bradypides, the Dasypides, the Orycteropides, the Myrmecophagides, and
the Manides.
THE BRADYPIDES, OR SLOTHS.
In these animals, which are found only in the hottest parts of South America, the head is
small and rounded, and the jaws short, so that the face projects very little in front of the cranium.

462
VERTEBRATA.
W
S
THE UNAU.
Both jaws are armed with molar and canine teeth ; the molars are four in the upper, and three in
the lower jaw, and of a nearly cylindrical form; the canines are very
small. The tail is excess-
ively short or entirely wanting. There are few animals which exhibit in a greater degree what
appears to the careless observer to be deformity than the Sloth, and none that have on this account
been more maligned by naturalists even of high standing. Buffon, and many of the older zoologists,
were eloquent upon the supposed defects of the unfortunate Sloth. We are gravely told by these
writers, that when the Sloth ascends a tree for the purpose of feeding on its leaves, it is so lazy
that it will not quit its station until every trace of verdure is devoured nay, some of them went
so far as to assert that when this was the case, and the Sloth was compelled to look out for a
fresh supply of sustenance, it would not take the trouble to descend the tree, but just allow itself
to drop from a branch to the ground. Even Cuvier, who ought to have known better, echoes this
tale, and insinuates that Nature, probably becoming weary of perfection, “wished to amuse her-
self by producing something imperfect and grotesque” when the Sloths were formed ; and he
proceeds with great gravity to show the “inconvenience of organization” which in his opinion,
rendered the Sloths unfit for the enjoyment of life.
It is perfectly true that on the ground these animals are about the most awkward creatures
that can well be imagined, for their fore-legs are much longer than the hind ones; all the toes
are terminated by very long curved claws, and the general structure of the animals is such as en-
tirely to preclude the possibility of their walking on all fours in the manner of an ordinary quad-
ruped. In this, which is an unnatural situation, they certainly appear to be the most helpless of
animals, and their only means of progression consists in hooking their claws to some inequality in
the ground, and thus dragging their bodies painfully along. But in their natural home, among
the branches of trees, all these seeming disadvantages vanish, nay, the very peculiarities of struc-
ture which render the Sloths objects of pity on the ground, are found to adapt them the better
for their true mode of existence.
The structure of the anterior extremities agrees very closely with that of the same parts in
man, and these members possess great freedom of motion. The feet are, however, very different
in their construction from the human hand; the bones are firmly united together, and give sup-
port to enormous claws, which are turned inward in repose, and rest against the palm. With
these the Sloths cling firmly to the branches of the trees, from which they hang with their backs
downward, and as it is in this position that most of their existence is passed, we can easily see that
the mobility of the bones of the arms, coupled with a grasping arrangement, is peculiarly adapted
to give them security and freedom of motion in their arboreal residence. Thus we perceive that

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 8. EDENTATA.
463
so far from being a mere freak of nature, the Sloth is specially fitted for enjoying a particular
mode of existence, and that it is most absurd to come to any conclusion with regard to the powers of
any creature from seeing it in an unnatural position. The Sloths seldom, if ever, visit the ground
in a state of nature, and indeed have no reason for doing so, for in the great forests of South
America, which they exclusively inhabit, the trees grow so close together that these animals can
pass with facility from one to another, especially when strong winds wave the branches of the
trees and thus bring them into closer juxtaposition.
Genus CHOLEPUS: Cholopus. Of this genus, to which Cuvier gives the name of Tardi-
grada, there is a single species, the C. didactylus—the UNAU of Buffon. The body of this is
about two feet long; its head is large, its hair long and dry, and of a grayish-brown; the nostrils
are circular. It uses three hands to hold on to the trees; the fourth it employs in seizing and
bringing to its mouth such objects as it desires. It does not see well in the day, and remains a
great part of the time hanging to the branches of trees, asleep. Mr. Waterton, in his “Wander-
ings” in South America, says, “The Sloth, in its wild state, spends its whole life in the trees, and
never leaves them but through force or accident; and what is more extraordinary, not upon
the
branches, like the squirrel and monkey, but under them. He moves suspended from the branch,
he rests suspended from the branch, and he sleeps suspended from the branch. Hence his seem-
ingly bungled composition is at once accounted for; and in lieu of the Sloth leading a painful
life, and entailing a melancholy existence upon its progeny, it is but fair to conclude that it just
enjoys life as much as any other animal, and that its extraordinary formation and singular habits
are but further proofs to engage us to admire the wonderful works of Omnipotence." Nor are
the motions of this animal so slow while suspended in this strange position, nor his habitat so cir-
cumscribed as naturalists have hitherto imagined. “The Indians,"continues Mr. Waterton, "have
a saying that when the wind blows the Sloths begin to travel.” In fact, during calm weather they
remain tranquil, probably not liking to cling to the brittle extremities of the branches, lest they
should break while the animals are passing from one tree to another; but as soon as the wind
rises the branches of the neighboring trees become interwoven, and then the Sloth seizes hold of
them and pursues his journey in safety. Species of this animal, which is found in Brazil and
Guiana, have been in the menageries of Paris and of the London Zoological Gardens.
TOTIS
REMAS-RENY.
THE AI.
Genus BRADYPUS: Bradypus.—Of this there are several species: the A1, B. tridactylus, is
varied with whitish-gray on the back, the hair being long and shaggy, and of a texture resembling
dry bay in appearance. This covering looks so like the rough bark of a tree, mingled with moss,
that the creature often escapes being noticed by men and animals which pursue them. It feeds
on leaves and brings forth one young at a time. When moving in the forests it utters a cry of

464
VERTEBRATA.
ai! ai! whence its name. It is tenacious of life, and will move its legs half an hour after its
heart and bowels are taken out. There are many varieties of this species, among which is the
YELLOW-FACED SLOTH, B. gularis. Certain naturalists hold that some of what are called varieties,
are in fact distinct species.
REDWAN-KENNZE
THE COLLARED SLOTU,
The GIPAKEIOU, or COLLARED SLOTH, B. torquatus, has a naked face of a black color; the hair
is of a less withered look than that of the preceding; the forehead, temples, chin, and breast are
covered with reddish or rust-colored hair, slightly frizzled; on the crown of the head it is long
and yellow, and on the rest of the body, pale orange; but the most distinguishing mark of the
species is a large black collar which completely surrounds the neck. Beneath the outer coat
there is an inner one of very fine fur, which is of a dark brown color on the collar, but gradually
diminishes in intensity toward the croup, where it is entirely white. In other respects this spe-
cies resembles the Ai. It is found in Brazil.
The BURNT-BACK SLOTH, B. ustus, is chiefly distinguished by a faintish black line running along
the back, accompanied by a large spot of yellow or orange color on each side.
THE DASYPIDES, OR ARMADILLOS.
The name Armadillo was given by the Spaniards, and means clad in armor, which is descrip-
tive of the bony crust or coat of mail with which these animals are covered. The Portuguese ap-
plied to them the term Encouberto, which has a similar signification, and is now used as the title
of one of the genera; Tatou is the Brazilian name, and is used by French writers instead of Arm-
adillo. The scientific name Dasypus means hairy-foot, which was one of the old Greek names
for the hare or rabbit; it is not descriptive of the animal in question, but it has become sanctioned
by custom, and so its use is continued.
The Armadillos at first sight appear like reptiles, being of a broad squat form, and covered
with a sort of bony shell, reminding one of the carapace of the tortoise; but on examination we
find that it is not, like that, one connected and solid framework, nor does it extend under the
belly. It consists of four parts, as follows: first, a buckler covering the head and neck; second,
a buckler covering the shoulders and a part of the back; third, a buckler over the rump; and
fourth, a series of broad bands across the loins. The form and relative size of these several parts
vary in different species, but this general arrangement is observed in all, with a single exception,
which we shall hereafter notice.
The substance of which this armor is composed is of a bony or horny nature, somewhat like

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 8. EDENTATA.
465
Vin
WWW.
Wadhan
ce-P
21983
WILSO
M
THE GIANT TATOU.-(See p. 467.)
a
tortoise-shell, and is hard and stiff, with a very slight elasticity, and is fastened by being attached
to the skin of the body. It is formed of numerous small many-sided plates, placed contiguous to
one another like mosaic or inlaid work. The buckler of the head, though thus composed of many
smaller plates, is formed into one solid piece of armor, appearing ornamented like mosaic. The
same may be said of the buckler over the shoulders, as well as that over the rump.
The bands across the loins perform a most important function, for while they, like the buck-
lers, are composed of a series of bony pieces, they are connected with each other by flexible skin,
and being attached to the buckler before as well as that behind, they unite the whole, at the same
time allowing complete freedom to the motions of the animal.
It is necessary, in order fully to comprehend the completeness of this system of defense, to state
that the buckler of the head projects back so as to cover the neck, which, in order to suit this ar-
rangement, is exceedingly short; it is also formed so as to lap over the edge of the contiguous
buckler across the shoulders, and in a manner not to interfere with it. As the movable bands
constitute that portion of the armor most easily used for adapting the whole to the size of the
animal, they are not only movable, but variable in number and size. So that—as in man, if he
outgrows his coat, it
may be pieced and enlarged—if the Armadillo gets too big for his shell the
bands are enlarged, or new ones formed to suit the emergency. In this curious arrangement
there is, perhaps, nothing more wonderful than in the ordinary processes of nature in clothing the
common quadruped with hair or the bird with feathers, but as it is a departure from the general
system pursued in relation to this division of animated nature, it excites attention, and calls upon
us to admire alike the resources of the Creative Power, and the perfectness of its work.
The throat, breast, belly, and thighs of the Armadillo are naked, or covered with a thick
ulated skin, thinly furnished with warts or tubercles, which give origin to a few coarse bristly
hairs. The commissures of the movable bands on the loins are likewise provided with a number
of long hairs; but with this exception the body is covered only by its peculiar shell. The tail is
straight, round, thick, and pointed; it is adapted at the root to a notch or cavity in the posterior
edge of the buckler of the croup, and, with the exception of one species, is universally covered
with bony rings, formed, like the rings of the bucklers, of numerous small pieces connected to-
gether, but capable of a certain degree of motion, and thus admitting of considerable flexibi in
the tail itself.
The head of the Armadillos is flat and terminated by a pointed muzzle, which assists them, like
the snout of the hog and mole, to turn up the earth in search of roots and worms. Their cars
Vol. 1.-59
gran-

466
VERTEBRATA.
a
are erect and pointed, and their eyes very small. They have fat, corpulent bodies, and their legs
are so disproportionately thick and short that they barely serve to elevate the body above the
surface of the ground. Their toes, also, of which there are either four or five on the anterior,
and invariably five on the posterior extremities, are remarkably short; but they are furnished with
extremely long, powerful claws, slightly curved, and in every respect well adapted for digging or
burrowing. So rapid, indeed, are the Armadillos at this operation, that they easily bury them-
selves to a depth beyond the reach of their pursuers. They can only be forced from their sub-
terranean retreat by directing smoke or water into their burrows. Their strength and the tena-
city of their hold are so great, that they have been known to leave their tails in the hands of the
hunter rather than permit themselves to be drawn forth.
Notwithstanding the shortness of their legs and the clumsy formation of their bodies, the
Armadillos run with considerable velocity. Most of the species will easily outstrip a man. Their
ordinary burrows commonly run for three or four feet at an angle of about forty-five degrees to
the plane of the horizon, then make a sudden bend, and terminate at a distance of eight or ten
feet from the mouth. Here for the most part they conceal themselves during the daytime, for
the greater number of the species are nocturnal, and never move abroad while the sun is above
the horizon. This rule, however, admits of some exceptions—a few species being found abroad
at all times; and it has been remarked that these are neither so swift nor so timid as the noc-
turnal species.
The teeth of the Armadillos are all of a simple cylindrical form, and stand apart from one an-
other like those of the generality of cetacea and reptiles. They vary in number from seven or
eight to seventeen or eighteen on each side of each jaw, and are so arranged that when the mouth
is closed the upper teeth fit into the interstices of the under, and these into the interstices of the
upper teeth, alternately. These animals seldom attempt to bite, nor has nature given them any
other means of defense than their covering and the ease and rapidity with which they avoid
danger by burrowing. Their food consists principally of fallen fruits, roots and worms; but they
do not reject carrion, and have been known to penetrate into human graves when not properly
protected by stones or brick-work.
stones or brick-work. Azara informs us that ants seldom abound in the districts
inhabited by the Armadillos, for these animals break into the ant-hills and devour the in-
sects as greedily as the true ant-eaters. The Armadillos also eat the roots of the mandioc, pota-
toes, maize, and other similar substances of a vegetable nature. They are very destructive to the
eggs and young of such birds as build their nests on the ground, and greedily devour frogs, small
lizards, and even vipers. The chief animal food of the Armadillos, however, is derived from the
immense herds of wild cattle which cover the plains and savannahs of every part of South Amer-
ica. These are rarely slaughtered but for the sake of the hide and tallow, and as the carcasses
are left to rot on the ground, the smell soon attracts vast crowds of carnivorous animals
of various species, and among others great numbers of Armadillos, which greedily devour the
half-putrid flesh, and soon become extremely fat and corpulent. In this condition, notwithstand-
ing the filthy nature of their food, their flesh is esteemed a great delicacy both by the native Indi-
ans and by the Portuguese and Spaniards of America. The animal is roasted in its shell, and
is considered one of the greatest dainties which the country produces.
The Armadillos see but indifferently, particularly in bright sunshiny weather; but their sense
of hearing is extremely acute, and amply compensates for any imperfection of sight. When
alarmed by any unusual or strange sound they prick up their ears, stop for a moment to satisfy
themselves of its distance and direction, then commence a precipitate retreat to their burrow, or,
if that be too remote, begin to construct a new one. Smell is, however, by far the most acute of
their senses. Azara tells a singular story, which strikingly illustrates the intensity of this sense
in the Armadillos, as well as the unerring certainty with which, by a kind of intuitive knowledge
of the principles of engineering, they are enabled to direct their subterraneous course to any par-
ticular point. “My friend Noséda,” says he, “having arranged a trap for the purpose of taking
Chibigouzous, and having placed in it, by way of bait, a cock with a small quantity of maize to
support him, it so happened that a few grains of the maize fell through between the boards which
formed the bottom of the trap. An Armadillo arrived during the night, and wishing to get at
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 8. EDENTATA.
:
467
the maize thus accidentally spilt, opened a trench or burrow at some distance from the trap, and
without deviating a hair's breadth from the straight line of his direction, pushed it on to the very
spot where the grain had fallen, and possessed himself of the booty!"
Home
NO
لر
N
THE SIX-BANDED ARMADILLO.
Genus ENCOUBERT: Euphractus.—In the animals of this genus, that part of the carapace
which covers the loins consists of six to ten broad movable bands, coming down the sides, but
covering no part of the belly; the covering upon the rump, as well as that upon the neck and
shoulders, come down in the same manner. The forehead, as well as the upper part of the tail,
are also protected by the scaly armor.
The Poyou, or SIX-BANDED ARMADILLO, E, sexcinctus, is one of the species which has been
long known, and was described by Buffon. The central bands are usually six, but the number
varies. Its size is nearly that of a woodchuck, being about fourteen or sixteen inches long, but
the form is flatter and more tortoise-like. It has, like the rest of its brethren, little stupid eyes,
a keen-scented nose, sharp quick-hearing ears. Being provided with shield and buckler by na-
ture, nature gave it no other defense, not even that of the courage or spirit to make battle when
attacked. It is in fact a shy, timid little beast, living in its burrow or a crevice in the rocks by
day, and stealing forth at night in quest of fruits, roots, maize, worms, and insects that chance to
come in its way. It does not disdain carrion, and being a great frequenter of the pampas
of Bue-
nos Ayres, where it has a perpetual feast on the carcasses of cattle killed for their skins, it gets
fat, and being esteemed a delicacy when roasted in the shell, it is killed and eaten in large num-
bers. In case of danger, this creature perhaps squats in the grass, and being nearly of the color
of the earth, may pass unnoticed. If this does not answer, it runs, perchance, and pretty rapidly
too, considering its short legs, dumpy form, and ordinary tortoise-like gait. If hard pressed, and
the shape of the country favors, it will roll itself into a ball and tumble down the hills or rocks,
and thus make its escape.
Beside this there are other species, among which are the PICHIY, D. minutus, and the HAIRY
ARMADILLO, D, villosus of Desmarest.
Genus PRIODONTES : Priodontes.—Of this genus is the GREAT ARMADILLO, P. gigas : the
GRAND Tatou of Azara ; the GIANT Tatou of Cuvier. In this the carapace covers the body
above and low down on the sides, but leaves the belly unprotected; the bands across the back
are twelve to fourteen. It is the largest of the family, being three feet three inches long, with a
tail nearly half the length of the body ; its head is very small; its ears are of a moderate size,
pointed, and habitually crouched backward; the tail is remarkably thick at the root, being up-
ward of ten inches in circumference; it is gradually attenuated toward the tip, covered with
plates disposed in rings at the base, and forming spiral or crescent-shaped lines throughout the
a

468
VERTEBRATA.
rest of its length. The claws are remarkably long and powerful. This species inhabits Brazil
and the northern parts of Paraguay. It is never found in the open country, but keeps close to
the great forests, and burrows with surprising facility. Those who are employed in collecting the
Jesuit's bark frequently meet with it in the woods, and report that when any of their compan-
ions happen to die at a distance from the settlements, they are obliged to surround the body with
a double row of stout planks to prevent it from being scratched up and devoured by the Great
Armadillo.
Genus CABASSOU: Xenurus.—Of this there is a single species, the Tatouay, or TWELVE-
BANDED ARMADILLO: the Cabassou Tatouay of Gervais; the Dasypus unicinctus of Linnæus. Its
general color is brown, its ears long, its anterior claws strong, the scales thinner than in the other
species. It is nineteen inches long, and as the tail is naked and looks as if rudely deprived of
its scaly covering, it is called by the natives the Wounded Tatouay. It is found principally in
Guiana and Brazil,
AY
THE TATOU-PEBA.
a
Genus CACHICAMA: Cachicama.--This includes the NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO, or PEBA,
,
usually called TATOU-PEBA in Brazil, and which is found from Texas to Brazil. It is sixteen
inches long, the tail fourteen; the circumference of the latter at the base is six inches. The head
is small, long, and straight; the nose extremely elongated, taper, and terminated by a sort of
small muzzle, something resembling the snout of a hog; the mouth is large; the eyes small, and
placed on the sides of the head; the ears long, and placed close together; the tail long and at-
tenuated; the legs short, and the feet small. The buckler of the shoulders extends in front over
the whole neck, and toward the rear as far as the back, descending on each side to the elbows.
It is composed of small pieces adhering to one another, and disposed in numerous parallel con-
centric rings, having the concavity toward the front, the first ring embracing the neck of the ani-
mal. The buckler of the croup extends from the back to the origin of the tail, and descends on
each side to the knees. It is composed, as in the former case, of small pieces arranged in a great
number of parallel concentric rings, passing transversely over the hips, but having their concavity
turned in the opposite direction from that of the rings on the shoulder, or in such a manner that
the last embraces the root of the tail. When viewed externally, the little pieces composing these
bucklers have the appearance of irregular tubercles, but when examined on the under side of the
buckler they are found to be hexagons almost as regular as those of the cells of bees, and fitted
as precisely to one another. Between the bucklers of the shoulders and croup are interposed a
variable number of transverse movable bands, marked with zig-zag lines forming very acute angles,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 8. EDENTATA.
469
and in some degree gliding over one another according to the different motions of the animal. It
is observed that the full-grown specimens always have the greatest number of bands, which renders
it extremely probable that new bands are detached from the bucklers as they are required by the
increasing growth of the animal. The buckler of the head descends from the ears to the muzzle,
and covers each cheek as far down as the orbits; and there are small detached scales interspersed
in various situations over the throat, the under-jaw, the legs, and feet, and even on the outer side
of the ears. The tail is extremely long and taper; it is composed of a great number of osseous
rings forming a long tubular case, and connected like the joints of a cane. Although this animal
is not gifted with a fighting propensity, it will sometimes bite severely. It is endowed with great
strength, and a tame one has been known to remove quite heavy boxes in order to form a re-
treat. It usually walks very slowly, but in case of extremity it runs quite fast. Its power of
burrowing is very great. When occupied in this work, it often utters a faint squeak. Its favor-
ite food is ants, but it diversifies its meals with vegetables and carrion, like the rest of its race.
Its color is a reddish-brown, but as a portion of dust usually adheres to its shell, it generally ap-
pears much darker. It produces from three to four young at a time. It is usually hunted at
night with dogs. This species is very abundant in Nicaragua : the inhabitants there often domes-
ticate it for the purpose of keeping their houses clear of ants. It is said to be so abundant there
as to be sold for six or eight cents each.
Another species of this genus is found in Paraguay and the neighboring countries, called the
MULE ARMADILLO, Dasypus hybridus, which has from six to seven bands, and is smaller in size
than the preceding, being only eleven inches long. It is common in the pampas of Buenos Ayres.
THE MATACO.
Genus APAR: Tolypeutes.—This includes the MATACO, APARA, or THREE-BANDED ARMADILLO
—the Dasypus tricinctus of Linnæus, the T. tricinctus of Gervais. It is about fifteen inches long,
and having the faculty of rolling itself into a ball, is called Belita, or the LITTLE BALL, by the
Spaniards. This is in fact its usual mode of escape or defense, as the animal does not burrow,
and has not sufficient speed for flight. The movable bands connecting the bucklers on the
shoulders and rump are but three in number.
The CONIC-TAILED APAR, T. conurus, is of this genus, and is found in Brazil.
Genus CHLAMYPHORUS: Chlamyphorus.—The animals of this genus are the smallest of
the armadillos, and their covering is more simple in its construction than that of
any
others.
There is but a single species—the PichiciAGO of the Indians of Mendoza, in South America,
where it is found—C. truncatus. It is but about five inches long, and passes a great part of the
time in its burrow, whence it is often compared to the moles. The female is said to carry her

470
VERTEBRATA.
THE CHLAMYPHORUS.
young beneath her scaly carapace. Very little is known of its habits, but it has attracted great
attention by the peculiar form of its covering, which is about the consistence and thickness of sole-
leather, and differing in form from that of all other armadillos. The tail is also very peculiar : it is
a naked, jointed member, one inch and a half long, very strong, and flattened at the end, but is
bent down and carried under the belly. It is supposed to be used like a spade to remove earth
backward when the animal is digging its burrow.
duty
THE AARD-VARK.
THE ORYCTEROPIDES.
Of this family there is a single genus and a single species, as far as known: this is the AARD-
VaRk, or AFRICAN ANT-EATER, 0. Capensis. It is about three and a half feet long, the tail one
VARK
foot nine inches. It has a long callous snout like a hog, a small mouth, and a slender tongue;
this being covered with a glutinous saliva, the animal licks up the ants on which it feeds. These
insects raise mounds of an elliptical figure to the height of three or four feet above the surface of
the ground, and so numerous are these gigantic ant-hills in some parts of Southern Africa, that
they are frequently seen extending over the plains as far as the eye can reach, and so close to-
gether that the traveler's wagon can with difficulty pass between them. They abound more es-
pecially in the Zeurevelden, or Sour Districts, so called from producing a kind of sour grass ; are
seldom found on the karroos or downs, and never in very dry or woody districts. By constant

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 8. EDENTATA.
471
exposure to the rays of a powerful tropical sun, they become so hard and indurated on the outer
surface that they easily support the weight of three or four men, and even a loaded wagon will
sometimes pass over without crushing them. Internally, these mounds are of a spongy structure,
something resembling a honeycomb, and are so completely saturated with animal oil that they
inflame without difficulty, and are an excellent substitute for wood or coal.
Wherever ant-hills abound the Aard-vark is sure to be found at no great distance. He con-
structs a deep burrow in the immediate vicinity of his food, and changes his residence only after
he has exhausted his resources. The facility with which he burrows beneath the surface of the
earth is said to be almost inconceivable. His feet and claws are admirably adapted to this
pur-
pose, and travelers inform us that it is quite impracticable to dig him out, as he can in a few min-
utes bury himself at a depth far beyond the reach of his pursuers; and further, that his strength
is so great as to require the united efforts of two or three men to drag him from his hole. When
fairly caught, however, he is by no means retentive of life, but is easily dispatched by a slight
blow over the snout.
The Aard-vark is an extremely timid and harmless animal, seldom removes to any great distance
from his burrow, being slow of foot and a bad runner, and is never by any chance found abroad
during the daytime. On the approach of night he sallies forth in search of food, and repairing
to the nearest inhabited ant-hill, scratches a hole in the side of it just sufficient to admit his long
snout. Here, after having previously ascertained that there is no danger of interruption, he lies
down, and inserting his long slender tongue into the breach, entraps the ants, which fly to defend
their dwellings upon the first alarm, and mounting upon the tongue of the Aard-vark, get en-
tangled in the glutinous saliva, and are swallowed by scores at a time. If uninterrupted, he
continues this process till he has satisfied his appetite; but on the slightest alarm he makes a
precipitate retreat, and seeks security at the bottom of his subterranean dwelling. Hence it is
that these animals are seldom seen even in those parts of the country where they are most com-
It often becomes very fat, and is much relished as food.
a
mon.
THE TAMANOIR, OR GREAT ANT-EATER.
THE MYRMECOPHAGIDES.
This family comprises the South American Ant-Eaters, of which there are several genera

472
VERTEBRATA.
Genus MYRMECOPHAGA : Myrmecophaga.—Of this there is a single species, which is the
largest and most remarkable of the family, the GREAT ANT-EATER, or TAMANOIR, M. jubata, some-
times called the Ant-Bear, an inhabitant of most of the tropical parts of South America eastward
of the Andes, although apparently rather scarce everywhere. It is a large animal, a full-grown
specimen measuring four feet and a half in length from the snout to the root of the tail, which in
its turn measures nearly three feet in length. It is a most singular creature in its appearance. Its
head is produced into a long snout covered with skin, which only leaves a very small opening or
hole at the tip for the protrusion of the tongue; its ears are very small; its legs are rather long,
and excessively stout, especially the anterior pair, the long powerful claws of which, four in num-
ber, are turned inward against the naked soles, so that the creature walks upon its knuckles. The
hind-feet are furnished with a broad sole, and it is probably from this circumstance that it has
been compared to a bear. The body is covered with harsh bristly hairs, which attain an immense
length on the tail, from which they hang down perpendicularly so as to touch the ground. The
prevailing color is grayish-brown, a broad black band, bordered with white, passing over each
shoulder. When reposing, the Ant-Eater covers himself completely with his bushy tail, which
gives the sleeping animal very much the appearance of a heap of dried grass, and he is said to
resort to the same natural umbrella in case of a shower of rain; according to Mr. Wallace, the
Indians are so well aware of this that when they meet with an Ant-Eater they shake the leaves
to produce a sound like that of rain, and then knock him on the head while he is taken up
with
sheltering himself from the expected shower.
The habits of the Great Ant-Bear are slothful and solitary ; the greater part of his life is con-
sumed in sleeping, notwithstanding which he is never fat, and rarely even in good condition.
When about to sleep, he lies upon one side, conceals his long snout in the fur of the breast, locks
the hind and fore-claws into one another, so as to cover the head and belly, and turns his long
bushy tail over the whole body in such a manner as to protect it from the too powerful rays of
the sun. The female bears but a single young one at a birth, which attaches itself to her back,
and is carried about with her wherever she goes, rarely quitting her, even for a year after it has
acquired sufficient strength to walk and provide for itself. This unprolific constitution, and the
tardy growth of the young, account for the comparative rarity of these animals, which are said to
be seldom seen, even in their native regions. The female has only two mammæ, situated on the
breast, like those of apes, monkeys, and bats.
In its natural state the Ant-Bear lives exclusively upon ants, to procure which it opens their
hills with its powerful crooked claws, and at the moment that the insects, according to their na-
ture, flock from all quarters to defend their dwellings, draws over them his long flexible tongue,
covered with glutinous saliva, to which they consequently adhere; and so quickly does he repeat
this operation, that we are assured he will thus project his tongue and draw it in again covered
with insects twice in a second. He never actually introduces it into the holes or breaches which
he makes in the hills themselves, but only draws it lightly over the swarms of insects which issue
forth alarmed by his attack. “It seems almost incredible," says Azara, “that so robust and pow-
erful an animal can procure sufficient sustenance from ants alone; but this circumstance has
nothing strange in it for those who are acquainted with the tropical parts of America, and who
have seen the enormous multitudes of these insects, which swarm in all parts of the country, to
that degree that their hills often almost touch one another for miles together.” The same author
informs us that domestic Ant-Bears were occasionally kept by different persons in Paraguay, and
that they had even been sent alive to Spain, being fed upon bread and milk, mixed with morsels
of flesh minced very small. Like all animals which live upon insects, they are capable of sus-
taining a total deprivation of nourishment for an almost incredible time.
This strange animal is found in all the warm and tropical parts of South America, from Colom-
bia to Paraguay, and from the shores of the Atlantic to the foot of the Andes. His favorite re-
sorts are the low swampy savannahs, along the banks of rivers and stagnant ponds; he also fre-
quents the humid forests, but never climbs trees, as reported by Buffon on the authority of Laborde.
His
pace is slow, heavy, and vacillating; his head is carried low, as if he smelled the earth at
every step, while his long shaggy tail, drooping behind him, sweeps the earth on either side,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 8. EDENTATA. 473
a
and readily indicates his path to the hunter; though, when hard pressed, he increases his pace
to a kind of slow gallop, yet his greatest velocity never half equals the ordinary running of a man.
So great is his stupidity, that those who encounter him in the woods or plains may drive him be-
fore them by merely pushing him with a stick, so long at least as he is not compelled to proceed
beyond a moderate gallop; but if pressed too hard, or urged to extremity, he becomes obstinate,
sits up on his hind-quarters like a bear, and defends himself with his powerful claws. Like that
animal, his usual, and indeed only mode of assault, is by seizing his adversary with his fore-paws,
wrapping his arms round him, and endeavoring by this means to squeeze him to death. His
great strength and powerful muscles would easily enable him to accomplish his purpose in this
respect, even against the largest animals of his native forests, were it but guided by ordinary in-
telligence, or accompanied with a common degree of activity. But in these qualities he is infe-
rior to most other creatures; nevertheless, there is no reason to doubt that he does sometimes
thus defend himself against the larger and more valorous animals which he meets in his native
haunts.
Genus TAMANDUA; Tamandua.—Of this there is a single species, the TAMANDUA, T. tetra-
dactyla, called the LITTLE ANT-EATER by the English, and FOURMILIER by the French: it resem-
bles the preceding in form, but is much smaller, being only two feet two inches long, and the tail
sixteen inches. The hair is short and shiny, and resembles both silk and wool. The color is very
variable, and hence there are several varieties; some naturalists regard them as different species.
The eyes are minute; the ears small and round; the body long and cylindrical; the legs short
and robust; the tail round and attenuated, covered with very short hair throughout its greater
part, but naked underneath toward the point, and strongly prehensile.
The Tamandua is an inhabitant of the thick primeval forests of tropical America; it is never
found on the ground, but resides exclusively in trees, where it lives upon termites, honey, and
even, according to the report of Azara, bees, which in those countries form their hives
among
the
loftiest branches of the forest, and having no sting, are more readily despoiled of their honey than
their congeners of our own climate.
our own climate. When about to sleep, it hides its muzzle in the fur of its
breast, falls on its belly, and letting its fore-feet hang down on each side, wraps the whole tightly
round with its tail. The female, as in the case of the great ant-eater, has but two pectoral
mammæ, and produces but a single cub at a birth, which she carries about with her on her shoul-
ders for the first three or four months. The young are at first exceedingly deformed and ugly,
and of a uniform straw-color.
Brisson thinks an animal which is named Fourmilier a queue annelée, or the RING-TAILED ANT-
EATER, is a distinct species.
The Genus MYRMIDON: Myrmidon—called Didactyles by F. Cuvier, Dionyx by Is. Geoff-
roy, and Cyclothure by Gray-presents a single species, the Two-TOED ANT-EATER, M. didactylus.
This animal is of the size of a small squirrel, the body being six inches long and the tail seven.
In form it resembles the tamandua; it is of a straw-color, tinged with maroon on the shoulders;
its habits are nocturnal; it lives in the trees, produces one cub at a birth, and feeds on insects.
Like the other ant-eaters it is destitute of teeth, has a prehensile tail, two claws in front and four
behind, and sits on its haunches in feeding. The inhabitants of Surinam, never seeing it eat when
captured, and observing it to be frequently licking its paws, call it Kissing-Hand. It is found in
Guiana and Brazil.
THE MANIDES OR PANGOLINS.
a
The animals of this family, which are sometimes called the Scaly Ant-Eaters, are not less pe-
culiar in their external appearance than are the armadillos, for the upper part and sides of the
body, as well as the legs and tail, are protected by numerous horny scales, imbricated one upon
the other like the tiles of a roof, and implanted in the skin like nails. Their name Pangolins is
said to be derived from the Javanese, Pangoeling, which means, an animal that rolls itself into a
ball; in Bungalore the name is Badjar Kita, which means Reptiles of stone. They are without
teeth, have an extensile tongue and two pectoral mammæ, subsist on ants and termites, are slow
of motion, and have five toes on each foot.
VOL. 1.-60

474
VERTEBRATA.
arisien
wunding
THE INDIAN PANGOLIN OR MANIS.
Genus PANGOLIN: Manis.—Of this, the only genus belonging to the family, there are sev-
eral species.
The INDIAN MANIS-also called the BROAD-TAILED and the SHORT-TAILED MANIS–M. laticau-
data, is supposed to be the Phatagin of the ancients. One of its Asiatic names is Land-Carp:
with the Mahrattas it is called Kuwlee Manjar, or Tiled-Cat. Its head is small, pointed, and
conic: muzzle elongated and narrow; body rather stout; tail short and very broad at its base;
dorsal scales disposed in longitudinal rows to the number of eleven ; under part of the body,
head, and feet naked; some long fair-colored hairs spring from under the scales; the middle
claw of the fore-feet far exceeds the others in its proportions. It is a native of the East Indies,
coast of Tranquebar, Ceylon, &c. It feeds much on termites, or white ants, for the destruction
of whose conical nests the great middle claw is admirably adapted. It seizes them very much
in the manner of the ant-eaters, with its long, tensile, glutinous tongue. The Dutch call it the
Negumbo Devil, and the Cingalese, Caballe. Thunberg informs us that the inhabitants of the
latter country have a method of making a hole in its skin with a knife, and thus of guiding and
governing the animal at their pleasure, the point of the knife, which is kept in the hole, goading
and irritating it.
TEMMINCK'S MANIS, M. Temmincki, has large scales arranged in eleven rows; the length of
the body is about fourteen inches, and of the tail twelve; width of the back eight inches, and of
the tail five inches, the latter being rounded and almost truncate at the end. It does not attempt
to escape from man, but rolls itself into a ball, taking special care of its head. Ants constitute
its chief and favorite food, and these it secures by extending its projectile tongue into holes which
may exist in the habitations of these insects, or which it may itself form; and when, by means of
the glutinous matter with which its tongue is covered, a full load has been received, a sudden re-
traction of the retractor muscles carries both into its mouth, after which the ants are immediately
swallowed. This species is found in South Africa.
Other species of Manis or Pangolin are the M. Dalmanni, found in the environs of Canton,
China, and called Tchin-kian-kiapp by the natives; the Rough PANGOLIN, M. aspera, of Suma-
tra; the JAVANESE PANGOLIN, or TANGILLIN, M. Javanica, of Sumatra, Borneo, and the Celebes,
and Guy's PANGOLIN, M. Guy, found in Africa.
The LONG-TAILED MANIS, or PANGOLIN, M. longicaudata, or M. tetradactyla—the Phatagin of
Buffon—is a most extraordinary creature, having a body nearly two feet long, and a tail twice as
long as the body. This is found in Senegal, Guinea, &c. Two other species of Long-tailed Pangc-
lins or Phatagins are the M. tricuspis of Guinea, and the M. tridentata of Mozambique.
Fossil EDENTATA.—South America seems to be the theater on which, in times past as well as
present, the order of Edentata has had its chief development. The gigantic nature of the remains
of several species, now extinct, but bearing a general resemblance to existing races, is a subject of

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 8. EDENTATA.
475
ceaseless wonder.* In the Museum of Madrid, in Spain, is the skeleton of an enormous animal
found twelve miles southwest of the city of Buenos Ayres, about the year 1789; and other similar
skeletons, more or less perfect, have since been discovered in the same region. These have been
SKELETON OF MEGATHERIUM AT MADRID.
carefully examined by scientific men, and especially by Cuvier, and have been referred to a race
of animals of gigantic proportions, once living in South America, but now extinct, to which has
been applied the name of Megatherium. Of this Dr. Buckland gives the following eloquent
sketch :
“The size of the Megatherium exceeds that of the existing Edentata, to which it is most nearly
,
* REMARKS ON Fossil REMAINS.—It does not come within the scope of this work to treat the subject of Fossil Re-
mains much beyond the mere mention of the most important species. We have already given (see p. 7,) some gen-
eral views on this subject, but at this point it may be well to add a few observations, suggested by the facts immedi-
ately before us. We have stated (p. 10,) the number of species of extinct animals, definitely classified, to be 25,000;
Professor Bronn, of Heidelburg, has, however, given a much larger list of species actually discovered. Probably at
this time (1878, 35,000 may be known. The striking fact is disclosed by these discoveries, that in several classes of
animals there are more fossil species than are now known to exist of the same genera. It seems probable that it will be
found, in the further researches of science, that the same is true in respect to most or all classes of animals. Yet it
is to be observed, that while the great types of animal creation are thus preserved through successive geological
ages, doubtless embracing millions of years, nothing is to be found which supports the theory of a transmutation of
one animal species into another, in a constantly improving and ascending scale, as has been suggested by some able
writers. On the contrary, every animal seems to be of a distinct species, and must therefore have had a distinct cre-
ation. If a species dies out, though its semblance may remain, and perhaps in many forms, yet that is the end of its
existence; it does not continue or revive in any manner or degree in any of the succeeding generations of its class.
Nor does it appear that one species of animal is in any way connected with any other, except as analogous types in
the Creative Mind. While the origin of things is generally hidden from human sight, we are here able distinctly to
see, from period to period, the Act of God, extinguishing the lights of life and kindling others, similar indeed, but
Man's creation, then, was not a development of a law, by which he was evolved from a chimpanzee
or an orang-outang, as some philosophers teach; it was an Act of God, precisely such as the book of Genesis reveals.
The Bible and Geology are here together in one of the most interesting points of human history-the origin of our
being. God—not a Law, not an Abstraction, not a Principle—but God, breathed into man the breath of life, and he
became a living soul. This is the threshold of faith, and is as clearly revealed by science as religion.

476
VERTEBRATA.
allied, in a greater degree than any other fossil animal exceeds its nearest living congeners. With
the head and shoulders of a sloth, it combined in its legs and feet an admixture of the characters
of the ant-eater, the armadillo, and the chlamyphorus; it probably also still further resembled
the armadillo and chlamyphorus, in being cased with a bony coat of armor.* Its haunches
were more than five feet wide, and its body twelve feet long and eight feet high; its feet were a
yard in length, and terminated by most gigantic claws; its tail was probably clad in armor, and
much larger than the tail of any other beast among extinct or living terrestrial Mammalia. Thus
heavily constructed, and ponderously accoutered, it could neither run, nor leap, nor climb, nor
burrow under the ground, and in all its movements must have been necessarily slow; but what
need of rapid locomotion to an animal whose occupation of digging roots for food was almost
stationary? And what need of speed for flight from foes, to a creature whose giant carcass was
encased in an impenetrable cuirass, and who, by a single pat of his paw, or lash of his tail, could
in an instant have demolished the cougar or the crocodile? Secure within the panoply of his
bony armor, where was the enemy that would dare encounter this leviathan of the Pampas; or in
what more powerful creature can we find the cause that has effected the extirpation of his race!
His entire frame was an apparatus of colossal mechanism, adapted exactly to the work it had to
ABU
MEGATHERIUM RESTORED, ACCORDING TO THE DESIGNS or W. HAWKINS.
do; strong and ponderous, in proportion as this work was heavy, and calculated to be the vehicle
of life and enjoyment to a gigantic race of quadrupeds, which, though they have ceased to be
counted among the living inhabitants of our planet, have, in their fossil bones, left behind them
* Since the delivery of these opinions it has been pretty clearly proved that the Megatherium had no such covering
as is here supposed.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 8. EDENTATA.
477
imperishable monuments of the consummate skill with which they were constructed. Each limb
and fragment of a limb formed co-ordinate parts of a well-adjusted and perfect whole, and
through all their deviations from the form and proportion of the limbs of other quadrupeds,
afforded fresh proofs of the infinitely varied and inexhaustible contrivances of creative wisdom.”
But this animal, which must have greatly exceeded the elephant in size and weight, was not
the only geological wonder of this part of the world. The bones of an extinct animal, called by
geologists the Mylodon, and nearly the size of a hippopotamus, have been discovered at various
times in South America, and a complete skeleton has been obtained and placed in the Hunterian
Museum of London. This is eleven feet long from the snout to the end of the tail. It has been
proved that this creature fed on vegetables, and probably pulled down trees of considerable size
and fed on the leaves and branches. It seems to have combined something of the organization of
both the sloth and the armadillo, but in some respects it was unlike any known animal. It is
probable that there were several species of Mylodon.
Another geological curiosity, belonging to the Edentata of this quarter of the world, was the
Glyptodon, a species of gigantic armadillo, the remains of which have been found in various
places. The entire length of one of these creatures was probably fourteen feet. The carapace of
SKELETON OF THE MYLODON.
one of them is preserved in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, and appears
like part of a huge cask. This covering is composed of horny plates, not disposed in rings or
bands, as in the armadillo, but articulated together, and forming a tesselated cylinder or arch.
The tail was inclosed in a scabbard of this nature. These are some of the revelations of geology

478
VERTEBRATA.
sea.
in South America. To these facts we may add, in the words of the intelligent English traveler
Darwin, that “the Pampas may be regarded as one great sepulcher of lost quadrupeds.” From
an examination of the soil, it appears that this immense prairie—now exhibiting a sea of waving
grass for eight hundred miles-occupies the site of what was once an immense bay or arm of the
In the countless ages of the past this has gradually been filled by soil, and in this are em-
bedded the relics of these various races which have passed away. Not only are here found the
relics we have described, but many others, including those of the Toxodon, strangely blending in
its structure some of the organic features of the rodentia, ruminantia, and cetacea,—those of
the Macrauchenia, which alike resembled the tapir, the camel, and the giraffe; and many others
equally strange and wonderful.
In listening to these and similar accounts, especially those which relate to the Mastodon, the
Mammoth, the Megalonix, the Iguanodon, and other giants of the geological ages, it is natural to
ask by what means did these creatures, the seeming masters as well as monsters of the world,
cease to exist? The answer is for the most part supplied by well known facts. In some
cases the earth has been submerged by convulsions of nature, sudden or slow, and its tenants
have been swallowed up in the sea; in others, there have been great changes of climate, render-
ing whole regions unfit, alike by their temperature and their productions, to sustain the animals
which before inhabited them. And, finally, it may be stated that all very large animals seem
destined, by a sort of necessity, to pass away. These enormous creatures were few in number,
for the earth could not sustain many, and multitudes of smaller animals combined for the de-
struction of such as did exist, as they do now. It is true that in the eras to which we refer, Man,
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THE GLYPTODON ACCORDING TO THE DESIGNS OF W. HAWKINS.
the great destroyer, was not there, but there were lions, tigers, hyenas, and bears, to devour the
young, to attack and destroy the sick and disabled. There were myriads of animals to penetrate
the bowels and perforate the skin, to inflict disease and occasion death. With combinations of
these and other creatures lay the strength of the world, and to them its dominion gradually
tends. In short, these enormous animals were not adapted to the earth, in its actual state,
and so, by the laws of nature, some in one way and some in another,—they ceased to exist, leav-
ing no record but their bones.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
479
مادة
ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
We now come to those animals which chew the cud, and which are therefore called Ruminantia.
They are, of all others, those which are most useful to man: they furnish him with food, and
nearly all the flesh he consumes; some serve him as beasts of burden or draught; others with their
milk, their tallow, leather, horns, hair, wool, and other products. The Ruminantia were regarded
by Cuvier as the most natural and the best determined order of the class, for all the species which
compose
it appear to have been constructed on the same model, the camels alone presenting some
inconsiderable exceptions to the general characteristics of the group.
The first of these characteristics is that of having no incisors in the upper jaw, while the infe-
rior has always eight, the two outermost of which represent canines. They are replaced above
by a callous pad. Between the incisors and the molars is a wide space, where, in some genera,
there are one or two canines. The molars, almost always six in number above and below, have
their crown marked with two double crescents, the convexity of which is turned inward in the
upper, and outward in the lower jaw. The fore-feet are each terminated by two toes and by two
hoofs, which present a flat surface to each other, appearing as though a single hoof had been cleft;
hence the names that have been applied to these animals of “cloven-footed,” “bifurcated," &c.
Behind the hoof there are always two small spurs, which are vestiges of lateral toes. The two
bones of the metacarpus and metatarsus are united into a single one, designated as the cannon-bone,
but in certain species there are also vestiges of lateral, metacarpal, and metatarsal bones.
The name Ruminantia intimates the singular faculty possessed by these animals of chewing the
cud, that is, of masticating their food a second time, it being returned to the mouth for this
pur-
pose after the first deglutition. This faculty depends on the structure of their stomachs, which
a

480
VERTEBRATA.
are always four in number, the first three of which are so disposed that the food may enter into
either of them at the will of the animal, the @sophagus terminating at the point of communi-
cation.*
Esophagus........
Cardia
3. Feuillet
4. Rennet.
2. Honey-Comb.
1. Paunch.
STOMACH OF THE SHEEP.
The first and largest stomach is named the Paunch. It receives a large quantity of
vegetable
matter, coarsely bruised by the first mastication. From this it passes into the second, termed the
Honey-comb Bag, the parietes or inner sides of which are laminated like the cells of bees. This
second stomach, very small and globular, seizes the food, and moistens and compresses it into
little pellets or cuds, which afterward successively return to the mouth to be rechewed. The ani-
mal remains at rest during this operation, which lasts until all the herbage first taken into the
paunch has been subjected to it. The aliment thus remasticated descends directly into the third
stomach, termed the Feuillet, on account of its parietes being longitudinally laminated, somewhat
like the leaves of a book, from which it descends into the fourth, or Caillette, or Rennet-bag, the
coats of which are wrinkled, and which is the true organ of digestion, analogous to the simple
stomach of animals in general. In the young of the Ruminants, while they continue to subsist on
the milk of the mother, the caillette is the largest of the four. The paunch is only developed by
receiving great quantities of herbage, which finally give it enormous volume. These animals
have the intestinal canal very long, but there are few enlargements in the great intestines. The
a
* Blumenbach observes that the first three stomachs are connected with each other, and with a groove-like contin-
uation of the oesophagus, in a very remarkable way. The latter tube enters just where the paunch and the second
and third stomachs approach each other; it is then continued with the groove, which ends in the third stomach.
This groove is therefore open to the first stomachs, which lie to its right and left. But the thick prominent lips which
form the margin of the groove admit of being drawn together so as to form a complete canal, which then constitutes
a direct continuation of the csophagus into the third stomach. The functions of this very singular part will vary ac-
cording as we consider it in the state of a groove or of a closed canal. In the first case, the grass, &c., is passed, after
a very slight degree of mastication, into the paunch, as into a reservoir. Thence it goes in small portions into the
second stomach, from which, after a further maceration, it is propelled, by a kind of antiperistaltic motion, into the
oesophagus, and thus returns into the mouth. It is here ruminated and again swallowed, when the groove is shut,
and the morsel of food, after this second mastication, is thereby conducted directly into the third stomach. During
the short time which it probably stays in this situation between the folds of the internal coat, it is still further pre-
pared for digestion, which process is completed in the fourth or true digestive stomach.
It is further said that the shutting of the groove when the food is again swallowed after rumination, supposes a
power of voluntary motion in this part, and indeed, it is added, the influence of the will in the whole affair of rumi-
nation is incontestable. It is not confined to any particular time, since the animal can delay it according to circum-
stances when the paunch is quite full. It has been expressly stated of some men, who have had the power of rumi-
nating-instances of which are not very rare—that it was quite voluntary with them. “I have known," continues
Blumenbach, “two men who ruminated their vegetable food; both assured me that they had a real enjoyment in
doing this, which has also been observed of others; and one of them had the power of doing it or leaving it alone,
according to circumstances.”
+ Various names are given to the different stomachs of the Ruminantia: the first, or Paunch, is called Rumen ;
the second, or Honey-comb Bag, is called Bonnet, King's Hood, Reticulum, Ollula, &c.; the third, or Feuillet, meaning
two leaves of a book, is called Manyplus, Psalterium, &c.; the fourth, or Rennet, is called Abomasus, Faliscus, &c.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORD ER 9. RUMINANTIA.
481
cæcum is likewise long, and tolerably smooth. Their fat hardens more by cooling than that of
other quadrupeds, and even becomes brittle, and is commonly termed tallow. The udder is placed
between the hinder limbs. In their forms, many of these animals are light and elegant, and aro
endowed with great speed. The skin is covered with hair or wool, the eyes are large and full,
and in many species exceedingly beautiful.
The Ruminantia are divided into five families, as follows: the Bovidoe, the Giraffida, the Cer-
vida, the Moschidæ, and the Camelidæ.
THE BOVIDÆ.
This family includes the following tribes : the Bovina or Ox kind, the Caprina or Goat
kind, the Ovina or Sheep kind, and the Antilopina or Antelope kind.
FREEMAN DEL
DUARTLEY SC
DOMESTIC CATTLE.
THE BOVINA.
a
This tribe einbraces the various animals of the Ox kind, a genus to which the “Lord of Cre-
ation” is most extensively indebted. It has been observed that if the qualities of the dog are of a
higher and more intellectual character, and bring it into closer communication with man as a
social being; and if the horse, as a beast of burden and of draught, contributes more to his immediate
personal gratification, the Ox surpasses these and all others in the devotion of its powers while liv-
ing, and the appropriation of every part of the body when dead, to the wants, the comforts, and
the luxuries of its owner. It is a small but very natural genus, all the species of which resemble
each other in essential points, and manifest little approximation to other genera. Some of them
have been, in different countries, subdued to the service of man, and their great strength made
available for the purposes of husbandry, and in some instances, of riding and draught. They are
mostly large, thickset animals, with stout limbs, a broad muzzle, and a pendulous dewlap; the
horns, found in each sex, are round, pointed, and curved, supported on a bony center, which is
very porous. Their flesh, on the whole, is the most nutritious, the most digestible, and the most
agreeable of all animal food, and is the most extensively consumed.
VOL. I.-61

482
VERTEBRATA.
Different authors have classed these animals in various ways, some regarding them as of a single
genus, others as of a single species, and still others as constituting several genera. We shall
adopt the arrangement of Gervais, which seems the most natural, and treat them as consisting of
one Genus, OX, Bos, and divided into six subgenera, Bibos, Yak, Bonasus, Buffalo, Ovibos, and
Taurus. Before we proceed, however, we present to the reader the following curious table,
furnished by Mr. Vasey in his “Delineation of the Ox Tribe,” showing the differences in the num-
ber of vertebræ belonging to the several species and varieties of Bovina.
Names of Species.
Cervical.
Dorsal.
Lumbar.
Caudal.
ܥܛ ܠܛܪ
5
5
American Bison....
European Bison.
Yak.
Gayal (Domestic)
Indian Buffalo..
Gaur....
Domestic Ox..
Manilla Buffalo.
Cape Buffalo....
Zamouse
Banting..
Zebu..
777777777777
14
14
14
14
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
HAHAHAHA OTT CT CT CT CT er or Sacral.
50
12 43
19 50
14 45
16 47
16 ! 47
19
21 52
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
ICPOL一份​如​奶​红红​的​仍​如​如​织​8
COCO COCO
19
20
18
18
49
50
48
48
Subgenus BIBOS: Bibos of Hodgson.—Of this there is a single species, the JUNGLE-Ox, or
JUNGLE-Ghau of India, the Bos frontalis of Lambert, and the Bos sylhetanus of F. Cuvier. In
Oriental language it is called ghau, which means cow, whence we have Nylghau, which means
Blue-cow. The English give to the Jungle-Ox the various names of Gauri-Ghau, Gayal, and
Bison. The entire body of this species is red, and the feet whitish; the size is that of the com-
mon domestic ox; the horns are arched and marked with ridges, transverse to their base. It is
widely distributed, extending from Hindostan to Cochin China. It lives in small herds in dense
forests and marshy thickets, and is endowed with such strength and courage that it easily defends
itself from the most formidable beasts of the wilderness. It is, however, of a mild disposition, and
is not dangerous even in its own dominions. It is domesticated and bred by some of the Hindoos,
who only make use of the flesh and hides, though the milk has a peculiar richness. In some
instances it is said to be used for draught. The cow goes eleven months, and will breed with the
common Indian bull. Large flocks of these animals are owned by some of the natives; they
roam at large during the day, but come home at evening, being trained to this by receiving small
quantities of salt. Some Hindoos regard this as a sacred animal.
The Gaur or Gour, Bos Gaurus of Smith, is regarded by some naturalists as a distinct species.
It is found in the mountainous parts of Central India, where it lives in small herds, and is a wild
and savage animal.
The BANTING or SUMATRA Ox, Bos Banting, is a wild species, found in Java and Borneo; it
resembles the Gaur in appearance, but its osteology is peculiar, and it is doubtless a distinct species.
Subgenus YAK, or PEPHAGUS, according to Gray.—Of this there is one species only, the
YAK, SARLYK, or GRUNTING-Ox, GRUNTING-Bull, SAVORA-Goy or Bulbul, the Bos Grunniens
of Linnæus. The color of this animal, of which there are wild as well as tame varieties, is
black; the back and tail often white; the hair is thick and long, and the tail is long, silky,
and beautiful. It is used for military standards, and, being dyed red, is employed for tufts to the
caps of the Chinese. Both the male and female have a constant grunt like that of a hog. On
the shoulders is a hump, covered with long hair. The horns are like those of a common ox.
This species is extensively bred in Thibet and the adjacent parts of Central Asia, where it is
extremely useful to the inhabitants. There are several breeds, as the Noble Yak, the Plow Yak,
Ghainorik, Wild Yak, &c. Those used for the plow are short-legged, carry their heads low, and
have a mean aspect. Those used for riding, which, by the way, are guided by the nose, are
much handsomer, and have a stately appearance. They are, however, somewhat vicious, kick,
turn round and grunt, sometimes furiously, and with a kind of rattling in their throat. This
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
483
{m
Zuwa
THE YAK.
species breeds with common cattle, and the mixed races are greatly valued. They seem to be
adapted to cold countries, and thrive best in the lofty plateaus between the Altai, Himalaya,
and Belur Tag mountains. In summer the wild kinds shrink from the heat, and hide them-
selves in the shade and water. The young are produced in winter; these are at first covered with
rough, curly black hair; at three months they obtain the long hair on the body and tail.
Several living specimens of the Yak have been taken to Europe, and in France the experi-
ment is being made of bringing them into use, it being deemed a valuable breed on account of
its long hair, and other qualities. Several young ones have been produced there.
Subgenus BONASUS or BISON: Bison according to Smith.—Of this there are two species,
one European, and now nearly extinct; the other American, and still existing in large numbers.
These animals are chiefly distinguished from the ox by having the forehead much larger and
more rounded between the horns; the feet smaller, with a thicker and more woolly covering; and,
finally, by possessing one more rib—that is, fourteen instead of thirteen.
The European species of Bison is the AURocus, the Bos Bonasus of Linnæus. This animal,
which was formerly, though erroneously, supposed to be the origin of our domestic cattle, was
once spread throughout the forests of Europe, but has gradually disappeared before the approach
of man, and is now only known in the remote parts of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and parts
of the Caucasus. As found at the present day, it has a very broad head and arched forehead;
the eyes are large and dark; the hair on the forehead is long and wavy, and under the chin and
breast forms a kind of beard. In the winter, the whole of the neck, hump, and shoulders are
covered with a long dusky-brown hair, intermingled with a soft fur. The long hair is cast in
the summer and renewed in the winter. The tail is of moderate length, covered with hair, and
is terminated in a large tuft. The females are not so large as the males, and have not so much
hair on their bodies.
These animals have never been domesticated, but herds of them are protected in certain locali-
ties in the forest of Bialowieza in Lithuania, under the direction of the Emperor of Russia. There
are twelve herds thus kept, each being under the superintendence of one herdsman. The esti-
mated number of all the herds is eight hundred, these not including the wild troops of the Caucasus.
They feed on grass and brushwood, and the bark of young trees, especially the willow, poplar, ash,
and birch. They do not attain their full stature till their sixth year. They are very shy, and can
only be approached from the leeward, as their smell is exceedingly acute. When accidentally
fallen in with they become furious, and passionately assail the intruder. When taken young they
become accustomed to their keeper, but the approach of other persons excites their anger.
Two

484
VERTEBRATA.
BY
من دلار است
THE AUROCHS.
young specimens were presented to the Zoological Society of London by the Emperor of Russia.
The history of their capture, as told in a letter from M. Dimitri to Sir R. Murchison, is interest-
ing, and is substantially as follows:
“On the 20th July, 1846, at daybreak, three hundred and eighty huntsmen, armed with guns
simply charged with powder, placed themselves on the track of a herd of bisons which had been
discovered during the night. Having penetrated deep into the valley with the utmost precau-
tion, they suddenly came upon them. The creatures were reposing upon the side of a hill, rumi-
nating in security, while the young ones were frolicking around their dams, attacking one
another, and tearing up the earth with their hoofs, making the sand fly in whirls around them.
One moment they would go to the side of their mother, rub their heads caressingly upon her and
lick her sides; at another, they turned round to rejoin their comrades and share their frolics.
“But at the first sound of the horn the scene changed in the twinkling of an eye; the whoie
troop, as if struck by a magic wand, jumped to their feet, and seemed to concentrate all their
faculties to see and to hear what was going to take place. The calves pressed timidly against
their mothers, and when the baying of the hounds was heard, the old bisons ranged themselves in
the order they are accustomed to take on such occasions. Placing the calves in front, they
brought up the rear to save them from the pursuit of the dogs. On their arrival at the station
held by a portion of the huntsmen, they were received by piercing cries and the discharge of their
guns. Upon this they changed their order of defense; the old bulls threw themselves furiously
upon the sides of the besieging party, broke their line of attack, and, victorious at this point, con-
tinued their furious course without stopping to chastise their enemies, who were concealed behind
the largest trees. The huntsmen had, however, succeeded in separating two calves from the herd.
One of them, three months old, was taken immediately; the other, a year older, made great re-
sistance. Although seized and held by eight men, he threw them over, and succeeded in escap-
ing. They then set on the dogs. He was soon driven into a swamp, dragged out, tied by the
legs, and carried to the keeper's lodge.
"Four other calves, one male and three females, were taken in other parts of the forest. One
of these females, which was only two or three days old, was at first suckled by a domestic cow,
which, contrary to the idea of some writers, took immediate care of the young foundling, and
showed a great affection and tenderness for her forest child. Unhappily, the young creature died
six days after, suffocated by some throat complaint, which it had when it was taken.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
485
c
BRIN
THE AMERICAN BISON.
“The other calves took no nourishment on the first day of their captivity; but the next, the one
of three months of age began to suck one of the cows, and appeared very gay. His companions
in captivity, except one of fifteen months old, began by first drinking some milk from the hand,
then they drank greedily from a pail, and as soon as it was empty they began to lick each other.
In a short time they lost all their savage manners, which gave place to an extreme vivacity and
petulence. When they were taken out of their stable to go into the large barn-yard, the rapidity
and lightness of their movements were like those of deer. They frolicked with the domestic
calves around them, fought with them, and, though apparently much stronger, appeared to yield
through complaisance. The male aurochs of fifteen months, kept a long time his savage and soli-
tary manners; he became angry at the sight of a man, shook his head, brandished his tail, and
menaced with his horns. After two months' captivity, however, he became tame and attached
himself to the peasant who fed him. He then had more liberty given to him.”
Two of the animals thus taken, were sent to London, and placed in the Zoological Gardens, as
already stated, but, unfortunately, they died soon after.
The AMERICAN Bison, Bos Americanus, the only bovine animal indigenous to America, and
confined exclusively to North America, has many points of similarity with the Aurochs. In both
we have the huge head and the lengthened spinal process of the dorsal vertebræ for the attach-
ment of the brawny muscles that support and wield it. In both, we have the conical hump be-
tween the shoulders in consequence, and the shaggy mane in all seasons; and each presents a
model of brute force, formed to push and throw down. When full-grown the American animal is
fully the size of our oxen, and weighs from 1,600 to 2,200 pounds. When fat it yields one hundred
and fifty pounds of tallow. The head is very large, and carried low; the eyes are small, black,
and piercing; the horns are short, small, sharp, set far apart,-for the forehead is very broad -
and directed outward and backward, so as to be nearly erect, with a slight curve toward the out-
ward-pointing tips. The hump on the shoulder is not a mere lump of fatty secretion, like that of
the zebu, but consists, exclusive of a deposit of fat which varies much in quantity, of the strong

486
VERTEBRATA.
muscles attached to the highly-developed spinous processes of the last cervical and first dorsal
vertebræ, forming fit machinery for the support and movement of the enormous head. The chest
is broad, and the legs are strong; the hind parts are narrow, and have a comparatively weak ap-
pearance. The tail is clothed with short fur-like hair, with a long, straight, coarse, blackish-
brown tuft at the end. In winter, the whole body is covered with long shaggy hair, which in
summer falls off, leaving the blackish wrinkled skin exposed, except on the forehead, hump, fore-
quarters, under-jaw, and throat, where the hair is very long and shaggy, and mixed with much
wool. The general color is brownish-black, the under surface being of a lighter shade. The
female resembles the male, but is somewhat smaller and of a more delicate structure.
When the Europeans began to form settlements in North America, the bison was occasionally,
though very rarely, met with in the regions near the Atlantic; it was, in fact, uncommon east of
the Apalachian chain. As early as the first discovery of Canada it was unknown there. It was
found tolerably abundant in Kentucky, but the center of its haunts has been, and still is, the
great plain between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, from latitude 64° south. Here,
though man-civilized and savage—has made incessant war upon them for a century, and has
la L.
HERD OF BISONS.
greatly diminished their numbers, they still roam in vast herds, migrating from one prairie to
another, as their necessities in respect to pasture demand. A herd of these enormous beasts,
sometimes amounting to five, ten, and even twenty thousand, stretching as far as the eye can
reach, over the undulating plains—some bellowing, some fighting, some tearing up the soil—the
very carth trembling beneath the shock, and the air filled with a prolonged and portentous mur-
mur—is said to present a spectacle at once appalling and sublime.
The breeding season of the bison is in June and July. The females, either singly or several
together, retire to some solitary spot, remote from the haunts of wolves and bears, and produce
their young, usually one at a time, and in the months of May or June. These follow the mother
till the next season. When they are attacked by wolves, the cow bellows and runs at the
enemy, and sometimes frightens him away. The migrations are generally from north to south
in autumn, and from south to north in spring. Some remain in the northern regions through the
winter, and dig away the snow to get at the grass. In some seasons many of them, however,
perish. They swim the great rivers of the West, on which occasions many of the calves are
drowned from being unable to climb the steep or miry banks. On such occasions the mothers

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
487
THE TAME BUFFALO.
may be seen watching the efforts of their offspring with intense anxiety, but unable to render
them any assistance, and only uttering troubled moans; often, the calves get on the backs of
their mothers, and are thus carried over the streams in safety. Sometimes in crossing the ice a
herd is ingulfed, and many of them perish.
In the spring the bison bulls select their mates and do not leave them till these retire for their
parturition. The battles among the males for a particular female are often terrible. On these
occasions the contest is preluded by bellowings and tearing up of the earth after the manner of
civilized bulls. When the combatants rush to the encounter, striking their heads together, the
shock is altogether terrific. As a large herd moves along they keep up a perpetual bellowing,
and it is said they may be heard ten miles on a fine day. In their migrations the multitude
move irregularly forward in a slow walk; but when necessity requires these animals can gallop
nearly as fast as a horse can run. Some of the fat, old bulls, however,
Some of the fat, old bulls, however, like pursy old gentlemen,
are incapable of such flights. The cows and calves are much the fleetest. In lying down and
rising the action of the bison is nearly the same as that of our domestic cattle.
The Bison presents many inducements to the hunter for its capture: the horns are used for
many purposes, the hide is valuable as a covering, the flesh is excellent—some parts, indeed, as the
tongue and the hump, delicious. It is not surprising, therefore, that various methods are resorted
to by the Indians-several tribes of which live almost entirely on their flesh-in hunting these
animals. Sometimes the dry prairie-grass is set on fire in a circle, and maddened by fright, the
poor animals rush into openings, where the deadly rifle awaits them Sometimes they are driven
over ledges of rocks, and either killed or fatally wounded in the plunge; sometimes they are en-
ticed into a large inclosure made of stakes and branches of trees, where they are easily dispatched;
sometimes the hunter approaches the herd on horseback, and selecting a particular animal, lays
him prostrate by a bullet or an arrow, which is sent with such force as to pass quite through
the body. Nor are the Indians the only slayers of these beasts: white hunters—some who make
it a trade, some who are only seeking sport—and not a few are attracted hither, as well from dif-
ferent portions of the United States as from various parts of Europe—are constantly plying the
deadly rifle against these herds. At the same time, numerous bands of wolves are mingled with
the flock, attacking and pulling down the young, the sick, the lame, the wounded, the lonely, and
the defenseless. Catlin, with terrible fidelity, has painted some of these hunting scenes-not
only the attacks of the Indians upon the herd, but those of the prairie-wolves, encircling, for in-
stance, some wounded bull, who, although his eyes are torn from their sockets, his tongue eaten
off, and his bowels gushing out and being ravenously devoured by his hideous assailants, still
stands and—blind, bleeding, and staggering—bravely faces and threatens his enemy. The grizzly
bear is also a terrible destroyer, and the strongest of the train falls helpless beneath the shock of

488
VERTEBRATA.
THE ARNA.
his attack. Under such a process, it is obvious that these creatures, numerous as they are, are
rapidly being diminished, and the time cannot be remote when they will be, like the Aurochs of
Europe, a race of former days, with only a vestige of their countless herds to transmit their sem-
blance to succeeding generations.
It appears that the American Bison is not naturally a very timid or savage brute; but at
present, being constantly harassed by hunters, it is exceedingly watchful, and unless when large
herds are together, it can only be approached from the leeward, and under cover. The natural
disposition of the animal is to fly from man, but when wounded he turns on his enemy, and is
alike furious and formidable. The Bison has never been effectually tamed so as to be serviceable
for the use of man. It has been known to breed with domestic cattle, but the offspring was wild,
unruly, and impatient of restraint. Specimens of the Bison have been placed in the Zoological
Gardens of London, and the Garden of Plants at Paris.
Subgenus BUFFALO: Bubalus.—Of this there are several species, distinguished by having
harsh, thick hair, almost entirely black, and a forehead rounded and swelling out between the horns,
which are more or less flattened, the bases being enlarged and approaching each other.
The Common BUFFALO, B. Buffalus-Bos bubalis of Linnæus—had its origin in India, where
it is extensively distributed. There are two varieties—the tame, called Bhainsa, and the wild,
called Arna, or Arnee. The tame one is trained to domestic uses, especially for draught, and is com-
monly employed for this purpose. Its milk is little used, and its flesh is rank. It is suited, how-
ever, to marshy districts, and on this account has not only been used for centuries in parts of In-
dia, but has been distributed over some of the Asiatic islands and portions of Europe, and espe-
cially in Italy and the Crimea. It thrives in those regions affected by the maiaria, and hence
has become common in the Roman States as well as in Naples, and the traveler on the Pontine
Marshes may see large herds of them feeding and fattening in an atmosphere which is not only
deadly to man but poisonous to many brutes. Its color is nearly black, its head is carried low,
and its aspect is wild, shy, and sinister. Its temper, however, is tolerably calm, and it works at
the plow and cart with docility and energy; it is also sometimes used as a beast of burden, and
particularly in countries where the roads are of a muddy and miry nature, in which its natural
aptitude and great strength qualify it to move with facility.
The wild variety, or Arna, which is still common in Continental Asia, inhabits the margins
rather than the interior of primeval forests. They never ascend the mountains, but adhere, like

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
489
a
the rhinoceros, to the most swampy sites of the district they inhabit. There is no animal upon
which ages of domesticity have made so small an impression as upon this species, the tame being
still most clearly referable to the wild ones at present frequenting all the great swampy jungles of
India. The latter live in large herds, but in the season of love the most lusty males lead off and
appropriate several females, with which they form small herds for the time. The wild buffalo is
fully one-third larger than the largest tame breeds, the body measuring ten and a half feet in
length, and six or six and a half feet high at the shoulders, and it is of such power and vigor as by
his charge frequently to prostrate a well-sized elephant. It is remarkable for the shortness of the
tail, which does not extend lower than the hock, for the tufts which cover the forehead and knees,
and lastly, for the great size of its horns. They are uniformly in high condition, so unlike the
leanness and angularity of the domestic buffalo, even at its best. With this species the period of
gestation is ten months, and one or two are produced at a birth.
The strength and courage of this animal are well displayed in the following extract from Basil
Hall's “Travels in India :"
“We were promised a grand day's sport one afternoon, when a buffalo and a tiger were to be
pitted against each other. The buffalo entered the ring composedly enough; but after looking
about him, turned to one side, and rather pettishly, as if he had felt a little bilious, overturned a
vessel of water placed there expressly for his use. The tiger refused for a long time to make his
appearance, and it was not till his den was filled with smoke and fire that he sprang out. The
buffalo charged his enemy in a moment, and by one furious push capsized him right over.
To
our great disappointment, the tiger pocketed this insult in the shabbiest manner imaginable, and
passing on, leaped furiously at the ropes, with which his feet became entangled, so that the buf-
falo was enabled to punish his antagonist about the rump most ingloriously. When at length
the tiger got loose, he slunk off to a distant part of the area, lay down, and pretended to be dead.
The boys, however, soon put him up again, and tried to bring him to the scratch with squibs and
crackers, and a couple of dozen dogs being introduced at the same moment, they all set at him,
but only one ventured to take any liberty with the enraged animal. This bold dog actually caught
the tiger by the tail, but a slight pat of the mighty monster's paw crushed the yelping cur as flat
as a board. The buffalo, who really appeared anxious to have a fair stand up fight, now drove
the dogs off, and repeatedly poked the tiger with his nose, and even turned him half over several
times with his horns.
“We had then a fight between two buffaloes, which ran their heads against each other with a
crash that one could fancy shook the palace to its very foundation ; indeed, the only wonder was
how both animals did not fall down dead with their skulls fractured. But there appears to be a
wonderful degree of thickness or hardness in this part of the animal."
The AFRICAN BUFFALO, so called in distinction from the preceding, which is called the Indian
Buffala, is the B. Cafer of naturalists, and is often called the Cape Buffalo, it having been for-
merly very common at the Cape. It is of the size of the largest ox, is of a rough, shaggy, wild
appearance, and in a state of nature is altogether a savage and formidable brute. It is specially
distinguished by its enormous horns, which are of a more solid and compact texture than those
of
any other species of Bos, resembling, in fact, the substance of the horns of the antelope; the
bases of these, which extend in two large protuberances nearly across the forehead, form a pow-
erful battery, by which the animal breaks and dashes through the thick branches of the forest.
They live in large herds, and though they generally fly from man, when wounded become exceed-
ingly dangerous. Sometimes, also, they will make sudden and fierce attacks upon hunters and
travelers whom they chance to meet in their haunts. All the genus have a dislike to red colors,
and when one of these creatures is excited in this way, it attacks the offensive object with great
ferocity.
This species delight in wallowing in the mire, and when heated, throw themselves into the
water. Their hair, consisting mostly of a mane and beard, and patches on parts of the body, is rough
and shaggy, and is nearly black; the skin of the hinder parts is almost naked; the horns are four
to five feet long, and the tips sometimes five feet apart. The hide is exceedingly thick and tough,
and resembles that of the rhinoceros; it is much sought after for harnesses.
VOL. I.--62

490
VERTEBRATA.
REUMAN-KENNYISCINY.CZ
THE AFRICAN BUFFALO.
a
Considerable numbers of these animals exist in a wild state in Eastern Africa, extending from
the Cape to Abyssinia. It appears, also, from the recent accounts of Cummings, Anderson, Liv-
ingstone, and others, that they are common in all Southern Africa. The following account is
furnished by the first of these writers; the adventures referred to took place nearly in the center
of Southern Africa—about latitude 24° south and longitude 25° east-some eight or nine hundred
miles northeast of Cape Town:
“We took
up
the
spoor of a troop of buffaloes, which we followed along a path made by the
heavy beasts of the forest through a neck in the hills, and emerging from the thicket, we beheld,
on the other side of a valley which had opened upon us, a herd of about ten huge bull buffaloes.
These I attempted to stalk, but was defeated by a large herd of zebras, which, getting our wind,
charged past and started the buffaloes. I ordered the Bechuanas to release the dogs, and spurring
Colesberg, I gave chase. The buffaloes crossed the valley in front of me, and made for a succes-
sion of dense thickets in the hills to the northward. As they crossed the valley, by riding hard
I obtained a broadside shot at the last bull, and fired both barrels into him. He, however, con-
tinued his course, but I presently separated him, along with two other bulls, from the troop. My
rifle being a two-grooved, which is hard to load, I was unable to do so on horseback, and followed
with it empty, in the hope of bringing them to bay. In passing through a grove of thorny trees
I lost sight of the wounded buffalo; he had turned short and doubled back, a common practice
with them when wounded.
“ After following the other two at a hard gallop for about two miles, I was riding within five
yards of their huge broad sterns. They exhaled a strong bovine smell, which came hot in my
face. I expected every minute that they would come to bay, and give me time to load; but this
.
they did not seem disposed to do. At length, finding I had the speed of them, I increased my
pace, and going ahead, I placed myself right before the finest bull, thus expecting to force him to
stand at bay, upon which he instantly charged me with a loud roar, very similar to the voice of a
lion. Colesberg neatly avoided the charge, and the bull resumed his northward course. We now
entered on rocky ground, and the forest became more dense as we proceeded. The buffaloes
were evidently making for some strong retreat. I, however, managed with much difficulty to
hold them in view, following as best I could through thorny thickets. Isaac rode some hundred
yards behind, and kept shouting to me to drop the pursuit, or I should be killed. At last the
buffaloes suddenly pulled up, and stood at bay in a thicket within twenty yards of me. Spring-
ing from my horse, I hastily loaded my two-grooved rifle, which I had scarcely completed when
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
491
Isaac rode up and inquired what had become of the buffaloes, little dreaming that they were
standing within twenty yards of him. I answered by pointing my musket across his horse's nose
and letting fly sharp right and left at the two buffalocs.
- A headlong charge, accompanied by a muffled roar, was the result. In an instant I was round
a clump of tangled thorn-trees; but Isaac, by the violence of his efforts to get his horse in mo-
tion, lost his balance, and at the same instant, his girths giving way, himself, his saddle, and big
Dutch rifle, all came to the ground together, with a heavy crash, right in the path of the infuri-
ated buffaloes. Two of the dogs, which had fortunately that moment joined us, met them in their
charge, and by diverting their attention, probably saved Isaac from instant destruction. The buf-
faloes now took up another position in an adjoining thicket. They were both badly wounded,
blotches and pools of blood marking the ground where they had stood. The dogs rendered mo
assistance by taking up their attention, and in a few minutes these two noble bulls breathed their
last beneath the shade of a mimosa grove. Each of them, in dying, repeatedly uttered a very
striking, low, deep moan. This I subsequently ascertained the buffalo invariably utters when in
the act of expiring.
“On going up to them, I was astonished to behold their size and powerful appearance. Their
horns reminded me of the rugged trunk of an oak-tree. Each horn was upward of a foot in
breadth at the base, and together they effectually protected the skull with a massive and impen-
etrable shield. The horns, descending and spreading out horizontally, completely overshadowed
the animal's eyes, imparting to him a look the most ferocious and sinister that can be imagined.
Early in the afternoon I dispatched men with a pack-horse to bring the finer of the two buffalo-
heads. It was so ponderous that two powerful men could with difficulty raise it from the ground.
Isaac did not soon forget his adventure with the buffaloes, and at night, over the fire, he informed
my men that I was mad, and that any man who followed me was going headlong to his own de-
struction."
Another passage, furnished by the same adventurous sportsman, is too descriptive to be omitted:
“We were marching quietly along, and were nearly opposite the center of the reeds, when, on
emerging from a grove of thorny mokala-trees, casting our eyes to the right, we suddenly beheld
a numerous herd of buffaloes grazing on the open plain between us and the vley. Their dark
imposing squadrons extended over a great space of ground, and we reckoned that there might
have been between six and eight hundred of them. I immediately saddled 'Sunday,' and rode
toward them. As I drew near, they stood gazing at me for a minute, and then, panic-stricken,
the whole herd started off together, making for the nearest wood. Pressing my horse, I was soon
ahead of them, and by shouting I turned them right about, when they thundered along in a com-
pressed mass, and held for the reeds. Their amazing numbers greatly impeded their progress,
and I had no difficulty in keeping alongside of them. I kept on their right flank to enable me
more conveniently to fire, and on one occasion, on my riding very near the foremost of the herd,
a large division of those behind me suddenly extended to the right and increased their
on looking over my shoulder, I found myself almost surrounded by their helmeted squadrons.
"As I galloped along I endeavored to select the finest head, but among so many it was no easy
matter to make a choice, and as soon as I selected one he disappeared among the ranks of his
companions. At length, riding at the gallop, I let fly right and left into the herd, and next mo-
ment they had gained the margin of the lofty reeds. Here the whole herd suddenly halted and
faced about with the regularity and precision of a regiment of cavalry, when, having overhauled
me for half a minute, they charged headlong into the soft, muddy vley, and in another moment
they were hidden from my view. I marked the reeds bowing before them far on my right and
left as they splashed and struggled through the marshy vley, and presently they gained the other
side, when, emerging from the reeds, they held across the open plain, steering for their strong-
holds in the woods beyond. As the clouds of dust behind me cleared away, I looked back and
beheld a fine old cow stagger for a moment and then fall dead, and near her stood a wounded
calf, whose mother had remained beside it, being loth to leave her offspring."
Dr. Livingstone gives a similar account of the abundance of wild buffaloes in these regions, and
adds some striking illustrations of their enormous strength. Among these is the following, the
a
pace, and

492
VERTEBRATA.
THREE LIONS ATTACKING A WOUNDED BUFFALO.
account having been furnished by a friend: “Oswell and I were riding—15th September, 1846
-along the banks of the Limpopo, when a water-buck started in front of us. I dismounted, and
was following it through the jungle, when three buffaloes got up, and after going a little distance,
stood still, and the nearest bull turned round and looked at me. A ball from the two-ouncer
crashed into his shoulder, and they all three made off. Oswell and I followed as soon as I had
reloaded, and when we were in sight of the buffalo, and gaining on him at every stride, three lions
leaped on the unfortunate brute; he bellowed most lustily as he kept up a kind of running fight,
but he was, of course, soon overpowered and pulled down. We had a fine view of the struggle,
and saw the lions on their hind-legs tearing away with teeth and claws in most ferocious style.
We crept up within thirty yards, and kneeling down, blazed away at the lions. My rifle was a
single barrel, and I had no spare gun. One lion fell dead almost on the buffalo; he had merely
time to turn toward us, seize a bush with his teeth, and drop dead with the stick in his jaws. The
second made off immediately, and the third raised his head, coolly looked round for a moment,
then went on tearing and biting at the carcass as hard as ever.
We retired a short distance to
load, then again advanced and fired. The lion made off, but a ball that he received ought to have
stopped him, as it went clean through his shoulder-blade. He was followed up and killed after
having charged several times. Both lions were males. It is not often that one bags a brace of
lions and a bull buffalo in about ten minutes."
Beside this formidable species, Africa contains another, called by the negroes of Bornon, where
it is common, the ZAMOUSE; by the English of Sierra Leone, Bush Cow; by naturalists, B. brachy-
It differs essentially from all other species, the forehead being flat, the horns short, thick,
and depressed at the base; ears large, and slightly fringed at the edge; the hair close, short, and
of a reddish-brown color. It is also entirely destitute of dewlap. This kind of buffalo seems to
live in considerable herds in the forests of Central and Western Africa, and though less ferocious
than the B. Cafer, is still a large, wild, and powerful species.
Subgenus OVIBOS: Ovibos.—Of this there is a single species, the Musk Ox, O. Moschatus, of
cerus.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA. .
493
G
THE MUSK OX.
of
the polar regions of North America; the Mateeh Moostoos, or Ugly Bison of the Cree Indians.
The Barren Lands, lying to the north of the sixtieth parallel, are their chief haunts. They frequent
rocky regions destitute of woods, living on grass in the mild season and on lichens in winter.
They are about one third the size of the common ox, one of them weighing from three to four hun-
dred pounds. The horns are broad at the base, and meet and cover the brow and crown of the
head. The general color of the hair is brown; this is long, matted, and curled on the neck and
between the shoulders, where it is rather grizzled; on the back and hips it is long but lies smoothly;
on the shoulders, sides, and thighs it is so long as to hang down below the middle of the leg.
There is on the center of the back a mark of soiled brownish-white, called by Captain Parry the
saddle. On the throat and chest the hair is very straight and long, and together with the long
hair on the lower jaw, hangs down like a beard and dewlap. The short tail is concealed by the
fur of the hips. There is a large quantity of fire brownish ash-colored wool or down among the hair
covering the body. The hair on the legs is short, and of a dull brownish-white, unmixed with wool.
The hoofs are longer than those of the caribou, but so similar in form that it requires the eye
a practiced hunter to distinguish the impressions. In the cow, which is smaller than the bull,
the horns are smaller, and their bases, instead of touching, are separated by a hairy space.
The
legs are short, but the animal runs fast, and easily scales the rocky ledges which are nearly im-
passable to horses. They live in herds of twenty to thirty, and bring forth in May or June.
Many of the bulls are killed in furious conflicts with each other. The flesh is, in general, highly
relished, but the animals have a strong musky flavor, which renders their meat, when lean,
strong and unsavory.
These creatures are much hunted by the Esquimaux and other Indians. Richardson says, “ If
the hunters keep themselves concealed when they fire upon a herd, the poor animals mistake the
noise for thunder, and, forming themselves into a group, crowd nearer and nearer together as their
companions fall around them; but should they discover their enemies by sight, or by their sense
of smell, which is very acute, the whole herd seek for safety by instant flight. The bulls, how-
ever, are very irascible, particularly when wounded, and will often attack the hunter, and endan-
ger his life unless he possesses both activity and presence of mind. The Esquimaux, who are well

494
VERTEBRATA
accustomed to the pursuit of this animal, sometimes turn its irritable disposition to good account;
for an expert hunter having provoked a bull to attack him, wheels round it more quickly than it
can turn, and by repeated stabs in the belly puts an end to its life.”
We may here state that an animal called Takin, Budorcas taxicola, is found in the Hima-
laya mountains, and is placed among the Bovina by Dr. J. E. Gray. The hair is harsh and
short; the tail hairy like that of the goat; the head large and heavy; the limbs short and
straight; the hoofs broad. Its habits are, however, little known, and its position is not defined.
Subgenus TAURUS.—Of this there is one species, the DOMESTIC Ox; the Bos domesticus
and Bos taurus of Linnæus; Bæuf of the French; Stier and Ochs of the Germans—the most use-
ful of all animals to man. Of its origin we have no record, and in attempting to discover its
parent stock, we have even greater difficulties than those which beset us in tracing the parentage
of other domestic animals; for beside the various existing breeds of domestic cattle, there are
several species of bovine animals which we have just described, analogous to them, and all of
which, whether aurochs, bison, buffalo, yak, or musk-ox, will breed with them, and the offspring
of all are more or less prolific.
There is in these facts a wide range for discussion and dispute. Some have traced all the
varieties of the modern ox—at least all the European varieties—to the aurochs, and that view has
passed into a common opinion. Another idea has been that the Urus, spoken of by Cæsar as
inhabiting the Hyrcanian forests at the time of his invasion of Gaul—some half a century before the
Christian era—was the true parent of our domestic cattle. As described by the great Roman
a
TA
THE CHILLINGHAM BULL.
general this animal was of prodigious size and strength-at least one-third larger than our largest
oxen, and at the same time of a fierce and formidable nature. It has ceased to exist in a wild
state, but fossil bones are found abundantly in various parts of Europe, supposed to have belonged
to this species, and to which geologists give the name of Bos primigenius. One thing further is
maintained, which is, that the existing Scottish or Chillingham breed of Cattle are the true repre-
sentatives of this formidable Urus: and as they are also manifestly allied to our domestic varieties,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
495
a
some have supposed that the line of descent, from the former to the latter, is thus logically estab-
blished.
To this view several serious difficulties are offered. In the first place, though the fossil bones
alluded to—those of the Bos primigenius—may probably be those of Cæsar's Urus, there is no
historical evidence to show any connection between this species and the Scottish or Chillingham
breeds, and which, by the way, are called by naturalists Bos Scoticus. The only grounds for
alleging the descent of one from the other, is that the latter are said to be of a wild and untam-
able character, and hence to be in their nature and disposition like the former. It appears, how-
ever, that on this point there has been much exaggeration. The only remains of these breeds are
a few small herds in the park of the Duke of Hamilton, in Scotland, and in that of Lord Tanker-
ville, at Chillingham, in Northumberland. These, we are told, are invariably white, fly wildly
from the approach of man, though wheeling round after a time and tossing their heads in a
menacing manner; hide their calves in remote and solitary retreats; they possess a mane, a
square, concave forehead, a throat and breast covered with coarse hair, &c., &c. This exciting
portrait is, however, a good deal subdued by the statements of a recent and careful observer, Mr.
Vasey, who says in his work on the ox tribe, that "the animals in question do not exhibit more
,
wildness than most domesticated animals when allowed to roam without restraint; and that their
young, when properly reared, are as docile as those of the ordinary domestic cattle. Nor do they
possess a mane, as has been frequently asserted. These wild cattle breed with the domestic cattle.
The cow goes the same period with young. They have the same number of ribs, and even their
white color at Chillingham is the result of the destruction, by order of the owner, of all spotted
calves that are produced.”
We deem it safe, therefore, to conclude that the Urus of Cæsar has wholly disappeared from
the earth as a living species; that the Aurochs is a true Bison, and cannot have been the parent
of our modern domestic Ox. Nor can we rationally trace this to any species of buffalo, nor indeed,
to any other wild animal now known. It is possible and probable, that among the various fossil
• relics of bovine animals found in Europe, those of the true progenitors of our modern cattle may
exist; but after all, we must come back to the historical fact that in the very earliest records of
our race, the ox is found to be existing in a domestic state. Jubal, the son of Lamech, probably
born in the lifetime of Adam, is spoken of in the Bible as “the father of such as have cattle;">
cattle were among the animals that entered the ark with Noah; cattle were woven into the relig-
ious and domestic institutions of the ancient Egyptians, and hence appear inscribed on the oldest
of their monuments. The Greeks and Romans used cattle for sacrifice, as well as for the same
uses to which we devote them; the ox and cow figure among the remotest records of India. The
traditions of every Celtic nation enroll the cow among the earliest productions of civilization. The
Island of Great Britain was so stocked with cattle in the time of Cæsar, that milk constituted a
large part of the food of the inhabitants.
The ox, then—the domestic ox—is as old as civilized man; if man began his career as a civil-
ized being, the ox, already tamed and suited to his use, was doubtless given him; if man was at
first a savage, we may conclude that the ox, in the beginning, was also a wild animal. But at
present, no living race, wild or tame, can claim, with any degree of confidence, to be the exact
type of that primeval species. As the horse and dog have lost their father, so has the ox; all
we can say of him, therefore, is, that his name was Bull: not Bull Urus, and not Bull Aurochs,
and not Bull Buffalo, but Bull Taurus, such as we have all often seen—a powerful animal, with
a curly pate, giant frame, and a loud, bellowing voice, challenging all other bulls to combat.
From these speculations—which, after all, are very enticing to the imagination—we might
turn to another question, that of the origin of the numerous breeds of domestic cattle. They are
quite as diversified in color, form, temper, and other physical and moral qualities as the nations
and tribes of men. What a wilderness of breeds between short-horns, long-horns, middling-horns,
and no horns at all; between white and black, pied and brindled! * But as this subject is not
* Dr. Gray gives upward of forty synonyms for this species--the Common Ox. It is the Bos Taurus of Pliny;
Taurus castratus of Johnston; Vacca of Gesner; Bos domesticus and Bos taurus of Linnæus; the Bull, Ox, and Com-
mon Ox of Pennant and Shaw; the Stier and Ochs of German writers, and Bauf of the French; it is the White Scotch

496
VERTEBRATA.
less involved in obscurity than that of the origin of varieties in the human race, we shall pass
it
by, giving to it only such incidental notices as the description of particular kinds of cattle may
suggest.
2015
SKELETON OF A COW.
We now proceed to describe the domestic species Bos taurus. Of the structure of this we need
not give any elaborate description; the engraving which we present will be all that is required
in this respect. The male of the species, the Bull, is a powerful brute, conscious of his strength,
and easily excited to a display of his rage. His pugnacity caused him formerly to be used for
the public sport of bull-baiting in England and other European countries; in Spain, bull-fights
are still the most relished of all the popular national spectacles. The Ox, sometimes called Bull-
OCK, is used for the plow and the cart or wagon, and sometimes also to carry burdens. Of all
creatures, it seems to be the meekest, mildest, and most patient. The Cow is gentle and faithful,
and alike the generous nurse of children and men. The various ways in which these creatures
are useful to mankind are almost innumerable. Every part of the Ox is of value.* We eat his fles),
Bull, the Bisontes jubati of Boethius; the White Urus of Colonel H. Smith; the Chillingham Bull of Gray; the Wild
or White Forest-Cow and Bull of Low; the Wild Cattle of Bewick. Varieties of this species are known to the grazier
by a large number of names; some of these are generally recognized, and have characteristic types, as the Pembroke
Bull, the West Highland Bull, the Zetland Cow, the Kerry Cow, the Alderney Cow, the Fifeshire Cow, Long-horned or
Lancashire Bull, the English Short-horn Cattle, the Short-horn Ox, the Polled Suffolk Cow, the Sussex Ox, the Yorkshire
Cow. Among those recognized of foreign rearing we may mention the Holstein or Dutch Bull, the Polish Bull, the
Hungarian Bull, the South African Long-horned Cattle, Swiss Cattle, Alpine Cattle, the Syrian Ox, Moldavian Cattle,
the Italian Campagna Bull, Spanish Bulls, Egyptian Cattle, the Laut of Africa-Bos humilis of Frisch, the Galla Oid
Bos Taurus Abyssinicus of Gmelin, the Cattle of Peauby, the Cattle of Brazil, the Cattle of Chili, the Nata or Niata
of Buenos Ayres, and the Falkland Islands Wild Cattle.- English Cyclopedia of Natural History.
* It has been calculated that the number of domestic neat cattle in Europe is as follows:
Great Britain and Ireland.
8,000,000 Bavaria.
2,000,000
Sweden and Norway
3,000,000 Austria.
10,000,000
Russia
20,000,000 France...
8,000,000
Denmark..
1,700,000 Spain..
2,500,000
Netherlands..
2,500,000 Portugal..
650,000
Prussia..
4,500,000 Switzerland.
800,000
Saxony..
350,000 Italy..
3,500,000
Hanover
800,000 Turkey
1,000,000
Wurtemberg
700,000
Baden....
400,000
Total for Europe...
71,400,000
The number of domestic cattle in the United States is estimated at 22,000,000, thus exceeding the number in any
European kingdom. The number for the whole world is calculated at 210,000,000. It is supposed that one-third of
these are killed annually, so that we have about 70,000,000 of carcasses, weighing 28,000,000,000 pounds, 70,000,000
of skins, 140,000,000 of horns, and 280,000,000 of feet annually, to be converted into beef, tallow, leather, combs,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
497
mirm
myn
سرور اور وراالہ الالالالا
M
THE KERRY COW.
we wear shoes soled with his skin, our candles are made from his fat, our tables are joined with
glue made from his hoofs, the mortar of our walls is mixed with his hair, his horns are made into
combs, knife-handles, drinking-cups, &c., his bones are used in many ways instead of ivory, the
fragments are ground and scattered over the fields as manure, and soup is made from his tail.
The young animal, called Calf, is quite as useful in its way as the full-grown ox; the flesh called
veal is by many preferred to the flesh of the ox or cow, which is called beef; jelly is made from
its feet. Its stomach is salted and dried, and called rennet. Cheese is made by soaking a piece
of this in water, and pouring it into a vessel of milk. The milk soon forms curd, which is
placed in a press, and the watery substance, called whey, squeezed from it. The curd is colored
and salted, and is then cheese.
The raising of cattle has ever been one of the most interesting pursuits of the agriculturist.
The rich grass lands of the temperate parts of our own country, including the great natural
meadows of the West, have specially invited the industry of the people in this direction. Not-
withstanding the great extent of our manufactures, agriculture is still the leading pursuit, and
neat cattle are one of its principal products. The kinds introduced into the country, especially in
New England, by the first settlers, were those in vogue in England at the time of the emigration
-somewhat over two hundred years ago—that ancient and choice breed the Devon. These
to some extent, form the basis of our northeastern cattle. They have somewhat less of that sym-
metry and delicacy of form which mark the present race in Englard, but they are still a valu-
able and justly cherished breed. Within a few years great attention has been paid in all parts
of our country to the improvement of stock, and hence the best breeds of England especially,
and to some extent of other parts of Europe, have been largely introduced and mingled with our
A brief mention of some of the most noted will be all that we can bestow on this topic.
The British cattle, being undoubtedly, by reason of long, careful and scientific breeding, the best
in the world, deserve the first place. Among them we can only notice a few of the most remarkable
kinds. It is proper to state, in the first place, however, that these are generally arranged in four
classes: first, the Middling Horns ; second, the Polled or Hornless cattle; third, the Long
Horns, and fourth, the Short Horns.
a
own.
a
manure, &c., &c. The annual consumption of beef in London is estimated at about 300,000,000 pounds, which is
about 100 pounds to each person-men, women, and children; in Paris the amount is 86 pounds; in Brussels 89.
These calculations, though chiefly from M'Cullock, are no doubt somewhat vague and uncertain, but they will serve
to convey an impression of the immense extent to which a single species of animal subserves the interests of man.
Vol. I.-63

498
VERTEBRATA.
*Miu Army
www
Mobile
VAN
Minnie
THE GALLOWAY COW.
THE MIDDLING-HORNS.
Of these the DEVON CATTLE claim the first place. These are a very ancient breed, of medium
size, and so symmetrical as to appear small. The color is a deep mahogany red, with merely a
white udder and white stripe under the body. The head is small, the muzzle delicate, the horns
clear, smooth and harmoniously curved upward; the legs are peculiarly delicate. The oxen are
strong and active: it is stated that one of them will easily trot six miles an hour with an empty
wagon. The cow is noted for intelligence; she feeds well on scanty pastures, and her milk is
rich and abundant. The flesh of this breed is excellent.
The HEREFORD CATTLE.—These also are a very ancient breed, and some of them were brought
to this country by the early settlers. They are marked by a broad forehead, and open, cheerful
countenance. They are usually of a middle or dark red, though some are brown, some yellow,
and some brindled; they, however, usually have white faces. They are chiefly distinguished for
the excellence of their flesh, and they can be profitably brought to market at the early age of
three years.
The Sussex CATTLE resemble the Devons, and are supposed to have a similar origin. The
color is a deep chestnut, sometimes a blood bay. As is the case with the Herefords, the cow is
inferior to the ox.
The WELSH CATTLE are somewhat smaller than the preceding, but three of the breeds, the
Pembroke, the Glamorgan, and the Anglesea, are highly esteemed for their useful qualities.
Scotland contains several distinct and valuable breeds of cattle, evidently belonging to our
present division, the Middling Horns.
The WEST HIGHLANDERS, whether we regard those that are found in the Hebrides, or the
county of Argyle, seem to retain most of the aboriginal character. They have remained un-
changed, or improved only by selection, for many generations; indeed, from the earliest accounts
that we possess of Scottish cattle.
The North HIGHLANDERS are a smaller, coarser, and in every way inferior race, and owe the
,
greater part of what is valuable about them to crosses from the Western breed.
The NORTHEASTERN CATTLE were derived from, and bear a strong resemblance to, the West
Highlanders, but are of considerably larger size.
The AYRSHIRE BREED are second to none as milkers.
Ireland boasts of several fine breeds, among which the KERRY Cow, called the "Poor Man's
Cow" by Youatt, is a most useful variety.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
499
நாEைD
LONG-HORNED OX.
THE POLLED OR HORNLESS CATTLE.
The stewartry of Kircudbright and the shire of Wigton, with a part of Ayrshire and Dum-
fries, formed the ancient province of Galloway in Scotland. The two first counties possess much
interest as the native district of a breed of polled, or dodded, or humble cattle, highly valued for
its grazing properties. So late as the middle of the last century, the greater part of the Galloway
cattle were horned—they were middle-horns : but some were polled—they were either remnants
of the native breed, or the characteristic of the aboriginal cattle would be occasionally displayed,
although many a generation had passed. For more than one hundred and fifty years the surplus
cattle of Galloway had been sent far into England, and principally into the counties of Norfolk
and Suffolk. The polled beasts were always favorites with the English farmers; they fattened as
kindly as the others, they attained a larger size, their flesh lost none of its fineness of grain, and
they exhibited no wildness and dangerous ferocity, which are sometimes serious objections to the
Highland breed. Thence it happened that, in process of time, the horned Galloway breed de-
creased, and was at length quite superseded by the polled. These are now divided into several
varieties, and being highly valued, are extensively in use.
THE LONG-HORNS.
In the district of Craven, in Yorkshire, there has been, from the earliest records of British
agriculture, a peculiar and valuable breed of cattle. They were distinguished from the home
breeds of other counties by a disproportionate and frequently unbecoming length of horn. In the
old breed, this horn frequently projected almost horizontally on either side, but as the cattle were
improved the horn assumed other directions; it hung down so that the animal could scarcely
graze, or it curved so as to threaten to meet before the muzzle, and so also as to prevent the beast
from grazing; or immediately under the jaw, and so to lock the lower jaw; or the points pre-
sented themselves against the bones of the nose and face, threatening to perforate them. In pro-
portion as the breed became improved, the horns lengthened, and they are characteristically
distinguished by the name of the “Long-Horns.” Cattle of a similar description were found in
the districts of Lancashire bordering on Craven, and also in the southeastern parts of Westmore-
land; but tradition, in both of these districts pointed to Craven as the original habitation of the
long-horn breed. If there gradually arose any difference between them, it was that the Craven
beasts were the broadest in the chine, the shortest, the handsomest, and the quickest feeders; the

500
VERTEBRATA.
nos
سمر
Villain
rur
LONG-HORNED OX.
Lancashire ones were larger, longer in the quarters, but with a fall behind the shoulders, and not
so level on the chine. Whence these cattle were derived was and still is a disputed point.
The long-horns seem thus to have first appeared in Craven, and gradually to have spread
along the western coast, and to have occupied almost exclusively the midland counties. There
are two distinct breeds: the Smaller Cravens inhabiting the mountains and moorlands, hardy,
useful, valued by the cottager and little farmer on account of the cheapness with which they
are kept, the superior quantity and excellent quality of the milk which they yield, and the
aptitude with which they fatten when removed to better pasture. The Larger Cravens, occupy-
ing a more level and richer pasture, are fair milkers, although in proportion to their size not equal
to the others; but possess a tendency to fatten and acquire extraordinary bulk, scarcely inferior
to that of short-horns.
Of the various breeds of long-horns, the most celebrated are the Leicester, Derby, and Shrop-
shire.
THE SHORT-HORNS.
This celebrated breed, of which there are several varieties, originally came from the continent,
but in its present form it appears to have arisen in the counties of Durham and Yorkshire, where
they are held to be of some antiquity, though certainly more modern than either the Devons or
Herefords. They are the evident result of long and careful breeding, and have at last acquired
an appearance somewhat artificial, inasmuch as many of the points are exaggerated departures
from the standard British ox. The horns were originally turned upward; they have now very
often a tendency downward, with their tips pointing toward each other. The head is small and
finely formed; the brisket very projecting and without dewlap; the hair soft and mellow; the
colors are full red and creamy white, variously mixed, and often in such a manner as to produce a
brilliant effect. Black, brown, or brindled are not recognized as belonging to the pure breeds.
They are very showy, and amid other cattle, give an impression of superior beauty, symmetry,
and grandeur. The oxen are inferior to the Devons for work; the cows are excellent milkers.
Both yield a large proportion of superior beef. The chief value of the breed, however, is the
improvement they stamp, by mixture, on other breeds. On account of their importance in this
respect, they have been largely introduced into the United States. In general, they are called
Durhams, as in the county of Durham they have been supposed to attain their greatest per-
fection,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
501
lille
DURHAM BULL.
CONTINENTAL CATTLE.
Every nation of Europe has its particular breeds of cattle. France has several, well recognized
in that country. Among them are those of Normandy, many of which have been imported into
England, the stock being called Alderney Cattle ; there are also in France the Cantal breed,
the Limousin, the Gascon, the Nivernais, &c. The island of Camargue, formed between the two
mouths of the Rhone, and which is twenty-six miles long and eleven wide, is covered with marshes,
abounding not only in game, but horses and cattle of fine breeds. These live almost in a wild
state. The latter are of moderate size, the horns rather short, and the color black. It is often
dangerous for man to meet with them; the cows are as fierce as the bulls; they hide themselves
with the greatest care from the observation of man. The inhabitants of Marseilles and other
towns of France employ the bulls for bull-fights.
Holland, Belgium, Denmark, Poland, Hungary, Greece, Spain, Italy, and Russia, have their
several breeds of cattle, each distinguished by particular qualities. In several of these countries
there are herds which have been permitted to breed in the forests and marshes without the in-
tervention of man, and which are, accordingly, almost as wild and savage as the original tenants
of the woods. In the extensive forests of Spain and Portugal cattle of this kind are numerous;
they fly from man unless attacked, in which case they turn upon their enemy and make a furious
charge, which not unfrequently proves fatal. The bulls of these herds are driven into inclosures
by large parties of horsemen skilled in this species of hunt; they are then taken to the amphi-
theaters, where they are employed for the bull-fights. The bulls of particular districts have a
high reputation for fierceness, and when one of them is announced at the spectacle, like a “Star” at
a theater, he draws a large and excited circle of spectators.
In Italy there are similar breeds of wild cattle, especially in the Maremma. This is a flat strip
of land, extending on the western side of Italy, from Genoa to Calabria, a distance of six hundred
miles, except only that it is interrupted in a few places by hills. It reaches from the shores of
the Mediterranean to the lower bases of the Apennines, and is from two to twenty miles in width.
The land is fertile in the extreme, but over the whole a pestilental vapor prevails in summer,
which makes it unfit for the abode of man. A few patches
A few patches only are cultivated: the rest is

502
VERTEBRATA.
DURHAM COW.
covered with rich pastures or luxuriant thickets. It thus becomes a paradise for various species
of
game, and also for swine, buffaloes, and cattle. Here, beside the animals used for work on
the farms, large herds roam unmolested, but under the care of keepers, which, together with the
buffalo keepers and forest-rangers, are the only stationary population in the wild Maremma. These
men, who are often criminals fled from justice, are as wild and dangerous as the brutes under
their charge; they are mounted on fast horses and armed with a long lance, which they use in
driving the cattle or defending themselves from the bulls, which are often fierce and dangerous.
The cattle are collected at various times and driven by these men to the fairs held in the towns,
for sale. The bulls are often used for bull-fights.
The prevailing breed of cattle in Italy is of large size, with tall horns, and dewlaps that sweep
the ground. Some of the bulls produced in the Campagna—the circular space of open country
around the city of Rome—are splendid specimens. In Tuscany the cattle are of a mouse color,
with blue eyes, and are a beautiful, docile, and useful breed.
In Southern Russia vast herds of cattle are reared which are taken to St. Petersburg. These
animals are generally white, and weigh about seven hundred pounds. They are driven by men
who travel in wagons drawn by oxen, and are three months on their journey.
The pastoral economy of Switzerland, which is common to Savoy and other Alpine countries,
and the annual progress of the shepherds and cowherds, with their flocks of cattle, to and from
the mountains, are exceedingly interesting. We have not, however, space to describe these
scenes; nor is it necessary, for they have often been delineated by the pens of admiring travelers.
;
In Wallachia and Moldavia cattle are abundant; in the latter district, indeed, the people con-
tinue in a great measure their ancient nomadic habits, making use of the services of the ox as a
beast of draught or burden: united in large caravans, they roam over an immense extent of
territory, transporting, in tall vehicles of singular construction, various articles of produce, pro-
visions, and other things, to the towns scattered at wide distances about the vast plains of Mol-
davia. Day by day they move cheerfully on, to the slow and measured sound of the footsteps of
their oxen, and are often an entire month without seeing a single human habitation. At the ap-
proach of evening the caravan halts, the numerous wagons are disposed in the form of a square,
and the oxen are turned out to graze at large, under the watchful care of intrepid dogs who ac-
company the caravan. In the middle of the square a fire is now lighted, at which the conductor
prepares his simple repast, and afterward disposes himself for sleep, sheltered by a warm and

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
503
IM
Bolt
DRIVING WILD CATTLE OF THE MAREMMA.
heavy coverlet that completely enwraps him. These indefatigable walkers are no less excellent
riders: they possess a fine race of horses, which are employed for drawing lighter vehicles, while
the heavier wagons are drawn by the slow oxen. There are no high-roads in Moldavia; the
plain is open, and each traveler chooses his own track, and it is often with difficulty that the
oxen can drag their way through heavy ground: storms of wind, rain, or snow make the matter
worse, so that a passage can only be achieved by great patience, labor, and resolution.
a
OTHER VARIETIES OF CATTLE.
Africa has several breeds of domestic cattle; those of Senegal are not larger than a common
yearling calf; Abyssinia has a breed called Galla, the horns of which are very tall and lyre-
shaped. Animals of this breed are used at the Cape of Good Hope, and are called the Cape Ox.
When the Dutch took possession of the Cape of Good Hope and the adjacent country, about two
centuries ago, they found the Hottentots a pastoral people, and possessed of large flocks and herds.
The cattle are of the breed we have been describing. They are not only trained for draught and
riding, but certain tribes employ them in war. Kolben describes them as follows: “Every
army is provided with a large troop of these war-oxen, which are called Bake-leys; they permit
themselves to be governed without trouble, and their leader lets them loose at the appointed
moment. The instant they are set free they throw themselves with impetuosity on the opposing
army; they strike with their horns, they kick with their heels, they overthrow, they rip up and
trample beneath their feet, with frightful ferocity, all that oppose them; they plunge with fury
into the midst of the ranks, and thus prepare for their masters an easy victory. The manner in
which these oxen are trained and disciplined certainly does great honor to the talent of these
people.” Levaillant, who visited the country in 1791, confirms this statement.
. At the
day the Hottentots are a mere fragment of the ancient tribe.
The Caffers, Corannas, and other tribes, have oxen in abundance, which are employed as beasts
of burden. The Corannas are a nomadic race, frequently removing with their flocks and herds to
fresh pasture land; and transporting their mats, tents, and utensils strapped on the back of oxen,
which also carry themselves and their wives and children.
At the present
“Fast by his wild resounding river
The listless Coran lingers ever;
Still drives his heifers forth to feed,
Soothed by his gorrah's humming reed;

504
VERTEBRATA.
tim
W.ORR XX
INDIAN OX OR ZEBU OF THE LARGER KIND.
A rover still unchecked will range,
As humor calls or seasons change,
His tent of mats and leathern gear
All packed upon the patient steer."
The oxen of Southern Africa are chiefly used for traveling over the interior of the country:
They are harnessed to large covered wagons, in which men, women, and children make journeys
of hundreds of miles; and as there are often no towns or houses along the way,
these vehicles are
not only used to ride in, but to sleep in. While the party is encamped at night they often hear
the roar of the lions and howls of the hyenas around them. Many European travelers have
given us narratives of expeditions of this kind.
In other parts of Africa the ox is employed in like manner. Major Denham gives the follow-
ing account of its use in a portion of Central Africa which he visited: “The beasts of burden," he
observes, "are the bullock and the ass. A
very
fine breed of the latter are found in the Mandara
valleys. Strangers and chiefs in the service of the sheikh, or suitan, alone possess camels. The
bullock is the bearer of all the grain and other articles to and from the markets. A small saddle
of plaited rushes is laid on him, when sacks made of goat-skins, and filled with corn, are lashed
on his broad and able back. A leathern thong is passed through the cartilage of his nose, and
serves as a bridle; while on the top of the load is mounted the owner, his wife, or his slave.
Sometimes the daughter or wife of a rich Shouaa will be mounted on her particular bullock, and
precede the loaded animals, extravagantly adorned with amber, silver rings, coral, and all sorts
of finery; her hair streaming with fat; a black rim of kohal, at least an inch wide, round each
of her eyes; and, I may say, arrayed for conquest at the crowded market. Carpet or ropes are
I
then spread on her clumsy palfry; she sits astride, and with considerable grace guides her animal
by the nose."
The ox of the ancient Egyptians, as may be seen by the figures of their god Apis, was similar
to the present European breeds.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
505
turies ago.
The wild cattle which exist in immense herds on the plains of South America, and in Mexico
and Texas, are the offspring of animals carried thither by the Spaniards some two or three cen-
For this space of time they have lived in a state of complete independence of man,
and as they preserve a close resemblance to the common cattle of Europe and America, it is
justly and strongly argued that these must be of an original and distinct, because self-perpetuating,
species.
1
ciada
INDIAN COW OR ZEBU OF THE SMALLER KIND.
a
The Indian Ox or ZEBU, Bos Indicus, is only known in a domestic state. In many respects
its conformation is peculiar; it has a long head, short, blunt horns, drooping ears, and a hump
on its shoulders sometimes weighing fifty pounds. Its temper is gentle, and in its qualities it
resembles the common ox. It is supposed by many naturalists, and among others, by Bennett,
to be a mere variety of our common cattle, his chief reason being that it readily breeds with them
and its peculiarities rapidly disappear by the mixture. It has been lately shown, however, that
the number of vertebræ and period of gestation both differ from those of our cattle; and hence
the opinion now prevails that the zebu is of a distinct species. Numerous breeds of them, vary-
ing in size from that of a large mastiff-dog to that of a full-grown buffalo, are spread, more or less
extensively, over the whole of Southern Asia, the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and the
eastern coast of Africa from Abyssinia to the Cape of Good Hope. In all these countries the
zebu supplies, to a greater or less extent, the place of the ox, both as a beast of draught and burden
and as an article of food and domestic economy. In some parts of India it executes the duties
of the horse, being either saddled and ridden, or harnessed in a carriage, and performing in this
manner journeys of considerable length with tolerable celerity. Some of the older writers speak
of fifty or sixty miles a day as its usual rate of traveling; but the more moderate computation of
recent authors does not exceed from twenty to thirty. Its beef is considered by no means despi-
cable, although far from equaling that of the European ox. The hump, which is chiefly com-
posed of fat, is reckoned the most delicate part. As might naturally be expected from its per-
fect domestication and wide diffusion, the zebu is subject to as great a variety of colors as those
of the European race. Its most common hue is a light ashy gray, passing into a cream-color
or milk-white; but it is not unfrequently marked with various shades of red or brown, and
occasionally it becomes perfectly black. Its hump is sometimes elevated in a remarkable degree,
and usually retains its upright position; but sometimes it becomes half pendulous and hangs
partly over toward one side. Instances are cited in which, as we have stated, it had attained the
enormous weight of fifty pounds. A distinct breed is spoken of as common in Surat, which is
furnished with a second hump. Among the other breeds there are some which are entirely
VOL. 1.—64

506
VERTEBRATA.
TRAINDUVNS
WYNH
EAST INDIAN CARRIAGE DRAWN BY ZEBUS.
destitute of horns, and others which have only the semblance of them, the external covering being
unsupported by bony processes, and being consequently flexible and pendulous.
The zebus bear a charmed life among the weak and superstitious Hindoos, who venerate them
and hold their slaughter to be a sin, though they do not object to working them. There are,
however, some particularly sanctified zebus, who lead an easy life, wandering about the villages,
and even the cities, as they list, and taking their pleasure and their food where they like, if not
prevented by the contributions of the devout. They may be seen every day wandering at large
in the streets of Calcutta, eating rice, grain, and flour in the bazaar; and the utmost a native does
when he sees them honoring his goods too much, is to urge them, by the gentlest hints, to taste
some of the good things on his neighbor's stall.
Bayard Taylor tells us that “the narrow streets of the city of Benares are obstructed, in the
vicinity of the temple, with numbers of these sacred bulls. The place swarms with them, and
they are as great a nuisance to it as the mendicant friars are to Rome. They are knowing bulls,
perfectly conscious of their sacred character, and presume upon it to commit all sorts of depre-
dations. They are the terror of the dealers in fruits and vegetables, for although not always
exempted from blows, no one can stand before their horns, and these they do not scruple to use,
if necessary, to secure their end. Sometimes, on their foraging expeditions, they boldly enter the
houses, march up stairs, and take a stroll on the flat roofs, where they may be seen looking down
with a quiet interest on the passing crowds below. From these eminences they take a survey of
the surrounding country, calculate its resources, and having selected one of the richest spots
within their circle of vision, descend straightway, and set off in a bee-line for the place, which
they never fail to find.
“When the fields look promising on the other side of the Ganges, they march down to the
river banks and prevent any passenger from going on board the ferry-boats until they are per-
mitted to enter. They cross and remain there until the supplies are exhausted, when they force
a passage back in the same manner. The gardens of the English residents frequently suffer from
their depredations, and the only effectual way of guarding against them is to yoke them at once,
and keep them at hard labor for a day or two, which so utterly disgusts them with the place that
they never return to it. It is also affirmed that they carefully avoid the neighborhood of those
butchers who supply the tables of the English, having observed that some of their brethren dis-
appeared in a miraculous manner, after frequenting such localities."

CLASS I. MAM MALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
507
The DANTE, Bos Dante, sometimes called the Egyptian Zebu, is probably a variety of the pre-
ceding
The Syrian Ox of the present day has wide-spreading horns, high shoulders, and a dewlap
that nearly sweeps the ground. This is of the same species as our domestic ox; it is also, no
doubt, the ox of the Bible, though some learned men hold that this animal was the Indian
buffalo, which has been domesticated for ages in the East, and which is still used in Syria, Egypt,
and other Bible countries, as well as in the various parts of India and Europe, already mentioned.
SUO
ITALIAN FARMERS REJOICING AFTER THE HARVEST.*
GENERAL REMARKS ON DOMESTIC CATTLE.
We need not enlarge upon the fact already stated, that our domestic cattle probably contrib-
ute more largely to the solid comfort of society at large than any other species of animal; nor
need we repeat the eulogies we have pronounced upon that favorite member of the ox family,
the Cow. But as there are great differences of quality in this creature, we copy for the advan-
tage of all our readers the following quaint recipe by which a good one may always be known :
She's long in her face, she's fine in her horn;
She'll quickly get fat without cake or corn;
She's clear in her jaws and full in her chine,
She's heavy in flank and wide in her loin.
She's broad in her ribs and long in her rump,
With a straight, flat back and never a hump;
She's wide in her hips and calm in her eyes,
She's fine in her shoulders and thin in her thighs.
She's light in her neck and small in her tail,
She's wide in her breast and good at the pail;
She's fine in her bone and silky of skin,
She's a grazier's without and a butcher's within.
* In the engraving above, the wild, sinister aspect of the buffalo, even in its domestic state, is well represented.

508
VERTEBRATA.
The points of a good ox may be thus stated: the head should be long, the muzzle fine; the
countenance calm and quiet; the horns fine; the neck light; the breast wide; the shoulders
moderately broad; the fore flank well filled up; the girth, behind the shoulders, deep; the back
straight, wide, and flat; the ribs broad; the belly well kept in, and not sinking low; the hind-
quarters—that is, from the hips to the extremity of the rump—long and straight; the legs
straight, clean, and fine-boned, and when the animal is in high condition, the skin is of a rich
and silky appearance.
The natural duration of life with the Ox and Cow* is upward of twenty years; the latter is
useful for milk nearly to that age; the former loses his vigor at an earlier period.
Fossil Bovina. The remains of deer and oxen occur abundantly in the tertiary beds, with ex-
tinct species of existing genera of Pachydermata, such as the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus,
and horse, and the extinct genera of the mastodon and large carnivora, as the tiger, hyena, and bear.
The most interesting of these is the Bos primigenius, to which we have already alluded. This ani-
mal must have been a third larger than any existing bovine species, but the structure so closely re-
sembles that of the domestic ox that Cuvier considered it to have been the original stock whence
this proceeded. This opinion is now generally discredited, and the Bos primigenius is considered
a distinct species. Other species of fossil ox found in Europe and America are the Bos largifrons,
Bos troccocerus, Bos bombifrons, &c., &c. At the southern foot of the Himalaya Mountains
abundant remains of bovine animals are found, mixed with those of the mastodon, elephant, rhi-
noceros, hippopotamus, hog, horse, elk, deer, crocodile, gavial, animals of the canine and feline
families, &c., &c.
wn
THE SYRIAN OX.
* In England the following terms are applied to cattle of different ages and conditions: a young emasculated male,
after the first year, is called a Stirk; when a year older, a Stot or Steer: at five years old, an Ox: a female, after the
first year, is called a Heifer or Quey; some coarse and sturdy Welsh and Scotch cattle are called Runts. Bullock is
the general term for full-grown male cattle, fat or lean.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
509
TU
ANDREAST.LELOR
THE CAPRINA OR CAPREÆ.
This tribe, of which the Common Goat is the familiar type, are distinguished by ascending and
diverging horns, in some cases of great size in the male, those of the female always being smaller ;
the hair is sometimes rough and sometimes silky ; that of the chin is usually long on the male,
and often forms a majestic beard; the tail is short, the legs slender but strong, the body thin and
* As there is sometimes difficulty in distinguishing the species of Caprina from those of the Ovina, the following
table showing the differences between the two, will be found convenient:
GOAT.
SHEEP.
Whole structure stronger and more compact..
Less so.
Limbs thicker and more rigid...
Feebler and more slender.
Hoofs higher and more compact..
Lower and less so.
False hoofs well developed.
Evanescent.
Head smaller and finer.
Longer and heavier.
Facial line straight...
Chaffron arched.
Ears shorter and rounded
Longer and pointed.
Tail short, flat, nude below.
Longer, less depressed, and half nude only.
Fore-legs stronger than hind.
Fore and hind equal.
Croup sloped off.......
Odorous....
Nose moister, with nares short and wide.
Less moist, longer and narrower.
Horns of medial size, keeled, and turned upward.
Horns very large, not keeled, and turned to the sides.
Hair long and unequal...
Short and equal.
Back arched...
Back straight.
Bears change of climate well
Bears it ill.
Is eminently curious, capricious, and confident.
Is incurious, staid, and timid.
Barks trees with its horns, feeding on the peel and on aro-
Does not bark trees, and is less addicted to aromatics.
matic herbs.....
In fighting, rears itself on its hind-legs, and lets the weight In fighting, runs a tilt, adding the force of impulse to
1
of its body fall on the adversary..
that of weight.
Not so.
Not so.

510
VERTEBRATA.
little inclined to fat. These animals are active and restless, and frequently move from place to
place. They are distinguished by a sort of brisk and petulant manner in all their actions. When
young, they are full of playful humor, running, leaping, and bounding among the hills and rocks;
in old age they become grave and watchful. They are fond of the society of each other, and
usually live in small flocks. Their natural haunts are among the remote and unfrequented
ledges of the mountains, where they obtain a subsistence by browsing the scanty herbage or the
buds and leaves of shrubs. They run with great speed, and the celerity with which they bound
along the verges of the steepling cliffs seems almost like the flight of birds. The males have a
strong and offensive odor; they butt by rising on their hind-legs and coming down sideways
against their enemy. Such are the wild races: those which are domesticated are modified in
some of these characteristics, but still the natural traits of the race are strongly marked upon
them. They are divided into several genera.
Genus KEMAS: Kemas.—Of this there are two species, both distinguished by a naked muz-
zle and short horns, and both confined to the mountains of Asia. The WARRYATO KEMÁS, K.
holocrius of Ogilby, is found in certain mountainous districts of Hindostan; the JHARAL KEMAS,
K. Jemlaicus-called Jemlah Goat by H. Smith—inhabits the most lofty ridges of Central Asia;
it is also found in Nepaul. It is eminently scansorial and pugnacious, but is easily tamed, and
readily acclimated in other countries. It is without beard, and the horns are of moderate size;
it breeds with the domestic goat, and is said to resemble the tame varieties.
THE BOUQUETIN, OR IBEX.
Genus BOUQUETIN or IBEX: Ibex.-Of this genus, whose name of Bouquetin signifies Buck
of the Rock, there are several species, all noted for their large horns bending over the back, their
love of the wild, rocky heights of mountainous regions, and the activity and daring with which
they bound along the verges of the most lofty precipices.

CLASS I, MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
511
KWĘ WY
لی
mm
wer
ANNER
Why
VAN
שעם, יו
SOYLR.
THE IBEX OF THE PYRENEES.
The ALPINE IBEX, or STEIN-Boc, or Rock-Buck, I. Alpinus, was formerly spread over all the
loftier
ranges of the Alps, but is now confined to the Alps of Savoy. They are not numerous, and
would soon be exterminated were not the killing of them severely interdicted by the Piedmontese
government.
The Tur, or IBEX OF THE PYRENEES, I. Pyrenarcus, very similar to the preceding, is nearly ex-
terminated, and is only found among the very highest peaks of the Spanish Pyrenees.
The SPANISH IbEx, I. Hispanicus, is found in the Sierra Nevada of the south of Spain.
The Zac or ZEBUDER—the CAUCASIAN IBEX, Capra Caucasica of Guldenstedt--resembles the
CE
TIE PASENG.
Alpine species: it is found in the mountains of Caucasus, and also in those of Candia and some
of the adjacent islands. This is probably of the same species as the PASENG, the Hircus ægagrus
of Gray, which is found in large troops in the mountains of Persia and the adjacent countries.
It exceeds the domestic goat in size, and is very strong and active; the color is a rusty brown;

512
VERTEBRATA.
the beard long, and the horns of the male large and slightly diverging as they bend over the back.
On the whole, it greatly resembles the Ibex of the Alps.
Other Asiatic species of Ibex are as follows: the Tek or TAKIJA, the SIBERIAN IBEX, I. Sibir-
icus; the SAKEEN or Skyn, or HIMALAYAN IBEX, I. Himalayanus; the African species are the
BEDEN or JAAL IBEX, I. Nubianus, found in Nubia and Upper Egypt, and also in Syria and Ara-
bia, and held by some to be the same species as that found in Candia; and the Walls or VALIE
IBEX, I. Valie, found in Abyssinia.
Nivedi
m
NMA!)
ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT.
race.
6
Genus CAPRA: Capra.—Under this head we include two species. The Rocky MOUNTAIN
Goat—Mazama or Spring-Buck-C. Americanus of Richardson, regarded as an antilope by some
naturalists, is about the size of the Common Goat, and bears a general resemblance to it. Both
male and female have small horns, and hair of a white color. They live in small flocks in
the lofty heights of the great range from which they derive their name, extending from 40° to
64° of north latitude. They feed on the plants, grasses, and mosses of the mountain slopes,
bounding over the rocky cliffs and scaling the precipices with all the fleetness belonging to the
The fleece is fine, the fore part resembling wool, and that on the back being like cotton.
The whole is much mixed with long hairs. The flesh is hard and dry. The animal only exists
in small numbers, is very shy, and is captured with difficulty.
This species is placed with the Antilopes by the “ English Cyclopedia of Natural History," and
there forms the genus Mazama. Gervais makes it the basis of the genus Antilocapra, which
term others bestow on the Prong-horned Antilope.
Of the DOMESTIC Goat, Capra ægagrus of Cuvier, C. hircus of Linnæus, there are numerous
breeds, presenting great variety of appearance, but all possessing certain general characteristics
which render them useful to man. They inhabit most parts of the world, and live on the scanty
herbage of rocky places, where no other domestic animal could find footing. They are abundant
in most parts of Europe, and in many parts of Asia, and are peculiarly serviceable to the poor,
as they need neither barns for shelter nor forage for food, but gather their meals in commons and
waste places, not denied even to poverty. Their flesh is wholesome food, and the milk is toler-
ably nutritious. It is esteemed useful in many diseases, especially in consumption, and in the
* In France and Italy a pair of goats will sometimes yield half the support of a family of four persons. They are
led forth to graze in the highway, being attended by a boy or girl. They will produce each three quarts of milk daily,
which will sell for twenty cents. This sum, in these cheap countries, will supply the humble wants of two persons.

CLASS 1. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTI A.
513
Emots
MAN
zrywithher
THE COMMON GOAT.
large towns of Italy, flocks of them are every day driven through the streets and milked at tne
places where the milk is wanted. The undressed skins of goats are the winter covering of a large
part of the mountain shepherds and peasants of Europe and Asia. Many a poor family in France,
Italy, Germany, Greece, and Spain would inevitably perish without the assistance of these humble
brutes. In many cases goats are the wet-nurses of infants, and become so attached to them as to
run and offer them their food on hearing their cries.
While goats are thus the friends of the poor, they contribute largely to the luxuries of the rich.
The Cashmere shawls, made from the hair of certain species, are among the most valued and
costly ornaments of fashionable beauty, as well among the sable princesses of India as the fairer
belles of Europe. A first-rate Cashmere shawl has been often sold for five hundred dollars,
some even for a thousand. The kid-gloves manufactured by millions in France, and distributed
through Paris over all the fashionable world from San Francisco to St. Petersburg, are made of
the skins of young goats. The skins of goats make the finest morocco, used for a thousand orna-
mentai
purposes,
and especially for the delicate feet of the fair. The skins of goats, with the hair
on, cover the dragoons' holsters and form the knapsack of the foot-soldier. Formerly—in the
time of Louis XIV.—when men and women cut off the hair which nature gave them and wore
wigs, the hair of the white common goats was in great request for this purpose. In England, at
the present day, the lawyers, judges, and bishops wear wigs made of white goat's hair. The
horns of this animal make excellent knife-handles, and their tallow the best of candles. Their
hams, when salted and dried, are called rock venison, and equal those of the deer. The medici-
nal virtues of the milk have been already alluded to, and the cheese it produces is the boast of
many a mountain dairy. We may add, finally, that goats are the most picturesque of animals,
and many an artist has been indebted to the felicitous introduction of a flock of them, browsing
among
their mountain landscapes, for the chief interest of his picture.
As goats are thus useful to man-contributing alike to his commonest necessities and his most
refined luxuries—they are in many other respects curious and interesting animals. The males
have an offensive smell, but this is thought healthful to horses, on which account a he-goat is
often an appendage of the stable. When mingled with sheep, the goats always take the lead, and
the sheep follow in the rear. They are bold, impudent, familiar, capricious, observant of every
thing that passes around them, and ready on the slightest occasion to defend themselves or make
an attack. They do not push like bulls nor butt like rams, but rise and descend on the enemy
with an oblique but effective blow. They are among the most sure-footed of animals, and will
VOL. 1.-65

514
VERTEBRATA.
MALE CASHMERE GOAT.*
pass along cliffs and ledges with security from which any other species would be hurled to de-
struction. If two of them meet on a ledge too narrow for them to pass, one kneels down and the
other passes over his back! All their senses are exceedingly acute. They are intelligent, and
may be trained to the harness and taught to draw small vehicles. One of the delights of the
Champs Elysées of Paris, to the young, is to ride for a few sous in a coach drawn by six goats.
The sportive humor of these animals may be turned to account in the performance of various
tricks. Every reader will remember the manner in which Alexander Selkirk amused himself by
teaching his goats to dance, and occasionally taking a rigadoon with them himself. Their favor-
ite food consists of the tops, tendrils, and flowers of aromatic shrubs. They feed safely on many
plants which are poisonous to other ruminants. Hasselgren says that they feed on four hundred
and forty-nine different kinds of plants! They are fond of grape-vines, and so the ancients sacri-
ficed them to Bacchus.
There has been great discussion as to the origin of the domestic goat. It is supposed by many
learned men that the mountains of the carth must have been first inhabited by man, because they
would first be dry and salubrious, while yet the valleys were filled with pestilent vapors, and
therefore that the goat, being a mountain animal, must have been the first that was domesticated.
However this may be, it is certain that it figures largely in the early annals of mankind. The
Lybian Jupiter had the horns of a ram, and Pan, the symbol of the productive energies of nature,
was furnished with the attributes of a goat. The ægis of Jupiter and breastplate of Minerva were a
simple goat-skin. Under the Jewish ritual the goat was an important animal, and was the symbol
of atonement in the splendid ceremonial imposed by the Supreme Lawgiver. The formidable war-
tunics of the Cimbri were the skins of goats, and these were the winter dress of the Roman aux-
iliaries, as well in Britain as other northern provinces. Virgil, in his Georgics, directs the shep-
herds to shear the long beards and hair of the Cinyphean goats for the service of the camp.
Varro
tells us that goats' hair was used for the dress of sailors and coverings of engines of war. The
* The above engraving of a male Cashmere Goat is a portrait of one of two of these animals imported by Dr. J. B.
a
Davis, in 1849, and afterward the property of R. Peters, Esq., of Atlanta, Georgia.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
515
Celtic tribes of Europe bred goats long before they had cattle. The goat was the first domestic
animal of Wales and the Highlands of Scotland.
But admitting this historical renown of the goat in connection with man, what was the source
of the domestic breed, and are the diversified domestic breeds of Europe, Asia, and Africa all of
one descent? Cuvier, and other eminent naturalists, regard the PASENG, the Hircus ægagrus, as
the original stock of all the domestic breeds, and for this there seems good reason, as it has been
found readily to breed with them; but still there are high authorities of a different opinion.
Leaving these questions, which, perhaps, can never be satisfactorily determined, we shall con-
tent ourselves with a brief notice of some of the more remarkable breeds. Throughout Europe
and America the common variety prevails; in Asia there are several of very peculiar character-
istics. The ANGORA GOAT,* which is reared to a great extent in the vicinity of the city which
gives it name, is noted for its fleece of soft, fine hair, resembling wool, and which is largely man-
ufactured into various stuffs.
M
کہ پا
THE SYRIAN GOAT.
The SYRIAN GOATS are remarkable for their long, pendant ears, and fine, long hair, used for
the manufacture of various fabrics. This is probably the variety spoken of in the Bible, and of
the hair of which the Curtains for the Tabernacle were made. It is found not only in Syria,
but in Arabia and Egypt, and is taught to perform a variety of feats of dexterity, among which
is that of standing with its four feet upon a number of cylindrical blocks like dice-boxes, placed
endwise one upon another to the height of several feet.
The most celebrated variety, however, is the CASHMERE GOAT, which produces the fine wool of
which the famous Cashmere shawls are made. They are spread throughout Thibet and the ad-
jacent countries, where they are bred with great care. They are covered with long, fine, silky
hair, under which, in the winter, there is a vest of the most delicate grayish wool. It is this
which is wrought into the fabrics in question. Only about three ounces are annually produced by
a single goat; the price of this, even in Thibet, is about a dollar and a quarter a pound. Several
of these animals have been introduced into France and England; in both these countries a num-
ber have been successfully bred. Some have also been brought to the United States, and the
attempt to breed them here has, we are informed, made encouraging progress.
a
* Angora is a city of 15,000 inhabitants in Asia Minor, to the northeast of Smyrna. Stuffs and yarn are here
largely manufactured of the hair or wool of the Angora Goat. Of this 13,000,000 pounds are annually exported.

516
VERTEBRATA.
0 0
re
THE OVINA OR OVEÆ.
This tribe includes the Common Sheep and the allied species. These are all marked by a flat
or concave forehead, triangular hoofs, horns more or less spiral and wide at the base. The horns
are often wanting in the female. They are divided into two genera.
Genus MOUFLON: Musimon.—The animals of this genus are distinguished by short tails,
rough hair, and enormous horns; they live on the mountains, and though their numbers are small,
they are found widely dispersed in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.
The Musmon or MOUFLON, M. musmon—the Capra Ammon of Linnæus—is found in the
mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, where it is called Muffoli and Mufione, from which Buffon
formed the name Mouflon; it is said to be also found in the islands of Cyprus and Candia. It
is about the size of the common sheep, but of a stouter frame; its covering is long, rough hair,
beneath which there is finer hair resembling wool; the prevailing color is a vinous red above
and a dirty white below; it is subject, however, to varieties of color ; the horns of the male are
deeply ridged and annulated. The animals of this species have a close resemblance to the com-
mon sheep in their habits: they assemble and pasture together in flocks, and though naturally
shy and wild, are easily tamed, when they readily associate and breed with the domestic flocks. So
strong, however, is the love of association, that if kept alone they soon pine away and die.
The Sun, or Kock, M. Vignei, is the wild mountain sheep of the north of India, and is also
found in Thibet. We are told that numbers of these are forced in winter, by the snows, from
the mountain heights down to the borders of the Indus.
The ARMENIAN SHEEP, M. Orientalis, is a native of Armenia.
The NERVATE, or Sna of Nahoor—the Pseudois nahura of Hodgson-is a native of Nepaul.
а

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
517
다​.
THE MOUFLON.
The ARGALI, M. argali, often confounded with the preceding, is a noble species, found in the
northern parts of Siberia, and also in Kamtschatka, in the mountains of which it is numerous. It
is remarkable, even among this active genus, for the agility with which it speeds along the rocks
and ledges of its native haunts.
with
THE ARGALI.
The RUFFED MOUFLon, called Kebsch by the Arabs, Aoudad by the Moors of Barbary, and
Mouflon à Manchettes by the French, is a native of the Atlas Mountains of Northern Africa, and
is also found in Mt. Sinai, Ethiopia, and Abyssinia. It attains a very large size, measuring more
a

518
VERTEBRATA.
w
re
FREEMAN
THE RUFFED MOUFLON.
MERINO SHEEP.
than three feet in height at the shoulders. It is wonderfully agile, and leaps amazing distances
from one cliff to another. This species is clearly delineated on the monuments of Egypt.
The Rocky MOUNTAIN SHEEP—the Big HORN of Lewis and Clark; the Argali of Godman;
the Mouflon d'Amérique of Desmarest—M. montanus, is a larger animal than the Mouflon, and
fully equals the Argali. The male appears like a powerful ram; the female resembles an ante-
lope. The horns of the male are enormous, measuring around the curve two feet and ten inches
long; sometimes these bend so much forward and downward as to prevent the animal from
feeding on the level ground. The weight of one of this species is about three hundred
pounds. The hair is coarse and slightly crimped, but has no resemblance to wool; at the roots,
however, there is a small quantity of soft fur. The color above is a light grayish-brown; beneath,
it is grayish-white. The young are produced, one and sometimes two at a time, in June and July.
In general, these animals are shy and wild, but in some secluded regions they seem not to have
learned to fear mankind, and are approached without difficulty. Their flesh is excellent. They
live in small flocks on the highest peaks of the Rocky Mountains, from latitude 30° to 68° north.
They are said also to be met with in the plains west of the Mississippi, and in the mountains of
California and Oregon. Dr. Gray, with good reason, thinks this animal the same as the Argali
of Siberia and Kamtschatka. This might have crossed at Behring's Straits, in some remote pe-
riod, and thus have stocked the north western regions of America.
Genus SHEEP: Ovis. Of this, which includes the DOMESTIC SHEEP, there are perhaps forty
well-known varieties. “With the exception of the dog," says a graphic writer, " there is no one
of the brute creation which exhibits the diversity of size, color, form, covering, and general appear-
ance, which characterizes the sheep, and none which occupies a wider range of climate, or subsists
on a greater variety of food. In every latitude between the equator and the arctic, he ranges
over the sterile mountains, and through the fertile valleys. He feeds on almost every species of
edible forage, the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals, and roots; he browses on aromatic and bit-
ter herbs; he crops the leaves and bark from the stunted forest shrubs, and the pungent, resinous
evergreens. In some parts of Norway and Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
519
WWIIC
O
Mall
THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP.
a
or flesh during their long and rigorous winters, and, if reduced to necessity, he eats his own wool.
He is diminutive like the Orkney, or massive like the Teeswater. He is policerate or many-
horned; he has two large or smail spiral horns like the Merino, or is polled or hornless like the
mutton sheep. He has a long tail like our own breeds, a broad tail like many of the eastern, or
a mere button of a tail, like the fat-rumps, discernible only by the touch. His coat is sometimes
long and coarse, like the Lincolnshire; short and hairy, like those of Madagascar; soft and furry,
like the Angola, or fine and spiral, like the silken Saxon. His color, either pure or fancifully
mixed, varies from the white or black of our own country to every shade of brown, dun, buff,
blue, and gray, like the spotted flocks of the Cape of Good Hope, and other parts of Africa."*
Several of the breeds of sheep are marked with such peculiarities as to be regarded by some
eminent naturalists as forming so many distinct species. The general opinion, however, is, that
they all belong to one species, and that the diversities of form, color, and size, which we find
among them, are the result of breeding, climate, and other circumstances. As to the original
stock of the sheep, some have supposed it to have been the Mouflon of Europe, others the Argali,
and others still, with much plausibility, maintain that the sheep is the result of a mixture of sev-
eral allied species, not, however, including any of the wild races now known. But be this as it
may, it is certain that the sheep was one of the earliest animals subjected to the sway of man;
,
it
is the very first of which we have any historical notice. Abel was a keeper of sheep. “Abra-
ham and his descendants," says the author just quoted, “ as well as most of the ancient patri-
archs, were shepherds. Job had fourteen thousand sheep. It is said of Rachel, the favored
mother of the Jewish race, 'She came with her father's sheep, for she kept them. The seven
daughters of the priest of Midian, came and drew water for their father's flocks. Moses, the
statesman and lawgiver, who was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, kept the flocks of
Jethro, his father-in-law;' and David, the future monarch of Israel, the hero, poet, and divine,
was a keeper of sheep. It was to shepherds, while “abiding in the field, keeping watch over their
flocks by night,' that the birth of the Saviour was announced. The root of the Hebrew name for
sheep signifies fruitfulness, abundance, plenty, as indicating the blessings they were destined to
confer on the human race. With the sacred writers, they were the chosen symbol of purity and
* "Domestic Animals," &c., by R. L. Allen; published by 0. A. Moore, New York.

520
VERTEBRATA.
THE LAMB.
the gentler virtues; they were the victims of propitiatory sacrifices; and finally, they became the
type of redemption to fallen man. These may not be considered accidental allusions in a book
whose every feature is full of design.
“Nor has the sheep been less the subject of eulogy and attention with profane writers. Among
these, Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theocritus, introduced them with evident delight in their
pastoral themes; while their heroes and demigods, Hercules and Ulysses, Æneas and Numa, care-
fully perpetuated them throughout their regal domains.
“In modern times, they have commanded the attention of the most enlightened nations, and
their prosperity has in no instance been independent of these useful animals, wherever wool and
its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. Spain and Portugal, for more than two
centuries, were the most enterprising nations of Europe, and during that period, they excelled in
the production and manufacture of wool. Flanders for a time was before England in the per-
fection of the arts and the enjoyments of life, and England then sent the little wool she raised to
that country to be manufactured. Her politic sovereigns soon found this a losing game, and
offered large bounties for the importation of artists and machinery. By a systematic and thor-
ough course of legislation, which looked to the utmost protection and augmentation of wool and
woolens, she has carried their production beyond any thing the world has ever seen. The small
islands of Great Britain and Ireland, in addition to the support of their 26,000,000 of people,
15,000,000 of cattle, 2,250,000 horses, 18,000,000 swine, and innumerable smaller domestic ani-
mals, maintain over 40,000,000 sheep, worth $250,000,000; and beside manufacturing nearly
all their fleeces, annually import nearly an equal amount from abroad.”
“We cannot doubt,” says Buffon, “ that most animals which are actually domestic were for-
merly wild; those whose history has already been given afford a sufficient proof of it; and there
are still wild horses, wild asses, and wild bulls. But man, who has conquered so many millions

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
521
LE
SLOSSilva --BARRIIL
ENGLISH SHEEP: THE WASHING.
of individuals, can he boast of having conquered an entire species? As they were all created
without his participation, may he not also believe that they all have had orders to grow without
his help? If we consider, nevertheless, the weakness and stupidity of the sheep, and at the same
time reflect that this animal, without defense, cannot find safety in flight; that he has for his ene-
mies all devouring animals, which seem to seek him in preference to any other, and to devour
him by choice; that formerly this species produced but few; that each individual lived but a
short time, we shall be tempted to think that, from the beginning sheep were confided to the
care of man; that they had occasion for his protection to subsist, and of his care to multiply,
since it is a fact that there are no wild sheep in the deserts; that in all places where man does
not rule, the lion, the tiger, and the wolf reign, by force and by cruelty; that these animals of
blood and carnage all live long, and multiply much more than sheep; and in short, that if we
were now to abandon the flocks which we have rendered so numerous, they would soon be de-
stroyed before our eyes, and the species would be entirely annihilated by the voraciousness of its
numberless enemies.
“The sheep is indeed absolutely without resource and without defense. The ram has but feeble
arms; his courage is nothing but a petulance useless to himself, inconvenient to others, and which
Vol. I.-66

522
VERTEBRATA.
TAY
THE SHEPHERD.
is destroyed by emasculation. The wether sheep are still more timorous than ewes; it is through
fear that they gather so often in troops; the smallest noise to which they are unaccustomed is
sufficient to make them fly and get close together. This fear is attended with the greatest stu-
pidity; for they know not how to fly the danger, nor do they even seem to feel the inconvenience
of their situation; they continue wherever they are, either in rain or snow, and to oblige them to
change their situation they must have a chief who is instructed to walk first, and whom they will
follow step by step. This chief will remain with the rest of the flock, without motion, in the same
place, if he be not driven from it by the shepherd, or the dog which guards them, who, in fact,
watches for their safety, defends, directs, and separates them, assembles them together, and com-
municates to them motives not their own. Goats, which in many things resemble sheep, have
much more understanding.
“But this animal, so cowardly in itself, so wanting in sentiment and interior qualities, is to man
the most valuable of all animals, and the most useful both for his present and future support. Of
itself it supplies our greatest necessities : it furnishes us with both food and clothing. Without
recounting the particular advantages we have from the milk, the skin, and even the bowels, the
bones and the dung of this animal serve to prove that nature has given it nothing but what turns
out useful to man."
This portrait of the sheep is drawn with the usual force and something of the exaggeration
common to its author. It is only in its thoroughly domesticated state that this animal is cow-
ardly. In mountainous countries, where it ranges over a wide extent, and with little control, it
is deficient neither in courage nor intelligence. A ram or a wether will attack, and often defeat,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA. 523
a single dog. He will even engage a bull, and as the bone of his forehead is much harder than
that of any other animal, he is generally victorious in this apparently unequal contest.
The bull,
according to his custom, lowers his head, and is brought to the ground by the stroke of the ram
between his eyes. When individual strength is not sufficient to afford protection, sheep will com-
bine against dogs and other enemies. If these animals sprung from a wild breed, we cannot doubt
that these were capable of defense, alike by instinct, activity, intelligence, and strength. If by
domesticity we have deprived them of these qualities, it is because we have rendered them use-
less; in their place we have cultivated an unresisting gentleness, placidity, and docility, which at
once forces upon man the necessity of giving them protection, and makes them what they are, one
of man's greatest blessings.
PARTICULAR BREEDS OF SHEEP.
All the breeds of the common sheep in America are derived from Europe. The first settlers
brought with them the domestic animals of the countries from which they emigrated, and thus
the majority of our sheep were of English breeds. Within the last fifty years special attention
has been paid, here as well as in Europe, to the breeding of sheep, with a view to their improve-
ment, both in respect to the flesh and the wool; and, consequently, all the most valuable kinds
are common in this country.
It is an argument in favor of the originality of the wool-bearing breeds of sheep, and against
the idea that they are derived from any species of mouflon or ibex, that so early as the ancient
days of Tyre and Egypt, these nations produced wool of exquisite fineness. The Greeks early
possessed similar breeds, and these, no doubt, were planted, with their colonies, in Spain, along
the coast of the Mediterranean. The Romans also, in the time of Augustus, had fine breeds of
sheep, to which they paid great attention, and, doubtless, as Spain passed under their domin-
ion, flocks of these were transported thither. From these sources, in the progress of centuries, we
may fairly conclude the celebrated Merino was bred.
There are other breeds of sheep in Spain besides the Merinos, more or less intermixed with
them; but of the pure race it is calculated that there are about ten millions, which are mostly
migratory, and termed Transhumantes, being periodically conducted from one part of the coun-
try to another, and back again. These Transhumantes are divided into flocks, which, under the
care of a mayoral, or chief shepherd, and assistants, migrate from the mountains of the north to
the plains of the south in winter, and return back to the mountains in summer. The flocks fol-
low the shepherds, who lead the way, and direct the length and speed of the journey: a few
wethers, perfectly trained, tread in the footsteps of the conductor, and the rest follow in due
order; a powerful breed of dogs accompany the shepherds in order to defend the flock from
wolves, and a few mules carry their provision and other necessaries, as well as materials for
making up the fold at night. This migration extends four hundred miles, and it takes fourteen
weeks to accomplish it both ways. To this, popular opinion in Spain, no doubt erroneously,
attributes the excellence of their sheep. In the south of France the sheep are in a similar man-
ner driven in winter from the mountain regions of the Alps, Cevennes, and Pyrenees, to the
softer climes of Provence and Languedoc.
The history of the Merino in America is too familiar to demand special notice here. It is
sufficient to say that, from the year 1802 to 1811, a number of these were introduced into the
United States by Chancellor Livingston, Colonel Humphries, and Mr. Jarvis, and thus the foun-
dation of the breed was laid. At subsequent periods many others have been imported, and mill-
ions have been bred, so that the Merino is as well established in this country as any other, not
excepting Spain itself.
The Saxon breed, an offspring of the Merino, produced in Saxony, and celebrated for the full-
ness and fineness of the fleece, has been also introduced, and is now extensively cultivated. The
Merino bred in France, under the care of the government, at Rambouillet, Malmaison, and upon
other royal farms, have also been brought hither and mingled with our flocks. The noted British
breeds-South-Downs, Cheviots, Bakewells or Leicesters, Teeswaters, Herefords, Dorsets, Dishleys,
Kents, Devons, Devonshire-Nots, Dartmoor-Nots, Cotswolds and Lincolnshires, and many others

524
VERTEBRATA.
FRENCH SHEEP.
--horned and hornless, long-wooled and short-wooled, coarse-wooled and fine-wooled, black-
faced and white-faced—are all found on our farms, or at least known to our farmers and graziers.
At the present time it is supposed there are 30,000,000 of sheep in the United States. *
Among the varieties of sheep distinguished for peculiar and striking qualities, we may mention
the Wallachian Sheep, common not only in Wallachia but in Candia, Hungary, and Western
Asia among the Tartar tribes. It is remarkable for its horns, which ascend almost perpen-
dicularly from the skull, making a series of spiral turns, and thus sometimes rising to the height
of a foot or even two feet. The fleece consists of long, straight hair, firm and close set, dividing
on the back, and falling on each side almost to the ground. Beneath this is a quantity of short,
fine wool. A ram of this breed, from Mount Parnassus, was some time since presented to the
London Zoological Society, by Dr. Bowring; it was a large, powerful, and majestic-looking crea-
ture, but was unruly and vicious.
The FAT-RUMPED or BROAD-TAILED SHEEP, found in Syria, Egypt, and the adjacent countries,
are supposed to be the breed cultivated by the patriarchs and their descendants, the Jews. There
are many varieties, some being covered with hair and some with fine wool; some have horns
and some have none; some are of one color and some of another. Their general peculiarity con-
sists in having a tail sometimes so enormously developed as to weigh fifty or even a hundred
a
* The number of domesticated sheep in different countries has been estimated as follows:
In Great Britain.....
France, of which nearly a million are Merinos, of various grades.
Spain, of which ten millions are Merinos...
Other countries of Europe...
America.....
Australia, where sheep have been introduced and cultivated with great success.
Asia and Asiatic islands, estimated....
Africa and African islands.
40,000,000
28,000,000
20,000,000
80,000,000
60,000,000
5,000,000
100,000,000
40,000,000
Total.....
373,000,000
A great part of this estimate is, of course, conjectural, but it may serve to convey to the mind an impression of the
immense extent to which the sheep enters into the wants, comforts, and luxuries of man.

Hisyys
WH Freeman
38
MERINO SHEEP.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
525
tinua
THE WALLACHIAN SHEEP.
pounds, and which it is often necessary to support with a board set on wheels! The fat of this
appendage is said to resemble marrow, and is often used instead of butter. Some of this breed
were brought into the United States fifty years ago, and a few were produced, the lambs being
of various colors, white, red, tawny, black, &c., but there was difficulty in propagating them, and
they have disappeared in mixtures with other breeds.
The PERSIAN SHEEP, found in Persia, Tartary, and the neighboring regions, is a singular
variety, marked with an unsightly lump of fat on the croup. In Angola there are several peculiar
breeds, one of which, called the ZENU, or GOITRED SHEEP, has drooping ears, a convex forehead,
short hair, a brisket and dewlap like those of an ox, and two lobes consisting of hard, curdy fat
beneath the throat, appearing like goitres. These are, however, not defects or deformities, but
provisions of nature to sustain the animal at a season of the year when the earth, in the region it
THE BROAD-TAILED SHEEP.
inhabits, is parched, and vegetation withered or destroyed. In Tartary there is a breed called
the AsTRACHAN SHEEP, whose lambs, taken from the womb by killing the mother a short time
before maternity, yields a skin covered with beautiful curly hair, and which is sent to Russia,
where it commands a high price. Some of them are of a glossy black, and are much valued.
In Southern Russia there is a breed called the FOUR-HORNED SHEEP, of which the rams have four
and sometimes five and even six horns; and in the same region there is a breed in which both
male and female are altogether destitute of horns.

526
VERTEBRATA.
stes
THE GOITRED SHEEP.
In addition to these, there are still other breeds. The Fezzan Sheep, sometimes called the
Long-legged Sheep, the Morvan of Buffon, is of very large size, and is common in Algeria and
the vicinity. It has been introduced into Europe and crossed with other breeds. The Black-
headed Sheep, is without horns, and is found in Abyssinia. The following peculiar kinds are in-
cluded in the Catalogue of the British Museum: the Barwell Sheep, of Nepaul; the Hooniah
or Black-faced Sheep, of Thibet and Nepaul; the Kago or Tame Sheep, of Cabul, a native of
Nepaul; the Curumbar Sheep, of Mysore; the Garar, of India, the Pachia or Hindoo Dum-
ba; the Deccan Sheep, the West Indic Sheep, the Brazilian Sheep, the Demerara Sheep, the
South American Sheep, the Smooth-haired Sheep, the Guinea Sheep, the St. Helena Sheep, the
Morocco Sheep, the Congo Sheep, the Jaxulus, the Long-tailed Sheep of Russia and the Short-
tailed Sheep of the same country; and the Tartar Sheep, which is said to eat bones like a dog !
Such are some of the curiosities to be found among the almost numberless breeds of domestic
sheep. They display a singular capacity, and indeed aptitude, in the race, for the production of
varieties suited to the climate and circumstances in which they live—varieties in form, color, size,
temper, and all the qualities which render them useful to man. There is, however, a principle in
the nature of sheep, equally governing the ox, horse, and other races of domestic animals, of the
greatest importance in breeding them, and that is, that like produces like. It is by the skillful
application of this rule that intelligent breeders of sheep have been able, in England, France,
Germany, and the United States, to produce new varieties almost at will, and suited to the wants
of the community. It is by this means that nearly all the renowned English breeds have been
brought into existence, thus greatly enlarging the circle of benefits bestowed on mankind by this
simple and somewhat stupid animal—the sheep.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
527
Esplora MCI
MÉS INTE TA DO CIAS
in ASEAN
HUA22 2242191
Tau
Jo.o ANO KEW. BEST. LELOR.
INCLOSURE OF ANTILOPES, GARDEN OF PLANTS, PARIS.
THE ANTILOPINA OR ANTELOPINA.
This tribe, including nearly a hundred species, none of which have ever been permanently
domesticated, chiefly belong to warm climates; Africa is their great center, though several be-
long to Asia, one or two are found in Europe, and one in America. Australia and Madagascar
are destitute of these as they are of other indigenous ruminants. They are of various colors,
forms, and sizes; some of them bear resemblance to the ox, some to the goat, some to the sheep
and even to the deer. There has been great difficulty in classifying them, and many of the
species have been variously distributed by different authors. There is one general character in
which they agree: while they are hollow-horned, and in this respect are like the ruminants we
have described, the horns are round and annulated, yet not smooth like the horns of the ox, nor
do they exhibit those prominent ridges and angles which are found in some of the buffaloes, and
in the goats and sheep.* In the particular forms and curvatures of the horns there is the great-
* The Antilopes or Antelopes differ from the deer in the structure of the horns. In the deer the horns, or more
properly antlers, are deciduous; but in the antilopesand the same observation applies to the goat and ox—these
organs consist of a horny sheath, investing a conical support of bone; their increase is gradual, and they are not
yearly shed and renewed. The bony central support, or core, is a process from the frontal bone: in most antilopes
it is solid, or nearly so: it commences small at first, and assumes various directions in the various species. Some
antilopes have four horns. The horny sheath consists of fibers analogous to those of whalebone, or rather hair,
running longitudinally or spirally, and agglutinated into one uniform mass. If this sheath be stripped from its
bony core, the latter will be found covered by a highly vascular periosteum, from which the fibers in question are
secreted. They are formed in regular succession as the bone grows, so that the horn which covered the whole pro-
cess or core in the young animal, will in due time be thrown to its summit. The outermost layer was once in con-
tact with the core, but was gradually pushed outward and upward. In some groups of antilopes both sexes are
furnished with horns, in others only the male: and it is difficult in many cases to discriminate between the hornless
females of one of the antilope and one of the deer tribe.

528
VERTEBRATA.
some, how-
SG
est possible variety; sometimes they are bent forward, sometimes backward; sometimes they are
straight, sometimes spiral, and sometimes lyre-shaped. The females have two to four mammæ,
and
go from five to eight months, producing one, and sometimes, though rarely, two at a birth.
In general, the antilopes are covered with short, smooth hair of uniform length; some,
ever, have manes of bristly hair on the neck and shoulders; the ears are commonly long, narrow,
and pointed forward; the tail is short, round, and tufted at the extremity. They are mostly
gregarious, and unite in large herds, either permanently or at particular seasons of the year, but
only for the purpose of migrating in search of more abundant and grateful pasturage; some
species, however, live in pairs or small families, consisting of an old male and one or more females,
with the young of the two foregoing seasons. Most of them are among the fleetest of animals,
outstripping even the horse in their flight. They are extremely cautious in guarding against
surprise, placing sentinels in various directions about their feeding-grounds to warn them
of the approach of danger while grazing or reposing; and their vision and sense of smell are so
acute, that it is only by using the greatest caution and circumspection that the hunter can bring
them within range of the gun. The names by which they are distinguished in all languages,
ancient as well as modern, have a direct reference to this quickness of sight, and to the brilliancy
of the large black eyes which form so conspicuous a feature in them. Thus the word Dorcas, the
Greek and Roman name of the Gazelle, or common Barbary Antilope, is derived from the verb
" to see.” The word Antilope, which zoologists have adopted as the generic name of the group,
literally signifies “bright eyes.” Among the Greeks and Romans, Dorcas, Dorcalis, and Damalis,
all names of different antilopes, were common names of women, bestowed, without doubt, on
account of the remarkable beauty of their eyes. Travelers in the East inform us that Aine el
Czazel, “ You have the eyes of an antilope," is the greatest compliment which at the present day
an Oriental admirer can pay to his mistress.
Africa, as we have already intimated, may be considered the head-quarters of the antilope tribe.
The habitat of these animals, however, differs according to the particular species. Some frequent
the dry, sandy deserts, and feed upon the stunted acacias and bulbous plants which spring up even
in the most arid situations; some prefer the open, stony plains, as the steppes of Central Asia and
karroos of Southern Africa, where the grass, though parched, is still sufficient for their sub-
sistence; some, again, inhabit the steep, rocky mountains, and leap from cliff to cliff with the ease
and security of the ibex, while others are found only in the thick and almost impenetrable forests
of tropical countries.
The antilopes have been variously classified. Dr. Gray arranges them into two divisions :
Antilopes of the Fields and Antilopes of the Desert. These divisions are founded upon peculi-
arities of the nostrils, easily recognized. In the Antilopes of the Fields the nostrils are bald or
free from hairs, while in the Antilopes of the Desert these organs are bearded within or covered
with bristles. There are other distinctions, but these are the most obvious and most readily ap-
preciated.
The first of these classes, Antilopes of the Fields, embraces the True Antilopes, as the Ga-
zelles, the Pallah, Stein-boc, Kleene-boc, Riet-boc, Sing-sing, Blauw-boc, Gems-boc, Oryx, Addax,
Chamois, Prong-horn, &c.; the second class, Antilopes of the Desert, embraces the Gnu, Eland,
Bless-boc, Koodoo, Nil-Ghau, &c., dec.
We deem it best, however, to follow the system we have hitherto pursued, and to present these
animals in genera and species, believing that form to afford a clearer and more discriminating
view than can be obtained in any other manner.
Genus ALCELAPHUS : Alcelaphus.—These animals have thick, heavy horns, of a double
curve, and somewhat lyre-shaped. There are two species. The BUBALUS, or BEKKER-EL-WASH,
A. bubalis, is of a reddish fawn-color, with black horns, shaped like the tines of a fork. In its
combats, it lowers the head like a bull. It is a powerful brute, but some of them have proved
to be docile, and the young have been known to join the herds of domestic cattle and remain
with them till their maturity. It is found living in herds in Northern Africa from Morocco to
Egypt.
The CAAMA, LECAMA, or HARTE-BEEST, A. caama, resembles the preceding, and has been con-

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
529
THE BUBALUS OR BEKKER-EL-WASH.
founded with it; its color, however, is deeper, in some parts becoming black, while the haunches
are whitish. Its flesh has a high game flavor, and is much esteemed. It is found in Southern
Africa, where it lives in large troops. Its speed rivals that of the horse.
THE GNU.
Genus CONNOCHETES : Connochotes. These animals have some resemblance to the ox: the
muzzle is large and naked, the tail long and flowing; the horns are present in both sexes, and
bend first downward and forward and then upward. The most noted species is the Gnu or Gnoo,
C. gnu—the Catoblepas of Pliny; the Antilope Gnu of Linnæus. It has a formidable pair of
horns, leading first downward and then upward, and has been called the Horned Horse. It is
about the size of a well-grown ass; the neck, body, and tail resemble those of a small horse; the
pace is a species of light gallop. A herd of Gnus, when seen at a distance flying over the plains,
might be readily mistaken for a troop of the wild zebras or quaggas which inhabit the same local-
VOL. I.--67

530
VERTEBRATA,
3!!
As
27/. 1. 27
THE KOODOO.
ities, if their dark and uniform color did not distinguish them. They live in extensive herds on the
karroos of South Africa, and are wild and difficult to approach. When wounded, they will turn
upon the hunter and pursue him, dropping on their knees before making an attack, and then
darting forward with amazing force and velocity. When first alarmed, they commence by fling
ing up their heels and capering like a restive horse, tossing their heads and tails, and butting at
the mole-hills or other objects, but immediately after taking to flight, and traversing the desert
with a speed which soon carries them beyond the reach of danger. They do not run in a con-
fused crowd like sheep or oxen, but in single file, following a leader, and have a pleasing appear-
ance as they skim over the level plains. They are said to be subject to a cutaneous eruption at
particular seasons of the year, which they sometimes communicate to domestic cattle, and which
invariably ends in death.
The Kokoon, Antilope Taurina of Burchell, and found in Abyssinia, is regarded by some
naturalists as identical with the common gnu.
The Gorgon or BrindLED GNU, C. Gorgon, has a convex, smooth face, covered with hair lying
toward the nose, the chest not being maned. It is of a black color, varied and striped with gray.
It is the Bastard Wilde Beest of the Dutch at the Cape. It lives to the north of the Nu Gareep or
Black River, and though herds feed on its banks, it is not known to cross it. It occurs on the
large plains north of the Orange River, and when alarmed each herd decamps in long, regular
files. The flesh is much sought after. The Bechuanas use the skins for their cloaks and mantles.
Genus STREPSICEROS: Strepsiceros.—Of this genus is the Koodoo, S. coudou, or Kudu,
the Condoma of Buffon, the Antilope Strepsiceros of Pallas, one of the largest of antilopes,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
531
measuring upward of cight feet in length, and being four feet high at the shoulder. The
horns of the male are particularly magnificent; they are nearly four feet long, and beauti-
fully twisted into a wide-sweeping spiral, surrounded by a prominent wreath which follows all
their windings. They spread boldly and widely outward, and are carried crouched on each
side of the back, on account of their great weight. The whole make of this animal is heavy,
and the external appearance more resembling that of an ox than of an antilope. The ground-
color of the back and sides is a light fallow-brown, with a narrow white ribbon along the spine,
and eight or ten similar bands descending from the back, and passing obliquely down the sides
and hips; the belly and under parts are pale silvery-brown. On the neck and withers is a thin,
spare mane, of a brown color; the chin, throat, and breast are furnished with similar long hairs,
forming a species of beard.
This magnificent animal inhabits the woody parts of Caffraria, and the contiguous country,
principally along the banks of rivers, to which it readily takes when pursued, and swims well.
It lives in small families of four or five individuals. When taken young they are readily do-
mesticated, and show no inclination to regain their original freedom. The females produce one
young at a time. The large antilope called Aggergeen by Pearce, in his account of his “Residence
in Abyssinia," has been supposed to be the same as the koodoo of South Africa.
a
ite
THE OREAS CANNA, OR ELAND.
a
The OREAS CANNA or ELAND, Antilope Oreas of Pallas, called by the various names of Impoo-
foo, Cape Elk, &c., is considerably the largest of all the antilopes, being the size of a good horse,
and measuring eight feet two inches in length, and full five feet in height at the shoulder. The
horns of the male are one and a half feet in length, very thick and heavy, almost straight till
within three inches of the tips, where they bend outward, attenuated at the points, and surrounded
throughout the greater part of their length with a thick spiral wreath, which passes twice com-
pletely round them, and finishes by becoming indistinct near the points. Those of the females
are longer and smaller, and the spiral wreath is, in some specimens at least, scarcely to be seen.

532
VERTEBRATA.
MORE
STRIPED ELANDS DISCOVERED BY DR. LIVINGSTONE.
The head is long and pointed, the ears are large, the neck thick, compressed on the sides, as in
the ox, and furnished underneath with a loose, hanging skin or dewlap, fringed along the margin
with a border of long hair. There is likewise a large protuberance of the size of a man's fist on
the larynx, and it was probably from this organ, which is likewise found in the elk of Europe,
that the animal derived the name of Eland, by which it is universally known at the Cape. From
the center of the forehead to the root of the tail runs a short erect mane of dark-brown hair,
which is reversed on the neck, but directed backward in the usual manner along the spine of the
back. The color of the body is uniform reddish-fawn on the upper parts, and white on the under;
the head and neck ashy-gray, but in some individuals the latter color extends over all the upper
parts of the body.
The Eland when full-grown usually weighs from eight hundred to a thousand pounds, and,
contrary to the general rule observed among antilopes, is commonly extremely fat. Its flesh
is consequently more prized than that of any other wild animal of South Africa, and the large
muscles of the thighs, in particular, are held in the highest estimation when dried and cured,
under which form they are denominated thigh-tongues. The character of this animal is very
mild, and as it were predisposed to domestication ; it is gregarious, and lives in large herds
upon the open plains and low hills, the old males generally residing apart. This species were
formerly very common in the immediate neighborhood of Cape Town, but were so much hunted
that they have long since ceased to frequent the inhabited districts, and are now rarely met
with except in the more distant and retired parts of the colony. Being generally very fat
and pursy, they do not run well, and are soon fatigued; it is even said that when hard run a red
oily perspiration has been known to ooze out from the pores of their skin, and that they occasion-
ally drop down from plethora. Like most other animals when hunted, they always run against
the wind. As the carcass is weighty, and consequently difficult to transport, the great object of
the hunters, in the chase, is to turn their game in such a direction as to drive it close to their

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
533
a
prom-
own residence before killing it, and in fact the Cape farmers, from long practice and an intimate
knowledge of the animal's habits, very frequently succeed in accomplishing this masterpiece of
South African field-sports. They are so gentle that a man on horseback may penetrate into the
very middle of a herd without alarming them, and pick out the fattest and best-conditioned, and
as the old bulls are commonly chosen, on account of their greater size and weight, it not unfre-
quently happens that the herd is left altogether without a male. There have been several fine
specimens of this animal in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, presented by the late Earl of
Derby.
The following extract from the recent Travels of Livingstone will be found interesting, as
well from the picture it presents of the abundance of game in Southern Africa as from the ac-
counts it affords of the curious habits of particular kinds of antilope. It also mentions a new
variety of Eland, of which the engraving at page 532 is a representation. The country he is
speaking of, Sesheke, is about 17° 30' south latitude and 25° east longitude.
“This district contains great numbers of a small antelope named Tianyáne, unknown in the
South. It stands about eighteen inches high, is very graceful in its movements, and utters a cry
of alarm not unlike that of the domestic fowl; it is of a brownish-red color on the sides and back,
with the belly and lower part of the tail white; it is very timid, but the maternal affection that
the little thing bears to its young will often induce it to offer battle even to a man approaching
it. When the young one is too tender to run about with the dam, she puts one foot on the
.
inence about the seventh cervical vertebra, or withers; the instinct of the young enables it to
understand that it is now required to kneel down, and to remain quite still till it hears the bleat-
ing of its dam. If you see an otherwise gregarious she-antilope separated from the herd, and
going alone anywhere, you may be sure she has laid her little one to sleep in some cozy spot.
The color of the hair in the young is better adapted for assimilating it with the ground than that
of the older animals, which do not need to be screened from the observation of birds of prey. I
observed the Arabs at Aden, when making their camels kneel down, press the thumb on the
withers in exactly the same way the antilopes do with their young; probably they have been led
to the custom by seeing this plan adopted by the gazelle of the desert.
“Great numbers of Buffaloes, Zebras, T'sessebes, Tahaetsi, and Elands or Pohu, grazed undis-
turbed on these plains, so that very little exertion was required to secure a fair supply of meat
for the party during the necessary delay. Hunting on foot, as all those who have engaged in it
in this country will at once admit, is very hard work indeed. The heat of the sun by day is so
great, even in winter, as it now was, that, had there been any one on whom I could have thrown
the task, he would have been most welcome to all the sport the toil is supposed to impart. But
the Makololo shot so badly that, in order to save my powder, I was obliged to go myself.
“We shot a beautiful cow-eland, standing in the shade of a fine tree. It was evident that she
had lately had her calf killed by a lion, for there were five long, deep scratches on both sides of
her hind-quarters, as if she had run to the rescue of her calf, and the lion, leaving it, had attacked
herself, but was unable to pull her down. When lying on the ground, the milk flowing from the
large udder showed that she must have been seeking the shade, from the distress its non-removal
in the natural manner caused. She was a beautiful creature, and Lebeole, a Makololo gentleman
who accompanied me, speaking in reference to its size and beauty, said, “Jesus ought to have given
us these instead of cattle. It was a new, undescribed variety of this splendid antilope. It was
marked with narrow white bands across the body, exactly like those of the koodoo, and had a
black patch of more than a hand-breadth on the outer side of the fore-arm."
The Ginji-Jonga, or Derby's OREAS, Oreas Derbianus, is found in Northern Africa on the river
Cassaman. It is of a plain reddish-brown color, with the front of the face, the neck, the front
part of the under side, a spot on the front and upper part of the fore-leg, and the dorsal streak,
mainly black
Genus ANOA: Anoa.—Of this there is one species, the A. depressicornis, or Antilope de-
pressicornis; it is found in the Celebes islands, and is called SAPI-OUTAN or Cow OF THE Woods,
by the natives. It has a thick, stout form, possesses two nearly straight, powerful horns, and is of
the size of an ass; it is of a blackish hue, lives in the woods, and is a wild and savage animal.
a
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534
VERTEBRATA.
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... را در تنها
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THE NIL-GHAU.
Genus PORTAX : Portax.-Of this there is a single species, the NiL-GHAU or BLUE ANTI-
LOPE, P. picta or P. tragocamelus, supposed to be the Hippelaphe of Aristotle. It is one of the
largest of the Antilope tribe, being four feet high at the shoulders. The face is long and narrow,
the muzzle large and naked; the horns, seven inches long, are straight, smooth, round, and thick;
the hair is short, and the color a slaty-blue. It resides in the dense forests of India, whence it
occasionally makes excursions very early in the morning or during the night, to feed upon the
corn-fields of the natives which happen to be situated in the vicinity of the jungle. It is a vicious
animal, of very uncertain temper, and as it is both powerful and resolute, and frequently turns
upon
its
pursuers, it is seldom made an object of chase except by the native princes, who em-
ploy elephants for this purpose, or inclose the game in nets. The usual method which the
Shikarrees, or professed hunters, employ for its capture, is to shoot it from an elevated platform,
when it comes out at night or early in the morning to feed on the confines of the jungle; this
being likewise their mode of destroying tigers, wild boars, and other beasts which they dare not
attack openly. Even in confinement, and when domesticated from birth, the violent and change-
able temper of the Nil-Ghau cannot be trusted. Previous to making an attack, it drops upon
the fore-knees, advancing in this position till within a proper distance, then darting suddenly for-
ward with the velocity of an arrow, and with a force which no ordinary animal can withstand.
Yet, notwithstanding its vigor and resolution, it is the most common prey of the tiger. It has often
been bred in confinement, both in England and India. The period of gestation is eight months,
and two young are commonly produced at a birth. At first the
At first the young males are of the same
reddish-brown color as the females, and only assume the grayish-blue shade proper to their sex
on arriving at maturity: their growth is, however, rapid, and they attain their adult size in the
second or third year of their age.
Genus TRAGELAPHUS: Tragelaphus.—Of this the most noted species is the Guib ANTILOPE,
T. scriptus, a graceful animal, about the size of a common deer, of a reddish fawn-color, but
marked with white stripes along the back and sides, and with white spots on the haunches. These
markings are prominent in both sexes; and as they resemble a harness, the species has been called
the Harnessed Antilope. It is found in the western part of Africa, where it associates in extensive
herds.

CLASS I. MAM MALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
535
MWHY
نے دنیا LC
THE GUIB ANTILOPE.
a
The DECULA, T. decula, found in Abyssinia, is grayish brown, and is marked on the back and
sides with indistinct cross-bands and spots.
The Bosch-Boc, a name given by the South African colonists, and meaning Bush-goat, T'.
sylvaticus, has a body four feet long, and twisted, blunt horns a foot in length. The male is
blackish brown above and white beneath ; the female, reddish fawn above and white beneath.
There are two white bands across the throat, and sometimes a white stripe along the back. It re-
sides in the woods, which it never quits except during the bright moonlight nights, or early in the
morning, when it comes out to graze on the border of the forest, or to make incursions into the
neighboring gardens and corn-fields. Its voice resembles the barking of a dog, and its deceitful
tone sometimes leads the benighted traveler into the most remote and lonely depths of the forest,
in the vain search after some human habitation, which he is all the time leaving behind him. It
is a slow runner, and easily caught when surprised in an open situation, but it keeps close to the
woods, through which it penetrates with great ease, running with the horns couched backward
along the sides of the neck, to prevent them from impeding its course by striking against the
branches. Hence it has the neck and throat frequently denuded by rubbing against the underwood,
as it forces its passage through the thick covers. The species is monogamous, the male and
female being always found either alone or accompanied by one or two kids, but never by adult
individuals. It is common enough in Caffraria, and in such parts of the Cape Colony as have
sufficient forest to afford it a secure asylum ; its flesh makes good venison, that of the breast being
particularly esteemed.
The BROAD-HORNED ANTILOPE, Antilope Eurycerus of Ogilby, has long, thick horns, slightly
bent forward at the tips; there is a band across the eyes, and large spots on the cheeks and
chin.
The INGALA, T. Angasii of Gray, has slender horns, a small head, marked with bands and
spots, and is found in the region of Natal.
The Doria or GILDED ANTILOPE, Antilope Zebrata, the A. Zebra of Gray, is of a bright golden
color, with several cross-bands narrowing at the end; it is found in West Africa.
a

536
VERTEBRATA,
honnin
mm
Emain
THE ORYX OR GEMSBOK.
Genus ORYX: Oryx.—Of this there are several species: the GEMSBOK or KOOKAAM, 0.
Gazella, Antilope Oryx of Pallas, is the Oryx of Cuvier, the Papan of Buffon, and the Egyptian
Antilope of Pennant. It is a heavy, stout animal, about five feet in length, and three feet two
inches high at the shoulder; the length of the horns is from two feet to two and a half, that of
the ears seven inches, and that of the tail thirteen or fourteen inches. The horns are almost
perfectly straight, very little divergent, and situated in the plane of the forehead. The general
color is rusty iron-gray. It inhabits the karroos of South Africa : it is never found in the woods,
but keeps on the open plains, and lives in pairs or small families of four or five individuals. It is
extremely dangerous to approach when wounded, if not completely disabled, making vigorous use
of its long, powerful horns, and it is said, being not unfrequently the first to commence the assault.
We are even assured that the lion himself is afraid to attack this powerful and courageous ani-
mal, and that sometimes when, pressed by famine, he has ventured to do so, he has been beaten
off with disgrace, or even paid for his temerity with his life. In evidence of this, we have
from Dr. Livingstone the following description of a conflict which he witnessed in South Africa
between a lion and a Gemsbok. Just as he and his guide emerged from a narrow defile between
two rocky hills, they heard an angry growl, which they knew to be that of the monarch of the
forest. At the distance of not more than forty yards in advance of them a gemsbok stood at
bay, while a huge, tawny lion was crouched on a rocky platform, above the level of the plain,
evidently meditating an attack on the antilope. Only a space of twenty feet separated the two
animals. The lion appeared to be in a state of furious excitement; the gemsbok was apparently

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
537
calm but resolute, presenting his well fortified head to the enemy. The lion cautiously changed
his position, descended to the plain, and made a circuit, obviously for the purpose of attacking
the gemsbok in the rear; but the latter was on the alert, and still turned his head toward his
antagonist. The maneuvering lasted for half an hour, when it appeared to the observers that the
gemsbok used a stratagem to induce the lion to make an assault. The flank of the antilope was
for a moment presented to his fierce assailant; as quick as lightning the lion made a spring, but
while he was yet in the air the gemsbok turned his head, bending his neck so as to present one
of his spear-like horns at the lion's breast. A terrible laceration was the consequence; the lion
fell back on his haunches and showed a ghastly wound in the lower part of his neck. He uttered
a howl of rage and anguish, and backed off to the distance of fifty yards, seeming half disposed to
give up the contest; but hunger, fury, or revenge once more impelled him forward. His second
assault was more furious and headlong; he rushed at the gemsbok, and attempted to leap over
the formidable horns, in order to alight on his back.
The gemsbok, still standing on the defensive, elevated his head, speared the lion in his side,
and inflicted what the spectators believed to be a mortal wound, as the horns penetrated to the
depth of six or eight inches. Again the lion retreated, groaning and limping in a manner which
showed that he had been severely hurt; but he soon collected all his energies for another attack.
At the instant of collision the gemsbok presented a horn so as to strike the lion immediately be-
tween his two fore-legs, and so forcible was the stroke that the whole length of the horn was
buried in the lion's body. For nearly a minute the two beasts stood motionless; then the
gemsbok, slowly backing, withdrew his horn, and the lion tottered and fell on his side, his limbs
quivering in the agonies of death. The victor made a triumphant flourish of his heels, and
trotted off, apparently without having received the least injury in the conflict.
The 0. Beisa, the Antilope Beisa of Rüppel, resembles the gazelles, and is found in Abysinia.
The WATER-BUCK or PHOTOMOK, Kobus ellipsiprymnus, is seven feet long and four high ; the
horns are thick and heavy, and marked by twenty-four prominent annuli. The most distinguish-
ing mark of the species is a ribbon of pure white which passes over the croup and down each hip,
uniting between the thighs, and forming a perfect ellipse, having the root of the tail in one of its
foci, and contrasting most singularly with the dark, rusty iron-gray of the surrounding parts. It
is to this mark, which is so peculiarly characteristic of the species, that the name of ellipsiprym-
nus refers. This animal is a native of South Africa. It receives the name of Water-Buck from
its habit, when alarmed, of rushing into and crossing very rapid rivers. It lives in small herds
on the banks of streams, and has not been known to occur south of 26° south latitude. The flesh
is not regarded as good for food, as it has a rank, pungent smell, and disagreeable taste.
The Sing-Sing, Kobus Sing-Sing, differs in the tints of its coloring as well as the length of
its hair at different seasons of the year. The general color is reddish or yellowish-gray-brown;
the belly and legs, end of tail and legs, from shoulder to hock, black. The females are grayer
and have the belly and upper part of the legs paler. This animal is called Sing-Sing by all the
negroes. They do not think that their flocks will be healthy or fruitful unless they have a Sing-
Sing with them, just as a fancy is entertained by some persons in England for having a goat in a
stable. The English on the Gambia call it the Jackass-Deer from its appearance; it is called
Koba and Kassimause by the negroes at Macarthy's Island. Its flesh is strong, and not pleasant
eating.
The LEUCORYX, 0. leucoryx, referred to by various writers under the names of the Milk-white
Antilope, the White Antilope, and the Algazel, is known to the Arabs by the names of Abuhard,
Jachmur, and Yazmur, and to the Persians by that of El-Walrugh-el-Bukras. It is perhaps the
most celebrated of all the antilope genus, being the species which is generally supposed to have
given rise to the fabulous Unicorn of the ancients. It is, properly speaking, the Oryx of ancient
writers, but many modern authors have followed the example of Pallas in bestowing that name
upon the Oryx Gazella. The horns are long, slender, and bent slightly backward. The general
color is milk-white, with some rusty-brown marks. It is gregarious, and feeds upon different
species of acacias, and is found in large herds in Sennaar, Nubia, and Senegal. It is frequently
represented on the monuments of Egypt and Nubia, and particularly in the inner chamber of
Vol. 1.—68

038
VERTEBRATA.
THE BLAUW-BOC.
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the great pyramid at Memphis, where a whole group of them is depicted, some being driven or
pushed forward, and others led by the horns or by a cord about the neck, apparently by way of
tribute from some subject or conquered nation. With one exception these representations are in
profile, so that only one horn is seen.
The Eraac or BLAUW-Boc, Antilope leucophæa, is six feet long, three feet seven inches high, has
round horns curved backward, and is of a bluish-black color, whence its name, which signifies
Blue Buck. It is also sometimes called the Blue Antilope. It lives in pairs or small families in
the
open plains of Southern and Western Africa, is exceedingly swift, and when wounded is dan-
gerous. Its flesh is eaten but is not relished. The French of Senegambia call it Vache Brune,
and the Joliffs, Kob or Koba.
The Takhaitze of the Bechuanas— Antilope barbata—is a wild and ferocious but beautiful va-
riety of the preceding.
The A. equina of Geoffroy is also a variety of Blauw-Boc.
The BLACK BUCK, Egocerus Niger, is black, with a white face marked with a dark streak;
the female and young are brown. It is found in Southern Africa.
Genus GAZELLE: Gazella.—These animals are distinguished for their graceful forms and
delicate limbs; their horns are black, shiny, and lyrate, and smaller in the female than the male;
the face is conical and tapering; the fur short and close.
The GAZELLE, Gazella Dorcas—the Gazelle of Buffon—the animal he describes as a distinct
species under the name of Corinne being the female of this species. It is three feet and a half
long, twenty-two inches high, the horns nine inches long; the ears are long, narrow, and pointed,
the form light and elegant; the general color is a yellowish-red, with white patches and dark
stripes on parts of the body; beneath it is white. It is found in Egypt and Barbary, where it
lives in large troops upon the borders of the cultivated country, and also in the deserts. When
pursued it flies to some distance, then stops to gaze a moment at the hunters, and again renews
its flight. The flock, when attacked collectively, disperse in all directions, but soon unite, and
when brought to bay defend themselves with courage and obstinacy, uniting in a close circle,
with the females and fawns in the center, and presenting their horns at all points to their ene-
mies; yet, notwithstanding their courage, they are the common prey of the lion and panther, and
are hunted with great perseverance by the Arabs and Bedouins of the desert. When taken young
they are easily domesticated, and soon become familiar. This animal is frequently cut upon the
monuments of Egypt and Nubia.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
539
e
FEMALE GAZELLE.
The KEVEL or FLAT-HORNED ANTILOPE, A. Kevella of Pallas, is only the young of the Gazelle.
The ARIEL GAZELLE, Antilope Arabica—the A. leptoceros of F. Cuvier—is one of the most cel-
ebrated of antilopes; it is about two feet high at the shoulder; its limbs are slender but vigorous,
and all its actions are light and spirited. In full flight it lays the horns back nearly on the shoul-
ders, and seems to skim over the level plain almost without touching it. The general color above
is dark fawn or yellowish-brown; the under parts are white, divided from the color of the upper
parts by a black or deep brown band along the flanks.
This beautiful species inhabits Arabia, Syria, and Persia, where it is seen in large herds, bound-
ing over the desert with amazing fleetness. Its eyes are peculiarly large, dark, and lustrous, and
have supplied a simile to the Oriental poets and orators; indeed, to say of a woman, “she has the
eyes of a gazelle,” is a most flattering commendation. It is an object of the chase in Arabia, as
it was among the ancient Egyptians, whose exciting delineations of it are abundant. Its flesh is
said to be excellent. So swift are these animals, that the greyhound unaided cannot overtake
them; the falcon, therefore, is brought into service. The huntsman advances as near as possible
to the herd, the dogs are then slipped and the falcon thrown off; the individual which the dogs
have singled is attacked by the falcon, which is trained to strike at the head and eyes, so as to
confuse the game and check its speed, thereby enabling the dogs to come up to it.
Burckhardt informs us that on the eastern frontier of Syria are several places allotted to the
hunting of this animal, or rather for its entrapment or destruction. An open space on the plain,
about one mile and a half square, is inclosed on three sides by a wall of loose stones too high for
the gazelle to leap over. Gaps are left in different parts of the wall, and at each gap a deep ditch
is sunk on the outside. The inclosure is situated near some rivulet or spring to which the gazelles
resort in summer. When the sport is to begin, many peasants assemble and watch till they see
a herd of gazelles advancing from a distance toward the inclosure, into which they drive them.
The gazelles, frightened by the shouts of the people and the discharge of the fire-arms, endeavor
to leap over the wall, but can only effect this at the gaps, where they fall into the ditch outside
and are easily taken, sometimes by hundreds. The chief of the herd always leaps first, and the
others follow him one by one. The gazelles thus captured are immediately killed, and their flesh
sold to the Arabs and neighboring Fellahs. Of the skin a kind of parchment is made, and used
to cover the small drum with which the Syrians accompany some musical instruments or the
voice.
a

540
VERTEBRATA.
NW
THE ARIEL GAZELLE.
When taken young, wild and timid as the gazelle is, it is readily tamed, and becomes familiar
and quite at ease. Tame gazelles are frequently seen at large in the court-yards of houses in Syria,
and their beauty, exquisite form, and playfulness render them great favorites.
This animal, formerly regarded as a distinct species, is now held by most naturalists to be a
variety only of the African Gazelle.
The ISABEL GAZELLE, G. Isabella, formerly supposed to be a variety of the Dorcas Gazelle, is
considered a distinct species by Gray. It is found in Egypt and Kordofan.
The Pallah or RooYE-Boc—the Betjuan of the Caffers — Antilope melampus, is a magnificent
species, four and a half feet long and three high. The general color is a deep red, the under
parts being white. It inhabits Caffraria and the country of the Bechuanas, living on the open
plains in families of six or eight individuals. They run with amazing swiftness, and occasionally
leap like the Spring-Bocs, which they resemble in their general habits and manners. They are
extremely numerous on the elevated plains in the neighborhood of Latakoo, and constitute a
favorite object of the chase with the natives, as their flesh, though deficient in fat, is well-tasted
and wholesome. Pallah or Phaala is the native name of the animal, but the mixed Hottentots,
who travel into that country from the Cape, distinguish it by the Dutch term Rooye-Boc or Red
Buck, on account of the prevailing color of its hair.
The ING-Boc or SPRING-BUCK, PRONG-Boc, Showy Goat or TSEBE, is perhaps the most
graceful and the most beautifully varied in its colors, of all the antilope tribe. Imagination
cannot conceive a quadruped more light and airy in form, more delicate in its proportions,
or whose movements are executed with more natural ease and grace, than the Spring-Boc, or as

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
541
THE PALLAH.
а
a
the English colonists now universally denominate it, Spring-Buck. In point of size it is nearly a
third larger than the Dorcas Gazelle. The horns are rather irregularly lyrated; they are round,
black, annulated within a short distance of the points, spreading first backward and widely out-
ward, and finally turning inward, and with an almost imperceptible twist on their own axis back-
ward. The hair is long on the upper parts of the body, particularly on the back and croup, but
,
smooth, sleek, and shining; it is of a beautiful light cinnamon-color on the shoulders, neck, back,
sides, and thighs, and of a pure snowy-white on the breast, belly, and inner sides of the limbs,
these two colors being separated on the flanks by a broad longitudinal band of a deep vinous-red
color, larger and more distinct than in any other species of antilope. The whole head, face,
cheeks, and chin are white, with a broad brown band on each side, from the eyes to the corners
of the mouth, and a mark of the same color on the center of the face, commencing in a narrow
point on the muzzle, and enlarging as it proceeds upward till it joins the reddish fawn-color of the
body on the crown of the head. The eyes are large, lively, and of a brown color; the ears long,
small, and cylindrical at the root, then widening in the middle, and ending in an attenuated
point. The neck is long and slender; the hoofs small, black, and triangular; the legs remark-
ably long and slender. But the most remarkable and distinctive character of this species consists
in two longitudinal foldings or duplications of the skin on the croup, which commence above the
loins, or about the middle of the back, and run in a straight line from thence to the tail. The
interior of these folds is lined with long hair of nine or ten inches in length, and of the most bril-
liant and snowy whiteness; they are likewise under the complete command of the animal's voli-
tion, and are opened and shut at pleasure. When closed, which they always are when the ani-
mal is at rest, their lips form a narrow line along the top of the loins and croup, which, being cor-
ered by the long cinnamon-red hair of the back and hips, is scarcely distinguishable, or only as a
narrow white streak; but when the animal leaps or runs, these folds are expanded, and form a
broad circular mark of the purest white, which extends over the whole croup and hips, and pro-
duces a most remarkable and pleasing effect.
The Spring-Buck is so called from its remarkable habit of jumping almost perpendicularly up-
ward when disturbed or excited. It resides in very numerous flocks on the dry, arid plains
and karroos of the interior of South Africa, seldom approaching the inhabited districts of the col-
ony, unless in seasons of peculiar drought, when the pools and pastures of the interior are dried
and burnt up by the excessive heat, and these animals are compelled to migrate in search of a

542
VERTEBRATA.
more abundant supply. On these occasions they unite into flocks which often consist of from ten
thousand to fifty thousand individuals, spreading over the face of the whole country like a swarm
of locusts, devouring every vegetable substance that they meet with, and scarcely deviating from
their direct path to avoid the men and dogs which endeavor to turn them into another direction.
These vast flocks, according to Mr. R. G. Cumming, will sometimes stream along in an unbroken,
compact phalanx for two or three hours.
This migration is called at the Cape a Trak Bokken. So great is the number of animals in
these migrations that those which happen to get into the rear of the troop are lean and half-
starved before the migration is concluded, from the advanced ranks cropping the scanty pastures
almost bare, and thus leaving those behind nearly destitute of food; but when the journey is con-
cluded, and the troop begins to retrace its steps northward, those which formed the van during
the advance are necessarily in the rear returning, soon lose their plump condition, and are in their
turn subjected to want and starvation. During these migrations the herds are closely followed
by lions, panthers, hyenas, and wild dogs, which hang upon their flanks and destroy great num-
bers of them. There is perhaps no spectacle in nature more inspiring than a flock of these beau-
tiful antilopes enlivening the dreary brown karroos of South Africa with their graceful motions;
now leaping perpendicularly upward to the height of six or seven feet, displaying at the same
time the snowy-white marks on their croups, and anon flying over the desert with the speed of a
whirlwind.
It is only when disturbed or otherwise excited that they make those extraordinary springs from
which they have derived their name; nor do they ever display the white mark on their rump
except on these occasions. They are said to be particularly affected by changes of the weather,
and are observed to leap more than usual before the setting in of the south wind, which, at the
Cape of Good Hope, generally betokens stormy weather, and is always violent and tempestuous.
When taken young, the Spring-Buck is easily tamed, and soon displays all the petulance and
familiarity of the common goat, butting at every stranger that approaches it, and warding off
stones or other objects thrown at it with its horns.
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THE COMMON ANTILOPE.
The Sasin or COMMON ANTILOPE- Antilope Bezoartica of the English
the English Cyclopedia of Natural
History, A. cervicapra of Pallas—is one of the most beautiful of the antilope tribe. Its length is
four feet, its height two and a half; the legs are long and delicate; the body round, but light and
well formed; the head small; the eyes large, lively, and expressive; the ears long, cylindrical,
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA,
543
grass that
and in continual motion; and the horns forming a complete spiral of two or three turns, wrinkled
at the base, distinctly annulated in the middle, and smooth for a couple of inches next the points.
The old males are nearly black above and white beneath. In their flight these animals outstrip
the greyhound; they leap over heights of twelve and thirteen feet, and pass over ten and twelve
yards at a single bound. They reside on the open plains, where they can see to a great distance
in every direction, live in large families of from five or ten to fifty or sixty grown females to a
single male, and when they feed, or lie down to ruminate, detach a number of the young bucks
to a distance of two hundred or three hundred yards on every side to watch over the common
safety. Nothing escapes the notice of these careful sentinels; every bush or tuft of
might be suspected to conceal an enemy is strictly and attentively examined, and on the first alarm
the whole herd betakes itself to flight, following closely in the footsteps of an old buck, and is
soon beyond the reach of pursuit. The venison is dry and unsavory, and being held in small es-
teem, consequently holds out little inducement either to the occasional sportsınan or to the pro-
fessional hunter.
This species extends over every part of India, from the borders of Persia to the most eastern
parts of which Europeans have any distinct knowledge. Some naturalists hold that it exists in
Africa. It frequents rocky, open plains, but avoids woody localities and the thick cover of the
forest. The fakirs and dervishes of India polish the horns and form them into a kind of offensive
arms by uniting them at the base; these they wear at their girdles instead of swords and daggers,
which their vows and religious character prevent them from using.
The Mohr or MHORR, G. Mohr, is four feet two inches long, and two feet six inches high. The
horns are round, annulated, and bent forward at the tips. The general color is yellowish-red;
beneath, white. It is a native of Western Africa. The species is not found in the empire of Mo-
rocco, but individuals are occasionally brought thither from the opposite confines of the desert;
the animal is much sought after by the Arabs on account of producing the bezoar-stones so highly
valued in eastern medicine. These stones are commonly called in Morocco Baid-el-Mhorr, or
Mhorr's Eggs.
The ABYSSINIAN Mohr, G. Sommeringii, is considerably larger than the gazelles we have de-
scribed; the horns are irregularly lyrated, and marked with fifteen or sixteen rings; the upper
parts are a beautiful yellowish dun-color; beneath, they are pure white. It frequents hills of moder-
ate ascent in the eastern provinces of Abyssinia, and lives in pairs.
The NANGUER—the Antilope dama of Pallas-was originally described and figured by Buffon
from materials brought by Adanson from Senegal: since that time the animal has not been seen
by any naturalist, and as the description of Buffon is imperfect, doubt may be entertained whether
it be not in reality the young of the Mohr.
The ANDRA, G. ruficollis—the Antilope ruficollis of Smith—is a beautiful species of Eastern
Africa. The length is five feet four inches, its height three feet. The horns are precisely simi-
lar to those of the Mohr already described, as are likewise the general form and proportions of
the body. It is gregarious, and resides in flocks on the desert between Nubia, Dongola, and
Kordofan.
The Korin, G. rufifrons, is of a bay-brown color, the sides above paler.
The CHIKARA, Tragops Benneitii—the Antilope quadricornis of Blainville—called Ravine-Deer,
Goat-Antelope, Kalsiepie or Black-Tail, is of a bay-brown color, and has the end of the nose and
tail black; the face streaked: chest, belly, and inside of the limbs, white; the feet black or brown.
It is found on the rocky hills of the Deccan, and differs from many other antilopes in not being
gregarious, there being rarely more than three or four found together in the same company, and
not unfrequently one is found alone.
The Ahu or JAIROU, G. subgutturosa, is of a pale-brown color above and white beneath. It
inhabits all the central parts of Asia, Persia, Daüria, the country around Lake Baïkal, and from
the eastern limits of Great Bucharia to the shores of the Hellespont. It associates in extensive
flocks, frequents the open plains and naked hills of moderate elevation, and feeds principally upon
the Absinthium Ponticum. The flesh is much esteemed.
The BASTARD HARTE-BEest or SassaBy, the Antilope lunata of Burchell, is of a rufous glau-

544
VERTEBRATA.
cous color, with the outer sides of the limbs dark. It inhabits the south of Africa, between Lati-
koo and the tropic of Capricorn. It lives in herds of six or ten, in the flat or wooded districts.
The flesh is esteemed. When not disturbed it is confiding and curious, but when hunted it be-
comes shy.
The KORRIGUM, A. Senegalensis, is of a reddish-gray color; the front of the face, from nose to
occiput, a small spot behind the eyes, a small streak above the angle of the mouth, streak on out-
side of limbs above the knees, and tuft of the tail, black. This animal is a native of West Africa,
on the Gambia River and Macarthy's Island. It is called Yonga or Yongah by the Joliffs, and
Tan-Rong by the Mandingoes.
The NUNNI or BONTE-Boc, A. pygarga, is of a simple red color; the outer side of the limbs
darker; the streak between the horns, face, and rump above the tail, white; the temple and up-
per part of throat whitish; the legs whitish; upper and lower part brown, varied. The female
has the throat and under part of the body white. The terms Kob and Koba are applied to vari-
ous kinds of antilopes by the negroes, and probably also to this species.
The Bless-Boc, A. albifrons, described by Burchell, is of an exceedingly slender form, and is
found in South Africa.
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THE ADDAX.
The Adax, A. Addax, is mentioned by Pliny under the name of Strepsiceros, which, he says,
the Africans call Addax. From the time of Pliny to a recent date this animal was not discov-
ered; but it is now ascertained to exist in Central Africa, where it lives in pairs on the sandy
deserts. The body is five feet long, the height three feet. The general color is grayish-white,
though the head and neck are of a reddish-brown.
Genus CAPRICORNIS: Capricornis.—This comprises the CAMBING OUTAN, C. Sumatrensis,
the Antilope Sumatrensis of Shaw, found in Sumatra ; the THAR, SEROW, or Imo, C. Thar or Bu-
balina, found in Nepaul; the JAPANESE GOAT-ANTILOPE, C. crispa of Temminck, found in Japan;
and the GORAL or NEPAUL BOUQUETIN, a large kind, found in herds in the elevated plains of
Nepaul. This last forms the genus Kemas of Ogilby and Nemorhedus of Gray.
Genus ANTILOCAPRA: Antilocapra.–Of this there is a single species, the CABRIT or PRONG-
HORNED ANTILOPE of North America, A. furcifer, the only kind of antilope found on this conti-
nent. It differs from all the other members of the tribe in several respects, and especially in
having a prong or branch to the horns. It is about four feet long and three feet high; the horns
rise perpendicularly from the skull till within two or three inches of the points, where they curve
suddenly backward and inward, forming a small hook like those of the chamois. The prong
situated
upon their anterior face, and in adult animals about half-way up from the root; below it
a
is

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
545
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THE PRONG-HORN.
the horns are strongly compressed, rough, and scrabous or pearly, like the antlers of deer; above
it they are round, black, and polished. The prong itself is also very much compressed; it is little
more than an inch in length, and points forward, upward, and a little outward. The ears are
long, narrow, and pointed; the tail short and bushy; the eye large and lively; the limbs long
and slender; and the whole form and appearance of the animal peculiarly graceful and elegant.
The head, ears, and legs are covered with short, close hair of the common description, but that of
the body is long and padded, and of a texture altogether different from that of other animals. It
is tubular or hollow within, like the feather of a bird, but so brittle and devoid of elasticity that
it snaps with the smallest effort, and, when pressed between the finger and thumb, crushes like a
reed and never regains its original form. It stands directly out at right-angles to the hide, is
about two inches long on the back, sides, and buttocks, but from the ears half-way down the neck
it exceeds six inches in length, and forms an erect mane, equally conspicuous in both sexes. On
the
nape of the neck, shoulders, back, and hips, it is of a uniform fawn-color for half an inch at
the point, and light-blue with a tinge of rose-color at the root; on the sides, chest, and belly, the
latter color prevails at the root, and the point is of a pure and shining white. The extremities
are uniform light fawn-color throughout, except on the interior of the fore-arms and thighs, which
are white. A broad disk of pure white also surrounds the tail, and passes over the croup, and the
throat is likewise marked with two transverse bands of the same color. This is the winter dress
of the animal; but in summer, when the new coat appears, it has at first the ordinary texture
and appearance of common hair, and only assumes the appearances here described on the ap-
proach of the cold season.
The Prong-Horn inhabits all the western parts of North America, from 53° of north latitude
to the plains of New Mexico and California, that is, presuming this species to be the Mazama of
Hernandez: it is particularly numerous on the banks of the southern branch of the Saskatchewan,
and on the upper plains of the Columbia River, and a small herd annually visits the neighborhood
of the station called Carlton House, where some even linger throughout the winter. They are
gregarious, frequent the open plains and hills of moderate height, never inhabit closely-wooded
districts, and migrate from north to south according to the season. When the ground is clear,
their speed surpasses that of most other animals, but a good horse easily outstrips them after a
slight fall of snow. They are extremely curious, and the Indians, and even the wolves, know how
VOL. I.-69

546
VERTEBRATA.
to take advantage of their curiosity to get within reach of them, by crouching down, and mov-
ing forward or stopping alternately. The antilopes wheel round and round the object of their
attention, decreasing their distance at every run, till at last they approach sufficiently near to
be shot or captured. This habit renders them an easy prey, but as their flesh is not much
esteemed by the Indians, they are only hunted by them in times of scarcity. The females pro-
duce one kid, and occasionally two kids, early in the month of June.
Gervais makes this species the basis of the genus Dicranocerus, while he applies the term
Antilocapra to the Rocky Mountain Goat.
VI
EREUMAN-KENNY.ENGRS.NY-
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THE CHAMOIS.
Genus CHAMOIS: Rupicapra.–Of this there is a single species, the CHAMOIS or GEMS-
Antilope rupicapra. It is the only animal of western Europe that partakes in any degree of the
character of the antilopes. The horns are six or seven inches long, the body about three feet
three inches, and the height at the shoulders about two feet. The whole body is covered with
long hair, hanging down over the sides, of a deep-brown color in winter and brownish fawn-color
in summer, being in spring slightly mixed with gray; the head is of a very pale yellow or straw-
color, with a dark-brown band on each side, passing from the root of the ears to the corners of
the mouth, and encircling the eyes and base of the horns; the tail is short and black, and the
edges of the hips and interior of the thighs and ears alone white. The face is straight, as in the
goat; the ears small, erect, and pointed; and the chin without a beard. In old individuals,
particularly during the severe colds of winter, the cheeks, chin, and throat turn white, and the
breast and belly are at all times of a light silvery brown or yellow. Underneath the external
covering there is a short, thick coat of fine wool, which lies close to the skin, and protects the
animal from the rigors of the cold mountain regions which it inhabits. The colors of both sexes
are the same, but the females are rather smaller than the males, and have horns less abruptly
hooked backward. They go five months with young, and kid in March or April, producing one,
or, very rarely, two at a birth, which they suckle till the October following. The young are at
first of a uniform deep yellowish-brown, with the lower jaw, sides of the head, and throat, white,
and the same dark bands through the eyes as in the adults, only not extending so far back on
the head.
The chamois, like the ibex, inhabits the loftiest chains of the primitive mountain ridges, and
displays all the vivacity, restlessness, and agility of the common goat. It is extremely impatient

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
547
of heat, and during summer is only to be found on the tops of the highest mountains, or in deep
glens where the snow lies throughout the year; in winter, however, it descends to the lower
ridges, and it is then only that the hunters can pursue it with any hope of success. Its senses
of sight and smell are remarkably acute; it scents a man at a very great distance, and displays
the greatest restlessness and alarm till it obtains a sight of the object of its terror, leaping upon
the highest rocks at hand in order to command a more extensive prospect, and uttering a sup-
pressed whistle or hissing sound, being all the time in a state of the greatest agitation; but no
sooner does he appear in sight than it flies with the utmost speed, scaling rocks which few other
animals could attempt, and, if not intercepted by stratagem, soon leaves its pursuer far behind.
The usual and most successful mode of hunting the chamois is, therefore, for a party of hunters to
unite, and surround some mountain glen which they are previously known to frequent for the
purpose of lying on the fresh snow during the daytime; toward this point the hunters advance
simultaneously, when the animals, of course scenting those which come down the wind, retire in
an opposite direction, and are intercepted by another portion of the company.
The food of the chamois consists of mountain herbs, flowers, and the tender shoots of trees and
shrubs; it seldom drinks. Nothing can be more admirable than the agility with which it ascends
and descends rocks apparently perpendicular. It does not descend at a single bound nor in a
vertical direction, but projecting itself obliquely or diagonally forward, striking the face of the
rock three or four times with its feet for the purpose of renewing its force, or directing it more
steadily to the point it aims at; and in this manner it will descend a rock almost perpendicular
of twenty or thirty feet in height, without the smallest apparent projection upon which to
rest its feet. This animal is extremely partial to salt, and many stones are met with in the
Alps hollowed by the continual licking of the chamois on account of the saltpeter with which
they abound. The species is found in all the high mountain-chains of Europe and western Asia,
in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathian and Grecian mountains, the chains of Caucasus and
Taurus, and probably it exists in other situations.
Genus PANTHOLOPS: Pantholops.—Of this there is a single species, the Chiru, P. Hodg-
sonii, which has horns nearly two feet in height, and slightly bent forward at the tips. The hair
is thick and of a dirty fawn-color. This animal lives in Thibet, on the slopes of the Himalayas ;
it is said to defend itself boldly against the hunters. It is supposed to be the Unicorn of the
Bhotias, and the Kemas of Ælian.
in
THE RIET-BOC.-(See p. 548.)
Genus SAIGA: Saiga.–Of this there are several species. The TARTARIAN SAIGA, S. Tar
, .

548
VERTEBRATA,
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THE EQUITOON.
tarica, is the Colus of Strabo. It lives in herds among the Altaï and Ural mountains, and wanders
from place to place in search of food. The body is fawn above and white beneath. When the
flock reposes, one of their number keeps guard, and the males defend the young from the wolves
and foxes. At some seasons the males have a strong musky smell. These animals are easily
domesticated when taken young, and do not in that condition show any disposition to stray away
with the wild ones. They are the only true species of Antilope found in Europe.
The INDIAN SAIGA, S. cervicapra, is fawn above and white beneath, with a brown line upon
the flanks. It is found in India.
The GOITRED ANTILOPE, DZEREN, WHANG YANG, or Yellow Goat, Antilope gutturosa, and
the Goa or Ragoa, Procapra picticauda of Gray, are both of Thibet.
The Reh-Boc or RHEE-Boc, or PEELE, is five feet long, and two and a half high; the hair is
woolly, and the color an ashy-gray. Its form is light and graceful, and it runs swiftly with long
strides, moving close to the ground; it lives in small families on the sides of hills, and is common
in Southern Africa.
The INGHALLA, RIET-Boc, or REED-Buck, is of a deep reddish fawn-color; it lives in pairs or
small families, frequenting the reedy borders of mountain streams. It is found in South Africa,
but at some distance from the Cape.
An animal called Roode RHEE-Boc, or RED ROEBUCK, Antilope fulvo-rufula, is found in the
same regions as the preceding, and is probably a variety of that species.
The WANTO or Nagor, Antilope redunca, is four feet long, two feet four inches high; the color
a fawn or pale red. It is found at Goree, in Western Africa. This, too, is probably a variety of
the Riet-Boc.
The Bohor, A. Bohor, is also regarded as a variety of the same by Dr. Gray.
The EQUIToon or Kob, A. adenota, is of a pale-brown color, lives in small herds on the Gam-
bia, and resembles the gazelles.
The LECHEE,* A. lechee, is of a pale-brown color above, and white beneath, and is nearly as
large as the water-buck. It lives in Southern Africa along the River Zouga.
* This species is spoken of as below by Livingstone in his “Travels;" the country where it was met with, about
latitude twenty degrees north and longitude twenty-three degrees east, seeming to be a paradise of wild animals :
"We found the elephants in prodigious numbers on the southern bank. They came to drink by night, and after
having slaked their thirst—in doing which they threw large quantities of water over themselves, and are heard, while
enjoying the refreshment, screaming with delight-they evince their horror of pitfalls by setting off in a straight line
to the desert, and never diverge till they are eight or ten miles off. They are smaller here than in the countries far-
At the Limpopo, for instance, they are upward of twelve feet high; here, only eleven; farther north we

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
549
THE LECHE AND POKEE ANTILOPES DISCOVERED BY LIVINGSTONE.
Genus CEPHALOPUS: Cephalopus. Of this there are several species. The CHOUSINGHA,
T. quadricornis, belongs to a group of antilopes which have four horns, and hence are arranged
by some naturalists, as a genus, under the name of Tetracerus. The Chousingha is two feet nine
inches long, and one foot nine inches high. The general color is bright bay above, and silvery
white beneath. The two superior or common horns are three inches long, smooth, black, erect,
and divergent; the additional pair are blunt, stumpy, and three-fourths of an inch high. This
species is monogamous, and lives in pairs in the forests and thick jungles; it is common in all
the wooded districts of India, and is particularly abundant in Bengal, Bahor, and Orissa.
The CHIKARA, T. tragops, is found in the same regions as the preceding. Like that it has four
horns, and is a wild and active species, only capable of being tamed by being taken young.
It
is supposed that the Four-horned Oryx of Ælian referred to this species.
The Rusty-Red CHOUSINGHA, T. Iodes, is an Indian species, described by Hodgson.
The Full-HORNED CHOUSINGHA, T. paccervis, is another Indian species.
The JUNGLIBURKA, T. subquadricornutus, is distinguished by its front pair of horns being rudi-
mentary and tubercular.
It is a native of Bombay.
The STEIN-Boc, Antilope tragulus, is one of the most graceful and elegant of the antilope tribe,
a
shall find them nine feet only. The koodoo or tolo seemed smaller, too, than those we had been accustomed to see.
We saw specimens of the kuabaoba, or straight-horned rhinoceros, R. Oswellii, which is a variety of the white, R.
simus, and we found that, from the horn being projected downward, it did not obstruct the line of vision, so that this
species is able to be much more wary than its neighbors.
“We discovered an entirely new species of antilope, called Leche or Lechwi. It is a beautiful water-antilope, of a
light brownish-yellow color. Its horns-exactly like those of the Aigoceros ellipsiprymnus, the water-buck or tumogo
of the Bechuanas-rise from the head with a slight bend backward, then curve forward at the points. The chest,
belly, and orbits are nearly white, the front of the legs and ankles deep brown. From the horns, along the nape to
the withers, the male has a small mane of the same yellowish color with the rest of the skin, and the tail has a tuft
of black hair. It is never found a mile from water; islets in marshes and rivers are its favorite haunts, and it is
quite unknown except in the central humid basin of Africa. Having a good deal of curiosity, it presents a noble ap-
pearance as it stands gazing, with head erect, at an approaching stranger."

550
VERTEBRATA.
Its legs are longer and smaller in proportion to its bulk than in any other species; its body is
compact and well made; its head small, pointed, and ending in a well-formed naked muzzle, and
its tail reduced to a mere tubercle, scarcely perceptible among the long hair of the croup and
buttocks. The whole length, from the muzzle to the root of the tail, is about three feet four or
five inches; the height at the shoulder is one foot seven inches, and at the croup one foot nine
inches. The coloring of this species is altogether peculiar, and alone sufficient to distinguish it
from all other ruminants. In general, it is a reddish fawn-color on the upper parts of the body;
but this seems to be glazed, or as it were, overlaid on the shoulders, back, sides, and hips, with a
light dun or silvery-brown hue, arising from the hairs in these situations being tipped with that
color; the nose and legs are dark brown; the breast, belly, and interior of the fore-arms and
thighs white; the hair of the forehead is long and of a deep red color. The most remarkable
character of the species is the total absence of spurious hoofs, both on the fore and hind-feet, a
character which exists also in the Prong-Buck, and which, as far as we are aware, no other rumi-
nating animals of the hollow-horned family possess.
The Stein-Boc resides in pairs on the stony plains and mountain valleys of South Africa, not,
however, frequenting very elevated or rocky localities, as its colonial name of Stein-Boc or Stone-
Buck would seem to imply. On the contrary, it prefers the dry, open flats, covered here and
there, it is true, with large rocks and boulder-stones, but likewise interspersed with clumps of
stunted bushes and underwood, which furnish it with cover. This is the general character of the
South African plains in the neighborhood of Cape Town, as well as of the gorges of the moderate
hills and mountains, and it is in such situations that the Stein-Boc is most commonly found. It
is remarkably shy and timid, runs with extraordinary swiftness, and when pursued will frequently
bound over a space of twelve or fifteen feet at a single leap. When closely pressed, and without
any further means or power of escape, it will hide its head in the first hole or corner it happens
to meet with, and thus patiently resign itself to its fate. Though it cannot be called a rare ani-
mal at the Cape, it is nowhere particularly common, being much bunted on account of the deli-
cacy of its flesh, which furnishes excellent venison, and great numbers of the young being de-
stroyed by eagles and other birds of prey.
Colonel Smith has described the young of the Stein-Boc as a different species, by the name of
A. rufescens, and the A. pallida or A. pediotragus of Afzelius, appears to differ in no respect from
the adult of the present animal, the really distinctive characters of which have been hitherto very
imperfectly reported.
The GRys-Boc or Gray Buck, Antilope melanotis, is closely allied to the preceding, and has
similar habits. It is found in the country around the Cape of Good Hope.
The OUREBI, or BLEEK-Boc, or PALE Buck, Antilope scoparia, is three feet eight inches long,
four feet ten inches high; the horns are awl-shaped; the general color a pale yellowish-brown
above, the under parts white. It inhabits the open plains of South Africa, and without being
positively gregarious, is fond of the society of its own species. It is found chiefly in the eastern
districts of the Cape Colony, toward Caffraria, and its flesh, though dry and destitute of fat, is es-
teemed one of the best venisons of the country. Great numbers of these animals are found on
the plains about Zwartkops Bay. When feeding, they straggle confusedly over the plain, and
appear to be in company rather accidentally than by intention; when alarmed, also, they do not
fly together, but each runs off by itself in whatever direction it thinks most secure from danger
for the moment.
The GIBARI, Antilope montana, is very like the former, but is of a gray-brown color. It is
found in Abyssinia.
The KAINSI or KLIPPSPRINGER, Antilope Oreotragus, inhabits the most barren and inaccessible
mountains of the Cape, and appears to supply in South Africa the place of the Chamois and Ibex.
The entire length is three feet two inches, its height twenty-one inches. The general color above
is a lively and pleasant mixture of yellow and green; beneath, it is sandy-red tinged with yellow.
Great numbers of the young of this species are devoured by eagles.
The Nesotragus Moschatus is an extremely small species; it is an inhabitant of the Island of
Zanzibar as well as the neighboring coast of Mozambique.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMIN ANTIA.
551
。
THE MADOQUA.
a
The MADOQUA, Antilope Saltiana, if we except the Pigmy Antilope, is probably the smallest
of horned quadrupeds, it being two feet long and fourteen inches high. Its color is similar to
that of our common gray squirrel. It lives in pairs in the mountainous districts of Abyssinia.
The natives of the country object to eating its flesh, from a superstitious belief that it frequents
the society of monkeys and baboons.
The FOUR-TUFTED ANTILOPE, Antilope quadriscopa, is found in Senegal.
The IMPOON, DUYKER-Boc, or DIVING-BUCK, is of a yellowish-brown color, and grayish in win-
ter. It gets its name from its habit of plunging under the bushes in its passage through the
woods, instead of leaping over them like the generality of other antilopes. It is a common ani-
mal in Caffraria and in all parts of the Cape Colony. It is found alone or in pairs, makes its way
readily among the thickets and low bushes, and when pursued will from time to time stand up
on its hind-legs to look round it, then dive under the branches to reappear again at some dis-
tance.
This species is most probably the animal of which the female was long since imperfectly de-
scribed by Grimm, and which has been admitted into systematic catalogues under the name of
Antilope Grimmia. The A. Platous of Colonel Smith likewise appears to be identical with, or
at most a casual variety of the Duyker-Boc, the characters upon which the separation is made
being by no means constant, and some of them even of doubtful authenticity. The Capra syl-
vestris—Capra Africana of Grimm—is probably of this species.
The BLACK-FACED PHILATOMBA, Antilope Campbellic, differs from the Duyker by being much
darker and more distinctly grizzled or dotted, and the under side being much whiter. It is pos-
sible that it is only a variety of that species.
BURCHELL'S Bush-Boc, Antilope Burchellii, is easily known from the two former by its darker
color, and by the under sides and inside of the legs being nearly of the same color as the back,
and not white. It inhabits the districts more or less covered with underwood in Caffirland, and
the country north of the Orange River. When interrupted or pursued by dogs, it springs with
considerable activity over such bushes as may stand in its course, and endeavors to plunge into
the closest bushes for concealment.
The ABYSSINIAN Bush-Goat, Antilope Madoqua, is of a yellowish-brown color, slightly punc-
tulated with black. It inhabits Abyssinia, and is the Madoqua of Bruce.
The RED-CROWNED Bush-Buck, Sylvicapra coronata, is a species found in Western Africa,
and is very distinct from the last, its color being lighter, and the fur less rigid and close-pressed.
The WHITE-BACKED BUSH-BUCK, or BUSH-Goat, or Bush-ANTILOPE, Antilope sylvicultrix, is
about five feet in length from the muzzle to the root of the tail, three feet high at the shoulder,
and three feet two inches at the croup. Its proportions are heavy and ungainly, and bear a con-
siderable resemblance to those of the Hog-Deer of India. It inhabits the west coast of Africa,
about Sierra Leone and the sources of the Pongas and Quia rivers. It frequents the thickets and
underwood of the upland plains and moderate mountain declivities, keeping close to the cover

552
VERTEBRATA.
a
during the daytime, and quitting it only at early dawn for the purpose of feeding in the neigh-
boring meadows. It is at this time that it is pursued by the hunters, who station themselves on
the margin of the woods and shoot it as it comes out to graze. It affords excellent venison.
The BLACK-STRIPED Bush-BUCK, Antilope Ogilbii, is of a pale bay-brown color. The horns
are short, thick, and conical. It is a native of Fernando Po.
The Bay Bush-Buck, Cephalopus badius, is very like the last species, but is of a darker bay-
color; the legs are blackish, and the neck bright bay, and not blackish-bay as in the Antilope
Ogilbii. It is a native of Sierra Leone.
The Bay Bush-Goat, C. dorsalis, is of a dark bay-color, with shoulders and legs darker. It
is a native of Sierra Leone.
The Black Bush-Buck, C. niger, is a native of the coast of Guinea, distinguished by its sooty-
black color.
The NATAL BUSH-Buck or RHOODE-Boc, C. Natalensis, is of a bright red-bay color, and has
short conical horns. It inhabits the forests about Port Natal and the country to the eastward,
living in the thick brushwood which fills up the intervals of the larger trees. It feeds on grass,
the young shoots of trees, and the delicate twigs of smaller shrubs.
The COQUETOON, C. ru filatus, is of a deep reddish-bay color; the horns are conical, rather
elongated, obscurely annulated, and slightly recurved. This is the Grimme of Buffon and F. Cu-
vier. It is a native of Western Africa.
The GUEVET, C. Maxwellii, is of a gray-brown or sooty-black color. It is the Royal Antilope
and Pigmy Antilope of Pennant and Shaw. It is a native of Senegal and Gambia.
Widi.
THE KLEENE-BOC.
a
The NOUMETZI, CAPE GUEVEI, or KLEENE-Boc, C. pygmæa, is about one foot high at the shoul-
der; the horns one and a half inch long in the male, three-quarters of an inch in the female. The
color is a dark slaty-brown. It is called by the Dutch colonists of the Cape Kleene-Boc, Kleene
Blauw-Boc, Blauw-Bokje, all signifying Little Goat or Little Blue Goat. It inhabits South
Africa, and lives singly or in pairs among the bushes. It is extremely active, and of a mild and
timid disposition; but from the nature of the thick bushes in which it resides is not often seen
even in those districts where it most abounds. It exhibits considerable sagacity in eluding pur-
suit, and when domesticated soon becomes familiar, and learns to distinguish those about it and
to answer to its name.
This species is the A. cærulea of Colonel Smith and the A. pygmæa of M. Desmarest, who con-
founds it with the Guevei.
The BLACK-RUMPED GUEVEI, C. melanorheus, is of a gray color, with the rump and upper part
of the back of a black color. It is a native of Fernando Po.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
553
The GRIZZLED GUEVEI, C. punctulatus, is a native of Sierra Leone, and is of a dark fulvous-
brown color.
The WHITE-FOOTED GUEVEI, C. Whitfieldii, is of a yellowish ash-color. It is a native of West-
ern Africa.
The PigmY ANTILOPE, or ROYAL ANTILOPE, or GUINEA Musk, or PIGMY Musk, is of a
fulvous color, and has the throat, belly, edge of the thigh, and tip of its tail, white. It is not
larger than a rabbit, being only fifteen inches long and eight inches high. It inhabits Guinea,
and is noted for its shyness and the speed with which it flies through the forests.
dir
LOSSINGARIN
SPRING-BOC.-(See p. 540.)
VOL.I.-70.

554
VERTEBRATA.
we
B.
GIRAFFE.
THE GIRAFFID Æ.
This family comprises a single genus, GIRAFFE, and a single species, the AFRICAN GIRAFFE
or CAMELOPARD, Camelopardalis Giraffa. This remarkable animal is distinguished from all
the other ruminants by several important characteristics. The body is short and supported
upon very long legs; the dorsal line slopes downward toward the rump, the withers being
greatly elevated, and from this it was long confidently asserted that the fore-legs were much
longer than the hinder pair, although this is not the case. The neck is excessively long, and
furnished with a short mane, running down its dorsal line; the head is comparatively small, and
,
the countenance exceedingly gentle and pleasing in its expression, the eyes being remarkably full
and lustrous. The dentition is the same as that of the deer, the upper incisors and the canines in
both jaws being quite deficient. The forehead bears a pair of tapering cylindrical bony append-
ages, which are covered with a hairy skin like the rest of the head. These are permanent, and
might be regarded as the representatives of the processes of the frontal bone upon which the de-
ciduous antlers of the deer are developed, but they are distinct bones, only united by those of the
skull, by a suture, and instead of rising exclusively from the frontal bones their broad base covers
the coronal suture, so that they rest partly upon the frontal, and partly on the parietal bones. In
front of the horns, the frontal and nasal bones are elevated to form a rounded protuberance which
has been described as a third horn by many writers. The feet are destitute of the accessory
which occur in most of the other ruminants except the Camelidæ; and the tail is rather
long, and terminated by a tuft of very long and thick hairs.
The giraffe is the tallest of all ruminants, the males not uncommonly measuring fourteen and
sometimes eighteen feet from the top of the head to the ground. The females are usually a

IMMA
echi
Coloring
IN
THE GIRAFFE.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
555
a
foot or two shorter. The height at the withers is about ten feet in large animals, while the length
of the body, from the breast to the rump, is not more than six or seven. The ground color of the
skin is yellowish, but it is covered with large spots and patches of lighter and darker brown, which
give it a very elegant appearance. It is a native of the eastern parts of Africa, from the Cape
north ward as far as Nubia. It lives in small herds upon the plains, always in the neighborhood
of woods, as it feeds almost entirely upon the tender shoots and leaves of trees, which the great
length of its neck enables it to reach with ease. The tongue also is very extensible, and is em-
ployed as a prehensile organ, and the large, free lips can be used in the same way.
The giraffe is not a very swift animal, and when pursued its gallop is described as exceedingly
ludicrous, the hind-legs being brought forward at each step completely in advance of the anterior
ones, apparently a foot or two on the outside of them; in this fashion the giraffes contrive to get
over the ground pretty rapidly, with a curious springing motion. They are easily overtaken by a
good horse, and the rider may then select his victim from the herd, cut it off from its companions,
and shoot it at his leisure. When going at full speed the heels of the giraffe constantly throw
up dirt, sticks, and stones in the faces of its nearest pursuers, but it never appears to attempt to
defend itself unless brought to bay; in this case its weapons are its hoofs, with which it kicks
out so rapidly and vigorously that dogs will not venture to attack it, and it is even said that it
can beat off the lion in the same manner. The flesh of these animals, when
The flesh of these animals, when young, is considered
very good; that of the old ones is coarse. The skin is very thick and highly valued by the
natives of South Africa, who consider the leather formed from it to be the best material for san-
dal soles. They also use the skin in the formation of vessels to hold water, and sometimes as a
covering for their huts.
Cumming gives us the following lively description of the giraffe, at liberty in his native regions :
“These gigantic and exquisitely beautiful animals, which are admirably formed by nature to
adorn the forests that clothe the boundless plains of the interior, are widely distributed through-
out the interior of Southern Africa, but are nowhere to be met with in great numbers. In coun-
tries unmolested by the intrusive foot of man, the giraffe is found generally in herds varying from
twelve to sixteen; but I have not unfrequently met with herds containing thirty individuals, and
on one occasion I counted forty together; this, however, was owing to chance, and about sixteen
may be reckoned as the average number of a herd. These herds are composed of giraffes of
various sizes, from the young giraffe of nine or ten feet in height, to the dark chestnut-colored
old bull of the herd, whose exalted head towers above his companions, generally attaining to a
height of upward of eighteen feet. The females are of lower stature, and more delicately framed
than the males, the height of the latter averaging from sixteen to seventeen feet. Some writers
have discovered ugliness and a want of grace in the giraffe, but I consider that he is one of the
most strikingly beautiful animals in the creation; and when a herd of them is seen scattered
through a grove of the picturesque parasol-topped acacias which adorn their native plains, and on
whose uppermost shoots they are enabled to browse by the colossal height with which nature
has so admirably endowed them, he must, indeed, be slow of conception who fails to discover both
grace and dignity in all their movements. There can be no doubt that every animal is seen to
the greatest advantage in the haunts which nature destined him to adorn, and among the various
living creatures which beautify creation I have often traced a remarkable resemblance between
the animal and the general appearance of the locality in which it is found.
“In the case of the giraffe, which is invariably met with among venerable forests, where in-
numerable blasted and weather-beaten trunks and stems occur, I have repeatedly been in doubt
as to the presence of them, until I had recourse to my spy-glass; and on referring the case to my
savage attendants I have known even their optics to fail, at one time mistaking these dilapidated
trunks for camelopards, and again confounding real camelopards with these aged veterans of the
forest."
Several giraffes have lived for some years in the London Zoological Gardens and the Garden
of Plants at Paris. They have even bred several times, and the young animals have thriven
admirably. The female goes with young about fourteen months, and produces a single young
one at a birth; this, when born, measures nearly six feet from the head to the root of the tail.

556
VERTEBRATA.
ANDREW BEST LELAB
THE CERVIDÆ.
These, the animals of the somewhat numerous and diversified Deer Family, are distinguished
principally by the peculiar nature of the horns or antlers, which, with but a single exception,
that of the reindeer, are possessed only by the males. Unlike the horns of the ox, goat, sheep,
and antilope, the antlers of the deer are deciduous—that is to say, they are cast every year after
the breeding season, and again renewed before that period of excitement returns. They are pro-
duced upon a pair of processes of the frontal bone, by an action analogous to that by which in-
juries to the bones are repaired. The process forming the base of the horn is covered by a skin,
beneath which a sort of inflammation is set up; this produces cartilaginous matter, which in-
creases rapidly in amount, gradually becomes ossified, and finally forms the horn, which, when
mature, is still covered by the vascular skin beneath which it has been formed. This however,
dries
up and peels off soon after the complete development of the organs, and the latter then con-
sist of bare bone. The antlers are sometimes small, but generally of comparatively large size, and
very variously branched; their size and the number of branches usually increase with age, and
the old males of several species are adorned with a most enormous pair of spreading horns.
Beneath each eye, in almost all the species, there is a cavity called the lachrymal sinus, which
the animal is able to open at pleasure, and which secretes a thick waxy fluid of a disagreeable
odor. The metatarsus is also usually furnished with one or two glands, covered with a small tuft
of hair; the presence of these furnishes a good character for distinguishing the hornless females
of this family from those of such antilopes as are also destitute of horns. They are deficient only
in the Muntjacs—a small group of Oriental deer forming the
genus Cervalus.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
557
SUORANX.
THE REINDEER.
The species of cervidæ are not very numerous, but distributed in all parts of the world. By
some zoologists they are considered as forming only a single genus, while others divide them into
several generic groups, characterized principally by differences in the conformation of the antlers.
Genus REINDEER : Tarandus. Of this there is but one species, the RHENDEER or Rein-
DEER, T. rangifer, the only one of the deer family which has been fully and permanently domesti-
cated, though there are several marked varieties. They are all confined to the high northern
regions of Europe, Asia, and America.
The most noted variety is that of the eastern continent, to which the domesticated breeds of
Lapland belong. The hair of the wild cnes in winter is long, thick, and gray-brown; neck,
rump, belly, ring round the hoof, and end of nose, white. In summer it is short, dark sooty-
brown, with the parts which are white in winter rather pale gray-brown. The tame animal is
about four and a half feet long and three feet high. On casting its coat it is at first brownish-
yellow, but as the dog-days approach it becomes whiter, till it is at last almost entirely white.
Round the eye the color is always black. The longest hair is under the neck; the mouth, tail,
and parts near the latter are white, and the feet, at the insertion of the hoof, are surrounded with
a white ring. The hair of the body is so thick that the skin cannot be seen when it is put aside,
for it stands erect, as in other animals of the same genus, but is much thicker. When the hair
is cast it does not come away with the root, but breaks at the base. The fawns are generally
brown on the upper part and reddish beneath. This is the common appearance of the domestic
reindeer, but it must be understood that it is subject to great variety of color.
Though there is some diversity in the form of the horns, it may be said generally, as to all
the varieties, that they are cylindrical, with a short branch behind, compressed at the top and
palmated with many segments, beginning to curve back in the middle. A single branch some-
times, but seldom two, springs from each horn in front, very near the base, frequently equaling
the length of the head, compressed at the top and branched. The distance between the tips
equals the length. The horns of the female are like those of the male, but smaller, more slender,
and not so much branched. She has four true mammæ, and two false ones. The horns grow in
the usual manner, and during the early part of their growth are extremely sensible, and suffer
from the clouds of gnats—Culex pipiens—that form one of the persecutions of both deer and
About autumn they have become hard, and the velvet which covers them is rubbed off.
Toward the end of November the male loses his horns, but the female retains hers till she brings
forth; if barren, she drops them in the beginning of November.
owner.

558
VERTEBRATA.
a
DEOMAN KENNY NY.
MILKING THE REINDEER.
The wild reindeer exists in Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and also in the islands of Spitzbergen and
Nova Zembla. In summer they seek the high mountain lands, which are often covered with
snow even in summer, chiefly to avoid the gnats which torment them; in winter they descend to
the lower country. At this season they live chiefly on a kind of white moss which hangs in fes-
toons from the trees, though they also eat the twigs of trees. These animals unite in herds to mi-
grate. Many are killed by hunters in autumn, when they are fat. Sometimes the flesh is
pre-
served by salting, and sometimes by drying and smoking. The Laplander, whose country is too
cold and barren for cultivation, except
to a very limited extent, has domestica-
ted this animal, and it is as necessary to
him as the camel is to the Arab of the
desert. Indeed, Lapland would be un-
inhabitable but for the reindeer. The
wealth of the people of this country is
computed from the number of their
herds. Some of them possess more
than a thousand, many several hundreds.
In the summer these animals are pas-
tured in the mountains, where they feed
upon ordinary herbage; at the approach
of winter they are driven down into the
plains, and their food at this season con-
sists principally of moss, which they dig
up from beneath the snow by means of
their hoofs, and often by rooting for it
like hogs. When going on a journey,
the Laplanders take a supply of this
lichen with them, and four pounds of it
are said to be sufficient for a day ; in
some cases, however, the animals will
travel for two or three days without food,
without seeming to feel the want of it.
The main necessities as well as com-
forts of life are supplied to the Laplander
by his reindeer. The flesh of the ani-
mal is the most substantial part of his
food, and its milk serves him in various
ways. It is drunk; it is coagulated into
cheese; the whey is used for drink, and
in some instances fermented and dis-
tilled into a liquor analogous to that
which the Tartars make from the milk
of the mare. The skin of the reindeer,
which is warm, strong, and pliant, serves
for clothing, for blankets, for covering
the sledge, and for almost every purpose
to which we apply cloth or leather.
The tendons, which are very tough, fur-
nish thread; the horns are manufac-
tured into a variety of domestic uten-
sils; and even the intestines of the ani-
mal have their domestic uses, while the
tongues, which are considered luxuries
EREDMAN KENNY NY.
LAPLANDERS MIGRATING.
محموکراس
REDMAN.KENNY NY
LAPLANDERS TRAVELING IN REINDEER SLEDGES.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
559
in most countries, give even the poor Laplander an export trade, and make him a citizen of the
world. As a beast of burden or draught the importance of the Reindeer is equally great. The
weight which it can draw over the snow, when harnessed to a sledge, is said to be three hundred
pounds, but two hundred and forty pounds form the general limit. The tales told of its swiftness,
when thus employed, would appear almost incredible if not well attested. In a race of three
deer with light sledges started by Pictet, who went to the north of Lapland in 1769 to observe
the transit of Venus, the first performed 3089 feet in two minutes, making a rate of nearly nine-
teen English miles an hour; the second went over the same ground in three minutes, and the
last in three minutes twenty-six seconds. One is recorded to have drawn an officer with impor-
tant dispatches, in 1699, eight hundred English miles in forty-eight hours, and the portrait of the
poor deer, which fell dead at the end of its wonderful journey, is still preserved in the palace of
Drotningholm in Sweden. Journeys of one hundred and fifty miles in nineteen hours are said
not to be uncommon.
In America the Reindeer is called CARIBOU, and is usually described as consisting of two varieties.
These chiefly inhabit the high northern territories called Fur Countries: one is named the Wood-
LAND CARIBOU, and is confined to the wooded and more southern districts; the other, called the
BARREN GROUND CARIBOU, passes the summer along the shores of the Arctic Seas or the Barren
Grounds of the north, and retires to the woods only in winter. The former is the larger animal,
being about the size of the Lapland breed, and weighing two hundred to two hundred and forty
pounds, while the latter weighs about one hundred to one hundred and thirty pounds. The dif-
ference of size seems to constitute the chief difference between the two varieties; both are of a
deep brown color in summer, and a grayish-white in winter. Both migrate in herds of from
twenty to two hundred, and both are hunted by the Indians and Esquimaux, who value their
hides, and who esteem their tongues a great luxury. The flesh is also an important article of
food, and is made into pemmican by being pounded and then mixed with one-third of melted fat
poured over it; it will keep a great length of time, and is much used by hunters and travelers.
Other varieties are spoken of, as the Rocky MOUNTAIN CARIBOU and the NEWFOUNDLAND CARI-
BOU
Bou, but there is probably no foundation for such distinctions. It is, indeed, doubted by some
naturalists whether there are any such permanent varieties as we have described under the names
of Woodland and Barren Ground Caribou. One or both of these are widely spread, extending
from Canada north to the Arctic seas and west to the Pacific. Baird inclines to regard the latter
as a distinct species.
Genus ELK or MOOSE: Alces.—Of this there is a single species, called Elk in Europe, and
Moose or MOOSE-DEER in the United States. It is the A. malchis of naturalists; Cervus Alces
of Linnæus; the Eland and Orignal of Buffon; the Elch of the Germans, and Loss of the Rus-
sians. It was formerly common in all the north of Europe and Asia, but is now rarely met with,
and only in the extreme northern regions. When the United States were first settled by the
whites, it extended from the Carolinas to the polar regions; its southern limit now is the north-
ern borders of Maine and New York. Thence northward to the arctic seas it is found more or
less abundantly.
This animal is the largest of the deer kind, being taller than the horse. Its horns weigh fifty
or sixty pounds, and the whole carcass seven hundred to twelve hundred pounds. The head,
measuring above two feet in length, is narrow and clumsily shaped by the swelling upon
part of the nose and nostrils; the eye is proportionally small and sunk; the ears long, hairy, and
asinine; the neck and withers are surmounted by a heavy mane, and the throat furnished with
long coarse hair, and in younger specimens encumbered with a pendulous gland; these give
altogether an uncouth character to this part of the animal. Its body, however, is round, compact,
and short; the tail not more than four inches long, and the legs, though very long, are remark-
ably clean and firm; this length of limbs and the overhanging lips have caused the ancients to
fancy that it grazed walking backward. The hair of the animal, which is of a grayish-brown, is
coarse and angular, breaking if bent. Its movements are rather heavy, and the shoulders being
higher than the croup it does not gallop, but shuffles or ambles along, its joints cracking at every
step with a sound heard to some distance. Increasing its speed, the hind-feet straddle to avoid
the upper

560
VERTEBRATA.
my
ym
morni
SB
THE ELK OR MOOSE.
treading on its fore-heels, tossing the head and shoulders like a horse about to break from a trot
to a gallop. It does not leap, but steps without effort over a fallen tree, a gate, or a rail-fence.
During its progress it holds the nose up so as to lay the horns horizontally back. This attitude
prevents its seeing the ground distinctly, and as the weight is carried very high upon its elevated
legs, it is said sometimes to trip by treading on its fore-heels, and occasionally to give itself a
heavy fall. It is probably owing to this occurrence that the Elk was believed by the ancients and
the vulgar to have frequent attacks of epilepsy, and to be obliged to smell its hoof before it could
recover; hence the Teutonic name of Elend-miserable—and the reputation, especially of the fore-
hoofs, as a specific against the disease.
From this description it might seem that the Moose was an uncouth and unsightly animal, and
so it is when seen in a menagerie, or stuffed, in a museum ; but seen dashing through its native
forests, it is said to produce on the mind of the beholder a feeling of beauty and sublimity.
During the winter months the Elk resides chiefly in hilly woods, in snowy weather seeking the
covers, and in clear the open spaces. In summer it frequents swamps on the borders of lakes,
often going deep into the water to escape the sting of gnats, and to feed without stooping.
Its usual food in winter consists of the buds and bark of button-wood, spruce, and juniper-pines,
birch and maple, and under the snow it seeks mosses, but this is always with difficulty, for then
it is obliged to spread the fore-legs, or even, it is said, to kneel. The branches of trees it turns
down with the horns very dexterously. It is a long-lived animal, and does not attain its full
growth till fourteen years of age. The female has no horns; her period of gestation is nine
months, and she produces from one to three at a birth about the middle of May. In summer and
autumn the Elk is seen in small herds; in winter he is often alone or in company of two or three.
His flesh is excellent, and is seen every winter in the markets of New York and Boston. The
skin is used for various kinds of covering.
This animal has been sometimes domesticated in Europe, and has even been taught to draw
sledges in Sweden. In the United States it is only known as a wild animal, extremely timorous,
and flying with terror from man. It was formerly much hunted by the Indians, and constituted
a large part of their food; it is now more rare, but is still occasionally pursued, and the chase

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
561
leading as it does into the deepest wilds and often over mountains and streams-is regarded as
a peculiarly exciting and inspiring kind of sport.
Genus CERVUS: Cervus.—This includes a very large number of species, the greater part,
indeed, of the animals which go under the general name of Deer, and which are divided into
several genera by some naturalists.
WIN
ma
JW.OLIB
Huti
THE AMERICAN ELK, OR WAPITI.
The AMERICAN Elk or WAPITI, C. Canadensis- Elaphus Canadensis of De Kay—is a large
and noble species, resembling the red deer of Europe; it has tall, round, branching horns, some-
times six feet high ; the color is yellowish-brown; the tail short, the form stately, the air majes-
tic. Its length is seven to eight feet, its height four and a half to five. Its horns are shed in
February or March. This animal is common in the Northwestern States, and thence north to
Lake Winnipeg, the herds consisting of from fifty to one hundred. It is a good deal hunted by
the Indians, though the flesh is coarse; the skins are much prized. It has been partially domes-
ticated and breeds readily in confinement.
The Stag or RED DEER, C. elaphus—the Cerf of the French; Cervio of the Italians; Hirtz
of the Germans ;—is THE DEER par excellence of England in all works on “the noble art of ven-
erie," and in all allusions to the bold foresters of “merry old England." The male is called a hart
and the female a hind. The horns of the male are lofty and branching, the female being desti-
tute of these ornaments. In summer the color is yellowish-brown; in winter it is reddish-brown.
The young fawns are of a rich yellowish-brown, dappled with white spots, and it is from their
ground color that dyers give the name of fawn to a peculiar shade of color intermediate between
brown and yellow. The color deepens much with age, so that in winter the old stags are nearly
black. The average height of the Stag is three feet and a half; the weight from one hundred
and fifty to three hundred pounds. This animal, which was once abundant over the greater part
of Europe and Asia, like the Elk is now confined to the northern forests, and is nowhere common.
Formerly abundant in Great Britain, it is now only known in Scotland, where it is hunted with
hounds, and brought down with the rifle. It figures in all descriptions of the manners and cus-
VOL. I.—71
a

552
VERTEBRATA.
Var
SORRY
WAITING FOR THE HERD.
(
toms of these countries during the Middle Ages, and even at a later period. A stag hunt was
indeed the grandest sport of the higher gentry, and far surpassed in excitement the modern chase
of the fox. Scott's description, at the opening of the “Lady of the Lake,” is equally beautiful
and true :
"The stag, at eve, had drunk his fill,
While danced the moon on Monan's rill,
And deep his midnight lair had made
In lone Glenartney's hazel shade;
But, ere the sun his beacon red
Had kindled on Ben-Voirlich's head,
The deep-mouthed bloodhounds' heavy bay,
Resounded up the rocky way,
And faint, from farther distance borne,
The echo of the hoof and horn.
Yelled on the view the opening pack,
Rock, glen, and cavern paid them back.
To many a mingled sound at once
The awaken'd mountain gave response:
A hundred dogs bayed deep and strong,
Clattered a hundred steeds along;
Their peals the merry horns rung out,
A hundred voices joined the shout;
With whoop! and hark! and wild halloo !
No rest Ben-Voirlich's echoes knew.
Far from the tumult fled the roe;
Close in her covert cower'd the doe;
The falcon from her cairn on high,
Cast on the rout a wondering eye,
Till, far beyond her piercing ken,
The hurricane had swept the glen.”

bre
En
Teeman
Se
RED DEER,


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
563
The C. Corsicus is a small variety of red deer found in Corsica.
The BARBARY DEER, C. Barbarus, is chiefly distinguished from the common stag, and the Al-
gerian variety of it, by its smaller size, stouter form, and more permanently spotted fur. It is the
Bush-Goat of the Moors, and inhabits the coasts of Barbary.
The BARA SINGA or Morl, C. Wallichii, is an Indian species. It is also found in Persia, where
it is called Maral, Gevezu, or Gookoohee. It is the Cervus Pygargus of Hardwicke; also the
Jesrael or Tailless Deer and Red Deer of India.
The Saul-FOREST STAG, C. affinis, is the Stroa or Tibetan Stag of Hodgson, the Bara Singa
of the Hindoos. The bones are as heavy and as large as those of the Wapiti.
The Sika, C. Sika, is of a dark-brown color, and has rather slender horns. It is a native of
Japan.
a
0
W
414
1 MAN
LOSSINC. BARO177
THE COMMON DEER OF EUROPE.
a
The Common DEER of Europe, or Fallow-DEER, Dama vulgaris—the Daim of the French;
the Damhirsch of the Germans—is smaller, feebler, and more common-place in its character than
the red deer. It closely resembles our common deer. In summer both sexes have the back,
flanks, and thighs of a fulvous-brown color, diversified with numerous white spots. In winter
these parts are wholly brown; the haunches are always white. The general form is light, and
the movements elegant. In various parts of Europe they are found wild, living in considerable
flocks; they are also met with in a half-domesticated state in the parks of wealthy proprietors.
This is especially the case in England, where the herds of Fallow-Deer, variously colored and
marked, are a pleasing ornament of the rich lawns which spread before the castles and country-
seats of that country. There are many varieties of this species, some being brown, some spotted,
and some milk-white. It is represented on the sculptures of Nineveh.
The SUNGNAI, Panolia Eldii, is an Indian species of Deer.
The BAHRAINGA, Rucervus Duvaucellii, is another Indian species. It is called the Spotted Deer
of the Sunderbunds, and Barara Singha, by Hardwicke. It is the Cervus Elaphoides of Hodg.

564
VERTEBRATA.
son. It inhabits reedy marshes and the islands of large rivers, never entering the mountains or
forests. The tail is short, with no caudal disc and no heavy mane.
The SAMBOO, Rusa Aristotelis, is the Cervus hippelaphus of Ogilby, Cervus unicolor of H.
Smith, Cerf de Coromandel of Cuvier, Cervus Bengalensis of Schirz, Daim Noir de Bengale of
Duvaucell, the Samboo-Deer of Bennett, Cervus heterocerus of Hodgson. The last author de-
scribes four varieties of this animal. They are natives of various parts of India, and inhabit great
forests and the mountains above them. They are not gregarious, and pair and drop their horns
in spring.
The SPOTTED RUSA, GERVER or GOWER, Rusa Dimorphe, is red-brown.
The SAMBOE, R. equinus, is the Rusa of Raffles; the Eland or Elk of the Dutch sportsmen.
It inhabits Sumatra and Borneo, and is of a plain brown color.
The SMALLER RUSA, R. Peronic, is a native of Timor and Luboc, Bavian and Ternate.
The PHILIPPINE RUSA, R. Philippinus, is the C. Marianus of Cuvier, and is a native of the
Philippines.
The SUNDEVALL Rusa, R. lepida, is a native of Java. It is scarcely as large as a roebuck.
The MIJANGAN BANJOE, R. hippelaphus, is the Cervus hippelaphus of Cuvier. Its size and
proportions are those of the stag, but its hair is rougher and harder, and when adult that of the
upper part of the neck, of the cheeks, and of the throat is long, and forms a sort of beard and
In winter its color is of a grayish-brown more or less deep; in summer it is of a brighter
and more golden brown. It is a native of Bengal, Sumatra, and the islands of the Indian Archi-
pelago.
mane.
ciling
i Luwu
THE AXIS DEER.
The Axis, Axis maculata, is the Axis of Pliny; Cerf Cochon of Buffon. In size and general
form it nearly resembles the common fallow-deer. The skin is at all times of a rich fawn-color
spotted with white. The young resemble the parents. It is a native of India and the larger
islands of the Indian Archipelago; very abundant in Bengal, and on the banks of the Ganges. It
haunts the thick jungles in the vicinity of water, and the British sportsmen hunt it under the
name of the Spotted Hog-Deer. It feeds in the night; and is timid, indolent, and mild, excepting
when the females have young, and then the male is bold and fierce. It is easily domesticated,
and in England has propagated freely in captivity. The species has been kept with success both
in menageries and open parks, to both of which its form and color make it an elegant ornament

לודווי
MA
SREDMAN-KENNYSNY
THE TA ME FAWN.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
565
THE GUEMUL.
The SPOTTED Axis, A. pseudaxis, is the C. pseudaxis of Gervais. It differs from the A. macu-
lata in having a series of spots in place of an oblique streak on the haunches.
The Lugna Para or SHGORIAH, Hyelaphus porcinus, is easily distinguished from the Axis by
being lower on its legs, and having no distinct black dorsal streak, nor white streak on its
haunches. The horns are generally short, with only short snags. They live in families, or
small herds, in the plains of Hindostan. They are also found in Ceylon.
The C. Dodur of Royle is probably a distinct species; the C. pumilis of H. Smith is perhaps
a variety.
The ROEBUCK, C. capreolus, the Chevreuil of the French, Rehbock of the Germans, is a small
species of deer, once common all over Europe, but now rare, though still found in small numbers
in England and Scotland, and more abundantly in France, Italy, and the northern parts of
Europe. It lives in families, feeds on herbage and the tender shoots of underwood, is of a gray-
ish-brown color tinged with fawn, and whitish on the haunches. It weighs fifty to sixty pounds;
its flesh is delicate food, and the horns are much used for the handles of carving-knives, &c.
The Ahu, C. Pygargus, the Cervus Pygargus of Pallas, Cervus Ahu of Griffith, the Siaga of
the Tartars, Dikaja Kosa of the Russians, Tailless Roe and Tailless Deer of Pennant and Shaw,
is a native of Central Asia.
The GUAZUPUCO, Blastocerus paludosus, is the Cervus Mexicanus of Goldfuss, C. dichotomus
of Illiger, and is a native of South America.
The Mazame or GUAZUTI, B. campestris, is the Cervus bezoarticus of Linnæus, C. campestris of
F. Cuvier, the Biche des Pampas of Cuvier. It is a native of South America in Northern Pata-
gonia; is exceedingly abundant, in small herds, throughout the countries bordering the La Plata.
Mr. Darwin describes the odor of the buck as quite overpowering, from its disagreeable character.
The TARUSH or TARUGA, Furcifer Antisiensis, is a native of South America, in the Bolivian
Alps.
The GUEMUL, F. Huamel, is the Cloven-footed Horse of Shaw. It is a native of the east coast
of South America.
The MEXICAN DEER, C. Mexicanus, inhabits Mexico, but is little known.

566
VERTEBRATA.
w
kir
w
we
THE COMMON AMERICAN DEER.
The COMMON AMERICAN DEER, C. Virginianus, called by European writers by the various
names of Roebuck, Jumping Deer, Long-tailed Deer, &c., is about the size of the European fal-
low-deer, and resembles it in temper and character ; the color is brown in summer and gray-
brown in winter; the fawns are spotted with white; the tail is white beneath, and carried erect
when running; the length of the body is five feet to five and a half; the height three to three
a BioETS
FEMALE AMERICAN DEER, IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, LONDON.
and a half; the weight one hundred and twenty to two hundred pounds. In its form it is light
and elegant, and in its movements exceedingly graceful. Its flesh is delicious, and its venison is
one of the luxuries of the table in winter throughout a great part of the United States. It is
very timid, and flies with almost incredible speed from the hunter, bounding through the thick
mazes of the forests almost as swiftly as over the open plains. There are few objects in nature

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
567
Maria
De
WA
wum
THE MULE DEER.
a
more beautiful than this animal, whether grazing at its ease, or flying in fear amid its native
wilds. Its food varies with the season: in winter it consists of the buds of various shrubs; in
spring and summer of tender grasses. It sometimes tastes the young wheat, oats, field-peas and
Indian corn of the border plantations, as well as huckleberries, blackberries, and the like. The
young are produced in May. These animals are naturally gregarious, and are found in immense
herds on the western prairies, the males, however, being apart, except at the season of intercourse.
At this time the bucks have fearful battles, and sometimes their horns become interlocked and
both perish. In general these animals are silent, though the males sometimes utter a snort or
shrill whistle, and the fawns have a faint and touching bleat. The does also bleat when wounded,
like a calf in distress. They take to the water freely and swim with considerable speed. For-
merly this species was common over the whole country; at the present time it is rare in New
England, except in particular localities. In the Alleghany Mountains and their slopes, from
Northern New York even to Georgia, it is still common. It is also found in all the wooded
of the Southern States. In Texas and Mexico it is abundant. It exists sparingly in Upper Can-
ada, and is sometimes, though rarely, met with in Oregon and California. Various modes of hunt-
ing it by both whites and Indians are adopted, and it is no doubt everywhere rapidly diminishing.
The MULE DEER, C. macrotis, is between the common deer and the American elk in size. Its
horns are round and twice forked; the body above is brownish-gray; the tail ash-color above, black
near the tip; belly grayish-white; hair coarse like that of the elk; the ears long, giving name to the
species from their resemblance to those of the mule. It seeks the remote, solitary wilds, far from
human settlements, and appears to be mostly confined to the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mount-
ains, from latitude 54° north to 30° south. It chooses for its haunts.rocky hills covered with firs.
The BLACK-TAILED DEER, C. Richardsonii, or C. Lewisii, is a fine species, a trifle larger than
parts

568
VERTEBRAT A.
n
THE MUNTJAC.
a
the common deer, but smaller than the mule deer; first noticed by Lewis and Clark, and now
found in considerable numbers in California and Oregon, where it seems to take the place of the
common deer. The color is reddish-brown above and white beneath ; the horns are cylindrical
and twice bifurcated. When the gold-hunters of California first resorted to that region this species
was a considerable resource; as gold was more abundant than food, a single buck was sometimes
sold for eighty dollars.
The LONG-TAILED DEER, C. leucurus, is the smallest of the American deer, but having a tail
sometimes seventeen inches long. In general appearance it resembles the Virginia deer. It is
common on the Columbia River.
The CALIFORNIAN ROE, C. punctulatus. Dr. J. E. Gray says, “There is a female of this species
in the Zoological Gardens; it is much smaller and darker than the C. Virginianus, and it differs
in the hair being dark, with a distinct, yellow subterminal band.” It is scarcely necessary to say
that there is no species of this name in any part of this country: this specimen may be of the
preceding species.
Genus CERVULUS: Cervulus. Of this there are several species. The KIJANG or MUNTJAK,
.—
Cervulus vaginalis—the Cervus muntjac of Zimmerman; the Ribbed-Faced Deer of Pennant;
Chevreuil des Indes of Allamand—is about two feet two inches high; the head pointed; eyes
large; ea rather large; tail short and flattened. It selects for its retreat certain districts, to
which it forms a peculiar attachment, and which it never voluntarily deserts. Many of these are
known as its favorite resort for several generations. It is occasionally found partially domestica-
ted in the inclosures of natives and Europeans, but requires a considerable range to live comfort-
ably; it is cleanly in its habits, and delicate in its choice of food. The flesh affords an excellent
venison, which is often found on the tables of Europeans. The natives eat the males, and always
present them in a conspicuous place in their feasts; but in consequence of some peculiarities in
the habits of the females, they have an aversion to them as food. They are found in India and Java.
.
The KEGAN or KAKR, C. moschatus, is the Cervus Moschus of Desmarest; the Musk-Deer of
Nepaul; the Jungle Sheep. It is of a bright reddish-yellow color, with the chin and gullet
whitish. It is a native of India, where it lives in forests on the mountains, six or eight together.
The CHINESE MUNTJAK, C. Reevesii, is of a grayish-brown color, with short, pale, ringed hair.
It is a native of China. Dr. J. E. Gray says, “The Earl of Derby has three kinds of these at
Knowsley, but they breed together, and it has hence become impossible to discriminate the males
from the original species."
The CARIACOU DEER, C. nemoralis, is the Cerf Blanc or Cerf des Paletuviers of Cuvier;
Chevreuil d'Amérique of Daubenton; Biche des Savannes of Buffon, and is a native of the shores
of the Mexican Gulf and of Guiana.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
569
What
THE GAUZU-YIVA
The GAUZU-Viva, Coassus nemorivagus, is a delicate little deer, only twenty-six inches in
Gauzu
length. Its aspect is said to resemble that of the sheep; the general color is brownish, approaching
to gray, each hair being tipped with white. The horns are short. It is a native of the Brazils.
The CuguACU-Ete or Pita, C. rufus, is the Cervus rufus of F. Cuvier. Its height is about
twenty-nine inches; general color reddish-brown; the females without horns. It lives in the low,
moist woods of South America, in large herds, and as ten females are seen for one male, it is sup-
posed that their appearance gave currency to the report of a form of deer on the new continent
without horns. They are very fleet, but only for the first start, for they are soon run down by
dogs, and are sometimes captured by the lasso and balls.
The EYE-BROWED BROCKET, C. superciliaris, differs chiefly from the two last in the form of
the muffle, and in the presence of a white streak over the eyes. It is a native of the Brazils.
The LARGE-EARED BROCKET, C. auritus, is also a native of the Brazils.
The VENADA, Pudu humilis, is the Mazame of Hernandez, and is a native of Chili.
Fossil DEER.—The remains of several kinds of deer, including existing as well as extinct
species, have been found in great numbers in Great Britain, France, Italy, Spain, India, &c. Lyell
regards the abundance of fossil remains of various animals to be in the following order : first, the
deer, then the ox, boar, horse, dog, hare, fox, wolf, cat, and beaver, the last being very rare.
Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man the bones of an extinct gigantic elk, surpassing even the
wapiti and moose in size, have been found. The antlers were over five feet long, and had a spread
of ten feet at the tips. This enormous animal is named Megaceros Hibernicus, and is referred to
the period of the Mammoth.
In
THE MOSCHIDE.
This family includes several species, bearing the general name of Musk-Deer, though only one,
the Thibet Musk, produces the drug called Musk. These animals are denominated Chevrotains
by the French
Genus MUSK or CHEVROTAIN: Moschus.—This includes several species. The Musk or
THIBET Musk, M. moschiferus, resembles the roebuck in size and form; the color is a rusty-gray,
in some cases wavy; the female less than the male; the young spotted. It is a shy, solitary
animal, much hunted for its musk,* which is contained in a kidney-shaped, pendulous bag of the
* Musk is of two kinds, and received from two sources: the Tonguin Musk, or Thibet Musk, chiefly received in
England through the East India Company, comes in small, oblong, rectangular boxes, lined with lead, and covered
with paper or silk. Each bag or pod, as it is termed, is wrapped in thin blue or red paper, on which are marked
some Chinese characters. The Kabardin, Russian, or Siberian Musk is either received through St. Petersburg or, it
is said, sent to China, and laid for some time among the bags of genuine Tonquin Musk, to acquire the odor of the
VOL. 1.72

570
VERTEBRATA.
THE MUSK DEER.
size of a hen's egg, situated below the abdomen, and peculiar to the male. It is brown and unc-
tuous, and may be pressed out through two apertures. It is the strongest and most pungent of
perfumes; the mere skin of the animal is sufficient to fill the place where it has been kept with a
strong odor for a long time. In medicine it is used as an antispasmodic. The flesh of the ani-
mal, though that of the male is rather highly seasoned with musk, is still eaten. The Musk-Deer
MUSK BAG
is a native of Thibet, the province of Mohang Meng, in China, Tonquin, Bootan, &c. There
are three other species: the SIBERIAN Musk or KUBAYA, Moschus Sibiricus ; the WHITE-BEL-
LIED Musk, M. leucogaster. found in Nepaul, and the GOLDEN-EYED Musk, M. chrysogaster,
also found in Nepaul.
Genus TRAGULUS: Tragulus.—Of this there are several species, all of small size. The Me-
MINNA, T. Meminna, is an exceedingly minute species, only about seventeen inches long; the
color is a gray-olive above and white below; sides and haunches spotted, and barred with white;
weight, five to six pounds. It is a native of India, Ceylon, and Java. It is called Peesoreh by
the Mahrattas.
STANLEY'S TRAGULE, T. Stanleyanus, is founa in Ceylon. Four living specimens of it were in
1836 in the collection of the Earl of Derby at Knowsley.
:
latter, and then shipped to Europe. The pods of this sort are in general larger, more oval, more compressed, and
the margins often have large portions of the skin of the abdomen attached to them. The color of the hairs is a dirty
milk-white. The musk exhibits a more homogeneous and less granular appearance, having a much fainter odor and
taste than the preceding kind. The odor is augmented by moisture, but is somewhat nauseous and disagreeable.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
571
THE KANCHIL.
The KANCHIL, Moschus Kanchil, or Tragulus pygmæus—the Javan Chevrotain of Buffon—is
of a brownish fawn-color, and about the size of a hare.
The NAPU, T. Javanicus, is two feet long and nine inches high; the eyes are large and bril-
liant; the tail short; the general color brownish-gray. It frequents thickets near the sea-shore,
and feeds principally upon berries. It seldom visits the larger forests, which are the favorite re-
sort of the Kanchil, for it does not possess either the agility or the cunning of the latter, to secure
it from danger, and prefers, therefore, the vicinity of man, with whom it readily becomes familiar,
wa
اردیا است
DELS SC
THE NAPU MUSK DEER.
to that of the beasts of prey which inhabit the interior. When taken young it is tamed with the
greatest facility. In captivity it appears perfectly at its ease, and quite indifferent to what is
passing around it. Its full, dark eye and placid air give it the appearance of a degree of intelli-
gence which it does not really possess, for the greater part of its existence is passed in eating,
drinking, and sleeping. Its voice is scarcely more than might be produced by a deep but still a
gentle expiration. It is found in Java and Sumatra.
Genus HYEMOSCHUS: Hyemoschus.--Of this there is a single species, the BoomoRAH, H.
aquaticus, found in Western Africa living in marshy situations. It is of a brownish-fawn above and
white beneath. In size it resembles the preceding. It has excited an interest among zoologists
from a peculiar resemblance in the formation of its feet to those of the hog.
Fossil MoschiDÆ.—The fossil bones of several species of Musk-Deer have been found in India
a

572
VERTEBRATA.
her
PETAL-K.
THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.
THE CAMELIDÆ.
This family includes two genera, the Camel and the Lama, both of which are in several re-
spects very unlike the other members of the order of Ruminantia, and at the same time very un-
like each other. Both, however, are among the most useful of animals to the inhabitants of the
countries they inhabit.
Genus CAMEL: Camelus.—Of this there are two species, the BACTRIAN CAMEL, C. Bactria-
nus, and the DROMEDARY, C. Dromedarius ; both, however, are embraced under the general
name of Camel, which in Hebrew is Gamal ; in Arabic, Djemal ; in German, Kameel ; in
French, Chameau. Their native countries are in the warmer and temperate parts of Asia, but
not even here are they met with in a wild state; the whole race appears, indeed, to have been
from time immemorial under the dominion of man. We trace them in the Scriptures from the
earliest periods, not as wild animals, but as already subject to man's use, and especially as the
great instrument of commercial intercourse. Thus, when Joseph's brethren having cast him into
the pit, and after the commission of their crime sat down to eat bread, “they lifted up
their
eyes and looked, and behold, a company of Ishmaelites came from Gilead with their camels bear-
ing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt.” (Genesis xxxvii. 25.) Again,
.
in Judges viii. 21, we read that “Gideon arose and slew Zebah and Zalmunnah, and took away
the ornaments that were on their camels' necks.” In Genesis xxxii. 7, we find that Jacob "divi-
ded the people that was with him, and the flocks, and herds, and the camels, into two bands ;"
and the domestic state of the animal at this early period is further proved by verse fifteen of the
same chapter, where we see, as part of the present sent by Jacob to propitiate Esau, “thirty milch
camels with their colts.” In Leviticus, xi. 4, the camel is enumerated among the forbidden ani-
mals," because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you.” Part

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA. .
573
of Job's “substance (Job i. 3) consisted of three thousand camels ;" and the third messenger of
evil informs him (i. 17,) that “the Chaldeans made out three bands, and fell upon the camels, and
have carried them away.” When, after his afflictions, the Lord blessed the latter end of Job more
than his beginning (xlii. 12), “ six thousand camels” formed a portion of the blessing.
The immense strength, the patient and quiet disposition, and the amount of hardship and priva-
tion which they are able to bear, have justly given to the camels a high place among domestic ani-
mals; it is even difficult to conceive how the affairs of mankind could have been carried on in the
regions occupied by them without the assistance they have rendered. The inhabited parts of these
countries are separated from each other by wide tracts of desert, frequently almost entirely destitute
of herbage, or at all events of any that a horse would deign to eat; in many cases the sandy
ground would yield under the horse's hoofs, so that he would be exhausted before half his day's
journey was done, and all the while he would be exposed to the parching rays of the sun, without
a chance of obtaining water more than once in three or four days. To a certain extent these
eastern countries are as effectually separated from each other as if the sea rolled its waves between
them; in either case some special means of passing over the interval is required. This is afforded
by the camel. The desert is his home; he can feed upon the scanty vegetation that springs up
here and there amid the arid wastes; his foot, by a curious provision of nature, is adapted for
the sandy ground, over which he can accordingly pass without tiring for hours together, with a
load of five or six hundred weight upon his back; and lastly, by another singular provision of
nature, he can journey on beneath the burning sun without drinking for several days. It is no
A CARAVAN CROSSING THE DESERT.
wonder that the Arabs, in their poetical way, should have given the name of the “Ship of the
Desert" to this valuable creature. It has recently become specially interesting to us Americans,
from the fact that it has been lately used in traversing the deserts which lie between New Mexico
and California, and is likely to become an important means of communication between these portions
of our extended territories.
With regard to the power of the camel to support thirst, there has generally prevailed some
exaggeration. It has been stated that this animal will bear deprivation of water for a period of
no less than fifteen days; but Burckhardt states that the time varies greatly, according to the
breed and the country in which the camels have been accustomed to travel. Thus the Egyptian
and Syrian Camels require frequent draughts during the summer months, while those which jour-
ney in the Arabian deserts will go for four or five days without drinking. The same author says

574
VERTEBRATA.
SEDMAN-KENNY. N.Y.
THE WELL IN THE DESERT.
that some of the African caravans travel for a much longer time without water; but he considers
nine or ten days to be the utmost, and even in such cases a good many camels die on the road;
indeed, it is well known that the carcasses of camels given up to the vultures, form one of the
common spectacles along the routes which they travel. The means by which this creature sup-
ports the long deprivation of moisture is said to be by storing up in the cells of the paunch and
honeycomb stomach, a sufficient supply to last for several days' consumption. This has been dis-
puted by some zoologists, from their finding no water in these cells on dissecting camels, and
Burckhardt states that no great quantity of fluid is found in the stomachs of these animals, unless
they have been drinking not long before. These reasons should not, however, be considered as
conclusive, because we do not know the precise conditions under which the animals had been
living. There seems, however, to be no truth in the popular belief that, when in great want of
water, the Arabs kill a camel for the sake of the supply contained in its stomach, for Burckhardt
never saw this plan put in practice, nor could he ever hear from the Arabs of their making use
of
any such method of supplying their necessities, although they frequently entertained him with
accounts of the hardships they underwent in the deserts from this very cause.
For the purpose of loading and unloading, the camels are made to kneel down, and those parts
of their bodies and limbs which come in contact with the ground, acquire remarkable callosities
in course of time. The most considerable of these is situated on the breast. They repose in the
same position, and to keep them from straying during the night, their drivers tie the fore-legs in
a knceling position, so that they cannot rise beyond their knees. When overloaded, it is said
that they obstinately refuse to rise, even when they are beaten most severely, and it appears that
the drivers are by no means averse to exercising their authority in this way,
the
poor creatures
being often most inhumanly treated. The load of a camel varies considerably, according to the
distance he has to go and the hardships he will have to endure. Large, powerful camels will
carry a weight of fifteen hundred pounds for three or four miles, and will travel for several days
with a load of a thousand pounds. Those coming to Egypt from the interior of Africa rarely
carry more than five hundred weight. With such loads as these they will travel about thirty
miles a day.
A great part of the internal trade of Asia and Africa has been for ages carried on by compa-
nies called Caravans, consisting of persons conducting numbers of these animals loaded with mer
chandise. The pilgrimages to Mecca are performed on the backs of camels, and sometimes several
thousands are seen in a single company. In eastern countries, journeys are usually made on the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
575
backs of these animals. The riding camels are, however, of a different breed from those em-
ployed in transporting merchandise, and a good one is as highly prized among the Arabs as
a fine horse in England. Some idea of their speed and endurance may be obtained from the
fact, related by Burckhardt, that an Egyptian Camel traveled a hundred and fifteen miles in
eleven hours, beside being carried twice over the Nile, a process which occupied about twenty
minutes each time. Many of the camels of the Bedouin Arabs and of the predatory Tartars are
exceedingly swift of foot. The best easily travel a hundred miles in a day. In the interior of
Africa messages are sent by them eight hundred miles in eight days. One particular species, the
Heirie, El Heirie, or Maherry of the desert, is noted for its speed. “When thou shalt meet a
“
heirie,” say the Arabs in their poetical mode of expression, " and say to the rider · Salem Aleik,
ere he shall have answered thee · Aleik Salem' he will be afar off, and nearly out of sight, for his
swiftness is like the wind."
But it is not merely as a beast of burden that the camel is useful to man. His flesh is eaten,
and the hump on his back is esteemed a great delicacy. The milk of the female is also said to
be good; the hair, which is long and soft, falls off in large flakes during the season of intercourse,
and is woven into a sort of cloth, which is impervious to wet, and is used by the Arabs for cloth-
ing and tents. His hide is made into belts and sandals, and his dung is used for fuel. The soot
of this fuel, after having undergone the process of sublimation in closed vessels, produced the sal-
ammoniac, or hydrochlorate of ammonia, which was formerly imported from Egypt into Europe,
where the alkali is now, however, manufactured in a variety of ways. In the East, for ages, the
hair of the camel has been used for textile fabrics. The raiment of John the Baptist was of camels'
hair. It is now principally imported for the manufacture of pencils for the painter. The hair
which is the product of Persia, is held in the greatest estimation. There are three qualities-
black, red, and gray; the black brings the best price, the red comes next in value, and the gray
is only valued at half the price of the red. So many and so important, indeed, are the uses of
the camel, that whole tribes inhabit the deserts subsisting almost wholly by its aid.
The camels are among the largest of the ruminants, many of them measuring as much as seven
feet in height and upward of ten feet in length. Their form is by no means elegant, the dorsal
humps giving them a deformed appearance, which is not lessened by their long and peculiarly
curved necks and clumsy legs and feet. Their general expression of countenance and movement
has something in it of weariness, disgust, and despondence; but that they are specially and admi-
rably devised in their form, organization, and temper for the use of man, under particular circum-
stances of soil and climate, must be manifest to every attentive observer. The pads or sole-cush-
ions of the spreading feet—divided into two toes without being externally separated—which buoy
up, as it were, the whole bulk with their expansive elasticity, thus preventing them from sinking in
the sand, on which they advance with silent step; the nostrils, so formed that the animal can close
them at will to exclude the drift sand of the parching simoom; the powerful upper incisor teeth for
assisting in the division of the tough, prickly shrubs and dry, stunted herbage of the desert; and,
above all, the cellular structure of the stomach, which is capable of being converted into an assem-
blage of water-tanks—bear ample testimony to the care and wisdom exercised in the structure of
this extraordinary quadruped. Both species have the same general characteristics. Their sense of
smell is acute, and in traversing the desert it is often strikingly displayed. When apparently almost
worn out, and when all have been on the point of perishing with thirst, one has been known to
break his halter and run with unerring certainty to a spring which had escaped the observation
of the other quadrupeds of the caravan, and of man himself.
The BACTRIAN CAMEL, usually called by way of eminence The Camel, is distinguished by
having two humps on the back. Its length is about ten feet, though many are smaller and some
larger; the hair is shaggy, especially under the throat; the color is generally dark-brown, though
there are varieties in this respect, some being gray and some white. It is larger and stouter, and
is relatively lower on the limbs, than the Dromedary. It originated in that part of Tartary occu-
pied at present by the Usbecks, and anciently known as Bactriana. It is essentially the camel
of cold or temperate climates, as the dromedary is the camel of hot climates. It has been em-
ployed from the most ancient times in domestic and military service; for thousands of years it has

576
VERTEBRATA.
been the great instrument by which the vast interior trade of the rich and fertile countries of
the middle zone of Asia has been conducted. Some of the breeds are acclimated in the cold or
temperate regions west of the Taurus and Himalayas, and even in the countries of the Caspian
and amid the steppes of the Crimea, supporting the rigors of these harsh climates as well as any
other animals.
RCDMAN KENNEN
THE DROMEDARY, OR ARABIAN CAMEL.
The DROMEDARY, or, as it is often called, the ARABIAN CAMEL, is distinguished by a single
hump, a lighter form, and a more rapid movement than the other species. There are three vari-
eties, the Brown or Caucasian Dromedary, which is stouter and more robust than the others;
the Egyptian Dromedary, which is of large size, and covered with short gray hair, and the
White Dromedary, which is in part whitish-gray, the head, neck, hump, and fore-limbs being
covered with long hair. It is true that the Bactrian and Arabian Camel are both bred and used
in some localities, but the varieties of the latter are almost exclusively employed in Africa, Turkey,
Asia Minor, and Arabia; many also are used by the marauding Tartars. They are particularly
suited to arid and sandy countries, and are wholly used in crossing the wastes of Sahara, more ap-
palling than the waves of the sea, where, indeed, whole caravans have been buried in the drifting
billows of sand, and where in some places the surface of the earth is whitened with the bones of men
and camels which have perished from thirst. This species is the one employed by the Hebrews in the
patriarchal ages,
appears that this nation introduced it into Egypt. In the conflict with
Mithridates, the Romans under Lucullus first met soldiers mounted on camels. The Carthagi-
nians did not use these animals, and they appear to have arrived in Northern Africa after the
conquests of Belisarius in that quarter. At the present day multitudes of these animals are seen
not only in the caravans crossing the deserts, but in the cities of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Cairo,
Alexandria, and indeed throughout Africa, Arabia, and Syria.
and it

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
577
(Cetin
M
JI
Wi. Bruker
CAMELS AT DAMASCUS.
A few years since the Government of the United States took measures for the introduction of
the Camel into the southern part of this country. In the autumn of 1857 a number of them,
which had been brought in government vessels from the borders of the Mediterranean, were
placed under the charge of Lieutenant Beale, commander of an expedition to explore a route
for a wagon road from New Mexico to California. In a report made by this officer to the Sec-
retary of War, after he had reached the shores of the Pacific, dated October 18, 1857, he says?
“ An important part in all of our operations has been acted by the camels. Without the aid
of this noble and useful brute, many hardships which we have been spared would have fallen
to our lot; and our admiration for them has increased day by day, as some new hardship, en-
dured patiently, more fully developed their entire adaptation and usefulness in the exploration
of the wilderness. At times I have thought it impossible they could stand the test to which
they have been put; but they seem to have risen equal to every trial, and to have come off
from every exploration with as much strength as before starting. Unsupported by the testi-
mony of every man of my party, I should be unwilling to state all that I have seen them do.
Starting with a full determination that the experiment should be no half-way one, I have sub-
jected them to trials which no other animal could possibly have endured, and yet I have arrived
here, not only without the loss of a camel, but they are admitted by those who saw them in
Texas to be in as good condition to-day as when we left San Antonio.
"In all our lateral explorations they have carried water, sometimes for more than a week, for
the mules used by the men, themselves never receiving even a bucketful to one of them; they
have traversed patiently with heavy packs, on these explorations, countries covered with the sharp-
est volcanic rock, and yet their feet to this hour have evinced no symptom of tenderness or injury;
with heavy packs they have crossed mountains, ascended and descended precipitous places where
an unladen mule found it difficult to pass, even with the assistance of the rider, dismounted,
and carefully picking its way. I think it would be within bounds to say that in these various
lateral explorations they have traversed nearly double the distance passed over by our mules and
wagons.
“Leaving home with all the prejudice attaching to untried experiments, and with many in our
camp opposed to their use, and looking forward confidently to their failure, I believe, at this time,
Vol. I. -73

578
VERTEBRATA.
I
may speak for every man in our party, when I say there is not one of them who would not pre-
fer the most indifferent of our camels to four of our best mules, and I look forward hopefully to
the time when they will be in general use in all parts of our country.”
This report contains an interesting account of the admirable manner in which these animals
swam the Colorado River, thus removing all doubt as to their capacity for this species of service.
Lieutenant Beale arrived at San Francisco, and the editor of a leading journal of that city says:
“ The experiment of the camels and dromedaries has proved a triumphant success. In opposition
to the opinions of many United States officers, they have shown themselves admirably adapted
for traversing the wastes of Western America. In some instances these wonderful animals went
a week, and in one ten days, without water—not because it did not exist on the route, but from
a lack of desire for it; and on the tenth day the animal drank with comparative indifference.
They could
go, if required, over two weeks without tasting water. Their food is of the simplest
and coarsest description; they eat, as they progress, whatever grows on the way-side, bending
their long necks and thrusting their heads alike into the narrowest crevices, for the cactus or the
stunted verdure, or cropping the leaves from the boughs of the trees, without in the least retard-
ing their speed. Truly they may be called the ships of the desert, and, when taken in compari-
son with mules, horses, or cattle, which require food almost as regularly as man, they seem
adapted by nature to the novel task to which our government has now applied them."*
PEDMAN-KENNY.NY
27
THE DEAD CAMEL AND THE VULTURES.
* In the autumn of 1855 the United States storeship Supply, under command of Lieutenant Porter, was sent to
the Mediterranean to obtain camels to be taken to Texas and tried, so as to ascertain whether they were suited to
that climate, and to that of New Mexico and California. Thirty-three were procured, mostly in Egypt and Smyrna;
two being of the Bactrian and thirty-one of the Arabian species; one was a cross called Booghdee or Tuilu. With
these the vessel sailed, and after a rough passage arrived and landed them all safely at Indianola, Texas, May 14,
1856. Five young ones were born on the passage; all, however, died but one. The correspondence with the War
Department of Major Wayne, who accompanied Lieutenant Porter, and was chiefly charged with the purchase of the
camels, has been published, and is exceedingly interesting, not only on account of the details of his operations, but
the curious and minute information he gives respecting the camel in the countries where it has been in use for ages.
A letter of Lieutenant Porter's to the War Department, giving an account of the expedition, has also been published,
and is alike valuable and interesting.
The storeship Supply made another successful trip to the Mediterranean for camels in 1856-7, but we have not the
official details. In 1858, one hundred camels were imported into New Orleans on private speculation,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
579
ale
SAEOMAN-KENNVIENGASI'V
THE LAMA.
Genus LLAMA, or LAMA: Auchenia. These animals, which appear like small camels, and
represent these animals in the New World, are, however, readily distinguished from them, not
only by the difference of size, but by the absence of dorsal humps and the complete division of
the toes. This structure of the feet does not adapt them for traveling over such sandy wastes as
form the natural home of the camel, but for dwelling on mountairs and among rocks, where, in
point of fact, their footing is more sure than that of most other animals. Their form is lighter and
more elegant than that of the camel; they are not only smaller, but far inferior to their eastern
relatives in strength. Their native region is upon the slopes of the immense chain of the Andes,
in South America, on all parts of which they occur; and although inhabitants of tropical cli-
mates, they are very impatient of heat, and often ascend into the vicinity of the line of perpetual
The wild lamas are very vigilant and shy; they live in flocks at a great altitude upon
the mountains, and only descend toward the plains occasionally in search of food. Both the wild
and the tame lamas have the singular habit of always, when practicable, dropping their dung
in the same place, so that considerable heaps of excrement are found in particular spots; the wild
ones have also been observed to retire in the same way to a particular spot to die, and in some
places it is said portions of the banks of rivers may be seen almost whitened with their bones.
When irritated, they eject the contents of their mouths, consisting of food undergoing its second
mastication, upon the offending party; this is doubtless exceedingly disagreeable, but the popular
belief in the venomous nature of the substance discharged is destitute of foundation.
Considerable doubts exist as to the number of distinct species of lamas. It has been supposed
that there are four species, but some zoologists reduce them to two, considering the others as domes-
ticated varieties. Other writers, on the contrary, increase the number to five or even six. There
appear, however, to be three species, the true Lama, the Paco, and the Vicuna.
The term
Lama-equivalent to cattle—is applied by the natives to all these kinds. The name of Peruvian
Sheep was given to them by the early European settlers.
The GUANACO, or HUANACO, A. Guanaco, is regarded as the wild stock from which the true
lama is derived. They stand rather more than three feet high at the shoulder, and the neck,

580
VERTEBRATA.
SRECANSKENNV.N."
THE PACO.
which is often carried upright, bears the head at a height of nearly five feet from the ground.
They are of a pale reddish-brown color, and covered with long hair, which, however, is not so
long as that of the domesticated lama. When taken young, they may be tamed, but always
retain a tendency to return to the wild state. They inhabit the Cordilleras of the Andes, but
principally in Peru and Chili. They are rare in Colombia and Paraguay, and seldom make
their appearance on the eastern side of the chain. They associate together in herds of one
or two hundred individuals, and subsist on a peculiar kind of grass or reed called ycho. While
they can procure green herbage they are never known to drink, and it
may
therefore be pre-
sumed that they have the power of secreting from their food sufficient liquid to satiate their
thirst. They do not appear to be so insensible to cold as the Vicunas, which are generally
found at a much greater elevation, and have a much thicker, finer, and closer fleece. At the be-
ginning of the winter they abandon the mountains on which they have passed the summer and
descend into the valleys. Here the Chilians hunt them with dogs, which, however can catch
only the younger and less active individuals. The old ones are so swift as scarcely to be run
down by an excellent horse, thus offering a striking contrast to the extreme slowness of their mo-
tions when in captivity and loaded with heavy baggage. When chased they frequently turn
upon
their
pursuers, neigh with all their might, and then set off again at full speed. One mode
of capturing them by the Indians is for many hunters to join and drive them into a narrow pass,
across which cords have been drawn about four feet from the ground, with bits of cloth or wool tied
to them at small distances. This apparatus with its pendant trumpery frightens the animals, and
they crowd together, so that the hunters kill them with stones tied to the end of leathern thongs.
The LAMA, sometimes called the American Camel, A. glama, is the domesticated Guanaco, and
takes the place of the camel among the Indians of Peru and Chili. It is of about the same size
as the Guanaco, the principal differences between them being such as might well be produced by
domestication, namely, a stouter and heavier form and a variety of colors, black, brown, and
gray being the most common; some are mottled, some piebald, and a few white-a white Lama
being the presiding deity of the natives of Callao. The lama is employed as a beast of burden,
and although it is unable to bear a great weight-ninety to a hundred and twenty pounds being
about the heaviest load that it can carry—its power of traveling over rugged declivities, where no
other loaded animals could maintain their footing, has rendered its services indispensable in those
countries even to the present day, although its place has been to a certain extent taken by mules.
It is, however, slow in its march, rarely traveling more than ten or twelve miles a day. When
' killed, its flesh furnishes a wholesome and excellent food—and which is common in the markets
of Peru; the long, woolly hair with which it is covered forms the principal clothing of the Indians.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 9. RUMINANTIA.
581
WEI
-REUHAN-KENNYISCH.X.
THE VICUNA.
a
The keeping of a herd of lamas is a matter of little or no difficulty; at night they are put into
an inclosure, where they sleep winter and summer without any protection, although at the eleva-
tion at which they usually live the temperature often falls below the freezing-point immediately after
sunset, even in the summer. In the morning they are allowed to quit the inclosure to wander
about
upon the mountains in search of food, and they return of their own accord in the evening.
The dung, like that of the camel, is employed as fuel; the milk is said to be pretty good, but the
natives did not use it prior to the arrival of the Spaniards; the skin furnishes a good leather.
These animals seem to have been to the aborigines what the reindeer—with the exception of
the milk-is to the Laplander. Surrounded by herds of such animals, which required almost no
care, and by the spontaneous productions of the soil, the Indian had little incentive to improvement.
Humboldt has an eloquent passage on this subject : “When we attentively examine this wild part
of America, we seem to be carried back to the first ages, when the earth was peopled step by
step; we appear to assist at the birth of human societies. In the Old World, we behold the pas-
toral life prepare a people of huntsmen for the agricultural life. In the New World, we look in
vain for these progressive developments of civilization, these moments of repose, these resting-
places in the life of a people. . · Those species of ruminating animals which constitute the
riches of the people of the Old World are wanting in the New The bison and the musk-ox have
not yet been reduced to the domestic state; the enormous multiplication of the Lama and the
Guanaco have not produced in the natives the habits of the pastoral life.” Gregory de Bolivar
calculates that four millions of lamas were killed annually in his time, to be eaten, and that three
hundred thousand were employed in the transport of the produce of the mines of Potosi alone.
The number in domestic use in all South America must have been enormous. But these multi-
tudes are lessened, and the race itself will probably ere long be extinct. Civilization has brought
with it the animals of the old continent. The horse and the mule have almost entirely super-
seded the lamas as beasts of burden in the open country, and the sheep and the goat have taken
their place, in a great measure, as contributors to the food and raiment of man.
The Paco, or LAMA Paco, or ALPACA, A. Paco, which is also domesticated by the Peruvians, is
considerably smaller than the lama, and is never employed as a beast of burden; it is principally
valued for the sake of its soft, silky hair, sometimes a foot in length, which is woven into fabrics
of great beauty. Large quantities have lately been imported into Europe for this purpose.
The Vicuna, or Vicugna, or Lama Vicuna, A. vicunna, is about the same size as the Alpaca ;
its color is reddish-yellow on the back and whitish on the belly. It is a wild species, which is
principally sought after for the sake of its fine wool, from which esteemed stuffs are largely woven.
a

582
VERTEBRATA.
ZINE
たち
​bris
kumar
in Wi-
LOSSING-BARRITI
THE COSSACK HORSE.
THE CART-HORSE.
THE ARABIAN.
ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
This order contains but a single family, the Equida, of which the horse is the type.
THE EQUIDÆ.
This family embraces the Horse, Ass, Dzegguetai or Hemione, the Zebra, Quagga, and Onager
or Dauw. These are all originally natives of the Eastern Continent; all are naturally herbivo-
rous, and live together in large herds, defending themselves when attacked by kicking with their
heels. Two of the species, the Horse and Ass, have been domesticated by man; the rest con-
tinue in a wild state. In their structure they are characterized by six incisors to each jaw,
which, during youth, have their crowns furrowed with a groove, and six molars on each side above
and below, with square crowns, marked by laminæ of enamel which penetrate them, with four
crescents, beside which there is a small disk on the inner border of those above. The males have
in addition two small canines in their upper jaw, and sometimes in both, which are always want-
ing in the females. Between these canines and the first molar there is a wide space which cor-
responds with the angle of the lips where the bit is placed, by which alone man has been enabled
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
583
UAV
JULIUS CÆSAR.
to subdue these powerful quadrupeds. Their stomach is simple and middle-sized ; but the intes-
tines are very long, and the cæcum enormous. The mamma are situated between the thighs.
They are distinguished from all other animals in having a solid or undivided hoof, the two ante-
rior toes being, as it were, soldered together. While possessing these characteristics in common,
they are divided into two distinct genera, that of the HORSE, Equus, containing a single species,
and that of the Ass, Asinus, containing the other members of the family.
Genus HORSE: Equus.—This comprises the HORSE, E. caballus, an animal which in all ages
has captivated the imagination of man. In ancient times, when war was the great game of life,
the horse was chiefly noted as the associate of the warrior. History has so instructed us that
the images of the great warriors of antiquity-Alexander and Cæsar, Alaric and Attila, Saladin
and Caur de Lion-habitually present themselves to the imagination as mounted upon
the horse.
The equestrian statue is the popular apotheosis of the warrior, and not of antiquity only but of
modern times, for even Wellington and Washington are thus consecrated in imperishable bronze.
It
may
be
wrong but nevertheless it is true, as matter of fact, that the warrior in all ages is regarded
as the highest type of his race, and the same is true of his brute companion, the war-horse being
always regarded as the noblest of his species. The songs of the troubadour and the minnesinger
have been hardly more inspired by the deeds of the heroes of chivalry than by those of their
steeds. Nay, even the inspired penman has given us a portrait of the war-horse which manifests
a similar enthusiasm. “His neck," says the author of the Book of Job, “is clothed with thun-
der; the glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength;
he goeth out to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turn-
eth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear, and the shield.
He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage; neither believeth he that it is the sound of

584
VERTEBRATA.
ATTILA.
the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha! and he smelleth the battle afar off, the
thunder of the captains, and the shouting.”
In more modern times Buffon has given us a sketch hardly less poetic: “The noblest conquest
which was ever made by man is that of this spirited and haughty animal, which shares with him
the fatigues of war and the glory of the combat. Equally intrepid with his master, the Horse sees
the danger and braves it; inspired at the clash of arms, he loves it, he seeks it, and is animated
by the same ardor. He feels pleasure also in the chase, in tournaments, in the course; he is all
fire, but, as tractable as courageous, he does not give way to his impetuosity, and knows how
to check his inclinations; he not only submits to the arm which guides him, but even seems to
consult the desires of his rider, and, always obedient to the impressions which he receives from
him, presses on, moves gently, or stops, and only acts as his rider pleases. The Horse is a crea-
ture which renounces his being to exist only by the will of another, which he knows how to anti-
cipate, and even express, and execute by the promptitude and exactness of his movements; he
feels as much as we desire, does only what we wish, giving himself up without reserve, and refuses
nothing, makes use of all his strength, exerts himself beyond it, and even dies the better to
obey us.”
Nor is this mere poetry: *« Although the invention of gunpowder has invested the modern
battle-field with all the attributes of that thunder which the ancients regarded as being possessed
only by the chief of their gods, it has no effect upon the war-horse, after proper training, but to
excite his courage and make him more brave and bold amid the augmented terrors. Roaring
artillery, sheeted flame, curling smoke, gleaming steel, rolling drums, sounding trumpets, and
all the sights and the din of the hottest conflict, never affect either the courage or the cool-
ness of the veteran charger. He will bear his rider up to the cannon's, or to, or even on, the
point of the lance, with the same cheerful obedience as if he were riding to a field of the richest
pasture, and though beaten back, and smarting with wounds, he will return again and again to
the charge; nor will he quit his duty until he has made the final sacrifice, and his bones are
gathered to the unseemly heap in which horses and their riders lie promiscuously together.
“But it is only while there is a rider on his back that the horse continues thus obedient to his
duty; for when the ranks are broken, and the riders gone, horses may be seen careering over the
,
field, as if absolutely in quest of new riders to bring them again into action; and it is said that,
* See "British Cyclopedia of Natural History," article Horse.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
585
Woh
ODDOPPE
Doon
RETVANSKENNY
SALADIN
upon these occasions, the horses rarely, if ever, trample upon the bodies of the wounded or the
dead with which the field is scattered. If a trumpet sound, too, the riderless horse, if not frantic
with the agony of wounds, will follow upon the sound, but will turn away again if he finds that
the uniform of the party is not like that of his own regiment. If his rider falls when the horse
is at considerable speed, the horse instantly stops, so that an exchange is frequently soon made of
a rider who has lost his horse and a horse that has lost his rider. Veteran horses are rarely, if
ever, panic-struck, and though they are, of course, liable to be taken prisoners, they never desert
to the enemy.
"The most remarkable fact of the whole matter, however, is the evident fondness which horses
that have been accustomed to it have for the army; and this appears both in their fondness for
particular regiments and in that for all military array, and even military weapons. It is told that,
in one of their insurrections in the early part of this century, the Tyrolese captured fifteen horses
belonging to the troops sent against them, and mounted them with fifteen of their own men, in
order to go out to a fresh rencounter with the same troops; but no sooner did these horses hear
the well-known sound of their own trumpet, and recognize the uniform of their own squadron,
than they dashed onward at full speed, and in spite of all the efforts of their riders, bore them
into the ranks, and delivered them up as prisoners to the squadron! If an old military horse,
even when reduced almost to skin and bone, hears the roll of a drum or the twang of a
trumpet, the freshness of his youth appears to come upon him, and if he at the same time gets
a sight of men clad in uniform and drawn up in line, it is no easy matter to prevent him from
joining them.
"Nor does it signify what kind of military they are, as is shown by the following case. Toward
the close of the last century, about the time when volunteers were first embodied in the different
towns of England, an extensive line of turnpike road was in progress of construction in a part of
the north. The Clerk to the Trustees upon this line used to send one of his assistants to ride
along occasionally in order to see that the contractors, who were at work in a great many places,
VOL. I.-74

586
VERTEBRATA.
PASSEZ L RIEHARI DVSC BOSTON
SMUGGLER.
were doing their work properly. The assistant, on these journeys, rode a horse which had for a
long time carried a field-officer, and, though aged, still possessed a great deal of spirit. One day,
as he was passing near a town of considerable size which lay on the line of road, the volunteers
were at drill on the common, and the instant that Solus—that was the name of the horse—heard
the drum he leaped the fence, and was speedily at that post in front of the volunteers which would
have been occupied by the commanding officer of a regiment on parade, or at drill; nor could the
rider by any means get him off the ground until the volunteers retired to the town. As long as
they kept the field the horse took the proper place of a commanding officer during all their
maneuvers, and he marched at the head of the corps into the town, prancing in military style,
as cleverly as his stiffened legs would allow, to the great amusement of the volunteers and spec-
tators, and the no small annoyance of the clerk, who did not feel very highly honored by Solus
making a colonel of him against his will."
In addition to this high spirit in the horse, which echoes so well the fiery impulses in the bosom
of man, and which has placed him in the very foreground of the more active and progressive por-
tions of human history, whether amid the appalling horrors of the battle-field, or the more entic-
ing scenes of martial pomp and pageantry, there are other circumstances which render this ani-
mal an object of peculiar interest. It has been said that “so far as we can predicate morality of
a creature unendowed with an immortal spirit, the horse has a moral history. Many animals live
in a state of perhaps more close domestication than the horse does, and the dog especially, being
one which in a state of nature requires more art and stratagem for finding his food, is capable of
evincing his attachment to his master in a greater variety of ways. The dog will fight for his

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
587
master, will fawn upon his master, and will watch and defend his master's property, with a fidelity
perhaps unequaled by the human race. The horse does not fight of himself, for his nature is the
very opposite of pugnacious; the horse does not fawn, for the spirit of the horse is noble; but
the horse, if the expression may be used, stands to his rider more in the relation of a companion
and equal than any other animal stands to man. There is, also, in the gratified look, the erected
ears, the arching neck, and the subdued and murmuring neigh of the horse at the sight of that
rider with whom he has been long associated, something more touching, or if you will, more
poetical, than in the fawning of all the dogs in the world.
“ Then there is no danger which the horse will not brave along with his rider, and on those
occasions man very often borrows courage from the spirit of the animal. In the darkness of night,
when the traveler knows not his way, and would be incapable of reaching his home, his faithful
horse will carry him in safety through the most difficult places, and be the path ever so intricate,
and the obstacles ever so many, if the rein is entirely given up to the horse, not a foot of his will
slip or be misplaced on the most difficult ground, and not one of the obstacles will he come in
contact with. This is a curious point in physiology, but it is as true as it is worthy of admira-
tion. The firm and entire hoof of the horse, even when shod with iron, seems to acquire in the
dark a sense of touch equal to the most delicate finger, and though we cannot account for it, every
hair
upon
the skin of the animal appears to be instinct with all the senses necessary for guiding
him along with the same certainty as though it were clear daylight all about him. If the horse
and the rider have been long acquainted with each other, and have frequently made nocturnal
journeys, it is of no consequence, if the journey is a homeward one, whether the rider pays
the
slightest attention to the matter or not, for there have been many instances in which an old and
trusty horse has carried his rider asleep for a distance of more than twenty miles. There have
been also instances of favorite ponies carrying blind musicians from house to house for the pur-
pose of giving lessons; and indeed it would be impossible to enumerate half the instances which
are well authenticated of quiet and slow-going horses finding and keeping the way without any
assistance from their riders, and the same applies to horses habitually used in draught.”
From these and other similar considerations, it is easy to comprehend the place which the horse
has occupied in history as well as poetry. In reading the history of Alexander, we not only ap-
preciate but applaud the honors bestowed by him on Bucephalus, without whose aid, or the aid
of some similar beast, he had never figured as the conqueror of the world.* In thus noticing the
6
* In the history of “The Spanish Conquest of Mexico, &c.," by Arthur Helps, recently published, we have the fol-
lowing passage:
“The battle, if battle it may be called, in which perhaps hardly any weapons were crossed except by accident,
lasted little more than half an hour, for the sun had already set when the action had commenced. It was rightly
said that the shades of night would prove the best defense for the Indians. The Spaniards remarked that the horses
which the evening before had scarcely been able to move on account of the cold which they had suffered in their
journey over the mountains, galloped about on this day as if they had nothing the matter with them.
“All that the fiercest beasts of the forest have done is absolutely inappreciable when compared with the evils of
which that good-natured animal, the horse, has been the efficient instrument since he was first tamed to the use of
man. Atahuallpa afterward mentioned that he had been told how the horses were unsaddled at night, which was
another reason for his entertaining less fear of the Spaniards, and listening more to the mistaken notions of Mayza-
bilica, who had counseled an engagement.
“ Saddled or not saddled, however, in the wars between the Spaniards and the Indians the horse did not play a
subordinate part; the horse made the essential difference between the armies, and if in the great square of Madrid
there had been raised some huge emblem in stone to commemorate the conquest of the New World, an equine, not
an equestrian figure would appropriately have crowned the work. The arms and the armor might have remained
the same on both sides. The ineffectual clubs and darts and lances might still have been arrayed against the sharp
Biscayan sword and deadly arquebus; the cotton doublet of Caseo against the steel corslet of Milan; but without
the horse, the victory would ultimately have been on the side of overpowering numbers. The Spaniards might have
hewn into the Peruvian squadrons, making clear lanes of prostrate bodies. Those squadrons would have closed to-
gether again, and by mere weight would have compressed to death the little band of heroic Spaniards. In truth,
had the horse been created in America, the conquest of the New World would not improbably have been reserved
for that peculiar epoch of development in the European mind when, as at present, mechanical power has in some de-
gree superseded the horse, that power being naturally measured by the units of the animal force which it represents
and displaces."
With the general idea contained in this passage, that the horse has been a great instrument of mischief to man-
kind, we can by no means agree. That his power, as well in war as other things, has been abused, is a matter of
course; that it was even abused in this war upon Mexico we may admit; yet we cannot but feel that, all things con-

588
VERTEBRATA.
DUET
LOSS-BARAT
THE RACE-COURSE.
part which the horse plays in war, and in farther reflecting upon his temper, which makes him
the intimate associate of man, and on his instincts, which in many cases surpass reason, we readily
catch the thread of association by which the imaginative Greeks were led to mount the poet who
would scale the giddy heights of Parnassus upon the winged Pegasus, and, amid the superstitions
of the Middle Ages, created for the heroes of chivalry horses endowed with wings and the gifts of
enchantment. The same impulse that led poets to deify heroes, caused them to confer similar
and often greater powers on their companion, the most heroic of animals. The cart-horse may
be more useful than the war-horse, as the plowman may be more useful than the warrior, but
what minstrel has ever chanted the praises of these humble drudges? The love of chivalrous
deeds is inherent in human nature, and he who tells their story will always have listeners. Cer-
vantes, with a fine perception of the feelings of mankind, though his purpose was to ridicule the
extravagance of chivalry, never made either Don Quixote or Rosinante contemptible. In the
midst of all their misadventures there is a certain dignity which commands our respect, even
while our sides are bursting with laughter. With Sancho and his ass it is otherwise : these are
presented in the full breadth of their native meanness and vulgarity. And this portraiture, as it
reflects the human heart, has for centuries received the sanction of mankind. The warrior has
always captivated the popular imagination, and the war-horse is the beau ideal of his race, as well
in the sacred page as the common sense of mankind.
It is not to be supposed, however, that it is in war alone that the horse commends himself to
mankind. On the “Turf” he creates a new world, with its own peculiar atmosphere, its own dia-
lect, its own codes, its own literature. Nowhere can we find a more exciting spectacle than the
race-course, especially in England, where princes and nobles produce their favorite steeds to con-
tend for the prizes, and themselves enter into all the mad enthusiasm of the scene, often risking
thousands of pounds on the chance of a single race. Under the saddle the horse imparts to his
rider an exultant emotion like that we feel in dreaming, when we seem to be flying. The young
sidered, this animal has been one of the chief instruments of human progress and human civilization. So much is
almost confessed in the statement that in the conflict between Cortez and the Mexicans the horse made the essential
difference; for it gave civilization the ascendency over barbarism. The fact is striking and well put, but it is to the
credit of this noble animal, and affords an additional testimonial to the great work it has done in its association with
A recent writer has given us the “ History of Man upon the Sea," a “ History of Man upon the Horse" would
"
be a theme hardly less exciting; at least we think it would be more so than the “ History of Man without the Horse,”
which would be little more than the history of barbarism,
man.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDINGULA.
589
Data unu
A VOLS
THE HORSE IN CHIVALRY.
man on horseback seems to feel that the strength and speed of the horse are a part of his nature,
and even the old man, when his limbs begin to falter, receives something of the animation of
youth when mounted upon his favorite horse. The fair dame, more fair than ever, and conscious
of her advantage, breathes the air of Elysium when she skins the carth upon
her palfry.
The
robber, the assassin, having secured his booty or struck his blow, enjoys, with his foot in the stir-
rup, a sense of security and triumph as he flies from the scene of his guilt, even though it be in
the blackness of night. The hunter, whether with hound and horn in chase of the fox, or with
,
bow and arrow or rifle straining across the prairies of the far west in pursuit of th bison; or on
the illimitable
pampas with his whirling lasso, as he thunders in the track of herds of wild cattle ;
or in the wildernesses of Africa, more fearless than Nimrod, chases countless troops of antilopes,
deer, quaggas, buffaloes, rhinoceri, hippopotami, elephants, and giraffes—the hunter in all these
scenes is elevated by the horse he rides from the slow, plodding, feeble biped, to the realization
of a double existence—the might, majesty, and domain of the fabled centaur. To the lordly dame
that rolls pompously along in her coach; to the humble drudge that follows the plow; to the
weary wagoner along the dirty road; to each and all the horse contributes the luxuries or the
necessities of life. In some countries—as among the Tartars—the flesh of the horse is highly
relished.* We have hardly come to that, though in some parts of Europe, and especially at
Vienna, we are told that horse-steak is esteemed delicious. It is true that in most cases we make
an end of our domestic animals by eating them; but as to the horse, when he can do no more
* The question whether horse-flesh is edible has been much discussed by the savans of Europe, especially of late,
and the general opinion is that it is alike nutritious and savory. Gervais says, “We may rank the horse among the
alimentary animals. The flesh of a young horse is excellent, and that of the wild horse is still better. In some
countries this is habitually eaten, and in others the flesh of the domestic horse is common in the butcheries. In time
of war a good use may be made of the flesh of wounded horses, or those that are killed on the field. In time of fam-
ine the horse has been eaten even at Paris. In 1793 a part of the inhabitants of this city were fed on horse-flesh
without perceiving it. Some naturalists have asked why this aliment has not become common, and have come to
the conclusion that on this subject society has much to learn.” “In Denmark and other countries, where horse-flesh
is eaten, the prejudice against it constantly diminishes."- Histoire Naturelle des Mammi feres.

590
VERTEBRATA.
WM Lana
+ DAMAI
ලල ලල මත.
vais
Tor
Onun
GREEK HORSES, FROM THE FRIEZES OF THE PARTHENON.
for us, and his time is come, we content ourselves by stripping off his hide, making manure of his
blood, Prussian blue as well as cat and dog meat of his flesh, and a top-dressing for our fields of
his pulverized bones. Truly the horse enters largely into the pleasures as well as the pains of
human life!
The history of the horse, as far as we are able to trace it, always presents that animal as sub-
dued to man's use; nowhere does it give us any account of wild horses, except such as have been
bred from domestic ones. The earliest written notices of this animal are in the sacred writings.
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob had asses, which are spoken of in the enumeration of their riches,
with camels and sheep, but nowhere is it stated that they had horses. In the time of Moses, the
Hebrews did not use them even in battle, though Pharaoh and his host came against them with
chariots drawn by horses.
King David, we are told, captured a thousand chariots and seven hundred horsemen in his
conflict with Hadadezar, the Philistine, but he houghed or hamstrung all the horses save one
hundred, which he reserved for chariots. But Solomon his successor, it appears, introduced this
animal largely into the military and state service, for the Bible tells us he had forty thousand stalls
of horses for his chariots and twelve thousand for his cavalry. These animals came partly from
Egypt and partly from Coa.
The Book of Job informs us that the Arabians were in possession of this animal, but Strabo
says that in his time they were not found in the southern portions, comprehending the greater
part of Arabia Felix. When Mahomet, in the early part of his career, marched against Mecca
to chastise his enemies there, he had only two horses in his army, and it is to be noted that amid
his spoils there were camels and sheep, and silver and captives, but no horses. The subsequent
conquests of the followers of the prophet supplied them with horses, and from that time the breed-
ing of them has been carefully practiced in Arabia. The famous Arabian breed is of compara-
tively modern date.
Homer, in the Iliad, speaks of the numerous stud of Priam, and says that Erichtonius, an an-
cestor of the Trojan king, had three thousand mares and the like number of colts. The Greeks,
however, did not use the horse in war till long after it had been thus employed in Egypt, Assy-
ria, and Scythia. At the battle of Marathon, 490 B. C., they had no horses, and at that of Platæa,
a year later, with an army of one hundred and ten thousand foot, they had not a single squadron
of cavalry. They were in fact in danger of being trodden underfoot by the myriads of Persian

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
591
au
IV SIIT
WW=ill
.
SRO
VOODDO
MAT
en
NY
2
PRIVA
OMANEKENINYANY
ASSYRIAN HORSES, COPIED FROM THE RUINS OF NINEVEL DISCOVERED BY LAYARD.
horsemen. Prior to this, however, the horse was undoubtedly used in Greece for other purposes ;
we know that it had been long used in the chariot races of the Olympian games, and the beauti-
ful remains of the Parthenon, built in the time of Pericles, show that the Greek horses at that time
were of the finest breeds, and that the art of horsemanship was well understood. Horse-breeding
for the chariot and for riding was in fact a mania among the Greek youths of this period, and
may have borne some resemblance to what is witnessed among the lovers of the “turf” at the
present day in England. When, however, Macedonia gained an ascendency in Greece, the war-
horse was introduced. Alexander charged at the head of his cavalry, and in the subsequent ages
of Greek history we find mounted soldiers constituting an essential portion of the Greek armies.
The Macedonians obtained their horses from the north, and undoubtedly they were of the Tartar
stock; the Greeks obtained theirs from Asia Minor, which was early a leading mart for the finest
breeds of horses.
The recently excavated sculptures of Nineveh show us that the Assyrians, at an early age, had
magnificent horses, as well for war as the chase.
The vestiges of Egyptian antiquity prove that at a date equally remote the valley of the Nile
was supplied with similar breeds.
The Scythians, the ancient progenitors of the Tartars, are said first to have exercised the art
of riding on horseback. When their mounted hordes invaded Thrace—long prior to the time of
the Trojan war—the Greeks regarded the man and horse as one animal, as did the Mexicans in
the time of Cortez, and hence, it is said, arose the fable of the centaurs. Scythia in ancient times
* According to the Bible account, Abraham, about 1900 B. C., received presents of sheep, oxen, camels, &c., but no
horses, whence it is reasonably inferred that at that time horses were not in common use in Egypt. But in the time
of Joseph, about 1700 B. C., we are told Jacob's funeral was attended by “chariots and horsemen.” It is held by
good authorities that this was the period of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, whose conquest and occupation of Egypt
for two hundred and fifty years hold so prominent a place in the ancient history of that country, and Champollion
is of the opinion that these Hyksos were Scythians. Admitting these two opinions, we have a striking solution of
the fact that about this period (that is, somewhere between the time of Abraham, 1900 B. C., and Joseph, 1700 B.
C.,) horses were introduced into Egypt, inasmuch as these Hyksos, or Scythians, as we know from other sources,
used horses and made invasions of distant countries with mounted armies at a very remote date. Two plain infer-
ences flow from this view of the case, if it be admitted: first, that Scythia, or as we now call it, Tartary, was the ori-
ginal habitat of the horse, and second, that the Scythians were the first nation which history presents as having used
the horse. We know that it has been asserted that the Egyptians were the first to use the horse, and from this fact,
as well as because the quagga and zebra, both of the equine genus, are found native in the contiguous deserts of Africa,
it has been held that Africa was the birth-place of the horse. From what we have said above, it is clear that the
claim of Egypt to the first use of the horse, and of Africa as its original seat, are both unfounded, or at least prob-
lematical.

592
VERTEBRATA.
3
GOLDSMITH MAID, THE QUEEN OF THE TURF.
of man.
was a great nursery of horses, as is Tartary in modern times, and these animals have in all
ages constituted a large part of the military strength of these regions.
The ancient Parthia was a portion of the present Independent Tartary, and to its horses
we must attribute its chief celebrity in war. The contiguous countries of Media and Armenia
from the earliest ages possessed fine breeds of horses, and they were cultivated in large num-
bers. In all these portions of Asia the horse-adapted alike to the climate and the spirit of
the people—has been a favorite animal from time immemorial. The ancient Scythian on
horseback was in fact almost the realization of the centaur; his descendant, the modern Tar-
tar, almost lives on horseback; from childhood he is familiarized to the art of riding, gui-
ding, and governing this animal. Nowhere is the power of the horse so wedded to the life
Man here--not the individual, but the genus, the tribe-seems actually born with
a horse under him, and thus in a measure to circumvent time and annihilate distance. The
power of clinging to the horse even while in full career, at the same time throwing the body
in various positions, on the neck, on the croup, on this side and that-nay, almost beneath the
belly, and at the same time whirling the spear, launching the javelin, or discharging the ar-
row-is possessed by the Arab, the Turk, and in a remarkable degree by the Camanche;
-
but in these exercises, as well as in the practice of legitimate horsemanship, the Tartar is
the master of them all.
Persia has also had fine breeds of horses from an early date. Cyrus, we are told, had
collected in his stud eight hundred stallions and sixteen hundred mares. From that time
to the present the breeding of these animals has been an object of regard in Persia, and
for several centuries past the Persian breeds have been esteemed as among the best in the
world.
Smuggler, owned by Col. H. S. Russell, Milton, Mass. This celebrated horse, foaled April 15, 1866, near Colum-
bus, O., was taken to Kansas when two years old, and there kept for farm and saddle-work until the fall of 1872, when
he was for the first time handled as a trotter; his gait had been a pace, but his readiness to adopt the trot, as well as
the length and power of his stride, encouraged his owner to hope for great speed. His first race gave him the fastest
time of any animal of his kind, and he is to-day the fastest trotting stallion in the world. His best time was 2.15);
his record, 2.154, 2.17, 2.16), 2.199, 2.173. His descent is traced back through Blanco, Iron's Cadmus, and Cadmus to
American Eclipse.
Hopeful, a gray gelding, foaled in 1866, in Buckfield, Oxford co., Me., son of Godfrey's Patchen, dam by Bid-
ham horse, was sold when three years old for $210. Height, 15 hands. He is a perfectly-gaited trotter, with short
back. He commenced in 1875 with 2.24; beat the American Girl in September of same year in the very fast time
of 2.17142.181-2.181. In 1878 he lowered his record to 2.143, and trotted at St. Louis, October 2, three heats in
2.15), 2.15, and 2.15), and at Chicago, October 12, made the fastest time on record in wagon, 2.163—2.17—2.17. It
is claimed by some that he will yet show a better record than any other horse.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
593
TEN BROECK, THE FASTEST RACER IN THE WORLD.
The Original Black Hawk. He was a remarkable horse, beautiful in appearance, and whether in harness
or not attracted universal admiration. He originated in Greenland, N. H., in 1833 ; was purchased when four years
of age for $150, and kept as a roadster until 1844. He died at Bridport, Vt., in 1856. Height, about 16 hands; weight,
950 pounds. He could trot in 2.40 without training, and was of great intelligence and great endurance, and pos-
sessed the power of transmitting his speed and other characteristics to his offspring in a degree unsurpassed by any
horse in the country. His sire is supposed to be Sherman Morgan. (See Flint's Mass. Agricultural Reports, 1860
and 1874, to which we are indebted for the engravings of Black Hawk and Smuggler.)
Goldsmith Maid. One of the most remarkable horses of the day; foaled in May, 1857, in Sussex co., N. J.
Her sire was called Edsall's Hambletonian, afterward Alexander's Abdallah, with descent from Rysdyk Hambletonian
and Old Abdallah. The descent of the dam was from Old Abdallah and Mambrino. She was an ungovernable filly
and more than a handful for a driver. Sold at eight for $350, and again for $750; in 1865 she trotted in 2.36; 1866,
in 2.30; in 1867, in 2.28, and was sold for $20.000. In 1868 she trotted in 2.221; 1869, in 2.191. In 1871 she scored
the fastest heat then on record, 2.17; in 1872 reduced it to 2.161. At East Saginaw, July 16, 1874, she lowered the
record to 2.16 ; at Buffalo, Aug. 7, to 2.15}; at Rochester, Aug. 12, to 2.147; at Boston, Sept. 2, to 2.14, the fastest
time then on record. Her trainer was Budd Doble, and she was purchased by her present owner, Henry N. Smith, Esq.,
for $35,000 in 1870.
Rarus. This horse, a bay gelding, now the fastest of our American trotters, is owned by R. B. Conklin of Green-
point, L.I.
His sire was a horse called Conklin's Abdallah, bought from a cart; the dam was by Telegraph. No sat-
isfactory account of the descent can be ascertained. He became a trotter in 1874, and closed the record with 2.28};
lowered it in 1875 to 2.203; in 1877, to 2.16; and at Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 3, 1878, to 2.131, the fastest time on record.
Three quarters of the mile he trotted at the rate of 2.113. At Hartford, Aug. 23, 1878, he made the fastest three
heats ever trotted :
Quarter. Half. Three-quarter. Mile.
First heat..........
34
1.07
1.41
2.15
Second heat.......
33.
1.06
1.41
2.13
Third heat....
.31
1.07
1.41
2.137
Edwin Forrest, another horse, made same day one quarter of a mile in 333 and one half in 1.053 and 1.104, and
is probably destined to eclipse them all. Height, 16 hands; weight, 1150—in trotting condition, 1000. He was
foaled in April, 1871, and bred by Jas. H. Haddock of Harrisonville, Cass co., Mo. Sire, Ned Forrest, Jr., by Joe
, ,
,
Downing, son of Ned Forrest by Alexander's Edwin Forrest; dam of Joe Downing, a Wagner mare; dam of
present Edwin Forrest, Fanny Mundy, by Flight, son of Leviathan. He was a natural trotter, but broken to
saddle-gaits when 41 years old, and when broken to harness was liable to go any gait. His trainer educated him
with one-pound shoes and twelve-ounce toe-weights. Oct. 9, 1877, trotted in 2.251 at Lexington, Ky.; afterward, at
Toledo, 2.23; at Cleveland, three heats, 2.191, 2.203, 2.183. At Hartford, as above indicated, his record was
phenomenal, and some believe he trotted some of the time at a 2.00 gait.
Ten Broeck. The fastest race-horse in the world. He was foaled in 1872, and descended from Phæton by King
Tom, the dam being Fanny Holton. His descent is from a line of racers. He was an ungainly colt and considered
worth only $15. His best time, May 24, 1877, was 1.39; for one mile. He also has run two miles in 3.273, three in
5.261, four miles in 7.154, and one mile and a furlong in 1.54.
VOL. I.-75.

594
VERTEBRATA.
any
WARPEDES
THE ORIGINAL BLACK HAWK.
the breeding of these animals has been an object of regard in Persia, and for several centuries
past the Persian breeds have been esteemed as among the best in the world.
In attempting to trace the migrations of the horse from these central portions of Asia, which
we may regard as its birth-place, to Northern Europe, and especially to England, where at present
the finest race exists, we have no certain and steady lights. The Romans were never an eques-
trian people. Cæsar made his immense conquests in Gaul without cavalry. Soon after this pe-
riod mounted troops were common in the Roman armies, but they were chiefly supplied by the
provinces. Whatever attention was paid to the breeding of horses among the Romans, no race
of any celebrity was ever produced in Italy. In their boundless conquests, however, they collected
the finest breeds, and doubtless some of them were sent to Britain, which may, in some degree,
have modified the original stock, which existed in large numbers in the island at the time of
Cæsar's invasion.
But whence these original British horses? The answer to this inquiry has been various : some
insist that these animals were indigenous to Britain; others that they came from the Levant in
that trade which is known to have existed between the British Islands and the Phænicians first,
and the Carthaginians afterward, beginning as far back as the time of Homer. The first of these
assumptions may be dismissed with the single remark that it is contradicted by tradition and his-
tory, both of which point to the East as the birth-place of the horse as truly as the birth-place of
man; the second is set aside by the fact that not Britain only, but the Celtic, Belgian, and Ger-
man tribes of the continent had horses at the time of Cæsar's invasion.
The truth doubtless is, that Europe has been supplied with their breeds of this noble animal in
two great streams; first, the various tribes that peopled these regions—Cimbri, Celts, Saxons,
Teutons, Huns, all proceeding from the great central plateau of Asia, which abounded in horses
from the earliest times—no doubt took their native breeds with them. These populations passed
into Europe, some to the north and some to the south of the Caspian Sea, and eventually spread
themselves from Gaul to Scandinavia. Here, in the course of ages, partly through the influence
of blood, and partly, also, through the power of climate, feeding, and training, the established
northern varieties of the horse—all, however, of a large and sturdy character—were produced
and established.
It appears from abundant historical evidence that at a very remote date the eastern part of
Asia Minor, and especially Cappadocia, was a renowned mart for horses. This latter province
lies contiguous to Armenia and Mesopotamia, and in fact was nearly in the center of those ro-

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Voor
THE CRUSADERS: KING RICHARD AND THE SARACENS.
gions of Asia renowned for horses from time immemorial. Choice animals were doubtless gath-
ered here alike from the wide steppes of Scythia and from Media, Armenia, &c.; and were
brought to the sea-coast and distributed by the ships of Tyre and Sidon to various countries around
the Mediterranean Sea. Greece and Egypt, we know, received a portion, and perhaps all their
horses, from this source. While the horses of the northern migrations into Europe—fed on rich
pastures and subject to a rigorous but stimulating climate—became robust, ponderous, and pow-
erful, those of the more southern migration became light, graceful, and spirited. The armies of
the Saracens, by conquest and pillage, became filled with these breeds, and in due time—that is,
from the seventh to the tenth century—under the influence of the Caliphs, the renowned Arab
race was founded. The difference between the horses produced from these two sources—that is,
between those of Northern Europe and those of Western Asia——is well displayed by the differ-
ence between the horses of the Crusaders and those of their enemies, when they met in Syria.
The horse of a northern knight would have crushed a solid column of Moslem cavalry.
In fact,
Richard Cour de Lion, with seventeen knights, rode in front of sixty thousand Turkish horsemen at
Jaffa from the right to the left wing, and brandishing his lance, defied them to combat, without
finding an adversary who dared to encounter him.
While thus the original British horse was of this northern breed, it appears that it has for two
thousand years been subject to infiltrations of the Asiatic stock. It is by no means improbable
that horses were sometimes brought to England by the Phænicians in that trade which we know
to have existed for several centuries prior to the Christian era, and to which we have already
alluded. The Romans also, during the five hundred years in which they held sway in Britain,
doubtless introduced eastern breeds. It is also probable that the British Crusaders brought some
Arab horses home with them. Spanish horses with Arabian blood have been frequently imported

396
VERTEBRATA.
CM
A COSSACK TROOPER OF THE DON ON HIS MARCH TO PARIS.
into England for the last four hundred years. And finally, since the time of James I.—that is,
for two hundred and fifty years—the very best horses and mares that Arabia, Persia, and Bar-
bary could produce have been brought to England and bred with the best English stock. All
this has been done with the advantage of unbounded wealth, and the use of the most profound
and persevering skill, directed to the single object of bringing the horse to the highest pitch of
perfection of which it is capable. The result of all this is to be found in the finer British breeds,
of which the Race-Horse is considered the highest type. The history of the British horse is
therefore analogous to that of his master: both are the produce of a diversified crossing from two
great streams of migration, one northern and one eastern, but both proceeding originally from
the
great central nursery of men and horses, and both improved by the amalgamation.
In order to comprehend how it is that such distinct and remarkable breeds as we have men-
tioned have proceeded from the same original stock, we need but reflect upon a few notorious
facts. The first is, that climate and food have a powerful influence in modifying the size, form, and
character of animals. Accordingly, we see that the horse bred for a series of ages in the mount-
ains of Wales, or amid the rocks of the Shetland Isles, or in the chill atmosphere of Sweden and
Norway—and thus subjected to a harsh temperature and stingy fare-dwindles into a pony. The
same animal on the steppes of Tartary and Siberia, fed on coarse herbage, and sweeping in wild
herds over almost illimitable plains, becomes coarse and shaggy in form and covering, but at the
same time possessing a remarkable tenacity and vigor of life and character. A living example
of the Tartar breed, thus modified, was made familiar to Europe by the Cossacks of the Don who,
accompanying the Russian armies in their march which ended in the overthrow of Napoleon-
poured like an avalanche upon Southern Europe, and finally bivouacked in wild hordes in the
delicious gardens of Paris. We can easily see from these instances how it is that amid the ample
pastures of Middle Europe we should, in the breeding of centuries, obtain such large and power-
ful races as those of Hanover, Flanders, and Normandy, and also how it is that in the fine, pure,
spiritualizing atmosphere of Arabia and Syria we should, in the course of ages, obtain the light,
,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
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a
fleet, graceful race which we call Arabian. Just as we find the sturdy German, the stout Dutch-
man, the athletic Englishman, occupying the rich soil of Middle Europe, and the thin, lithe, elas-
,
tic Arabian the plains and deserts of Africa and Asia, so we find the horses of these two sections
of the earth—the one large, ponderous, and powerful, and the other light, swift, and elastic.
Thus, mainly by the influence of climate and its accessories of food, the various races of the
horse are spontaneously produced. There is, however, another principle at work, which lies at
the foundation of all the operations of nature, the object of which is to break the uniformity of
kinds and races by an infinite diversity in individuals. The wisdom of this system, and its admira-
ble balance in the vast scheme of universal creation, may well excite our admiration, if indeed it does
not call upon us to kneel in awe before its Omnipotent and Omniscient Author. It is a common
observation, even with children, that amid the myriad grasses of the field two blades precisely
alike in size, tint, and form, cannot be found. Two leaves among the millions that flutter in the
forest, in all things the same, are never discovered. Two lilies or two roses, even on the same stem,
identical one with another, cannot be found. As between two sisters, twins if you please, even
while the common lineaments of the father or mother show the golden links of relationship that
bind their hearts together, there will be something of form, air, attitude, expression, to distinguish
them; so, between these flowers there will ever be a difference, open and palpable to observa-
tion. This difference, let it be remembered, in the works of nature, is the foundation of our inter-
est in them. Were all things alike, they would neither excite curiosity nor attract regard. Were
all the children of a family precisely alike, they would be objects of comparative indifference.
It is the special speech, look, air, tone, manner of each, around which our interests and affections
cluster. It is an old adage, that variety is the spice of life. Without variety, life would be a
blank. Everywhere it is produced, for everywhere it fixes the attention, stimulates curiosity, and
excites admiration. The principles or provisions of nature to produce it are universal, and lie at
the foundation of all existence. Hence variety is not superficial: it exists in the sap of plants
and the blood of animals. It is in both so blent with life as to be transmitted to the offspring,
and thus to spread over the face of nature a never-ending diversity.
Nor is this the whole of that wonderful system of nature to which we allude. Beyond the
common diversities of individuals among animals, and especially those of the higher and finer or-
ganizations, it is provided that instances of prominent and remarkable constitutional endowments
shall arise from time to time, not only to diversify the species, but to counteract the tendency to
declension through commonness and impurity, and thus to maintain and exalt the race by the
descent of superior blood. Through this provision it is that such instances occur as Bucephalus
in the olden time, and Flying Childers, Eclipse, and Highflier in more modern ones. And finally,
we may remark that it is by the careful application of the principle here laid down—that these
superior animals stamp their character, in a greater or less degree, on their offspring—that the
artificial breeder seeks to improve and perfect the horse. The finest examples which nature pro-
duces are selected, and as in the main like produces like, so in a course of years, by the union
of chosen specimens, a whole generation or breed, combining all the possible perfections of the
race, is obtained.
THE THOROUGHBRED, OR RACE-HORSE.
This is in fact the history of the English HORSE, which, according to the testimony of the best
judges, takes precedence of all others in strength, speed, and power of endurance, and also for
the capacity of perpetuating its own qualities in its offspring. This superiority is manifested in
various ways, and especially by beating in all trials, not only the best Turks, Arabs, and Barbs
,
with which it comes in competition, but even winning, of late years in all cases, where the best
Eastern blood had been crossed with its own, and thus proving that neither Barb, Turk, nor Ara-
bian is equal to the English thoroughbred. A curious and interesting reason for this superi-
ority is found in the fact that the bones of the thoroughbred horse are more solid and compact
than those of any other kind. The bones of the cart-horse, or indeed any other, are compara-
tively porous, light, and spongy. The shank-bone of a thoroughbred will weigh down that of
the heaviest cart-horse, though in size the former is only half equal to the latter.

598
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NV
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FLYING CHILDERS.
Among the most celebrated English thoroughbreds was Flying Childers, named from its owner,
Mr. Childers, of Carr House. He was the fleetest horse of his day, and is said to have run a mile
in a minute, but of this there is no authentic record. He, however, ran on the Newmarket course
three miles six furlongs and ninety-three yards in six minutes and forty seconds. This celebrated
animal died in 1741, at the age of twenty-six. The English Eclipse was never beaten, and won
for his owner more than a hundred thousand dollars; he also became the progenitor of three
hundred and thirty-four winners upon the turf, which won for their proprietors nearly a million
of dollars. Eclipse died in 1789, at the age of twenty-five. The names of horses of more mod-
.
ern date renowned on the English turf are "too numerous to mention."
Beside the Thoroughbred Horse there are a number of varieties of great celebrity in England.
Among them we may mention the Hunter, which is derived from horses of entire blood, bred
with mares of substance, correct form, and good action. This animal is able to carry a consider-
able weight, through heavy grounds, with a swiftness and perseverance truly astonishing. The
Irish Hunter, the Old English Roadster, and the Cob, are all useful breeds for the saddle. The
Hackney for the coach, the Black Horse, the Suffolk Punch, the Lanark and Clydesdale for draught,
are noted and favorite varieties. The Cleveland Bays formerly had great reputation for draught,
but they are said to have depreciated. In England the horse is used for almost every purpose of
draught and burden on the farm, and hence the humbler breeds for this species of work are scarcely
less cultivated than those for the race-course and the chase. The Welsh Horse is small, but is
noted for its energy and perseverance upon the road. The Galloway is a Scotch breed, some-
what larger than the preceding, but of similar qualities; it is said to resemble the Spanish horse.
The Ponies or Shelties, called Garrons in the Highlands of Scotland, are similar to the indigen-
ous horses of Norway, the Feroe and Shetland Islands, and Iceland; they are of various sizes,
from eight to twelve hands high; their colors are bay, dun, and sometimes cream-color. A sim-
ilar breed is also found in Corsica.

THE SCOTCH PONY.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGUL A.
599
THE ENGLISH FARM-HORSE.
OTHER EUROPEAN BREEDS OF HORSES.
France abounds in horses, probably having a greater number than any other European nation*
* The following is an estimate of the horses of Europe:
Great Britain and Ireland...
2,500,000 Denmark......
900,000
France...
3,000,000
Sweden and Norway
550,000
Austrian Empire, exclusive of Italy
2,600,000
Russia....
3,500,000
Prussia ....
1,600,000 Greece..
100,000
Other German States...
2,500,000 Spain...
1,500,000
Italy.....
1,500 000 Portugal
300,000
Switzerland.
250,000 Turkey...
800,000
Belgium...
400,000
Holland...
420,000
Total......
.... 22,420,000
The general estimate has been eight to ten horses in Europe for every one hundred inhabitants; supposing the
population 275,000,000, this calculation gives a little more than eight horses to one hundred inhabitants. Denmark
has forty horses to one hundred inhabitants, which is more than any other European nation. The following is an
estimate of the horses of the whole world :
Europe...
22,420,000 Other parts of America
1,500,000
Africa..
3,000,000 Oceanica....
500,000
Asia...
25,000,000
United States..
5,000,000
Total...
57,420,000

600
VERTEBRATA.
except Russia. Great pains have been taken, as well by the government as by individuals, to
produce improved breeds. Napoleon imported over two hundred of pure Arabian blood for this
purpose. Yet, though France has a great variety of local breeds, she has none of general celeb-
rity, and is obliged constantly to import considerable numbers. A great many for the saddle and
light harness are obtained from England; a still larger number for the cavalry are procured in
Germany and Denmark. The most noted French breeds are the Limousin, good for the saddle; 1
the Normand, especially those from the district of Cotentin, a vigorous and hardy race, excellent
for the cart, wagon, hack, and diligence; and the Boulogne, a noble breed, large, powerful, and
adapted to heavy draught. Small but serviceable Nags, called Bidets, are produced in Auvergne,
Poitou, and Burgundy.
The Horses of Holland, especially those of Friesland, have long been valued for light draught
work.
The Flemish Horses, though they have been much used for cavalry in Europe, have heavy
heads, large necks, and large, flat feet.
The German Horses are of various kinds. The native breeds are heavy and ill-formed, but
the introduction of Arabian, Turkish, Barbary, and Spanish horses have produced some finer va-
rieties. The Mecklenberg Horses are largely exported to France, where they are used as well for
carriage as for cavalry service.
Denmark, with Holstein and Oldenberg, boast a large variety of horses, greatly esteemed and
extensively used for cavalry, though they fail in elegance and symmetry.
The Norway and Swedish Horses are small, but strong, active, and hardy. Those of Lapland
are similar, but still more diminutive.
Prussia has many horses, but the only breed of note is one resembling that of Friesland, pro-
duced in the low country near the mouth of the Vistula.
The native horses of Poland are of middling stature, and peculiarly hardy, strong, and useful.
The Transylvanians have good horses, and are accustomed to slit the nostrils of those used for
war, under the idea that, as the horse only breathes through its nose, this gives him a freer breath.
It also renders him incapable of neighing, which is often inconvenient in the field.
The Hungarian Horses resemble the Cossack breeds, and are noted for spirit and endurance.
In Russia the horses are of various breeds, but they have no general celebrity. Trotting-horses,
for matches on the snow and ice, are much valued and cultivated. The Turkish breed, which is
finely formed, light, and graceful, is in use. The Kalmuck breed, which is the same as the Cos-
sack, is of prodigious hardiness. Loudon says they will travel three hundred to four hundred
miles in three days; they subsist, summer and winter, solely upon the grass of the great plains
between the Don, Volga, and Yaik Rivers. Here they abound, the herds numbering from two
hundred to a thousand. They are excellent swimmers, and often cross the Volga where it is a
mile or even two miles in width.
The Spanish Horses have long been celebrated, especially those of Andalusia. They are the
result of a strong influx of Eastern blood, at the time of the conquest of Spain by the Moors or
Saracens, at the beginning of the eighth century, operating upon breeds already highly improved.
The occupation of the country by these invaders for nearly eight hundred years, during which
time a constant intercourse with the East was maintained, caused the horses of Spain, especially
in the south, near the center of the Moorish kingdom, to become highly Arabianized. This
blood still remains, and hence the Spanish horse is greatly valued. For two or three hundred
years this breed has been frequently taken to England, France, Holland, and Germany, and has
largely contributed by mixture to improve the horses of these countries.
The Portuguese Mares were once celebrated for being fleet and long-winded, but they are said
to have degenerated.
Italy at present produces no breed of note; the Horses of Naples were once highly valued, but
have lost their celebrity. The country, however, produces a large number of these animals.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
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hrva
ting
60
THE ARABIAN HORSE.
ASIATIC AND AFRICAN BREEDS.
The Arabian Horse, according to our theory, is a race which sprang up among the Saracens
after the seventh century. The vast country which lies east of the Caspian Sea, the ancient
home of the Scythians and the site of modern Tartary, we suppose to have been first over-
spread by the horse. From this point we conceive it to have been extended southward into
Persia, Media, Armenia, and Asia Minor, and north ward and westward into Siberia and Europe.
Cappadocia, contiguous to Scythia, was anciently the most noted horse-market in the East: from
this region we are told that the Greeks obtained their horses, or a part of them, and a curious
confirmation of this is found in the Elgin marbles, the horses of which have in their outline, and
especially their head, a wonderful resemblance to the Tartar horses of the present day. Egypt,
directly or indirectly, we suppose to have received its horses from the same source.
The finest of the Tartar horses, thus transported through the markets of Asia Minor to the
civilized and luxurious countries lying around the entire borders of the Mediterranean Sea, influ-
enced for ages alike by climate and breeding, resulted in spreading over those countries a race of
animals of the highest order of beauty in form, and the most excellent in all other noble qualities.
The followers of Mahomet, between the years 632 and 640, conquered the whole of Arabia, Syria,
Persia, and Egypt. They made spoil of every thing that came in their way; the finest breeds of
horses in the world were thus at their disposal, and as they were especially needed, inasmuch as their
troops were all or nearly all mounted, and swept over the countries they invaded like a whirlwind,
no doubt these animals were greedily accepted. The horse was one of the chief instruments of
the amazing success of these restless fanatics. Taught by experience to prize this animal above
every other possession, and beginning with the finest breed in the world, and moreover, aided by a
pure, elastic, and spiritualizing climate, it is not surprising that the Saracens or Arabs should have
produced that race which, all things considered, may be regarded as its finest type. This superi-
ority does not consist in surpassing all others in speed, strength, and endurance, for in these respects
it must yield to the English Thoroughbred, but in the fact that, while having these qualities in a
high degree, in breeding with others it uniformly stamps its progeny with improvement.
The Arab Horse is not, perhaps, the handsomest, according to our ideas. Its frontal line is
Vol. 1.-76.

602
VERTEBRATA.
straight, or even a little concave; the chest is narrow, and the balance is thrown with great
equality upon both sets of extremities. But the narrow chest, by means of which the fore-legs
are brought much closer to each other, though essential to a swift-running horse, does not adapt
the animal for draught. In Arabia, and the other countries where the horse is so much esteemed,
this is not considered a deficiency, because the animal is not there used for draught, goods being
conveyed on the backs of camels. The skin of the Arab is very fine, the hair smooth, and the
form of the muscles and the positions of the veins under the skin very conspicuous. The joints
are particularly well made, and those processes of the bones to which the tendons are attached
are very prominent, and the joints themselves are generally free from any defect. The limbs are
particularly handsome, and have little or no hair on the fetlock. The common height at the
shoulder is between thirteen and fourteen hands. The pace of these horses is rapid and graceful;
they do not perspire much; they last a long time; they can continue traveling at the rate of
from fifty to sixty miles a day; and five or six pounds of dourra, or the barley of their native
country, in the evening, is a sufficient feed for them. When at home in the tent they are fed
with chopped barley-straw.
The wind of these horses is particularly good, and they can be pushed at their full speed for a
long distance without injury. They carry their heads, and also their tails, in a very graceful
manner. They are divided into ignoble and noble—the former being doomed to drudge, while
the latter are used for the saddle, highly esteemed, and much attended to by their owners. They
call the former by a name which means without pedigree," and the latter by another name, which
signifies a pedigree which would be venerated anywhere—“known for two thousand years.” The
tradition is, that these horses are descended from the veritable stud of King Solomon, and have
not been once crossed or corrupted in the blood since he sat upon the throne in Jerusalem. They
are unquestionably noble animals, are held in great esteem, and often are of enormous price. We
can understand that among a people so romantic and so poetical in their language as the Arabs the
most wonderful stories should be told concerning them. “If,” says the Arabian story, “you meet one
of the faithful in the desert, mounted upon a Kochlani, and he shall say "God bless you,' before
you can say, “And God's blessing upon you,' he shall be out of your horizon, for the whirlwind
toils after him in vain.” The same story, however, is told of the camel.
The utmost attention is paid to the breeding of these horses, that they may not be tainted even
by accident. The union always takes place in presence of a witness, who remains twenty days
afterward to watch the female. The same witness is also present when the colt is cast, and a
regular certificate is made out within the first seven days. If these circumstances are not attended
to, and the legitimacy cannot be established by the proper certificate, the marketable value of the
horse is greatly diminished, whatever may be his real qualities.
In Europe and America particular breeds are chiefly propagated through the male; in Arabia
it is considered that the female best transmits the qualities of a race, and hence the blood of the
mare is most scrupulously guarded.
The interesting qualities of the Arabian horse are attested by numerous writers. Bishop Heber,
in his “Narrative,” says: “My morning rides are very pleasant. My horse is a nice, quiet, good-
tempered little Arab, who is so fearless that he goes without starting close to an elephant, and so
gentle and docile that he eats bread out of my hand, and has almost as much attachment and as
coaxing ways as a dog. This seems the general character of the Arab horses, to judge from what
I have seen in this country. It is not the fiery, dashing animal I had supposed, but with more
rationality about him, and more apparent confidence in his rider, than the majority of English
horses."
The kindness with which this animal is treated from a foal gives him an affection for his
master, a wish to please, a pride in exerting every energy in obedience to his commands, and,
consequently, an apparent sagacity which is seldom seen in other breeds. The mare and her
foal inhabit the same tent with the Bedouin and his children. The neck of the mare is often the
pillow of the rider, and, more frequently of the children, who are rolling about upon her and the
foal; yet no accident ever occurs, and the animal acquires that friendship and love for man which
occasional ill-treatment will not cause him for a moment to forget.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
603
RARUS, THE KING OF THE TURF.
When the Arab falls from his mare, and is unable to rise, she will immediately stand still, and
neigh until assistance arrives. If he lies down to sleep, as fatigue sometimes compels him to do, in
the midst of the desert, she stands watchful over him, and neighs and rouses him if either man or
beast approaches. An old Arab had a valuable mare that had carried him for fifteen years in
many a hard-fought battle, and many a rapid, weary march; at length, eighty years old, and un-
able longer to ride her, he gave her, and a scimitar that had been his father's, to his eldest son,
and told him to appreciate their value, and never lie down to rest until he had rubbed them both
as bright as a looking-glass. In the first skirmish in which the young man was engaged he was
killed, and the mare fell into the hands of the enemy. When the news reached the old man,
he
exclaimed that “life was no longer worth preserving, for he had lost both his son and his mare,
and he grieved for one as much as the other;" and he immediately sickened and died.
Man, however, is an inconsistent being. The Arab who thus lives with and loves his horses,
regarding them as his most valuable treasures, sometimes treats them with a cruelty scarcely to be
believed, and not at all to be justified. The severest treatment which the English race-horse en-
dures is gentleness compared with the trial of the young Arabian. Probably the filly has never
before been mounted; she is led out; her owner springs on her back, and goads her over the
sand and rocks of the desert at full speed for fifty or sixty miles without one moment's respite.
She is then forced, steaming and panting, into water deep enough for her to swim. If, immedi-
ately after this, she will eat as if nothing had occurred, her character is established, and she is
acknowledged to be a genuine descendant of the Kochlani breed. The Arab is not conscious of
the severity which he thus inflicts. It is an invariable custom, and custom will induce us to in-
flict many a pang on those whom, after all, we love.
The following anecdote of the attachment of an Arab to his mare has often been told, but it
comes home to the bosom of every one possessed of common feeling. “The whole stock of an
Arab of the desert consisted of a mare. The French consul offered to purchase her in order to
send her to his sovereign, Louis XIV. The Arab would have rejected the proposal at once with
indignation and scorn; but he was miserably poor. He had no means of supplying his most ur-
gent wants, or procuring the barest necessaries of life. Still he hesitated; he had scarcely a rag
to cover him, and his wife and children were starving. The sum offered was great-it would pro-
vide him and his family with food for life. At length, and reluctantly, he consented. He brought
the mare to the dwelling of the consul—he dismounted-he stood leaning upon her; he looked
now at the gold and then at his favorite; he sighed—he wept. "To whom is it,' said he, 'I am
a

604
VERTEBRATA.
going to yield thee up? To Europeans, who will tie thee close—who will beat thee—who will
render thee miserable. Return with me, my beauty, my jewel, and rejoice the hearts of my chil-
dren. As he pronounced the last words he sprang upon her back, and was out of sight in a
moment."*
* The following are extracts from a paper on the Arabian Horse, recently addressed by the Emir Abd-el-Kader to
General Daumas, who had made inquiries of him, on the part of the French government, in relation to the Arabian
Horse :
CREATION OF THE HORSE.
“Know, then, that it is a thing admitted among us, that God created the horse with the wind, as Adam with the
earth.
“This is indisputable, and many prophets (health to them!) have proclaimed the following:
“When God wished to create the horse, he said to the south wind, 'I wish to form a creature out of thee-be thou
condensed;' and the wind was condensed.
“Afterward came the angel Gabriel, and took a handful of that matter and presented it to God, who formed of it
a light brown or sorrel-colored horse, koummita (red mixed with black), saying:
“I have called thee horse ferass), I have created thee an Arab, and I have given thee the color koummita; I
have bound fortune upon the mane which falls over thine eyes; thou shalt be the lord of all other animals; men
shall follow thee whithersoever thou goest; good for the pursuit as for flight—thou shalt fly without wings; riches
shall repose in thy loins, and wealth shall be made by thy intercession.'
HISTORY OF THE ARABIAN BREED.
“Many historians relate that from the time of Adam the horse, as all other animals—the gazelle, the ostrich, the
buffalo, and the ass-had lived in a wild state. According to them, the first person that, after Adam, mounted the
horse, was Ishmael, the father of the Arabs; he was the son of our lord Abraham, the beloved of God. God taught
him to call the horses, and when he did so they all assembled unto him; he possessed himself of the most beautiful
and the most fierce, and he tamed them.
“But later, many of these horses tamed and employed by Ishmael lost their purity with time. Only one race was
carefully preserved in all its nobleness, by Solomon the son of David, and it is that which is called zad-el-rakeb (the
gift of the rider), to which all the Arab horses of our epoch owe their origin.
“It is believed that some Arabs, of the tribe of Azed, went to the noble Jerusalem to congratulate Solomon on his
marriage with the Queen of Sheba. Their mission being ended, they addressed unto him these words:
"O prophet of God! Our country is very distant, our provisions exhausted; although thou art a great king, give
unto us sufficient that we may return to the bosom of our family.'
“Solomon caused a magnificent colt of the race of Ishmael to be taken from the stables, and he dismissed them,
saying:
“ *** Behold the provisions with which you are to be refreshed upon the journey. When you are hungry, search for
wood, kindle a fire, mount your best rider on this horse, and arm him with a trusty lance. You shall scarcely have
collected the wood and enkindled the fire ere you shall see him appear with the product of an abundant hunt. Go,
and may God give you his protection.'
“The Arabs set forth upon their journey, and did, in their first necessity, whatsoever Solomon had instructed them,
and neither zebras, nor gazelles, nor ostriches could escape them. Enlightened, then, concerning the value of that
animal—the present from the son of David--and being already in their country, they devoted themselves to their re-
production, guarding their matches, and thus they obtained this race, to which, in gratitude, they gave the name of
zad-el-rakeb.
“This is the race whose fame was afterward spread throughout the whole circumference of the world.
“In fact, it was propagated in the East and West with the Arabs, who, at a later time, penetrated into the extremi-
ties of the West and of the East. Long before Islamism, Harmiah-Ahen-Melok and his descendants reigned in the
East during a hundred years, founding that Medina and Sakliachedad-Eben-Aad, and possessing themselves of all
the country unto the Moghreb, where they built cities and harbors. Afrikes, who gave his name to Africa, conquered
unto Tandja (Tangiers), while his son Chamar possessed from the East unto China, entering the city of Sad, which
he destroyed. Because of this, and from that time, that place was called Chamarkenda, because kenda in the Persian
language means he has destroyed,' whence the Arabs, by corruption, have drawn Samarkanda.
“After the birth of the religion of Islam, the new invasions of the Mussulmans extended even more the reputation
of the Arab horses in Italy, Spain, and also in France, in which, without doubt, they left some of their blood. But
that which, above all, caused Africa to be filled with Arab horses, was the invasion of Sidi-Okba, and afterward the
deeds of the fifth and sixth centuries of the Hegira. With Sidi-Okba, the Arabs had not done any thing more than
to encamp in Africa, while in the fifth and sixth centuries they came as colonists to install themselves, with their
wives and their children, with their horses and their mares. It was in these last invasions that the Arab tribes es-
tablished themselves on the soil of Algeria, especially the Mehall, the Cjendel, Oalad-Mehadi, the Donaonda, &c., &c.,
who were scattered over all parts, constituting the true nobility of the country. These same invasions transplanted
the Arab horse into Soudan, and we can say with reason that the Arab race is one in Algeria as in the East.
“Thus, then, the history of the Arab horses can be divided into four epochs: 1. From Adam to Ishmael. 2. From
Ishmael to Solomon. 3. From Solomon to Mohammed. 4. From Mohammed to ourselves.
“I have now nothing more to do than to satisfy another of your questions.
"You ask me by what signs the Arabs know if a horse is noble-if he is a drinker of the air. Behold my answer:
• The horse of pure origin is distinguished among us by the tenuity of the lips and of the inferior cartilage of the

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The Barb is an animal of the Arab stock, bred by the Moors, in Barbary, whence its name. It
was this variety, no doubt, that was introduced into Spain by the Moors. Some authors have
been disposed to trace this animal to a remote African lineage, an indigenous animal of the
deserts, used by the nomadic Moors and Arabs as far back as the time of Hannibal, and supply-
ing the ranks of the Numidian cavalry in his service. We need but say that while there is no
historical authority for this, we have direct testimony to the fact that the Moorish or Barbary
horses which were taken to Spain were of Arabian descent. In general, the Barb is considered
as possessing the high qualities of his race in a degree scarcely inferior to the Arabian. It is not
handsome, its head being large, its neck short and thick, the body and legs long and slender ;
yet its speed, bottom, abstinence, patience, and perseverance are unrivaled.
The horse is a common animal in the Barbary States, and indeed throughout many parts of
Africa, especially among the Arabian portion of the population. It is almost exclusively used for
the saddle, the camel being employed for the transportation of merchandise, and the ass for carry-
ing burdens in the common affairs of the house and farm. Some of the negro princes of Africa
have horses, and often of fine breeds. Major Denham found the little State of Begharmi, in Cen-
tral Africa, to possess a body of well-mounted cavalry, and both men and horses covered with
linked iron mail! There are also, as we are told, wild horses in Africa, and some authors, as we
have elsewhere stated, regard this as the original home of the horse. History, it is true, informs
us that Egypt was possessed of well-trained horses about the time of Joseph, but not in the time
of Abraham, two centuries before. If the horse was a native of the contiguous deserts, how did
it happen that for many centuries after Egypt had reached a high pitch of civilization the horse
had not been brought into use? And beside, many circumstances already noticed point to the
Scythians as the first horsemen, and Scythia as the birth-place of the horse.
The Persian Horse is evidently a cross with the Arabian, but in which way or with what breed
is unknown. According to our ideas, its head is handsomer than that of the Arab, and it is a
more weighty animal, but it wants the spirit and continuity of exertion which are so characteristic
of the other. For short distances these horses are nearly, if not altogether, as fleet as Arabians,
but they have not equal wind. The Persians, however, pay great attention to purity of blood in
their best horses, and in former times the horses of England were much improved by the intro-
duction of some stallions from Persia. The racer bred by crossing with these was once greatly
celebrated for its swiftness on the turf, though, since the pure Arabian blood has been introduced,
the race-horse is vastly superior to what it was.
The Turkish Horse is a fine animal, and resembles the Arabian; it is used almost exclusively
for the saddle.
The Tartar Horse is spread over the present Independent Tartary and the adjacent countries,
extending through a space of nearly ninety degrees of longitude, that is, from Mantchooria to the
Ukraine; it presents considerable variety, according to the climate; yet, with singular persistency
nose; by the dilatation of the nostrils; by the dryness of the flesh which enwraps the veins of the head; by the ele-
gance of its shape; by the softness of the mane, of the extremities, and of the skin; by the width of breast, the thick-
ness of the articulations, and dryness of the extremities. According to the traditions of our predecessors, they are,
also to be recognized by moral indications much more than by external signs. By these you can prejudge the race;
by the moral indications you can arrive at a knowledge of the care which had been observed in the matches (breed-
ing), of the interest with which crossing had been avoided.
“The horses of race do not know effeminacy. The horse is the most beautiful of animals, and its moral, in our
idea, ought to correspond, not degenerate, to its physical character. The Arabs have such a conviction of this, that
if a horse or a mare gives any incontestable proof of extraordinary quickness, of notable abstinence, of rare intelli-
gence, or affection for the hand that gives it its food, they will make every possible sacrifice to draw a race from it-
being persuaded that the qualities which distinguish it will be manifested in its breed.
“We believe, then, that a horse is truly noble when to a beautiful conformation it unites valor and fierceness, and
when it evinces pride in the smoke of powder and the combat.
"This horse will esteem its master, and will scarcely ever permit any one to mount it except him. It will not uri-
nate while it is traveling. It will not eat the leavings of any other horse. It will not disturb the clearness of the
water with its front legs when it passes over it. By its hearing, by its sight, and by its smell, it will know how to
preserve its master from the thousand accidents which often take place in the chase and in war. And in short, shar-
ing the sensations of sorrow and of pleasure of its rider, it will aid him in the fight, struggling with him in all parts,
and will always make common cause with him.”
a

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CIRCASSIANS.
of constitution, it everywhere maintains certain general characteristics, such as a straight or even
depressed frontal line, * square nostrils, stout limbs, robust constitution, and great powers of en-
durance. In China and Japan, where, indeed, few horses are in use, it is dwindled almost into a
pony. In Siberia and the contiguous regions of European Russia, that is, among the Baschirs,
it is still a small, shaggy, but vigorous species. Among the Tartars proper, whether Usbeks,
Turcomans, Kirghis of Asia, or Cossacks of Europe, it is an animal of moderate size and some-
what coarse appearance, but possessed of the sterling qualities which we have ascribed to the
race. Many of them which are bred with care are among the most enduring and powerful horses
in the world, and by no means deficient in beauty. The Circassians cultivate this breed, and it
appears that they are alike distinguished for elegance and vigor. As before stated, the Tartars
are excellent horsemen. They bestow upon their favorites the same care and affection which the
Arabs lavish on theirs. From early childhood both sexes are accustomed to mount the horse,
and thus they become skilled in its management.
Tartary or Scythia we conceive to have been the birth-place of this noble brute; the Tartar
Horse we regard as the progenitor of the species. Extended into Persia, Arabia, and Egypt, and
bred with care for centuries in a pure and elastic atmosphere, it produced the elegant and beau-
tiful Arabian; spread westward through Northern Europe, and subjected to a variety of influ-
ences, it became the wild rover of the Don, the heavy but irresistible charger of Flanders, the
vigorous wagoner of Normandy, the ponderous cart-horse of Belgium, the shaggy but hardy pony
of Norway, Sweden, and Iceland. In Spain, crossed by the Barb, it produced the light, graceful
Genet; in England, blent with the Arabian, it reached the climax of the species in the Race-
horse.
This animal—the Tartar breed—is found in a wild state in various parts of Western Asia.
Along the borders of the Caspian, among the Kirghis tribe, there are droves of many hundreds
* “The Tartar horse is remarkable for the straightness of the frontal line, the squareness of the nose, the wideness
of the nostrils, the beard along the under jaw, the general shagginess of the coat, and the length and quantity of hair
in the tail. This appears to be the original horse of Eastern Europe, as well as of Western Asia northward of the
central mountains; for if the figure of its head is compared with those of the horses on the Elgin marbles, or any
other Grecian sculptures of undoubted authenticity, there will be found to be a wonderful coincidence; nor are these
characters entirely lost in the Shetland pony, which there is every reason to believe found its way to the Shetland
Islands through Russia and Scandinavia.”—British Cyclopedia of Natural History.

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RUOMANEKENNY:NRY
A HERD OF HORSES ON THE BORDERS OF THE CASPIAN, DRIVEN UPON THE ICE.
partially wild, but they are caught and trained to use as necessity requires. This country is subject
to terrific winter storms, which sometimes drive these bands upon the ice, and they are destroyed
by thousands. In this manner, a few years since, the Kalmuck prince Turaine lost six thou-
sand of these animals; in the winter of 1827, among the Kirghis tribe, no less than three hun-
dred thousand perished by the severity of the season. These facts show the abundance of these
animals in those regions; nor are they less numerous in the vast plains which stretch northward
from the Crimea to the southern foot of the Ural Mountains. Thus, in its original seats, its an-
cient heritages, the unbridled horse roams in countless numbers, the descendants of those fine
animals which ages ago carried the fierce Scythians in their conquests over half the world.
AMERICAN HORSES.
The continent of America has no indigenous species of the equine family: the Horse and Ass
were brought hither by the European settlers, and are now dispersed over both North and South
America. The Spanish breeds of horses were spread throughout the Spanish colonies, and some
of them, escaping from their owners, fled to the wilds, where, in the course of centuries, they have
become exceedingly numerous. At the present day, in the vast prairies or pampas of South
America, they roam in large bands, sometimes amounting to thousands; they are also abundant
in parts of Mexico, and in Texas, and even in our unsettled southwestern territories. The tribes
of Indians in these regions, originally destitute of every species of domestic animal, have now the
dog and the horse, the latter being caught wild and trained to their use. The Camanches—those
nomads of the wilderness which stretches eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and is traversed by
the sources of the Red River, the Brazos, and the Colorado—especially, have large numbers of these
animals, which they use for war and the chase with all the dexterity and daring of Tartars.
WILD HORSES.
In general, it may be said that wild horses have not the fine proportions of the domestic varie-
ties: they have usually large heads, heavy limbs, and the mane and tail are frizzled and bushy.
In our southwestern territories, where they are constantly hunted by the Indians, they become
exceedingly shy and watchful, and fly upon the slightest alarm, being usually led by an old stal-
lion. They avoid thick forests and woody morasses, and seek broad, open plains or prairies. At
full liberty, a troop of horses sweeping over the plain with
“Wide flowing tail and flying mane,
Wide nostrils-never stretched by pain-
Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein,

608
VERTEBRATA.
And feet that iron never shod,
And flanks unscarred by spur or rod -
A thousand here—the wild, the free-
Like waves that follow o'er the sea—
is one of the most noble and inspiring scenes presented by the animal creation.
In South America the wild horses are captured with the lasso by the Indians and Guachos, and
in a few days are completely broken to the saddle. The same process is adopted in Northern
Mexico, and in the adjacent territories of the United States. These horses, thus subjected to the
use of man, are exceedingly serviceable; though generally of small size, they are peculiarly hardy
and powerful. Those called Indian Ponies, which are occasionally brought to the Eastern States,
though far from being handsome, are remarkable for endurance, performing an almost incredible
amount of labor with moderate fare.
The animals thus civilized are, however, very apt to retain a streak of their native savage-
ness. Occasionally a number of them will be seized with a sudden frenzy, such, no doubt, as is
common, and perhaps habitual and constitutional among the wild herds which are often attacked
by carnivorous beasts, or assailed by fiercer and more dangerous enemies—the Indian hunters. A
panic of this sort, which is not uncommon among the caravans of traders and travelers, who trav-
erse the southwestern deserts with large numbers of horses and mules, is called a stampede.
Under the influence of one of these paroxysms, all the horses in the troop, and even the mules
and oxen, are seized with an uncontrollable madness, and bursting away, spread mischief and con-
fusion on every side. Most frequently these events take place at night, the darkness of course
adding to the turmoil and terror of the scene. Often a traveling party is stopped for several days
by one of these incidents, it being a matter of great labor to overtake and bring back the scat-
tered animals to their duty.
DOMESTIC BREEDS.
There has been in the United States an earnest endeavor, within the last fifty years, to improve
the breeds of our horses, the same methods being generally followed as in England. But it is ob-
vious that the difference of our habits and situation, in several respects, from those of the people
of England, must lead to a difference of wants, and consequently to the cultivation of peculiar
breeds of horses. In England there is a large number of persons—and those of the highest social
position—who interest themselves in the race-course and the chase, and who bestow a large part
of their time and money in these pursuits. Hence the Racer or Thoroughbred, and the Hunter,
which is nearly a thoroughbred, stand at the very head of the species, not merely because they
are of the finest blood, but because they are actively demanded for actual use.
In our country
these breeds are interesting to comparatively few, and these chiefly known by the name of "sport-
ing characters,” exercising little influence beyond their own limited circle. “The uses to which
the horses sold in the principal markets of our country are put,” says a well-informed writer,
* See Linsley's valuable and interesting “Essay on Morgan Horses.” From that work we extract the following re-
marks on the different uses of the horse in different parts of our country, as well as the different kinds employed :
“The Conestoga horse is found chiefly in the Middle States, but is not as often met with now as formerly. He is
descended from early importations from Flanders and Denmark: he is inclined to be too long in the leg, too light in
the barrel, and too dull in his paces. His quarters and shoulders are generally good, and when his body is found
sufficiently deep he makes an excellent draught-horse; he is often over seventeen hands high.
“ The English thoroughbred is found in perfection in many of the states, but is bred chiefly at the South. In most
of the states the great majority of the horses in ordinary use possess traces of racing blood.
“ The Canadian horse is found chiefly in Canada, and is undoubtedly of Norman-French descent, and to this day
they preserve, in a high degree, the distinguishing traits of the stock from which they sprang. There are many va-
rieties, some having been crossed with the English thoroughbred. They have maintained the good qualities of their
ancestors, but have less size, probably owing in a great measure to the rigor of the climate and their scanty fare.
They are exceedingly hardy, easily kept, are long-lived, and perfectly gentle and docile. Some of them are celebra-
ted for speed at short distances, but as a breed they are not good roadsters.
“The Narragansett Pacer, a breed long celebrated in Rhode Island, but now nearly extinct, is said to have de-
scended in part from a horse imported by Governor Robinson from Andalusia, in Spain. They were noted for their
easy pace under the saddle, docility, and powers of endurance. They were small and not well adapted for draught.
“The Norman horse has not yet been extensively bred in this country, but a few fine animals have been imported.
They are large, usually full sixteen hands high, compact and muscular, and though not adapted to high speed with
light weight, yet it is believed they are unrivaled in their powers of endurance, carrying a great weight at the rate
of six or seven miles per bour.
a

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" are hauling omnibuses and hacks, driving in light carriages, and traveling or moving freight from
place to place in the larger towns or cities. Some horses are still used under the saddle, but the
number thus employed in the United States is comparatively very small, and in New England a
person is rarely seen on horseback.”
“In addition to these varieties, there are in various parts of the country families claiming more or less alliance to
the thoroughbred. Of these, the Messengers, the Hamiltonians, the Tienrys, the Bell founders, are perhaps the most
noted, as they were generally well-formed, fine-moving, fast-going, and enduring horses.
"The stock descended from Messenger, Hamiltonian, and some others, proved very valuable; many of them were
excellent roadsters, and some of them were fast trotters. Hence, it soon became policy for dealers to advertise their
horses as descended from those whose stock was known to be good, and at the stables of those dealers whose honesty
is not of the adamantine kind, you can usually purchase a horse of any of the well-known families, provided you give
a reasonable hint of the stock you prefer. Hundreds of horses are sold every year as Morgans, Messengers, Hamil-
tonians, &c., who have not a particle of the blood they are represented to possess.
"The observant traveler through the different states of the Union, who possesses any taste for a horse, cannot fail
to mark the striking difference in the general character of the horses of different sections of the country. In the
New England States he sees a compact, hardy stock of horses, of medium size, with high carriage-good travelers,
and extremely gentle and tractable driving-horses.
“In almost every county he may find descendants of the Justin Morgan, and in some he will see that they com-
prise a large portion of the stock. Along the Canada border he will see many specimens of the French-Canadian
horse, and in some parts of Massachusetts and Connecticut he will see descendants of the Norman, the Flemish, and
the Danish horse.
“ Throughout New England he will see evidences of the blood of the English racer and the Arabian : Messenger,
Dey of Algiers, Hamiltonian, Cock of the Rock, Henry, Post-Boy, Sir Walter, Sir Charles, and many others, having
mingled their blood with the common stock of the country, but the pure thoroughbred he will not be apt to see.
Passing through New York, we see a greater variety of horses. Within the state may be found individuals ex-
hibiting the form and characteristics of every breed known in this country. As a general rule, the driving-horses-
many of them very fine-are taller than those of New England and less compact. The farm and draught-horses are
generally larger, but vary much in size, from the Canadian pony to the English cart-horse. The thoroughbred may
occasionally be met with, though not so common now as formerly; but scattered throughout the state may be found
the descendants of Messenger, Eclipse, Henry, Duroc, and other celebrated horses of that breed. In the central and
northern parts of the state may be seen some of the descendants of the Justin Morgan, some of these horses having
been taken there within the past few years.
“As we pass through Pennsylvania and Ohio we observe a more striking change in the character of the horses.
The fine driving-horse is more rarely seen. The farm and draught-horses are much larger, and sometimes are really
immense. They are descended from the Flemish and Danish horses, are usually fat, slow, and awkward, are some-
times pretty well formed, but are inclined to be leggy and loosely built.
"In the eastern part of Pennsylvania and northern part of Ohio many fair driving-horses may be seen, but in the
western part of Pennsylvania and southern part of Ohio good buggy-horses are not common-light wagons are not
much used. Many good saddle-horses may be found possessing more or less of the characteristics of the English
thoroughbred, a good specimen of which may occasionally be seen.
“As we go west and south we find the good buggy-horse becoming more and more rare, and the number and
quality of the saddle-horses constantly increasing; until arrived in Kentucky and Tennessee the former is not often
seen, while the latter are both numerous and excellent.
“Many of the draught and carriage-horses used in Kentucky are brought from Ohio and Indiana, and are taken
from the stock of those states, the coarsest being used for draught and the finest for the carriage.
"The horses in common use for farm and similar work are decidedly inferior. This is, perhaps, in a great degree,
due to the fact that a large number of the best mares are constantly used for breeding mules, and that more atten-
tion is paid to raising the latter animals, which have become one of the great staples of Kentucky.
“Throughout the remaining Southern States the animals used upon the farm and road are principally mules;
light wagons are but little used; the white population is more thinly scattered, and though most of the planters keep
a family carriage, yet the ordinary business travel is principally upon horseback. Throughout the Southern States
the English thoroughbred is found in high perfection, and many of the horses in common use partake largely of his
blood.
“The horses of Indiana, Illinois, and the other Western and Northwestern States, closely resemble the horses of
Ohio, and in fact, many of them were raised in that state, and taken farther west by persons emigrating to new
lands.
Although emigration has been going on for some time from New England to these states, yet, until within the
last few years, the emigrants very rarely took any animals with them, the journey being too long to be undertaken
with teams; but the emigration to that country from Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, has very generally been
made in wagons, the emigrants taking their horses with them.
“Within the last few years a few Morgan horses have been taken into that section, where they command high prices;
and as they become more and more known, so the demand for them is steadily increasing, and in passing through
the large towns the traveler will occasionally see a good specimen of the race.
"It is a fact worthy of note that the English thoroughbred is found most numerous, and in the greatest perfection,
in those states where the saddle-horse is most in demand, and where the light buggy has not yet come into very gen-
eral use; while in those states where the horse is little used under the saddle, but almost entirely in harness, he is
not often met with.”
VOL. I.—77
2

610
VERTEBRATA.
a
It is obvious, from these facts, that animals of a substantial and steady character are those most
in demand among us.
From the general use of light wagons, however, the Trotting-Horse,
adapted to the whirling of these with swiftness over the road, has become a matter of fancy among
us, and animals of this kind take somewhat the same place on the American turf as the race-horse
does on the turf of Great Britain. The American Trotting-Horse has in fact acquired a European
reputation, and the Trotting-Match has been transplanted from this country to England, France,
and some other foreign countries. The names of celebrated American trotters are altogether too
numerous to mention. In the published list of winners for the year 1856 alone, we find no less
than four hundred! That year Lady Flora trotted a mile in two minutes twenty-four and a
quarter seconds, which was then the best time on record. This celebrated animal won thirty-
nine races in six years, losing eight. A mile under two minutes and thirty seconds is considered
good trotting. Aggy Down and General Taylor have done it in two twenty-seven; Lady Suf-
folk in two twenty-six and a half; and Tacony in twenty-five and a half. Much better time
than this, however, has been made in the last ten years; two nineteen and three quarters by
" the bay beauty,” Flora Temple; two twenty-one by Geo. N. Patchen ; and two twenty-two
by Gen. Butler. Peerless and Lady Palmer have also trotted within two twenty-four.
Nor have we been altogether without noted examples of excellence in the race-horse. In May,
1823, three heats of four miles each were run over the Union Course, on Long Island, for a stake
of twenty thousand dollars, by American Eclipse and Sir Henry. The former was regarded as
representing the North and the latter the South. The fame of the horses, and the local pride
elicited by the nature of the competition, drew an immense number of spectators—sixty thousand
at least. Indeed, the match excited a sort of national feeling, and the result was looked for not
by sportsmen only, but by the great mass of the American public, with an impatient interest.
We have only space for a single extract from the description of this renowned race by an eye-
witness. It relates to the second heat:
“The horses, after a lapse of thirty minutes, were called up for a second heat. I attentively
viewed Eclipse while saddling, and was surprised to find that, to appearance, he had not only en-
tirely recovered, but seemed full of mettle, lashing and reaching out with his hind-feet, anxious
and impatient to renew the contest. Mr. Purdy, having mounted his favorite, was perfectly at
home and self-confident. The signal being again given, he went off rapidly from the start; Sir
Henry being now entitled to the inside, took the track and kept the lead, followed closely by
Eclipse, whom Mr. Purdy at once brought to his work, knowing that game
and stoutness was his
play, and his only chance of success that of driving his speedy adversary up to the top of his rate
without giving him the least respite. Henry went steadily on, nearly to the top of his speed,
keeping a gap open between himself and Eclipse of about seven-eighths, or until, toward the con-
clusion of the third mile, they had arrived nearly opposite the four-mile distance-post. Here Mr.
Purdy made his run, and when they had advanced forty yards further, which brought them to
the end of the third mile, was close up, say nose and tail. They now entered upon the fourth
and last mile, which commences with a turn or sweep the moment you leave the starting-post.
Here the crowd was immense. I was at this moment on horseback, stationed down the stretch
or straight run, a short distance below the winning-post, in company with a friend, J. Buckley,
the jockey, who kept close to me during the whole race. We pushed out into the center, or
open space of the ground, in order to obtain a more distinct view of the struggle which we saw
making for the lead; every thing depended upon this effort of Purdy; well he knew it; his case
was a desperate one and required a desperate attempt; it was to risk all for all; he did not hesi-
When the horses had got about one-third of the way round the sweep, they had so far
cleared the crowd as to afford us a distinct view of them a little before they reached the center
of the turn; Eclipse had lapped Henry about head and girth, and appeared evidently in the act
of passing. Here Buckley vociferated, 'See Eclipse! look at Purdy! By heavens, on the inside!'
I was all attention. Purdy was at the left hand or inside of Henry; I felt alarmed for the con-
sequence, satisfied that he had then hazarded all, and feared that Walden would take advantage
of his position, and by running in, force him against or inside one of the poles. When they had
proceeded a little more than half-way round the sweep, the horses were a dead lap; when about
a
tate.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
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00
mar
www.za
3.ORR HU
AMERICAN ECLIPSE.
three-fourths round, Eclipse's quarter covered Henry's head and neck, and just as they had fin-
ished the bend, and were entering upon the straight run, which extends along the back part of
the course, Eclipse, for the first time, was fairly clear and ahead. He now, with the help of the
persuaders, which were freely bestowed, kept up his run, and continued gradually, though slowly,
to gain during the remaining three-quarters of a mile, and came in about two lengths ahead. As
they passed up the stretch, or last quarter of a mile, the shouting, clapping of hands, waving of
handkerchiefs, long and loud applause sent forth by the Eclipse party exceeded all description ;
it seemed to roll along the track as the horses advanced, resembling the loud and reiterated shout
of contending armies.
We need but add to this animated description the simple statement, that on the third heat,
after a desperate struggle, Eclipse was triumphant. Thus ended the most interesting race ever
run in the United States. The three heats, or twelve miles, were performed in twenty-three
minutes fifty and a half seconds; beside the original stakes of twenty thousand dollars, two hun-
dred thousand dollars changed hands. From this time Eclipse was the undisputed champion of the
course; he lived to the age of twenty-five, having died in the year 1839, and having been the pro-
genitor of a large number of animals, among which are many of the most celebrated runners in the
annals of the turf.
But it must be admitted, despite these facts, that the impression extensively prevails in this
country that there are native breeds among us better adapted to the wants of the country than
even the thoroughbreds of England. It is perfectly well known that a large part of these ani-
mals are really very indifferent beasts, and that it is only here and there one that actually rises to
that pre-eminence which is claimed for the race. It is not surprising, then, that such a breed
as tifat of the Morgan Horse, * described as an “untiring, all-day horse," should become a favorite
a
* The origin of this breed is called the Justin Morgan, from its owner, Justin Morgan, of Randolph, Vt. It was foaled
in 1793, and was probably sired by True Briton, or Beautiful Bay, an animal stolen from Col. Delancy at Kings-
bridge, near New York, True Briton having been sired by the English horse Traveler. The dam is not known.
Though probably descended from an English sire possessing some thoroughbred blood, still this animal must be con-
sidered as essentially one of those marked creations by which nature often adapts her works to the particular wants

612
VERTEBRATA.
-
PRIH
We
A MORGAN HORSE.
one among us, inasmuch as the stock is alike remarkable for the persistency with which its good
qualities are transmitted, and the strength, vigor, and durability of its species, in application to
the stern and stubborn work required of them in the common business of the country.
It must not be supposed from the preceding remarks that the improvement of the horse in
those forms specially adapted to the uses of the country, nor indeed in its highest forms as judged
by the English standard, is a matter of indifference to our people on the contrary, there is an
active, intelligent, and pervading spirit of competition and emulation among our gentlemen of
ample means and liberal tastes, as well as those governed by merely utilitarian views, which is
efficiently exercised in promoting the improvement of our breeds of horses. No better evidence
of this need be offered than the fact that at a "General Horse Convention” held at Chicago,
Illinois, in October, 1878, more than thirty thousand people were assembled, inciuding gen-
tlemen of the highest distinction, and from every part of the United States, some of them
having traveled more than two thousand miles to be present on the occasion.*
of a climate, at the same time counteracting the tendency to the degradation of species which everywhere besets ani-
mal life.
This valuable and interesting animal died at the age of twenty-nine, having been long used as a stock-horse. It
has been well said of him, that probably “no horse of this or any other country has so strikingly impressed upon
his descendants, to the fifth and sixth generations, his own striking and valuable characteristics, and it may be safely
asserted that the stock of no horse ever bred in this country has proved so generally and largely profitable to the
breeders of it. The raising of it has made the fortunes of hundreds of individuals, and added hundreds of thousards,
if not millions of dollars, to the wealth of Vermont and New Hampshire."
The fame of this breed is not confined to the United States; the emperor Napoleon caused four of them to be
taken to France for his own use.
* Gentlemen of wealth and culture in this country have made the improvement of the horse a study, and horse-
trotting and racing might be considered one of the follies of the day, to such an extent do the exhibitions of speed
everywhere attract crowds of admirers. The following is the list of horses which have trotted in 2.20 or better to
date, 1878: Rarus, 2.131; Goldsmith Maid, 2.14; Hopeful, 2.15; Lula, 2.15; Smuggler, 2.154; Lucille Golddust,
2.167; American Girl, 2.163; Occident, 2.168; Gloster, 2.17; Dexter, 2.173; Judge Fullerton, 2.18; Nettie, 2.18;

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
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MOM
LOCSING-CARBITT
FLORA TEMPLE
The Domestic Ass, E. Asinus.—This animal, which we regard as a species under the genus
Horse, is treated by some naturalists as the type of the genus Ass, of which the Onager, Hemione,
Quagga, Dauw, and Zebra are species. All these are certainly closely allied to the ass and also
to the horse, some of them more particularly resembling the first and others the last; but they
seem to us only to constitute so many species of the genus of which both the horse and ass are
the prominent representatives. It is very certain that all these will breed together, but it is be-
lieved that all crosses between them are hybrids, and unprolific beyond one or two generations.
The same attempts have been made to find the original stock of the ass in some wild breed, as
have been made in respect to the horse and other domestic animals, and with the same want of
It is true that there are animals called Wild Asses in Abyssinia, and also in the deserts
of Western Asia, from Tartary southward to Syria and Persia, but the probability is that these
Red Cloud, 2.18; Lady Maud, 2.181; Lady Thorn, 2.181; Lucy, 2.181; Slow Go, 2.181; Cozette, 2.19; Great
Eastern, 2.19 (saddle record, 2.157); Bodine, 2.193; Comu, 2.194; George Palmer, 2.194; Hannis, 2.194; Thomas
L. Young, 2.194; Camors, 2.193; Flora Temple, 2.19% ; Albemarle, 2.20 ; Fleety Golddust, 2.20; Frank, 2.20; Little
Fred, 2.20; Mambrino Gift, 2.20; May Queen, 2.20; Prospero, 2.20.
The trotting-horse is the favorite, and it is interesting to note the great increase of speed attained by training
and selective breeding. One mile in 2.40 was formerly considered remarkable, but as early as 1856 this was reduced
to 2.241, only to be eclipsed by swifter and swifter trotters; and in 1874, Goldsmith Maid made the remarkable time
of 2.14, and for four years this remained the fastest on record, and she became styled the “Queen of the American
Turf.” Rarus, now the "King," has this year (1878) reached the extraordinary figure of 2.131, and Edwin Forrest,
Rarus, and Hopeful all seem destined under favorable conditions to still further reduce these figures, as will be seen
by the account given of the speed of these almost phenomenal productions ou page 593.
An American by the name of Rarey has lately acquired great reputation in England for subduing vicious horses,
and hence has acquired the title of the AMERICAN HORSE TAMER. His performances are undoubtedly very remarkable,
but although several works have been published professing to give his method of proceeding, it seems that this is
really a secret, kept by himself and those he has instructed in his art. It appears that in England, among the high-
bred and high-fed horses—the owners of which are generally little skilled in training them-vicious animals are ex-
tremely common, more so than in this country, where every farmer is accustomed to the training of horses, and where
the breeds are usually of a more docile temper. Hence Mr. Rarey has excited an interest in England which he failed
to elicit in the United States, where he first exercised his profession.

614
VERTEBRATA.
THE DOMESTIC ASS.
are of two or three kinds, a part of them onagers, which are a distinct though clearly allied
species, and a part the offspring of domestic animals escaped to the wilderness, and a part mules
bred between these and the onager.
But leaving this subject as one upon which different authors may safely disagree, we proceed
to describe the most docile, humble, and patient of the servants of man, the Common Ass. In its
anatomy and physiology this is nearly the same as the horse. Its color varies, but is commonly
gray, with a dark longitudinal band on the back, crossed on the shoulders by a similar band.
Sometimes the limbs are obscurely zebraed, especially in the young. It is as diversified in size
as the horse, some being found in India, Barbary, and Southern Europe no larger than a New-
foundland dog, while others are nearly of the size of the horse. They are also of many breeds,
some being valued for their speed and gracefulness of form, and others only noted for their fru-
gality, patience, and endurance. In general, they are regarded as humble drudges, slow, stupid,
and given up to the lowest uses of the poor. Buffon appreciates their character more justly in
the following passages :
“ The ass is, then, an ass, and not a horse degenerated; the ass has a naked tail; he is neither
a stranger, an intruder, nor a bastard; he has, like all other animals, his family, his species, and
his rank; his blood is pure; and although his nobility is less illustrious, yet it is equally good,
equally ancient with that of the horse. Why then have we so much contempt for this animal:
so good, so patient, so steady, so useful! Do men carry their contempt even to animals, those
which serve them so well, and at so small an expense? We bestow education on the horse, take
care of him, instruct him, and exercise him, while the ass is abandoned to the care of the lowest
servant, or the tricks of children; so that, instead of improving, he must lose by his education :
indeed, if he had not a fund of good qualities he would certainly lose all that is valuable by the
manner in which he is treated. He is the make-game of the rustics, who beat him with staffs, over
load him, and make him work beyond his strength. We do not consider that the ass would be in
himself and with respect to us, the most beautiful, the best formed, and most distinguished of animals
if there were no horse in the world; he is the second, instead of being the first, and it is from that
only that he appears to be of no value; the comparison degrades him; we look at him, and give

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDINGULA.
615
our opinions not from himself, but comparatively with the horse; we forget that he is an ass, that
he has all the good qualities of his nature, all the gifts attached to his species, and at the same
time we only think of the figure and qualities of the horse, which are wanting in him, and which
he ought not to have.
"He is naturally as humble, patient, and quiet, as the horse is proud, ardent, and impetuous; he
suffers with constancy, and perhaps with courage, chastisement and blows; he is moderate both
as to the quantity and quality of his food; he is contented with the hardest and most disagree-
able herbs, which the horse and other animals will leave with disdain; he is very delicate with
respect to his water, for he will drink none but the clearest, and from rivulets which he is ac-
quainted with ; he drinks as moderately as he eats, and does not put his nose in the water-
through fear, as some say, of the shadow of his ears. As care is not taken to curry him, he
frequently rolls himself on the grass, thistles, and in the dust, and, without regarding his load, he
lays himself down to roll about as often as he can, and by this seems to reproach his master for
the little care he takes of him ; for he does not paddle about in the mud and in the water; he.
even fears to wet his feet, and will turn out of his road to avoid the mud; his legs are also drier
and cleaner than the horse; he is susceptible of education, and some have been sufficiently dis-
ciplined to become public shows."
It may be added that the ass is almost never sick; its milk is light, and is recommended in
various diseases; hence it is common in Paris, Madrid, Naples, and other European cities, to see
a number of these creatures driven every morning to the door of sick persons, there to be milked
for their use. The skin of the ass is bard and elastic, and is used for making drum-heads, parch-
ment, and shagreen. It attains its full growth in four or five years, and lives to the age of about
five-and-twenty.
THE WHITE ASS.
It would appear, from various evidence, that the ass was domesticated at an earlier period than
the horse, and at a still later date, when the horse was introduced and used almost exclusively
for war in chariots, the ass was the beast of civil life, and used alike for the saddle and for carry-
ing burdens. In the East it is treated with care and attention, and there its appearance is
very
different from that of the serviceable but neglected and undervalued beast of Western Europe.
According to Chardin, the asses of Arabia are among the finest in the world; their coat is smooth
and clean; they carry their head elevated, and have fine, well-formed legs, which they throw out
gracefully in walking or galloping. These are used only for the saddle, and are imported in great
numbers into Persia, where they are frequently sold for a hundred dollars, and being taught a kind
of easy, ambling pace, are handsomely caparisoned, and used only by the rich and luxurious nobles.
It is common to slit their nostrils, under the idea of giving them more room for breathing, as is
a

616
VERTEBRATA.
practiced in some countries in respect to the horse. White asses are not uncommon, and
appear
anciently to have been selected for the use of persons of distinction. In Syria there are three or
four distinct breeds of asses, of which the most valued is that of Arabia. Some are very large,
and are used for carrying persons in sedan-chairs.
Domesticated as the ass has been from the remotest antiquity, and valued as it has ever been
in Western Asia, it was long before it was introduced into Western Europe. Aristotle states that
in his time there were no asses in Pontus, Scythia, or in the country of the Celts-modern Ger-
many and France;—and we know that even as late as the time of Queen Elizabeth the ass was
extremely rare in England. At the present time it is common in France, Spain, Italy and Greece,
especially in the large cities. It is astonishing to see the enormous burdens of fruits and vege-
tables which these creatures carry to market. Often a man and his wife, with two paniers-one
on each side, laden with manure, or greens, or beets, or potatoes, or perhaps all of these—may be
seen trudging up hill and down from the house to the farm. The ass or donkey_in these coun-
tries usually a very small beast—is the poor man's cart, coach, wheelbarrow, chaise, and buggy :
it takes the family to church, the wife and daughters to the wedding, the baby to the christening,
the cabbages, carrots, beets, turnips, potatoes, to the market. The ass does all this and keeps
himself; for he needs little care, and will feed on dry leaves, stalks, thistles, briers, chaff, and
The ass, with the goat, is a kind of gentle and gracious providence, which makes pov-
erty tolerable to millions of the inhabitants of Europe and Asia. In the United States it is little
used, except at the south ; in Mexico it is more common.
straw.
* The following memoranda respecting the Ass of Mexico, furnished by E. E. Dunbar, Esq., to the author, will be
found exceedingly interesting :
"It is in Mexico that the 'Burros,' as they are called-Jack, male, and Jenny, female—form a part of the household.
They are the common porters from settlement to settlement, to the field, to the mill. They bring the wood and the
water. They carry the produce to market, transport merchandise, food, and sometimes a part of the family, im-
mense distances over arid deserts and stupendous mountain paths, never faltering, never tiring, where life of man
or beast can be supported. Look at the long, bony frame, stout legs, tapering to a small, neat foot, the long ears,
.
uncouth-shaped head, and shaggy coat. All go to make up the beast we call stupid, for 'stupid as an ass' is one of
the most common sayings in the English language. But there is no greater libel on any animal that walks than
this. Rather say 'knowing as an ass,' or as they have it in the Spanish language, 'El sabes mucho'—He is very
knowing. It is true this beast is of a patient disposition, and fitted by nature to do drudgery and heavy work, but
if a keen appreciation of all that renders animal life happy and comfortable, and a manifestation of the highest order
of cunning and indomitable perseverance in gratifying these propensities is stupidity, then is the ass stupid.
"Witness the pretty 'Burrito,' of shaggy coat and dainty feet, as he is reared in the very domicil of the Mexican
laborer. Soon as his little frame can bear a few pounds' weight, the pack is on his back, and he is made to pay. For
its cheapness, no pleasanter or more amusing exhibition of domestic felicity can be seen than his donkeyship, stand-
ing demure and contented, with his head just inside a Mexican shanty, and half a dozen dark-skinned, half-shirtless
urchins hanging on his ears, mounting him from before and behind, tumbling off one side, crawling under his belly,
between his legs, and scrambling up the other side. He usually stands at the door at the right time to secure such
odds and ends as may be thrown to him from the scanty meals of the occupants. When satisfied nothing more is to
be obtained in this quarter, he walks off quietly to the common or suburbs to finish his meal by browsing; and he
generally manages to be out of the way when wanted. Hunting up the burros forms no inconsiderable part of the
duty of Mexican youth. The said animal is usually found in some sly corner where grass and shrubs grow greenest
and tenderest.
"When found, the finder mounts well on the rear, and with a moderate-sized baton, with which to guide the truant
by gentle taps on the side of the head, brings him ambling to the point where duty calls.
“ They are the most inveterate thieves in existence, and Dickens's · Artful Dodger' might take lessons of them to
advantage.
"Enter a Mexican puebla and take notice of half a dozen burros, apparently idling away their time on the shady
side of a street, and looking demure and innocent, as though butter would not melt in their mouths. These artful
dodgers make periodical excursions in the neighborhood, and good-bye to every thing in the shape of food in house or
camp that is left unguarded. In high fruit season, especially in melon time, they manage—when not on duty-to
occupy a position commanding a view of the avenues leading to the melon-shops, and if they see a stranger, or any
one who looks as though he had sufficient change in his pocket to buy a melon, they take up their unconcerned,
noiseless line of march to the door, and the hot sun scarcely kisses the juicy rinds thrown out ere they are appro-
priated.
“ The most useful and remarkable qualities of these animals are their great strength and power of endurance. The
writer has known a train of donkeys to carry burdens of three hundred weight each, more than three-quarters their
own weight, over a desert ninety miles in extent, without water, the thermometer ranging one hundred and ten de-
grees during the day, and the trip occupying three days.
“They have no means of defense from beasts of prey but their heels. They sometimes escape by their speed, which
is great only when frightened, and sometimes they contend successfully by kicks, which are hard, incessant, and
<6
6

W
Klu
THE DONKEY RACE.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
617
SAN
hu
REDMAN KENNY.SC.N.V-
THE ABYSSINIAN MULE.
The Mule,* Equus Asinus—variety Mulus—is the hybrid produce of an ass with a mare,
having a clumsy head, long, erect ears, a short mane, and a thin tail. The Hinny, E. Asinus
or Hinnus, is the hybrid of a she-ass with a stallion. Of this the head is long and thin, the ears
like those of a horse, the mane short, the tail well-filled with hair. It is less hardy and useful
and is not often bred. The mule is greatly valued in some countries for the saddle and for draw-
ing vehicles. They are of various breeds and of various sizes ; those bred from Spanish mares
are sometimes fifteen and sixteen hands high, and sell for one hundred and fifty to two hundred
quick as flashes of light. The Jacks wage a fearful warfare with stallions, generally coming off victorious by obtain-
ing a bull-dog hold of the windpipe, and never relinquishing their grasp until the noble animal falls fatally bitten or
strangled to death.
“The donkey has neither the obstinacy nor malice of the mule, but is rather of a kind and gentle disposition. His
laziness and artful tricks are what sometimes render him vexatious.
“But considering his patience, gentle disposition, strength, power of endurance, and regarding him as the father
of mules, the donkey or ass deserves to rank high among useful animals."
* The term Mule, which properly signifies the hybrid offspring of an ass and mare, is applied to other hybrids, so
that we even say a mule Canary bird. Under this head, therefore, Gervais furnishes us with the following curious
list of hybrids that have been produced between some of the more prominent classes of quadrupeds:
HYBRIDS AMONG THE EQUIDÆ.—The ass with the mare produces the variety, mule; the French call the male offspring
mulet and the female mule. They apply the term bardeau to the offspring of the horse with the female ass.
The ass has bred with the female zebra at Knowsley, in Lord Derby's menagerie.
The zebra has bred with the female ass at the Garden of Plants, Paris.
The ass has bred with the onager both at Knowsley and the Garden of Plants.
The male onager has bred with the dauw at Knowsley.
HYBRIDS AMONG THE BOVIDÆ.—The common bull and cow have bred with the American bison.
The bull has bred with the cebu and with the yak, and the yak with the zebu.
The zebu has bred with the jungle cow; Gray considers the offspring to be the gagal.
HYBRIDS AMONG SHEEP AND GOATS. -The domestic sheep has bred with the mouflon of Corsica, and the ibex or bou-
quetin has bred with the domestic goat. Several other instances of mixture between domestic sheep and goats and the
allied wild species are known.
HYBRIDS AMONG DEER.—The pseudaxis has bred with the axis, and the cervus gymnotus has bred with the C. Vir-
ginianus.
HYBRIDS AMONG Dogs.—The wolf has bred with the domestic dog ; also with the dingo of New Holland; the dog has
bred with the jackal.
HYBRIDS AMONG THE CAT FAMILY.-The lion has bred with the tigress in a menagerie at London.
HYBRIDS AMONG THE RODENTIA.—The porcupine has bred with the Javan acanthion at the menagerie of the Zoologi-
cal Society of London.
HYBRIDS AMONG MONKEYS.—The common macake has bred with the rhesus macake and the crowned macake; the
grivet has bred with the common macake.
Various hybrids among different species of domestic animals, as hogs, lamas, camels, &c., are also known.
Vol. 1.-78

618
VERTEBRATA.
BEITUTT
OO
O
Oysa
O
QUEEN ISABELLA OF SPAIN MOUNTED ON A MULE.
dollars. They will travel for months together, carrying from seven to eight hundred weight on
their backs. Mules are much used in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the East, and also in South
America and Mexico; many also are employed in the Southern States on the plantations, and
some of them have lately been applied to the omnibus-cars in the city of New York.
The mule is in fact an exceedingly hardy, strong, and useful animal. In all mountain coun-
tries, from its sureness of foot, its instinctive caution in choosing the path, and its skillful
management in descending a perilous and steep track, it is eminently serviceable. Among
the Andes, in South America, it has nearly superseded the lama. In Spain, which is a mount-
ainous country, with few good roads, it is extensively used for carriages, and also for the
transportation of merchandise. His rider, the muleteer, has become the general medium of traffic
through the interior, and has long been recognized as forming a curious and peculiar type of na-
tional manners. “He lives frugally and hardily; his alforjas of coarse cloth hold his scanty stock
of provisions; a leathern bottle, hanging at his saddle-bow, contains wine or water for a supply
across barren mountains and thirsty plains. A mule-cloth spread upon the ground is his bed at
night, and his pack-saddle is his pillow. His low but clean-limbed and sinewy form betokens
strength; his complexion is dark and sunburnt; his eye resolute but quiet in its expression, ex-
cept when kindled by sudden emotion; his demeanor is frank, manly, and courteous, and he never
passes you without a grave salutation—Dios guarde á usted ! Va usted con Dios, caballero!!'
"God guard you! God be with you, cavalier!!” Very elegant breeds of the mule have been
used for the saddle in Spain for centuries; some of these animals are so docile and grace-
ful that fair dames, including even royalty itself, have preferred them to the gentle palfry and the
sprightly genet.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
619
REZ
li
HŁOKA KENNY SONY
THE ZEBRA AT THE GARDEN OF PLANTS, PARIS.
The Onager or KOULAN, Asinus sylvestris—the Equus Onager of Brisson and Pallas, and
Asinus Onager of Gray—is the Khur or Gour of the Persians; the Hamar of Mesopotamia, and
the Wild Ass of Kutch ; it is indeed generally denominated the Wild Ass, but it is doubtful if
it be so in fact. It was described by Xenophon and Pliny under the name of Onager. Its color
in summer is pale reddish; in winter grayish ; the dorsal streak, which is common to this and
several of the allied species, is black, and rather wider over the small of the back; the skull is
high up and far back. It has a general resemblance to the ass, and is found on the plains of
Mesopotamia, Persia, Kutch, the shores of the Indus, and the Punjaub. It is said also to exist
, .
in large numbers on the high steppes between the Caspian and Aral Seas, and many of them are
taken thence to Orenburg. It lives in troops, the old ones being very shy and difficult of ap-
proach, even within reach of the rifle; the young are frequently caught alive. In general, these
animals are left in their wild state, being regarded by the natives of the countries they inhabit as
untamable; but at Bombay they are used both for the saddle and for draught, and there is no
reason to doubt that they might be generally domesticated and rendered useful. Since 1842
several of them, of both sexes, have been in the Garden of Plants at Paris, and have successfully
produced and reared young ones. Specimens have also been in the menageries of London and
Knowsley, the animals being erroneously called Hemiones.
The HEMIONE or KIANG, E. Hemionus—the E. Polyodon of Hodgson; the Wild Ass of Tar-
tary—is the Hemione, that is, Demi-Ass of Xenophon; the Jikta of Shaw; Dgiggitai of Cuvier,
and Dzigethai of Buffon. In this the fur is short, smooth, and bright-red bay; the legs are straw-
color; there is a broad, longitudinal dorsal streak, broadest over the small of the back, without
any cross-band on tho shoulders. In winter the hair becomes long and woolly, and of a pale
a

620
VERTEBRATA.
HEMIONES,
color; this is thrown off in summer. The skull is low down in the center of the space between
the face-line and the base of the teeth. These animals are found in Thibet, living in bands of
from eight to ten females under the care of a single male, sometimes on the plains and sometimes
on the mountains, where the thermometer is often below zero.
This species has been confounded with the onager, but Dr. Walker observes—“ The Kiang
neighs like a horse; the wild ass of Kutch brays like an ass; the Kiang has no zebra stripes,
neither in the adult nor in the foal; in the wild ass of Kutch transverse zebra stripes are seen on
the shoulder of the adult, and still more on that of the foal; sometimes also the shoulder-cross
has been seen. The habitat of the Kiang is on the high table-land of Thibet; of the wild ass of
Kutch in the sultry plains near the mouth of the Indus.” It may be added that the Kiang is
much the largest, the stallions standing fourteen hands high. When taken young these animals
become tame, so as to be led about like horses.
The Yo-TO-TZE, the Asinus equuleus of H. Smith, of which a living specimen was lately exhib-
ited in Park Lane, London, is regarded by Dr. Gray as either a kiang or a mule between the
kiang and domestic ass.
The QUAGGA, E. Quagga—the Asinus Quagga of Gray—sometimes called the Cape Horse
and also the Isabella Ass, has more resemblance to the horse than the ass in its form ; its general
color is brown, the head, neck, and withers striped or zebraed with blackish-brown; the lower
part of the body, the legs and tail, white. Its voice is said to resemble the bark of a dog, and to
express the word quagga, whence its name. It is a native of the plains of Southern Africa;
sometimes it approaches the settlements and mingles with the domestic animals. It is capable
of domestication, and is occasionally employed for draught and burden. It is courageous, and de-
fends itself with spirit from ferocious beasts, especially the hyenas, which often attack it. Many
of them are, however, devoured by lions. Cummings and other adventurers in Southern Africa
speak of frequently meeting troops of these animals, which it seems are killed for their flesh,
it being much relished by the natives.
The Dauw, or PEECHI, or PEET-SEE, sometimes called BURCHELL'S ZEBRA, the E. Dauw or Asi-
nus Burchellii, is of a pale brown color, the under side of the body being whitish ; head, body, and
upper part of the legs black streaked; tail, inside and lower part of the legs white. This species
is a tenant of the plains, and is found occurring in every district north of the Orange River, as far

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 10. SOLIDUNGULA.
621
THE QUAGGA.
as travelers have penetrated. It dwells in troops, which make occasional migrations from the in-
terior to the more fertile districts in search of food. At irregular and uncertain intervals there
occur seasons of drought in South Africa, when the pools of the desert are dried up,
and the sur-
face of the wilderness is parched. Driven from their native solitudes by the desolation around
them, dauws, quaggas, antilopes, and other animals in incredible multitudes, pour like a torrent
over the cultivated districts, destroying the pasturage and the corn; with the return of the rain
they retrace their steps and seek their desert fastnesses.
The Dauw is strong and muscular, with sinewy limbs, and might perhaps be made serviceable
to man.
It is an animal that admits of being tamed to a certain extent with facility, and occa-
sionally a half-domesticated specimen is exposed for sale at Cape Town with a rider on its back.
The persons, however, who have had most opportunities of becoming acquainted with its charac-
ter, regard it, tractable as it may sometimes appear, as treacherous and fickle, vicious and obsti-
nate. It is a remarkable fact that this species, and the quagga also, are often seen in company
with the ostrich, several of the latter feeding tranquilly in the midst of a herd without experi-
encing any molestation. This species may be distinguished from its mountain relative, the zebra,
which it resembles, by the shortness of its ears, by the absence of stripes on the limbs and under
surface of the body, and by the stripes of the upper parts being brown. They are said to present
an exceedingly brilliant appearance when flying in troops before the hunter. Their flesh, with
that of the zebra and quagga, is relished by the natives, but Mr. Burchell thought it not much
superior to horse-flesh, and he would, with most Europeans, think the same respecting the flesh
of the wild ass, which in Persia is in the highest estimation, and is served at royal banquets.
This and the preceding species are common in the menageries of Europe. Of the specimens
of the dauw in the Garden of Plants, at Paris, M. Is. Geoffroy says, “We have seldom put them
in harness, but we have bred them to the third generation; after the second the acclimation is
complete; I have seen one of our French dauws lying tranquilly upon the snow at sixteen degrees
centigrade below zero."
The ZEBRA, E. zebra of Linnæus, Asinus Zebra of Gray—the Hippotigris of Dion Cassius-
sometimes called the Wild Paard by the Dutch colonists, is generally esteemed not only the
most beautiful of the equine family, but one of the most beautiful of quadrupeds, on account of
the markings of its skin. The ground color is white, or yellowish-white, but the head, body, and

622
VERTEBRATA.
THE DAUW.
legs to the hoofs are regularly striped, mostly crosswise, with deep brown-black bands, lighter in
the middle. From this form of marking we have the word zebraed, significant of a regular band-
ing of the skin of an animal. The ears of the zebra are long, the neck short and deep, with a
sort of dewlap under the throat, produced by a loose fold of the skin; the mane is short, and the
tail sparsely clad with long hair. The form resembles that of the ass, but the size nearly equals
that of the horse.
Wild and swift, this species lives in troops in the bold ranges of craggy mountains remote from
the abodes of man. Its disposition is savage and intractable, and it is by no means easily ob-
tained, not only from its fleetness, but from the nature of the localities it frequents, where, like the
wild ass of Thibet, in the wilderness and the barren land is his dwelling; he scorneth the mul-
titude of the city.” Nevertheless, zebras have been taken to Europe and placed in the menag-
eries. All attempts to domesticate them, or to train them to the service of man, have failed ;
about a century ago, however, the King of Portugal had four of them, which he sometimes drove
harnessed to his carriage.
Fossil EQUID Æ.—The remains of extinct Equidæ have been found in the deposits of the pliocene
period, in Europe, in India, and even in North and South America, where the horse did not exist
at the time of the discovery of Columbus. These races in North America appear to have flour-
ished and perished with the Mastodon; in South America with the Megatherium. Whether any
of the animals to whom these bones belonged were similar to any existing species has not been
determined; several species, however, are supposed to be made out, and have received appropriate
titles, as Equus fossilis, E. plicidens, E. Asinus fossilis, E. curvidens, &c.

M?
Muk
(তে
MH Frunan
:
ZEBRAS.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA.
623
REDMANEKENNY.N.
THIE ASIATIC ELEPHANT.
ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA.
The animals of this order, containing the largest that live upon the land, are characterized by
the thickness of their tough and leathery skin and the want of a ruminating stomach, though
their natural food is wholly vegetable. Most of them are but thinly clothed with hair, and some
are almost entirely destitute of it, having only a few scattered bristles. The impenetrable char-
acter of the hide is thus needful to protect them from the maddening punctures of the venomous
ticks and flies which swarm in the sultry regions of the tropics. For the same reason they seek
refuge, during the burning heat of the day, in ponds and rivers, where, immersed to the neck,

624
VERTEBRATA.
they enjoy the refreshing coolness, or, wallowing in the soft mud of the morasses, acquire an ad-
ditional protection against these, their most formidable, though tiny foes. Conscious of their own
massive strength, they feared no other enemies until the aggressions of man taught them his su-
periority; inoffensive and peaceful, they rarely use their gigantic powers of injury; but when
irritated, they often exhibit a furious and revengeful ferocity. Heavy and massive in their struc-
ture, their pillar-like limbs seem ill-calculated for speed; yet, “their pace, when they have fairly
commenced it, from the length of their stride, and the great propelling weight of their bodies, is
for a time very rapid, and bears before it all ordinary obstacles, clearing a way through the thick-
est and most matted underwood."
In many of the species the canine or incisor teeth are developed into curved tusks, which in
some attain a monstrous size. The nose also is greatly lengthened, sometimes into a broad, flex-
ible muzzle, and sometimes into a long snout or trunk. The Elephants are the best examples of
both these peculiarities of structure. It is probable that this order contains the longest lived of
all the land animals; Mr. Hodgson informs us that the Indian Rhinoceros is believed to live for
a hundred years, and that one, taken mature, was kept at Katmandoo for thirty-five years with-
,
out exhibiting any symptoms of approaching decline. It is the common opinion in India that
the Elephant sometimes lives three centuries; this is improbable, though several now in the ser-
vice of the East India Company were old when they came into possession of the Europeans, up-
ward of ninety years ago. Most of the species, especially those of gigantic size, inhabit the con-
tinent and great islands of Asia and the continent of Africa. Some, however, are peculiar to
America, and others have a very extensive range.
The various species are divided into six families, as follows: the Elephantida, Rhinoceridæ,
Hippopotami, Tapiridæ, Suedæ, and Hyracida.
THE ELEPHANTIDÆ OR PROBOSCID Æ.
Of this family there is a single genus, ELEPHANT, Elephas, the species of which are the
largest of living quadrupeds. They are distinguished by having five toes to each foot, very com-
plete in the skeleton, but so enveloped by the callous skin which surrounds the foot that their
only external appearance consists in the nails attached to the extremity of this species of hoof.
They have no canines nor incisors, properly speaking; but in the incisive or intermaxillary bones
are implanted two defensive tusks, which project from the mouth, and frequently attain enormous
dimensions. The magnitude of the sockets necessary to hold these tusks renders the upper jaw
so high, and so shortens the bones of the nose, that the nostrils in the skeleton are placed near
the top of the face; but in the living animal they are prolonged into a cylindrical trunk, com-
posed of more than forty thousand small muscles variously interlaced, flexible in all directions,
endowed with exquisite sensibility, and terminated by an appendage like a finger. This trunk
imparts to the elephant as much address as the perfection of the hand does to the monkey. It
enables him to seize whatever he wishes to convey to his month, and to suck up the water he
is to drink, which, by the flexure of this admirable organ, is then poured into the throat, thus
supplying the want of a long neck, which could not have supported so large a head with its
heavy tusks. The trunk also is the organ of the voice, and through it the animal utters strong,
trumpet-like tones. Within the parietes of the cranium are several great cavities, which render
the head lighter; the lower jaw has no incisors whatever; the intestines are very voluminous ;
;
the stomach simple; cæcum enormous; the mamme, two in number, placed under the chest.
The
young suck with the mouth and not with the trunk, as was asserted by Buffon. The period
of gestation is twenty months; the young at birth are three feet high; they are able immediately
to follow their mother. There are only two species.
The Asiatic ELEPHANT, E. Indicus, differs from the African species, not only in its greater
size and in the characters of the teeth and skull, but also in the comparative smallness of the ears,
the paler brown color of the skin, and in having four nails on the hind-feet instead of three. The
sagacity of this species is also supposed to be greater than that of the African elephant. But
though many wonderful stories are told, and some of them are as true as they are wonderful, of

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA.
625
UV
BRE
8
SKELETON OF AN ELEPHANT.
the grateful remembrance which it long retains of benefits conferred, or of the tenacity with which
it “ treasures up a wrong," and though the instances of its docility, both ancient and modern, are
very extraordinary, we agree upon the whole with Cuvier, who says that after having studied
these animals a long time, he never found their intelligence to surpass that of a dog or of many
other carnivorous animals. It is imposing to see such a mountain of vitality obedient to the voice
of its keeper, and performing feats at his dictation; and the massive gravity of its physiognomy
assists the impression.
These huge animals live in considerable troops, seeking moist situations, where the vegetation
is abundant and vigorous. They feed on large succulent plants, and as the quantity they devour
is enormous, they are frequently obliged to change their places to obtain supplies. They are
fond of the sugar-cane, and sometimes do immense damage in the plantations. The herds are
usually led by an old male, who seems to exercise general influence over them. They are fond
of marshes, and traverse rivers, being excellent swimmers. Excessive heat and cold are alike un-
favorable to them. They have a rapid trot, and it requires a fast horse to follow them when at
their greatest speed. In running, they keep flapping their large ears as if they were wings. In
their flight they turn with difficulty, and are very slow and clumsy in descending rapid declivi-
ties. The general color of this species is an earthy-gray; the skin, which is tough and hard, is
nearly naked, having only a few short hairs scattered here and there. Some of these animals
are albinos, and are white, tinged with rose-color. Some of the natives along the Ganges believe
these to be held in regard by the spirits of the ancient kings. The kings of Siam, Pegu, and
other countries of Farther India, add to their titles, “Lord of the White Elephant!" They keep
these animals in their palaces, causing them to be sumptuously harnessed and served by a large
number of domestics.
The size of this species varies from seven to ten feet high, cight feet being the average; the
length of the body from the mouth to the insertion of the tail is ten to fifteen feet. They attain
their full size at about twenty-four years of age; the average of life is about seventy-five years,
though instances of much greater age are common. They are seldom bred in captivity; nearly
Vol. 1.-79

626
VERTEBRATA.
all those which are used are taken from their native haunts and then trained. The modes of
capturing them are various: sometimes a large number of the Indian hunters combine and con-
trive to drive the herd into a strong inclosure, where they are separately subdued. Sometimes
the hunters proceed into the woods, accompanied by two trained females. When a herd is
met with, these advance quietly, and by their blandishments so occupy the attention of any
unfortunate male they come up with, that the hunters are enabled to tie his legs together and
fasten him to a tree. His treacherous companions now leave him to struggle in impotent rage,
until he is so subdued by hunger and fatigue that the hunters can drive him home between their
two tame elephants. Sometimes, however, these hunting adventures are more exciting. The
following account is descriptive of an attempt to catch elephants in Nepaul:
“The whole batch, tame and wild ones, then rushed into a deep river close by, where it was a
splendid sight to see them swimming, fighting, diving, plunging, kicking, and bellowing in a most
frantic manner; the mahouts—the riders on the tame ones—sticking to them like monkeys, and
dexterously taking the opportunity of the confusion to secure the dreaded noose round their
necks. One of the wild elephants in the struggle got half drowned, and then entirely strangled;
she just staggered to the shore, and then dropped dead without a struggle. It was really quite
piteous to see her poor little young one, about ten days old; she kept walking round the body,
pushing it, and trying to coax her dead mother to rise up, then uttering the most heart-rending
cries, and lying down by her side, as it were to comfort her.
“When the contest was over, and the other elephants—tame ones—were brought up near the
corpse,
the
poor little thing, with the most indignant, though of course, unavailing valor, charged
on all sides at any elephant who came near, determined, evidently, to defend its mother, even
though dead, to the last. The tame ones of course were too sagacious to hurt it with their
tusks, and looked on with the most curious air of pity and contempt, as they gradually, despite
its violent struggles, pushed it away from its mother to a place where it could be properly se-
cured and taken care of. Really its moans and endeavors to remain with its mother were quite
affecting.”
There are several castes or varieties of the elephant, as the Koomareah, meaning, of a princely
race; the Merghee, a hunting elephant; the male Dauntelah is noted for its large tusks; the
Mooknah have much smaller ones; the Goodnah are particularly large males, seldom captured,
and when taken, ferocious and destructive. Some of these cannot brook confinement, and lan-
guish and die in captivity. There is almost as much difference in the domestic elephants, as to
gait, docility, strength, and serviceableness, as in horses.
The tusks of both species—the African as well as the Asiatic—still form, as they did from the
earliest periods, a valuable article of commerce. The ivory, which is now sought for useful pur-
poses and ornaments of minor importance, such as knife-handles, billiard-balls, chess-men, combs,
&c., was in great request with the ancient Greeks and Romans for various domestic uses, as well
as for the chrys-elephantine statuary rendered so famous by Phidias. Of these rich statues the
Minerva of the Parthenon, and especially the Olympian Jupiter, appear to have been the master-
pieces. Among the tusks found there are some which indicate the rough usage these animals
have received from the hands of man. Sometimes a musket-ball has been found imbedded in one
without any aperture or mark to show how it got there. In these cases, the ball has penetrated
the root of the tusk, and been pushed forward by successive growths of ivory as the tusk increased
in size. A spear-head has been found in the same position. It is said that forty-five thousand
elephant-tusks are brought every year to Sheffield, in England, at a cost of one hundred and thirty
thousand dollars. Five hundred persons are there occupied as ivory workers !
The elephant occupies the greater part of the warm countries of Asia, and the great islands of
Sumatra and Borneo. Those of the provinces of Chittagong are chiefly used in the service of
the East India Company, but those of the Birman territories and of Pegu are of a superior breed.
These animals are abundant in the southern part of Nepaul. Those found in Ceylon, having a
lighter and smaller head and higher fore-quarters than others, are supposed by Hodgson to be
distinct species; at all events they are a marked variety.
From time immemorial the Asiatic Elephant has been brought under the dominion of man,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHY DERMATA.
627
MUTE
con me
יוון
OSO99W
10
10.
யே
AN EAST INDIAN MONARCH, MOUNTED ON AN ELEPHANT.
a
and has long been trained to swell the pomp of pageants, and add to the terrors of war, as well
as to perform the useful offices of a beast of burden and draught, and the dreadful one of execut-
ing the sentence of death on criminals. It has been made the companion of the sports of the
Orientalist in the great hunting parties, and from an early period has been made to minister to
the wanton and cruel pleasures of Eastern princes, by being stimulated to combat not only with
other elephants but with various wild animals. It is curious that the elephant is not mentioned
in the Bible, though ivory is spoken of in the commerce carried on by Hiram and Solomon.
From about 270 B. C. they were known at Rome, and were introduced into the triumphal pro-
cessions. In 122 B. C. they were used in the war against the Allobroges, in Gaul. Alexander
took a large number in his victories over the Indian King Porus. Hannibal marched into
Italy with numbers of these animals, and the tusks found imbedded in the soil along the banks
of the Arno, and now shown in the museum at Florence, are popularly considered to have be-
longed to those which perished in the passage across the territory, which was then a deep, tangled
morass, though more probably they are the remains of proboscidiens of remote geological ages.
The Ptolemies of Egypt, as well as the Seleucides of Syria, had numerous war-elephants. Haroun-
al-Raschid, among the presents dispatched to Charlemagne, sent an elephant, which was em-
barked at Pisa A. D. 801, and was conveyed to Aix la Chapelle.
In more modern times the Asiatic Elephant has become common in the menageries of Europe
and America, and is always the great attraction alike of the wise and the simple, the philosopher
and the child. Its performances in a tank or reservoir of water appropriated to its use—now
rolling and wallowing in it like a huge puncheon; now squirting the water into the air from the
trunk as from the pipe of a fire-engine, and now sinking to the bottom, the whole enormous mass
becoming invisible, the top of the trunk only being above water so that the animal
may
breathe
as is done by a man in a diving-bell-are all exceedingly curious and wonderful. The use of the
trunk in receiving presents of cake, fruit, straw, or hay, and then thrusting them into the mouth,
and also in picking up small substances, even pieces of money, from the floor, and all this being
done with a facility, neatness, and dexterity equal to that of the human hand, excites just and end-
less admiration. The look of the monster all this time—blending a curious gravity of the hill-like
head with the shrewdness of intelligent, inquisitive little eyes-excites a strange, wondering curi-
osity, perhaps even a kind of sympathy, sometimes amounting to fascination. In India the ele-
phant is a familiar beast; in ancient times it went to war with towers filled with soldiers on its
back; it now carries traveling parties in a similar manner. Kings and princes ride upon it in

628
VERTEBRATA.
חדר יחוסו
DULUI
Ini
ANDREW, BEST.GELOLA
ELEPHANT OF THE GARDEN OF PLANTS, PARIS.
a
state, and the animal seems to take a grave delight in the pomp and pageantry of which it forms
a part. Many of these creatures are employed in carrying burdens, one of them being able to
support a weight of three or four thousand pounds; it will bear a thousand pounds on its tusks.
It loads and unloads boats with its trunk; it pulls at a tackle; it rolls and lifts and carries barrels
and hogsheads; in short, it does the work of oxen, horses, and men. In India the elephant is
thus a useful as well as familiar beast; but the inhabitants of that country do not look upon
it
with the strange, ruminating wonder which it always excites among our people.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA.
629
THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT.
The AFRICAN ELEPHANT, E. Africanus, as we have said, according to various authorities, is
somewhat smaller than the Asiatic;* the head is rounded, the front convex instead of concave,
and the nails on each hind-foot are three instead of four. It lives in large herds in Central and
Southern Africa, where it is constantly hunted by the natives and also by Europeans, who venture
into these regions to pursue the various wild beasts which abound there. Its flesh is relished by
the inhabitants of many districts in Africa. Major Denham speaks of it as being greatly esteemed
by the people, and he adds that, though it looked coarse, it was better flavored than any beef he
found in the country. The ancient Romans considered the trunk as the most delicious part; but
Levaillant speaks of the foot as a dish for a king, and more recent travelers bestow on it equal
praise. The disposition of this species is supposed to be more ferocious than that of the Asiatic
Elephant, though its habits in a state of nature do not greatly differ. It is not now tamed, but
the Carthaginians, as well before as after the time of Hannibal, availed themselves of the services
of this species as the Indians did of those of the Asiatic Elephant. The elephants used by the
Ptolemies of Egypt were of this species, as well as those exhibited in the Roman arena by Cæsar
and Pompey, and from this kind principally, if not entirely, the ivory for ornamental purposes
and the statues before alluded to, seems to have been taken.
The following excellent description of the elephant of Africa is furnished by Cummings. This
animal, he
says, “is widely diffused through the vast forests, and is met with in herds of various
numbers. The male is much larger than the female, consequently much more difficult to kill. He
is provided with two enormous tusks. These are long, tapering, and beautifully arched; their
length averages from six to eight feet, and they weigh from sixty to a hundred pounds each. In
the vicinity of the equator the elephants attain to a greater size than to the southward, and I am
in the possession of a pair of tusks of the African bull elephant, the larger of which measures ten
feet nine inches in length, and weighs one hundred and seventy-three pounds. The females, un-
like Asiatic elephants in this respect, are likewise provided with tusks. The price which the
largest ivory fetches in the English market is from £28 to £32 per hundred and twelve pounds.
Old bull elephants are found singly or in pairs, or consorting together in small herds, varying from
* On this point there is some contradiction: Mr. Case, who is an excellent authority, puts the average of the Asiatic
Elephant at nine feet high ; Dr. Livingstone says the African Elephant averages nine or ten feet in height.

630
VERTEBRATA.
a
six to twenty individuals. The younger bulls remain for many years in the company of their
mothers, and these are met together in large herds of from twenty to a hundred individuals. The
food of the elephant consists of the branches, leaves, and roots of trees, and also of a variety of
bulbs, of the situation of which he is advised by his exquisite sense of smell. To obtain these he
turns up the ground with his tusks, and whole acres may be seen thus plowed up. Elephants
consume an immense quantity of food, and pass the greater part of the day and night in feeding.
Like the whale in the ocean, the elephant on land is acquainted with, and roams over, wide and
extensive tracts. He is extremely particular in always frequenting the freshest and most verdant
districts of the forest, and when one district is parched and barren, he will forsake it for years,
and wander to great distances in quest of better pasture.
“The elephant entertains an extraordinary horror of man, and a child can put a hundred of
them to flight by passing at a quarter of a mile to windward, and when thus disturbed they go a
long way before they halt. It is surprising how soon these sagacious animals are aware of the
presence of a hunter in their domains. When one troop has been attacked, all the other ele-
phants frequenting the district are aware of the fact within two or three days, when they all for-
sake it, and migrate to distant parts, leaving the hunter no alternative but to inspan his wagons
and remove to fresh ground. This constitutes one of the greatest difficulties which a skillful ele-
phant-hunter encounters. Even in the most remote parts, which may be reckoned the head-
quarters of the elephant, it is only occasionally, and with inconceivable toil and hardship, that
the eye of the hunter is cheered by the sight of one. Owing to habits peculiar to himself, the
clephant is more inaccessible, and much more rarely seen, than any other game quadruped, ex-
cepting certain rare antilopes. They choose for their resort the most lonely and secluded depths
of the forest, generally at a very great distance from the rivers and fountains at which they drink.
In dry and warm weather they visit these waters nightly, but in cool and cloudy weather they
drink only once every third or fourth day. About sundown the elephant leaves his distant mid-
day haunt, and commences his march toward the fountain, which is probably from twelve to
twenty miles distant. This he generally reaches between the hours of nine and midnight, when,
having slaked his thirst and cooled his body by spouting large volumes of water over his back
with his trunk, he resumes the path to his forest solitudes. Having reached a secluded spot, I
have remarked that full-grown bulls lie down on their broadsides, about the hour of midnight, and
sleep for a few hours. The spot which they usually select is an ant-hill, and they lie around it
with their backs resting against it; these hills, formed by the white ants, are from thirty to forty
feet in diameter at their base. The mark of the under tusk is always deeply imprinted in the
ground, proving that they lie upon their sides. I never remarked that females had thus lain down,
and it is only in the more secluded districts that the bulls adopt this practice; for I observed
that in districts where the elephants were liable to frequent disturbance, they took repose stand-
ing on their legs beneath some shady tree. Having slept, they then proceed to feed extensively.
Spreading out from one another, and proceeding in a zigzag course, they smash and destroy all
the finest trees in the forest which happen to lie in their course. The number of goodly trees
which a herd of bull elephants will thus destroy is utterly incredible. They are extremely capri-
cious, and on coming to a group of five or six trees they break down not unfrequently the whole
of them, when, having perhaps only tasted one or two small branches, they pass on and continue
their wanton work of destruction. I have repeatedly ridden through forests where the trees thus
broken lay so thick across one another that it was almost impossible to ride through the district,
and it is in situations such as these that attacking the elephant is attended with most danger.
During the night they will feed in open plains and thinly-wooded districts, but as day dawns they
retire to the densest covers within reach, which nine times in ten are composed of the impracti-
cable wait-a-bit thorns, and here they remain drawn up in a compact herd during the heat of the
day. In remote districts, however, and in cool weather, I have known herds to continue pastur-
ing throughout the whole day.
“ The appearance of the wild elephant is inconceivably majestic and imposing. His gigantic
height and colossal bulk, so greatly surpassing all other quadrupeds, combined with his sagacious
disposition and peculiar habits, impart to him an interest in the eyes of the hunter which no other

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA.
631
사
​ELEPHANT ATTACKED BY THE NEGROES WITH JAVELINS.
a
animal can call forth. The pace of the elephant, when undisturbed, is a bold, free, sweeping step,
and from the peculiar spongy formation of his foot, his tread is extremely light and inaudible,
and all his movements are attended with a peculiar gentleness and grace. This, however, only
applies to the elephant when roaming undisturbed in his jungle; for, when roused by the hunter,
he
proves the most dangerous enemy, and far more difficult to conquer than any other beast of
the chase."
Other accounts of the elephants in Africa, furnished us by recent hunters and travelers, are
exceedingly curious and interesting. From these it appears that this animal is pursued with much
eagerness by the natives of South Africa, and the chase is usually a scene of great excitement and
interest. Seeking him in the green valleys or umbrageous retreats in which he loves to dwell,
they hesitate not to attack him on foot, armed only with their native spears or javelins and a
large knife. Taking advantage of his inability to see behind him, and his unwieldiness in turning,
they often manage to creep up and hamstring him before he is made aware of their approach,
and then they cast showers of javelins into him until he becomes mortally wounded and falls,
the signal for a general shout of triumph from the whole party. Livingstone witnessed an
instance of this kind, which he describes as follows: "The goodly beast, totally unconscious of
the approach of an enemy, stood for some time suckling her young one, which seemed about
two years old; they then went into a pit containing mud, and smeared themselves all over with
it, the little one frisking about his dam, flapping his ears and tossing his trunk incessantly, in ele-
phantine fashion. She kept flapping her ears and wagging her tail, as if in the height of enjoy-
ment. Then began the piping of her enemies, the negro hunters, which was performed by blowing
into a tube, or the hands closed together, as boys do into a key. They call out to attract the
animal's attention-
O chief! chief! we have come to kill you,
O chief! chief! many more will die beside you,
The gods have said it,' etc., etc.

632
VERTEBRATA.
REDMANSKENNYANY
HUNTING ELEPHANTS IN AFRICA.
Both animals expanded their ears and listened, then left their bath as the crowd rushed toward
them. The little one ran forward toward the end of the valley, but seeing the men there re-
turned to his dam. She placed herself on the danger side of her calf, and passed her proboscis
over it again and again, as if to assure it of safety. She frequently looked back to the men, who
kept up an incessant shouting, singing, and piping; then looked at her young one and ran after
it, sometimes sideways, as if her feelings were divided between anxiety to protect her offspring and
desire to revenge the temerity of her persecutors. The men kept about a hundred yards in her
rear, and some that distance from her flanks, and continued thus until she was obliged to cross a
rivulet. The time spent in descending and getting up the opposite bank allowed of their coming
пр to the edge, and discharging their spears at about twenty yards' distance. After the first dis-
charge she appeared with her sides red with blood, and, beginning to flee for her own life, seemed
to think no more of her young. It ran very fast, but neither young nor old entered into a gal-
lop; their quickest pace was only a sharp walk. The calf took refuge in the water and was killed.
The pace of the dam gradually became slower. She turned with a shriek of rage and made a
furious charge back among the men. They vanished at right angles to her course, or sideways,
and, as she ran straight on, she went through the whole party, but came near no one except a
man who wore a piece of cloth on his shoulders. Bright clothing is always dangerous in these
cases. She charged three or four times, and, except in the first instance, never went farther than
a hundred yards. She often stood after she had crossed a rivulet, and faced the men, though she
received fresh spears. It was by this process of spearing and loss of blood that she was killed ;
for at last, making a short charge, she staggered round and sank down dead in a kneeling pos-
ture.
The following extract from Pringle's “Wanderings in South Africa" furnishes a clear idea of
the habits of these animals in a wild state: “After mid-day, we came upon the recent traces of a
troop of elephants. Their huge foot-prints were everywhere visible, and in the swampy spots, on
the banks of the river, it was evident that some of them had been luxuriously enjoying themselves,
by rolling their unwieldy bulks in the ooze and mud. But it was in the groves and jungles that
they had left the most striking proofs of their recent presence and peculiar habits. In many
places paths had been trodden through the midst of dense thorny forests, otherwise impenetrable.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA.
633
They appeared to have opened up these paths with great judgment, always taking the best and
shortest cut to the next open savannah, or ford of the river, and in this way their labors were of
the greatest use to us by pioneering our route through a most intricate country, never yet trav-
ersed by a wheel carriage, and great part of it, indeed, not easily accessible, even on horseback.
In such places the great bull elephant always marches in the van, bursting through the jungle as
a bullock would through a field of hops, treading down the brushwood, and breaking off with his
proboscis the larger branches that obstruct the passage, while the females and younger part of
the herd follow in his wake.
“Among the mimosa-trees sprinkled over the meadows, or lower bottoms, the traces of their
operations were not less apparent. Immense numbers of these trees had been torn out of the
ground and placed in an inverted position, in order to enable the animals to browse at their ease
on the juicy roots, which form a favorite part of their food. I observed that in numerous in-
stances, when the trees were of considerable size, the elephant had employed one of his tusks
exactly as we would use a crowbar, thrusting it under the roots to loosen their hold of the earth,
before he attempted to tear them up with his proboscis. Many of the larger mimosas had resisted
all their efforts; and indeed, it is only after heavy rains, when the soil is soft and loose, that they
can successfully attempt this operation."
Captain Harris gives us the following affecting incident, which took place the day after a suc-
cessful hunt: “Not an elephant was to be seen on the ground that was yesterday teeming with
them, but on reaching the glen which had been the scene of our exploits, a calf, about three and
a half feet high, walked forth from a bush, and saluted us with its mournful, piping notes. We
had observed the unhappy little wretch hovering about its mother after she fell, and, having prob-
ably been unable to overtake the herd, it had passed a dreary night in the wood. Entwining its
little proboscis about our legs, the sagacious creature, after demonstrating its delight in our arri-
val by a thousand ungainly antics, accompanied the party to the body of its dam, which, swollen
to an enormous size, was surrounded by an inquest of vultures. The conduct of the quaint little
calf now became quite affecting, and elicited the sympathy of every one. It ran round its mother's
corse with touching demonstrations of grief, piping sorrowfully, and vainly attempting to raise
her with its tiny trunk. At length, the miniature elephant, finding that its mother heeded not
its caresses, voluntarily followed our party to the wagons, where it was received with shouts of
welcome from the people, and a band of all sorts of melody from the cattle. It died, however, in
spite of every care, in the course of a few days, as did two others, much older, that we subse-
quently captured."
We have already alluded to the murderous slaughter of elephants in Africa by other hunters,
and especially by Cummings. All these seem to have been surpassed, however, by a Frenchman
named Delegorgue, who, with two negro attendants, met a herd consisting of eleven of these ani-
mals and killed every one of them. They fell so piled on one another as to constitute a strange,
grotesque heap, which, says the narrator, so excited the risible faculties of the party as moment-
arily to deprive them of strength. If man is the greatest of destroyers, he is also the only one
that laughs over his fallen prey, unless, indeed, it may be the hyena.
Fossil PROBOSCIDIANS.—The fossil remains of several species of Proboscidiens are found, many
of them in high northern latitudes, where no animals of this kind now exist. Bones and tusks
of elephants or mastodons occur throughout Russia, and more particularly in Eastern Siberia and
the arctic marshes. The tusks are very numerous, and in so high a state of preservation that
they form an article of commerce, and are employed in the same works as what may be termed
the living ivory of Asia and Africa, though the fossil trunks fetch an inferior price. Siberian
fossil ivory forms the principal material on which the Russian ivory-turner works. The tusks
most abound in the Laichovian Isles and on the shores of the Frozen Sea, and the best are found
in the countries near the arctic circle, and in the most eastern regions, where the soil in the very
short summer is thawed only at the surface; in some years not at all. In 1799 a Tungusian
named Schumachoff, who generally went to hunt and fish at the peninsula of Tamut after the
fishing season of the Lena was over, had constructed for his wife some cabins on the banks of the
Lake Oncoul, and had embarked to seek along the coasts for tusks, called horns by the people of
VOL. 1.-80

634
VERTEBRATA.
FOSSIL ANIMALS RESTORED: MAMMOTH, HIPPOPOTAMUS, CAVE BEARS, TIGERS, AND HYENAS.
that region. One day he saw among the blocks of ice a shapeless mass, but did not then discover
what it was.
In 1800 he perceived that this object was more disengaged from the ice, and that
it had two projecting parts, and toward the end of the summer of 1801 the entire side of the ani-
mal and one of his tusks were quite free from ice. The summer of 1802 was cold, but in 1803
part of the ice between the earth and the MAMMOTH, for such was the object, having melted more
rapidly than the rest, the plane of its support became inclined, and the enormous mass fell by its
own weight on a bank of sand. In March, 1804, Schumachoff came to his Mammoth, and having
cut off the tusks, exchanged them with a merchant by the name of Adams for goods of the value
of fifty rubles. For some years the flesh of this animal was cut off for dog-meat by the people
around, and bears, wolves, gluttons, and foxes fed upon it till the skeleton was nearly cleared of
its flesh. About three-fourths of the skin, which was of a reddish-gray color, and covered with
reddish wool and black hairs eight inches long, was saved, and such was its weight that it re-
quired ten persons to remove it; the bones of the head, with the tusks, weighed four hundred and
sixteen pounds. The skeleton was taken to St. Petersburg, where it may be seen still in the Mu-
seum of Natural History; twenty-six pounds of the hair, which was secured, can also be seen.
The height of the skeleton is nine and a half feet and the length of the body is sixteen feet. This
animal must have been twice the size of the existing elephant, and weighed at least twenty thou-
sand pounds!
This species has received the name of Elephas primigenius. Bones of this and many other ex-
tinct elephantine animals, forming several species, are met with in different parts of the world;
they are found associated with the huge bones of the Hippopotamus major, the Cave Bear, Ursus
Spelaus, the Cave Hyena, Canis Hyæna Spelaus, and an enormous tiger, Machairodus latidens,

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHY DERMATA. 635
విధానాల
SKELETON OF A MASTODON.
and a multitude of other animals of various species, which have now ceased to exist. In the
United States the bones of an animal resembling the mammoth, but in some respects different,
have been discovered in various places, mostly in alluvial deposits, and near the salt-licks of the
Western States. This species has received the name of MASTODON, Mastodon maximus. Several
skeletons of this, more or less perfect, exist in the United States. One of the largest and most
complete was found in 1845 near Newburg, Orange County, New York, and belonged to the late
Dr. John Warren, of Boston. The remains of about a dozen other extinct species of Mastodon
have been discovered.
THE RHINOCERIDÆ.
The animals of this family are covered with a hard, naked, rough skin, in some cases laid in
large folds, seeming like huge bucklers. The head is elongated and triangular, and from the
upper surface of the muzzle there springs a single or double horn, composed of a solid mass of
horny fibers resembling whalebone, supported upon a broad, bony protuberance of the nose. These
horns, which are powerful weapons of defense, and which are also sometimes used to tear away
tangled branches and obstructions, are of considerable size, measuring frequently two feet and a
half in length, and sometimes much more. They are of an elongated, conical form, and are usu-
ally more or less curved backward; but in the British Museum there are two horns which are
evidently curved in the opposite direction, and probably belonged to a species of which nothing
further is at present known. The same collection contains another horn, which is more slender
than usual, and curved backward almost in a semicircle, which probably was a mere peculiarity
of one individual. When two horns are present, they are placed one behind the other, and the
hinder one is much shorter than the anterior. Only two sorts of teeth, incisors and molars, are
found in the jaws, and of these the former sometimes fall out before the animal is full-grown.
The canines are entirely wanting. The molars are usually seven in number on each side of each
jaw; their surface exhibits projecting lunate ridges. The body is very bulky, and is supported
upon short, strong legs; the feet have three toes, which are only indicated externally by the
hoofs. The eyes are small; the ears small, pointed, and nearly erect; the thick and hard skin

636
VERTEBRATA.
in kommt dan M
ار
رد
qh
INDIAN RHINOCEROS.
has only a few hairs, which are stiff and bristly, and mostly confined to the edges of the ears and
the end of the tail.
These animals are found in the same regions of the Old World as those inhabited by the ele-
phants; they live like them in the forests, and feed exclusively upon coarse herbage and the leafy
twigs of trees and shrubs. They appear, as a general rule, to be peaceable animals, unless irri-
tated; in this case they charge with great fury upon their enemy, holding the head down, so as
to present the point of the horn toward him. They are generally hunted merely for the sake of
sport, but the natives of the countries inhabited by them kill them for the flesh; walking-sticks
of great beauty are cut out of their thick hides, and their horns are worked into boxes and

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA. 637
drinking-cups, to the latter of which the eastern nations attribute the power of indicating the
presence of poison in
any
fluid that may be put into them. Little more than twenty years ago
only four living species belonging to this family were known, but the number has since been in-
creased to seven, and Dr. Gray has very recently described the horns of what appear to be two
other species, distinct from any of those previously known.
Genus RHINOCEROS: Rhinoceros.—Of this, the only genus, there are several species. The
most celebrated is the INDIAN RHINOCEROS, R. unicornis of Linnæus, R. Indicus of F. Cuvier. Of
this the head and neck are rather short; the eye is small and lateral, and the animal cannot see
in front, more particularly when the horn is full-grown, as it stands in the way of vision. The
body is about nine feet long and five feet high; in its structure it is peculiarly massive, heavy,
and hog-like, and often weighs six thousand pounds. It has a single horn from two to three
feet long. The skin is of an earth-color, hard and thick, and often turns a musket bullet; its sur-
face is rough and mammillated, especially on the croup and down the fore-shoulders; its folds
are very distinct, and resemble plate armor. It is almost wholly destitute of hair, except at the
tip of the tail and on the margins of the ears. This species inhabits Hindostan, Siam, and Cochin
China; shady and marshy places in the neighborhood of rivers being its chosen haunts. It is
fond of wallowing in the mire somewhat in the manner of hogs. Its food consists of grass and
the branches of trees. The flesh is not unpalatable.
This powerful animal, living amid the tall, rank vegetation of the jungles of India, and especi-
ally along the marshy borders of the Ganges, the Burrampooter, and other great rivers, can only
be hunted with the aid of elephants. They are usually found in small herds of four to six, led on
by the most powerful among the troop. Their first instinct is to fly from such an attack, but if
hard pressed they rush upon the elephants and seek to thrust the nose beneath the belly and rip
them up by a fierce toss of the horn. The elephants, however, avoid this movement, and turning
the back, receive the shock in that quarter, usually with little damage. Often, however, the im-
petus of the rhinoceros precipitates the elephant in a headlong plunge to the ground, and finding
this to succeed, he will repeat the operation several times in succession. Formerly it was found
that the hide of the rhinoceros was impenetrable to ordinary musket-balls; they are now easily
brought down by larger and harder bullets.
The Indian Rhinoceros is that usually brought to Europe and America, and which we are
familiar with in the menageries; it is also that which is best known in history. The Romans
became acquainted with it toward the close of the republic, and Pompey introduced it into the
circus. It also figured in the triumphal procession of Augustus with Cleopatra—the beautiful
Queen of Egypt and the hoggish rhinoceros combining to swell the pomp of the victor! Repre-
sentations of this animal also appear on various coins of this period, and in the palestrian mo-
saics of Rome. In the fanciful tales of the Arabian Nights a curious passage tells us that the
rhinoceros fought with the elephant, pierced his belly with his horn, and carried him off on his
head; but the fat and the blood filled his eyes and rendered him entirely blind, so that he fell
prostrate on the earth. In this state of things a huge Roc came and carried them both off to his
young ones in his prodigious talons. It is curious to trace the threads of truth even in the wild-
est popular fiction: the manner of fighting here imputed to the rhinoceros is according to nature,
and as to the Roc—a bird as big as a village windmill—late discoveries have shown the bones of
extinct species twelve or fourteen feet high, the traditions of which may well have been wrought
into this gigantic feathered monster.
The JAVAN RHINOCEROS, R. Javanus, formerly confounded with the preceding, greatly resem-
bles it, and has but one horn; it is, however, somewhat smaller, rather more hairy, has a smaller
head, with a more sharpened muzzle, and the flexible lip, especially, being more attenuated. The
folds are less prominent, and around the neck are nearly obliterated; the tubercles of the skin
are smaller and more angular. It is called Warak by the Javanese and Badak by the Malays.
It is a native of Java.
The SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS, R. Sumatrensis, is even somewhat smaller than the preceding;
it has two horns, the first long and bent backward, the second, placed a little forward of the eyes,
smooth and pyramidal. The skin is less rough than in the preceding species, and the folds less

638
VERTEBRATA.
&
6
distinctly marked. It is a native of Sumatra, and though found from the sea-coast to the mount-
ains, seems to prefer high situations.
The AFRICAN RHINOCEROS or GARGATAN, R. bicornis, is of a pale yellowish-brown; the horns,
which are two, are of unequal length, and of a livid brown color, with tints of green; the few
hairs on the tip of the tail and the margins of the ears are black and bristly; the folds of the skin
are not so distinct as in the R. Indicus; the length is greater, ten to eleven, and even twelve feet.
This species is known to the colonists of the Cape under the name of Rhinaster; it feeds on brush-
wood and the branches of small trees, and is found only in wooded districts. It feeds slowly, is
a lazy animal, and subsists with a small amount of nourishment.
The KEITLOA RHINOCEROS, or Sloan's RHINOCEROS, R. Keitloa, is of a pale brownish-yellow,
with two horns nearly of equal length; length of the body and head eleven to twelve feet.
The Common WHITE RHINOCEROS, or Muchoco, or MoHoH00, or BURCHELL'S RHINOCEROS,
R. simus, is of a pale gray-brown, with a yellowish tinge; the edges of the ears and tip of the
tail clothed with black, bristly hairs; the mouth ox-like; the horns two, the anterior one very
long, the other very short; the body and head twelve feet long; the height five feet seven
inches There appears to be still another species, the KOBAOBA or LONG-HORNED WHITE RHI-
NOCEROS.
The four kinds immediately preceding are all found in Southern Africa, and all have two horns.
Thus we are acquainted with seven species of rhinoceros, and there is reason to believe there are
in Africa two or three others. It is in this quarter of the world that these animals appear most
abundant, and here they have been of late unsparingly pursued by the hunters. Cummings fur-
nishes the following information in respect to them :
“Of the rhinoceros there are four varieties in South Africa, distinguished by the Bechuanas by
the names of the • Borèle,' or black rhinoceros, the 'Keitloa,' or two-horned black rhinoceros, the
Muchoco, or common white rhinoceros, and the “Kobaoba,' or long-horned white rhinoceros.
Both varieties of the black rhinoceros are extremely fierce and dangerous, and rush headlong and
unprovoked at any object which attracts their attention. They never attain much fat, and their
flesh is tough, and not much esteemed by the Bechuanas. Their food consists almost entirely of
the thorny branches of the wait-a-bit thorns. Their horns are much shorter than those of the
other varieties, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in length. They are finely polished with con-
stant rubbing against the trees. The skull is remarkably formed, its most striking feature being
the tremendous, thick ossification in which it ends above the nostrils. It is on this mass that the
horn is supported. The horns are not connected with the skull, being attached merely by the
skin, and they may thus be separated from the head by means of a sharp knife. They are hard,
and perfectly solid throughout, and are a fine material for various articles, such as drinking-cups,
mallets for rifles, handles for turners' tools, &c., &c. The horn is capable of a very high polish.
The eyes of the rhinoceros are small and sparkling, but do not readily observe the hunter, pro-
vided he keep to leeward of them. The skin is extremely thick, and only to be penetrated by
bullets hardened with solder. During the day, the rhinoceros will be found lying asleep, or stand-
ing indolently in some retired part of the forest, or under the base of the mountains, sheltered
from the power of the sun by some friendly grove of umbrella-topped mimosas. In the evening
they commence their nightly ramble, and wander over a great extent of country. They usually
visit the fountains between the hours of nine and twelve o'clock at night, and it is on these occa-
sions that they may be most successfully hunted, and with the least danger. The black rhinoce-
ros is subject to paroxysms of unprovoked fury, often plowing up the ground for several yards
with its horn, and assaulting large bushes in the most violent manner. On these bushes they
work for hours with their horns, at the same time snorting and blowing loudly; nor do they
leave them in general until they have broken them into pieces. All the four varieties delight to
roll and wallow in mud, with which their rugged hides are generally encrusted. Both varieties
of the black rhinoceros are much smaller and more active than the white, and are so swift that a
horse with a rider on its back can rarely overtake them. The two varieties of the white rhinoc-
eros are so similar in habits that the description of one will serve for both, the principal difference
consisting in the length and set of the anterior horn; that of the common white rhinoceros aver-
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA.
039
HUNTING THE RHINOCEROS.
aging from two to three feet in length, and pointing backward, while the horn of the long-horned
white rhinoceros often exceeds four feet in length, and inclines forward from the nose.
“Both these varieties of rhinoceros attain an enormous size, being the animals next in magni-
tude to the elephant. They feed solely on grass, carry much fat, and their flesh is excellent,
being preferable to beef. They are of a much milder and more inoffensive disposition than the
black rhinoceros, rarely charging their pursuer. Their speed is very inferior to that of the other
varieties, and a person well mounted can overtake and shoot them.” The description of the
famous rhinoceros birds is very interesting:
- Before I could reach the proper distance to fire, several rhinoceros birds' by which he was
attended warned him of his impending danger by sticking their bills into his ear, and uttering
their harsh, grating cry. Thus aroused, he suddenly sprang to his feet, and crashed away through
the jungle at a rapid trot, and I saw no more of him..
“These rhinoceros birds are constant attendants upon the hippopotamus and the four varieties
of rhinoceros, their object being to feed upon the ticks and other parasitic insects that swarm
upon these animals. They are of a grayish color, and are nearly as large as a common thrush;
their voice is very similar to that of a mistletoe thrush. Many a time have these ever-watchful
birds disappointed me in my stalk, and tempted me to invoke an anathema upon their devoted
heads. They are the best friends the rhinoceros has, and rarely fail to awaken him, even in his
soundest nap. "Chukuroo' perfectly understands their warning, and, springing to his feet, he
generally first looks about him in every direction, after which he invariably makes off.”
Fossil RHINOCERID Æ.—The remains of several fossil species of rhinoceros, distinct from the
existing ones, have been found in Europe and Asia, but none in America or Australia. The fol-
lowing have been recorded : R. tichorinus, Cuv.; R. incisivus, Cuv.; R. leptorhinus, Cuv.; R.
minutus, Cuv.; R. elatus, Croiz. and Job.; R. pachyrhinus, Cuv.; R. hypselorhinus, Kaup.; R.
Goldfusii, Kaup.; R. leptodon, Kaup. The first and third of these species are British.

640
VERTEBRATA.
Grace
HIPPOPOTAMUS.
THE HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ.
Of this family there is a single genus, HIPPOPOTAMUS, hippopotamus, and a single species,
the AMPHIBIOUS HIPPOPOTAMUS, H. amphibius. Of this the muzzle is exceedingly thick and blunt,
the head is very large, but the greater part of its bulk is made up of the facial bones, which are
of enormous size when compared with the cranium. The lower jaw is of immense size and
power. Both jaws are armed with teeth of three different sorts, and some of these attain a large
size. The incisors are four in each jaw; they are of a cylindrical pointed form, the two middle
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHY DERMATA.
641
ones are much longer than the others, and those of the lower jaw project forward considerably.
The canines are very large in the lower jaw; they are always worn away at the point by rubbing
against one another. The molars are six or seven in number on each side, both above and below;
they are of a quadrangular form, and exhibit at first numerous triangular tubercles, which, when
worn down, leave peculiar isolated spots of enamel on the surface of the teeth. The whole form
and structure of this creature is heavy and unwieldy, even among the Pachydermata ; it is covered
with a very thick naked skin, which only bears a few bristles upon the lips and at the tip of the
very short tail. The general color is a leaden brown; the skin habitually secretes drops of cinna-
mon-colored sweat. The legs are short and stout, and the feet have four toes, each terminated
by a hoof. The eyes and ears are small.
The hippopotamus is exclusively an inhabitant of Africa, in many of the rivers of which con-
tinent it is tolerably abundant. It is a large animal, the males, according to some travelers,
attaining a length of fourteen or fifteen feet. It feeds entirely upon vegetable substances, crop-
ping the herbage and bushes on the banks of the rivers, and occasionally visiting the cultivated
grounds during the night, when it does great damage. It passes most of its time in the water,
where it swims and dives with great ease, and is said even to walk at the bottom. When the
head of the animal is below the water it rises frequently to blow it out from its nostrils, making
it ascend in two jets. On shore, it trots heavily, but with considerable rapidity, and when two
of them meet on solid ground they frequently fight ferociously, rearing up on their hind-feet,
and biting one another with great fury, so that, according to African travelers, it is rare to find a
hippopotamus which has not some of his teeth broken, or the scars of wounds upon his body.
When not irritated they appear to be quiet and inoffensive ; but a very trifling irritation is suf-
ficient to rouse their anger, when they attack the offender most furiously with their teeth ; a hip-
popotamus which had been touched accidentally by a boat has turned upon it and torn out several
of the planks, so that it was with difficulty the crew got to shore. A hippopotamus has also been
known to kill some cattle which were tied up near his haunts, apparently without the slightest
provocation.
The flesh of this unwieldy animal is said to be very good, and not unlike pork; it is in high
esteem with the inhabitants of South Africa, both native and European. The feet, the tongue,
and the tail are the favorite parts, and a thick layer of fat which covers the ribs is held in great
esteem when salted and dried. It is called Zeekoe-zpeck ; the name given to the hippopotamus
by the Dutch colonists being Zeekoe, or Sea-cow. The skin is cut into whips, which are highly
prized, and the large canine teeth are sometimes used instead of ivory. Specimens of the hippo-
potamus have been in the London Zoological Gardens and the Garden of Plants at Paris, and in
other collections.
In Harris's Sports of South Africa we have the following accurate account of the habits of the
hippopotamus : “This animal abounds in the Limpopo, dividing the empire with its amphibious
ncighbor the crocodile. Throughout the night the unwieldy monsters might be heard snorting
and blowing during their aquatic gambols, and we not unfrequently detected them in the act of
sallying from their reed-grown coverts, to graze by the serene light of the moon; never, however,
venturing to any distance from the river, the stronghold to which they betake themselves on the
smallest alarm. Occasionally, during the day, they were to be seen basking on the shore, amid
ooze and mud; but shots were most constantly to be had at their uncouth heads, when protruded
from the water to draw breath; and, if killed, the body rose to the surface. Vulnerable only
behind the ear, however, or the eye, which is placed in a prominence, so as to resemble the
garret window of a Dutch house, they require the perfection of rifle practice, and after a few
shots become exceedingly shy, exhibiting the snout only, and as instantly withdrawing it. The
flesh is delicious, resembling pork in flavor, and abounding in fat, which in the colony is deserv-
edly esteemed the greatest of delicacies. The hide is upward of an inch and a half in thickness,
and being scarcely flexible, may be dragged from the ribs in strips like the planks from a ship's
side."
Cumming says that the track of the hippopotamus may be distinguished from any other animal
by a line of unbroken herbage which is left between the marks of the feet of each side, as the
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642
VERTEBRATA.
width of the space between the right and left legs causes the animal to place its feet so consider-
ably apart as to make a distinct double track. This enterprising hunter had various adventures
with these huge animals. In one instance, as he tells us, he wounded a sea-cow in a river, where-
upon he rushed into the water, seized her by the tail, and cut a slit in the hide, upon the rump.
.
Holding on to this, he forced her to the bank. He then ran a rope through the slit, and moored
her fast to a tree, and then dispatched her.
It
may be remarked that the hippopotamus, as well indeed as the elephant and rhinoceros, is
fast disappearing in all the countries where it exists, before the incessant and destructive war
made upon it by fire-arms. It could resist, and for ages did resist, the rude and ineffective weap-
ons of savages and barbarians, living and multiplying in spite of them; but the species must
soon yield to the destructive propensity and power of civilized men.
BOLESC
THE TAPIR.
THE TAPIRID Æ.
In this family the nose is produced into a short proboscis, and the skin is covered with hair.
The skull is of a pyramidal form, somewhat like that of a pig; but the nasal bones are much
arched, to give support to the muscles of the proboscis. The jaws are fully furnished with teeth ;
there are six incisors and two small canines in each jaw; the upper jaw has seven and the lower
six molars on each side. The ears are small, upright, and of much the same form as in the pig ;
the neck is high, and furnished with a sort of stiff mane; the skin is clothed with short close
hair; the tail is very short; and the fore-feet are furnished with four and the hinder with three
toes, all distinctly separated, and terminated by nail-like hoofs. In their form these animals re-
semble both the horse and the ass; and thence are called by the natives wild mules, and sometimes
sea-horses. They live in the moist tropical forests, generally sleeping during the day in the
thickets, and wandering forth chiefly at night to feed on grass and other vegetable substances.
They are also fond of the water, and swim well.
Genus TAPIR: tapirus.—Of this, the only genus, there are several species. The best known
is the Common AMERICAN TAPIR, T. Americanus, which occurs in all parts of South America,
from the Isthmus of Panama almost to the southern extremity of that continent. It is a large
animal, measuring six feet in length, and is of a uniform brown color. It inhabits the forests,
always in the neighborhood of water, in which it delights to bathe, frequently rolling in the mud
In districts unfrequented by man it is said to move about in the daytime; but in
the neighborhood of human habitations it is more cautious, and rarely leaves its resting-place
like a pig

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA.
643
mon
Tam
WW/
ma
Ware
ma
THE DINOTHERIUM.
except at night. It frequently breaks into the cultivated grounds in large herds, when the
destruction caused by their devouring the melons and other fruits, as well as by the trampling of
so many heavy feet, is often very serious.
The second South American species, T. Roulini or T. villosus, is but little known; it differs from
the preceding in being smaller and nearly black, and having longer hair. It is found upon the
Andes of Colombia and Peru, at a considerable elevation, but sometimes mingles with the other
species. It is this which has given rise to a fabulous animal called Pinchaque, which figures in
the South American legends, as inhabiting the lofty mountain peaks of New Grenada.
The INDIAN TAPIR, T. Indicus or T. bicolor, the Maiba of F. Cuvier, is larger than either of
the American species, measuring seven or eight feet in length. It is remarkable for its color-
ing, the anterior portion and the legs being black, while all the hinder parts of the body are
white. In its habits it appears to resemble the other species. It has only been found hitherto
in Sumatra, Malacca, and Borneo; but from Chinese books and figures it is supposed that it also
exists in some part of China. It appears to have given rise to the popular Chinese superstition
as to the miraculous animal called Me, which is said to have the trunk of the elephant, the eyes
of the rhinoceros, and the feet of the tiger, and which gnaws fire and brass, and feeds on mon-
strous serpents.
Fossil TAPIRIDÆ.—Nearly allied to the tapirs, and intermediate between them and the swine,
is a remarkable group of fossil animals, the remains of which are found abundantly in the gypsum
,
beds of Paris. In the form of the skull they resembled the tapirs, and as the nasal bones are
strongly arched, they were doubtless furnished with a short proboscis. The structure of the
incisor and canine teeth is also the same as in the tapirs; but the molars were very different in
form. All the feet had three toes, which were nearly equal in length. These animals form the
genus Lophiodon, the Palæotherium of Cuvier; their size was sometimes small, but some of the
species were as large as a horse. The names assigned to some of these species are Listriodon,
Tapirulus, Coryphodon, &c.
Until recently the mammoth and the mastodon were supposed to be the largest of all the ter-
a

644
VERTEBRATA.
restrial mammalia that ever inhabited the earth ; but they must give place to the Dinotherium,
described by Cuvier as a gigantic tapir, but more recently by Professor Kaup, a distinguished Ger-
man naturalist, as a new genus between the tapir and the mastodon; and adapted to that lacus-
trine condition of the earth which seems to have been so common during the deposition of the
tertiary strata. Its remains have been found in tertiary strata in the south of France, in Austria,
Bavaria, and especially in Hesse Darmstadt. Its length must have been as much as eighteen feet.
One of its most remarkable peculiarities consisted in two enormous tusks at the interior extremity
of the lower jaw, which curved downward, like those of the walrus. Its general structure seems to
have been adapted to digging in the ground; and for this purpose its feet as well as tusks-pro-
jecting a foot or two beyond the jaws, which were four feet long—were intended. It lived prin-
cipally in the water, like the hippopotamus; and it probably used its tusks for tearing up the
roots of aquatic vegetables, which, as is shown by its teeth, constituted its food. Dr. Buckland
suggests also that these tusks might have been useful as an anchor fastened into the bank of a
river, while the body of the animal floated in the water and slept. They might have been useful
also to aid in dragging the body out of the water and for defense.
THE COMMON DOMESTIC SWINE.
THE SUID Æ OR SWINE.
In this family, of which the common hog may be taken as the type, the nose has considerable
power of motion, but it is not produced into a proboscis
, as in the elephant or even the tapir,
nor is it swelled into a blunt rounded mass as in the hippopotamus, but runs into a tapering
cylindrical form to the extremity, where it is suddenly truncated. The tip is of a fine cartilag-
inous nature, and is principally employed in turning up the earth in search of roots and other
articles of food. The skull is of a pyramidal form, but the nasal bones are not elevated as in the
tapirs; yet the facial bones are very large in comparison with the cranium. The jaws are fur-
nished with the three kinds of teeth while the animals are young, but the incisors are always
small, and in some cases fall out with increase of age. The canines, on the contrary, are always
of large size, especially in the males, in which they project from the sides of the mouth; those of
the lower jaw, from constantly rubbing against their fellows in the upper, are usually sharpened
to a most acute edge, and constitute formidable weapons. The molar teeth vary from three to
seven on each side in both jaws. The feet consist of four toes, of which the two middle ones are
considerably longer and stouter than their fellows, forming a cloven hoof, upon which the animals
walk; the two lateral toes are also furnished with hoofs, but they are placed at the back of the
foot at some little elevation from the ground. One of these hinder toes is wanting in some cases,
while monstrosities have occurred with five toes, and others with a single hoof. The eyes are

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHY DERMATA. 645
small, and the ears of moderate size, and upright. The form of the body resembles that of our
ordinary swine, but is lighter and less bulky in the wild species. The tail is rather short and
.
slender; in most cases it is capable of being twisted up into a sort of curl upon
the
rump.
The
skin is covered with bristles. Unlike the Pachydermata of the preceding families, which only
produce one or at the utmost two young at a birth, the swine are very prolific, bringing forth
frequently from eight to twelve young ones. The species are found in the warmer parts of both
continents, only one, the common hog, being found wild in the temperate parts of the Old World.
They live in the woods and forests, generally in marshy places, and feed partly upon roots and
herbage and partly upon animal substances, such as insects and their larvæ, small mammalia, and
even upon carrion. The females and young males live together in flocks, but the old boars are
usually solitary, except during the breeding season, which they pass in company with the females ;
and at this period they have tremendous combats among themselves.
Genus SUS: Sus.—Of this there are several species: the most important is that of the Wild
Boar, Sanglier of the French, Sus scrofa of Linnæus, of which all the breeds of Domestic Hogs
are varieties. This is indigenous to Europe, Asia, and Africa, and though much less abundant
than formerly, is still found in the wild and wooded districts of these quarters of the globe. They
are of a blackish-brown color, the young, called marcassins by the French, being faintly marked
with cross-stripes. The bristles along the spine are very coarse, and are erected when the
animals are excited, giving them a fierce appearance. All their senses are exceedingly acute.
They live in the deep forests, and feed on roots, fruits, herbs, and nuts of various kinds. They
pair in January and February, the boars at this period having terrific battles with each other.
When all the hostile encounters and other preliminaries are settled, each pair betake themselves
to the deep cover of a thicket, where they remain about thirty days. The period of gestation
is four months, and the litter consists of from four to ten pigs. When they are produced,
the female hides them very carefully from the male, as he would otherwise eat them up. In-
deed, when the season is severe, and provision is not easily obtained, the female does not scruple
to eat her own offspring. This sometimes happens in the case of the domestic sow, and Shak-
speare mentions, among the fitting subjects that go to the composition of a diabolical mess,
“Sow that hath her farrow eaten."
rope. The
The hunting of the wild boar was formerly the chosen amusement of the higher gentry of Eu-
power and fierceness of the animal rendered the chase hazardous, and this constituted
a fitting relish to the sport of a rude age. Nobles, princes, and even kings heretofore delighted
to take the field with the boar-spear and peril their persons in hunting this fierce animal. Nor
was the hunt the only object, for the flesh is excellent, even superior to that of the domestic ani-
mal. As history informs us, the huntsmen who pursued the wild boar had keen appetites for the
game. At the present day a boar-hunt is rare, though the animal exists in the marshes of Italy,
and even in parts of France, Spain, Germany, and Greece.
The DOMESTIC Hog, now distinguished by many varieties, is spread over nearly the whole
civilized world. In this country it is everywhere cultivated, and especially in the Western States.
Cincinnati* is the center of the pork market of that region; the number killed there annually
amounts to several millions. They roam in the woods, feeding on herbage and wild fruits and
nuts, till late in the autumn, when they are taken up and fatted on Indian corn. The breeds in use
are the Leicester, the Miami White, the Yorkshire White, and the Kenilworth, all large kinds,
attaining a weight of six hundred to eight hundred pounds when dressed. The Chinese or Siam
Hog, which Gervais considers a distinct species, is a small variety, but it is a great breeder, and
has been useful in improving other breeds by crossing. The Berkshire is an ancient English
breed, of a buff color, with large black spots and black feet; it is justly a favorite. The Bedford
is also much esteemed, and is extensively cultivated.
a
a
* According to the census of 1850, the number of hogs in the United States was about 30,000,000; it doubtless
greatly exceeds that number at the present time. It is said that the product of the swine market of Cincinnati alone,
in pork, bacon, lard-oil-now become one of the great staples of the West, being extensively used for machinery of
all kinds, as well as for other purposes, candles, soap, bristles, &c.—exceeds ten millions of dollars annually.

646
VERTEBRATA.
a
a
It is a fact in curious contrast to our times, that Moses interdicted the eating of swine's flesh,
and Mahomet, who was a servile and by no means discriminating imitator, followed his example
The ancient Jews, however, understood the flavor of pork, and frequently indulged in tasting it,
for
many
of the most bitter denunciations of the prophets are leveled against this transgression,
which, it is evident, was very common. In the time of our Saviour hogs were familiar objects,
though, as we are told in one conspicuous instance, a drove of them were given up to devils and ran
into the sea. In our day, the hog contributes almost as largely as any other animal to the feeding
of mankind; its flesh is the most nutritious of animal food, pound for pound; it is easily kept
and easily fattened. Its utility to the poor especially is forcibly put by an English writer in the
following terms:
“An Irish laborer and his family, who érint a quarther of a cellar or a garret in some squalid
den in the British metropolis, often have a pig in their fraction of an apartment, which eats of the
same potatoes, reposes on the same straw, and is in fact, to all intents and purposes, a member of
the family, not merely tolerated, but loved and loving; for though hogs are sullen and stubborn
animals when one attempts to lead them captive, and require to be pulled backward in order that
they may be impelled forward, yet they are susceptible to kindly treatment, and a hog may not
only be taught to follow its master, but there have been instances of training them to point at
game like dogs, and there is not a country fair in England where the powers of "Toby the wise
pig,' in the mysteries of divination, are not the marvel of the rustics.
" It is not, however, for the purpose of playing the pointer, or astonishing the natives with the
wisdom of Tobias, that the pig is kept with so much care in the cantonment of the cellar or the
garret. It tells a tale of the great and paramount value of the pig to the poor man, and a tale
of Ireland—a tale of most monstrous and most heart-rending injustice on the part of somebody-
but with the latter we have no concern. The tale of the pig is, that without it the poor man in
Ireland could not keep the tenancy of the mud cottage reared by his own hands on the margin
of the health-invading bog, that the pig finds the annual impost which the man must pay for
being in that state of “glorious independence,' in which no wind can blow upon him with a more
bitter blast, and no contingency of events can despoil him of a single comfort.
“Now, if the hog is thus, as the case of millions has proved, a sheet-anchor by which man can
ride out the topmost bent of misery's tempest, how well may it serve those who can have it all to
themselves! This of itself gives a popular interest to the animal far above that which is possessed
by the veriest marvel in mere natural history. Nay, there is more depth of pathos and force of
moral and social instruction in a single hog, circumstanced as we have mentioned, than in all the
formal zoological collections on the face of the earth."*
In our country the hog is not thus a matter of stern necessity, but it is still difficult to con-
ceive how the southern and south western plantations, the laborers of which are largely fed on
bacon, could be sustained without this animal. What would the epicure do without hams-
Westphalian, Virginia, Sugar-cured—and what are quite as good, the hams salted and packed in
the good old homespun way by the farmers of New England ? What would the country tavern
do, in that long lent of summer which besets it, during which fresh beef and mutton and veal are
unknown to the larder, without that universal stand-by, fried ham and eggs? What would become
of us all if we were to adopt the law of Moses and eschew hogs' lard—that magic spell of the
kitchen, which imparts such a relish to fish, flesh, and fowl? A celebrated French cook has au-
thoritatively pronounced the hog to be the “Prince of the Kitchen," and philosophers of note tell us
that this animal was the very first that man domesticated and killed for his use. A keen satirist,
profoundly versed in human nature, in a fable upon the origin of cruelty, represents man in a
state of perfect innocence, and with hands all unstained by the blood of a single living creature,
ranging the wild woods, contending with monkeys and macaws for “fruits in their seasons,” and
with the wild hogs for fern and other roots, when no fruit was to be found. Whether the rival-
ship occasioned any jealousy of the hog, and beech-mast had any influence in making man more
cruel and carnivorous, is not said, though it is not impossible, and would add to the truth of the
a
* British Cyclopedia of Natural History.

re
tu
99
WILD HOGS.


CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHYDERMATA.
: .
647
application and the force of the moral. But upon one day of more than ordinary appetite, man
eyed with complacence the sleek rotundity of a fat hog, and the longer he gazed the more ardent
waxed his desire of making a mess of the unsuspecting animal. Invention—for the author did
not call in the aid of the devil to bear the burden of the crime, if crime it was—set about finding
the means of making a meal of the hog. The bow was made and strung, the arrow was pointed;
the bow was bent, the arrow set on the string—and,
“He twangs the bow, the hissing arrow flies,
And darkness seals the gentle porker's eyes.”
Once tasting the luscious flesh of the hog, man could no longer be contented with the beech-mast
and the acorns, but soon began to “kill and eat” the whole of living nature around him. Nor
was he content till he had numbered the flesh of his own race among the dainties of his board.
As he became more refined, the disposition to eat his fellow-men became weaker; but the killing
propensity has continued, and the slaughter of mankind, so that it is carried on upon a scale of
sufficient grandeur, is above all others the work for which man is especially “covered with glory."
Charles Lamb pays quite as great a compliment to pork, and more especially to roast pig, in
his ingenious and humorous account of the manner in which this delicious viand was first discov-
ered. He represents a Chinese youth, by the name of Bobo, as perceiving a most exciting odor
issuing from the blazing ruins of his father's cottage. This he finds to proceed from one of
the pigs, a whole litter of which had been roasted in the conflagration. Strongly tempted, he
ventured to taste, and was entranced at the result. He now devoured all the rest of the roasted
pigs, and finally set fire to a great number of cottages, so as to enjoy the repast of the young
porkers baked in the blaze. At last his father discovered the secret, and ere long it was commu-
nicated to the world, and thus for ages mankind have enjoyed the most delicious of viands-roast
pig.
The BENE, Sus Papuensis, is very small, being but three feet long when full-grown, and is of a
delicate and graceful form. The bristles are thick and short, yellowish-brown above, and white
annulated with black below. It is found wild in the forests of New Guinea; the Papuans prize
its flesh highly; they kill it for food and catch the young ones, which they reduce to partial do-
mestication. It seems to be intermediate between the peccary and the true hog.
THE GUINEA HOG.
The Guinea Hog or Bosch-Vark, Sus Guineensis or Choiropotamus pictus, is found in Guinea,
and is so fond of the water as to be called The River Pig. It is of the size of a common hog; has
long, narrow, straight ears, with a pencil of hair at the tips. It is of a lively cinnamon-red, with
white patches above and below the eyes, and with longitudinal bands of white on the back. The
a

648
VERTEBRATA.
face is partly black, and the tail is long, reaching below the knee. Specimens of this kind are in
the menageries of London and Paris. The name Choiropotamus having been applied to an extinct
species, that of Potamochoerus has recently been given to this species by Gray.
The MASKED BOAR, S. larvatus of F. Cuvier, S. Africanus of Schreber, has tusks like the com-
inon hog, but on each side of the muzzle, near the tusks, is a large tubercle, supported by a bony
prominence, which imparts a singular physiognomy to the animal. It inhabits Madagascar and
the south of Africa
CVR
THE BABIRUSSA.
The BABIRUSSA, S. babirussa, has rather slender, long legs, and is of a grayish color above,
with a tint of fawn below. The upper tusks come through the skin of the muzzle and turn cir
cularly backward, the points sometimes reaching the skin again in their downward progress.
These are useful only for warding off the bushes; the lower tusks, which are long and turn back-
ward, are powerful weapons of defense and offense. This species is found in the island of Borneo,
as well as some other islands of the Indian Archipelago.
Genus PHACOCHERUS: Phacochorus.—This includes two species called WART-Hogs,
which have some resemblance of form to the hippopotamus. They are more exclusively herb-
ivorous than the true hogs; they have enormous heads, broad snouts, and large tusks directed
upward. The feet and legs are like the true hogs.
The HARAJA or HALLUP, or ÆLIAN'S WART-HOG, P. Æliani, is a native of North Africa,
Kordofan, and Abyssinia. The skin is of an earthy color and scantily bristled ; a mane of thin
hairs, ten inches long, extends along the neck and between the ears. The eyes are small; the
tail is nearly bare, thin, and tufted at the end. There are two skinny warts, one small and the
other large, on each cheek. Hence the popular name of the animal.
The CAPE WART-HOG, BLACK BARK, VALKE-VARK, or EMGALLO, P. Æthiopicus, resembles
the preceding, but the warts are larger, and the head still more uncouth in its form. Specimens
of this have been in the Zoological Gardens of Antwerp and London.
Genus DICOTYLES: Dicotyles. This includes the only indigenous kinds of swine of Amer-
ica, the common hog having been unknown on this continent until it was introduced by Europe-
The peccaries have the canines in the ordinary manner, and not protruding from the mouth
in the form of tusks; the incisors and molars are similar to those of the common hog; two great
peculiarities of the genus are a glandular opening on the loins, secreting a fetid humor, and an
entire destitution of tail. There are two species. Both resemble the common hog in their form,
structure, habits, and propensities. Their gait is almost precisely similar; they root in the earth
ans.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHY DERMATA.
649
THE CAPE WART-HOG.
after the same fashion; eat and drink in the same swinish manner; are fond of the same descrip-
tion of food—roots and fruits, with fish and serpents when they are met with ; they elevate their
long bristles like the hog when terrified or angry; breathe with the same violent effort; and ex-
press their feelings with the same peculiar grunt. When taken young they readily become habit-
uated to the society of man, take as much delight as our pigs in being scratched and rubbed, and
are speedily reduced to a state of complete subservience. They are not, however, likely ever to
become so useful in the farm-yard, for—not to speak of their fetid gland, which is very offensive,
THE COLLARED PECCARY.
and is said to communicate a very disagreeable savor to their flesh if not removed immediately
after death-the flesh itself is decidedly inferior to pork both in flavor and fatness, and they are
far less prolific than the hog, the female producing but once a year and two at a birth. They
are more or less common in Mexico and South America, inhabiting the thickest and most exten-
VOL. I.-82

650
VERTEBRATA.
SHOOTING PECCARIES IN SOUTH AMERICA.
sive forests, and dwelling in the hollows of trees or the deserted burrows of other animals. When
living in the vicinity of towns and villages, which, however, is rare, they do great mischief among
,
the fields of Indian corn, sugar-cane, manihot, and potatoes.
The COLLARED PECCARY, D. torquatus, is the Patira of Sonnini and the Taytetou of Azara.
It is rather less than three feet long and seldom weighs over fifty pounds. Its general color is a
yellowish-gray; a whitish line runs down the shoulder obliquely toward the neck resembling a
collar, thus giving its distinctive name. This species lives in pairs or small families, usually con-
tinuing to inhabit the same forests in which it was born. Its odor is so strong as to infect the air
through which the herds pass, and hence the hunters are able to trace them by their scent.
The WHITE-LIPPED PECCARY—the proper Peccary of South America, the Tagnicati of Azara-
D. labiatus, is larger than the preceding; it is also of a thicker and stouter form, with shorter
legs and a longer snout. The color is a blackish-gray; the under lip, sides of the mouth, and
upper surface of the nosc, white. The young are faintly striped. This species lives in large
bands, sometimes amounting to a thousand, and stretching out for a league, migrates from one dis-
trict to another. If they come across a plantation they devastate it by rooting up
when they meet any thing unusual they are thrown into great alarm, which they express by a
clatter of the teeth. If a hunter ventures to attack one of these herds, he is sure to be torn in
pieces by the infuriated throng, unless he take to a tree or escape by flight. When excited by
rage
their
eyes flash, they rub their snouts together, erect their bristles, and fill the air with their
cries. This species is said to have a less offensive smell than the preceding.
its crops;

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 11. PACHY DERMATA.
651
THE SYRIAN DAMAN.
THE HYRACID Æ.
The animals of this family, called DAMANS, are about the size of a hare, and on account of their
general appearance have been regarded as belonging to the Rodentia, but their dentition and
osseous structure place them clearly among the Pachydermata, and between the rhinoceros and
tapir. There is but the single genus, DAMAN or HYRAX, hyrax; of this there are several
species.
The SYRIAN HYRAX or DAMAN, Hyrax Syriacus, is a foot long, of a brownish gray color above
and white below. The skin without the hair is of a blackish violet. It is gregarious, lives in
caves, and is a mild, timid, and feeble creature. It delights to gather by dozens around its
dwellings and bask in the sun. It is found in Syria, Mount Sinai, and Abyssinia, and is supposed
to be identical with the Ashkoko of Bruce. There is little doubt that it is the Saphan or Shaphan
of Scripture, translated coney, in Proverbs xxx. 26 : “The conies are but a feeble folk, yet make
,
they their houses in the rock."
The KLIPDAS, H, Capensis, is found at the Cape of Good Hope, inhabiting the hollows and
crevices of rocks. It feeds on herbs, grass, tops of flowers, and young shoots, particularly of aro-
matic plants. It lives in families on the rocky slopes of hills and mountains, sometimes near the
sea; it is shy and wild, and when abroad keeps an old member of the flock on the look-out as a
sentinel; when he sees any thing dangerous he gives the alarm by a shrill cry. It is very
clean
and neat in its habits. The flesh resembles that of the rabbit.
Another species, the TREE-DAMAN, H. arboreus, is found in Western and Southern Africa, and
in Mozambique. It is of the size of a large rabbit. Specimens of the three preceding species
have been in the London Zoological Gardens.
Two other species are mentioned, the DONGOLA DAMAN, H. ruficeps, and the EIWIA OF
FOREST DAMAN, H. sylvestris.

652
VERTEBRATA.
DOT
wy? Freeman
THE GREENLAND WHALE.
ORDER 12.-CETACEA.
We have hitherto been occupied upon the land, or if sometimes led into the water, it has been
only in rivers and lakes or along the shores of the sea, and then but casually; we now enter the
sea as the permanent abode of the animals whose characters we have to study. This order, the
CETACEA, which includes the numerous species of Whales and a multitude of allied animals, is

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 12. CETACEA.
653
distinguished by the fish-like form of its members, which are thus adapted for passing their exist-
ence in the water. They are generally very bulky creatures, the head being often of an enor-
mous size; the body tapers off posteriorly, and is terminated by a broad tail-fin, which, like
that of the fishes, is the principal agent in swimming, but is set on in the contrary direction, being
horizontal instead of perpendicular. This caudal fin is supported upon a firm cartilaginous basis,
but has no trace of rays or bones. The anterior limbs are converted into powerful fins, com-
pletely inclosed in a uniform skin; but beneath this we find the usual bones of which the arm
of a vertebrated animal is composed, although considerably shortened. In some instances the
phalanges are very numerous, but the fingers rarely exhibit any traces of nails. The posterior
limbs are entirely wanting.
The head is not separated from the body by a neck, although the cervical vertebræ are dis-
tinctly marked in the skeleton; the great bulk of the head is made up of the facial bones, the
cranial portion being often very small. The nostrils are sometimes, as in other vertebrated ani-
mals, placed on the fore part of the nose; but in the typical forms, these orifices are brought quite
to the top of the head, constituting what are called the blow-holes of the whale. The external ear
is entirely wanting, and the mode in which the auditory of the organs of the Cetacea are adapted
for the perception of sounds, both in the water and in the air, is very interesting. The external
aperture of the ear is exceedingly small, so as to prevent any injury to the organ from the rush
of water when the creature is progressing rapidly through that element, although it apparently
allows of sufficient access of water for the communication of any sounds that may be transmitted
by its means. The air penetrates into the ear through the Eustachian tube, which is of large
size, and opens into the blow-hole; and thus, when the whale is at the surface of the water and
breathing, aerial sounds can find their way into the ear.
into the ear. The eye is of very small size when
compared with the bulk of the animal, and, from the immense development of the facial bones,
it often appears to be placed nearly in the middle of the body.
The skin is naked, or only sparingly covered with scattered bristles; but to make up for the
want of the ordinary clothing of the Mammalia, the whole surface of the body beneath the skin
is covered with a thick coating of fat, or blubber as it is termed, which forms a most efficient agent
in preserving the temperature of the body, at the same time that it reduces its specific gravity.
It is this blubber, which is often present in enormous quantity, that forms the principal object for
which these creatures are pursued. The Cetacea are all inhabitants of the sea. They are divisi-
ble into two very distinct groups, the CETE, which include the Whales, Narwhals, Porpoises,
Dolphins, &c.; and the SIRENIA, which include the Manatee, Dugong, &c. The great distinction
between these two groups or sub-orders is, that the former lives on animal food, and the latter is
herbivorous,
THE CETE.
The animals of this division were anciently regarded as fishes, but they are true members
of the class Mammalia. Some of them are the largest of known animals. They have a large
head, forming nearly one-half the body; the mouth is wide and armed with conical teeth,
except in one family, the Balænide; the mammæ are two, and placed on the belly; the nostrils,
sometimes two and sometimes one, are on the top of the head. These do not serve as organs of
smell, but only as respiratory openings, through which the water, taken in while the animal is
beneath the surface, is ejected. Though living on animal food, the stomach is complex, consist-
ing of four apartments, and sometimes of as many as seven; the skin is naked. These animals
have no voice; the period of gestation is nine or ten months; they produce the young alive, and
suckle them for a considerable period; they are sociable creatures, and live in large shoals, often
sporting on the surface of the water. They are most abundant in the Arctic and Antartic Seas.
The Cete are divided into three families, the Whalebone Whales, the Sperm Whales, and the
Dolphins.
THE WHALEBONE WHALES OR BALÆNIDÆ.
In these, which constitute the true whales, the upper teeth are deficient, but in their place there
are several longitudinal rows of horny plates called Baleen or Whalebone, set cross-wise, and

654
VERTEBRATA.
at once.
hanging down from each upper jaw into the cavity of the mouth below, which, to make place for
them, is also destitute of teeth. When the mouth is shut these plates are inclosed on the outside
by the upper lip, and the tongue lies between the two rows. These plates, which are fastened
at their base in the roof of the mouth, are hardly more than one-fourth of an inch apart, and
their inner edges are fringed. This curious device is admirably suited to the wants of the ani-
mal; it lives on small marine crustacea and mollusca, and is said never to take in any thing larger
than a herring. Indeed, its throat is so small that it cannot swallow larger objects. It swims along
in the water where myriads of these minute animals are moving and ingulfs a whole shoal of them
The water is strained off, as by a sieve, through the spaces between the baleen, and is
discharged at the sides of the mouth, or through the blow-holes, but all the animals, even the
minutest, remain in the mouth. Thus, by this capacious net, the whale is enabled to make a meal
suited to his enormous bulk, though his prey consists of creatures often not larger than insects !
Of this family there are several genera. The first is the BALÆNA: Balæna. This includes
several species, the most important of which is the Right WHALE or GREENLAND WHALE, B.
mysticetus, the B. Greenlandica of Linnæus. This has long been an object of pursuit by the whalers,
and a large fleet of vessels from Europe, mostly English, with many from America, are annually
dispatched to the north seas for its capture. The largest are near seventy feet long. The tail
of a large whale measures about twenty or twenty-five feet in breadth and five or six feet in
length; by the action of this powerful instrument it can dash off with immense velocity when
wounded or alarmed, and sometimes with a single blow from it, completely shatters the boat of
its pursuers. Its pace at ordinary times is about four miles an hour, and it appears rarely to swim
at any great depth in the water. At times, for amusement, these enormous creatures will spring
completely out of the water, and another of their diversions consists in immersing the whole body
perpendicularly and flapping their immense tails on the surface of the water, so as to produce a
sound that may be heard at a distance of two or three miles. They hear acutely any noise under
the water, but disregard sounds made in the air. They seldom remain on the surface to blow
more than two minutes, during which period they blow eight or ten times; they then dive for ten
or fifteen minutes, when they rise again.
The Greenland Whale is found in most parts of the Arctic seas, but its exact limits are not
known, as it has probably often been confounded with the other species of Balæna. It is gener-
ally met with alone or in pairs, excepting when many individuals are attracted to some abundant
feeding-ground or to a desired locality, such as the vicinity of icebergs. The fishery is principally
carried on in Baffin's Bay, and by the English, who are calculated to have a capital of at least a
million sterling embarked in it. The ships reach their stations about the end of April, and im-
mediately begin looking out for whales. As soon as one of these creatures is perceived from the
mast-head, the boats, of which each ship carries six or seven, are lowered and manned for the pur-
suit. When one of them arrives sufficiently close to the enormous animal, the harpooner, who
stands at the head of the boat, plunges his weapon into its body, and the rowers immediately
back out of harm's way. The whale suddenly dives down with such velocity that, when he has
taken a perpendicular direction, he has been known to fracture the bones of his head against the
bottom at a depth of eight hundred yards; but more commonly he makes off for the shelter of
an ice-field, dragging out with him the line to which the harpoon is fastened, and this passes so
rapidly over the edge of the boat that it is necessary to keep it constantly wet to prevent its
taking fire. The lines are usually about four thousand feet in length, but the whale often takes
out three or four times this length of line. The wounded whale usually remains under water for
about half an hour, but sometimes much longer, and an instance is recorded in which the crea-
ture was an hour and a half before coming up to breathe. On his reappearance he is again at-
tacked with harpoons and spears, by which he is soon dispatched, the destruction of one of these
monsters of the deep rarely taking more than an hour. The body is then towed to the ship’s
side, where the process of flensing, or cutting off the blubber and removing the baleen, is performed,
and when this is completed, the carcass is left to the tender mercies of the white bears, water-
fowl, and sharks.
The blubber covers the surface of the whale to a thickness of from eight or ten to twenty

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 12. CETACEA.
655
a
inches, and that of a large whale will weigh about thirty tons, furnishing from twenty to twenty-
five tuns of oil. Whales have been taken which gave thirty tuns of oil. The whalebone or baleen
is also an important part. The longest laminæ in a large whale usually measure about fourteen
feet in length, but the greater part are shorter : the width of each plate is 12 to 15 inches. The
whole quantity obtained from one animal weighs sometimes as much as three thousand pounds.
The number of plates is usually about three hundred in each of the outer rows, but large individ-
uals have been found with four hundred in each row.
To the Esquimaux and the Greenlander this species is all important. They eat the flesh and fat
with indescribable relish. The membranes of the abdomen serve them for clothing, and the thin,
transparent peritoneum admits light through the windows of their huts while it keeps out the
weather. The bones are made into props for their tents, or aid in the formation of their boats,
and supply them with harpoons and spears for the capture of the seal and larger sea-birds.
The sinews, divided into filaments, are used as thread for sewing their dress, &c. Some have
stated that pickled and boiled blubber is palatable, and that the tail, first parboiled and then fried,
is agreeable eating. The flesh of the young whale is said to be by no means indifferent food.
To civilized nations the oil made from the fat or blubber and the whalebone have long made the
whale a great commercial object.
The affection of the female for her offspring is great. The young whale, when just born, meas-
ures from ten to fourteen feet in length, and for a twelvemonth or more after its birth it remains
in close attendance upon its mother. It furnishes but little oil, and the whalers, therefore, do not
care to take it for its own sake; but as it is easily harpooned, it is frequently struck in order to
attract the mother to its assistance. Mr. Scoresby gives an interesting account of the devotion
of the parent to its young under these circumstances. He says: “In June, 1811, one of my har-
pooners struck a sucker, with the hope of its leading to the capture of the mother. Presently
she arose close by the fast-boat,' and, seizing the young one, dragged about a hundred fathoms
of line out of the boat with remarkable force and velocity. Again she arose to the surface, darted
furiously to and fro, frequently stopped short, or changed her direction, and gave every possible
intimation of extreme agony. For a length of time she continued thus to act, though closely pur-
sued by the boats, and, inspired with courage and resolution by her concern for her offspring,
seemed regardless of the danger which surrounded her. At length, one of the boats approached
so near that a harpoon was hove at her. It hit, but did not attach itself. A second harpoon was
struck; this also failed to penetrate; but a third was more effectual, and held. Still she did not
attempt to escape, but allowed other boats to approach, so that in a few minutes three more har-
poons were fastened, and in the course of an hour afterward she was killed."
The Nord Kapper or Nord Caper and the Rock-nosed Whale are varieties of the preceding.
The WESTERN AUSTRALIAN WHALE, B. marginata, has very long and slender baleen, with a
rather broad, black edge on the outer or straight side. From the character of the baleen Dr.
Gray considers this a distinct species.
The CAPE WHALE, B. Australis, is the Right Whale of South Sea whalers; the Southern
Whalebone Whale of Nunn; the Common Black Whale of Sir James Ross. It inhabits the
South Seas, and is of a uniform black color. It is of large size, and great numbers of it are taken
near New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope.
The JAPAN WHALE, B. Japonica, is an inhabitant of the coasts of Japan, which it visits period-
ically. Its head is covered with barnacles.
The NEW ZEALAND WHALE, B. antarctica, is the Tuku Peru of the natives.
The SCRAG-WHALE, B. gibbosa, is regarded as a species by Dr. J. E. Gray. It is an inhabitant
of the Atlantic Ocean, and is near akin to the Finback, but instead of a fin upon its back, the ridge
of the after part of its back is scragged with half a dozen knobs or knuckles.
The remaining genera of the Balænidæ have either fins or humps on their backs, and are
called Hump-backs and Finners.
The Genus MEGAPTERA : Megaptera, includes the Hump-backed Whales. They are easily
known from the Finners in being shorter and more robust, the skull nearly one-fourth the entire
length, the head wider between the eyes, the mouth larger, the lip warty, and the nose large and
a

656
VERTEBRATA.
rounded; the plaits of the belly and throat are broad. The skull is intermediate between that
of the Balona and Balænoptera.
Johnston's HUMP-BACKED WHALE, M. longimana, is an inhabitant of the North Sea, and has
been taken at the mouth of the Maas. It is the Balæna longimana of Rudolphi, and the Balæna
Boops or Keporkak of Eschricht, who says it is the most common whale in the Greenland seas.
The BERMUDA HUMP-BACK, M. Americana, is of a black color, with a white belly, and has its
head covered with tubercles. It is found at Bermuda from March to the end of May, when it
departs. The baleen of this whale is extensively imported from Bermuda.
The POESKOP or CAPE HUMP-BACK, M. Poeskop, is the Rorqual du Cap of Cuvier, and the
Hump-backed Whale of Ross's “Antarctic Voyage.” It is an inhabitant of the seas of the Cape
of Good Hope.
The KUZIRA, M. Kuzira, inhabits the Japanese seas.
Genus BALÆNOPTERA : balænoptera, includes the Finners, which are marked by a soft
dorsal fin. Of this a well-known species called the PIKE-WHALE, B. rostrata ; the Rorqualus
rostratus of Dekay; the Rorqualus Boops of F. Cuvier. It is of a black color; underneath
of a reddish-white. It inhabits the North Sea, and has been found in New York Bay, at Valognes
in France, and a specimen was taken in the Thames at Deptford.
The Razor-Back, Physalus Antiquorum, is of a slate-gray color, whitish beneath ; the baleen
is slate-colored. This species is an inhabitant of the North Sea, and is sometimes found a
hundred feet long, being in fact the longest species of known animals. One of this kind was found
floating in Plymouth Sound, England, on the 2d of October, 1831. It is stated to have been one
hundred and two feet long and seventy-five in circumference. This specimen was taken round
the country as a show in three caravans.
The P. (Rorqualus) Boops of Gray has been taken off the coast of Wales. The length of a
specimen in the British Museum is thirty-eight feet; the head is nine feet long; the vertebræ
are sixty in number, and there are fifteen pairs of single ribs.
The P. (Rorqualus) Sibbaldii. A specimen of this species, fifty feet long, exists in the mu-
seum at Hull, England.
The PERUVIAN FINNER, P. fasciatus, described by Tschudi, has been found on the coasts of Peru.
The JAPAN FINNER, P. Iwasi, is very rare; one was cast ashore at Kii in 1760; it was twenty-
five feet long.
The P. antarcticus ; this is named from the baleen of a New Zealand species by Dr.J. E. Gray.
The Bahia FINNER, P. Brasiliensis, is named from baleen brought from Bahia.
The SOUTHERN FINNER, P. Australis, inhabits the seas of the Falkland Islands.
THE CATODONTIDÆ OR SPERM-WHALES.
This family, called Toothed Whales, are distinguished from the true whales by the absence of
baleen plates, and the presence of from forty to fifty conical teeth in the lower jaw. This is
shorter and narrower than the upper jaw, so that when the mouth is closed it is completely in-
closed by the upper jaw. The teeth fit into cavities of the upper jaw, which although not quite
destitute of teeth, possesses these organs in a very rudimentary condition, and concealed in the
gums. The head, as in the true whales, is of enormous size, forming about one-third of the entire
length of the animal, and its form is very remarkable. It is nearly cylindrical, and singu-
larly truncated in front, and the blow-hole, instead of being placed on the forehead, is situated on
the anterior portion of this immense snout. The mass of this part of the head is not composed
of bone, but of a sort of cartilaginous envelope, containing an oily fluid, which hardens by expo-
sure to the air, and in this state is well known as spermaceti. This substance is also diffused
through the blubber.
The Genus CATODON, Catodon, includes the only well known species—the SPERM-WHALE, or
SPERMACETI WHALE, or BLUNT-HEADED CACHALOT, C. macrocephalus, the Physeter macrocephalus
of Linnæus. Its color is black above and white below. It is very generally distributed in all
seas, but principally in those of the southern hemisphere. The male is of immense bulk, usually
measuring about sixty feet in length; and specimens have been met with no less than seventy-

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 12. CETACEA.
657
SNORRI
THE SPERM-WHALE.
six feet long, and thirty-eight in circumference. The females are much smaller, usually measur-
ing from thirty to thirty-five feet in length.
They inhabit deep water, and very rarely approach the land. Their food consists principally
of cuttle-fishes, which swarm in great profusion in the southern seas. They usually swim in
flocks, called schools and pods by the whalers, consisting of from twenty to fifty females and
their young, accompanied by one or two old males, to which the seamen give the name of bulls.
They are taken in great numbers, as the oil obtained from their blubber is the finest of the animal
oils, and is much used for burning in lamps, and the oily matter from the head-spermaceti—is
also of great value, both as an ointment and for the manufacture of candles. Another substance
of still greater value, obtained from the sperm-whale, is the well-known perfume called Amber-
gris. This is a morbid concretion formed in the intestine of the sperm-whale, either in the
stomach, or more probably in the gall-ducts, as in its nature it appears to resemble a gall-stone.
It forms masses of considerable size, sometimes as much as thirty or forty pounds in weight; and
is usually found floating upon the surface of the water, probably disengaged from the decomposing
body of one of these monsters. The whalers rarely seek for it in the intestines of the sperm-
whales which they kill, although its value is about five dollars an ounce. It has the singular
property of increasing the power of other perfumes when mixed with them, and it is for this pur-
pose that it is principally employed.
Valuable as these creatures are, their pursuit is attended with danger in fully equal proportion.
,
.
They are harpooned from boats in the same way as the true whales, and, like these, frequently
use their tails as most formidable offensive weapons, but in this case the other members of the
fock will often come to the assistance of their wounded comrade, and thus add greatly to the peril
of the boatmen. There are cases on record of men being struck out of the boats and killed by
the powerful tails of these creatures; and in other instances the whales have been known to rush
against the ships with such violence as to spring leaks, which have caused them to sink within a
few hours. The ship Essex, of Nantucket, was struck in this way, and three of the men only were
saved after rowing several weeks in open boats. The Americans, who take a leading part in the
whale fisheries throughout the world,* are particularly successful in capturing the sperm-whale,
which they pursue in various parts of the Pacific Ocean.
* New Bedford, in Massachusetts, is the center of the American whale fisheries, which employ together, about
seven hundred sail of vessels, of two hundred thousand tons, and fifteen thousand men. Whales are captured by
them on the American coasts, the coasts of Africa, in the Arctic Seas, and in the Pacific Ocean.
VOL. I.-83

658
VERTEBRATA.
GREENLANDER SPEARING A NARWHAL.
Other species of spermaceti-whale are mentioned as follows:
The MEXICAN SPERM-WHALE, C. Colneti, an inhabitant of the North Pacific, the South Seas,
and equatorial oceans, and often referred to the last species.
The South SEA SPERM-WHALE, C. polycyphus, is found in the Southern Ocean, and often
spoken of as the Cachalot or Sperm-Whale.
Genus KOGIA: Kogia.—This name is given by Dr. J. E. Gray to a form of whale with a
shorter head, which has been taken at the Cape of Good Hope.
The SHORT-HEADED WHALE, K. breviceps, of Gray, is the only species, and has been described
from a single skull in the Paris Museum. It has been regarded by some as the young of the
Sperm-Whale.
Genus PHYSETER: Physeter.--This is the generic term applied by Linnæus and many sub-
sequent writers to the Sperm-Whale, but it was originally applied by Artedi to the BLACKFISH,
to which Dr. J. E. Gray has restored it in the British Museum Catalogue.
The BLACKFISH of Gray, P. Tursio, probably the Delphinus globiceps, or D. grampus of
Cuvier, is of a black color; one taken off the coast of Scotland was fifty-two feet long.
THE DELPHINIDÆ.
The DELPHINIDÆ or Dolphins, the family of which the Dolphin is the type, and which includes
not only the Dolphin but the Porpoise, &c., are more numerous than those of the other Cetacea.
They are distinguished from the last family by the smaller and more proportionate head; and in
those species which have lost their upper teeth at an early age, by there being no regular pits in
the
gums of the upper jaw for the reception of the teeth of the lower one; and also by the hinder
part of the skull not being deeply concave and surrounded on the sides and behind by a high ridge.
The Genus HYPEROODON, Hyperoodon, presents several species: the BOTTLE-HEAD or
BEAKED-WHALE, of Pennant, H. Butzkopf, inhabits the North Sea.
The BEAKED HYPEROODON, H. rostratum, inhabits the North Sea. It differs from the last
species in having the dorsal fin behind the middle of the back. It has been taken in the Thames
and the Humber, and skeletons exist in the museums of Edinburgh, Bristol, and Liverpool.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 12. CETACEA.
659
Two other species of Hyperoodon are described by Dr. J. E. Gray, H. Desmarestii and H. lati-
frons. The latter is a native of the North Sea, and has been taken on the coast of Lancashire.
Of the Genus ZIPHIUS, Ziphius, is the Physeter bidens of Sowerby, the Diodon bidens of
Bell. The head of a specimen caught in Scotland is now in the museum at Oxford. Dr. Gray
observes that it belongs to the genus Ziphius of Cuvier, before only known in the fossil state; and
the examination of the skull has proved the accuracy of these determinations.
Z. Sechellensis, named from a skull in the museum at Paris, was brought from the Sechelles.
Genus DELPHINORHYNCHUS: Delphinorhynchus.—This presents the D. micropterus, first
described by De Blainville. It inhabits the seas of the coast of Europe.
Genus MONODON: Monodon. Of this is the NARWHAL, UNICORN, or UNICORN-WHALE,
M. monoceros. When young it is black, when old whitish-marbled. Although it has some-
times two tusks, it has more frequently one, from which it derives its name of Unicorn. It in-
habits the Northern Ocean. The use of the tusk, which is usually found only on the male, and
is six to eight feet long, is doubtful; probably, however, it serves as a weapon of defense. The
Narwhal feeds on mollusca, and swims with great swiftness; when at the surface it blows repeat-
edly, and then lies motionless for several minutes. The blubber yields a fine oil, which, as well
as the flesh, is considered a dainty by the Greenlanders, who capture the animal with the har-
poon. The ivory of the tusk is considered superior to that of the elephant. The celebrated
throne of the Danish kings is made of this article.
ETAM
THE BELUGA.
Genua BELUGA: Beluga.—Of this is the NORTHERN BELUGA, ROUND-HEADED CACHALOT,
SMALL CATODON or WHITE WHALE, B. catodon, the Physeter catodon of Linnæus. When
young it is black, when mature white, sometimes having a yellowish or rosy tinge. It is twelve
to eighteen feet long, feeds on fish, and is esteemed good eating by the inhabitants of the north-
ern countries, the seas of which it frequents. It abounds in Hudson Bay, Davis's Strait, and along
the shores of Kamtschatka. It sometimes ascends large rivers, and is often observed near Que-
bec. It is seen in shoals of forty to fifty, which frequently follow ships and frolic in the water
around them. They usually flock to the east coast of Greenland, where they are a serviceable
supply to the inhabitants. The oil of the Beluga is of the finest quality; the skin of the animal
is wrought into morocco, and the internal membranes are used for windows and bed-curtains.
The B. Kingii is found near the coasts of Australia.
Genus NEOMERIS: Neomeris.—Of this there is a single species, the N. phocænoides, a kind
of dolphin found in the Indian Ocean.
Genus PHOCÆNA: Phocæna. This includes the COMMON PORPOISE or PORPESSE, P. com-
munis, probably the Tursio of Pliny, the Marsouin of the French, Porco Pesce of the Italians,
and the Meerschwein of the Germans. This is from four to eight feet long, and nearly of a black
color above, beneath whitish. They are found in all northern seas, and even in the bays and har-
bors along our coasts. They swim in shoals, and drive the mackerel, herrings, and salmon before
them, pursuing them up the bays with the same eagerness that a pack of dogs hunt the hare. In

660
VERTEBRATA.
THE PORPOISE.
some places they almost darken the sea as they rise above water to take breath; they not only
seek for prey near the surface, but often descend to the bottom in search of sand-eels and sea-
worms, which they root out of the sand with their noses, in the same manner as hogs when
pursuing their food in the field. In fine weather they leap, roll, and tumble in the most joyous
manner, principally in the spring and summer, which is supposed to be their pairing season. As
they are seen on the surface at such times they appear like black pigs, and hence are often called
Sea-Hogs and Hog-Fish. They go up the rivers in pursuit of the salmon, as well as other fish. The
oil of this species is of the purest kind. Their flesh is now very rarely eaten among civilized people,
but formerly it was esteemed a great delicacy, and all the arts of the cook were lavished upon
it for
the tables of the great. The Greenlanders quaff the oil and devour the flesh with high relish.
Genus GRAMPUS: Grampus.—Of this is the GRAMPUS, the Delphinus griseus of Cuvier, the
Phocæna grisea of Lesson. It is a large species, measuring fifteen to twenty feet. It is exceed-
ingly voracious, feeding not only upon fishes of various kinds, but even upon some of the sinaller
cetacea. It is common in the northern seas, and is often seen near the coast of the United States.
Other species are as follows: the G. Rissoanus, caught near Nice; G. Richardsonii, described by
Gray in the Zoology of the Erebus and Terror; and the G. Sakamata, found on the coasts of Japan.
Genus GLOBIOCEPHALUS: Globiocephalus.—This includes the PILOT-WHALE, G. svineval,
also known to sailors as the Black Whale, Howling Whale, Social Whale, Bottle-Head, &c. It
is the Delphinus globiceps of Cuvier, the Narwhal Edenté and Petit Cachalot of the French. It
is of a black color, with a white streak from throat to vent. It is a native of the North Sea, and
has been taken off the coast of Scotland; also at the east end of Long Island and in Long Island
Sound. A skull in the British Museum measures twenty-eight inches in length.
The BLACK FISH of the American sailors, G. intermedius, inhabits the coasts of North America.
The SMALLER PILOT-WHALE, G. affinis, is the Delphinus melas of Owen. Its locality is un-
known.
G. Sieboldii is a native of the coasts of Japan, where it is called Naiso-Gota.
G. macrorhynchus is the BLACKFISH of the South Sea whalers. It inhabits the South Seas.
Genus ORCA: Orca.—This includes the KILLER, the Delphinus orca of Linnæus, Grampus of
Hunter, Delphinus Grampus and Large Grampus of Owen. It inhabits the North Sea, and has
been taken on various parts of the British coasts.
The CAPE KILLER, O. Capensis—the Delphinus globiceps of Owen—inhabits the Southern Pa-
cific Ocean.
0. intermedia is a smaller species, described by Dr. Gray in the Zoology of the Erebus and Terror.
Genus LAGENORHYNCHUS: Lagenorhynchus.—This includes the WHITE-SIDED BOTTLE-
Nose, the Delphinus Tursio of Knox. It is a native of the North Sea.
The WHITE-BEAKED BOTTLE-NOSE, L. albirostris—of which a specimen was taken off the coast
of Norfolk, England, in 1846.
The ELECTRA, L. Electra, is described by Dr. Gray in the Zoology of the Erebus and Terror.
a
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 12. CETACEA.
661
L. cæruleo albus ; this is an inhabitant of the east coast of South America.
L. Asia ; described by Dr. Gray in the Zoology of the Erebus and Terror; locality unknown.
L. acutus ; inhabiting the North Seas in the region of the Faroe Islands.
L. clanculus ; this is described by Dr. Gray from a skull brought from the Pacific Ocean.
L. Thicolea ; this is described by Dr. Gray from a skull brought from the west coast of North
America.
Genus DELPHINAPTERUS: Delphinapterus. This includes the Right WHALE-PORPOISE
of the whalers, D. Peronii. It is black, with the exception of the beak, pectoral fins, and under
part of the body, which are white. It is found on the Brazil Bank, off New Guinea, and in the
higher southern latitudes. They live in large shoals, and the flesh is esteemed a delicacy.
D. Borealis inhabits the North Pacific Ocean. It has been described by Peale in the United
States Exploring Expedition.
Genus DELPHINUS: Delphinus.—This includes not only the Common Dolphin, but many
species similar to it: maritime people give to these various names, as Bottle-noses, Bottle-heads,
Flounder-heads, &c.; the name Dolphin they usually apply to a totally different species, the
Coryphæna hippurus, which changes color in dying. The Common Dolphin, D. delphis, abounds
in all the seas of the northern hemisphere. It measures six or eight feet in length, and is one of
the most active species of the family. It is noted for its fondness for accompanying ships in con-
siderable flocks, sporting upon the surface of the water as if for the delight of the beholders. It
is said that in these gambols individuals have been known to leap out of the water to such a
height as to fall upon the deck of a ship. The ancients were well acquainted with the sportive
habits of the dolphin, and regarded it as the special friend of man. It was one of this species
that was wont, according to the beautiful Greek fable, to carry Arion on its back through the
waves. Other species are as follows:
The HASTATED DOLPHIN, D. Heavisidii, inhabiting the South Sea; also near the Cape of Good
Hope.
The Dusky DOLPHIN, D. obscurus, inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and near the Cape.
The COMPRESSED-TAILED DOLPHIN, D. compressicauda, inhabiting about 4° south latitude, 24°
west longitude from Greenwich.
The BOTTLE-NOSE DOLPHIN, D. Tursio, inhabiting the North Sea.
The D. Abusalam, inhabiting the Red Sea.
The D. Eutropia, inhabiting the Pacific Ocean, in the region of Chili.
The D. Eurynome, inhabiting the North Sea.
The METIS, D. Metis, locality unknown.
The CYMODOCE, D. Cymodoce; locality not known.
The Doris, D. Doris ; locality unknown.
The BRIDLED DOLPHIN, D. frenatus, inhabiting the seas along the Cape de Verd Islands.
The D. Clymene; locality unknown.
The Styx, D. Styx, inhabiting the coast of West Africa.
The EUPHROSYNE, D. Euphrosyne, inhabiting the North Sea.
The ALOPE, D. Alope ; locality unknown.
The JANIRA, D. Janira, inhabiting the region near Newfoundland.
The New ZEALAND Dolphin, D. Nova Zealandiæ, inhabiting near New Zealand and Cape Gable.
FORSTER'S DOLPHIN, D. Forsteri, inhabiting the Pacific Ocean between New Caledonia and
Norfolk Island.
The D. Sao, inhabiting Madagascar.
The CAPE DOLPHIN, D. longirostris, inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and also near the Cape of
Good Hope.
The SMALL-HEADED DOLPHIN, D. microps, inhabiting the coasts of Brazil.
Genus STENO: Steno, includes the S. Malayanus—Delphinus plumbeus of Cuvier-a native
of the Indian Ocean.
The S. frontatus, inhabiting the Indian Ocean and the Pacific.
The S. compressus, described by Gray in the Zoology of the Erebus and Terror.

662
VERTEBRATA.
GA
THE MANATEE.
The S. attenuatus, found at Cape Horn.
The S. fuscus, described by Gray in the Zoology of the Erebus and Terror.
The S. rostratus, inhabiting the North Sea, and which has been taken at Holland and at Brest.
Genus PONTOPORIA: Pontoporia, includes the P. Blainvillei, which has been found off
Monte Video.
Genus INIA: Inia, includes the I. Geoffroyii, a native of the shores of Upper Peru.
Genus PLATANISTA: Platanista, includes the Sou Sou, P. Gangetica, of India—the Susu
of Buffon, the Platanista of Pliny, the Dauphin du Gange of Cuvier.
THE SIRENIA.
These animals resemble some of the Pachydermata, and especially the elephants: the nostrils
are in front of the snout, and are not used as blow-holes; the head is of moderate size, and the
bones are dense and heavy. They inhabit the sea-shores, especially about the mouths of rivers,
up which they sometimes penetrate to some distance. They feed entirely upon sea-weeds and
aquatic plants, and do not, as stated by some authors, quit the water to pasture on the banks.
They are said frequently to support themselves in an upright position, with the upper part of the
body out of the water, when they are said to present a somewhat human appearance at a distance,
the illusion being assisted by the long whiskers which usually project from the upper lip, and the
pectoral mammæ of the females. It is supposed by Cuvier, and many other naturalists, that the
lively imaginations of the ancient mariners raised upon this slight foundation the wonderful
stories of Tritons and Sirens, Mermen and Mermaids, that we meet with in the old writers. The
seals
may
also have contributed to the same superstitions.
The Sirenia have been variously classed by different naturalists; we shall include them under
three genera:
Genus MANATUS: Manatus.—This includes the MANATEE or SEA-Cow, M. Australis—the
Lamantin of Buffon ; Lamantin d'Amérique of Cuvier. It is of a gray-black color, nine or ten
feet long, and has vestiges of nails on the edges of the flippers, which are used dexterously in
creeping and carrying the young. This has caused these organs to be compared to hands, whence
their name Manati or Manatee. They are gregarious, and generally go
in troops. The
young
are placed in the center of the herd for protection, and on the approach of danger all unite for
the common safety. It is alleged that, when one has been struck by a harpoon, its companions
will tear out the weapon, and they are so attached to their young that if the calf be taken the
captors are sure of the mother, from the recklessness with which her maternal affection leads her
to the place of capture. If the mother be captured, the young follow her to the shore, and fall
an easy prey. The shallow bays of the Antilles and the quiet creeks of the South American
rivers, particularly in Guiana and the Brazils, are its favorite haunts.
The M. latirostris inhabits the Gulf of Mexico and the coasts of Florida and the West Indies.
It is sometimes fifteen feet in length.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 12. CETACEA.
663
The M. Senegalensis is about eight feet in length; it is the Woman-Fish of Purchas. All these
species are pursued with avidity for food; in Brazil they are allowed by the Catholic Church to
be eaten as fish on meager days, and hence are much sought after.
Genus HALICORE: Halicore.—On the east coast of Africa, and on the shores of the Indian
Ocean, the place of the Manatees is taken by the animals of this genus, in which the molars are
never more than five on each side in each jaw, while in old animals their number is reduced to
two. The form of the upper jaw is very remarkable: it is bent downward in front of the lower
jaw, and terminated by two rather large incisor teeth. The tail is notched.
THE DUGONG.
The DUGONG, H. Dugong, in its habits resembles the manatees, but it exceeds them in size, full-
grown individuals measuring eighteen or twenty feet in length. The natives of the countries near
which they live, kill them in considerable numbers, usually capturing them with spears. The
flesh is very delicate, and is considered a royal dish by the Malays. Westward this species extend
to the Red Sea and the east coast of Africa, but they do not appear to be known north of the
Eastern Archipelago, on the coasts of China and Japan. The female produces generally but one
at a birth, and to this the mother bears such strong affection that, if it is speared, she will not
depart, but is sure to be taken also. The Malays consider this animal as almost typical of
maternal affection. The young utter a short and sharp cry, and are said to shed tears, which are
carefully preserved by the common people as a charm, under the notion that they will secure the
affections of those whom they love, as they attract the mother to her young.
The H. Tabernaculi, found in the Red Sea, resembles the preceding, and is considered a dis-
tinct species by Rüppel, who named it as above, from an idea that with its skin the Jews were
directed to cover the Tabernacle.
The H. Australis, the Manate of Dampier, is found on the west coast of Australia.
Genus RYTINA: Rytina.–Of this there was a single species, the MORSKAIA KOROVA or SEA-
APE of Pennant, R. gigas, or R. Stelleri ; it has, however, like the Dodo, become extinct. It was
discovered in 1741 near an island in Behring's Straits, where Behring was shipwrecked and where
he perished, and was then abundant there. It formed the chief food of the unfortunate mariners
who were compelled to spend ten months in that inhospitable region. It was twenty-five feet
long and twenty in girth; the skin was thin, soft, and whitish, but was covered by a coat of horny
tubes, set thick like hair. These animals were long since extirpated by the adventurers who
visited this region in search of sea-otters, and all that now remains consists of a skull and a few
fragments of bones in European museums.
Fossil CETACEA of several genera have been found, including numerous extinct species; among
them there is a skeleton of the Zeuglodon, nearly seventy feet in length, found in Alabama, and
similar bones are found in Mississippi and Louisiana.
MBAYO
RFI
Az
M
SKELETON OF THE WHALE.

664
VERTEBRATA.
EREDUAN KENNY SC NIY
KANGAROOS.
ORDER 13.
MARSUPIALIA OR MARSUPIATA.*
This order derives its name from marsupium, the Latin for purse or bag, the females of the sev-
eral species which constitute it having under the belly a pouch or sac, in which the young,
which
are born in a very immature state, are received and nourished, and whither they retreat long after
they are able to move about. The physiology as well as the osseous structure of all these ani-
mals must of course be adapted to this most curious system; but in other respects they vary
greatly in size, form, and habits. The species are mostly confined to Australia, that strange quar-
ter of the globe, where cherry-stones grow on the outside of the pulp; where the big end of a
pear is attached to the stalk; where nettles, ferns, and grasses grow into trees, and lilies, tulips, and
honeysuckles assume almost the substantial form of oaks. Before the discovery of New Holland,
the Europeans had become acquainted with the opossum in America, and we may conceive their
* Some naturalists divide the Mammalia into two groups, the Placentaria and Aplacentaria. In order to show
the reason of this, it is necessary to say that it is well established that in the production, or, more properly, the re-
production of life, vegetable as well as animal, it is necessary that the Germ-cell and the Sperm-cell should combine,
the principle of growth being in the latter, and communicated to the former by this union, in which the germ-cell is
penetrated by the filaments of the sperm-cell. The germ-cell in the mammalia is the simplest form of what we call
an Ovum or Egg, provided by the oviary of the female; this being fecundated by the sperm-cell, is brought into the
uterus, where it gradually grows into the living being which, at the proper time, is born. During this process of
growth, it is connected with the womb by the Placenta, and through this it maintains its connection with the mother
and obtains nutriment for its support and growth. The animals thus nursed by means of the placenta, are all brought
to a state of greater or less maturity before birth, and hence those subject to this system are called Placentaria. In
this division all the animals noticed in the preceding pages are included. But we are now about to examine another
division, the Marsupiata, in which, though the origin of reproduction is the same as we have described, the young,
instead of being nursed to maturity by means of a placenta, are brought forth while yet in embryo, and are nursed
in a pouch situated on the abdomen of the mother. These are called Aplacentaria. It is apparent that this system of
reproduction somewhat approaches that of birds and reptiles, in which the ovum or egg itself is produced and then
hatched, usually by incubation. As we might expect from such a circumstance, the aplacentia are generally of a lower
grade of intelligence than other mammalia.
a

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 13. MARSUPIALIA.
665
L-
BEDMAN-KENNY.ENGRS:N.Y3
THE TASMANIAN WOLF.
a
wonder when it was described as a “beaste that hath a bag under her belly in which she carries
her young, at first no bigger than a raspberry, till they can shift for themselves.” But this was
only the beginning of wonders, for New Holland presents us with about sixty species of quadru-
peds—carnivorous, frugivorous, and omnivorous—and nine-tenths of all are formed on the plan
of the opossum: wolves, foxes, rabbits, squirrels, sheep, rats, mice-or creatures very much like
them and engaged, some in hunting and devouring other animals, some in climbing trees, some
in flying through the air, some in grazing upon the earth, and some in swimming in the water-
and the females of all carrying about their young ones in their pouches, which serve as cradle,
bed, house, and home to the little family! Nor is this all: we have not only black swans
and white eagles, singing pheasants, and a thrush that in consideration of its music is called a
laughing jackass, but we find one quadruped that seems to be both an ant-eater and a porcupine,
and another that is said to have the habits of a mole, the bill and feet of a duck, and the internal
formation of a reptile! The two last, however, belong to a different order from that which we
are now considering. Of the marsupialia, divided by some naturalists into several families, we shall
make a brief enumeration, grouping them, for the sake of simplicity, into genera and species only.
Genus THYLACINUS: Thylacinus.—This includes the TASMANIAN WOLF, or ZEBRA OPOSSUM,
or ZEBRA WOLF, T. cynocephalus. It is of the size of a small wolf, with short, smooth hair of a
dusky yellowish-brown color, barred on the lower part of the back with sixteen black transverse
stripes. It is the largest and most powerful carnivorous animal in Australia, is nocturnal in its
habits, lives in retired caves, devours kangaroos and other small mammalia, and frequently com-
mits depredations among the sheep. It is found only in Van Diemen's Land or Tasmania.
Genus DASYURUS: Dasyurus.—This includes the URSINE OPossum, D. ursinus, called the
Native Devil by the colonists; it is a voracious, burrowing animal of the size of a badger, found
in Van Diemen's Land. It is eighteen inches long, with coarse, black hair, spotted with white.
Its flesh resembles veal, and though once common, it is now scarce, in consequence of being killed
for food.
The SPOTTED MARTIN, or LONG-TAILED DASYURUS, D. macrurus, is eighteen inches long, with
a tail nearly as long as the body; its fur is chestnut-color, spotted with white. It feeds on small
quadrupeds, and, when impelled by hunger, occasionally snaps up birds among the marshes.
Genus PHASCOGALE: Phascogale.—Of this is the P. penicillata, an opossum-like animal
of the size of the brown rat, ash-colored above and white beneath, with a full tail; it is found in
Australia, and lives on trees. There are several species, one no bigger than the common mouse.
VOL. I.-84

666
VERTEBRATA.
REW
THE SPOTTED MARTIN.
Genus MYRMECOBIUS: Myrmecobius.—This genus includes the BANDED ANT-EATER, M.
fasciatus, resembling somewhat both the ichneumons and the tupaias. It is about ten inches long,
of a tawny color, marked with transverse bands of black and white. The female has no pouch, but
the
young adhere to the breasts, and are hidden by the thick fur. It is supposed to feed on ants.
THE BANDED ANT-EATER.
-
Genus CHEROPUS: Choropus.—This includes the PiG-FOOTED BANDICOOT, C. ecaudatus,
found near Murray's River, in Australia; it is about a foot and a half long; the marsupial
opening is downward instead of upward, as in the Kangaroo and others of the class; there are
two toes only on the fore-feet, which resemble those of a pig, and there is no tail. Very little is
known of its habits.
Genus PERAMELES: Perameles. This includes the LONG-NOSED BANDICOOT, P. nasuta,
having a long head, with the upper part of the snout much prolonged: the tail is long and ta-
pering; the fur gray-brown above and white beneath ; the body eighteen inches long. A speci-
men of another species, the RABBIT PERAMELES, P. lagotis, has been in the gardens of the Zoo-
logical Society, London. The BluNT-NOSED BANDICOOT—the Porcupine Opossum of Shaw-P.
obesula, resembles the preceding. These three species are found in Australia. The P. Gunnii
is a native of Van Diemen's Land, where it is generally diffused. These animals all feed on in-
sects, bulbs, grain, &c.
Genus DIDELPHYS: Didelphys.—This includes the numerous family of Opossums, which
are only found in America. The Common AMERICAN OPOSSUM, D. Virginiana, is too well
known to demand an extended description. It has a pointed head, wide gape, numerous sharp
teeth, a rough tongue, ears large and naked, small eyes, the tail long, tapering, flexible, and pre-

CLASS 1. MAMMALIA: ORDER 13. MARSUPIALIA.
667
eTM
Tu
LONG-NOSED BANDICOOT.
hensile; the toes are armed with sharp, strong, curved claws. Its size is nearly that of a cat,
but the form is low and squat; the color is a grayish-white; the face, near the snout, pure white,
the ears black. In its habits it is mostly nocturnal and arboreal, feeding alike upon insects, eggs,
small birds, and fruits. It sometimes invades the barn-yards, and destroys the poultry, it is said,
for their blood. It is a good deal hunted, and manifests much dexterity in escaping, by creeping
WIN
THE COMMON OPOSSUM.
away amid the
grass, and sometimes pretending to be dead. In defending itself it bites severely.
It is sluggish in its movements, and will sometimes lie on its back in the sun for hours; it often
suspends itself from the brush of a tree by its tail. It is very prolific, producing from six to
fifteen at a birth. The young at this period are well formed, and weigh from three to four grains
each. As soon as produced, they are shoved into the pouch by the mother with her snout, and
pushed near the nipples, which they find and grasp by instinct. Their growth is very rapid ; at
a week old they weigh thirty grains. They remain in the pouch, attached to the nipple, till they
,

668
VERTEBRATA.
THE OPOSSUM AND HER YOUNG ONES.
are able to move about. At the age of four weeks they occasionally leave the nipple and may be
seen peeping out of their sack; a week afterward they venture forth, but keep close to the mother,
and hold on to her by their tails. Sometimes with a dozen young ones of the size of rats, thus
clinging around her legs, neck and body, and some of them dragging along on the ground, she
may be seen going about in search of food. At this
At this age these animals are pretty. They remain
.
with the mother till about two months old; they then learn to take care of themselves, but con-
tinue in the vicinity, seeming still to be under maternal guardianship in a certain degree. Mean-
led
ti
CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.
time another breed is produced, and during the season a third, and some of all these may
be seen
at once with their prolific parent. In winter, if the climate is cold, the opossums become sluggish,
but not torpid like the woodchuck. They are common in all the Southern and Southwestern
States, and in California and Mexico. They are also found in the Middle States as far north as
Pennsylvania, and sometimes in New Jersey.
This is the only animal of the kind known in the United States; in South America there are

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 13. MARSUPIALIA.
669
3
THE CAYOPOLLIN OPOSSUM.
numerous species. The CRAB-EATING Opossum, D. cancrivora, is a large species, lives in marshy
districts, and feeds on crabs. It is found in Guiana. AzAra's Opossum, D. Azaræ, abounds in
Brazil and other warm parts of South America. The CAYOPOLLIN OPossum or NAKED-TAILED
PHILANDER, D. philander, or D. nudicaudata, is found in Guiana. Nearly twenty other species
of opossum are found in Brazil and other parts of South America.
THE YAPOCK.
Genus CHEIRONECTES: Cheironectes. Of this there is a single species, the YAPOCK, C. Ya-
pock, which resembles the otters, having palmated feet, and swimming with facility. Buffon calls
it the Little Otter of Guiana. It feeds on small fishes and aquatic insects, and is found in Brazil.
Genus PHALANGISTA : Phalangista.—The animals of this genus, called Phalangers, are noc-
turnal, live in trees, have a prehensile tail, feed on vegetables and insects, possess an opposable nailed

670
VERTEBRATA.
WIE
THE SPOTTED PHALANGER OR COUSCOUS.
thumb on the hind-feet, and are found partly in Australia and partly in the Malasian Islands. It
includes the WHATAPOOROO or VULPINE Opossum, the Phalanger Renard of the French, P.
vulpina, resembling a fox in shape, the body twenty-six inches long and the tail fifteen, the latter
prehensile, but covered with hair; the upper parts a grizly-yellow and the under parts tawny-buff;
on the fore-feet, five toes and on the hind ones four, the feet, as in many of the opossums, serving
the purposes of a hand. This species is found in Australia, near Port Jackson.
The SPOTTED PHALANGER, P. maculata, is found in the Moluccas, and especially in Amboyna,
where it is called Couscous by the natives. It is also met with at Wagiou, where the inhabi-
tants call it Scham-Scham. Its fur is white, spotted with brown and black. The RED PHALANGER,
P. cavifrons, is found in Amboyna and Banda. The GOLDEN-RUMPED PHALANGER is also found
at Amboyna; the P. ursina is found in Celebes.
a
น
THE SUGAR SQUIRREL.
Genus PETAURUS: Petaurus.- The Petauristines, sometimes called Flying Phalangers, are
divided by some naturalists into several genera, but we shall include them in one. To this belongs
the SUGAR SQUIRREL or NORFOLK ISLAND FLYING-SQUIRREL, P. sciureus, which is about as large
as our red squirrel; the tail rather longer than the body; the fur soft and beautiful; the color gray

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 13. MARSUPIALIA.
671
REDMANEKENINYSENG
کی
THE KOALA.
above and white beneath. In its form and habits it resembles our flying-squirrels, except that it
has the abdominal pouch, like the rest of the order we are describing. It reposes during the day,
but at evening comes forth, and supported by its lateral membranes, leaps and skims from tree to
tree and from branch to branch with the greatest vivacity.
Among other species are the P. breviceps, P. ariel, P. Australis, all natives of Australia.
The DWARF PHALANGER Or Pigmy ACROBAT, A. pygmæus, has soft, reddish-brown fur above and
white beneath; the length of the body is but little over two inches; the tail is of equal length.
This also is found in Australia.
Genus PHASCOLARCTOS: Phascolarctos. This includes a single species, the KOALA or
Ashy-COALA or COLAK, P.cinereus, which is as large as a moderate-sized dog. It has long, thick,
and rather coarse fur, of an ashy-gray color; it moves with the gait of a young bear, lives in dens
and holes dug with its feet, but spends much time in the trees. It is supposed to feed on veg-
etables and insects. The female produces one young at a time, which she nurses in her pouch
till it is able to go abroad, when she carries it about on her back, bestowing upon it the most
tender care.
This species belongs to Australia.
Genus MACROPUS: Macropus.-We now come to the KANGAROOS, the largest and most
remarkable indigenous animals in the whole Australian world; among the most curious, indeed,
in the animal kingdom. The species are numerous, from the size of a sheep to that of a rabbit,
and are all distinguished by the structure of the hind-legs. These are exceedingly long and
powerful, and the feet, which are much elongated, rest with the whole sole upon the ground; the
fore-legs are very short, and are of little use to the animal in progression, its movements consist-
ing in powerful leaps effected by the extension of the hind-legs. In its natural position the kan-
garoo sits upright upon its haunches with the assistance of its powerful tail, which, with the two
hind-feet, forms a sort of tripod. In opposition to this great development of the hind parts of the
body, all the fore parts are exceedingly small. The head is small, and furnished with large ears,

672
VERTEBRATA.
QUI SUUL
APRED
SKELETON OF THE GIANT KANGAROO.
and the upper lip is cleft. The dentition consists of six incisors in the upper jaw, but only two
in the lower; the canines are always deficient in the lower jaw, and very small in the upper,
where they are also sometimes wanting or concealed by the gums, so that there is always a con-
siderable space between the incisors and the molars, which are five in number on each side, and
of a more or less quadrangular form. The anterior feet are furnished with five toes, each of which
is armed with a claw; the hind-feet, on the contrary, only possess four toes, the inner one or great
toe being deficient. Of these the two outer are the largest, and are terminated by strong, hoof-
like nails, while the inner ones are united together as far as the root of the nails. The stomach
is of a complex structure, being divided by constrictions into several compartments, and Professor
Owen has observed a sort of rumination to take place in some species. The kangaroos are almost
entirely confined to Australia and Van Diemen's Land, but species are found in the adjacent
islands, and even in New Guinea. They are entirely herbivorous, and live for the most part in
the grassy plains; but some species are found in rocky places. They are timid creatures, but
when seized defend themselves with violent strokes of their hind-feet, which, from their great
power and the strength of their nails, constitute formidable weapons. Unlike the generality of
herbivorous animals, however, they do not usually collect into flocks, although they may some-
times be seen in considerable numbers together. In feeding they rest upon the fore-feet, and
when thus engaged, the young, which frequently retreat to the abdominal pouch long after they
,
are able to graze like their parents, may often be seen protruding their heads, and cropping the
herbage at the same time with their mother; they also sometimes run on all fours when pursued
by dogs. Their ordinary mode of progression, however, consists in long leaps, effected by the

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 13. MARSUPIALIA.
673
ساره
nah
EREDMI:KENY
THE GIANT KANGAROO.
a
agency of the hind-iegs alone, and in these efforts the long, powerful tail is employed in main-
taining the equilibrium.
The largest of the species is the Giant KANGAROO, M. major or M. giganteus, first discovered
by Captain Cook in 1789, and known to the colonists under the name of Boomer. It is of the
size of a large sheep, and sometimes weighs one hundred and forty pounds. The period of ges-
tation is thirty-nine days; the young one, when born, is a little over an inch long, and looks like
a semi-transparent mouse. It is probably lifted by the mouth of the mother into the marsupium
and placed near the nipple, which it then instinctively seizes. It remains here till it is able to go
forth and feed upon grass; to this retreat it returns, and here it lives, till it is capable of taking
care of itself. The flesh of the kangaroo is excellent, and the animal is much hunted, alike by
the colonists and the natives; in some parts where they were once abundant, the larger species
are already becoming scarce. The skin is made into leather for shoes and gloves. This species
is found in Australia; it has been repeatedly bred in England.
The Sooty KANGAROO, M. fuliginosus: this is about the same size as the last species.
Mr. Waterhouse thinks it will prove to be a variety of the M. major. He
of the M. major. He says: “The name
Sooty Kangaroo is most ill-applied to the present animal, since its coloring is any thing but sooty,
being for the most part of a brownish-yellow, rather bright on the sides of the body, and some-
what suffused with dusky-brown on the middle of the back.”
VOL. I.--.85

674
VERTEBRATA
Sunwww
HEOMAN-KETONY.SC.NYS
THE SOOTY KANGAROO.
a
The NAIL-TAILED KANGAROO, M. unguifer, first described by Mr. Gould, has a nail-like, horny
excrescence at the end of its tail. It is smaller than the foregoing species.
The BRIDLED KANGAROO, M. frenatus, is another nail-tailed species, discovered by Mr. Gould:
its weight varies from ten to fifteen pounds.
The CRESCENT-MARKED KANGAROO, M. auratus, is about the size of a rabbit. It inhabits the
Swan River district, Western Australia.
The HARE-KANGAROO, M. leporoides, is a pretty little animal, about the size of the common
hare. Its powers of leaping are very extraordinary. “While out on the plains of South Aus-
tralia," says Mr. Gould, “I started a Hare-Kangaroo before two fleet dogs; after running to the
distance of a quarter of a mile, it suddenly doubled and came back upon me, the dogs following
close at its heels. I stood perfectly still, and the animal had arrived within twenty feet before it
observed me, when, to my astonishment, instead of branching off to the right or the left, it
bounded clear over my head, and on descending to the ground I was enabled to make a successful
shot, by which it was procured.”
The SPECTACLED KANGAROO, M.conspiscillatus, is distinguished from the last by its ears being
considerably shorter, the more brilliant rusty-red coloring round the eye, and the want of a black
patch at the base of the fore-leg; the muzzle likewise is more obtuse.
The BANDED HARE-KANGAROO, M. fasciatus, is about the size of the common hare, and has
very long and soft brown-gray hair. It is very shy and timid, inhabiting the thick brush of
Western Australia.
The M. hirsutus is about the size of the common hare. It inhabits Western Australia, where
it is known to the natives by the name of W00-rup.
The ANTILOPE-KANGAROO, M. antilopinus, is a large species, nearly the size of M. giganteus.
It is characterized by being clothed with short, stiff hairs, which lie close to the skin, as in many
of the antilope tribe. It inhabits North Australia.
The YELLOW WALLAROO or ISABELLINE KANGAROO, M. Isabellinus, has been described from a
flat and imperfect skin procured by Mr. Gould at Barrow Island.
The GREAT Rock KANGAROO, M. robustus—the Black Wallaroo of the colonists—inhabits the
mountain ranges in the interior of New South Wales. The male and female differ in size and
1

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 13. MARSUPIALIA675
.
.
C.!.
www
w
.
NO
uli
a
w
THE POTOROO RAT. (See page 676.)
a
color. The male equals in weight the Giant Kangaroo, and is of a black color, while the female
is a small, delicate creature, of a silver-gray color.
The Red Buck, M. rufus, is the male of a species of which the female is called “Blue Doe" and
also “Flying Doe.” It is as large as M. giganteus. It is dispersed over the great basin of the
interior of Australia.
The AGILE KANGAROO, M. agilis, inhabits the north coast of Australia. It is very fleet, and
eludes the dogs employed in hunting it, by its extreme activity in leaping over the high crags.
The color of the fur is sandy-yellow, but the back is pencilled with black.
The M. Parryi inhabits New South Wales; it is a large species, of a silver-gray above and
white beneath.
The BLACK-GLOVED KANGAROO, M. Irma, is a native of Western Australia. It runs very fast,
is about thirty-one inches in length, or half the size of the M. giganteus, and abounds in the Swan
River district.
The M. Greyi, named after Captain G. Grey, who presented two specimens to the British Mu-
seum, inhabits South Australia.
The Red-NECKED KANGAROO, M. ruficollis, inhabits New South Wales and King's Island.
The BLACK WALLABY or BLACK-TAILED KANGAROO, M. Ualabatus, is an inhabitant of New
South Wales.
The M. Eugenii inhabits Western Australia.
The PADEMELON KANGAROO or PADEMELON WALLABY, M. Thetides, inhabits New South
Wales. It is a small species, about twenty inches in height when sitting. It is highly prized as
an article of diet.
The Parma KANGAROO, M. Parma, inhabits New South Wales.
The BLACK-STRIPED KANGAROO, M. dorsalis, like the last is found in the scrubby districts of
New South Wales. This species is eaten, and its skin is used for clothing.

676
VERTEBRATA.
Where:
Man
muw
Pro
Coro
MAN
uso
Ron
WHF
THE WOMBAT.
DERBY'S KANGAROO, M. Derbianus, inhabits Western and Southwestern Australia, and is about
the size of the last.
The RED-BELLIED KANGAROO, M. Billardierii, is a native of Van Diemen's Land. It is a gre-
garious species, hundreds of them inhabiting the same locality. It is called by the colonists the
Wallaby.
The SHORT-TAILED KANGAROO, M. brachyurus, inhabits the region of King George's Sound.
The BRUSH-TAILED ROCK-KANGAROO, M. penicillatus, inhabits New South Wales, and its flesh
is said to be most excellent. It is a gregarious and nocturnal species, dwelling in rocky districts,
and remarkable for its power of leaping from rock to rock.
The BLACK-FLANKED ROCK-KANGAROO, M. lateralis, inhabits Western Australia, the Swan
River district, and is nocturnal in its habits, and remarkably shy.
The M. inornatus inhabits the north coast of Australia.
The SHORT-EARED ROCK-KANGAROO, M. Brachiotis, inhabits the north west coast of Australia,
The M. concinnus is also found in the same districts.
LE Brun's KANGAROO, M. Bruni, was the first of the Marsupiata with which naturalists be-
came acquainted, having been described by Le Brun as early as 1711. It is an inhabitant of
New Guinea.
Genus POTOROO: Hypsiprymnus.—This includes the POTOROO or KANGAROO RAT, H.muri-
nus, which is a mild, timid creature, of the size of a rabbit; the body is formed somewhat like
that of a rat, but the fore-legs are exceedingly short and the hind ones long, so that the animals
move by long leaps on the latter, like the kangaroos. They burrow in the ground and feed on
vegetables.
Other species, to some of which Gray gives the name of Bettongia, are the H. melanotis, H.
cuniculus, H. Grayi, H. Gaimardii, H. penicillatus H. Gilbertii, H. platyops. All the species
are of Australia.
Genus HALMATURUS: Halmaturus.—These resemble the kangaroos, but differ from them

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 14. MONOTREMATA.
677
in having shorter ears, and a tail nearly naked. The H. elegans—the Kangurus fasciatus of
Péron and Lesueur—is of the size of a large hare, of a mouse-gray color, haunts thick bushes, and
forms long galleries in the earth. It is found in the island of St. Pierre.
Genus PHASCOLOMYS: Phascolomys. Of this there is a single species, the WOMBAT, P.
—
Wombat, a short-legged, thickset animal, the body two feet long, the tail half an inch long. It
lives in burrows and feeds on vegetables. It is covered with coarse hair of a sandy-brown color ;
its eyes are small and lively. Its pace is shuffling and hobbling, like that of a bear. It has
little intelligence, but its disposition is mild. The flesh is said to be excellent. Several living
specimens have been in the menageries of Europe.
T
THE ROSTRATED TARSIPEDE.
Genus TARSIPEDES: Tarsipes.—Of this there is only a single species, the ROSTRATED
TARSIPEDE, a small, pretty, mouse-like animal, about three inches long, having a rostrated or
beak-shaped snout, with a long prehensile tail. It lives on insects and the nectar of flowers, and
is found in the Swan River country, Australia.
ORDER 14. MONOTREMATA.
а
These animals, whose name is derived from the Greek monos, signifying one, and trema, an
orifice, in allusion to their organic structure, have in several respects a resemblance to birds. The
head is extremely small, and the facial bones project into a beak-like form; the eyes are small,
and the external ear altogether wanting. The feet have five toes covered with long nails, and
the males are furnished with spurs on the hind-legs. There is no abdominal pouch, as in most
marsupiata, but the young are produced alive, in a very immature state; the female has no
nipples, but in their place are slits, through which the young draw their milk. There are three
known species, all natives of Australia.
Genus ECHIDNA: Echidna.-In these animals the snout or beak consists of a nearly cylin-
drical
organ,
of which both mandibles are inclosed in a continuous skin, except just at the apex,
,
where there is a small orifice to allow of the protrusion of the tongue. This latter, by an arrange-
ment similar to that in the true ant-eaters, is capable of being extended and contracted to an im-
mense extent, so that it may be exserted from the mouth to a length of nearly eight inches, and
retracted till it is entirely concealed. The jaws are destitute of teeth, and the nostrils are placed
at the end of the snout. The legs are short and strong, and the feet all furnished with five toes,
-
a

678
VERTEBRATA.
WWM
REDMAN-KENNYENGRS:N'Y
MONOTREMATA.
armed with powerful claws, but destitute of swimming membranes. The body is short and thick,
the tail is reduced to a very small size, and the skin is clothed with bristly hairs, intermixed on
the upper surface with numerous short, acute spines, very similar to those of the hedgehog. The
structure of the mammary glands of the female, and the spurs on the hind-legs of the male,
are such as we have described as characteristic of the order.
The PORCUPINE ANT-EATER, E. hystrix, measures from fifteen to eighteen inches in length,
and is found generally in hilly countries, where it lives in burrows and feeds upon insects, princi-
pally ants and termites, which it captures by the protrusion of its long sticky tongue. It is a
slow, dull, nocturnal animal, but exhibits a wonderful activity in digging, for which its powerful
claws are admirably adapted. When surprised, it either makes its escape by burrowing into the
earth, or rolls itself up in the manner of a hedgehog so as to present its spiny covering to the
enemy. It is found in New South Wales. The E. setosa, the only other known species, resem-
bles the preceding, and is considered by some naturalists as merely an old variety of it; it is
found in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land.
Genus ORNITHORHYNCHUS: Ornithorhynchus. Of this there is but a single species, the
DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS, MALLANGONG, TAMBREET, or MOUFLENGONG, O. paradoxus, which seems
cap the climax of eccentricity in the zoology of Australia. Its jaws resemble a flattened duck's
bill, opening freely to a considerable extent, and covered with a thick skin. Near the base the
jaws are furnished on each side with a sort of horny tooth, which, however, is quite destitute of
a root. The tongue is divided into two parts, of which the hinder is broad and flat, covered with
soft papillæ, while the anterior portion is narrow and covered with upright points, which become
longer and sharper toward its tip. The nostrils are placed at the apex of the upper
mandible.
The body is about fifteen inches long; the skin is covered with a short brown fur, which extends
also
upon the short, flattened tail. The legs are short, each being furnished with five toes, which
are united by a membrane; this, on the anterior feet, projects in a semicircular form beyond the
extremities of the claws. The spurs on the hind-legs of the male are of considerable size, but
they seem never to be used in self-defense.
This extraordinary animal, which was supposed by its first describer, Dr. Shaw, to be a manu-
factured monster, is found in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, where it inhabits ponds
and the quiet parts of streams. In these places it swims about on the surface of the water, with
to

CLASS I. MAMMALIA: ORDER 14. MONOTREMATA,
679
REDMANEKENHY.SC.MY
THE PORCUPINE ANT-EATER.
the head a little raised, diving continually in search of insects and other small aquatic ani-
mals on which it feeds. It is also able to climb with facility, and may often be seen in small
parties resting on trunks of trees overhanging the water. It digs itself a burrow in the banks of
the piece of water frequented by it, making it with two openings, one above and the other a little
THE ORNITUORHYNCHUS.
below the surface of the water. The burrows are of great extent, usually from twenty to thirty-
five feet in length; these rise from the water toward the surface of the earth, and, at the furthest
part, which is also the highest, are slightly enlarged and provided with a sort of nest for the re-
ception of the young. These, when born, are quite blind and nearly naked. They are produced
and nursed as in the preceding genus.

680
VERTEBRATA.
CONCLUSION.
a
We have thus concluded our view of the MAMMALIA, that great and important Division of
Animated Nature to which Man himself belongs, and which includes by far the larger portion
of the animals which are associated with man in a state of domesticity, as well as those which in
a wild state attract his attention, whether as objects of the chase, or enemies which dispute his
supremacy. We shall next proceed to the Birds, which, though they may be less essentially
connected with the necessities and pursuits of mankind, are still objects of perhaps even greater
curiosity and more lively interest.
Penye
REDMANEKENNY.ENGRS.N.Y.
END OF VOLUME I.

APPENDIX TO VOL. I.
BY PROF. SANBORN TENNEY, A.M.,
AUTHOR OF A SCHOOL NATURAL HISTORY, A GEOLOGY, ETC.; AND PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN WILLIAMS
COLLEGE, MASS.; AND LATE PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN VASSAR FEMALE COLLEGE, N. Y.
PAGE 35.
ACCORDING to the more recent authorities, the Class of Mammals may be divided into two Sub-
Classes, with the Orders as given below:
I. TRUE VIVIPAROUS MAMMALS, or those whose young have the perfect form of their parents as
soon as born. This Sub-Class contains nine Orders:
1. Bimana, or Man.
2. Quadrumana, or Monkeys.
3. Carnivora, or Flesh-eaters.
4. Herbivora, or Plant-eaters (Hoofed Animals).
5. Mutilata, as Whales, Manati, and Dugong.
6. Cheiroptera, or Bats.
7. Insectivora, or Insect-eaters.
8. Rodentia, or Gnawers.
9. Edentata, as Armadillos, &c.
II. SEMI-OVIPAROUS MAMMALS, or those whose young are born in a very immature condition.
This Sub-Class contains :
1. Marsupialia, or Pouched Animals, as the Kangaroo and Opossum.
2. Monotremata, as Duck-bill, etc.
The Cheiroptera are considered to be the analogues of the Quadrumana; the Insectivora, of the
Carnivora; the Rodentia, of the Herbivora; and the Edentata, of the Mutilata.

TO THE READERS OF JOHNSON'S NATURAL HISTORY.
99
VERY soon after purchasing the copyright, the engravings, and plates of the NATURAL HISTORY,
we solicited our friend, Prof. A. Guyot, to take a copy of the work and give it a careful reading, and to
note down the necessary changes that should be made in the plates in order to bring the book up with
the latest or rather the most approved arrangement or scientific classification. He replied that he had
so many previous engagements already on hand (and besides all his other literary labors, he had at that time
been engaged nearly two years preparing a Treatise on Physical Geography for Johnson's Atlas of the World)
that they would entirely preclude the possibility of his complying with our request. Thereupon we
asked him to recommend to us a suitable zoologist to whom we could apply. He named Prof. Sanborn
Tenney, A.M., at that time Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, N. Y., and now Professor of
Natural History in Williams College, Mass., and we secured his services. Professor Tenney, after having
very critically examined the NATURAL HISTORY, suggested that inasmuch as the work was not designed
by Mr. Goodrich (Peter Parley) wholly for the benefit of scientific naturalists,* that the seeming defects
could be remedied by introducing asterisks and foot-notes that would refer to an appendix, wherein the
ills could be named and cured, and thereby save the enormous expense, which we feared, of re-writing
and re-arranging the engravings, re-setting the type, and making new plates, and which of necessity
would have forced the price of the work to the purchaser much higher than it now is, and for all practi-
cal purposes made it no better. This plan of Professor Tenney was adopted and pursued to the end.
(See Appendix in Vol. I. and Vol. II.) And, by the way, we will here state that the above explains why
Prof. Guyot, in his recommendation of the NATURAL HISTORY (see Testimonials at the end of Vol. II.),
wrote as he did, viz. : .. "while the revision of the work by the careful and competent zoologist
(he means Prof. Tenney) "secures for it that truly scientific character which should never be wanting in a
work of Natural History especially designed to spread useful information and inspire the young with a
taste for the science of nature.” The corrections being completed, the revised NATURAL HISTORY plates
were put to press and a new edition published. But, notwithstanding its popularity, and that it was and
is received as "unequalled in the language by any other Natural History” (see the testimonial of Rev.
Mark Hopkins, D.D., LL.D., Pres. of Williams College, Mass., at the end of the second volume), yet our can-
vassers were continually reporting an "aching void" in the minds of those who know much or little of
Natural History and wish to know more, and the intense interest felt to get hold of some of the facts, or
rather claims, held by the advocates of the “DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS," has absolutely driven us into
the expense of adding to these volumes (but without extra charge to the purchaser) two articles, one in favor
of and the other against the “DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS," from the respective pens of Prof. E. L.
Youmans, A.M., M.D., and Rev. J. H. Seelye, D.D., Professor in Amherst College, Mass., than whom no
abler or better writers, in their line, could or can be found in America. As to the propriety (should that
be questioned by any person) of publishing this discussion, in the NATURAL HISTORY, we rest upon the
opinions of the following distinguished scholars and divines :
MR. A. J. JOHNSON-Dear Sir: We approve of your course in having a discussion of the "DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS
in the new edition of your NATURAL HISTORY. Let both sides be well presented, and the truth will never suffer, and believers
in the truth ought never to fear the result.-Rev. Wm. A. Stearns, D.D., LL.D., President of Amherst College, Mass. ; Rev.
Wm. S. Tyler, D.D., Williston Professor of the Greek Language and Literature; Edward Hitchcock, A.M., M.D., Professor of
Hygiene and Physical Education.
MR. JOHNSON-My Dear Sir: I quite agree with the Amherst men, and, for myself, hope soon to see what has been written
upon both sides.-Rev. Roswell D. Hitchcock, D.D., Washburn Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
New York, and Author of Hitchcock's Analysis of the Bible, etc.
In presenting this discussion to the public, we will state at the outset that Prof. Youmans and
Prof. Seelye are not personally acquainted with each other, that they did not compare notes, nor did the
one see the other's article before he wrote his own—it being our aim at the start to secure the services
of two eminent scholars, unknown to each other, except by reputation (and holding opposite views
of the subject), and at the same time feel sure that each would be candid as well as positive in his eluci-
dations, and who would conduct the discussion upon such high-toned principles of honor and fairness as
would not give the least semblance of affront to any ingenuous reader who may be in favor of or against
the “DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.” The reader must not expect that either of the authors could, in so
limited a space, produce more than an outline or synopsis of his subject, when large volumes have already
been written upon it, and yet we fully believe that all will and each article an epitome of the whole
subject, that will, at any rate, prove highly interesting and instructive, if not as elaborate as might be
desired. How far we have succeeded in getting the right men in the right place, or how well they have
accomplished their respective tasks, is not for us to say, but that is most respectfully submitted to a care-
ful and critical-reading public for their verdict.
A. J. JOHNSON, PUBLISHER.
276 & 278 MULBERRY STREET, NEW YORK,
**At the outset, then, I beg to say that this book is not designed for the benefit of scientific naturalists, and yet I hope
to obtain their approbation, however defective and deficient it may appear in their view. It is written for the great mass of
readers, who have not the means of purchasing the hundreds and thousands of volumes in which the History of Animated
Nature is now embodied; for those who do not understand the technicalities of science, and who are, as a matter of neces.
sity, driven from the pursuit of it by the difficulties with which it is encompassed; for those, in short, who have not time,
opportunity, or capacity for scientific research. My design is-while maintaining a systematic arrangement, or. in other
words, a scientific classification-still to present the subject in a form so simple, and so far divested of technicalities, that
any person of common education may read it, understand it, and profit by it." -See page 1 of Preface.

AN EXPOSITION
OF THE
DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS,
9
As MAINTAINED BY CHARLES DARWIN, THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE,
HERBERT SPENCER, AND THE NEW SCHOOL OF NATURALISTS.
(WRITTEN EXPRESSLY FOR “JOHNSON'S NATURAL HISTORY.")
BY PROF. EDWARD L. YOUMANS, M.D.,
(
72
AUTHOR OF THE "NEW CLASS-BOOK OF CHEMISTRY;” THE "HAND-BOOK OF HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE; EDITOR OF
CORRELATION AND CONSERVATION OF FORCES;” THE “CULTURE DEMANDED BY MODERN LIFE,'' ETC.
(
THE
CHAPTER I.
nomena.
A NEW QUESTION IN NATURAL HISTORY.
In the foregoing survey of the Animal Kingdom the reader has been occupied with descriptions of
the characters, habits, and relations of the various classes of creatures which compose it. He has been
engaged with those facts of observation, comparison, and classification which form the present staple
of Natural History. But the advance of the human mind in the knowledge of nature has gradually
brought us to a new phase of the subject which involves the interpretation we are to give to these phe-
The Animal Kingdom presents itself to us in an almost infinite variety : how is this variety
to be explained ? What is the origin of all this vast and diversified life? It has been customary in
past times to give a short and decisive answer to these questions from a theological point of view. It
has been said the various animals in their broad diversities of aspect as we now see them, have been
fashioned directly by the hand of God. They have been introduced into the world by miraculous
intervention. Each kind of animal which is known as a species was produced by an act of special
creation, and the characters which were thus divinely stamped upon it and which constitute it a species
are in their nature immutable characters.
For the past hundred years there has been growing up the conviction that this account of the
matter is unsatisfactory; and various attempts have been made to substitute other views in its place.
The earliest of these views put forth were regarded as wild, and were entertained by but few; but with
the general advance of knowledge, with the extensive progress that has been made in unfolding the
science of life, and with the increasing attention that has been given to this special question of the
origin of species, there has grown up a definite and coherent system of doctrine in relation to the
subject which is now accepted by a large number of the most distinguished naturalists. They hold
that the living races, as we now know them, have been developed within the order of nature and by
natural causes; that species are not immutable, but are capable of undergoing slow changes, and that
existing tribes have been derived by descent and modification from lower and simpler ancestral forms
by a method of evolution which is part of the regular system of nature.
We have here an explicit antagonism ; both explanations can not be true—the one excludes the
other. In regard to the origin of the hundreds of thousands of species of living things upon earth we
have a theological hypothesis which cuts the knot and ends all inquiry by a phrase—they were mysteri-
ously and miraculously created. Opposed to this view we have the scientific hypothesis, which declares
that as living things are in nature and a part of nature, it is to be presumed until proved otherwise that
their origin is to be explained on natural principles; and as we can not know how much truth there is
in this view until after the subject has been thoroughly investigated, it is now regarded as fairly open
to scientific inquiry.
(1)

2
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
As is natural when old and long-established views are called in question, a sharp controversy has
grown up in relation to these conflicting doctrines, which has excited a large share of public attention.
Not only has the question become prominent in the scientific world, but it has intruded itself into our
popular literature,—the magazines and reviews devoting large space to its discussion. As a fitting sup-
plement to a comprehensive work on the Animal Kingdom, and for the advantage of those readers who
will not have time to wade through the various treatises upon the subject, it has been thought desirable
to sum up the argument in this appendix; and the writer has accordingly been applied to by the Pub-
lisher to make a popular exposition of the views now extensively entertained upon the question by the
new school of Naturalists. In complying with this request it is proper to say that the task now under-
taken is by no means an easy one. The subject is not only vast and complex, but as a matter of sys-
tematic scientific investigation it has been only lately entered upon. It has many difficulties from the
incompleteness of knowledge, and there is no little diversity of opinion regarding various special points
on the part of those who hold to the general view. Any statement of the subject, therefore, within the
limits here assigned, must necessarily be insufficient and imperfect; and while the writer will aim to
make as clear and just a presentation as he can of the positions assumed by the Evolutionists, and the
reasons offered for taking them, he would urge upon the inquiring reader the necessity of studying the
original writings of those who have devoted themselves to the investigations, if they would form an en-
lightened and independent judgment concerning it.
I have said that there are but two hypotheses offered upon this subject: that of creation by miracu-
lous interference with the course of nature, and that of creation by natural law; and that these exclude
each other in thought. While the first is entertained, there is no room for the second, so that its firm
belief during the past ages has prevented the rise of other opinions. It was only when the old theo-
logical hypothesis had been pronounced unsatisfactory that men began to search for another; and it
was only when it was broken down and cast aside that scientific thinkers found themselves driven by
the exigencies of thought to substitute something in its place. A fair presentation of the course of
speculation upon the question will hence require us first to state some of the considerations which have
led to the gradual abandonment of the traditional doctrines in relation to the subject.
CHAPTER II.
OBJECTIONS TO THE OLD HYPOTHESIS.
.
In the first place, the doctrine of special creations is probably erroneous because of the time and
circumstances of its origin. Mr. Herbert Spencer puts this aspect of the case very forcibly. He says:
“Early ideas are not usually true ideas. Undeveloped intellect, be it that of an individual or that of a
race, forms conclusions which require to be revised and re-revised before they reach a tolerable corre-
spondence with realities. Were it otherwise, there would be no discovery, no increase of intelligence.
What we call the progress of knowledge is the bringing of Thoughts into harmony with Things; and
it implies that the first Thoughts are either wholly out of harmony with Things, or in very incomplete
harmony with them.
“ If illustrations be needed, the history of every science furnishes them. The primitive notions of
mankind as to the structure of the heavens were wrong; and the notions which replaced them were
successively less wrong. The original belief respecting the form of the Earth was wrong, and this
wrong belief survived through the first civilizations. The earliest ideas that have come down to us
concerning the nature of the elements were wrong; and only in quite recent times has the composition
of matter in its various forms been better understood. The interpretations of mechanical facts, of me-
teorological facts, of physiological facts, were at first wrong. In all these cases men set out with beliefs
which, if not absolutely false, contained but small amounts of truth disguised by immense amounts of
error.
"Hence the hypothesis that living beings resulted from special creations, being a primitive hypoth-
esis, is probably an untrue hypothesis. If the interpretations of nature given by aboriginal men were
erroneous in other directions, they were most likely erroneous in this direction. It would be strange if,
while these aboriginal men failed to reach the truth in so many cases where it is comparatively conspic-
uous, they yet reached the truth in a case where it is comparatively hidden.”
Again : the whole progress of our knowledge of nature for the past three hundred years has been
opposed to the notion of miraculous interference with its course. The progress has been but a series of
disclosures of harmony and law where before nothing was seen but arbitrary and capricious supernatu-

OBJECTIONS TO THE OLD HYPOTHESIS.
3
ral agency. Before the rise of modern knowledge it was customary to explain all natural effects by the
direct intervention of the Creator ; yet every new step of discovery has but deepened and confirmed the
conviction that Nature in all the infinite diversity of her productions and performances, on the grand-
est scale as well as the minutest, is a cosmos of orderly effects explicable by reason only because it is
governed by inflexible laws. The field of supernatural intervention has always been the mysterious
and the unexplored, but that field has been steadily narrowing, until now it is reduced to the domain
of the vital forces. On grounds of strong analogy, therefore, it is presumed that this field will ulti-
mately prove no exception to the general plan.
To the uninstructed the forms and distributions of mountains, seas, rivers, islands, and continents
certainly seem arbitrary and capricious enough, and a hundred years ago it was believed that they were
all supernaturally formed just as we see them at present; but we now know that the Earth's crust has
undergone the most extensive changes by natural forces, and that all these features are but natural
effects. Is it not possible that the early views of the origin of living races may require to undergo a
corresponding revision ?
Again, it is objected that the old view shuts off investigation in one of its most promising and im-
portant departments. The living races are known to be not only within the order of nature, but part of
that order-conformed to it, fused and harmonized with it. They are subject to natural laws, and can
only be understood in connection with them. We absolutely know that the living world was not
created as it now appears. Like the crust of the globe, and with it, it has undergone profound and
extensive changes which have taken place in accordance with a vast plan. In the light of these facts an
hypothesis which at once and by its very nature arrests all inquiry into the causes of this state of things
can no longer be accepted.
It is objected, furthermore, that the old and current hypothesis is unsupported by a particle of valid
evidence. Its authority is pure tradition, which of itself is without weight in the court of science.
Although naturalists estimate that there are more than a million of organic species upon the Earth,
living and extinct, which according to the old view would involve more than a million separate acts
of special creation, yet no one ever saw anything of the kind, or ever procured a trace of indirect
evidence of it.
It is a strong reason for discrediting this doctrine that it implies a double system of working where
one is entirely sufficient. Individual development we know to be within the compass of natural causes.
Nature is certainly competent, without invoking miraculous agency, to transmute a formless germ into a
perfected adult, and is doing this incessantly and everywhere and with the most varied results. Our
familiarity with these phenomena blinds us to their grandeur. For the production of the countless
myriads of living beings now upon earth, from microscopical germs, the naturalist appeals to no special
miracle, but only to the existing energies of nature working in obedience to law; why, then, should he
appeal to miracle to explain the development of lower into higher creatures in the course of immeas-
urable ages? “If a single cell, under appropriate conditions, becomes a man in the space of a few
years, there can surely be no difficulty in understanding how, under appropriate conditions, a cell may,
in the course of untold millions of years, give origin to the human race.”
If it be said that miraculous agency affords a more conspicuous and impressive display of Divine
power, the perplexing rejoinder is, Displayed to whom? What kind of a display is that which is never
seen? If this were the object, why did these miracles of special creation occur so abundantly through
those vast periods of time when there was nobody to witness them, and cease with the appearance of
that higher intelligence which could first appreciate them? If such had been the Divine purpose, would
it not have been much better subserved by the special creation of individuals? But individuals are not
so created. The creation of individuals by law is a demonstrated mode of the Divine working, and in
the absence of evidence to the contrary, it is probably the Divine mode of creating species.
There is a growing conviction, moreover, that this alleged policy of special interference with the
on-goings of a great system is an impeachment of the perfection of that system, and therefore derogatory
to the Divine character. A watch that runs a year with the precision of the stars is surely a higher
proof of the workman's skill than one which has to be corrected every few days; and so a universe in
which the mode of action confessedly adopted proves insufficient and has to be supplemented by sundry
special mendings and tinkerings as exigencies arise, can not be so grand a work as that which secures
its great ends by a single perfected system of means. Two centuries ago it was observed by Leibnitz,
According to my opinion, the same force and vigor always remains in the world, and only passes from
one part of it to another agreeably to the laws of nature and the beautiful pre-established order. And
I hold that when God works miracles he does not do it in order to supply the wants of nature, but those
of grace. Whoever thinks otherwise must needs have a very mean notion of the wisdom and power
of God."
And finally, when it is asked precisely what is meant hy “special creations," the answer is either

4
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
unintelligible or it resolves itself into a host of gratuitous and incredible assumptions. If it is said that
the new organism is created out of nothing," the reply is that such a thing is not only unproved, but
it is incapable of any proof because it is utterly inconceivable; it is impossible to represent it in
thought. You may think of space with no creature in it; and then of space as occupied by a creature;
but how it can come from nothing can not be imagined in consciousness; it is simply unthinkable, or as
Rev. Mr. Mansel says in his Bampton Lectures, “ Creation is to human thought inconceivable.” If it
be said the creature is formed out of pre-existing matter and force with their recognized properties, but
that the particles are summoned directly from the rocks and air to combine instantaneously into a per-
fect animal which at once takes its place in the order of the world, then we have not one miracle, but a
million, with a breach of almost every law, physical, organic, and mental, which experience has estab-
lished as invariable; while in support of this enormous assumption there is not offered a shred of
evidence that science can accept.
It may be furthermore remarked that in the light of what is now known of nature, the doctrine of
special creations becomes a very different thing from what it was before these revelations were made.
The creation of living beings by the Divine fiat, and all at once, was regarded as but a part of the
grand drama of universal creation by which the mystery of the origin of all things was accepted as an
act of religious faith; as the Scripture expresses it: “ Through faith we understand that the worlds were
framed by the word of God.”—Heb. xi. 3. It will be shown in a subsequent chapter how for thousands
of years the old view was an inevitable and necessary belief. But if accepted now, special creations
must be taken as a part of the settled continuous policy of nature; law and the suspension of law, order
and disorder—a method and the contradiction of it being installed as coequal elements of the system.
Much ingenuity has been expended in attempts to reconcile these antagonistic views-attempts which
have originated in the necessity of explaining away a doctrine which contravenes the whole spirit and
course of modern thought.
Scientific naturalists, therefore, have here no alternative. The old hypothesis would not do for
them ; it crumbled at the first touch. If indeed by “hypothesis " we mean a view put forth by reason to
explain a given state of facts, then, manifestly, the doctrine in question has no claim whatever to the
title, for it is a view which relegates the question to the domain of the supernatural and thus shuts off
reason at the outset. Science asked for explanations; the so-called hypothesis explained nothing, but
only aggravated the difficulties. The old view being thus discredited and the field clear, Naturalists
found that the real alternative was a scientific hypothesis or nothing. It might be that only an imper-
fect explanation could be given; but even that would be better than none at all; while we always arrive
at truth gradually. The attitude of inquirers upon this subject is fairly indicated by the following
remarks of Dugald Stewart: "In examining the history of mankind, as well as in examining the
phenomena of the material world, when we can not trace the process by which an event has been
produced, it is often of importance to be able to show how it may have been produced by natural causes.
Thus, although it is impossible to determine with certainty what the steps were by which any particular
language was formed, yet if we can show, from the known principles of human nature, how all its vari-
ous parts might gradually have arisen, the mind is not only to a certain degree satisfied, but a check is
given to that indolent philosophy which refers to a miracle whatever appearances in the material and
moral world it is unable to explain."
CHAPTER III.
.
RELIGIOUS BEARING OF THE QUESTION.
THERE is a prejudice in many minds against this question as dangerous in a religious point of view;
and the positions taken in the preceding chapter may be held by some to justify it. This apprehension
is altogether groundless; but as it is honestly entertained by many, and if unremoved might tend
strongly to bias their judgment in regard to the statements which are to follow, it is important to show
at the outset that objections of this kind are fallacious.
There are many intelligent religious men to whom any reply to such objections would be superflu-
ous, and who perfectly understand that that is not religion which can be overthrown by an extension
of biological science. They know that apart from the associated theological dogmas the essence and
basis of religious faith consists in the feeling we entertain toward the Divine Mysterious Power of which
all things are the manifestations, and not in any intellectual doctrine concerning particular modes of
action in the physical world, and they accordingly recognize that religion can be put in no greater peril

RELIGIOUS BEARING OF THE QUESTION.
5
"
9 6
a
than to make it dependent upon any special interpretation of natural phenomena, because all such
interpretations are liable to change. For if the view which thus becomes invested with religious
sacredness happens at length to prove false—as in the growth of inquiry it is very likely to do-the
rejection of the error seems like rejecting religion itself, and the chances are that it will be clung to long
after it has been exploded, or that there will be a pitiful attempt to patch up the case by some kind of
juggling compromise, and that "the sense of truth will be destroyed in the effort to harmonize impossi-
bilities." Such men remember that theology committed itself to the old astronomy, and after a
hundred years of desperate conflict it came out thoroughly beaten and sadly crippled; then it took
issue with the geologists, and again sustained a damaging defeat. They perceive that it now plants
itself in the pathway of progressive biology with the most certain prospect of a like result—while they
are well assured that the true religious element, which has survived two revolutions, will survive also
the present.
But there are others, less considerate, who are willing to put religion to hazard with every impor-
tant advance of science, and in this case they seem bent upon risking everything. It is persistently
charged by many adherents of the old view that the theory of creation by natural law destroys all
possibility of religion by striking from the universe that Divine Power which is the object of religious
feeling. In the language of theological polemics, the doctrine in question is declared to be "blank,"
" bald," " dreary," “ remorseless” atheism! There is on the face of it something altogether absurd in
the position here taken. There are thousands of species of infusorial creatures so minute that but for
the invention of the microscope they would never have been known; yet there are men who offer
to wager their religion that each one of these species is the result of a special miracle of separate
creation! From a germ that can not be distinguished from that of an oak or a zoophyte, in a quarter
of a century is developed a Newton or a Shakspeare, and that in the regular course of nature and with
no pretext of a miracle; and yet we are told that if nature is to be held competent to originate a tribe
of Bushmen, who can not count their fingers, religion, God, and the spiritual world are gone forever!
To those who hold such extravagant views the Naturalists reply, that to deny the special creation of
species is not to deny their Divine origin; creation by law being just as consistent with the conception
of a Divine Power as creation by miracle. Moreover, to limit the Divine action to miraculous interfer-
ence is nothing less than to expel the Creator from the universe, for we now know nothing of such
interference: Divine agency must be seen in the order of nature, or not seen at all. If the existing
universe of law bears no witness to a Divine Creator, then of course all study of nature is atheistic-
a conclusion which few will maintain. But if the Creator is seen in the perfection and order of his
works, then the development of the Animal Kingdom within that order, and as a part of it, must be
regarded as a part of the Divine economy, and the view can not be irreligious, much less atheistic.
But the extreme views urged by some religious people are by no means shared by all. That the
Creator does work by general laws, and is just as truly seen in this mode of action as in that of special
creations, is an avowed doctrine of the most eminent and sound orthodox theologians. The Rev. Dr.
Whewell, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, says: “But with regard to the material world, we can
at least go as far as this—we can perceive that events are brought about, not by insulated interpositions
of Divine power exerted in each particular case, but by the establishment of general laws." The Bishop
of Salisbury, in his charge in 1867, said: "He who is the alone Author and Creator of all things does
not by separate acts of creation give being and life to these creatures which are to be brought forth, but
employs his living creatures thus to give effect to his will and pleasure, and as his agents to be the
means of communicating life.” The eminent Bishop Butler says:
The eminent Bishop Butler says: “The only distinct meaning, of the
word natural, is stated, fixed, or settled ; since what is natural as much requires and presupposes an
intelligent agent to render it so, that is, to effect it continually, or at stated times, as what is super-
natural or miraculous does to effect it for once.
The Duke of Argyle, though writing against Darwinism, goes still farther, and admits that the ob-
jections to it are not religious. He says that Darwin's hypothesis “is not in itself inconsistent with the
theistic argument or with belief in the ultimate agency and directive power of a creative mind. * * *
So far, therefore, as a belief in a Personal Creator is concerned, the difficulties in the way of accepting
this hypothesis are not theological.” Hugh Miller, also an opponent of development, and writing in the
interest of theology, said: "God might as certainly have originated the species by a law of development
as he maintains it by a law of development; the existence of a First Great Cause is as perfectly com-
patible with the one as with the other."
The Evolutionists, therefore, hold themselves justified in maintaining not only that their view is
consonant with religion, but that it is in fact the more truly religious view, because the more complete
the scheme of the universe and the grander the results brought about by it, the more exalted and rev-
erent must be our conceptions of its Author.
Those who hold that the Creator is honored by ascribing to him an inscrutable miraculous mode of

6
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
working, insist also that to pry into the Divine mysteries is irreverent and presumptuous. Besides, the
acts of creation being beyond the sphere of nature, it is said the investigation of them is beyond the
sphere of science, With this view the party of progress have no sympathy. They hold that to search
for truth in every quarter is a duty conferred upon man with his rational nature; while there is no
greater presumption than thus arbitrarily to circumscribe the sphere of reason.
The attempts to stop inquiry into the origin of species on the ground of its alleged irreverence they
regard as but a part of the old superstition, which forbade all inquiry on the same ground. It was held
to be impious to make a catalogue of the stars; presumptuous to explain an eclipse or the motions of
the planets, and sacrilege to dissect the human body; and each advance of science in interpreting the
works of God has been denounced in the same way. It needs to be better understood that scientific
men recognize a duty in this respect, a duty which Bishop Tait, of London, thus impresses upon them:
" The man of science ought to go on honestly, patiently, diffidently, observing and storing up his obser-
vations, and carrying his reasonings unflinchingly to their legitimate conclusions, convinced that it
would be treason at once to the dignity of science and religion if he sought to help either by swerving
ever so little from the straight rule of truth."
This charge of irreverence is also especially dealt with by the Duke of Argyle. He says: "In
nothing has the human race been more liable to the delusions of superstition than in the conception of
the matters which were to be held, or were not to be held as forbidden to investigation. Those phys-
ical laws of nature which are now so familiar to us as the peculiar field of observation and discovery-a
field on which the march of intellect has been so rapid and so triumphant-were once held by the early
Greek philosophers as belonging to the most sacred things of God. * * * We should never be jealous
of research, but always jealous of presumption; and on all subjects Reason should be warned to keep
within the limits of her powers, but from none should reason be warned away. Men who denounce
any particular field of thought are always suspected. The presumption is, that valuable things which
these men do not like are to be found there. * * * In opposition to these attempts-come from what
quarter they may—to limit arbitrarily the boundaries of knowledge, let us maintain the principle that
we never can certainly know what is "inaccessible to reason ” until the way of access has been tried.
In the highest interest of truth we must resist any and every interdict against research. The strong
presumption is, that every philosophy which assumes to issue such an interdict must have reason to
fear inquiry.
“The conception of the universe," says Oersted, “is incomplete if not comprehended as a constant
and continuous work of the eternally creating spirit;" to investigate its order, therefore, in all directions
and to the uttermost is but an inquiry into the Divine operations, and it is binding upon man not only as
a duty to truth, but with the full force of religious obligation.
CHAPTER IV.
OF SPECIES, AND THE MORE RECENT VIEW OF THEIR ORIGIN.
A LIVING being is an assemblage of characters, and all knowledge concerning it is but a knowledge of
these characters. But such beings exist in countless myriads, and so it becomes indispensable to deal
with them collectively or in masses. For this purpose those are grouped together which are most alike-
that is, whose characters most resemble each other. This is classification, and proceeds upon the basis
of comparison of characters and arrangement according to likeness or difference among them. Hence
the question of the origin of a living being resolves itself into the question whence it derived its charac-
ters, and this of course opens the inquiry as to the nature and stability of these characters. The
classification of an animal implies a scale or gradation of traits, each different set of attributes serving
to relate it to a separate group. Now, it is admitted by all that certain of these characters are acquired
by animals in the course of nature; but the adherents of the old view deny that certain other characters
are ever so produced. The issue has been made up with reference to specific characters or those which
constitute species,—the old school holding that they are unchangeable, the new school that they are
produced by developmental changes. The question will hence naturally be asked, What are species?
To this it may be replied that in point of fact the whole discussion is involved in the answer. But for
the benefit of such readers as happen to have paid no attention to Natural History, I will make the
matter as intelligible as possible by employing a single illustration, and will take for this purpose the
familiar case of a dog.
Let us begin at the foundation. The dog possesses weight, and is made up of resisting material

OF SPECIES, AND THE MORE RECENT VIEW OF THEIR ORIGIN.
7
substance, like all the objects of the physical universe. These are the universal characters by which it
is allied with all MATERIAL THINGS.
But the dog differs from a stone. It grows and dies, and in this resembles all living things. These
characters class him with the beings of the ORGANIC WORLD.
Then he has characters which differ from those of plants, and resemble those of animals; he there-
fore belongs to the ANIMAL KINGDOM.
Again : he differs from worms, insects, and all invertebrate creatures, and resembles all which have
a back-bone; he is therefore ranked with the SUB-KINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
He furthermore differs from all those animals which do not suckle their young, and resembles those
which do. He is therefore included in the class MAMMALIA.
Then his teeth differ from the vegetable feeders, and resemble those which live upon flesh; he is
therefore placed in the ORDER CARNIVORA.
Again: he differs from many of the members of this order in the number and shape of his teeth
and in other minor characters; but is similar to the wolves, foxes, and jackals in these and other
respects; hence he belongs to the same FAMILY, CANIDÆ.
Moreover, he differs from the foxes in having a circular pupil, and from other members of the same
family in the number of toes on the fore feet; but agrees with the wolves and jackals in these particu-
lars, and therefore ranks in the same GENUS CANIS.
Yet in the characters of the coat and aspect of tail, in color, mildness of disposition, and domestic-
ability he is quite unlike the wolves and jackals, and constitutes a group by himself, the species CANIS
FAMILIARIS.
Once more he differs from other sorts of dogs in size, coat, structure, and intelligence, and resembles
the other members of a particular breed; he is therefore classed with the VARIETY NEWFOUNDLAND.
And finally his canine characters are so peculiar and personal as to distinguish him from all other
members of the same variety, and he is therefore known as the INDIVIDUAL, CARLO.
We thus begin with those characters by which Carlo is related to all the objects of the physical
universe, or his most fundamental attributes. We then rise to successive sets of characters which deter-
mine his relationship with smaller and smaller groups of living beings until we reach the individual
peculiarities by which he is separated from all other beings whatever.
Now, in this hierarchy of characters, it is admitted that those constituting the individual and the
variety arise by natural causes; but it has been generally held that those constituting species are stamped
immutably in the beginning. Species, indeed, are defined by characters which are assumed to be
unchangeable. Prof. Huxley says: “If in a state of nature you find any two groups of living beings
which are separated one from the other by some constantly recurring characteristic, I don't care how
slight and trivial so long as it is defined and constant, and does not depend on sexual peculiarities, then
all naturalists agree in calling them two species--that is what is meant by the word species." Again, he
says: “Horses form a species, because the group of animals to which the name is applied is distin-
guished from all others in the world by the following constantly associated characters. They have, 1,
a vertebral column; 2, mammæ; 3, a placental embryo; 4, four legs; 5, a single well-developed toe in
each foot provided with a hoof; 6, a bushy tail; and, 7, callosities on the inner sides of both the fore
and the hind legs. The asses, again, form a distinct species, because with the same characters, as far as
the fifth in the above list, all asses have tufted tails, and have callosities only on the inner side of the
fore legs. If animals were discovered having the general characters of the horse, but sometimes with
callosities only on the fore legs, and more or less tufted tails; or animals having the general characters
of the ass, but with more or less bushy tails, and sometimes with callosities on both pairs of legs, besides
being intermediate in other respects, the two species would have to be merged into one."
It was therefore not so much marked differences as permanent differences that were sought by
naturalists to define species. Here they drove their stakes. Fixing upon those elements of organic
beings which according to all observation and experience were immutable, they assumed that those
characters are absolutely immutable—are made unchangeable by Divine ordinance. It was said by
Linnæus: “We reckon just so many species as there were different forms created in the beginning."
The contest, therefore, has been made to turn on this assumed immutability of specific characters, or as
to how species have originated.
Returning now to our familiar example, the case stands thus: Where did Carlo get the characters
which constitute him a dog ? His peculiarities as an individual he of course inherited from his parents.
It is also admitted that his characteristics as a Newfoundland he derived by descent and modification
from the most ancient dog-whatever its kind; but whence did that primeval dog derive the characters
which originated the species C. familiaris? Was this first dog created without progenitors ? and if so,
whence did he come? Did he descend from the clouds ? Did he emerge from a cleft of a tree? Did he
rise molded out of a mass of amorphous earth? And with all his attributes adjusted, was he thrust

8
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
66
into the earthly environment, the great mass of his traits identifying him with the pre-established scheme
of life-a few novel characters only being superadded which constitute him a new species?
Naturalists, as I have said, are more and more regarding this as altogether improbable. They
think it more rational to believe that the species dog has the same kind of origin as the variety Newfound-
land; or that the earliest dogs derived their canine characters by descent and gradual modification from
some pre-existing allied species, perhaps from a wolfish ancestry; and they hold that the way this
species has originated is nature's plan, and therefore the way all species have probably originated.
The first step toward the establishment of new views of the origin of species was the result of fixing
attention closely upon this assumed line or boundary of unalterable characters.
One after another,
independently of each other, and as a result of their own observations and reflections, eminent scientific
thinkers came to the conclusion that the old views of species were untenable and must be given up.
The consideration of a few instances of this in chronological order will bring us naturally to the present
attitude of the inquiry. From the very dawn of science there has been a latent tendency to this view.
Long before accurate knowledge upon the subject was accumulated, the obvious analogies of nature
were sufficient to suggest a natural explanation of the origin of species. It was quite definitely entertained
by Aristotle, and Mr. Darwin, indeed, says that his writings actually shadow forth the substantial principle
of natural selection."
With the rise and advance of modern science these views have become more definite and pro-
nounced. Buffon was perhaps the first to speculate upon the subject in a scientific spirit. He held to
the mutability and transformation of species, but his opinions upon the manner of its accomplishment
took no positive shape. About the years 1794–95 Dr. Erasmus Darwin in England, Geoffroy St. Hilaire
in France, and Goethe in Germany propounded views upon the origin of species by natural processes,
and it was sagaciously remarked by Goethe that "the future question for naturalists will be how, for
instance, cattle get their horns, and not for what they are used." The first-formed hypothesis upon the
subject was put forth by Lamark in the early part of the present century in various publications from
1801 to 1815. In these works he upholds the doctrine that all species, including man, are descended
from other species. He first did the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all
change in the inorganic world being the result of law and not of miraculous intervention. Lamark seems
to have been chiefly led to his conclusion on the gradual change of species by the difficulty of distin-
guishing species and varieties, by the almost perfect gradation of forms in certain groups, and by the
analogy of domestic production (that is, variation by breeding). In 1813 Dr. W. C. Wells, the distin-
guished author of the “ Theory of Dew," anticipated the doctrine of natural selection in its application
to the human race. In 1822 the Rev. W. Herbert, afterward Dean of Manchester, declared that "horti-
.
cultural experiments have established beyond the possibility of refutation that botanical species are only
a higher and more permanent class of varieties." In 1826 Prof. Grant, in the Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal, avowed his belief "that species are descended from other species, and that they become im-
proved in the course of modification.” In 1836 the celebrated naturalist and geologist Von Buch
clearly expresses his belief that varieties become slowly changed into permanent species which are no
longer capable of intercrossing."
In 1844 Humboldt attributed the production of new organic forms to natural changes, saying: "In
the narrowness of our knowledge of natural production, in the figurative language in which this cir-
cumscription of view is concealed, we designate as new creations the historical phenomena of change in
the organisms tenanting the primeval waters and the uplifted dry land." In the same year appeared
the Vestiges of Creation," propounding a view of development by natural law which though crude,
and in many of its features widely erroneous, yet by its brilliant style served to call popular attention to
the subject. In an essay in 1852 Mr. Herbert Spencer “contrasted the theories of creation and develop-
ment of organic beings with remarkable skill and force. He infers from the analogy of domestic pro-
ductions, from the changes which the embryos of many species undergo, from the difficulty of distin-
guishing species and varieties, and from the principle of general gradation that species had been modi-
fied; and he attributes the modification to changes of circumstances.” In 1855 the Rev. Baden Powell
published a very able essay on the “Philosophy of Creation," in which he maintained that the intro-
duction of a new species is "a regular and not a casual phenomenon.”
"
The years 1858–59–60 are memorable in relation to the advance of these views, not only in conse-
quence of the number and eminence of the men who avowed their belief in them, but because they
mark a new stage in the progress of the subject itself. Darwin, Huxley, Hooker, Wallace, and Von
Baer declared their conviction that species are derived by descent and modification ; Von Baer's
opinion being chiefly grounded on the laws of geographical distribution, that forms of life now perfectly
distinct have descended from a single parent form.
But the time had now come for the promulgation of a positive hypothesis. That the special-creation
hypothesis was discredited and out of the scientific field was not enough ; the period had arrived to offer
CC

OF TIME IN RELATION TO THE QUESTION.
9
something in its place. It was not sufficient to announce the belief that species were created by law,
but naturalists thought they might venture to say how it had been done-in what way nature had
worked to bring about the result. In 1858 Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace proposed the views they had
been long maturing, upon this question, and in 1859 Mr. Darwin published his first work embodying
these views under the title of “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.” In 1860 Mr. Her-
bert Spencer, discerning the import and vastness of the inquiry, and the new standpoint which had
thus been reached in the interpretation of nature, began the publication of a broad philosophical system
treating of the phenomena of life, mind, and human society on the basis of the law of evolution.
In the compressed sketch of the subject here to be made, although various authorities will be ap-
pealed to, and a somewhat general view will be attempted, yet as the Systems of Darwin and Spencer are
most prominently associated in the public mind with the Development Hypothesis, I shall give promi-
nence to them in this exposition.
CHAPTER V.
OF TIME IN RELATION TO THE QUESTION.
In considering this subject it is indispensable to get thoroughly rid of the current narrow views
regarding time. The question of the development of life by natural agencies could not in fact be opened
to science until geology had undermined the old notion of the age of the Earth ; and it can not now be
impartially or adequately considered until the mind has become familiar and imbued with the great
truths geology has revealed in relation to the time-aspects of the question. Whether our notion of time
be innate or acquired, everybody agrees that it relates to the succession of effects in nature. The uni-
verse is a mighty theatre of forces producing results-of causes and effects of sequential phenomena.
Time is the condition of all this mutation, so that the rates of change become the measures of time. Time
is, hence, an index to the intensity of activities—to the ratios of cause and effect, and therefore to the
way things are done; in short, it becomes one of the deepest clews to the order of nature.
It is one of the great functions of reason to trace causality in phenomena ; and how a false view of
time inevitably throws reason from the track may be simply illustrated. Supposing a traveller goes to
Egypt to study the monuments of its past civilization, prepossessed by the idea that it has all taken
place in the nineteenth century. He contemplates its pyramids, its obelisks, its ruined temples, its
mummies, and its buried cities, under the firm conviction that they have all been produced in half a
century. All natural causation would of course be expelled from thought; the effect would be too
stupendous to be attributed to known agencies, and the traveller would inevitably get a false view, and
fly to the supernatural for an explanation of what he saw. Or suppose a person should regard the
political history of England as the work of half a century. All sequence of occurrence in its changes
would disappear; the maze of bewildering effects would defy all reason, and the person laboring under
the delusion would be driven out of the order of natural occurrences to get an explanation of them.
It was under an embarrassment of this kind, only much more aggravated, that man first began to
study the phenomena of the planet we live on. A world full of the mightiest effects was to be
explained, but they could not be rationally accounted for so long as the minds of inquirers were
dominated by the old time-limits. History goes back some three thousand years, and reports a state of
things not much differing from the present; but if the globe itself is but six or seven thousand years
old, the whole vast scheme of results must have been brought about miraculously. The effects were
inexplicable, and the facts misinterpreted, so that, as Mr. Lyell shows, geology was kept back three
hundred years by the attempts to torture the plainest observations into harmony with the traditional
notions of time.
But even when men had broken away from these narrow conceptions, and the notion of indefinite
time was theoretically accepted, it was only gradually and step by step that the geologists arrived at full
liberty of thinking in regard to the subject. The phenomena were presented to the mind in stupendous
aspects, and in contemplating them it was easier to conceive of stupendous forces working rapidly by
convulsions and catastrophes, than by slowly acting agencies accumulating results in long periods.
Hence the geologist at first drew upon an imaginary unlimited fund of power for the explanation of
natural phenomena. But it at length began to be perceived that the amount of force in nature is as
rigorously fixed as the amount of matter; and that the consumption of it in one place depends upon
the liberation of it in another. The gcologist had then no alternative but to fall back upon the unlimited
fund of time, and to conceive of effects in nature as more measured and regular. Hence arose the now
well-established doctrine of uniformitarianism in geology; or that the changes have gone on at more
uniform rates through the epochs of the Earth's history.

10
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
Thus geology has achieved its liberty in the matter of time. It postulates in all its inquiries)
the immeasurable antiquity of the Earth and makes vast durations its familiar data. Prof. Dana, for
example, a cautious reasoner, estimates the growth of a coral reef at one-eighth of an inch a year.
Some reefs, he says, are 2,000 feet thick, which would require 192,000 years for their formation. And
so in the formation of deltas at the mouths of rivers, and in the excavation of rocky gorges like
Niagara, or the great cañons of Colorado, the estimates of time are carried on in terms of hundreds of
thousands of years.
Such special estimates, however, are but the smaller fractions of geological time. It is only when
we regard the successive rock formations, thousands of feet thick, that we begin to realize what stupen-
dous periods were required for their formation. They were produced by the slow wearing down of stony
materials, their deposit as sediment, their re-hardening into rock, and then the slow elevation of ocean
beds, and the formation of continents. The stratified rocky systems are now estimated as twenty miles
in thickness, and Mr. Lyell assigns not less than 240 millions of years as the time required for their
deposit. Sir William Thompson, of Glasgow, has undertaken to show from astronomical causes, from
data drawn from the nebular hypothesis, which is an hypothesis of planetary development, that the range
of time which geologists assume is inadmissible, and that geological history must be limited to "some
such period of past time as a hundred million of years.” But the President of the Geological Society,
Mr. Huxley, shows that the objection has little weight, while the vague phrase, “some such period,”
leaves time enough for all geological purposes. All agree that the actual periods were of inconceivable
duration
But who can conceive what is meant by even one million of years? It is a thousand periods of a
thousand years each; it is 33,333 generations of human life. Take a strip of paper eighty-three feet
four inches long, stretch it along the wall of a large hall and let it represent a million of years. Then
mark off at one end the tenth of an inch, and it will represent a hundred years. So impossible is it to
realize these mighty durations in any terms of our experience, years or generations, and so vague and
immense are the periods with which the geologist must deal, that he does not ordinarily attempt to
express them in years or centuries. He only speaks of cycles, eras, periods, epochs and sub-epochs in
comparison with each other.
Now, it is sufficiently obvious that the old mistake in regard to time would inevitably produce the
same errors concerning the past changes of life as concerning the past changes of the Earth itself. The
habitual contemplation of the planet as only a few thousand years old would compel the conclusion
that its multitudinous life could not be the result of natural causes. It could only be held that species
were recently and miraculously created and endowed with all the characters which we see that they
now possess. But with enlarged views of time we are permitted to introduce the same modes of inter-
preting phenomena into Biology that have low become well established in Geology.
It is important here to note how profoundly the case is changed by clearing away these preliminary
difficulties of the subject. Indeed, it is not only altered, but its fundamental conditions are totally re-
versed. The human mind is bound to know if it can, and if its course is blocked in one direction, it
must move in another. We are not merely absolved from the necessity of explaining the origin of living
races by inscrutable miraculous intervention, but we are compelled to explain it on the hypothesis of
natural law. We are not only relieved from having to deal with the question as one involving the six-
thousand-year period, but we are forced to consider it on the basis of untold millions of years. The
physical order is in the field unquestioned, and the amount of time is overwhelming. We have an
eternity of it behind us, while the very conception of time implies action, change, force, cause, incessant
accomplishment. But if Nature has not been idle in all these cycles, how has she worked? Has her
policy been mere purposeless energizing ? or has there been a plan? If a plan, did it begin high and
perfect and lapse away into degeneracy? or did it begin low and have all these mighty periods contrib-
uted to the unfolding of a stupendous order?
CHAPTER VI.
THE PAST LIFE OF THE GLOBE.
The inversion of all the conditions of the question to which reference has been made at the close
of the preceding chapter presented the living world to the student in altogether a new aspect. Hitherto
living creatures had been taken for just what they appeared, and it was believed that they could be
completely understood by studying their present structures and relations with each other. But an ele-
ment before unrecognized and unsuspected now came forward into an all-determining prominence : it

THE PAST LIFE OF THE GLOBE.
11
was the influence of the past upon the life of the present. It was found not only that there is an im-
mense past to be explored and explained, but it was discovered, also, that without the light derived
from this source, we can not rightly interpret that which is directly before our eyes. No naturalist
can be found who believes it possible to understand the animal kingdom by regarding it simply as it
now appears; it can be interpreted only by its antecedents. The existing life of the Earth must be
looked upon as a result—as the last stage of an unbroken series of changes by which the present state
of things has been brought about. What, then, are the leading facts in regard to the past life of the
globe?
The great changes of past time form an all-connected system, but it has a twofold aspect. The
mutations of life have been involved with the mutations of the Earth itself; and it will be necessary
briefly to glance at these first. The following facts are elementary in Geology. The forces of nature-
heat, frost, chemical decomposition, and the erosive action of water—are constantly wearing down the
rocky surface of the Earth into powder and soil, while the streams, rivers, and ocean currents carry out
the sediment and deposit it as mud at the bottom of the sea ; the coarser particles fall first, and the finer
are borne farther, so that the sedimentary beds have different textures. These muddy layers, inclosing
whatever contents they may happen to hold, are at length consolidated into rocks which form the strata.
New strata have been formed in succession, one above another, and one after another, so that there is
an order of position corresponding with the order of time—the lower being also the older. Yet the
arrangement is far from being as simple as this statement might imply; for although there is a general
order to which all the rock systems conform, there is often great want of correspondence between the
systems of different localities, the circumstances of deposition are always varying, and, moreover, the
beds are not allowed to remain quiet when once formed. The surface of the Earth is never absolutely
stationary; in its different parts it is always slowly rising and sinking. "Instead of the surface of the
Earth being that stable, fixed thing that it is popularly believed to be, being, in common parlance, the
very emblem of fixity itself, it is incessantly moving, and is in fact as unstable as the surface of the
sea, except that its undulations are infinitely slower and enormously higher and deeper.” Hence the
sea bottom rises to form islands and continents, and the continents sink until they are buried by the
ocean. This subsidence and emergence has taken place a great many times in the course of geological
history.
Now, the rocky systems contain the records of the Earth's past life; the fossil relics of animals, more
or less perfect, are distributed through the stratified formation, and they turn out to exist there in
conformity with a great plan. All kinds of animals were not produced at first, leaving their mingled
traces in the lowest rocks, but different kinds have appeared in succession. Some kinds have survived
from the beginning, increasing or diminishing in numbers; and some have dropped out of the scheme,
while extinct species have never been reproduced. It is agreed, on all hands, that this succession of life
is properly a progress. In the oldest fossiliferous rocks we find the traces of the lowest kinds of animals,
and the higher grades appear successively in the higher and later formations. Prof. Owen says: “In
regard to animal life and its assigned work on this planet, there has plainly been an assent and progress
in the main.” It is not to be supposed that the progress and order of life is an inference from the order
of the geological formations; on the contrary, the order of the rocks has been largely determined by the
scheme of life. "Rocks are but the moving sands or the accumulations of dead relics of the age they
represent, and are local phenomena. It is only through the fossils in the rocks that the special histories
are combined into a general system.”—Dand. The subdivisions of geological history are accordingly
based on the great steps of organic progress; and in the following graphic scheme from Prof. Dana's
Geology (illustrated on the next page) we have this view carried out. The system of ages is based upon
the progress of life, and is substantially the same as that drawn up by Prof. Agassiz. It will be useful
to impress the reader's mind with the great facts that life, both vegetable and animal, has not only been
progressive, but that the development of life has been the guiding and the predominant fact in the
past history of the earth. In the following statement of the order of this development we follow the
excellent authority of Prof. Dana's “Manual of Geology." The horizontal bands of the diagram
represent the ages or epochs in succession; the vertical bands correspond to different groups of animals
and plants; their breadths indicating the comparative quantities of the kind of life upon the globe at
each epoch.
The Radiates begin with the lower Silurian, and continue until now, rather increasing throughout
the ages. For an account of this division of animals see page 622 of the second volume.
The Mollusks have their beginning at the same time, and continue increasing to the age of Rep-
tiles. They then pass their maximum — as indicated in the diagram-and decline. For this group
see Vol. II., p. 487.
The Articulates, as the diagram shows, commence in the Silurian (as crustaceans and worms), and
continue expanding in numbers and grade to the present time. Vol. II., p. 533.
2

12
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
Fishes begin in the Silurian, are very abundant in the Devonian, and continue on becoming increas-
ingly diversified to the last, without much rise in grade. Vol. II., p. 419.
Reptiles begin in the top of the Devonian, and reach their maximum in the Reptilian age. Vol. II.,
p. 355.
Mammals begin in the Reptilian age, and have their maximum in the Mammalian age. See p. 34
of the present volume.
The Silurian is eminently the age of Mollusks for this is the highest branch of the Animal Kingdom
which is represented at that time in all its grand subdivisions: Brachiopods, see Palliobranchiata, Vol.
II., p. 519; Conchifers, Lamellibranchiata, Vol. II., p. 519; Gasteropods, Vol. II., p. 505 ; Pteropods, Vol.
II., p. 518; Cephalopods, Vol. II., p. 494. All these begin in the lower Silurian, and the Molluscan type
is thus unfolded at the outset, while the Articulates are represented by only the inferior marine divisions,
and the Radiates, besides being an inferior type, are present only in the lower tribes of the three classes.
The
age is eminently, therefore, the age of Mollusks.
ANIMALS.
PLANTS.
Age of Man.
MANI
NUMIS
MAMMAUSI
OBS
Age of
Mammals.
Age of Palms
and
Dicotyledons.
GUSGES
SE2
AGROOBNIS
QQINIGERS
MADIS
Age of Reptiles.
Age of Cycads.
RADUATES
MODUSKS
ARQUDATES
Age
of Amphibians.
Carboniferous
Age.
Age of Fishes,
or Devonian.
Age of
Sea-weeds.
Age of Mollusks,
or Silurian.
Azoic.
As to the vegetable world, sea-weeds (or Algæ) are the earliest of the globe, probably preceding
animal life. The Acrogens begin in the Devonian or earliest, and have their greatest expansion in the
age of coal plants, where they occur with abundant Conifers. Cycads begin in the Carboniferous, and
have their greatest expansion in the Reptilian age. Dicotyledons begin in the closing period of the
Reptilian age, and expand along with Palms through the age of Mammals.
Such is a meagre outline of the past life of the globe, and it brings us to the following conclusions,
which are accepted on all hands: First, the Earth has had a vast, an inconceivable antiquity; second,
it has been subjected during its past history to the incessant action of the same physical forces which it
now displays; third, it has been the scene of life for untold millions of years; fourth, this life has under-
gone extensive changes, many kinds of creatures having become extinct, while new kinds have made
their appearance successively; fifth, these changes have been on a plan, and that plan has been a
progress; sixth, the lowest forms of life appeared first, higher grades succeeded, and the highest of all
made their appearance last.
Now, as regards the question before us, it is admitted that these facts settle nothing; but it is equally
certain that they change the whole aspect of the question from what it has formerly been. During
all the thousands of years while the traditional hypothesis was a universal belief, not one of these facts
was known. They are all discoveries of modern science, and they show not only how completely the
problem belongs to science, but they indicate the inevitable course of investigation. From this bare
sketch of the larger features presented by the past life of the globe, let us now look a little closer into
the relations of the phenomena.

CONTINUITY IN NATURE.
13
1
CHAPTER VII.
CONTINUITY IN NATURE.
The doctrine of the harmony or unity of nature which may now be regarded as established,
implies the intimate dependence of phenomena, and that they pass into each other by insensible and
continuous gradations. Man's first mental conquests over nature were in isolated districts separated
by wide tracts, and he has been very prone to conclude that the discontinuity of his knowledge was
due to gaps among the phenomena themselves. Yet the extension of knowledge has been a constant
filling up of these breaks ; thus confirming the evidence of an unbroken order and a principle of con-
tinuity.
The first great step in this direction was the unifying of the Earth with the heavens in one grand
system. “In astronomy from the time when the Earth was considered a flat plain bounded by a flat
ocean—when the sun and moon and stars were regarded as lanterns to illuminate this plain, each
successive discovery has brought with it similitudes and analogies between this Earth and many of the
objects of the universe with which our senses widened by instruments have made us acquainted.” The
Earth is but one of a scheme of revolving and circling planets. Their centre is undoubtedly a star, and
the stars of space are unquestionably suns; while a simple law—that of attraction-controls alike the
movements of the celestial and terrestrial bodies. A supposed gap in the solar system has been found
filled with asteroids, while the revolving meteorites are but planetoids of a still lower grade, so that "it
is no far-fetched speculation to suppose that between asteroids and the meteorites, bodies of an intermediate
size exist until the space occupied by our solar system becomes filled up with planetary bodies varying
in size from that of Jupiter to that of a cannon-ball, or even a pistol-bullet."
As regards the matter of which the universe is composed, as well as the forces which it displays, we
are also rapidly approaching the view of unity and continuity. The meteorites which arrive at the
Earth have a composition similar to terrestrial matter, while the similarity increases as we penetrate
deeper into the rocks of the Earth's crust. At this point spectrum analysis has come to our aid, and
demonstrated that many of the chemical elements which abound on Earth exist also in the sun and
stars. The physical forces which were formerly held as separate entities with nothing in common, are
now found to have such a community of nature as to be convertible into each other ; they are all unifi-
able as modes of motion in matter.
Now, this same principle of continuous and graduated action is also conspicuously exemplified in
the field of life. In aspects, structures, and functions the various tribes of animals pass into each other
by slight and gradual transitions. The most obvious of these gradations relates to size. Each kind of
animal has its mean limit of growth, and these limits form a continuous scale from the largest whale a
hundred feet long, and weighing a hundred tons, to the minutest animalcule 1-40,000th of an inch in
diameter, and whose ocean is a drop of water. The scale of resemblances in characters is correspond-
ingly close. Man, the highest animal, is linked with the lowest protozoa by hundreds of thousands of
intermediate species. The connection, however, does not so much resemble a chain as a network
with meshes of variable size. Yet the extreme terms being fixed, the discovery of multitudes of new
species each year is constantly lessening the intermediate differences, and making the continuity more
perfect.
In structure the Animal Kingdom displays a unity of plan or a correlation of parts by which com-
mon principles are traced through the most disguising diversities of form. The arm of a man, the fore
limb of a quadruped, the wing of a bird, and the fin of a fish contain the same essential parts modified
to suit the different circumstances of the animal. The study of anatomy, which is but the determination
of special structures, became philosophic when it began to consider the relations, equivalents, and varia-
tions of structural parts, and in this broad aspect is known as the study of homologies. “This pursuit,"
says a high authority," has resulted in the demonstration that every individual of every species of a
given branch of the Animal Kingdom is composed of elements common to all, and that the differences
which are so radical in the higher grades are but the modifications of the same elemental parts." In
the following statement of the structure and relations of the several branches of the Animal Kingdom,
I shall closely follow the recent admirable exposition of Prof. Edward D. Cope, of the Academy of
Sciences of Philadelphia-one of our ablest comparative anatomists.
The lowest of the sub-kingdoms is the Protozoa, the individuals of which consist of a mass of cells
or protoplasmic matter without any distinct organs. In the Cælenterata (example, corals), the or-
ganism is composed of many cells arranged in distinct parts upon a radiate plan. The Echinodermata
(such as the starfish) have a body containing a distinct system of organs inclosed in a visceral cavity

14
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
including a rudimentary nervous system in the form of a ring—the plan being bilateral radiate. The
Mollusks are a sack, with higher complications than the starfish ; including extensions of the nervous
system from the ring as a starting-point, and a special organ for a heart. In the Articulates (crabs and
insects) we have like complications, and a long, distinct nervous axis on the lower surface of the body.
Its plan is a series of external rings. In the Vertebrates, the nervous ring becomes a brain with a bony
axis on the upper side of the body—“a ring upon a ring joined together by a solid centre-piece represents
the plan of each of the vertebrates."
Here the anti-Evolutionists claim to have a strong position. These great fundamental types of ani-
mal structure, say they, are so radically distinct that they can not be included as successive parts or
stages in a continuous line of development. To this it may be replied, first, that the development
hypothesis does not require it; and secondly, as to what it does require, the difficulty is by no means
so formidable as it is assumed to be. Distinct and incompatible as these typical structures may seem,
they yet approach each other at points of modification so as fully to vindicate the principle of conti-
nuity, as has been clearly shown by Prof. Cope. He says: “The Vertebrates approach the Mollusks
closely at the lowest extreme of the former and higher of the latter. The lamprey eels of the former
possess several characters in common with the cuttle-fish or squids of the latter. The amphioxus is
called the lowest Vertebrate, and though it is nothing else, the definition of the division must be
altered to receive it: it has no brain !
“The lowest forms of the Mollusks and Articulates are scarcely distinguishable from each other,
60 far as adhesion to the plan’ is concerned, and some of the latter division are very near certain
Echinodermata. As we approach the boundary lines of the two lowest divisions, the approaches
become equally close.
“More instructive is the evidence of the relation of the subordinate classes of any one of these
divisions. The condition of those organs or parts which define classes exhibit a regular relation,
commencing with simplicity and ending with complication; first associated with weak exhibitions of
the highest functions of the nervous system-at the last displaying the most exalted traits found in the
series.
“For example: in the classes of Vertebrates we find the lowest nervous system presents great
simplicity-the brain can not be recognized; next (in lampreys), the end of the nervous axis is subdi-
vided, but scarcely according to the complex type that follows. In fishes, the cerebellum and cerebral
hemispheres are very minute, and the intermediate or optic lobes very large. In the reptiles, the cerebral
hemispheres exceed the optic lobes, while the cerebellum is smaller. In birds, the cerebellum becomes
complex, and cerebrum greatly increases. In mammals, the cerebellum increases in complexity or
number of parts, the optic lobes diminish, while the cerebral hemispheres become wonderfully complex
and enlarged, bringing us to the highest development in man.
“The history of the circulatory system in the Vertebrates is the same: first, a heart with one
chamber, then one with two divisions; three divisions belong to a large series, and the highest possess
four. The origins of the great artery of the body, the aorta, are first five on each side; they lose one in
the succeeding class in the ascending scale, and one in each succeeding class or order, till the mammalia,
including man, present us with but one on one side.
“From an infinitude of such considerations as the above, we derive the certainty that the general
arrangement of the various groups of the organic world is in scales; the subordinate within the more
comprehensive divisions.”
Geology has formerly been considered the stronghold of breaks and discontinuous phenomena, but
we have seen that here also with growing knowledge continuous and graduated action is more and more
found to be the rule. I desire now to call attention to the analogy between the distribution of animals in
space and their distribution in time as exemplifying continuous connection. Upon this subject Mr.
Alfred Russel Wallace observes: “Large groups, such as classes and orders, are generally spread over the
whole Earth, while smaller ones, such as families and genera, are frequently confined to one portion,
often to a very limited district. When a group is confined to one district, and is rich in species, it is
almost invariably the case that the most closely allied species are found in the same locality, or in closely
adjoining localities.”
Now, between this geographical distribution of life and its distribution in past geological time, Mr.
Wallace points out a remarkable similarity. He says: “ Most of the larger and some smaller groups
extend through several geological periods. In each period, however, there are peculiar groups, found
nowhere else, and extending through one or several formations. As generally, in geography no species
or genus occurs in two very distant localities without being also found in intermediate places—so in
geology the life of a species or genus has not been interrupted. In other words, no group or species has
come into existence twice.” From these facts Mr. Wallace deduces the following important law: “ Every
species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a pre-existing closely allied species.”

CONTINUITY IN NATURE.
15
In treating of historical geology in his "Manual,” Prof. Dana gives emphasis to the doctrine of
continuity. He says: “Geological history is like human history in this respect : time is one in its course
and all progress one in plan." “All attempts to divide the course of progress in man's historical devel-
opment into
ages with bold confines are fruitless. We may trace out the culminant phases of different
periods in that progress, and call each culmination the centre of a separate period. But the germ of the
period was long working onward in preceding time, before it finally came to its full development and
stood forth as a characteristic of a new era of progress. It is the same with the development or history
of an individual being. There are distinct epochs and periods in the history which all recognize-the
period of the embryo, of the youth, of the adult. But no one thinks of marking the hour or day when
one ends and another begins, or of pointing to a visible physical line that at any given moment was
passed. It is not in the nature of history to be divided off by visible embankments; and it is a test
of the true philosopher to see and appreciate the culminations of phases in time, or of the successive
ideas in the system of progress, amid the multitude of events and indefinite blendings that bewilder
other minds. The beginning of an age will be in the midst of a preceding age; and the marks of the
future coming out to view are to be regarded as prophetic of that future. The age of Mammals was
foreshadowed by the appearance of mammals long before, in the course of the Reptilian age, and the
age of Reptiles was prophesied in types that lived in the earlier Carboniferous age. Such is the system
in all history. Nature has no sympathy with the art which runs up walls to divide off her open
fields."
It is obvious that Prof. Dana is deeply impressed with the principle of continuity; but as he holds
to physical breaks and special creations," he is compelled to interpret continuity of plan in a mystical
sense, and to make it ideal rather than physical-prophetic rather than objective and causal. We may
notice in passing, however, that his analogies are quite against him. Although in general history we see
events in their germs, and in individual development we can find the later stages predicted in the
earlier, yet is it not in both cases because the continuity is in the phenomena themselves, so that one
thing produces another in an unbroken series of cause and effect?
The full proof of the principle of continuity in nature as respects both matter and force would be
the complete establishment of the Theory of Development. I have here only called the reader's atten-
tion to a few leading aspects of the phenomena; other and more important examples of it will be
adduced farther on. The considerations presented in this and the preceding chapter, however, make
one conclusion perfectly certain : the introduction of new species was not a casual or arbitrary thing;
it was a regular phenomenon. It did not violate the plan of nature, it harmonized with it, and was a
part of it. It conformed to an established method of operations, and was subordinate to a scheme of
natural effects. It was not a solitary act, but it recurred hundreds of thousands of times along the
course of an ever-unfolding order. As remarked by Rev. Baden Powell, “ The introduction of a new
species is part of a series. But a series indicates a principle of regularity and law, as much in organic
as in inorganic changes. The event is part of a regularly ordained mechanism of the evolution of the
existing world out of former conditions, and as much subject to regular laws as any changes now taking
place. If the series be regular, its subordinate links must each be so; the part can not be less subject to
law than the whole. That species should be subject to exactly the same general laws of structure,
growth, nutrition, and all other functions of organic life, and yet in the single instance of their mode
of birth or origin should constitute exceptions to all physical law, is an incongruity so preposterous that
no inductive mind can for a moment entertain it."
There are many who acquiesce in these positions and rest the question at this point. They give up
the old view, and accept the argument from the order of nature as conclusive; but while believing that
species have originated by natural law, they deny that we know anything of the way in which it was
done. This has been Prof. Owens' ground. He long ago avowed his belief that species were produced,
not miraculously by the First Cause, but regularly and by the agency of secondary causes-in some
inscrutable way
Yet the question can not be allowed to rest here. When so many facts bearing directly upon the
question have already been arrived at, and so large a concession is made as that the forms of life have
been originated within the natural order and by natural causes, there can be no excuse for neglecting to
press the inquiry as to what these causes are. It may be that we can only get a partial glimpse of them ;
it must be that we can now only arrive at an imperfect solution of the question; yet philosophical
naturalists maintain that we already know much of the action of the real causes which have been at
work in this field. It remains now to present the evidence they have to offer as to how the alleged
development may have been or has been brought about.

16
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
CHAPTER VIII.
ADAPTATION OF LIVING ORGANISM S.
The common impression of living beings is that of individual unchangeableness, as we are in the
habit of considering them statically rather than dynamically. Yet the most fundamental fact regarding
them is the very opposite—they are centres of the most rapid and incessant change. Consisting, in
their chief bulk, of but few chemical elements—three gases, and one of the most protean of the solids
which are combined into highly unstable nutritive compounds—the organic constitution is designed to
be the scene of active transformations. Circulation, secretion, waste, and repair are unceasing, and the
continual inflowing and outflowing streams of matter by which life is sustained realize to us the French
idea, that the living organism is a whirlpool or vortex of changes. Life thus involves the idea, not of
fixity, but of mobility.
This fundamental character of the organic constitution gives rise to a certain amount of plasticity
or modifiability by which it is adapted to different conditions external or internal. Both kingdoms of
organic nature illustrate this property. A tree which standing in the forest has a tall and slender trunk,
when growing in an exposed situation has a short and thick stem, the branches take a different direc-
tion, and its whole aspect is changed. Plants taken from their native situations and cultivated in
gardens undergo changes so great as to render them no longer recognizable as the same plants. The
hairy often become smooth ; creepers and trailers grow erect; the ligneous become herbaceous, and
perennials are changed to annuals. If a plant from a swamp gradually works its way on to dry ground,
and then gets transplanted to a hill, or upon the declivity of a mountain, in adapting itself to the new
circumstances it may be so changed that botanists will at first mistake it for a new species.
Equally common, also, are such cases of adaptive modification in the Animal Kingdom. A mollusk
which in tranquil water has a shell comparatively weak and thin, has a more thickened and strength-
ened shell when exposed in rough water. But this adaptation is also a matter of familiar experience
in the highest forms of life. Growth itself is an example of change in which waste and repair are out
of balance; the constructive processes prevail, and the body increases in size. But when growth ceases,
and gain and loss are exactly balanced, special organs and parts are still liable to variations by a dis-
turbance of these processes. If the functional activity of any part is increased, it wastes correspond-
ingly, and there is increased repair; but the repair in such cases rises above the waste, and the part or
organ is augmented in bulk. This is what takes place in the muscular system with the blacksmith's arm
and the dancer's leg—they are modified and enlarged by exercise. The same thing is true of the skin,
which is thickened and hardened by pressure and use, as is seen in the palm of the laborer and the
ends of the fiddler's fingers. The mucous membranes are affected in the same way, as is shown by the
callosity of the gums in those who, having lost their teeth, masticate without them. The vascular sys-
tem conforms to the same law. When the circulation is obstructed, the heart is called upon to exert
more power to propel the blood, producing enlargement or hypertrophy; or when an artery is closed, the
adjacent arteries which carry more blood become enlarged.
The bony system is affected in a similar manner. Those of men accustomed to great muscular
action are more massive than the bones of those who do not labor, and the bones of the same kind of
animals are larger in the wild than in the domestic state. A most remarkable case of adaptive change
in the living system is afforded by the formation of false joints when the fragments of bone fail to unite
after fracture. Both hinge-joints and ball-and-socket-joints, according to Rokitansky, are thus rudely
produced "In the one case, the two ends of the broken bone become smooth and covered with perios-
teum and fibrous tissue, and are attached by ligaments that show a certain backward and forward
motion; and in the other case, the ends similarly clothed with the appropriate membranes become, the
one convex, the other concave, are inclosed in a capsule, and are even occasionally supplied with syno-
vial fluid."
As respects the nervous system, the same law holds good as a matter of fact, although there is no
direct proof of modifications in the nerve centres. But that the sensitiveness of the senses may be
increased is shown by the susceptibility of the palates of tea-tasters; the ear of orchestral conductors,
and the finger-reading of the blind; while all education testifies that the mental faculties are strength-
ened by exercise.
Another case of change impressed upon the constitution by the most subtile modes of action is
furnished by those diseases to which the system is liable but once. The poison of small-pox or of
scarlatina," remarks Mr. Paget, “ being once added to the blood, presently affects the composition of
the whole: the disease pursues its course, and if recovery ensue, the blood will seem to have returned

HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION
17
* *
to its previous condition ; yet it is not as it was before, for now the same poison may be added to it with
impunity. * * The change once effected, may be maintained through life. And herein seems to be
a proof of the assimilative force in the blood; for there seems no other mode of explaining these cases
than by admitting that the altered particles have the power of assimilating to themselves all those
by which they are being replaced ; in other words, all the blood that is formed after such a disease
deviates from the natural composition, so far as to acquire the peculiarity engendered by the disease;
it is formed according to the altered model."
From facts of this kind, which might be indefinitely multiplied, it follows that “there is a margin
of functional oscillations on all sides of a mean state, and a consequent margin of structural variation."
The cases cited illustrate modifications occurring within the limits of common experience, and which
must therefore be small in amount; that they are cumulative, and may increase with time, we shall
shortly find abundant proof.
CHAPTER IX.
HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. .
The characteristics of parents are transmitted to their offspring; oaks produce oaks, and horses are
derived from ancestral horses. But while this fact is recognized by everybody, it is recognized only in a
general way as involving the deeper and more distinctive qualities. Yet it is important to understand
that it applies equally to minor details of structure and aspect. Not only do peas, cabbages, and potatoes
each produce their kind, but each variety of these also perpetuates itself. That is, the forms, sizes,
colors, flowers, and periods of ripening which distinguish one sort from another, are also inherited.
The various special traits of different breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, and dogs attest the fidelity with
which subordinate characteristics are transmitted.
So also with the human race. Not only are negroes derived from negroes, and whites from whites,
but the varieties of the same race are equally perpetuated. The German type of physical structure is
distinctive from generation to generation ; the average Italian face continues to be unlike the faces of
other nations; while the Jew bequeaths to his offspring the features which have so long distinguished
Jews.
But it is not only the normal lineaments and qualities which characterize groups that are transmit-
ted, but also family and individual peculiarities, malformations, and diseases. Such peculiarities and
defects as webbed fingers and webbed toes, enormous black eyebrows, irregularities of teeth, or absence
of particular teeth, hare-lip and club-foot, are well known to be transmitted from parents to offspring
Prof. Huxley says: “I know a case of a man whose wife has the lobe of one ear a little flattened. An
ordinary observer might scarcely notice it, and yet every one of her children has an approximate to the
same peculiarity to some extent." Some persons have the unusual power of contracting the superficial
muscles on their scalps. Mr. Darwin gives a curious instance of this peculiarity on the authority of
A. de Candolle: "He knows a family, in which one member, the present head of a family, could, when
a youth, pitch several heavy books from his head by the movement of the scalp alone; and he won
wagers by performing this feat. His father, uncle, grandfather, and all his three children possess the
same power to the same unusual degree. This family became divided eight generations ago into two
branches, so that the head of the above-mentioned branch is cousin in the seventh degree to the head
of the other branch. This distant cousin resides in another part of France, and on being asked whether
he possessed the same faculty, immediately exhibited his power."
That many diseases are congenital or inherited from progenitors is also certain ; consumption, gout,
asthma, cancer, leprosy, scrofula, apoplexy, and epilepsy are all liable to be transmitted. Numerous
conditions of the eye alone, as cataract, amaurosis, squinting, near sight, long sight, and dull sight are
known to be transmissible.
Mental characteristics are also equally inheritable. This is obvious enough in the case of different
kinds of animals, each of which is distinguished by its special instincts, disposition, and capacities.
Bees, foxes, and elephants, with their physical constitutions, bequeath also their peculiarities and men-
tal characteristics. In the case of man, it has been denied that mind is hereditary; but if we take
different races as Indians, Arabs, Saxons, it is obvious enough that fundamental traits of mind are
hereditary. The doubt applies rather to the transmission of superior mental capacity as seen in indi-
viduals. But the more the subject is studied, the clearer becomes the proof that this form or phase of
vital action is governed by the same laws as its other forms. Most persons will be able to recall instan-
ces of musical faculty running in families; and if this kind of endowment be not transmissible,“ how

18
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
shall we explain cases like those of Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven, who were all sons of men having
unusual musical powers, but who greatly excelled their fathers in musical powers? What shall we say
to the fact that Haydn was the son of an organist, that Hummel was born to a music master, and that
Weber's father was a distinguished violinist? The occurrence of so many cases in one nation within
a short period of time can be ascribed to nothing but inherited developments of structure caused by
augmentation of function."
This question has been studied most thoroughly, perhaps, by Mr. Francis Galton, who has published
his results in a remarkable volume entitled "Hereditary Genius.” He has investigated the subject in
the case of some three hundred English families, containing among them nearly one thousand eminent
men-judges, divines, statesmen, commanders, men of science, poets, and artists, of whom 415 are illus-
trious. The evidence thus afforded, that talent runs in families, is so marked and conclusive as to bring
the author to the conclusion, “that a man's natural abilities are derived by inheritance under exactly
the same limitations as are the form and physical features of the whole organic world."
CHAPTER X.
DESCENT WITH VARIATION.
But strong as is this tendency of the offspring to grow into the likeness of parents, the similarity
is never perfect either in form, structure, or disposition; while they are molded upon the parental type,
it is also true that offspring are never exactly like their parents. Accompanying the tendency to sim-
ilarity there is always a tendency to variation, so that no two living beings are ever seen to be precisely
alike. However closely related, there are always differences which belong exclusively to the indi-
vidual. These variations are confined to no particular organs or characters, but may be manifested by
every part, quality, or instinct of the creature.
Domestic animals, for example, are exceedingly variable. Cattle vary in length of horns, in the
color and texture of the hair, in the shape of the head and length of the limbs, in size, strength, and
capacity for fattening, in the milk-giving quality, and indeed in every particular that has ever been care-
fully studied. Dogs are likewise remarkably variable. In size they are so unlike that the smallest
hardly equals in bulk the head of the largest. In the shape of the head, in the length of body and
limbs, in the character of the coat, in the number and position of the teeth, in the number of toes and
the disposition of the bones of the foot, indeed in almost every anatomical character, the various
breeds afford striking examples of modification. The degree to which the several breeds differ in the
perfection of their senses, dispositions, and inherited habits is notorious to every one. They also pre-
sent some constitutional differences. “The pulse," says Youatt,“ varies materially according to the
breed as well as to the size of the animal. Horses, sheep, pigs, and fowls, indeed all our domestic pro-
ductions, plants included, are known thus to vary in a multitude of ways. (See articles in this vol-
ume on horses, cattle, dogs, etc.) Looking at the individual alone, we usually find that its deviations
from the parent type are slight and inconspicuous, nevertheless they are always there, and their presence
is readily detected by the practical eye. The Laplander knows and gives a name to each reindeer,
though, as Linnæus remarks,“ to distinguish one from the other among such a multitude was beyond my
comprehension, for they were like ants on an ant-hill." German shepherds have won wagers by distin-
guishing each sheep in a flock of a hundred, which they had never seen until the previous fortnight.
Verlot instances the case of a gardener who could distinguish 150 kinds of camelias when not in flower ;
and the famous Dutch florist Voorhelm, who kept some 1,200 varieties of the hyacinth, was rarely de-
ceived in knowing each variety by the bulb alone. This simply shows that numerous differences may
and do exist where to the unfamiliar all appears like the strictest uniformity. The tendency to vary,
though manifested by all living things, is, like their other characters, itself liable to variation ; whence
it results that the extent of departure from the parental form is different in different individuals. While
slight variations are the rule, it sometimes happens that marked peculiarities suddenly appear. Even
among offspring of the same parents one may differ but slightly, another be so unlike that all will
observe it, and a third depart so widely as to amount to a monstrosity, which is simply an extreme form
of variation. For an impressive statement of the extent and effects of this principle in the scheme of
organic nature, the reader is referred to page 597 of this volume.
This tendency to divergence of character is due to various causes, and the first we will notice is the
constitution of sex. In sexual genesis, which is the mode by which all the higher animals are propagated,
variation is an inevitable consequence of the double origin of offspring. The young being derives its

DESCENT WITH VARIATION.
19
traits from different sources; and “inasmuch as the thing propagated proceeds from two organisms of
different sexes, and different makes and temperaments, and as the offspring is to be either of one sex or
the other, it is quite clear that it can not be an exact diagonal of the two, or it would be of no sex at all;
it must deviate to one side or the other." Nor does the male follow the precise type of the father, for its
constitution is qualified by the maternal element; and so also the female offspring includes paternal
traits, and unequal blending gives rise to variation.
That sexual variation obeys definite laws is well shown by the following curious facts. The off-
spring of the he-ass and the mare is a mule, while the offspring of the she-ass and the stallion is what is
called a hinny. But although we have the same elements in the two cases, the result is very different,
according as the male impulse comes from the ass or the horse. In the case of the mule, the head is like
that of the ass, the ears are long, the tail is tufted at the end, the feet are small, and the voice a bray-
traits in which the mule resembles its father the ass. On the other hand, the barrel of the body, and
the cut of the neck resemble the horse. But in the hinny, the stallion has the predominance; the head
is more like that of the horse, the ears are shorter, the legs coarser, and the voice a neigh.
But the results of sexual variation are frequently far from being so definite as this; we may see the
preponderance of one parent over another in the offspring, but the rule of descent becomes more obscure.
We should expect this from the fact, that parents themselves have inherited the traits of their progeni-
tors, and these may be more fully developed in their offspring than in themselves. Indeed, the reap-
pearance of ancestral characters which have been missed in two or three generations is a very common
thing
If it be asked why the children of the same sex are not all alike, inasmuch as the parental con-
stitutions are the same, the reply is, that the parental constitutions are never the same, but are always
slowly changing. Not only are successive children born in different circumstances, but even twins are
never in exactly the same relation to the maternal constitution. It avails nothing to say that the differ.
ences in the parental organisms may be slight; they are initial influences, and in the economy of nature
may give rise to an extensive series of effects. How far-reaching, in the order of nature, influences com-
paratively slight and trivial may be, is happily illustrated by Mr. Spencer. He says:
“In any series of dependent changes, a small initial difference often works a marked difference in
the results. The mode in which a particular breaker bursts on the beach may determine whether the
seed of some foreign plant which it bears is or is not stranded-may cause the presence or absence of
this plant from the flora of the land; and may so affect, for millions of years, in countless ways, the
living creatures throughout the land. A single touch, by introducing into the body some morbid matter,
may set up an immensely involved set of functional disturbances and structural alterations. The whole
tenor of a life may be changed by a word of advice; or a glance may determine an action which alters
thoughts, feelings, and deeds throughout a long series of years. In those still more involved combina-
tions of changes which societies exhibit, this truth is still more conspicuous. A hair's-breadth difference
in the direction of some soldier's musket at the battle of Arcola, by killing Napoleon, might have changed
events throughout Europe; though the social organization of each European country would have been
now very much what it is, yet in countless details it would have been different."
Change of external conditions is a cause of variation, as was illustrated when speaking of adaptation.
How it should give rise to such effects it is not difficult to see. Probably the truest conception of life yet
realized is that which defines it as “the continuous adjustment of internal to external changes.” If the
outer influences be greatly changed, adjustment may fail and life terminate. If the outer influences are
slightly changed, the inner changes are readjusted to them and life continues. But the alteration of
those inner changes which we know as functions, entail alterations of structure which are bequeathed to
the progeny-and thus change of external conditions results in variation.
A few familiar examples will illustrate this. Bad external conditions, that is, unwholesome food, foul,
damp, unventilated habitations, induce changes in the healthy constitution, and engender consumption
which is hereditary. So certain modes of living produce the morbid effects called gout, and that also
is transmissible. Epilepsy is a diseased condition of the brain, in which the subject of it becomes
unconscious, and falls in convulsions. Dr. Brown Sequard has induced this state artificially in guinea-
pigs, and then found that the offspring of these epileptic animals were also epileptic. Here again exter-
nal agency effects a change in the constitution which is transmitted as a morbid variation. The most
familiar cases, however, of constitutional deviations under changed external conditions, are furnished
by domesticated animals. In the wild state, the conditions of life are comparatively uniform, and the
tendency to vary is less marked. But under man's control, the external influences brought to bear are
numerous and varying: The care in rearing is far from uniform. They are now protected, and now neg-
lected, the food is more abundant and diversified, and they are sometimes stinted, and at other times
plied with it to excess. The rates of nutrition and of expenditure of force by exercise are very unequal,
and give rise to various constitutional modifications.

20
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
The causes of variation are hence numerous, complex, and often very obscure; where no causes can
be satisfactorily traced, the phrase "spontaneous variation " has been applied. It does not mean that
the effects are causeless, but simply that they break out without apparent cause. These causes are so
numerous and remarkable as to place in a very striking light the tendency in organic nature to deviate
from the regular course of things. Let us cite a few illustrative instances. Reaumur gives an account
of a Maltese named Gratio Kelleia who was born with six fingers upon each hand, and six toes upon
each foot. This was undoubtedly a deviation from nature's habitual course, but it was not a break of
.
her order, or a wanton leap beyond her course of action, for this spontaneous variation was caught by
the law of hereditary transmission. Kelleia married a five-fingered wife, and had four children. The
first had six fingers and six toes like his father; the third had the usual number of fingers and toes like
his mother, while the second and fourth had five fingers and toes each ; but one had a deformed toe, an
the other a deformed thumb, showing a tendency toward the sixth. In the third generation the defect
was even more marked. The children all married five-fingered and five-toed persons. The oldest son
had five children, and the first three had six fingers and six toes like their grandfather, the fourth child
only being regular ; among the other grandchildren there were several that inherited the deviation, one
of them having six fingers on one hand only.
Now, taking this as a representative case of a numerous well-authenticated class of facts, let us note
what it implies. A deviation apparently capricious results in a so-called deformity, but it is no mere
transient or incidental freak of nature, but an organic impulse which persists with great force. At the
first marriage this irregularity re-appeared. The normal tendency, we might at first suppose, would
neutralize it, or at all events that there would be an equal admixture of the effects; but on the contrary,
we have a great preponderance of the abnormal type. In the third generation there was a second dilu-
tion of the abnormal tendency with the regular, and still the abnormal movement is strong. The results
were not traced into the fourth generation, and the tendency was of course at length neutralized or
“washed out” by the constant antagonism of the normal form. But had the six-fingered and six-toed
cousins intermarried, it is questionable if the abnormal type might not have been perpetuated, and "a
six-fingered variety of the human race have been set up."
That such a supposition is far from unwarranted, will appear by reference to another and an analo-
gous case. In 1791 a Massachusetts farmer named Seth Wright found in his small flock of sheep a male
lamb with very short, crooked legs, and an unusually long body. It occurred to him that if this variety
could be perpetuated, it would be a great improvement, as the short, bandy-legged sheep would be un-
able to leap the fences. So he killed his old ram; and as soon as the young one was grown, bred from it,
and thus started a new variety of sheep which were known as the Ancon or Otter breed. It was re-
markable that the offspring were always either pure Ancons like the father, or ordinary sheep like the
mother—there was no mixture. Let us now consider more particularly the relation of art to these
effects.
CHAPTER XI.
SELECTIVE BREEDING.
In the three foregoing chapters it has been shown that living organisms are by their nature adapt-
ive; that they tend “spontaneously” to vary, and that modifications, whether the result of external
conditions or of inexplicable internal tendencies, are transmitted from generation to generation. These
phenomena are fundamental attributes of life, and are independent of human agency. Yet man has an
important office in relation to the matter. Nature supplies the variation; he detects it; and if suitable,
lie may, by proper management, secure its increase and perpetuation. His function is essentially selective.
He can not cause the variation; but when once it has appeared, he may choose those individuals in
which it is most distinctly manifested, and by a continuance of this process of selection from generation
to generation he lays the foundation of a new and well-marked race. When, as in the case of the Ancon
ram, he encounters some new and strongly marked characters which turn out to be firmly inherited, his
work is reduced to the mere preservation of individuals, and the prevention of crossings. But when, as
in the great majority of cases, he has to deal in the beginning with slight and obscure deviations, and
later on with faintly pronounced and scarcely appreciable additions to these, his task becomes much
more difficult, requiring excellent judgment, the nicest powers of discrimination, and indomitable perse-
verance. He may select with no definite end in view beyond the mere continuance of the standard of
excellence already attained, and this is what is constantly being done by most of those concerned in the
cultivation of plants and the rearing of animals. The farmer, for example, habitually selects the best

SELECTIVE BREEDING.
21
seed from which to grow the future crop, carefully excluding the inferior sorts from any part in the
process of propagation. He likewise chooses his most valued animals for the continuance of their kind,
destroying or putting to other uses those of lower grade. The offspring of the best milkers are selected
to replenish the dairy, and those which keep the easiest, or exhibit the greatest tendency to fatten, are
the ones set apart to keep up the supply of the beef-producing sorts. If horses are his fancy, and speed
and endurance be demanded, he breeds from the fleetest and longest-winded, and so in every case those
which appear best fitted to his future needs are the ones which he devotes to the perpetuation of the
stock. By the long and steady pursuit of such a practice, great and valuable changes have doubtless
been effected. But he may select also with the purpose of modifying existing forms, in order to obtain
some pre-determined standard, and it is where this has been undertaken that we find the most striking
examples of what selection may accomplish.
A good illustration of the estimate which breeders put upon careful selection is found in the prac-
tice followed by sheep-growers in Germany, where they employ what are known as sheep classifiers,
whose special business it is to pick out of the flock the best individuals and thus to preserve, and if pos-
sible improve the best qualities of both parents in the lambs. "In Saxony, when the lambs are weaned,
each in his turn is placed upon a table that his wool and form may be minutely observed. The finest
are selected for breeding and receive a first mark. When they are one year old, and prior to shearing,
another close examination of those previously marked takes place; those in which no defect can be
found receive a second mark, and the rest are condemned. A few months afterward, a third and last
scrutiny is made,—the prime rams and ewes receive a third and final mark; but the slightest blemish is
sufficient to cause the rejection of the animal.
The strawberry was long cultivated without producing any new varieties; but when the fruit came
prominently into notice, and the attention of gardeners was directed to it, it was found to be extremely
variable; and after selection began to be practiced, new varieties were quickly established. When a
fruit that ripened earlier than the common sorts was demanded, a new variety answering the require-
ment was soon forthcoming. Several varieties of late ripeners have also been produced, and others
differing in the shape, size, flavor, and acidity of the fruit are now among the commonest cultivated
plants, and all have arisen through the agency of man's selection. In England there are now more than
three hundred distinct varieties of the gooseberry, which are believed to have descended from a single
wild species. The berries of the wild fruit have an average weight of about five pennyweights, and
in 1786 this weight had been doubled. In 1817, berries produced by a variety known as the "High-
wayman” weighed upward of 26 pwts., and in 1825, another variety, the “Roaring Lion," bore berries
that weighed 31 pwts. In 1830, 32 pwts. 13 grains had been reached in another variety; and in 1852,
a variety called the "London" produced berries weighing 37 pwts. 7 grains. Thus in less than seventy
years the weight of the fruit was almost quadrupled. Much of this remarkable increase was no doubt
due to improved methods of cultivation, but that it was mainly due to the production of improved
varieties by painstaking selection is clear when we remember that each considerable advance in weight
was connected with the introduction and cultivation of some new variety.
The several varieties of the garden pea all belong to the same species, but differ widely among them-
selves, and in no particular so much as in the characters of the pods and seeds. These being the valu-
able parts, are those most subject to selection, and thus they have been greatly improved in size, flavor,
and time of ripening. Starting with the wild seed, a new and excellent variety of parsnips has been
produced by culture and careful selection in four years. Since the culture of the beet in France, its yield
of sugar has been doubled. The specific gravity is regularly tested, and the best selected for the produc-
tion of seed. In the anemone coronaria a plant was found with one additional petal. The seed of this
was sown, and by a continuance of the same course several varieties with six or seven rows of petals
were produced. The single Scotch rose has doubled and yielded eight good varieties in nine or ten
years. The Canterbury-bell was also doubled by careful selection in four generations.
“Throughout the world, wherever silk is produced, the greatest care is bestowed on selecting the
cocoons from which the moths for breeding are to be reared. A successful cultivator likewise examines
the moths themselves, and destroys those that are not perfect.” “In 1784, a race of silkworms was intro-
,
duced into France, in which one hundred out of the thousand failed to produce white cocoons; but now,
after attentive selection during sixty-five generations, the proportion of yellow cocoons has been reduced
to thirty-five in the thousand." The German sheep just referred to are valued chiefly for the fineness of
their wool, and the result corresponds with the care bestowed on their selection. "An Austrian fleece
has been produced of which twelve hairs equalled in thickness one from a Leicester sheep."
It is generally agreed among naturalists, that the various breeds of dogs all belong to the same
species. If the reader will glance over the illustrations given in this volume from page 187 to 231, he
will get a vivid idea of the remarkable contrasts among the numerous varieties of this remarkable
animal. In muscular, bony, and nervous development, in form, strength, fleetness, and variety of
>

22
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
instinct, and intelligence, these diversities are most extreme; in the attribute of size alone, according to
Cuvier, the largest are a hundred times larger than the smallest. This range of diversities has no
doubt in part been produced by a judicious and long-continued system of crossing; but “the most
potent cause of change has been the selection, both methodical and unconscious, of slight individual dif-
ferences, the latter kind of selection resulting from the occasional preservation, during hundreds of gen-
erations, of those individual dogs which were the most useful to man, for certain purposes and under
certain conditions of life.” In the breeding of domestic cattle, selection is regarded as of the very first
importance; and the writings of eminent men in this department are full of testimony in support of its
value when intelligently applied. Says Youatt: the “principle of selection " " is that which enables
the agriculturist not only to modify the character of his flock, but to change it altogether.” Lord Spen-
cer writes: “It is therefore very desirable, before any man commences to breed either cattle or sheep,
that he should make up his mind to the shape and qualities he wishes to obtain, and steadily pursue
this object.” In speaking of the great improvement in the new Leicester sheep effected by Mr. Bakewell
and his successors, Lord Somerville says: “It would seem as if they had at first drawn a perfect form,
and then given it life.” By constantly selecting the descendants of his best milkers for the production
of cheese, Mr. Tollet, an English dairyman, increased the yield in the proportion of four to three in the
short space of eight years. Great improvements have also been effected within recent times in the shape,
size, and fattening qualities not only of cattle, but of sheep and pigs, and chiefly by means of careful
selective breeding. The most valued qualities of the horse, such as speed, endurance, and strength, have
been steadily improved in the same way. Selection for swiftness has been long and methodically fol-
lowed with a marked increase of speed, so that now our race-horses can easily beat their progenitors.
If the reader will turn to the plate opposite page 226, in the second volume, he will there get some
idea of the astonishing diversity of form and appearance exhibited by domestic pigeons. It is estimated
that there are upwards of one hundred and fifty kinds that breed true—that is, hold to the variety-
and have been separately named, and most naturalists believe all these to have descended from a
single species-the wild rock-pigeon. Among this great variety, many are distinguished by compara-
tively slight and unimportant differences, yet the group embraces several forms which differ quite as
much from each other, and from their common ancestor, the rock-pigeon, as do many natural genera.
The Carrier, the Pouter, the Fantail, and the Tumbler are each marked examples of this extreme diver-
gence as it has taken place in different directions; and they thus exhibit in a most striking light what
may be effected by attentive and long-continued selective breeding. The Carrier has a very long, slender
beak, a comparatively small head, with enormous wattles about the eyes, over the nostrils, and on the
lower mandible. Its eyelids and the openings of the nostrils are twice as long as those of the rock-
pigeon. The neck is slender and elongated, and the body and wings are also long, with the feet and
legs large and coarse. The rock-pigeon measures 264 inches from tip to tip of wings; the same meas-
urement in a well-bred Carrier was 314 inches. The Pouter is a still larger bird, with elongated body
and limbs. Its beak is shorter than that of the rock-pigeon or Carrier, and the legs and feet are feathered.
It stands remarkably upright, and has the extraordinary habit-possessed by all pigeons in a slight
degree—of enormously distending its crop and gullet with air, which gives it a very odd and ridiculous
appearance, as shown in the plate above referred to. The Fantail is a small bird, with beak, legs, and
feet also small. Pigeons usually have twelve tail-feathers; in this variety, however, the number varies
from fourteen to forty-two. The tail is permanently expanded like an open fan, and it may be either
depressed or carried erect at the will of the bird. The mark of a good bird is its ability to bring the
tail forward so as to touch the back of the head. The Tumblers take their name from the remarkable
.
habit of tumbling head-over-heels in the air when flying. They are extremely small, weighing less than
half as much as the rock-pigeon, and scarcely a quarter as much as some of the larger domestic breeds.
In the most improved variety, the short-faced Tumbler, the head is nearly globular, the beak is reduced
to almost nothing, and the legs and feet are exceedingly small. Prof. Huxley thus summarizes the
various ways in which domestic pigeons are known to differ: 'In the first place, the back of the skull
may differ a good deal, and the development of the bones of the face may vary a great deal; the beak
varies a good deal ; the shape of the lower jaw varies; the tongue varies very greatly, not only in corre-
lation to the length and size of the beak, but it seems also to have a kind of independent variation of
its own. Then the amount of naked skin round the eyes and at the base of the beak may vary enor-
mously; so may the length of the eyelids, the shape of the nostrils, and the length of the neck. I have
already noticed the habit of blowing out the gullet, so remarkable in the Pouter, and comparatively so
in the others. There are great differences, too, in the size of the female and the male, the shape of the
body, the number and width of the processes of the ribs, the development of the ribs, and the size,
shape, and development of the breast-bone. We may notice, too-and I mention the fact because it has
been disputed by what is assumed to be high authority—the variation in number of the sacral vertebræ.
The number of these varies from eleven to fourteen, and that without any diminution in the number of
>

VARIATION IN NATURE.
23
the vertebræ of the back or of the tail. Then the number and position of the tail-feathers may vary
enormously, and so may the number of the primary and secondary feathers of the wings. Again: the
length of the feet and of the beak,-although they have no relation to each other, yet appear to go
together,—that is, you have a long beak wherever you have long feet. There are differences, also, in
the periods of the acquirement of the perfect plumage, the size and shape of the eggs, the nature of
flight, and the powers of flight, so called 'homing' birds having enormous flying powers; while on
the other hand, the little Tumbler is so called because of its extraordinary faculty of turning head-over-
heels in the air, instead of pursuing a distinct course. And, lastly, the dispositions and voices of the
birds may vary. Thus the case of the pigeons shows you that there is hardly a single particular,
whether of instinct or habit, or bony structnre, or of plumage, of either the internal economy or the
external shape, in which some variation or change may not take place, which by selective breeding may
become perpetuated and form the foundation of, and give rise to, a new race."
CHAPTER XII.
VARIATION IN NATURE.
In the discussion of the origin of species, it has been attempted to break the force of such facts as the
foregoing by saying that the animals thus modified were under artificial conditions, and that the results
are to be attributed rather to man's purposed intervention than to regular natural agencies—to art rather
than to nature. In short, from what goes on under domestication, it is said that we have no right to
infer what will take place in the wild state. But this objection is groundless, for the variations
themselves man does not produce; they are tendencies belonging to organic natures, and by art they are
only rapidly accumulated. They are based upon that adaptability and plasticity of living organisms
which spring from the very nature of life; but in the more comprehensive sense, man's intervention in
the matter is but part of the action of nature. This is a case in which we may recognize a deep philo-
sophical truth in the poet's statement:
"Nature is made better by no mean.
But nature makes that mean! over that art
Which you say adds to nature, is an art
That nature makes."
Yet the point is not to be determined by considerations of this kind; it is a question of observation
and fact. The evidence of variation in nature is overwhelming. The proof of it, indeed, is not that
man has had a hand in producing it, but it is in the results. Living creatures, independent of all man
can do, tend to variations; variation produces diversity; and that diversity is conspicuous and universal
in living tribes in a state of nature. It is perfectly well known that the members of a wild species differ
from one another in many ways, and though their individual differences are less marked, it is probably
as true of wild as it is of tame species, that no two individuals can be found that are alike. Nor are the
differences which they display by any means confined to superficial or unimportant characters, but
they are often exhibited by parts and organs which hold a high place in the economy of the individual.
Mr. Darwin says: "I am convinced that the most experienced naturalist would be surprised at the
number of cases of variability even in important parts of structure, which he could collect on good
authority, as I have collected during a course of years.” De Candolle specifies above a dozen characters
belonging to a single species of oak which may be found varying even on a single branch, and some of
these are such as generally enter into specific definitions. So among animals, individual differences
are everywhere to be found. Insects of the same species vary in their nervous and muscular structures
as well as in external markings; birds vary in the character of their plumage and in size of parts; and
everybody is familiar with the individual differences so universal among men. Further evidence of
variation under natural conditions is found in the existence of numerous wild varieties, both of plants
and animals. The common bramble is regarded by many botanists as constituting but one species em-
bracing many well-marked varieties. The varieties of the oak are also very numerous, as many as
twenty-eight having been made out within the limits of a single species. Wolves have a large
geographical distribution, and as is commonly the case with animals spread over an extensive area,
they are found to vary in many ways; all are admitted to belong to the same species, yet the group con-
tains some fifteen distinct varieties. The foxes are also widely dispersed and very variable; "in
Germany alone the foresters reckon some eight different sorts." So there are varieties of the lion and
the tiger, of bears and hyenas, of birds, reptiles, and fishes; indeed, wherever wild species have been

24
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
carefully studied with a view to the question of variability, there more or less well-defined varieties have
been found.
If we take the case of man, who has certainly not been exposed to the treatment which he has
applied to the lower animals, the degree to which he exemplifies the law of variation we shall find to
be altogether remarkable. It is universally supposed that the diversities among individuals are super-
ficial, but the external aspects, features, proportions, and dimensions do not differ more than the internal
structures. The old anatomist Wolff insists that the internal viscera are more variable than the external
parts. Intelligent dentists declare that there is as much diversity in the teeth as in the features. The
muscles are eminently variable. “Prof. Turner found those of the foot not to be strictly alike in any
two out of fifty bodies, and in some the deviations were considerable." "Mr. G. Wood has recorded the
occurrence of 295 muscular variations in 36 subjects; and in another set of the same number no less than
558 variations." "The chief arteries so frequently run in abnormal courses that it has been found useful
for surgical purposes to calculate from 12,000 corpses how often each artery deviates from its normal
course."
Variation, as a fundamental law of living organisms, being thus established, it remains to inquire
what conditions or agencies have been at work in nature to accumulate and direct its action so as to
give rise to new species.
CHAPTER XIII.
.
NATURAL SELECTION.
We are now brought to the question, does selection take place in nature; or do the considerations
presented in the foregoing chapters afford a clue to those changes in past times by which species have
been produced? Are there natural causes capable of effecting among wild species what man by selection
is able to effect among domestic animals? Mr. Darwin maintains that there are, and we will now
explain the principle by which he believes it to have been mainly done.
Plants and animals in a state of nature are subject to certain external conditions, which influence
and limit them in various ways. Among these are climate, station, character of soil, food-supply, and
the number and kind of living beings with which a given organism is surrounded. The workings of
these conditions of existence are for the most part complex and obscure, but enough has been made out
to show that where a variety has once appeared, the influence they exert upon it is quite analogous to
that exercised by man in selective breeding.
Organized beings, as a rule, are gifted with enormous powers of increase. Wild plants yield their
crop of seed annually, and most wild animals bring forth their young yearly, or oftener. Should this
process go on unchecked, in a short time the earth would be completely overrun with living beings. It
has been calculated that if a plant produces fifty seeds the first year, each of these seeds growing up into
a plant which produces fifty seeds, or altogether 2,500 seeds, the next year, and so on, it would, under
favorable conditions of growth, give rise in nine years to more plants by five hundred trillions than there
are square feet of dry land upon the whole surface of the earth. But fifty seeds a year is far below the
reproductive capacity of many plants; an elm of average size sometimes produces not less than one
hundred and fifty million seeds, and the rate of increase among the lowest animals and plants even
exceeds this. The elephant is reckoned the slowest breeder of all known animals, yet Darwin says "that
it will be under the mark to assume that it begins breeding when thirty years old, and goes on till ninety
years old, bringing forth three pairs of young in this interval.” If this be so, at the end of the fifth
century there would be alive fifteen million elephants descended from the first pair. Slow-breeding man
has been known to double his numbers in twenty-five years, and, according to Euler, this might occur
in a little over twelve years. But assuming the former rate of increase, and taking the population of
the United States at thirty millions, in six hundred and eighty-five years their living progeny would
have each but a square foot to stand upon were they spread over the entire globe, land and water included.
But the rapid multiplication of organisms is a matter of actual observation. Cases could be given of
introduced plants which have become common throughout whole islands in a period of less than ten
years; and Dr. Falconer states that there are plants which now range in India from Cape Comorin to the
Himalayas that were imported into that country from America since its discovery.
It is thus obvious that the rates of reproduction of living beings are by no means adjusted either to
the supply of nutriment or even to the space to be occupied. The room is fixed and the food is limited,
while the ratio of increase is so enormous that each species if unchecked would ultimately usurp the
whole area and monopolize the earth. But millions of species are doing the same thing, so that the

NATURAL SELECTION.
25
inevitable result is conflict, the war of races, destruction of life everywhere, and as a result what Mr.
Darwin calls the struggle for existence. All over the globe, on the land and in the sea, animals and plants,
high and low, are driven into this struggle by their ever-increasing numbers and the limited means of
subsistence. The warfare is one of life and death ; and its result, the perishing of multitudes and the
survival of comparatively few-the numbers remaining being in equilibrium with the supply of the
means of subsistence.
Now,
the result of this strife can not be a matter of chance. Which shall be destroyed and which
preserved must depend upon determinate conditions-must be regulated by law, and must give rise to
definite and important effects. If there is method in the matter, and certain kinds are destroyed while
others remain, then the process is one in which certain characters are obliterated and other characters
preserved. What, then, is this law by which certain characters are repressed and others fostered, and the
quality and course of life thereby changed ?
Obviously, those individuals or varieties having some advantage over their competitors will stand
the best chance to live; while those destitute of such advantage will be liable to destruction. Some by
superior vigor may be able to withstand a degree of heat or cold, moisture or dryness, which would be
fatal to others. Of those that are pursued, the most fleet will escape, while the slower will be captured.
Those which from greater strength or agility are best able to supply themselves with food in time of
scarcity, or which have superior adaptation to the nature of the food which the locality affords, will be
able to displace those lacking these advantages. Briefly, the animals best adapted to the require-
.
ments of the situation in which they are placed, are the ones that will live and have descendants, while
those less in agreement with these surrounding conditions will as certainly disappear. This process of
sorting is continually going on. Nature may metaphorically be said to choose which shall be preserved
and which destroyed; and this is what Mr. Darwin terms “Natural Selection," and what Mr. Herbert
Spencer calls the “Survival of the Fittest.”
How races continually encroach on each other's areas, the stronger outrunning and extirpating the
weaker in the competition of existence, is well shown by the spread of European plants and animals in
New Zealand. Dr. Hooker states that the cow-grass has taken possession of the roadsides; dock and
water-cress choke the rivers; the sow-thistle is spread all over the country, growing luxuriantly up to
6,000 feet; white clover in the mountain districts displaces the native grasses; and the native (Maori)
saying is: " As the white man's rat has driven away the native rat, as the European fly drives away our
own, and the clover kills our fern, so will the Maories disappear before the white man himself.”
That this kind of struggle among living creatures has always been going on, and must always con-
tinue to do so, is obvious, and any one can see that it must be a winnowing and improving process, those
least adapted to the situation giving way before those better adapted, while the struggle may be so close
and sharp that a very trifling advantage will turn the scale. But Mr. Darwin saw farther into the case
than this. It was his merit to discover that natural selection is capable of producing fitness between
organisms and their circumstances, and of discerning the importance of the consequences that follow.
We have seen that universal variability, small in amount, but in every direction, and fluctuating
about a mean condition in normal circumstances, is characteristic of living organisms; let us now see
how this tendency may be made to advance in one direction, by natural selection, so as to produce
divergence of characters by indefinite modifications of the forms of life. "A soil possessing some ingredi-
ents in unusual quantity may supply to a plant an excess of the matter required for a certain class of its
tissues, and may cause all the parts formed of such tissues to be abnormally developed. Suppose that
among these are the hairs clothing its surfaces, including those which grow on its seeds. Thus furnished
with somewhat longer fibres, its seeds, when shed, are carried a little farther by the wind before they fall
to the ground. The young plants growing up from them being rather more widely dispersed than those
produced by other individuals of the same species, will be less liable to smother one another; and a greater
number may therefore reach maturity and fructify. Supposing the next generation subject to the same
peculiarity of nutrition, some of the seeds borne by its members will not simply inherit this increased
development of hairs, but will carry it farther; and these, still more advantaged in the same way as
before, will, on the average, have still more numerous chances of continuing the race. Thus by the sur-
vival, generation after generation of those possessing these longer hairs, and the inheritance of success-
ive increments of growth in the hairs, there may result a seed deviating greatly from the original
.
Other individuals of the same species, subject to the different physical conditions of other localities, may
develop somewhat thicker or harder coatings to their seeds, so rendering their seeds less digestible by
the birds that devour them. Such thick-coated seeds, by escaping undigested more frequently than
thinner-coated ones, will have additional chances of growing up and leaving offspring; and this process,
acting in a correlative manner through successive years, will produce a seed diverging in another direc-
tion from the ancestral type. Again : elsewhere some modification in the physiologic actions of the
plant may lead to an unusual secretion of an essential oil in the seeds, which, rendering them unpalat-

26
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
-
able to creatures that would otherwise feed on them, may diminish the destruction of the seeds, so giv-
ing an advantage to the variety in its rate of multiplication; and this incidental peculiarity proving a
preservative," will, as before, be gradually increased by natural selection , until it constitutes another
divergence. Now, in these and countless analogous cases, we see that plants may become better adapted,
or re-adapted, to the aggregate of surrounding agencies, not through any direct action of such agencies
upon them, but through their indirect action — through the destruction by them of the individuals
which are least congruous with them, and the survival of those that are most congruous with them.
All these slight variations of function and structure, arising among the members of a species, serve as so
many experiments; the great majority of which fail, but a few of which succeed. Just as we see that
each plant bears a multitude of seeds, out of which some two or three happen to fulfil all the conditions
required for reaching maturity and continuing the race, so we see that each species is perpetually pro-
ducing numerous slightly-modified forms deviating in all directions from the average, out of which most
fit the surrounding conditions no better than their parents, or not so well, but some few of which fit the
conditions better; and doing so, are enabled the better to preserve themselves, and to produce offspring
similarly capable of preserving themselves.
The logic of Mr. Darwin's case may be briefly summed up as follows. Organisms rapidly increase,
while the total number of individuals remain stationary—hence the struggle for existence. Organisms
vary, and the variations are hereditary; in the struggle for existence those survive which are best
adapted to the external conditions. With the progress of nature, the changes of external conditions
are universal and unceasing, necessitating a corresponding change in organic forms to keep them in
harmony with the changed conditions.
Most naturalists now admit that the principle of adaptive modification or natural selection is potent
in the production of varieties, yet it seems a tenable position to regard varieties as incipient species.
That there is no distinct line of separation between varieties and sub-species, and between sub-species
and species, is shown by the inability of naturalists in many cases to distinguish between them. Hun-
dreds of instances might be given where what one naturalist regards as a species, another of equal au-
thority ranks as a variety. Mr. Darwin, therefore, holds that in the past periods of time this principle
has played the leading part in producing the diversities of life, and he has constructed a diagram to show
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how these divergences have arisen. It attempts to represent“ the probable action of natural selection
through divergence of character, and extinction, on the descendants of a common ancestor.”

THE LAW OF EVOLUTION.
27
The letters A to E are intended to represent the species of a genus widely distributed; and as in
large genera the species often resemble each other in unequal degrees, this is shown by the letters stand-
ing at unequal distances. The species A is supposed to be extensively diffused, so as to embrace a wider
diversity of conditions, and to be highly variable. The branching and diverging dotted lines proceeding
from A are intended to represent its varying offspring. The variations may be slight, unequal, diverse,
appear at different times, and endure for unlike periods. The short intermediate lines represent varieties
which become extinct, while the most divergent lines represent those which survive, and give rise to new
species. That the intermediates should die out and the extremes stand the best chance of living, results
from the theory. The more they resemble each other and the parent form, the more restricted will they
be to the same set of conditions, and the fiercer will be that struggle for existence which is a cause of
the destruction of closely competing races. On the other hand, the more divergent the descendants of
any particular species in structure and habits, the more diverse will be the conditions that they can make
available, the less the competition, and the greater the chance of survival.
The intervals between the horizontal lines are each intended to represent a thousand generations.
When a dotted line reaches across one of these intervals to a horizontal line, and is there marked by a
small numbered letter, it is supposed that a sufficient amount of variation has been accumulated to form
a fairly well-marked variety. Now, after a thousand generations, according to the diagram, the species
A has produced two such varieties marked a 1 and m 1. These remaining exposed to the same condi-
tions which made their parents variable, and with a tendency to variability, which is itself hereditary,
tend to vary in nearly the same manner as their parents varied; also, being but slightly modified, and
inheriting those general advantages which made the genus and the parent species large, they in turn
are favorably situated for the production of new varieties. Their most divergent variations will gene-
rally be preserved during the next thousand generations, and thus is produced variety a 2, which,
on the principle of divergence, will differ more from the species A than did variety a 1. From m 1
two varieties, m 2 and s 2, have sprung, which differ from each other, and more considerably from
their common parent A. The line of succession is seen to be broken at regular intervals. This is
intended to designate when each successive form has become sufficiently distinct to be recorded as a
variety; but these breaks are imaginary, and might have been inserted anywhere after intervals long
enough to have allowed the accumulation of a considerable amount of divergent variation. At the end
of ten thousand generations the species A is supposed to have produced three forms, a 10, f 10, and m
10, which from wide divergence will have come to differ largely from each other, and from their com-
mon parent. If the amount of change has been small in the time represented by the space between
each horizontal line, these three forms may be only well-marked varieties; if, however, we suppose that
each space represents time enough for considerable change to have taken place, they may have reached
the position of sub-species, or even with a still greater amount of change to that of well-defined species.
The broken lines at the bottom of the diagram are supposed to lead up from an unknown species
which was the common ancestor of the several species represented by the capitals. From this unknown
ancestor, through variation and the action of natural selection, there descended five species, constituting
a separate genus. One of these species is supposed to have been highly variable, and, standing at
the extreme of the genus, to have gone on varying and improving without coming in conflict, until it
became the parent of several new species. E represents a species which has gone on without change.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE LAW OF EVOLUTION.
In the foregoing pages special attention has been given to Mr. Darwin's views because they are
most prominent in the public mind; but there is reason to think that the principle of natural selection
has been overestimated. A real and a powerful agency, which Mr. Darwin was the earliest to detect
in an unexplored field, it was but natural that he should have been at first led to ascribe to it more
than the facts will justify. In a case so novel and complex, time and the research of many minds can
alone determine the value to be assigned to such an influence. Indeed, with characteristic candor, Mr.
,
Darwin, in his new work on the "Descent of Man," admits that he may have exaggerated the import-
ance of the principle. Of this the more narrow of his antagonists have taken ample advantage, and by
showing where the principle of natural selection fails to explain Development, have endeavored to dis-
credit it altogether. Others, however, are more just. Mr. Mivart, for example, in his recent book on
the "Genesis of Species," while sharply criticising the claims put forth in behalf of natural selection,

28
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
admits that it is a true principle, and has performed an important though subordinate part in the past
unfolding of life. Mr. Spencer, also, in his Biology, pointed out (five years ago) the limitations of Dar-
win's principle.
In short, natural selection is not development; it is but a part, a factor of it; just as the develop-
ment of organic beings themselves is but a part of a vastly broader scheme of unfolding, which applies
to the whole order of nature. This universal principle is known as the Law of Evolution. .
It is now almost half a century since Von Baer introduced into biology a law which is still associ-
ated with his name. Finding that the germs of all organized beings consist of uniform parts, and that
in growth these parts become more and more unlike or different, he stated the law of organic develop-
ment to be a movement from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous by a process of differentiation.
This principle, which was at first dimly shadowed forth in Harvey's embryological researches, and
afterward more clearly indicated by Wolff and Goethe, but which was first definitely formulated by
Von Baer, became about 1850 the starting-point of the philosophical inquiries of Mr. Herbert Spencer.
His various earlier writings show that he had glimpses of a principle of development as a method of
nature manifested in the most diverse phenomena, and which at length grew in his own mind into "the
conviction that the process of change gone through by each evolving organism is a process gone through
by all things."
Mr. Spencer holds to the principle of universal evolution, and he is now recognized by the most
eminent biologists as an authoritative exponent of the law. I give a single example of this. Prof.
Huxley, in a lecture before the Royal Institution of Great Britain, said: “Those who hold the doctrine
of Evolution (and I am one of them) conceive that there are grounds for believing that the world, with
all that is in it, did not come into existence in the condition in which we now see it, nor in anything
approaching that condition.
" On the contrary, they hold that the present conformation and composition of the Earth's crust, the
distribution of land and water, and the infinitely diversified forms of animals and plants which consti-
tute its present population, are merely the final terms in an immense series of changes which have been
brought about, in the course of immeasurable time, by the operation of causes more or less similar
to those which are at work at the present day.
"Perhaps this doctrine of Evolution is not maintained consciously and in its logical integrity by a
very great number of persons. The only complete and systematic statement of the doctrine with which
I am acquainted is that contained in Mr. Herbert Spencer's 'System of Philosophy,' a work which
should be carefully studied by all who desire to know whither scientific thought is tending."
Mr. Spencer soon discovered that Von Baer's formula was but partial, and that the process involved
not only a change from uniformity to unlikeness, but from the indefinite to the definite, from the inco-
herent to the coherent; that it implied integration or a unifying action as well as differentiation, and
must consider the phenomena of motion as well as of matter. We can not here go into his analysis of
the case; but having worked out the conditions of organic development, he proceeds to show that the
great onward movements of nature from one order of things to another are governed by the same great
law.
The nebular hypothesis, it is well known, proposes to explain the origin of stellar and planetary
systems by supposing that they were all condensed from a primordial attenuated fire-mist diffused
through space. The doctrine was proposed by Kant and elucidated by Herschel and La Place. It is
interesting to note that the fundamental conditions of this hypothesis which its former adherents were
compelled to assume, that is, the luminous nebulous vapor, have now been demonstrated by the spec-
troscope. That the solar system was formed in the way the nebulous hypothesis implies, it seems
impossible to doubt. Consisting of more than 150 bodies, revolving and circulating according to one grand
method, there are no less than 370 facts concerning the movements of the sun and planets of which the
law of gravitation gives no account, but which are the simple consequences of the nebular hypothesis.
But this process is one of development on a stupendous scale. Mr. Spencer has shown that stellar
groups, the solar system, and our own planet, in its geological career, have been evolved by the combined
powers of differentiation and integration in accordance with the conditions of his formula. He has also
traced the progress of society, the development of industry, art, science, and all the multiform
processes of the social organism to the operation of the same law. These views are important as inter-
pretations of the plan of nature. We know that each individual of all the countless myriads of living
creatures which swarm in the sea and air all over our globe undergoes development from a homogeneous
germ to a heterogeneous and integrated organism. All science inculcates the lesson that the order of
nature is one, and the deepest insights into the cosmical order reveal the same mode of action. These
considerations lend a strong probability to the view that the collective life of the globe is no exception
to the universal plan, but is also a product of the law of evolution.
But a system of universal effects can only be ascribed to universal causes. We are indebted to Mr.

THE LAW OF EVOLUTION.
29
Spencer for having worked out the conditions and causes of the phenomena of evolution with great insight
and originality; but we can no more than name a few of them here.
Science now postulates in all her inquiries the indestructibility of matter and force, and this is the
fundamental postulate of the law of Evolution and of Mr. Spencer's philosophical system which is based
upon it. Science now firmly assumes that in nature matter and force are never created or destroyed, and
it demands that all interpretations of phenomena shall conform to these positions. From this it follows
that all progressive changes in past time must have involved the using over and over of the limited stock
of matter and force. If no new material could be introduced, then the old must constantly be re-em-
ployed. Before it could be utilized at one point it must be released at another ; each thing came to be at
the expense of something else, and the policy must therefore have been that one thing was derived from
another. Thus the existence of matter and force implies necessary change; time implies successive
change, while the limitation of matter and force implies that these changes are dependent and continuous.
But why should this continuous movement take the direction of evolution ?
To this Mr. Spencer replies, first, that the homogeneous, the starting-point of evolution, is an unstable
condition, and tends constantly to rearrangement and to greater complexity. No object can exist with-
out being acted upon and altered by forces; and no mass can be acted upon by forces in all parts alike.
Hence unequal action tends to destroy homogeneity and produce diversity. Even in the simplest case of
mechanical equilibrium-a balance in perfect equipoise--it constantly tends to depart from this condi-
tion. “Eventually one scale will descend and the other ascend; they will assume a heterogeneous rela-
tion.” So with a class of animals distributed over a geographical area ; though homogeneous at first, they
would inevitably fall into diversity by the action of unequal forces upon them.
Another cause of that great change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous through which all
things pass, is found in the fact that single agencies produce diverse effects. One impulse or force gives
rise to multiplied results. Take the simple case of a blow by which an object is shattered. First, the
homogeneous mass is converted into a heterogeneous group of scattered fragments. Second, the force ap-
plied is similarly dispersed into heterogeneous parts, both in amount and direction. Third, the collision
sets the air into vibration, and produces a nervous change, and the change of consciousness called sound.
Fourth, besides these vibrations in the air, currents are produced in it by the transit of the scattered bod-
ies. Fifth, heat, and perhaps light, is a result of the concussion. This multiplicity of effects would be
paralleled on an enormous scale-for example, by the elevation of a continent where all the conditions of
the races of life would undergo the most extensive alterations.
In addition to these, Mr. Spencer has elucidated various other causes and conditions of evolution of
universal import, and he has shown elaborately in his "First Principles” how they co-operate in each of
the departments of nature to bring about this grand effect. We have here, however, no space for further
.
illustrations. But if this broader view of evolution is a very different thing from the first narrow idea
of it, so is the manner of its accomplishment in the living world now regarded as very different from the
first crude conception of it. Let us see what is now meant by it. The classification of living creatures
was formerly an artificial process based upon a few arbitrary characters; now it is based upon compari-
sons involving the whole nature, and therefore represents living beings in those relations of resemblance
in which evolution is supposed to have placed them. In the earliest classifications, the efforts of natural-
ists were to arrange the organic tribes in a serial order-in a chain or line from the bottom to the top
of the scale. The corresponding notion of development was that it was linear, or in a single series, the
lowest having been produced first, and the rest one from another in regular lineal succession. But these
views are now abandoned. Classification places animals group within group ; and evolution declares
that these groups are the result of an unfolding along numerous lines of divergence instead of a single line.
There is another error respecting classification which has hindered the true view of evolution. The
artificial ideas of "system, and "symmetry," and "plan" have stood in the way of perceiving the
boundless freedom of nature's diversities. She has been crowded into artificial schemes and categories
which have represented, not her inexhaustible variety, but narrow and arbitrary views. It has been
tacitly held that the characters in the various different groups are equal to each other," that species,
genera, orders, and classes are assemblages of definite values, that every genus is the equivalent of every
other genus in respect to its degree of distinctness; and that orders are separated by lines of demarca-
tion that are as broad in one place as another.” This notion, that characters have definite and corre-
sponding values, leads to the constant perplexity of naturalists" as to whether such and such organisms
are specifically or generically distinct, and whether this or that peculiarity is or is not of ordinal import-
ance."
“The endeavor to thrust animals and plants into these partitions is of the same nature as the
endeavor to thrust them into a linear series.” “It is needful for us to remember that whild our success-
"
ively subordinate groups have a certain general correspondence with the realities, they inevitably give
to the realities a regularity which does not exist." The accompanying diagram, from Spencer's Biology,
presents the great groupings of the Animal Kingdom as classification now attempts to arrange them on

30
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
the basis of related characters. Everything linear and symmetrical here disappears, and we have admi.
rably illustrated that irregular subordination in which true classification aims to embody the truths of
nature. The great sub-kingdoms, involving the deeper differences, are separated farthest from each
Mammalia
Aves
..:: Reptilia
VERTEBRATA
Amphibia
Pisces
Arachnida
Insecta
::: Crustacea
Articulata
Myriapoda
ANNULOSA
Annellida
Scolecida
Annuloida
Echinodermata
Pteropoda Cephalopoda
Gasteropoda
diccia
Gasteropoda
.Pulmonata
mondcia
MOLLUSCA
Lamellibranchiata
Brachiopoda
Molluscoida
Ascidioida
: •Polyzoa
• : Gregarinida
Rhizopoda:
PROTOZOA
Spongida Infusoria
Hydrozoa
CELENTERATA
Actinozoa
other. The dots represent orders, the names of which it is impracticable to insert. If we suppose that
when magnified each dot resolves itself into a cluster of dots, each of these would represent a genus;
and if we further suppose that each of these dots is resolved into another cluster, these will in like man-
ner represent species. Furthermore," within each group the remoteness from the local centre represents,
in a rough way, the degree of departure from the general plan of the group. And the distribution of
the sub-groups within each group is in most cases such that those which come nearest to neighboring
groups are those which show the nearest resemblances to them.” Now, this is just the state of things that
would have been brought about by evolution, so that the diagram not only represents the present rela-
tion of grouping among animals, but also the mode in which it is believed to have arisen. The focal

THE LAW OF EVOLUTION.
31
(
7
point of the converging lines symbolizes the starting-point of development. According to the hypoth-
esis, as held by its ablest exponents, inorganic was slowly transformed into organic matter as the Earth
was falling from a high temperature, by a process of chemical substitution similar to that by which
organic compounds are now artificially formed in the laboratories. Out of this simple undifferentiated
protoplasmic matter, germs were in time evolved which gave origin to the forms of life. The radiating
lines of the diagram exemplify divergence from the germinal centre, while the lengths of the lines rudely
represent the extent of the evolution of the great divisions.
The effect here sought to be shown may perhaps be still better represented under the symbol of a
genealogical tree. Classification discloses the animal kingdom as consisting “of certain great sub-
kingdoms very widely divergent, each made up of classes much less widely divergent, severally con-
taining orders still less divergent; and so on with genera and species." In the growth of a tree
we have represented a mode of action which would have brought about this result. In the arrange-
ment of its spreading branches we can trace direct descent, multiplication, and divergence, and the
formation of groups within groups. Such a mode of action on the large scale, that is, by direct descent,
multiplication, and divergence of species, would explain the existing relations of the groups of the
animal world.
Again: it has been stated that the divisions of classification are not the equivalents of each other.
“There are well-marked species, and species so imperfectly defined, that certain systematists regard them
as varieties." It was shown in Chapter IV. that the old conception of species has been abandoned, and
Professor Owen says: "I apprehend that few naturalists nowadays, in describing and proposing a name
for what they call a 'new species,' use that term to signify what was meant by it twenty years ago."
The original definite conception of species has therefore proved wrong, and the same may be said of the
early notions of genera, orders, and classes, in some of which there have been introduced intermediate
subdivisions having no equivalents in others.” The difficulty, in fact, that is met in classifying animals
is exactly the difficulty which would meet the endeavor to classify the branches of a tree, as branches
of the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth orders; the difficulty, namely, that branches of intermediate
degree of composition exist." In the latter case the difficulty is obviously due to the mode of evolution,
and in the former case it is probably due to the same cause. Classification and evolution thus coincide;
the first reports just the state of things which the latter would have produced. When the living races
are arranged according to resemblance of characters, they fall into groups within groups, with irregularly
less and less divergence and without symmetry or equivalence among the branches; and this is just what
would have resulted from slow descent and differentiation from a common starting point through the
immeasurable periods of past time.
We are now to see that this view of evolution is strongly confirmed by what we know of nature's
way of working in individual development. Embryology, in fact, lays open to observation a method of
procedure which repeats continually on a small scale the grand developmental changes which are be-
lieved to have taken place on a grand scale in the past unfolding of races.
It was shown by Von Baer that in tracing the higher animals down through their stages of unfold-
ing, each embryo resembles larger and larger groups with each step of descent. In other words, all
living things in their development start from the same point-a common germ-state—in which no dis-
tinction can be perceived. Growth from this state involves a succession of partings and divergences in
which the higher creatures travel along it, first with the larger groups, and then with those successively
smaller, until the last divergence groups it with the smallest. Man, for example, springs from a germ
which “differs in no sensible respect from the germ out of which every animal and plant is evolved."
In its first change it diverges from the plant-world and accompanies the whole animal kingdom. It
then diverges again, leaving the lowest animal forms, mollusca, annulosa, etc., and accompanies the
vertebrata. "Instead of continuing to resemble, as it now does, the rudiments of all fishes, reptiles,
birds, and mammals, this rudiment of a man assumes a structure that is seen only in the rudiments of
mammals. Later, the embryo undergoes changes which exclude it from the group of implacental mam-
mals, and prove that it belongs to the group of placental mammals. Later still, it grows, unlike the
embryos of those placental mammals distinguished as ungulate or hoofed, and continues to resemble
the unguiculate or clawed. By-and-by it ceases to be like any fætuses but those of the quadrumana;
and eventually the fetuses of only the higher quadrumana are simulated. Lastly, at birth, the infant,
belonging to whichever human race it may, is structurally very much like the infants of all other hu-
man races, and only afterward acquires those various minor peculiarities of form that distinguish the
variety of man to which it belongs."
From this it appears that, beginning at a homogeneous starting-point, differentiation first gives rise
to the great divisions of the organic world, then with further differentiation the sub-kingdoms appear,
and then by the same process successively smaller and smaller groups, classes, orders, families, genera,
and species are produced. According to embryology, as we descend, all the higher forms converge

32
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS. .
6
and blend at successive steps into more general characters; and according to evolution, there will be a
corresponding approach as we go backward in time.
Referring to the preceding diagram, the hypothesis implies, that if we go back a million of years or so,
the dots would have to be represented as nearer together, and a few millions of years earlier they would
approach still closer. Not that they all converge alike, for the causes of separation have acted unequally,
but that such would be the general result. That this approximation, as we recede into the past, is a
general law, the highest authorities bear witness.
Mr. Wallace says: “As we go back into past time and meet with the fossil remains of more and
more ancient races of extinct animals, we find that many of them actually are intermediate between
distinct groups of existing animals.” Prof. Owen says he has "never omitted a proper opportunity for
impressing the results of observations showing the more generalized structures of extinct as compared with
the more specialized forms of recent animals.” Prof. Agassiz insists strongly that "the more ancient
animals resemble the embryonic forms of existing species.” This growing diversity and divergence of
characters being thus recognized as a great fact in the past history of the world's life, what shall we call
it? As it is a change from the general to the special, from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, it cer-
tainly answers to the latest definition of evolution.
The doctrine of Types, as held by the old school of naturalists, although mystically interpreted,
yet bears witness to the view here taken. The conception of a type is legitimately arrived at by
grouping certain natural forms into a class on the basis of their resemblances, and then by selecting the
attributes common to each member of the class and calling the assemblage of such attributes a type
of the class. But the theological naturalists do not stop here. The abstract idea thus arrived at “they
transfer to the Creator, and thus make Him start with that which our own imperfect generalizations have
derived." Hence the four "Divine Ideas” of typical structure of Cuvier and his followers. And yet.
although these conceptions are alleged to have such high warrant, they do not relieve their holders from
perplexity in their application. That the earlier forms of life embraced characters that now mark
separate species is undeniable; the fishes, for example, of paleozoic time having unmistakable reptilian
traits. These are called by one "synthetic types," as if they had been previously separated; by another
they are termed "individual types," implying a somewhat mechanical mode of subsequent separation.
Again: they are called "prophetic types”—the prophecy being easily seen after the fulfilment. On the
hypothesis of Evolution they are simply complex forms, which testify to the progressive differentiation
and specialization of terrestrial life, in the same way as the lower and complex stages of the embryo do
to individual development.
Adult animals and plants display a great number of cases of rudimentary and useless organs which
correspond to organs that are developed and useful in allied animals and plants. “During the develop-
ment of embryos, there often arise organs discharging the same functions in different ways; and in
some cases organs develop to certain points, and are then reabsorbed without performing any functions."
But generally the partially developed organs are retained through life. Certain snakes, for example,
have rudimentary hind legs hidden beneath the skin. Some of the smooth-skinned amphibia have
scales buried under the dermal surface. The paddle of the seal has toes that still bear external nails,
while the manatee has internal rudimental nails.
There are many cases of rudimentary teeth, and they have been traced even in birds; there are rudi-
mentary eyes in cave fishes, and rudimentary mammæ in men. “Nothing can be plainer," says Darwin,
"than that wings are formed for flight; yet in how many insects do we see wings so reduced in size as
to be utterly incapable of flight, and not rarely lying under wing-cases firmly soldered together.”
What explanation is to be offered of these facts? It has been said that these rudimentary parts are
inserted by Divine design to maintain the ideal completeness of the type; but this is hardly such an expla-
nation as can be satisfactory to science. If each species has been created independently and without any
necessary relation with pre-existing species, then these imperfections are simply meaningless. To the the-
ory of Evolution, however, the phenomena of rudimentary organs offer no difficulties, but, on the contrary,
a striking support. These undeveloped parts are marks of descent from races in which they were de-
veloped. What other explanations can there be for“ the stump of a tail in tailless breeds—the vestige of an
ear in earless breeds—the reappearance of minute dangling horns in hornless breeds of cattle?” As Mr.
Wallace truly observes: "If the great law which has regulated the peopling of the Earth with animal
and vegetable life is, that every change shall be gradual; that no new creature shall be formed widely
differing from anything before existing; that in this as in everything else in nature, there shall be
gradations and harmony—then these rudimentary organs are necessary, and an essential part of the
system of nature."
It is urged against the Evolution hypothesis that some of the earlier organic structures were higher
than those which subsequently appeared. But this objection is only valid against the first rude notion
of development, which insisted on placing all kinds of animals in a linear series, and affirmed a successive

DIFFICULTIES AND OBJECTIONS.
33
ascent. If the reader will turn to the diagram, page 30, he will see that in the progressive divergence
which it implies, there may be descending as well as ascending movement. The early fishes just referred
to, which combined reptilian with piscine characters, were higher in grade than the fishes that succeeded
them, as they were lower than the succeeding reptiles. The branch of a tree which gives off descending
as well as rising offshoots is still the best representation of the gradations which evolution produces.
A further consideration of the distribution of animals in space and time, of their structural and
physiological affinities, of the laws of multiplication, and of the correlations and interactions of living
organisms and their environing agencies, would afford powerful confirmation of the foregoing views;
but the subject is too extensive to be treated here. Readers who desire to pursue the argument are
referred to "The First Principles," and the “Principles of Biology," of Mr. Spencer.
CHAPTER XV.
.
DIFFICULTIES AND OBJECTIONS.
As it was the aim of the writer to make the present essay explanatory rather than defensive of the
Development Hypothesis objections to the various positions have hardly been noticed. It was intended
to consider some of these in this concluding chapter; but the space allowed has been already consumed,
and it will be barely possible to refer to some that are most commonly urged.
It is often said, “No man has ever seen a single case of the transmutation of one species into another."
Granted; but that is no proof that this has not taken place. Reason sees many things that are beyond
direct observation. How could a man see that which by the Hypothesis it takes immense time to bring
about? No man has ever seen the development of a glacier, a rocky system, or a civilization; but this
is no evidence that they have not been produced. In all these cases men have only seen changes which
in time may give rise to glaciers, rocks, and civilization; and they have likewise seen changes in living
organisms which in time may give rise to new species. The common notion of so-called “transmuta-
tion” is very crude; for example, that of a monkey visibly changing into a man. But the scientific con-
ception of Evolution is very different from the old classical conception of bodily metamorphosis.
Yet, to this objection that the origination of species has never been observed, it may be pointedly
replied that the evidence of their mutability is so irresistible as to have forced itself upon various natu-
ralists, as a fact of nature, independent of all theoretic bias, as we have seen at page 8. It was, in fact,
this evidence of their mutability that led to the recent views of the origin of species, while this evidence
is only now to be escaped by a slippery trick of logic. It is only to be escaped by denying that to
be a species which had always been regarded as such until the fact of its instability was established.
To a case of unquestioned and extreme variation, it is conveniently replied, “Oh! it could not have
been a species that was produced, because species are immutable."
It is said, again, that "under any scheme of development of species from species, the system of life
after ages of progress would have become a blended mass.” As well say that if animals multiplied in
a geometrical ratio, the Earth's surface would be covered with them. Varieties are derived from varie-
ties, and still there is no such "fusing over the surface of the temple of nature.” The objection over-
looks counteracting causes.
It is objected that the Earth's life can not have been evolved, because the earliest types that appeared
were already highly specialized. But there is no evidence that the first creatures which appear were
absolutely the first; all the evidence is the other way. Below the lowest fossiliferous rocks are the
metamorphic, which are sedimentary strata altered by fire-all traces of fossils being burned out.
Prof. Dana says: “ The fossils of true Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks have often been obliterated by
the crystallization of these rocks; and as the oldest rocks of the globe are nearly all crystallized, the
question may always arise with respect to any particular one of them whether it may not once have
been filled with fossils ?” The records of the Earth's earliest life being thus destroyed, we can only
reason in regard to them from what we know of its existing records. If the life we know testifies to
evolution, it is certainly logical to infer that what we do not know originated in the same way.
It is alleged that the great geological breaks in the course of past life, and the abrupt appearance
of multitudes of new species, disprove their origin by gradual development. But the apparent sudden-
ness of their appearance is, without doubt, illusory. It has been proved that the same effect might be
produced by the migration of races from inhabited regions to a continent slowly rising from the sea.
The following example will show how such breaks might arise in the regular course of geological change.
“Between England and the United States the ocean bottom is being covered with a deposit of chalk-
3

34
AN EXPOSITION OF THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS.
a deposit that has been forming, probably, ever since there occurred that great depression of the Earth’s
crust from which the Atlantic resulted in remote geologic times. This chalk consists of minute shells of
foraminifera, sprinkled with remains of small entomostraca, and probably a few pteropod shells,
though the sounding lines have not yet brought up any of these last. Thus, in so far as all high forms
of life are concerned, this new chalk-formation must be a blank. At rare intervals, perhaps, a polar
bear, drifted on an iceberg, may have its bones scattered over the bed; or a dead decaying whale may
similarly leave traces. But such remains must be so rare that this new chalk-formation, if visible,
might be examined for a century before any of them were disclosed. If now, some millions of years
hence, the Atlantic bed should be raised, and estuary or shore deposits laid upon it, these deposits would
contain remains of a flora or fauna so distinct from anything below them, as to appear like a new crea-
tion. Thus, along with continuity of life on the Earth's surface, there not only may be, but there must
be great gaps in the series of fossils; and hence, the gaps are no evidence against the doctrine of
Evolution."
Finally, it is said that the theory of gradual evolution implies transitional forms or intermediate links,
and it is denied that these exist. But this objection is far from being so formidable as it appears. That
there are no intermediate links it is false to assert; that there are not now as many known as the
hypothesis implies is a matter of course, for paleontology is comparatively in its infancy. It has been
already seen, page 32, that the early ancestral types were intermediate in character, that is, they com-
bined traits which are now separated. The whole course of paleontological discovery has been a con-
stant filling in of gaps. Of these connecting links modern naturalists have discovered hundreds of
striking examples, and are continually adding to them. That multitudes more will yet be found can
hardly be doubted when we remember the extreme imperfection of the geological record. Two-thirds
of the Earth's surface is covered with water, and of the rest, only little patches here and there have been
glanced at. Prof. Huxley says that only about the ten-thousandth of even the accessible part of the
Earth's surface has been properly examined ; and Prof. Cope remarks: “That the existing state of the
geological record of organic types should be regarded as anything but a fragment is, from our stand-
point, quite preposterous. And more, it may be assumed with safety, that when completed, it will fur-
nish us with a series of regular successions with but slight and regular interruptions if any, from the
species which represented the simplest beginnings of life at the dawn of creation, to those which have
displayed complication and power in a later or in the present period. For the labors of the paleontolo-
gist are daily bringing to light structures intermediate between those never before so connected, and thus
creating lines of succession which before were only interruptions. Many such instances may be
adduced: two might be selected as examples from American paleontology; i. e., the near approach
to birds made by the reptiles Laelaps and Megadactylus, and the combination of characters of the old
genera Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus in the Polycotylus of Kansas.”
But our acceptance of the Hypothesis of Evolution does not depend upon the possibility of answering
all objections to it. Objections it may have, perhaps at present unanswerable; but its claim is that the
evidence in its favor preponderates overwhelmingly: for each irresolvable difficulty it offers a multitude
of confirmatory facts. It should be remembered that all scientific progress is simply an overcoming of
difficulties, and this must be a gradual work. The grand truths of nature have never been arrived at
a
at once by complete demonstration. There are first long foreshadowing preludes, in which a principle
is dimly discerned emerging from mysticism and error into increasing distinctness. It is then accepted
on grounds of analogy and probability, and as an advance on previous beliefs. Lastly, it passes to
the stage of verification and completed proof. The idea of the evolution of life by natural causes, we
have seen, has been vaguely entertained for a century; has become increasingly consonant with facts,
and is now regarded as far more congruous with the state of knowledge than the doctrine it replaces.
As the rival hypothesis of Special Creations arose in times of gross ignorance and credulity, that of
Evolution has arisen as an outgrowth of the latest and highest knowledge, and has steadily made its
way, in the teeth of inexorable criticism, to a large acceptance among the most disciplined thinkers of
As Prof. Cope remarks, the truth of the hypothesis is held" to be infinitely probable by a
majority of the exponenis of the natural sciences, and is held as absolutely demonstrated by another
portion."
That there are difficulties with the question-serious and formidable—is inevitable from the vast-
ness of the subject, the newness of the investigation, and the limitations of thought in research. But it
is a sound maxim of philosophical inquiry, that, having once grasped firmly a great principle which
is confirmed by broad analogies, and harmonizes with a large body of facts, we should be satisfied
to leave minor difficulties to await their solution in the future. The history of the growth of scientific
truth is a constant exemplification of this rule. “The Newtonian theory was beset by palpable contra-
dictions in its results till many years after Newton's death, yet all sound philosophers embraced it.
The motion of the apsides of the moon's orbit was with singular honesty confessed by Newton to be
the age.

DIFFICULTIES AND OBJECTIONS.
35
in fact nearly twice as great as calculation from theory made it; and this contradiction remained an
outstanding palpable objection, yet without occasioning any misgiving as to the general truth of grav-
itation till the error was explained and the calculation rectified by Clarault." And so it is still with the
undulatory theory of light, with the theory of heat, and the theory of the tides. Although assumed
and employed by all scientific men, they are still hindered by formidable anomalies and paradoxes which
it is expected will be cleared up in the future as others have been in the past.
Admitting, then, that the doctrine of the Evolution of life is at present beset with thorny difficulties,
and that questions may be asked concerning it to which answers are now impossible, it by no means
follows that such a doctrine may not still be a tenable and valid scientific hypothesis. Difficulties there
must be, at first, with any view ; the difficulties with the old hypothesis are crushing, while the reasons
for the later doctrine are many, concurrent, and increasing. Whatever its ultimate limitations, and
however its Darwinian, Spencerian, or other special interpretations may have to be ultimately qualified,
the principle of development, as a great law of the economy of nature, must now be regarded estab-
lished in its great outlines.
It should not be forgotten that the principle belongs to science; and is advocated by those whose
business it is, not to ask what is pleasing and palatable to public prejudice, but simply what is true.
The passionate protests of the conservators of old views should weigh little here, as against the deliberate
judgments of men who give their lives to the study of the phenomena of nature. The test of the influ-
ence of an hypothesis in the field of original inquiry, in giving fresh impulse to exertion, in opening new
directions of research, and organizing and interpreting results already attained, stamps its character
with the truth-seeking students of nature. Thus tried, the Hypothesis of Evolution has proved of such
value in biological investigation that the great majority of the younger—the working naturalists—have
adopted it. And not only these, but veterans in the field of scientific inquiry have also accepted it as a
practical guide in conducting their higher labors. Conspicuous among these is Sir Charles Lyell, one
of the most learned and able of living geologists. After studying the subject of life for fifty years in
connection with the past changes of the globe, he has abandoned the old views, and in the tenth edi-
tion of his "Principles of Geology," recast and published in 1867, has adopted the view represented by
Mr. Darwin. Prof. Gegenbauer, a distinguished German zoologist, has also lately reconstructed his
elaborate and standard work, the “Outlines of Comparative Anatomy," and placed it upon the basis of
the new doctrines; while other eminent naturalists of England and Germany have given their adherence
to the new school. It is as meeting a scientific want that the Development Hypothesis is brought to its
proper trial; and thus estimated it will have a value depending upon the intensity and liberty of the
scientific spirit. Where that spirit is timid and dominated by public sentiment, the doctrine will be
entertained with hesitation and avowed with reluctance. That it should be more cordially received in
.
England than in this country, and still more so in Germany than in England, is therefore what we might
expect. An intelligent German naturalist said to Prof. Giekie,“ You are still discussing in England
whether or not the theory of Darwin can be true. We have got a long way beyond that here: his
theory is now our common starting-point.”
Perhaps the case, in its present aspect, can not be better summed up than in the following words
of Prof. W. R. Grove. He says: "The first question is, does the newly proposed view remove more
difficulties, require fewer assumptions, and present more consistency with observed facts than that which
it seeks to supersede? If so, the philosopher will adopt it, and the world will follow the philosopher
-after many days."






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