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gº FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY
A TREATISE
ON
COLOURS AND PIGMENTS
FOR
THE USE OF ARTISTS
MOADAEA&AWIZAZZO
BY
J. SCOTT TAYLOR, B.A. CANTAB.
FOUR 7/7 FZ)777OAV.
L O N D O N :
WINSOR AND NEWTON, LIMITED,
38, RATHBONE PLACE, W.
1885.

L O N D O N :
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, Limited,
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PREFACE.
THIS book is, to some extent, a condensed and
revised issue of Field's Chromatography, and is
based on the last edition by Mr. T. W. Salter.
The work of condensation presented no great
difficulty, as a great part of the original volume is
taken up by descriptions of pigments never used
by artists, and by much irrelevant matter ; but the
revision was a far more serious task, and in order
to bring the work up to date it was found necessary
to revolutionize the more theoretical parts, and to
write new chapters.”
In Part I., therefore, a fresh foundation has
been laid, in accordance with the modern science of
colour, and the whole work has been re-arranged
upon this basis. Great stress has been laid upon
accuracy of nomenclature, and the terms used
* Chapters I. to V. ; and, in the main, VI, and VII.
& 2
iv ARE FA CE.
throughout the book will always be found consis-
tent with their definitions in Chapter III. The
new treatment of the important subject of contrast
will, it is hoped, tend greatly to elucidate this
much neglected branch of chromatics.
The coloured plates form a new feature of the
book and render it very complete. Those on
contrast of colour have been designed specially
with a view to eliminate the effect of the back-
ground.
Field's Chromatography has long been among
artists the standard work on colours and pigments,
although its high price has somewhat limited the
circulation. It is believed that its publication in
the present form will largely increase its value, and
that the great reduction in price will cause it to be
far more extensively circulated.
The Editor is greatly indebted to Professor
Rood's treatise on “Modern Chromatics." Reſer-
ence has also been made to the standard scientific
works of the day, more especially to the recently
published edition of Watts' Dictionary of Che-
mistry.
NOTE ON THE NOMEN CLATURE
ADOPTED IN THIS EDITION.
ALL forms of colour can be expressed by using
three terms, just as a solid body may be defined
by reference to three dimensions of space.
This being so, it is a matter of some importance
that our three terms should be chosen so as to
convey as clearly as possible the ideas they re-
present, and that they should be restricted to the
expression ONLY of these fundamental ideas.
It is obvious that we shall have to employ words
which have previously been, however loosely, in
general use ; and the main object, in choosing
them for use in restricted senses, will be to pay as
much deference as possible to established usage.
The three terms generally used by men of
science are Luminosity, Purity, and Hue, but in a
book intended for artists two of these terms would
vi NOMENCATURE.
be liable to misapprehension. Thus by luminosity
artists often mean richness of tint, and would
certainly be surprised to hear that a colour by
admixture with white is diminished in purity.
The terms TONE, TINT, and HUE, have therefore
been selected as being, with reference to the above
considerations, most suitable to express the re-
spective ideas.
The word TONE is often used to express the idea
of luminosity (light and shade), and is largely used
by Chevreul in this sense. Thus, in his funda-
mental definition of “tone’’ he states that a colour
is deepened in tone by mixing it with black.
Again, the word TINT, although often used as a
Synonym for Hue, is very generally employed by
artists to express the result of mixture with white.
Thus, in oil-painting, the artist forms his “ tints” by
mixture with white lead ; and in water-colour by
Spreading thin washes on paper –in both cases
the optical result being, in the main, mixture with
white light.
C O N T E N T S. c
CHAP. PAGE
INTRODUCTION * & * gº • wº wº
PART I.
ON THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR.
I.—ON LIGHT AND THE PRODUCTION OF COLOUR . II
II.—THEORY OF COLOUR . e e * . º . 27
III.-Colour NoMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION .. 38
IV.-CoNTRAST AND HARMONY OF COLOURS tº - 49
PART II.
ON PIGMENTS GENERALLY.
V.—THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTs . 71
VI.-ON THE GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PIGMENTS • 77
VII.--THE PERMANENCE OF PIGMENTs. º g . 84
viii CONTENTS.
PART III.
ON PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
CHAP.
VIII.—WHITE PIGMENTS
IX. —RED PIGMENTS.
X.—ORANGE PIGMENTS
XI.—YELLOW PIGMENTS
XII.-GREEN PIGMENTS
XIII.—BLUE PIGMENTS
XIV.-PURPLE PIGMENTS
XV.-BROWN PIGMENTS
XVI—CITRINE AND OLIVE PIGMENTS.
XVII.-GRAY PIGMENTS
XVIII.-BLACK PIGMENTS
APPENDIX.
I.—TABLES RELATIVE TO THE PERMANENCE OF PIG-
MENTS.
II.-A DICTIONARY OF PIGMENTS NOT IN ORDINARY
USE, AND OF SYNONYMS OF PIGMENTS DESCRIBED
IN PART III. .
INDEX
PAGE
97
IO4.
II8
I22.
I35
I43
I52
I55
I62
I65
167
I71
I86
2O I
FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
INTRODUCTION.
IT is difficult to say when the knowledge of colour-
ing possessed by the ancients first approximated
to a science. We know, however, that they had
attained to considerable skill at a very early
date. *
The paintings of the Egyptians have been much
eulogised for brilliant and harmonious colouring,
particularly those at the tombs of the Egyptian
kings at Thebes. These are often on a very large
Scale, and are in perfect preservation.
The pigments used by the Egyptians were con-
fined to red, yellow, green, blue, black, and white ;
and their chromatic compositions were remarkably
well balanced. Indeed, considering the brightness
of some of the colours, it is astonishing how well,
by judicious contrast, and the skilful use of black,
they have succeeded in avoiding a gaudy effect.
4 APIEZZO'S CHROMA 7TOGAEAAA/V.
The Egyptians paid great attention to the deco-
ration of the walls and ceilings of their houses, and
also executed paintings on rolls of papyrus ; but
their best efforts are undoubtedly those on the
tombs and temples.
The Assyrians, as shown by Layard in his
discoveries at Nineveh, also possessed a knowledge
of colouring. Their pigments were similar to those
of the Egyptians, and although very limited, were
arranged with taste and skill.
In the paintings of both nations a well-defined
black outline was a very characteristic feature.
The Greeks learnt painting from the Egyptians;
their colouring reached its perfection under Zeuxis
and Apelles, 450 to 350 B.C. After this—about
3OO B.C.—art rapidly deteriorated, the invasion of
the Romans commenced, and the principles of light
and shade, and of colour, as understood by the
Greeks were lost, together with their valuable
treatises on the subject.
COMPOSITION OF PIGMENTS USED BY THE
ANCIENTS.
Analysis by Sir Humphrey Davy, and by French
chemists, has given the following results:—
INTRODUCTION. 5
Egyptian and Assyrian Pigments.
Red.—Ochres and cinnabar (Native Vermilion),
Yellow.—Ochres and orpiment.
Green.—Mixtures of yellow with copper blue.
Blue—The celebrated “Alexandria blue” (a
silicate of copper and lime), and probably
also lapis-lazuli (native ultramarine). The
latter was perhaps the famous “Armenian
Blue” of the ancients.
Black.--Carbonaceous substances and black
earths. &
White.—Chalk and plaster of Paris.
Greek and Roman Pigments.
Red.—Ochres, cinnabar, red lead, and a pink
lake of unknown origin.
Yellow.—Ochres and orpiment.
Green.—Mixtures of yellow with copper blue.
Blue.—“Alexandria blue,” lapis-lazuli, and “In-
dian blue” (Indigo.) -
Purple.—“Grecian” or “Tyrian purple” (ex-
tracted from a shell).
Brown.—Ochres and Oxide of Manganese.
Black.--Carbonaceous substances.
White.—Chalk,
6 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY,
It will be seen that the above lists are almost
entirely made up of mineral Substances. In the
case of the Egyptian and ASSyrian pigments no
traces of vegetable colours have been found ;
although it is highly probable that they originally
existed, but have undergone the process of decay
to which all organic substances are so liable. It
has been shown during the progress of excavation
that some of the ancient pigments were certainly
not permanent. Certain blues and reds, which
were brilliant and vivid when the earth was re-
moved from them, faded rapidly on exposure to
the atmosphere.
A considerable amount of information with res-
pect to ancient pigments has been handed down to
us by Pliny, in his ‘Natural History, and also by
Theophrastes and Vitruvius. -
The early Roman and Florentine painters were
far behind the Greeks in comprehension of the
principles of refined colouring, The partial restora-
tion of these principles seems to have been coeval
with the earliest practice of painting in oil. The
glory of the revival belongs to the Venetians, to
whom the art of painting passed with the last
remains of the Greek schools after the capture of
Constantinople at the beginning of the thirteenth
IWTRODUCTION. 7
century. Giovanni Bellini laid the foundation of
colouring, and Titian carried it to high perfection.
From the Venetian it extended to the Lombard,
Flemish, and Spanish Schools.
In the practice of the individual in painting as
well as in all revolutions of pictorial art, in ancient
Greece as in modern Italy, colouring has been the last
attainment of excellence in every School. Although
colouring does not constitute a picture, yet it is
the flesh and blood that clothes the skeleton of
graphic art. Without it the finest performances
look lifeless. It was the deficiency of colouring
in the great works of the Roman and Florentine
schools that caused Sir Joshua Reynolds to confess
there was for him a certain want of attraction in
them. To relish and truly estimate their greatness
required, he said, a forced and often repeated
attention ; and “it was only those persons in-
capable of appreciating such divine performances
who made pretensions to instantaneous raptures on
first beholding them.”
Gainsborough also, with a candour similar to
that of Reynolds, upon viewing the cartoons at
Hampton Court, acknowledged that their beauty
was of a class he could neither appreciate nor
enjoy.
8 AZEZZO'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY,
Of the rank and value of colouring as a depart-
ment of painting there will be, as there have been,
differences of opinion corresponding to differences in
the powers of the eye and understanding ; but take
from Rubens, Rembrandt, Titian, and other great
masters the estimation of their colouring, and we
fear that what is left to them would hardly pre-
serve their names from oblivion. It is colour which
the true artist most loves, and it is the perfection of
colouring in all its complexity that he ever seeks
to attain.
PART I.
ON THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR.
CHAPTER I.
ON LIGHT AND THE PRODUCTION OF COLOUR.
Light is the sensation produced by the action
of luminous rays upon the retina of the eye.
A luminous ray, so called simply because it
produces the sensation of light, is due to the
propagation of a wave motion through a Subtle,
imponderable, and highly elastic medium, called
the Luminiferous Ether, which surrounds the par-
ticles of all bodies and pervades all space.
For the production of the sensation of light in
the ordinary way, the following stages of the process
have to be considered –
(I.) Physical Cause.—Luminous rays enter the
eye and fall on the terminal expansion of the optic
nerve which forms a lining membrane at the back
of the eye, and is called the Retina.
(2) Physiological Effect.—The luminous rays
stimulate the retina and give rise to a sensory
2%pulse. This sensory impulse is conveyed by the
B 2
I 2 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
Optic nerve to a special part of the brain, and is
there transformed into a sensation.
Although light must, as above, be strictly defined
as a Sensation, yet as we have no word by which to
designate an assemblage of ether waves, it is usual
for convenience to also use the word light in the
purely physical sense. Thus a collection of lumi-
nous rays which by their action on the retina would
produce the sensation of white, is spoken of as
“White Light.” And similarly other kinds of rays
are named after the sensations they are potential
to evoke.
Colour is, like light, a sensation, but in its widest
significance (for we are forced to accept black and
white as colours) requires an even more compre-
hensive definition; black being a negative sensation
produced by the absence of any action of luminous
rays upon the retina.
COMPOSITION OF ORDINARY WHITE LIGHT.
Ordinary white light—i.e. diffused daylight—is we
composed of a mixture of an immense number of
rays of different wave-lengths, or, what is the same
thing, of different colours, for colour is an attribute
Of wave-length. Each of these rays acting Singly
THE SCIEAVCAE OF CO/CO UR. I 3
on the retina would produce in the eye the sensa-
tion of a distinct colour ; but the fusion of all the
sensations generated by the mixture of rays gives
the sensation of white. -
This compound character of white light can be
shown by the action of a glass prism.
The Spectrum.—A ray of light when passed
through a glass prism is turned out of its course, or
refracted. Now the shorter the wave length of a ray,
the more it is refracted, so that if we pass a beam of
white light through a glass prism, it gets decomposed
into its constituent rays, and we obtain the well-
known arrangement of colours called the Spectrum,
with the waves of light classified in order of their
wave-lengths. The red rays, which have the
longest waves, are at one extremity of the spectrum,
the orange rays come next, then the yellow, green,
and blue rays ; finally, at the other extremity, we
have the violet rays, which, having the shortest
wave-lengths, are consequently most refracted.
The length of a wave of red light is about thirty
millionths of an inch, and of a wave of violet light
about fifteen millionths. The intermediate colours
of the spectrum have, of course, intermediate wave-
lengths.
The colours of the spectrum are, both in a
I4. FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.:
physical and in a physiological sense, the purest
with which we are acquainted, and hence they are
always taken as standards. The colours of natural
bodies are never pure ; but are always mixed with
a larger or smaller proportion of other colours,
especially those which are closely allied to them in
point of wave-length.
The Rainbow is Nature's spectrum on a large
Scale, and is produced by the action of rain drops
on the Solar light. A globule of rain, in fact, has
a decomposing action similar to that of the glass
prism above ; but does not perform its analytical
office with such exactitude. The differently
coloured rays, into which the beam of sunlight
which falls on a raindrop is decomposed, emerge
from it at different angles. Consequently, all drops
at a certain angular distance from the eye send
light of a particular colour. We thus obtain the
familiar semicircular band, any radial slice of which
is comparable to the spectrum on the frontispiece.
With scientific spectroscopes, furnished with
powerful combinations of prisms, the analysis of
solar light has been carried to great perfection, and
many hundreds of dark lines Crossing the spectrum,
have been mapped out. These absorption lines
occur always in exactly the same relative positions.
THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. I 5
They have been shown to be due to the absorptive
action of the Sun's atmosphere on the radiation
from its intensely heated interior ; and have enabled
men of science to ascertain, with absolute certainty,
the presence there of many terrestrial elements.
The principal absorption lines in the spectrum
have letters affixed to them, and are very con-
venient for reference.
The following table represents, according to
Vierordt and Rood, the approximate proportion of
chromatic rays in 1,000 parts of White Sunlight —
Red . * ſº ë t . 54
Orange red . te e e . I 49
Orange . e g * e . 8o
Orange yellow e & & . I I4.
Yellow . te e tº g . 54.
Greenish yellow . © e . 206
Yellowish green . ſº & . I 2 I
Green and bluish green . * . I34.
Greenish blue g sº e . 32
Blue . ſº © g gº . 4O
Bluish violet . e © * . 2C)
Violet . º tº ſº & :- 5
J OOO
It is evident, since there is perfect gradation of
colour in the spectrum, that the lines of demarca-
tion have to be assigned arbitrarily.
I6 Aſ IAEAE/O'S CHA’OMA 7TOGRAAA/V.
COLOURS OF NATURAL BODIES.
Natural bodies are either luminous, or non-
luminous. The luminous ones, such as the sun, the
different artificial lights, etc., are seen by the light
which they themselves emit. The non-luminous
bodies are seen by the light which is thrown on
them by the luminous ones, and reflected to our
eyes. As the light of the sun in ordinary daylight
forms the principal illumination at our disposal, we
have explained in detail the constitution of this
light; and we shall now show how the colours of
natural bodies are produced by its agency.
Just as when white light is passed through a
prism, the colours are a result of its decomposition ;
so are the colours of natural objects due to the
decomposition of the white light that falls on them.
And just as each body decomposes light in its own
particular way, so does each body exhibit its own
particular colour. s
Most substances possess a power of what is called
Selective Absorption, i.e. they have a preference for
rays of a certain colour : these rays are absorbed by
the substance and extinguished. What is left of the
original white light, after this absorption, is what
determines the colour of the body.
THE SCIENCE OF COZO UR. 17
Suppose we have a piece of red cloth, this is
what happens when daylight falls on its surface —
Ist, a portion of the light is reflected from the
surface and does not enter the substance of the
cloth : this light is scattered irregularly, and is quite
unaltered in composition ; some of it reaches the
eye and dilutes the chromatically coloured light.
This is one reason why ordinary colours are never
pure like those of the spectrum.
2ndly. The rest of the light penetrates beneath
the surface, the process of selective absorption takes
place, and all but the red rays are absorbed. As
it cannot absorb these, they are reflected back from
the interior of the cloth, and reaching the eye of
the observer determine its colour.
If the cloth absorbed all but the red rays, and
we could arrange matters so that no reflected white
light from the surface reached the eye, then its
colour would be pure as that of the spectrum. As
a matter of fact we know of no natural coloured
substance which rejects only one kind of ray :
there is always an admixture of a larger or smaller
proportion of other kinds, which may be revealed
by prismatic analysis. This is the principal reason
why the natural colours are never pure.
In certain cases the power of absorption pos-
I8 FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
sessed by the body is not selective. Some sub-
stances absorb every kind of ray ; hence no light
whatever is sent to the eye, and they appear
black. Others do not absorb any rays whatever,
or absorb them in the proportions in which they
occur in the incident white light; such bodies
appear white or grey.
It is evident from the above explanation that no
body can exhibit a certain colour unless the rays
corresponding to that colour are contained in the light
ôy which it is illuminated.
Constants of Colour.—It has been shown very
conclusively by scientific men that there are three
fundamental things on which the colour of a body
depends :
1st, its Purity (Richness of Tint), or freedom
from the sensation of white ;
2nd, its Luminosity (Tone), or the absolute
amount of Sensation ; this will depend upon the
total quantity of light sent to the eye.
3rd, its Hue, or that quality of colour which
depends upon the wave length of the light,
These three things have been called the “Con-
stants of Colour,” and by reference to them any
known colour may be accurately defined.
Relative Luminosities of Various Colours.-
THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. I 9
According to Lambert and Professor Rood the
substances below reflect the following proportions
of daylight incident on their surfaces:—
Polished silver e * 92 per cent.
25 steel te * 6o 32
White paper . * tº 4O 52
Chrome yellow paper tº 32 25
Emerald green , . e I9 25
Vermilion 23 ° e IO 55
Artificial ultramarine * 4. 33
Relative Purity of Various Colours.-Professor
Rood states that the colour of paper painted with
vermilion (as a water colour, in thick paste) con-
tains about 20 per cent. of white light. The colours
of emerald green and of artificial ultramarine,
similarly applied, contain about 20 and 25 per cent.
of white light respectively.
Colours of Metallic Powders.—These differ
from Ordinary pigments, firstly in having greater
luminosity, and secondly in reflecting light regu-
larly from their particles.
A metallic surface which is very bright in one
position will, in another position which is only
slightly different, send scarcely any light to the
eyes. The alternation of very bright with very
dark portions produces a characteristic effect upon
the retina.
2O Af/AE ZZO'S CHA’OMA 7TOGAAAA/V.
Transparent and Opaque Substances.—A sub-
stance which is perfectly transparent to all kinds
of light can have no colour, and in fact would be
invisible. Very thin glass approaches this condition.
The difference between transparency and opacity
is simply one of degree. Water, one of the most
transparent Substances we possess, is practically
opaque in very thick layers; and gold, one of Our
most opaque bodies will, when beaten into thin
leaves, allow green light to pass. Most substances
are more transparent to some rays of light than to
others; but this is only stating in another way the
fact mentioned on page I6, that they have a power
of selective absorption. The chromatic colours of
all objects seen by daylight must be due to a
certain amount of what we may perhaps call
“Superficial transparency " to particular rays of
light.
ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION.
When pictures painted by daylight are viewed
by artificial light, the colours are more or less
disturbed. -
Gas and Lamplight are very deficient in the
violet, bluish green, and blue rays, a certain pro-
portion of which is necessary for the production of
THE SCIEWCAE OF COLOUR. 2 I
white, and so the resultant colour is orange-yellow.
Consequently, all the yellows look much the same
as the whites, and get taken for whites : the blues
turn into greyish blues, etc. The electric light is
by far the best form of artificial light, as its com-
position approximates to that of daylight.
MIXTURE OF COLOURS.
This cannot be effected by mixing pigments.
The reason of this will be shortly explained, and
in the meantime we shall describe three methods
by which a true mixture of colours may be effected.
(I.) Maxwell's Method.—One of the best ways
of mixing colours is to paint sectors of a disc with
the pigments representing them, and cause it to
rotate rapidly. The disc will then appear of uniform
colour, which is the mixture of the original colours.
The proportions of the colours may be varied by
varying the sizes of the painted sectors.
This method of mixing colours was described
by Ptolemy in the second century. It was much
improved by Professor Clerk-Maxwell, who made
great use of the “colour-top” in his investigations.
Maxwell's Discs have a slit from the circum-
ference to the centre. This simple and ingenious
22 AIAEA.D'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. V.
device enables the experimenter, by overlapping
two or more coloured discs, to combine them in
any desired proportion. The rotation can be ac-
complished by adapting a top for the purpose,
or by using a rotation apparatus furnished with a
multiplying wheel.
(2) Lambert's Method.—A convenient method
by which the colours of any two pigments may be
mixed, is to paint two surfaces of equal area with
them, and arrange these horizontally with a piece of
clear glass, held vertically, midway between them.
On looking through the glass at one of the colours
it is seen to be mixed with the reflected image of the
other. As the amount of reflected light increases
with the angle of incidence they may be mixed in
different proportions by simply shifting the position
of the eye, or by moving the coloured surfaces
further apart. A black background will be found
most convenient for experiments.
(3) Mile's, or the Artistic Method.—The third
method is of high value to artists, as it admits of
practical application to their pictures. Small spots
or thin lines of different colours, placed close to-
... gether, are blended when the eye is placed at a
suitable distance, a true mixture of colours takes
place, and a much brighter effect is produced than
THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. 23
would have been possible by actually mixing the
pigments.
The effects of stippling and of cross-hatching
depend on this principle. Ruskin remarks, in his
“Elements of Drawing,” “Breaking one colour in
Small points through or over another is the most
important of all processes in good modern oil and
water-colour painting.”
EFFECTS OF MIXTURE OF PIGMENTS.
It cannot be too strongly impressed on artists
that the colour obtained by mixing pigments
together is not the mixture of the original colours.
The reason of this was first clearly pointed by
Helmholtz in his “Physiological Optics.” He
reasons as follows:–
“In a coloured powder each particle is to be
regarded as a small transparent body which colours
light by selective absorption.”
“If the colours of powders depended only on
light reflected from their first surfaces, the light
reflected from a mixed powder would be the sum
of the lights reflected from the surfaces of both.
But most of the light, in fact, comes from deeper
layers, and having had to traverse particles of
24 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
both powders, must consist of those rays which
are able to traverse both. The resultant colour
therefore depends not on addition but on sub-
traction.”
Production of Green by Mixture of Blue and
Yellow Pigments.--This fact is the strong point of
the adherents of the old theory (see Chapter II.),
who regard green as a secondary colour produced
by the mixture of blue and yellow. The true sig-
nificance of the fact forms a kind of poms asinorum
to the science of colour, which they find utterly
impassable. -
The artist will be prepared, from the explana-
tion in our last paragraph, to understand that
although blue and yellow pigments may afford
green by admixture, yet it does not by any means
follow that the mixture of blue and yellow colours
will give a similar result. .
And it is an established fact that by mixing
pure blue and yellow colours in proper proportions,
white, or grey (white of low luminosity) is produced,
i.e. they are “complementary colours” (see Chap. II.):
and not by mixing them in any proportions can green
be obtained. Any artist can try the experiment
for himself by either of the three methods of colour
mixture we have just described.
THE SCIEAWCAE OA’ CO/CO UR. 25
The green which invariably results when we mix
blue and yellow pigments can readily be accounted
for as follows:
No natural colour is pure ; it is always, as
already stated, mixed with a larger or smaller
proportion of other colours closely allied in wave-
length. :*
By looking at the spectrum on the frontispiece,
it will be seen that green and violet are the colours
most allied to blue in point of wave-length.
Therefore blue pigments transmit principally
blue ; but also green and violet rays.
In the same way, yellow pigments transmit
yellow, green and orange rays.
The green rays are the only ones transmitted by
ôoth pigments, and hence, when they are mixed,
green is the resulting colour.
The more opaque the pigments mixed together the
more closely will the resulting colour approximate to
that produced by the true mixture of the colours.
This accounts for the fact that it is impossible to
get a good green by mixing an opaque blue with
an opaque yellow pigment.
Loss of Luminosity by Mixture of Pigments.-
It follows from the foregoing principles that
when we mix differently coloured pigments, more or
C
26 AºA2ZZO’S CAE/A’OMA 7TOGAEAAA/V.
less black is always produced in consequence of
absorption. This is borne out by practice : the
colour produced by mixture is never So bright as
the mean brightness of the original colours, and in
some cases the loss of brightness is very marked.
This is particularly well shown in the case of
vermilion and ultramarine,
If we mix the colours of these pigments, by
either of the three methods indicated above, we
obtain a bril/iant purple, but by actually com-
pounding the pigments we obtain Ö/acéish-gray as
the resultant colour.
If we possessed perfectly pure pigments, i.e.
pigments which send light to the eye which is
uniform in wave length, then if they were at all
transparent the mixture of any two of them in
equivalent proportions would produce black, and
we could not by mixing them in any proportions
produce a new colour : the result would always be
a shade of that original colour which happened to
be in excess. -
In so far, then, as the artist depends on the
mixture of pigments, it is a matter of Congratulation
to him that he does not possess them optically
pure.
( 27 )
CHAPTER II.
THEORY OF COLOUR.
Young's Theory of Colour.—This theory of
colour which was first put forward by the celebrated
Dr. Thomas Young, and has since been greatly
developed by Professor Helmholtz in Germany,
and Professor Clerk-Maxwell in England, is now
universally admitted. -
According to this theory the human brain
possesses three primary Colour sensations:—red,
green, and blue ; and each elementary part of the
retina is supplied with three different nerves, which
are specially adapted to receive the sensory im-
pulses corresponding to these fundamental sen-
sations. Thus the eye contains three sets of nerves,
one of which is specially susceptible to long waves
of light, and hence transmits an impulse which
gives rise to the Sensation of red; another is
most responsive to the action of waves of medium
length, and originates the sensation of green ,
C 2
28 A.Y.E./C.D’S CHA’OMA 7TOGAEAAA Y.
while the third set of nerves is stimulated by the
shorter waves, and produces the sensation of Ö/ue.
Furthermore, although each of these three kinds of
light acts most powerfully on the nerves specially
designed for its reception, yet it also acts to a
slight extent on the other two sets of nerves.
Light, the wave length of which is intermediate
between the wave lengths corresponding to two
primary sensations, acts on both sets of nerves :
the extent of the action in each case being pro-
portionate to the relationship in wave length.
The sensation of white is produced when the
three sets of nerves are equally stimulated, and the
sensation of black when there is no stimulation
whatever. Grey is, of course, white of feeble
intensity. -
This theory has received powerful support from
a study of the phenomena of colour-blindness. In
the most common form of colour-blindness the
sensation of red is wanting. The most reasonable
way of accounting for this, is to assume that the
nerves which respond to red light are absent or
inoperative ; and if we choose red for one of the
primary colour sensations, it can be demonstrated
that the other two must be green and blue of a
violet hue.
TAWE SCIEAVCAE OF COLOUR. 29
The rest of the colours of the spectrum, although
excited by rays of only one wave length, are compound
colours; because the light, though simple, has the
power of exciting two or more colour sensations in
certain proportions.
The sensation of yellow, for instance, is produced
as follows:–the wave length of yellow light is
intermediate between the wave lengths of green
and red light, and so it acts both on the red and
the green nerves. The mixture of sensations pro-
duces yellow. According to this explanation, if
we present to the eye a mixture of green and red
light, we ought to produce the sensation of yellow.
This is readily proved to be the case, and is best
shown by mixing the red and green of the
spectrum.
Thus we see that, in the case of the compound
colours, the same colour sensation may be produced
by two totally distinct methods: by the action on
the retina of one kind of light, or of a mixture of
two different kinds. The unassisted eye is power-
less to make any distinction. The difference of
physical constitution can, however, be readily
detected by the aid of a prism.
The dullness of the yellow obtained by mixing
the colours of vermilion and emerald green on the
3O FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
colour top, has been shown by Professor Rood to
be due to the following causes :
I. Our ordinary yellow pigments are much more
Saturated (see p. 19), than our red and green pig-
ments, and hence we judge our result by a false
standard.
II. Red and green light both act to some extent
on the blue nerves, and hence the sensation pro-
duced by their joint effect is largely mixed with
white. The yellow light of the spectrum and of
ordinary yellow pigments, which is simple in wave
length, has but little action on the blue nerves and
hence produces a more Saturated colour.
Primary Colours.-Primary colours may be
defined as those which are simple and incapable of
being compounded ; but which will by admixture
yield all other positive colours.
The term Primary Colour is only allowable in
the sense of Primary Colour Sensation: objectively
there can be no such things as Primary Colours.
Colour is a sensation produced by a light wave of
a certain length, and colour, Outside of Ourselves,
does not exist. In the sense, then, that we have
indicated, Blue, Green, and Red, are the primary
colours.
To give exactness to our theory, it is necessary
THE SCIAEAVCE OF CO/CO UR, 3 I
to define the precise hues of these colours. This
is always done by reference to the fixed lines of
the spectrum. The lines chosen by Clerk-Maxwell
are indicated in the frontispiece, and he selected
Scarleſ-Vermilion, Emerald Green, and Artificial
Ultramarine Blue as their best representatives
among pigments. }
The Old Colour Theory.—The old theory,
which was advocated by Sir David Brewster,
states that Red, Blue, and Yellow, are the primary
colours. It is founded on the results of the
mixture of pigments, and the transmission of
light through coloured glasses, and is still ad-
hered to by many artists ; but with the general
progress of Scientific education is rapidly losing
ground. We explained in the last chapter the
difference between the mixture of colours and,
the mixture of pigments, and precisely the same
explanation holds good in the cases where light is
transmitted through coloured glasses; the resulting
colour, when white light is viewed through a com-
bination of coloured glasses, being what is left of
the white light after each of the glasses has
absorbed certain constituents, and is therefore not
the mixture of the colours of the glasses, as is
commonly Supposed.
32 APIE / D'S CHROMA TOGRAPH Y.
Primary Pigments.--It is an undoubted fact
that from mixtures of red, blue, and jellow pig-
ments, all colours may be approximately produced,
and that red, blue, and green pigments would not
answer the purpose. And therefore the artist,
although he cannot call red, blue, and yellow,
primary colours, may in the above practical sense
term them primary pigments. It is however doubt-
ful whether the term “primary pigment” should
not be restricted to the sense of “pigment of
primary colour,”
COLOUR DIAGRAMS.
It is impossible on a plane surface to represent
all forms of colour, for as there are three constants
of colour we shall require three dimensions of
space; but it is possible to do so by means of a
Solid, such as that formed by joining two equal
triangular prisms by their bases. The brightest
possible white being placed at the apex of one of
the prisms, the darkest possible black at the apex
of the other, and finally the three primary colours,
in full intensity, at the remaining angular points.
Maxwell's Colour Chart.—(See frontispiece) is
the best of the representations on a plane surface.
Here the primary colours in full intensity are
THE SC/AEAVCAE O AP COZO UA’. 33
placed at the angular points of a triangle, and from
these the intensity gradually diminishes until it is
zero at the opposite sides. The interior of the
triangle will contain all possible hues, because
within it the three primary colours will be mixed
in all possible proportions. The centre of the tri-
angle, containing equal proportions, will be white.
Along the sides we shall of course have all the
secondary colours: i.e. the mixture of any two
primaries in all possible proportions, and finally,
colours which are opposite to each other will be
complementary in hue.
It will be seen that Maxwell's Colour Chart is a
section of the solid described above through a
plane parallel to the common base of the prisms.
It should be remarked that the chart on the frontis-
piece is not absolutely true ; but is simply a
diagrammatic representation of the truth. In a
perfect chart the luminosity should be equal over
the whole area of the triangle. Such a chart,
executed with the brightest of our pigments, would
be grey (white of low luminosity) in the centre.
A comparison of our Maxwell’s Chart with any
of the ordinary red, blue, and yellow arrangements,
should appeal to the eye very strongly in favour of
Young's theory,
34 Aſ/E/CD'S CHAOMA 7TOGAA PAH V.
COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS.
One colour is said to be complementary to
another when the mixture of the two produces the
sensation of white. Every chromatic colour has its
complementary, i.e. certain rays are wanting which
if supplied would produce white light.
Negative Images.—If we look steadily at a
patch of bright chromatic colour, and then turn
our eyes to a white wall, we see what is called a
negative, or accidental image, the colour of which
is complementary to that of the original.
This phenomenon is readily accounted for by
Young's theory. Suppose we are looking at a red
patch. The nerves which are excited by the red
rays get tired by the prolonged gaze, and when
white light enters the eye their action is greatly
weakened : the other two sets of nerves, however,
respond fully to the stimulus. Consequently, the
balance of action necessary for the production of
white is disturbed, the sensations of blue and green
predominate, and So we get a negative image of a
bluish-green colour.
Sometimes, with extremely bright colours, the
accidental image is at first positive, i.e. of the same
THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. 35
colour as the object; but this appearance, which is
due to the persistence of very powerful sensations
on the retina, is only transitory, and is always
followed by the negative image.
The complementaries to the colours of the
Spectrum are—
Red º * > Bluish green.
Orange . • Greenish blue.
Yellow . g Blue.
Green . . . Purple.*
Violet . Q Greenish yellow.
A knowledge of complementary colours is of
great importance to the colourist, as he is enabled
by their juxtaposition to obtain his most powerful
contrasts of hue.
EFFECT ON COLOURS OF CHANGE OF LUMINOSITY.
It has been assumed so far that the colour of a
body is always the same when seen under the
same kind of illumination. This is not strictly
the case, for the colour varies, to a certain extent,
with the intensity of the illumination.
Substances that look red by ordinary daylight
* There is no purple in the spectrum, as it cannot be
produced by waves of one kind, whatever their length. It is
readily obtained by combining the ends of the spectrum.
36 FYE / D'S CHROMA 7TOGRAAAZ Y.
will appear orange in bright Sunshine ; similarly,
green will become yellowish-green, and in general
all colours become yellower in hue, and paler.
Young's theory explains this effect as follows:—
As long as the intensity of a colour is moderate
it will act almost entirely on its own set of nerves ;
but when the intensity is great, it acts also on the
other sets of nerves, and hence we get change of
hue. When the illumination is very intense, all
colours approximate to yellowish-white.
These facts have a practical bearing for the
artist, for by using pale colours he is able to ex-
press high illumination. -
When the intensity of illumination is diminished,
colours become bluer in hue, and when the light is
very feeble all colours tend to shades of blue. The
explanation of this is, that the action of feeble
light is mainly confined to one set of nerves.
Artists take advantage of this principle in the
representation of moonlight effects.
It is evident from the above considerations that
a mean degree of illumination is best Suited for the
differentiation of colours.
Readers who wish to extend their acquaintance
with the modern theory of colour, are strongly re-
commended to read Professor Rood's book on
THE SCIENCE of cozovº. 37
‘Modern Chromatics’ in the “International Scientific
Series.” Those who are specially interested in the
question from its physiological aspect, will find an
admirable exposition of our present knowledge of
the subject in Dr. Michael Foster's classical “Text
Book of Physiology.”
* Many points have been well touched upon by Mr. John
Collier in his “Primer of Art.”
38 F/EZZO'S CHA’OMA 7TOGRAPH. V.
CHAPTER III.
COLOUR NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION.
WE shall now proceed to give some definitions
founded on the principles of the last two chapters.
Colour, in its broadest sense, may be defined as
the kind of sensation we experience in consequence
of:— -
I. The composition of the light that affects our
eyes. -
II. The absence of light altogether.
The Ist class includes white, grey,” and the
different varieties of chromatic colour. These may
be called Positive Colours.
The 2nd class contains only black, which being
a negative sensation, may be called a Megative
Colour.
* The distinction between grey and gray should be care-
fully observed. Grey is 'composed only of black and white;
the term gray is applied to any broken colour of a cool hue,
and therefore belongs to the class of chromatic colours.
TAZAZ SC/AEAVCAE OF CO/LO UR. 39
Achromatic Colour is the effect of either—
I. Perfect balance of stimulation of the three set
of colour nerves (white and grey) or
II. Absence of all stimulation (black).
Achromatic colours are often called AWeſtfra/
Colours because they are Supposed not to change
the hue of colours with which they are mixed.
The supposition is, however, not strictly correct.
We have shown, at the end of our last chapter,
that mixture with black, i.e. reduction of luminosity,
always changes the hue of a colour. -
Chromatic Colour is the sensation produced
when the three sets of Colour nerves are not
equally stimulated. All colours except black,
white, and grey, belong to this class.
It will be seen that what we here call “chromatic
colour" is theoretically in Some cases, and practi-
cally in all cases, a mixture of chromatic colour
with white of greater or less intensity. But the
mixture is always named after the chromatic
colour. Thus, what we call blue may really
contain only a small percentage of blue rays, the
remainder being white light. -
Tone.—By the “tone” of a colour we mean its
brightness or luminosity, i.e. the total quantity of
light it sends to the eye, irrespective of the optical
4O FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. V.
composition of that light. Colours, according to
their greater or smaller luminosity, are described
as respectively lighter, and darker in tone.
Tint.—When two colours differ in the propor-
tion of white light they contain, they are said to
be of different “tints.” According to the larger or
smaller proportion of white light present, colours
may be described as respectively poorer, and richer
in tint.
Hue is the term which is used for expressing
kind, or variety, of chromatic colour. It depends
as shown in Chapter I., on the wave length of the
unneutralized light. -
These three terms—tone, tint, and hue, express
fundamental ideas, and it is very important that
their meaning should be accurately grasped. The
conception of any one of them does not at all involve
that of the other two. Thus two colours may be
identical in hue, and yet differ both in tone and
tint; they may be identical in hue and tint, and
yet differ in tone: they may be identical in hue
and tone, and differ in tint, etc. etc. To state the
case more generally, two colours may differ, or
may be identical, in any one, two, or three, of
the above respects.
5
THE SCIEWCAE OF CO/CO UA’. 4 I
The three definitions may be collected concisely
as follows:–
Tone = Absolute quantity of positive colour-sensa-
tion, irrespective of its chromatic or achromatic
character.
Tint-Relative quantity of positive achromatic
and chromatic colour sensation.
Aſue = Quality of chromatic colour-sensation.
Luminosity is, as stated above, synonymous with
tone. -
Shade.—When two colours are identical in hue
and tint, but different in tone, that which is darker
in tone is called a shade of the other. It will be
seen from this definition that “shade" is a restricted
sense of “tone.” - -
• “Shade” is usually defined as the mixture of a
colour with black; but this definition is objection-
able, for mixture with black, or reduction of
luminosity cannot (see end of Chap. II.) be
effected without, to a greater or less extent,
changing the hue of the colour acted upon.
Purity or Richness—A colour is said to be
“rich" or “pure” when the proportion of white light
entering into its composition is Small.
Saturation.—Depends both upon richness and
luminosity. It may be defined as the amount of
D
42 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY
chromatic colour per unit surface. The distinction
between saturation and richness will perhaps be
best illustrated by an example. ,
Suppose (1) a square inch of red surface has a
luminosity of IOO, and of this 25 per cent. =white
light, the remainder consisting of red rays.
Suppose (2) a square inch of another red surface
to have a luminosity represented by 3OO, the radia-
tion consisting of 50 per cent, each red and white
light. .
Then (2) will be twice as “saturated ” as (1),
because there is twice as much red light in the
Sal II.]C 21 C3.
But (I) will be the “richer” of the two colours,
because the proportion of red to white light is
greater. - ... •
Pale and Deep Colour.—Colours usually differ
simultaneously in at least two respects, and the
terms above are very convenient in practice, as
expressing difference in both tint and tone, when
the difference in hue is unimportant. Thus a
colour is said to be “paler” when it is poorer in
tint, and at the same time lighter in tone; and a
colour is said to be “deeper” when it is simul-
taneously richer in tint and darker in tone—the
hue in both cases being pretty constant. We may
THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. 43
instance the colours of pale and deep lemon yellow
sold by artists’ colourmen. -
Equivalent Grey.—Every chromatic colour is
equivalent in tone to a grey produced by mixing
black and white in certain proportions, or in other
words, to a white of a certain degree of lumi-
nosity. -
Primary Colours (see Chap. II.) are the three
colours which are elementary sensations, from the
mixture of which all other positive colours can be
produced ; but which cannot themselves be pro-
duced by mixtures of other colours.
Secondary Colours are produced by mixing
any two of the primary colours. Thus red and
green furnish orange-red, orange, orange-yellow,
yellow and yellowish-green, according to the pro-
portions in which they are mixed. Similarly, red
and blue give violet, purple, etc. And blue and
green yield bluish-green and greenish-ö/ue.
All these results produced by mixing two of the
primary colours in varying proportions, may be
termed secondary colours. We have shown in
Chapter II. that richer secondary colours can be
excited by simple light than by a mixture. Of two
different kinds of light.
Tertiary Colours have been defined as those
D 2
44 APIEZ D'S CHA’OMA 7TOGAEAAAZ V.
produced by mixing any two of the secondary
colours. The term is, however, quite unnecessary,
and it would be misleading to retain it, for there
can be no tertiary colour in a chromatic sense, and
this was the old meaning of the term.
By mixing two secondary colours we always
produce a certain amount of white; for in any
two Secondary colours all three primaries are
present.
We have, in fact, four cases to consider.
I. The primaries are in such proportions that all
three sets of colour nerves are equally stimulated.
Result—white or grey.
II. Two sets of nerves are equally stimulated, and
the third to a less extent. Result—tint of a second-
ary Colour. - -
III. Two are equally stimulated, and the third to
a greater extent—tint of primary colour.
IV. All three sets of nerves are stimulated to an
7tnequal extent—tint of secondary colour.
Broken Colours.—The so-called “broken
colours” are colours which are largely mixed with
the sensation of blackness. They are, in fact
shades of either primary or secondary colours ; or
of tints of primary or secondary colours.
The primary and secondary colours and their
THE SCIEAWCAE OF CO/CO UR. 45
tints, shades and shades of tints, include all possible
colours. --
The principal broken colours may be classified
as follows:
Broken orange-yellow, º The Brozymes.
red and purplish red tº
Broken yellow º 0 . . Cătrâne.
Broken greenish yellow . tº . O/zzle.
Broken green, bluish green, º The Grays.
violet, and purple * tº *
The browns and grays are often called Semi-
AWeutral Colours.
Warm and Cold Colours—Artists have ori-
ginated a distinction between “warm" and “cold"
colours. This classification is founded more on
association, than on any inherent property of the
colours. - -
Yellow, orange, and red, are the prevailing
colours of sunlight and fire, and hence have been
termed the warm colours ; for an analogous reason
colours more or less allied to blue have been called
the cold colours.
The colours of ordinary pigments have no per-
ceptible heating effect upon the eye. It can indeed
be shown by placing a very delicate thermometer
in the prismatic solar spectrum that the heating
46 A.Y.EZZO'S CHA’OMA 7TOGR4 AEATY.
effect gradually increases from the violet towards
the red end. But it has been pointed out by Von
Bezold * that this is due to the fact that in the
spectrum produced by a prism the ether waves are
more crowded together at the red end ; and that
in a normal spectrum, which can be produced by
diffraction. (see treatises on optics), the maximum
heating effect occurs in the yellow portion, i.e.
corresponds with the maximum of luminosity.
Advancing and Retiring Colours.-Similarly,
artists distinguish between Advancing and Re-
firing Colours. White and yellow having the
reputation of being the most advancing, and black
and blue the most retiring colours. In general
colours which are most used for the expression of
light have been called advancing, and those most
used for the expression of shade retiring.
A partial explanation of the distinction between
advancing and retiring colours may be based on
the non-achromatism of the human eye. Thus,
if we place two surfaces, coloured red and blue
respectively, at equal distances from the eye,
the red surface will appear the nearer, simply
* A translation of Von Bezold’s “Colour in its Relation
to Art and Art Industry,” has been published in America
(Prang & Co., Boston).
THE SCIEWCAE OF CO/CO UA’. 47
because the red rays are least refracted. And
similar results will occur with the intermediate
colours of the spectrum.
Local Colour.—By the local colour of an object,
we mean its colour when we get close to it, and
eliminate all causes tending to interfere with
distinct vision. Trees of green local colour often
appear purple in the distance. This is an effect of
aërial perspective.
Aerial or Colour Perspective refers to the
modifications in tint, tone, and in hue which
colours undergo when removed to a distance.
The modifications in tone are, to some extent, an
effect simply of the distance, and depend on the
optical law of inverse squares.
The changes in tint and hue are principally
wrought by the action of the atmosphere ; and
vary according to its thickness, and the amount of
water-vapour, Smoke, etc., that it contains.
Aérial perspective is as essential to the true
representation of colour as linear perspective is to
the correct reproduction of form.
*=ºsmºmºmºmº
The scheme of classification given overleaf will be
found useful in collecting some of our definitions.
ſ Negative. Black . . . . Achromatic,
f Grey . . . . # OY"
White. . tº . { . Neutral colours.
Colour. The primary and
Positive. Chromatic colours,
º - secondary colours,
and their tints, Or”
shades, and shades .
\ * \ of tints . tº • 2
Hues.
( 49 )
CHAPTER IV.
CONTRAST AND HARMONY OF COLOURS.
Contrast of Colour.—In all the cases we have
considered so far there has always been a physical
cause for an alteration in the tone, tint, or hue of a
colour. Thus we have seen that the colour of an
object will vary with the kind and intensity of the
illumination, with its power of selective absorption,
with its distance from the eye, and with the inter-
position of atmosphere, vapour, etc. But, Colours
may be changed without any of these conditions
being altered, simply by associating them with
other colours. The cause of this alteration is not
physical, but purely physiological. -
The mutual modifications which occur when we
place Colours in juxtaposition with each other are
termed the phenomena of contrast of colour. They
are governed by well defined laws which we shall
explain in detail. They all depend on the follow-
ing general principle :
5O AºAAC/CAD'S CHA’OMA TOGRAPHY,
GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF CONTRAST OF COLOURS.
When two dissimilar colours are placed in con-
tiguity, they are always modified in such a way as to
increase the dissimilarity.
If they are different in tone (luminosity), then the
tone of the brighter colour will be heightened, i.e.
it will appear still brighter, and that of the darker
one will be lowered. If they are different in
Optical composition—i.e. in hue, tint (purity or
proportion of white light), or both—then they will
be mutually modified, so that the difference in
optical composition is enhanced.
The phenomena of contrast of colour were first
investigated and referred to a definite law by the
French chemist Chevreul, some fifty years ago, and
his book is even now accepted as the standard—
probably because the only—work on the subject.
After careful study of Chevreul we cannot
recommend it for the artist's perusal. The
inferences Chevreul drew from his fundamental
experiment on contrast of tone, are partially false if
the experiment is properly performed, and his very
definition of “tone” is eminently unsatisfactory, and
altogether hopelessly confusing. He makes no
THE SCIEAVCE OF COLOUR. 5.I
distinction between purity and luminosity, and uses
the word “tone” in both senses. In this chapter we
shall attempt to describe the effects more accu-
rately, and to classify them anew. The word tone
will, as defined in Chapter III., be used only in the
sense of luminosity. 3.
Standard Colour. Before proceeding to study
the effects of contrast it will be necessary to
consider on what background we shall regard a
colour as standard, so that, when we describe it as
being modified in a certain way, we mean relatively
to its appearance on this background. It is
evidently desirable that the background should be
such as not to alter it in tone, or in optical compo-
sition, and therefore, by the principle just enunci-
ated, it should not differ from it either in tone or
optical composition. In fact, we are driven back
on the only choice we have, to place it on a back-
ground of its own colour.
The contrasts of colour fall naturally into three
classes.
I. The neutral colours may be contrasted with
each other—A chromatic Contrast,
2. Hues may be contrasted with each other—
Chromatic Contrast.
3. Hues may be contrasted with neutral colours
—Contrast of Chromatic with Achromatic Colours.
52 FIAE LD'S CHROMA TOGRAPH Y.
I. A CHROMATIC CONTRAST.
Neutral colours, by being contrasted with each
other, can be modified only in one way, i.e. in
respect of tone. -
Thus a grey placed beside white will appear
darker, and beside black lighter, than under other
conditions. And in general, a neutral colour is
lightened in tone by associating it with a darker
neutral colour, and darkened in tone by placing it
near a lighter one. .
Modification in tone is not, as we shall see, con-
fined to neutral colours; but the following law
holds good in all cases.
Law of Modification in Tone.— When two
colours of different tones are placed in juxtaposition
they experience a mutual modification in virtue of
which the lighter colour is lightened in tone, and
the darker one darkened 272 tone.
CHROMATIC CONTRAST.
Chromatic colours may be modified by contrast
with each other in three different ways:—Ist, in
respect of tone ; 2nd, in respect of hue, and finally,
THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. 53
in respect of tint. { As a rule all of these effects
co-exist, and two of them are invariably present.
Suppose we place red and blue in juxtaposition
(see contrast plates). The red will appear more
orange in hue, and richer in tint ; and the blue
will appear more greenish in hue and also richer
in tint. With respect to the modifications in tint
and hue respectively, examination of all possible
cases has enabled us to lay down the following
laws. -
Law of Modification in Tint.—A colour
always appears richer in tint by associating it with
any other colour, except one more saturated in its
own hue. It will then appear poorer in tint.
The amount of change will vary directly with
the chromatic difference of the colours, and will also
depend on their relative saturation.
Law of Modification in Hue.*—When two dis-
similar hºles are placed in contiguity they experience
a mutual modification, so that each appears as if it
/*as been mixed with the complementary of the other.
Now, Suppose in the case above considered that
* Chevreul, in his classification of the phenomena of
contrast, recognised only two possible modifications, which
he termed “contrast of tone’ and “contrast of colour.”
We have shown elsewhere that there are three modifications
which have to be considered. - -
54 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
the blue is dark in tone, and the red comparatively
light. It is evident that modification in tone will
accompany the modifications in hue and tint. If,
however, we mix the blue with white of a lighter
tone than the red (this will always be the case with
pigments) we can, by adjusting the proportions,
obtain a tint of the blue which will be equal in
tone to the red, and by placing it beside the red, can
then get modification in hue and tint unaccom-
panied by modification in tone.
Similarly, by juxtaposing two colours of the
same hue, we can, if one of them is darker in tone
than the other, obtain modification in tone and tint
unaccompanied by modification in hue.
It follows, from our third law, that a colour
always appears poorest in tint on a background
of its own hue, and is richer in tint when associated
with any other colour. But the more closely allied
the hue of the contrasting colours the less will they
enrich each other.
A word should be said about the particular case
in which the contrasting colours are complementary.
Here there is no change in hue ; but each colour
appears richer in tint than under any other condi-
tion. Modification in tone will also occur unless
the two Colours are equal in luminosity.
THE SCIENCE O AP CO / O UA’. 55
CONTRAST OF CHROMATIC WITH ACHROMATIC
COLOURS.
Here the following effects may occur :
I. Mutual modification in tone. If the neutral
colour is black or white this modification must
always occur, as black is darker, and white lighter
in tone than any other colour. But if the neutral
colour be grey, it may happen that it is of the
same tone as the chromatic colour with which it is
associated, and the modification will not occur.
II. The neutral colour is always more or less
tinged with the complementary of the chromatic
colour—with white the effect is often scarcely
noticeable ; but with grey and black is often very
pronounced. The chromatic colour is also slightly
altered in hue, so as to move towards the more
distant part of the Spectrum.
III. The chromatic colour is deepened in tint in
all cases, -
The contrast of hues with neutral colours is of
inestimable use to the artist, and gives a great
charm to his colouring. Association with a hue of
Some sort gives value to neutral colours, and a
56 AºA2 LZD'S CHA’OMA TOGRAAAZY.
chromatic effect becomes more precious to us when
associated with neutrality.
HARMONY OF COLOUR.
Colours are said to be harmonised when their
arrangement is satisfactory to the eye. Harmony
of colour has not yet been reduced to definite laws;
but there are certain principles in connection with
it which seem to be pretty generally recognised.
Colours which are chromatically closely related
to One another, such as green and yellow, are dis-
cordant when they are arranged so that there is
an abrupt transition from one to the other. Such
colours are, as we have already seen, almost at
their dullest when juxtaposed. -
In nature, however, some of the most beautiful
effects of colour are produced by what is called the
Small Interval ; for example, the combination of
green and greenish-yellow in sunlit foliage, and of
blue and green when the sky is seen through trees.
But we find that in nature the colours are never
allowed to come in contact; but are harmonised
either by being separated by neutral colours, or by
being imperceptibly gradated and blended into each
other.
THE SCIE/WCAE OA’ CO/LO UR. 57
Gradation of colour in nature is universal.
Ruskin says in his “Elements of Drawing:” “The
preciousness and pleasantness of colour depends
more on this than on any other of its qualities, for
gradation is to colours just what curvature is to
lines. The difference in mere beauty between a
gradated and ungradated colour may be seen by
laying an even tint of rose-colour on paper and
putting a rose-leaf beside it.”
Colours which are, chromatically, comparatively
far apart, form arrangements which are more or less
Satisfactory.
With complementary colours which are at all
Saturated the contrast is so excessive that a harsh
effect is sometimes apt to be produced. The Com-
binations of complementary colours are principally
valuable when it is desired to give effect and
brilliancy to rather dull colours.
Balance of Colour.—It has been stated by some
writers that the most perfect harmony is produced
when the colours are in such proportions that, by
their admixture white or grey would be produced ;
and certain numbers have been assigned to the
various colours such that, if the areas of the colours
in a composition are proportional to these numbers,
the best effect will be produced.
58 A.Y.E/ D'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
This is, however, all nonsense, although there
may be some ground for the supposition that for
perfect harmony it is necessary that all three colour
sensations should be called into action. The above
writers have assumed that harmony depends on the
balance of colour sensations. As a matter of
fact we find, by examining the masterpieces of the
most renowned colourists, that the connection does
not hold good. There is invariably a dominant
colour.
Harmony of colour depends rather on aesthetic
than on Optical balance. It is entirely a question
of feeling, and cannot be reduced to rules.
In conclusion, it may be stated that the effects of
harmony in painting, as in music, are increased by
the occasional introduction of discords.
( 59 )
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE CONTRAST PLATES.
In examining these plates the following points
should be attended to.
(I.) The light should come in symmetrically from
the top of the plate.
(2) The effects are best observed from some little
distance, and are often brought out better by inclining
the plate.
(3.) In comparing any two discs the eyes should
not look directly at either of them, but should regard
some convenient point which is equidistant.
(4.) It is well to use a sheet of white paper, with
a rectangular aperture, to cover over everything but
the examples under immediate observation, and also
to test the absolute identity of the inner discs with a
similar sheet having two circular apertures cut to
size and distance. -
(5.) With some eyes there is a transitory first
effect different from the after and constant effect.
The latter will be found the one described.
F. 2
6o FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY,
PLATE II.
ACHROMA.TIC CONTRAST.
This plate is also intended to illustrate the
general principles of contrast.
Example I. is Chevreul's well-known illustra-
tion of contrast of tone. The light and dark
greys are of course identical. Chevreul states (I)
that of the two light greys the inside one appears
the lighter; and (2) that of the two dark greys
the inside one will appear the darker. The back-
ground is white in his plates, and he recommends
unbleached linen as convenient for experiments on
a large Scale ; but he evidently considers it of no
importance, as he does not define the strength of
the greys with reference to it.
To the first of the above statements we agree
unhesitatingly, for a background lighter than the
darker of the two greys ; and to the second, for a
Öackground darker than the lighter of the two greys;
but only in the particular case when both of these
conditions are satisfied, i.e. when the background
is intermediate in tone between them, can both
statements be true..
For a white background the Second statement is
PLATE II.
-º-
ACHROMATIC CONTRAST.
PLII
*_ºvara ºr Lºr-º-


THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. 6 I
certainly not true. The dark grey undergoes only
slight modification ; but the effect is the opposite
to what Chevreul states, provided Žhat Žhe £200
greys to be compared are viewed symmetrically, i.e.
by regarding some point equidistant between them.
If, however, we place the whole arrangement of
four greys symmetrically for vision, by regarding
a point on the line of juxtaposition, then we cannot
strictly compare either the dark or light greys, for
their images will fall upon unsymmetrical, and there-
fore differently sensitive, parts of the retina.
Example II.—Here we have performed the
same experiment in a manner better calculated to
show the results.
Example III.-Is intended to show somewhat
forcibly that the background, unless some con-
trivance is adopted for eliminating its effect, must
not be left out of the question. Precisely the same
set of greys as in Example II. has been placed on
a black background, and the effects are reversed.
In fact, we have in each of the three cases con-
sidered, a contrast not of two but of three colours.
A comparison of Examples II. and III. also
serves to show the different appearance of identical
greys upon a white and black background re-
spectively.
62 A/EZ D'S CHROMA 7TOGRAPHY,
Example IV.-Here we have introduced a
device for eliminating the effect of the background
in studying effects of contrast, so that the modifica-
tions we observe are the effect, pure and simple, of
one colour on another. We adopt for our standard,
as previously stated, a colour on its own ground,
from which it is detached just sufficiently for
comparative purposes. Example IV. shows that
when black and white are contrasted the former
appears darker, and the latter lighter in tone,
PLATE III.
CHROMATIC CONTRAST.
Example I.-Different colours of the same hue.
Here we have two modifications, one only being
essential.
(1) Modification in Tone.—The light blue
appears lighter in tone, and the dark blue darker
in tone.
(2) Modification in Tint.—The light blue
appears whiter, and the dark blue richer.
Example II.-Colours widely different in hue.
Three modifications occur, two are essential.
(1.) Tone (not essential). The red appears
lighter, and the blue appears darker in tone.
PLATE III.
CHROMATIC CONTRAST.
Pl. III
*-wº-º-º-º-º-º:

THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. 63
(2.) Tint.—Both the red and the blue appear
richer.
(3.) Hue.—The red appears more orange, and
the blue greener in hue, in accordance with the law
given in Chapter IV. -
Example III.-Colours closely allied ºn hue.
Here also three modifications take place, two
being essential.
(I.) Tone (not essential). The red appears darker,
and the orange lighter in tone.
(2.) Tint.—Both the red and orange appear
slightly richer. -
(3.) Hue.—The red appears rather purplish, and
the orange yellower in hue.
It is thus seen that closely allied colours have
but little effect on each other ; the modifications in
tint and hue are best seen when there is no contrast
of tone.
Example IV.-Complementary Colours, i.e.
Colours which in hue are as divergent as possible.
Here we have two modifications, one only being
essential. -
(I.) Tone (not essential). The red appears lighter,
and the green darker in tone.
(2) Tint.—Both colours appear richer, in fact at
their richest.
64 AZEZZO'S CHROMA 7TOGRAPH. V.
PLATE IV.
CONTRAST OF CHROMATIC WITH ACHROMATIC
COLOURS.
Example I.-Chromatic colour and blacá.
Two modifications occur, both essential.
(I.) Tone.—The black appears darker, and the
green lighter in tone.
(2) Tint.—The green appears richer.
Example II.-Chromatic colour and white.
Three essential modifications occur.
(1.) Tone.—The white appears lighter, and the
green darker in tone.
(2) Tint.—The green appears richer.
(3) Hue.—The white appears pinkish, and the
green rather yellower. These changes are how-
ever slight and apt to be masked by Strong con-
trast of tone.
Example III.-Chromatic colour and grey.
Three modifications occur, two being essential.
(I.) Tone (not essential). The grey appears
lighter, and the green darker in tone.
(2.) Tint.—The green appears richer.
(3.) Hue.—The grey appears pinker, and the
green rather yellower. -
Example IV. is intended to show that to get the
PLATE IV.
–0–
CONTRAST OF CHROMATIC WITH ACHROMATIC
- COLOURS.
**-ºw ºw--------

THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. 65
effect of pure grey upon a green ground it is
necessary to use a decidedly greenish grey, and
similarly for other chromatic colours.
It may perhaps be asked why the greenish grey
was not so chosen that, when placed on the green
ground, it should appear identical with the standard
grey above. But the effects, though constant in
kind, differ so in degree with different eyes, that
the adjustment for any one eye would be more or
less inexact for the majority of observers.
NOTE (1).
On Chevreul's definition of “Tone.”
Chevreul defines “Tone" as “the word employed
to designate the modifications which a colour, at its
greatest intensity, is capable of receiving from the
addition of white, which lowers its tone, or of black,
which heightens it.”
Chevreul here uses “Colour” in the sense of
pigment ; but the distinction between the mixture
of colours and the mixture of pigments, on which
we have previously laid such stress, is not here of
any great importance, for when white or black is
one of two ingredients, the results are so similar.
The effect of mixing a pigment with black is
66 Aſ ZAZZZO'S CHA’OAMA 7TOGA’AA’ATP.
simply to diminish its luminosity. The effect of
mixing it with white is to diminish its Purity, or
Aichness, while its luminosity will be increased,
diminished, or left unaltered according to circum-
stances. By “white” we of course include grey as
white of low luminosity. Chevreul by “white ” meant
our most luminous white pigments. And it is true
that, as these are more luminous than any others
we possess, any pigment will be increased in
luminosity by mixing it with, say, white lead.
But the essential result is not this increased
luminosity, which is an accidental circumstance,
but the diminution in richness.
We thus see that the effects of mixing black
and white with colours are not opposite, as Chevreul
seems to assume ; but are essentially different in
Äänd, and therefore require two terms for their
description.
NOTE (2).
On the defects of Chevreul's descriptive and
experimental work.
It is absolutely necessary for descriptive pur-
poses to define one's standard colour, Chevreul
has not done this. It may perhaps be imagined
that he means his colours as seen against a
TAIAE SCIEAVCAE OF CO/CO UR. 67
white background to be taken as standards
Of comparison. Yet he describes the effect of
white on colours. (It, he says, makes them
brighter and deeper. By this he means that
they appear richer in tint, and deeper in tone.
But with respect to their appearance, on what
background do they appear richer ? It is certainly
not true for all backgrounds.)
As a matter of fact it is probable that Chevreul
did not employ any constant background ; but
performed all his experiments by placing colours
Singly, or juxtaposed, upon a background of Some
convenient colour, and the existence of which, as
it was common to all the colours, he considered he
might ignore. Thus in one place he remarks that
“red isolated appears differently than when
juxtaposed with a white, black, blue, or yellow
surface.” We should much like to know how
Chevreul isolated his colour. A colour can only
be isolated by considering a surface so large that
the whole of the retina is occupied, and in this
case it cannot be used directly for purposes of
comparison.
He means, of course, that he placed all his
colours, whether juxtaposed or by themselves, upon
a common background, which he does not define
F
68 APIAEA)'S CHROMA 7'OGA'AA' HIV.
and which he leaves out of the question as in-
operative. Now in all his experiments conducted
in this way, the results will vary with the back-
ground we employ, and we shall have in every
case, as shown in description of Plate III., the
mutual effect, not of two but of three contrasted
colours. -
Again, in studying contrast effects, Chevreul
went entirely by the judgment of the eye. This
method is open to much objection, as even the
most carefully trained eyes are liable to be misled,
and influenced by association. It seems to us that
there is an infinitely better way of attacking the
question, i.e. by adapting Maxwell's colour-top,
and we have arranged an apparatus for the purpose.
Thus, suppose two precisely similar green discs are,
as in Plate IV., placed on two larger discs which
are green and white respectively. They of course
appear very different to sensitive eyes. Now, by
making the Small discs part of colour tops, we can
combine one of them with other coloured discs
until adjustment occurs for the particular eye in
question, and the two discs appear precisely
similar. The kind of change can then be ascer-
tained and its quantity measured for given relative
all CalS.
PART II.
ON PIGMENTS GENERALLY.
CHAPTER V.
THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS.
A Pigment is a powdered substance used for the
representation of colour. A pigment mixed with a
medium constitutes a paint.
It will be seen from our introduction that the
pigments employed by the ancient painters were
mainly derived from native earths. These sub-
stances had already seen the wear and tear of
centuries, and were hence extremely permanent.
A certain amount of mechanical preparation was
necessary to fit them for use, and this was until
modern times, performed by the artist in his studio.
The birth of Chemistry in the last century gave
a new departure to the history of pigments. With
the progress of chemical science artificial prepara-
tions were gradually discovered, and the function
of the colour-maker sprang into existence. At
the present time our most important pigments are,
almost without exception, artificial compounds.
Colour-making is an important branch of industry,
72 FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
and has been so specialised that some firms restrict
themselves to the manufacture of a particular pig-
ment, in the production of which they are often
facile princeps, and enjoy in consequence a con-
tinental reputation.
Skilful colour-making requires great experience
in the mechanical habitudes of matter, as well as a
certain amount of chemical knowledge. The mere
chemist is often forcibly reminded that between
the analysis of a pigment and its successful pro-
duction there is a great gulf fixed. As Mr. Haweis
remarks, in speaking of old violins, “In the per-
fection of every technical trade there is something
which defies analysis.” A Stradivarius violin, how-
ever carefully taken to pieces, will not betray the
secrets of its manufacture ; nor will, in many cases,
the analysis of a pigment afford much clue to its
synthesis.
Many of our best pigments are prepared by
processes which are very jealously guarded by the
colour-makers. In Part III. of this book, the artist
will be told all that is known, outside manufacturing
circles, of the constitution of his pigments.
Pigments are obtained from the mineral, animal,
and vegetable kingdoms, and thus we may classify
them broadly into three divisions.
A/GMAZAVTS GAZAVAEA’AA.A. Y. 73
PIGMENTS OBTAINED FROM THE MINERAL
KINGDOM.
1. Native Pigments. – This class comprises
Genuine Ultramarine, the Ochres, Umbers, Siennas
and other native earths. These claim attention on
account of their great durability, and also because
they were the substances which were first employed
in painting. They require no preparation except
washing, grinding, and, in some cases, calcining ;
and as a rule are rather dull, but very useful
pigments. They are excelled in most respects by
those mineral pigments which are prepared by
chemical processes. The native brown pigments
are, however, Superior to any artificial preparations.
II. Artificial Pigments.--These are prepared
either by the action of heat on the proper ingre-
dients, or by precipitation from aqueous solutions.
In other words, they are made either by wet or dry
processes.
1. Pigments made by the dry process com-
prise the Vermilions, Cadmiums, and Mars Colours,
Artificial Ultramarine, Cobalt, Smalt, Venetian Red,
etc. These are, as a rule, more permanent than
the pigments obtained in the wet way.
74 A.Y.E./C/D'S CHA’OMA 7TOGRAAAZY.
2. Pigments made by the wet process: such
as Aztreolin, Chronze Yellows, Lemon Yellow, Pure
Scarlet, Emerald Green, White Lead, etc. The
particles of these pigments are often more or less
crystalline in structure. - • &
Sometimes a pigment can be made either by
wet or dry processes. In this case the latter
method will generally be preferable, as giving the
more durable product.
PIGMENTS OBTAINED FROM THE ANIMAL
KINGDOM.
Of all the members of the animal kingdom the
cochineal insect makes the best contribution to
the palette ; furnishing us with Carmine and
Crimson, Scarlet, and Purple Lakes.
Indian Yellow, or euxanthate of magnesium, is
obtained from the urine of the camel.
Gal/stone is derived from a calculus which is
formed in the gall-bladders of oxen.
Sepia is obtained from a secretion of the Sepia
officinalis, a cuttle fish.
Prussian Blue may be regarded as indirectly
derived from the animal kingdom, inasmuch as the
prussiate of potash used in its manufacture is
PIGMENTS GENERALLY. 75
obtained by fusing refuse animal matter with
impure potassiurn carbonate.
PIGMENTS OBTAINED FROM THE VEGETABLE
KINGDOM.
These for the most part are Lakes.
A Lake is a pigment prepared by precipitating
an animal or vegetable Colouring matter in Com-
bination with a metallic base, usually alumina.
A Carmine.--When two or more lakes of
different strengths are prepared from the same
colouring matter, that lake which contains the
greatest proportion of colouring matter to metallic
oxide is termed a Carmine—as, for instance,
Cochineal Carmine (or Carmine par excellence),
Madder Carmazine, Violet Carmine, etc.
A Pink.--Some lakes are rather anomalously
called ‘pinks, e.g. ſta/iam Pink and Brown Piná.
It has been shown that many vegetable colour-
ing matters exist in the plants, as glucosides,
i.e. they are bodies which may be decomposed
by chemical re-agents, or by a natural process
of fermentation, into glucose and a colouring
principle.
Indigo is obtained from the leaves of the Indigo
76 FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY .
fera plant, and is formed by fermentation from
the glucoside Indican.
Madder Lakes are prepared from the madder
root, which contains the glucoside rubian.
Brown Pink is obtained from Persian and Avig-
non berries—glucoside rhammin. -
Yellow Lake and Italian Pink are obtained from
quercitron bark–glucoside quercitrin.
Olive Lake is made from the green ebony or
laburnum.
Indian Lake and Gamboge are prepared from
resinous secretions.
Among the foregoing pigments the Madder
Lakes stand out conspicuously for beauty of colour
and permanence.
Blue Black, the charcoal of the vine stalk, and
Lamp Black, the soot obtained by burning resinous
Substances, must also be classed with the pigments
of vegetable origin.
( 77 )
CHAPTER VI.
THE GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PIGMENTS.
THE general properties of pigments may be clas-
sified as follows:–
Colour
Transparency
Opacity
Specific Gravity
Working property
Fineness of Texture
Body
Crispness and Setting-up
Drying power
Permanence
Physical properties.
} Chemical properties.
The possession of the last property—that of
permanence—should be regarded as a sine guá mon.
Without it all other qualifications put together are
of no esteem with the artist who values his reputa-
tion. We shall therefore give it a distinct con-
sideration in the next chapter.
Colour.—We have already explained the colours
78 AZEZZ)'S CHA’OMA 7 OGRAPH. V.
of pigments under the heading “Colours of Natural
Bodies,” and have seen that in general each particle
of a pigment may be regarded as a small trans-
parent body which colours light by selective ab-
Sorption. It is not at all difficult to conceive that
the most opaque pigment may be composed of
transparent particles. A cloud is opaque, although
we know that its structural elements are transparent
globules of water, and a piece of paper will be seen
under the microscope to consist of transparent
fibres. Vermilion—one of our most opaque pig-
ments—occurs in nature in transparent Crystals.
Effect of Immersing a Pigment in a Medium.
—A chromatically coloured pigment when im-
mersed in water gains in richness of colour, but
loses luminosity. The effect is to reduce the quan-
tity of white light which is reflected from the
exterior surfaces of the particles. This reflection
of white light depends upon the rupture of optical
continuity caused by light passing from the air
into the much denser particles of pigment. When
the light passes from water into the particles of
pigment, there is not nearly so much difference of
density, and consequently not nearly as much
reflection of white light. The chromatically coloured
light is of course due to reflections from the interior
PIGMENTS GENERALLY. 79
surfaces of the particles after absorption has taken
place. In oil, which is more refractive than water,
the above effects are still further emphasized.
Value of Oil as a Medium.—It will be seen
from the above explanation that much richer effects
are possible in oil than in water, and also greater
transparency. Furthermore the effects of the oil
medium persist, for a dry film of oil is just as
refractive as ever ; while in water-colour they
vanish on drying.
Value of Water as a Medium.—Water-colour
is especially suitable for delicacy of colouring and
for the expression of atmosphere.
Result of Increasing the Thickness of a Pig-
ment.—We have shown, in Chapter I., that the
colour of pigments is due to the fact that they are
transparent to certain waves of light, and opaque
to others. But there is in nature no such thing as
absolute transparency for any kind of ray. Chro-
matically coloured bodies are in fact only more
transparent to Some rays than to others, and hence
with increase of thickness we get decreased
luminosity, and also, to Some extent, change of
hue. Thus a thin wash of carmine is pink ; a
thick wash much darker in tone and more scarlet
in hue. º
8O APIEZ D'S CHROMA TOGAEAA’Aſ V.
Beauty of Colour.—A pigment may possess
beauty of colour in two ways. It may be delicate,
pure, and brilliant; or it may be deep, rich, and
intense. In the production of pigments, delicacy
and depth of colour are found to be antagonistic
qualities, which cannot co-exist to any great extent.
Perfect success in producing one of them is always
attended with more or less of failure with respect
to the other, and when they are united it is with
some sacrifice of both. Hence it is well to provide
for the palette two pigments of each colour, one
eminent for delicate beauty, the other for richness
and depth.
Transparency, the property which enables us
to see through a pigment, is essential in glazing,
and adds greatly to the value of those pigments
which are used for the expression of shade.
Opacity is the opposite of transparency, and
characterises pigments which are used for the ex-
pression of light. As excellencies, therefore, trans-
parency and opacity are only relative.
With regard to transparent and opaque pigments
generally, it is worthy of attention that in the prac-
tice of the oil-painter, the best effects of the former
are produced when they are used with a resinous
varnish, and of the latter in oil; and that the two
P/GMAEAVTS GAZAVERA Z.Z. V. 8I
become united with best effect in a mixture of
these vehicles.
Specific Gravity.—Pigments vary very much in
this respect. The specific gravities of some of the
heavier inorganic pigments are given below:—
Red lead
Vermilion
White lead
Pure Scarlet .
Chrome yellow
Zinc white
Cadmium yellow
.
It will be seen, from the above list, that there is
a distinct connection between high Specific Gravity
and Opacity.
Working Property depends chiefly upon fineness
of texture, and what is called body in pigments;
yet every pigment has its peculiarities of working,
both in water and oil, and these must become the
matter of every artist's personal experience. Some
of the best pigments are the most difficult of
management, while many ineligible pigments are
rich in body and free in working.
Fineness of Texture is produced chiefly by
careful grinding and levigation.
Body.—This term is often used synonymously
82 AEYE/LZD'S CHROMA 7TOGAA PAH Y.
with opacity or power of obliterating a surface; but
properly means fingeing power. We may compare
the body of two samples of a pigment—say, chrome
yellow, by mixing equal weights of them with
equal, and relatively large, weights of white lead.
Crispness and Setting-up.–These qualities,
which enable a pigment to keep its place on the
canvas, are contrary to the nature of many pig-
ments, and can only be conferred by painting them
with a megilp or gelatinous vehicle. Glazing can
only be performed with a vehicle which keeps its
place, or with pigments which confer this property
on the vehicle, as some lakes and transparent pig-
ments do.
Drying Power.—The drying of an oil is a
chemical process attended with absorption of
oxygen from the atmosphere. Pigments may
facilitate or retard this process. In the latter case
the artist has recourse to dryers.
With light colours—sugar of lead, litharge, and
sulphate of 2inc, either finely ground or in Solution
in oil, are used ; and for lakes, japanners’ gold size,
and boiled oil. Manganese and verdigris are often
employed with the darker colours.
It would be well if lead and copper could be
altogether banished from the list of siccatives. No
A/G/MAZAVTS GAZAVERA Z.Z. Y. 83
artist with any regard for the permanence of his
work should employ them except in extreme cases,
and then only in the smallest possible quantity.
Sulphate of zinc, as a siccative, is less powerful
than Sugar of lead ; but, in a chemical sense, is
far preferable.
The state of the atmosphere has a strong in-
fluence on the drying of pigments, and the direct
rays of the sun are powerfully active in rendering
oils siccative. This mode of drying was probably
resorted to in the warm climate of Italy before
dryers were discovered. Accidental circumstances
may also retard drying, and among these none is
to be more guarded against by the artist than the
presence of soap and alkali, too often left in the
washing of his brushes. To avoid this, brushes
should always be carefully cleansed with linseed
oil and turpentine.
To the other desirable attributes of pigments it
would be well if we could in all cases add the pro-
perty of being innocuous. As, however, this cannot
be, and pigments are by no means to be sacrificed
because they are poisonous, it would be well if
artists would pay strict attention to cleanliness,
and avoid the practice, so common in water-colour
painting of putting the brush in the mouth.
G
84 AT/E/C D'S CHROMA 7TOGRAPHY,
CHAPTER VII.
THE PERMANENCE OF PIGMENTS.
As colour itself is relative, so is durability of
colour relative. No pigment is so permanent that
nothing will alter its colour, and, on the other hand,
no pigment is so fugitive that it will not last under
favouring conditions.
The colour of Genzazme Ultramarine, which will
endure for centuries under ordinary circumstances,
may be at once destroyed by a drop of lemon juice;
and the generally fugitive Carmine will, when se-
cluded from light and air, last fifty years or more.
Again, there have been works of art in which the
white of lead has retained its freshness for ages in
a pure atmosphere, but has been blackened by a
few hours' exposure to foul air.
It is therefore durability under the ordinary
conditions of painting which entitles a pigment to
the character of permanence.
PIGMENTS GENERALL V. 85
The Chemistry of Permanence.— Chemical
change is, in all cases, the cause of want of per-
manence among pigments. This chemical change
may, under the ordinary conditions of painting, be
effected in the following ways :—
(I.) By the Action of Light.
(2.) By the Action of the Atmosphere.
(3.) By the Action of the Medium.
(4.) By the Mutual Action of Pigments which
Žave been mixed together.
I.—ACTION OF LIGHT.
Light acts principally on the pigments of or-
ganic origin, and on the more unstable of the
inorganic pigments. The vibrations communicated
by ether waves (especially the rapid vibration due
to the rays at the violet end of the spectrum)
seem to be able to shatter up molecules which are
complex in structure, or which are not held together
by strong chemical affinity. Light, even when it is
not itself able to effect the decomposition of a pig-
ment, greatly facilitates its decomposition by other
agencies. The action of light is much more marked
in water-colour than in oil, owing to the thinness of
the film of colour. A list of the pigments affected
by light will be found in the Appendix.
G 2
86 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
II.—ACTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
The normal atmosphere consists of a mixture
of oxygen and nitrogen gases in the proportion of
four volumes of the latter to one of the former.
A small but fairly constant quantity of carbonic
acid ("O4 per cent.) is also present, and a certain
amount of water vapour, which varies immensely
with the temperature.
The atmosphere of towns generally contains
small quantities of sulphurous and sulphuric acids,
derived from the combustion of coal, and is often
contaminated with sulphuretted hydrogen. . The
presence of this last gas, which is due to exhala-
tions from sewers, gas works, etc., possesses, as we
shall See, a special significance for the artist.
The action of the nitrogen and carbonic acid
of the atmosphere may be at once dismissed as
practically nil. - -
Action of Atmospheric Oxygen.—Oxygen is
powerfully active as an oxidizing agent, especially
in the allotropic condition known as “ozone,” and
when assisted by Sunlight and moisture. Oil
paintings are far less liable than water colours to
atmospheric action. It has indeed been assumed
A/G/AEAVTS GA2/VAERA Z.Z. V. 87
that pigments when locked up in oils and varnishes
are safe from all possibility of change from such
causes ; but from what we know of the diffusion
of gases through membranes we must hesitate to
describe these films of oil and varnish as absolutely
impervious.
Water-colour paintings are particularly liable to
the action of atmospheric oxygen, and, as is well
known, certain pigments will in water fade rapidly
from this cause, which in oil are comparatively
stable.
Action of Atmospheric Moisture.—The moisture
present in the atmosphere will take a long time
to have any appreciable action on the front of a
well-varnished oil painting. But in water-colour
painting we have absolutely no protection against
its influence. It probably renders powerful assist-
ance to oxidation by softening the thin film of
gum, and bringing the oxygen into closer relation
with the particles of pigment. An actual deposit
of water on a picture will especially facilitate
oxidation, for water dissolves twice as much oxygen
as nitrogen.
It should be noted that oil paintings are usually
most liable to the attacks of atmospheric moisture,
etc., through the back of the canvas.
88 AXEZZD'S CHROMA 7TOGRAPHY.
Action of Sulphuretted Hydrogen.—Sulphu-
retted hydrogen forms with some metals dark-
coloured sulphides of great stability, and conse-
quently pigments which have these metals as bases
are liable, if exposed to its influence, to be more
or less discoloured. Unfortunately, sulphuretted
hydrogen singles out white lead, our most useful
oil-colour, for special attack.
Sulphuretted hydrogen in the atmosphere gets
slowly oxidized to sulphurous, and thence to Sul-
phuric acid. But the combustion of coal and gas
is the principal source of the sulphur acids in the
atmosphere. These sulphur acids must, if present
in appreciable quantity, have a very injurious effect
on pictures. Fortunately they are readily removed
by a good shower of rain.
It has been stated that the destruction of the
bindings of books in libraries lighted by gas is due
to the slow action of sulphuric acid derived from
its combustion. The employment of electric light
in picture galleries, recommended in Chapter I.
from purely optical considerations, is thus doubly
advantageous.
The facility with which pigments bear exposure
to light and to atmospheric oxygen and moisture
should be regarded as the principal test of their
A/GA/E/WZTS GAAVERA Z.Z. V. 89
permanence. A picture may meet with sulphuretted
hydrogen, but must be exposed to light and at-
mosphere.
III.-ACTION OF THE MEDIUM.
(I.) In Oil-colour.—Oil in drying absorbs
oxygen in considerable quantity. This is usually
obtained from the atmosphere, but sometimes may
be taken from a pigment, if the latter is at all
reducible. Thus it is that the chromates are apt
to turn green in oil.
When oils have been boiled with Oxide of lead,
manganese, or zinc, or when some of the pot pourris
called megilps are used, the chemistry of the subject
is much more complicated, and in many cases
permanence is sacrificed in order to secure rapid
dessication. Many mediums have been justly
blamed for their injurious effects upon pigments.
The most permanent pigment may be ruined by
employing it with an untrustworthy vehicle.
(2) In Water-colour.—Here water-colour has
for once the advantage; for the drying of a water
medium is simply a question of evaporation, and
solidification of dissolved gum, and no chemical
change takes place.
90 APIEZD'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. V.
Iv.–ACTION OF PIGMENTS ON EACH OTHER.
Two solid substances cannot act on each other
chemically. For two bodies to have a chemical
action on each other it is necessary that one of
them should be in the liquid or gaseous state.
However much we may mix and grind two pig-
ments together, the particles of each are readily
discernible under the microscope. The molecules
cannot thus be brought into chemical relation, and
the state of affairs undergoes no change by im-
mersing our two pigments in a medium provided
that they are absolutely 777soluble in that medium.
If, however, one or both be soluble, then the ultimate
molecules are brought into contact, and chemical
action is favoured. Here we see the importance of
insolubility as a qualification of a pigment.
It is probable, however, that few pigments are
absolutely insoluble in the mediums with which
they are employed, and so in most cases mixture
of pigments is unfavourable to permanence. The
painter who values his picture will therefore make
his mixtures as simple as possible. *
As chemical action is greatly favoured by
thoroughness of mixture, it is evidently a bad plan
A/G/MAZAVTS GAAVA. RA/LA. V. 9 I
to grind pigments with each other. Many of the
peculiarities of the Flemish School of Painting
may be attributed to the practice of grinding
pigments together instead of blending them on the
palette. The method has now fallen into disuse,
and in many cases undoubtedly conduces to dingi-
ness of colour. -
There is usually a broad kind of chemical re-
lationship between a solvent and the substance it
dissolves. Thus inorganic substances, as a rule,
dissolve best in water, while organic bodies are
most soluble in alcohol, oil, turpentine, etc. Most
of our pigments are inorganic, and many of these
are slightly soluble in water, although absolutely
insoluble in oil, or in a mixture of oil and turpentine.
Here again we see that the oil medium has a
distinct advantage.
Turpentine, by reason of its greater fluidity, is
inferior to oil as a means of isolating particles of
pigment, and hence it is probably advisable to
employ it in as Small proportion as possible.
There are two methods of practice which prevail
among artists. The first method is to use as few
pigments as possible, and rely principally upon
admixture. The second is to have as many pig-
ments as possible.
92 FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. V.
Although it is possible for the artist to multiply
his pigments unnecessarily, yet there is no doubt
that the second plan is in principle far preferable.
Not only are the mixtures often less permanent,
but they are never so bright in colour as the
original pigments. We have shown in Chapter II.
that, whenever we mix pigments together, more or
less black is always produced in consequence of
absorption. -
Cadmium Orange, which is naturally an orange
pigment, and not composed of a mixture of red
and yellow particles, is preferable to many mixtures
of red and yellow pigments in a chemical sense,
and to all such mixtures in an artistic sense.
The artist would require a considerable know-
ledge of chemistry to be able to predict the
permanence of any particular mixture of pigments,
and the number of common mixtures is so large
that it would be impossible in a work like the
present to investigate their stability in detail.
There are, however, two classes of pigments—those
with lead and iron bases respectively—which are
particularly noted for often having a strong action
on other colours with which they are mixed.
The pigments which thus suffer are enumerated
in the Appendix. An ivory or horn palette knife
P/GMENTS GENERALZ. V. 93
should always be used with those which are acted
on by iron—and, indeed, is always preferable.
*
Dilution of Pigments.—In most of the cases
we have considered, the chemical action will be
favoured by diluting the pigment. This dilution
may be effected in three ways:–
(I.) By a too free use of the vehicle.
(2.) By spreading a small quantity of pigment
Over a relatively large surface.
(3) By mixing it with other pigments.
This last method of dilution enforces the expe-
diency of mixing pigments together as little as
possible, quite apart from any consideration of
their chemical action on each other.
Effect of Time.—In all the methods of chemical
decomposition we have described, time plays a very
important part in the process.
It has been observed that time, of long or short
duration, often has on a pigment the effect of heat,
more or less intense ; and that the action of time
upon a pigment may often be predicted from the
action of heat. This statement, founded purely on
practical observation, seems to have a definite basis
in theory, for, according to the doctrine of con-
94. FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
servation of energy, the rays of light absorbed by
substances are converted into heat. -
It has sometimes been imagined that pigments
which have been vitrified by intense heat are, when
ground in oil or water, the most durable to be had.
If this were the case the artist could not do better
than furnish his palette with a supply of well-burnt
and levigated enamel pigments. But although
such pigments stand well when fluxed on glass,
or in enamel, they are almost without exception
subject to the most serious changes when ground
to the degree of fineness necessary for their use as
pigments. -
Emamel and Fresco Painting.—Those pigments
which will withstand the action of strong heat are
eligible for enamel painting, and those which are
unaffected by lime can be used in fresco. Lists of
these pigments will be found in the Appendix.
PART III.
ON PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
( 97 )
CHAPTER VIII.
WHITE PIG MENTS.
THE oil painter is not particularly well furnished
with white pigments. A thoroughly unexceptionable
white pigment, combining the opacity and body of
white lead with the permanence of zinc white, is
still a desideratum. & -
In water-colour the state of things is more
satisfactory. Chinese white is unexceptionable in
respect of body and permanence ; but is rather
wanting in Opacity.
LEAD WHITES.
The principal lead whites used by artists are
Flake White, Cremnitz White, and Blanc d'Argent.
These are all carbonates of lead, and invariably
contain a small percentage of hydrated oxide of
lead.
Pure carbonate of lead does not make a good
paint. It is opaque and beautifully white; but
98 AºA. Z.Z)'S CHROMA 7TOGAA AA Y.
has no great body (covering power).” It also dries
rather slowly, and is apt to separate from the oil.
The presence of the hydrated oxide greatly
increases the value of the pigment. It combines
chemically with the oil to form an elastic, rapidly-
drying varnish, and by being in intimate combina-
tion both with oil and carbonate of lead, it not
only enables a given weight of pigment to cover a
larger area, but also prevents any possibility of
subsidence. At the same time, however, the paint
is decreased in opacity.
It will thus be seen that with certain proportions
of lead carbonate and hydrated oxide, the artistic
efficiency of white lead will be at a maximum : i.e.
the best combination of body, Opacity, and drying
power will be produced. Our principal authorities
seem to agree that the proportion of hydrated
oxide should be about 25 per cent.
In point of colour and body the white leads are
superior to all other whites. The great drawback to
their employment is their tendency to blacken under
the influence of sulphuretted hydrogen, and this gas
* The term “covering power” is rather vague. It may
mean: (1) power of obliterating an under surface, or (2) power
of stretching over a surface. In the first sense it is synony-
mous with opacity ; in the second with body, and in this
latter sense is used above. -
|WHITE PIGMENTS. * 99
is, unfortunately, almost invariably present in the
atmosphere. In oil and varnish they dry well
without assistance, and are comparatively durable ;
the medium in drying forms a protective film
which greatly retards the action of foul air ; but in
water, distemper, fresco, or crayon, they should not
be employed.
White leads are found in course of time to lose
a portion of their opacity. If over some dry oil-
colour rubs, we brush just enough white lead to
completely obscure them, it will be found, after a
time, that the forms and colours of the rubs are
indistinctly visible. The result is probably due to
gradual Saponification.
It has been shown that white lead is less liable
to be affected by sulphuretted hydrogen when the
pictures in which it is employed are exposed
to strong light; and that, when it has been
tarnished, exposure to strong light will restore the
colour. -
This effect is a result of oxidation ; the black
Sulphide of lead is oxidized to sulphate of lead, .
which is white.
Water-colour drawings in which the white lead
has gone black, may be restored by treating them
with a solution of peroxide of hydrogen. This
H
, IOO ATIEZ.Z)'S CHA’OMA 7TOGA’AA’A. Y.
powerful oxidizing agent rapidly converts the
black sulphide into white sulphate.
White lead cannot be safely mixed with vege-
table lakes, even with those of madder, or with
gamboge ; but with most other colours it may be
safely compounded.
In oil-painting, white lead is essential in the
ground, in dead colouring, in the formation of tints,
and in scumbling. In fact it is more extensively
used than any other pigment. It is very poisonous.
It should be observed that the descriptions below
give the original distinctions. There is now so
little difference between the best white leads, that
it is usual for artists' colourmen to sell the same
article under all three names.
FLAKE WHITE,
Called, when levigated, Body White, is an English
white lead. It has the best body of all white
leads.
CREM NITZ white,
Or Cremas White, is manufactured at Kremnitz in
Hungary. It is the whitest of all the white-leads;
but is inferior in body to flake white.
WAZY TE A*/G/MAEAVT.S. IOI
BLANC D’ARGENT
Is a French variety. It has less body than flake
white; but is sometimes preferred by artists for
its exquisite colour.
*sº
- ZING white -
Is either the anhydrous oxide, the hydrated oxide,
or the hydrated basic carbonate of zinc. It varies
in opacity and colour according to the mode of
manufacture ; but may always be relied upon for
permanence. In opacity it does not approach white
lead ; but it is never tarnished by sulphuretted
hydrogen. It might perhaps be advantageously
glazed over white lead, and also be used as a
medium of interposition between white lead and
those colours which are injured by it, such as
crimson lake, gamboge, etc. -
When skilfully prepared, the colour and body of
zinc white are sufficient to qualify it for general use
as an oil-colour. In water it has been superseded
by Chinese white. It does not dry so rapidly as
white lead ; but possesses the advantage of being
perfectly innocuous.
I O2 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
CHINESE WHITE.
The introduction, in 1834, of this peculiar pre-
paration of oxide of zinc has proved an incalculable
boon to water-colour painters, who formerly had no
white which combined perfect permanence with
good body in working. . Its invention obviated the -
necessity of using white lead, a pigment which,
though it may be employed with comparative
safety in oil, is quite unfitted for water. Since the -
period of its introduction, Chinese white has been
generally preferred by water-colour artists, as being
the most eligible in their peculiar department.
Previous to that period the complaints of whites
changing were of constant occurrence; but in no
instance has any picture, in which this white has
been used, suffered from its employment.
Chinese white, when properly prepared, works
and washes well, possesses no pasty or clogging
properties, and is beautifully white. Moreover, it
has the desirable quality of dense body; SO much
so, that, as the painter works, his effects remain
unaltered by the drying of the colour. It may
also be safely blended with other pigments. -
Without the artistic drawbacks of permanent
white, or the chemical defects of white lead, and
WAITE PIGMENTS. IO3
possessing the advantages of both of these pig-
ments, Chinese white cannot but be considered a .
most important acquisition.
It is a matter of regret that this pigment is not
equally efficacious in oil.
PERMANENT WHITE,
Also called Constant White, is sulphate of barium,
and is, when well prepared, a fair water-colour
pigment In oil it has less opacity. It works
in a Somewhat unpleasant and unsatisfactory
way, and is considerably lower in tone when wet
than when dry. This fault subjects even an
experienced artist to great uncertainty when he
uses it in compound tints. The semi-transparency
of the white, while wet, prevents his judging of the
true tint until his colour has dried.
This white is, as its name implies, perfectly
permanent, and is quite innocuous.
IO4 AT/EZ D'S CHROMA TOGRAPH/Y.
CHAPTER IX.
RED PIGMENTS.
OUR red pigments, both in water and oil, leave
little to be desired. The Madder Lakes are
permanent and transparent, and the Vermilions
permanent and opaque. A permanent and trans-
parent Scarlet would however be a great acquisition.
THE VERMILIONS.
Vermilion is sulphide of mercury, and occurs
native as Cinnabar in California, Peru, Spain and
China. Cinnabar, when carefully ground and
levigated, formed a pigment which was highly
esteemed by ancient painters. On account of its
scarcity it was very valuable, and among the
Romans its price was fixed by the State.
The vermilions of the present day, however, are
all artificial compounds; native vermilion is com-
mercially obsolete.
A E/D AEMGA/EAV7'.S. IO5
Vermilion can be made both by wet and dry
processes. Perhaps the most brilliant ones are
produced in the wet way; but the dry process is
almost exclusively adopted, and probably yields
the most permanent products.
The vermilions of commerce are either European
or Chinese. The former usually incline to orange
and the latter to crimson.
VERMILION
Is prepared either of a deep or pale colour. When
pure and well made it is one of our most permanent
pigments, being entirely unaffected by light, time
or foul air. It is eligible in either oil, water, or
fresco; but cannot be used in enamel, as it is
volatile at a red heat.
Vermilion possesses great body, weight and
opacity; it is a Somewhat slow dryer, and does not,
when dry, retain that brilliancy which is peculiar
to it in the wet state. º
The best vermilions are of a powerful vivid
colour, and more brilliant than all other reds
except the Scarlet iodide of mercury. As far as its
own colour is concerned, vermilion may safely be
compounded with other pigments ; but its heaviness
Ioé ATIEZ D'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
renders it liable to separate from its compounds,
hence it mixes best with the heavier colours. Its
great opacity and habit of washing up render it
difficult to manage. Skilfully used it is a very
serviceable colour.
SCARLET VERMILION
Only differs from the preceding in being more
Scarlet in hue, and washing better. At one time
the Dutch alone possessed the secret of giving to
vermilion a rich Scarlet colour.
EXTRACT OF VERMILION
Is identical with scarlet vermilion.
CHINESE VERMILION
Or Carmine Vermilion, inclines to crimson, and is
useful, when mixed with white, for painting the rose
tints of delicate complexions. The artist should not
attempt to still further modify the hue by mixture
with cochineal lakes; for these colours cannot safely
be brought in contact with vermilion, either com-
pounded, or as a glaze. If desirable to alter the
hue, the madder reds should be employed.
A&AED A/GA/E/WTS. loy
ORANGE VERMILION
Is rather more transparent than ordinary ver-
milion, with a clear but not bright orange hue. It
also washes better, and for landscape purposes is
more generally useful. It affords delicate carna-
tion tints similar to those of Titian and Rubens,
and may be employed with excellent results in the
Scumbling of flesh.
‘FIELD'S ORANGE VERMILION
Is a Superior preparation to the preceding, being
brighter, purer, and clearer. It possesses, also, less
Opacity, and is not a compound. Both of these
pigments are rather reds with an orange hue than
strictly orange colours, and we have therefore
described them with the reds.
PURE SCARLET
Is iodide of mercury. It has all the body and
opacity of vermilion, and is as much inferior to it
in permanence as it is superior in brilliancy. Of
all artistic pigments it is at once the most dazzling
and fugitive, and should have no place on the
palette. It can only be used with an ivory palette
knife, as iron and most other metals change it to
io9 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY,
colours varying from yellow to black. It cannot
be compounded with other metallic pigments with-
out being utterly destroyed. It is rapidly black-
ened by sulphuretted hydrogen, and fades altogether
when exposed to light and air. In water-colour, a
thick glaze of gum arabic or gamboge adds to its
stability. As a landscape pigment, it is out of the
general scale of nature; but in flower-painting its
charms are almost irresistible. Certainly nothing
can approach it as a colour for Scarlet geraniums ;
but its beauty is almost as fleeting as the flowers.
**=e
RED CHROME
Or Scarlež Chrome, is a basic chromate of lead, i.e. a
compound of chromate of lead with lead oxide.
It is a good dryer, but, like all the lead colours, is
blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen.
MARS RED
Or Rouge de Mars, is an artificial iron ochre, similar
in subdued tint and permanence to the native
earths. It is, however, more powerful in its chemical
action, and therefore requires to be employed
very cautiously with pigments affected by iron.
RED PIGMENTS. w Io9
Mars red possesses all the richness and depth
of Indian red with the russet orange hue of light
red. Its pale washes are marked by considerable
clearness. It is very permanent.
LIGHT RED
Is an Ochre of an Orange russet hue, and is
chiefly valued for its tints. It is prepared by
calcining Oxford ochre, and the finer the quality of
the ochre, the better will be the resulting red, and
the better flesh tints will it yield with white.
Light red has all the good qualities which are
common to Ochres, it dries capitally, and furnishes
an excellent crayon. It is much used both in
landscape and figure painting, giving fine grays
with Cobalt, and serviceable compounds with most
other pigments. It is perfectly permanent.
*======*=
VENETIAN RED
Is Sesquioxide of iron, and is prepared by
calcining proto-Sulphate of iron. It is similar to
light red ; but is more powerful and redder in hue.
It is very permanent; but, like Mars red, should
be cautiously employed with pigments that are
affected by iron. - - -
I IO FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
INDIAN RED,
Once called Persian Red, is brought from Bengal.
It is a natural earth, rich in peroxide of iron. It is
of a purple russet hue, of good body, and is valued
when of fine quality for the clearness and soft
lakey character of its tints. It is very permanent,
and a good dryer ; but being opaque, and keeping
its place badly, it cannot be employed in glazing.
RED OCHRE
Is a native earth. It is not so pure in colour, or
clear in its tints, as light red.
Red ochre is one of the most ancient pigments,
and is, like all the ochres, perfectly permanent.
COCHINEAL LAKES.
These consist of the colouring matter of the
cochineal insect precipitated upon an aluminous
base. The Cochineal insect, or “coccus cacti,” is a
native of Mexico, and is found on a species of cactus,
from the juice of which it derives its nourishment.
The females, of which there are from one hundred
and fifty to two hundred for each male, are marked
Jº AE/O AE/G/MAEAVTS. 111
by the absence of wings, and constitute the com-
mercial article. They are killed by drying in the
sun. -
The colouring matter of the cochineal insect is
not in a free state ; but exists in the form of a
glucoside called carminic acid. By the action of
acids, Carminic acid may be split up into Carmine
red and glucose.
CARMINE
Is that preparation of Cochineal which contains
the most colouring matter, and the least aluminous
base. Hence it is the richest, deepest, and most
intense of the cochineal lakes ; but is probably not,
as usually stated, the most permanent. Although
not to be classed among the permanent pigments,
yet carmine is fairly stable under favourable condi-
tions. When pure, well made, and employed
alone, it will last for years, especially if protected
by oil and varnish. In tint with white lead it will
not stand ; and, in glazing though little affected
by impure air, it is soon discoloured and destroyed
by the action of light. It has great power in its
full touches, possesses considerable clearness in the
pale washes, and works admirably.
II 2 . FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. V.
In landscape carmine is seldom employed, the
colour being chiefly valued for flower-painting and
illumination.
CRIMSON LAKE
Is a cochineal lake containing more aluminous
base than carmine, and is consequently weaker in
colour. Crimson lake possesses a characteristic
bloom which is not observable in carmine, and it
sometimes stated to be less stable, although this
is questionable. It is, however, more generally
useful. - . . .
Crimson lake is of great service in giving
richness to mixed tints; and, like all cochineal
colours, is of greater utility in water than in oil.
Like all the cochineal pigments it is affected by
strong light, and ultimately decolourized. It is a
bad dryer.
SCARLET LAKE
Is crimson lake with a Scarlet hue imparted to
it by mixture with vermilion. It has all the
properties of crimson lake; but is not so per-
manent, as vermilion has a destructive action on
A&AE D PMGMA2 MTS. II 3
cochineal lakes. It should never be employed in
glazing. In some of the pictures by old masters,
the shadows of red objects have entirely disap-
peared, in consequence of being put in with lake
over vermilion.
MADDER LAKES
Are prepared by precipitating the colouring
matter of the root of the madder plant upon a base
of alumina. The madder plant, “rubia tinctorum,”
is largely grown in France and Holland, and the
bulk of the English Supply is obtained from these
countries.
Madder roots are also imported from the
Levant, and form the “Turkey Madder ’’ of
commerce.
The principal colouring matter obtained from
madder is called Aligarin. It has a very great
interest for chemists, inasmuch as a compound
resembling it in all respects has been prepared
from Anthracene, one of the coal tar hydro-
carbons. -
The most careful researches tend to show that
fresh madder roots do not contain any appreciable
quantity of alizarin ; but that they contain a large
II.4. FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
amount of a glucoside called Rubian. The roots,
on keeping, undergo a process of fermentation, and-
the rubian is decomposed by the ferment into
alizarin and glucose.
MADDER CARMINE,
Like the carmine of cochineal, is the richest and
deepest lake prepared, containing the maximum
colouring matter, and the minimum base. It is
the only durable carmine for painting, either in
water or in oil. In common with the other reds
of madder, its faint washes possess greater clear-
ness than those of cochineal ; but madder carmine
is chiefly valued by the water-colour artist for its
deep touches. Its washes are surpassed by those
of rose madder.
ROSE MADDER.
This variety is less intense than the preceding,
and without its carmine hue. It is of a rich rose
colour—a true rose—tending neither to crimson nor
Scarlet. Marked by a peculiar softness, and an
unusual clearness in its pale washes, rose madder
affords the most perfect carnation tints known. It
A&ED PATGM EAV.T.S. II 5
is, as indicated above, chiefly valued for its wash.
Not liable to change by the action of light, or impure
air, it resembles all madder lakes in these respects.
Like them, too, it is a tardy dryer in oil, and does
not work in water with the entire fulness and
facility of the cochineal pigments, and so, when
permanence is of no consideration, the latter may
still be preferred. Rose madder was used by the
old masters, and has apparently undergone no
change.
PINK MADDER
Was originally a weaker preparation of the pre-
ceding ; but this is now obsolete. What is now
called pink madder is identical with rose madder.
*mºsºme
MADDER LAKE
Is another synonym for rose madder. As some
artists know a pigment by One name, and Some by
another, it has been necessary in trade catalogues
to give two or three names to one and the same
pigment.
I 16 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY,
INDIAN LAKE
Or Zac Lake, is obtained from the lac, or lacca of
India, a resinous secretion found on the branches
of certain plants in Siam, Assam, and Bengal.
Indian lake is rich, transparent, and deep. It is
more durable, though less brilliant, than the
Cochineal colours; but is inferior in both respects
to those of madder. Used thickly or in strong
glazing, it is of great body and much permanence ;
but in thin glazing, and in tint with white lead, is
decidedly fugitive.
In the properties of drying, etc., it resembles
other lakes.
Lac appears to be the lake which has stood best
in old pictures. It was probably employed by the
Venetians, who had the trade of India when
painting flourished at Venice.
DRAGONS' BLOOD
Is a resin brought from the East Indies. It is of
a warm, Semi-transparent, but rather dull red
colour; which is deepened by impure air, and
darkened by light.
A&AED PAGAMEAVT.S. I 17
White lead soon destroys it, and in oil it dries
very badly indeed. Although it has been recom-
mended as a pigment, dragons' blood does not
merit the attention of the artist.
1 I 8 AYAE ZZO'S CHROMA TOGRAA’A/Y.
CHAPTER X.
ORANGE PIGMENTS.
THE few orange pigments we possess are, on the
whole satisfactory, both in respect of colour and
permanence. These can be supplemented to any
extent by mixtures of permanent red with per-
manent yellow.
CADMIUM ORANGE
Was first introduced to the art world at the Inter-
national Exhibition of 1862. It is an exceptionally
brilliant and lustrous pigment, and is quite free
from any rankness or harshness of colour. It is a
simple original pigment, containing no base but
Cadmium ; and is perfectly permanent, being quite
unaffected by exposure to light, air, damp, or
sulphuretted hydrogen ; or by admixture with
Other pigments. In common with the cadmium
yellows, it has a certain amount of transparency,
and is invaluable for gorgeous sunsets. It is of
ORANGE PIGMENTS. I IQ
great depth and power in its full touches, and the
pale washes are marked by the clearness and
delicacy which are so essential in painting skies.
In illumination cadmium orange supplies a want
which was formerly much felt. ->
CHROME ORANGE
Or Orange Chrome is, like chrome red, a basic
chromate of lead. Like all the chromates of lead
it is characterized by power and brilliancy; but
also by rankness of colour, want of permanence,
and a tendency to injure organic pigments. By
reason of its lead base it is apt to be discoloured
by sulphuretted hydrogen; but is on the whole
preferable to the chrome yellows, being liable in
a somewhat less degree to their changes.
MARS ORANGE
Is a subdued orange of the burnt sienna class ;
but without the brown tinge that distinguishes the
latter. It possesses great clearness and purity; and
considerable transparency. It affords bright sunny
tints in its pale washes, and combines very
effectively with white. Being, like Mars red, and
I 2C AZEZ D'S CHA’OMA 7TOGRAPH. V.
Y-
Mars yellow, an artificial oxide of iron, it is more
chemically active than the native ochres, and needs
to be cautiously used with pigments affected by
iron, such as the lakes of cochineal and intense blue.
It is very permanent, and dries well.
*-*s
BURNT SIENNA
Is prepared by calcining raw sienna. It is a
brown-Orange, or orange-russet colour ; and is
richer, deeper, and more transparent than the raw
earth. It also works and dries better. In all
other respects it has the properties of raw
Sienna. -
Burnt Sienna is a very permanent, and generally
Serviceable pigment. It has, perhaps, a slight
tendency to darken by time.
BURNT ROMAN ocHRE
Is obtained by calcining a very bright Roman
Ochre. By this operation it acquires transparency
and depth of colour. -
It is moderately bright, forms good flesh tints
with white, dries and works well both in water and
oil, and is very permanent.
ORA NGE PIGMEAVT.S. I 2 I
Burnt Roman Ochre is only used as an oil colour,
and is nearly obsolete.
NEUTRAL ORANGE,
Or Penley's Neutral Orange, is a permanent com-
pound pigment composed of cadmium yellow and
Venetian red. It is chiefly valuable in water-
colour, and is recommended as a first wash to
break the extreme brilliancy of the paper, and to
fix the pencil sketch. - -
I 22 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY,
CHAPTER XI.
YELLOW PIGMENTS.
THE ancient painters seem to have been rather
badly off for yellows, and in many old paintings
and illuminations, glowing with vermilion and ultra-
marine, the place of yellow was supplied by gilding.
Now, however, good yellow pigments are more
numerous than those of any other colour.
AUREOLIN
Is also known as Cobalt Yellow. It is one of the
most recent additions to the artist's palette and is
a double nitrite of potassium and cobalt. It is
permanent, transparent, possesses great richness of
colour, and is the nearest approach to a perfect
yellow in existence. In point of hue it more
closely resembles the yellow of the spectrum than
any other pigment. Aureolin is entirely un-
affected by sulphuretted hydrogen, and, even in its
faintest tints, is unaltered by exposure to the direct
YELLO W PIGMENTS. I 2
3
rays of the sun for a lengthened period. With all
other colours it mixes safely and readily. In water
colour it affords beautiful transparent tints, the paler
washes being very clear and delicate. In oil, water,
or fresco, it is equally eligible; but it cannot be used
in enamel, as the colour is destroyed by great heat.
CADMIUM YELLOWS.
These are of comparatively recent introduction,
the metal itself not having been discovered till
1818. They are sulphides of cadmium, and are
consequently unaffected by Sulphuretted hydrogen.
DEEP CADMIUM
Is a lustrous, glowing, Orange-yellow. It is not
very transparent ; but is wonderfully clear and
bright, and is the richest and most powerful yellow
we possess. It works and washes well, and readily
throws all other yellows into the shade when used
alone.
Deep cadmium is permanent both with respec
to sulphuretted hydrogen, and exposure to light
and air. By admixture with white it gives a series
of beautiful tints. It has been stated that the
colour is destroyed by white lead. Theoretically
T 24 A.I.A. Z. D’S CHROMA 7TOGAEAAA. Y.
this might very well happen ; practically, if the
Cadmium be carefully prepared, and free from excess
of sulphur, it does not. In fact, a good sample of
Cadmium yellow may rather advantageously than
otherwise be compounded with white lead, for it is
found that a mixture of equal weights of the two
pigments will bear an atmosphere of Sulphuretted
hydrogen that completely blackens the white alone.
A steel palette knife should not be used with the
cadmium yellows.
PALE CADMIUM
Is not strictly pale ; but pale only when Compared
with the preceding. It is, in fact, a full rich
colour, brilliant and permanent; but without that
tendency to orange which distinguishes the deep
variety.
CHROME YELLOWS.
These are chromates of lead, the hue depending on
the proportion of chromic acid to oxide of lead.
They are of modern introduction; but from their
want of permanence have been to some extent
superseded by the cadmium yellows. They rival
the cadmiums in brightness; but do not possess
the mellow richness of those pigments.
YAZZZO W P/GMEAVT.S. I 25
DEEP CHROME
Is a brilliant deep yellow with great opacity and
body ; but possesses a peculiar harshness and
hardness of colour, which is apt to produce a coarse
and disagreeable effect. Although it resists the
sun's rays for a lengthened period, yet after Some
time it loses its original hue. In an atmosphere
containing sulphuretted hydrogen it is changeable
even to blackness. With many pigments it cannot
be mixed without producing Serious changes, par-
ticularly Prussian and Antwerp blues, which are
ultimately destroyed.
CHROME YELLOW
Is similar in all respects to the above ; but is
more lemon in hue.
CITRON YELLOW
Is chromate of zinc, and is a bright, pale, lemon-
like yellow, slightly soluble in water. It is not
affected by Sulphuretted hydrogen ; but does not
preserve its colour on exposure to light and air,
or even when kept in a book. In contact with
organic Substances it is liable to turn green. In
I 26 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY,
this chromate as in many others, the affinity of the
chromic acid for the base is small; and the former
is liable to separate from the latter, and, by deoxi-
dation, to become converted into green oxide of
chromium.
STRONTIAN YELLOW
Was Originally a chromate of strontium, a compound
slightly soluble in water, and not more stable than
chromate of zinc. The pigment, however, now sold
as strontian yellow, is usually a mixture which
resembles the original colour; but contains no
strontium whatever. It is a light and delicate
primrose colour, and possesses a durability to which
the original could lay no claim.
LEMON YELLOWS.
These consist essentially of chromate of barium.
They are exceedingly difficult to make well, and
upon the mode of manufacture depends not only the
beauty of the colours, but also their stability.
Properly and carefully prepared, chromate of barium
is perfectly permanent ; and is the only chromate
which can be called so.
YE// O W A/GA/EAVTS. I 27
LEMON YELLOW
Is of a vivid lemon hue, very pure and clear, and
entirely free from the slightest tinge of orange.
It has not much power, and is Semi-opaque.
Lemon yellow works pleasantly both in oil and
water, washes well, and is admirably adapted for
glazing. It is not liable to change by the action of
damp or foul air, by exposure to light, by contact
with the steel palette-knife, or by mixture with
white lead and other pigments. Being uninjured
by lime it is eligible in fresco.
PALE LEMON YELLOW
Is more of a primrose hue than the preceding,
and precisely similar in its chemical and artistic
properties.
ORIENT YELLOW
Is one of the most recently introduced pigments.
Though not so transparent as aureolin it is dis-
tinguished by greater richness and depth. It is
of a soft golden hue, lustrous, and luminous, and
resembles a brilliant and somewhat opaque Indian
yellow. A gorgeous substitute for that fugitive
128 FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. V.
pigment is produced by compounding Orient
yellow with aureolin.
Being more transparent than the cadmiums it is
admirably adapted for Sunset effects.
Orient yellow stands well in oil, and is quite
unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen. It cannot,
however, be used as a water colour.
KINGS' YELLOW,
Or Orpiment, is sesquisulphide of arsenic. It is
found native in China and elsewhere, and was the
Auri-pigmentum of the Romans, whence the present
corrupt form.
It is a bright yellow pigment, and although not
affected by sulphuretted hydrogen, is not durable
either in water or oil. It is destroyed by being
mixed with any of the lead colours; and, in fact,
can only be safely used in an unmixed state.
Orpiment is not an eligible pigment, and is a very
deadly poison.
NAPLES YELLOW
Was formerly a compound of the oxides of lead
and antimony, prepared at Naples. What is now
sold as Naples yellow is a compound pigment,
YE/A.O W P/G/MAEAVTS. I29
which in colour is an imitation of the original, and
possesses the advantage of being perfectly durable
and trustworthy. It is of a pleasing, light warm-
yellow hue ; is opaque, and of good body.
Naples yellow may be readily and accurately
imitated by mixing deep cadmium yellow with white.
MARS YELLOW
Is an artificially prepared iron ochre, of the nature
of raw Sienna. In its general qualities it resembles
the ochres; but is more transparent, as well as
purer, richer, and brighter in colour. It is also more
chemically active, and so should be used cautiously
with pigments likely to be affected by iron. Like
the Ochres it is absolutely permanent, and is a good
drier.
RAW SIENNA
is a ferruginous native pigment, of rather an impure
yellow colour. It possesses more body and trans-
parency than the Ochres; but, unless skilfully pre-
pared, has the objection of being somewhat pasty
in working. It is not liable to change by the
action of either light, time, or impure air ; and may
be safely employed in oil, water, or fresco.
I 3O FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
THE OCHRES.
Those principally used by artists are known as
Yellow Ochre, Roman Ochre, Transparent Gold
Ochre, and Brown. Ochre. They are native earths
consisting chiefly of silica and alumina coloured
by sesquioxide of iron. They are among the most
ancient and permanent of pigments, and Sometimes
occur in the natural state of SO fine a quality that
they require no preparation except washing.
In these pigments the sesquioxide of iron is in
combination with Silica and alumina, and so is
less chemically active than in the artificial iron
colours.
YELLOW OCHRE
Is a tolerably bright yellow of no great force. It is
not affected by ordinary light, or by the action of
sulphuretted hydrogen ; but is somewhat darkened
by time, and the direct rays of the Sun.
It may be safely mixed with pigments which
are themselves permanent; but with carmine and
the cochineal lakes, or with intense blue, it should
not be employed. .
For fresco painting, yellow ochre is admirably
adapted.
YAF/L/LO W P/GMEAVTS. I 3 I
ROMAN OCHRE
Is rather deeper and more powerful than the pre-
ceding, as well as more transparent and cooler in hue.
In all other respects it is similar to yellow ochre.
TRANSPARENT GOLD OCHRE
Resembles Roman ochre ; but is clearer in its tints
and more transparent. It approaches the character
of a clear, bright, raw Sienna ; but is purer and
more brilliant.
BROWN OCHRE
Is a dense, deep-toned, brownish-yellow, which
covers well without being too opaque. In its
chemical characters it is similar to the rest of the
Ochres.
QUERCITRON LAKES.
Comprise Yellow Carmine, /talian Pink, and Yellow
Zake. They are prepared by precipitating the
colouring matter of quercitron bark with alumina.
Quercitron bark is obtained from the “Quercus
tinctoria,” a kind of oak indigenous in North
America. The colouring matter exists in the bark
as a glucoside, i.e. in combination with glucose.
This glucoside has been termed Quercitrim.
IK
132 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY,
YELLOW CARMINE.
Sometimes sold under the name of Yellow Madder,
is the most concentrated lake prepared from Quer-
citron Bark. It is very rich, powerful, and trans-
parent ; but does not resist the action of light, and
dries rather badly.
If it could only be depended on, yellow carmine
would be of great value in glazing.
ITALIAN PINK
Contains more alumina and less colouring matter
than the preceding pigment, and is consequently
not so rich and powerful, but is in other respects
similar. -
YELLOW LAKE
Is a still weaker preparation. It resembles Italian
pink, but is more lemon in hue.
GAMEOGE
Is principally obtained from the - gokathu tree in
Ceylon and Siam. It is a gum-resin which exudes
from the wounded leaves and young shoots,
Gamboge is a bright transparent yellow ; but
YE/L/CO W P/GMENTS. I 33
has no great depth. In its deepest touches it
Shines too much and verges on brown.
When properly used it is more durable than is
generally reputed both in water and oil ; and when
mixed with other colours conduces to their stability,
and helps them keep their place. It is deepened
to Some extent by impure air, and somewhat
weakened by the action of light. In water it works
remarkably well ; but is with difficulty employed
in oil in the dry condition.
Gamboge may be rendered diffusible as an oil
colour by forming it into a paste with water, and
mixing it with lemon yellow. The best method is,
however, to combine it with alumina.
EXTRACT OF GAMBOGE,
The pigment now known as ‘Extract of Gam-
boge’ is a compound of gamboge and alumina.
INDIAN YELLOW
Is a pigment which has long been employed in
India under the name “Purree,” but has only in
modern times been introduced into Europe. It
consists of euxanthate of magnesia, and is obtained
K 2
I 34. ATXA2ZZO'S CHA’OMA 7TOGAEAAAſ}^.
from the urine of the camel. It has a beautiful
pure yellow colour, and light powdery texture ; is
of greater body and depth than gamboge, but is
inferior in these respects to gallstone.
Indian yellow resists the Sun's rays with singular
power in water colour painting ; yet, in ordinary
light and air, or even in a book, the beauty of its
colour is not lasting. In oil, both alone and in
tint, it is decidedly fugitive. Owing, probably, to
its alkaline nature, it has an injurious effect on
carmine and cochineal lakes, when mixed with them.
Indian yellow works and washes admirably,
and may be used in fresco.
* * *
GALLSTONE
Is a deep-toned, gorgeous yellow, affording richer
tints than most other yellows; but it cannot be
depended on for permanence, and therefore is
seldom employed. Its colour is soon changed and
destroyed by strong light, although not affected by
impure air. In oil it is ineligible. True gallstone
is an animal calculus formed in the gall-bladder
of oxen; but the pigment sold under that name is
often a substitute, resembling the original in colour,
but of greater stability.
CHAPTER XII.
GREEN PIGMENTS.
THE green pigments in ordinary use are not very
numerous ; but when these are supplemented by
mixtures of permanent blues with permanent
yellows, we may regard Our Supply of greens as on
the whole satisfactory.
OXIDES OF CHROMIUM.
The different varieties of sesquioxide of chromium
are obtained by various methods, and both by wet
and dry processes. They are either pale or deep,
bright or subdued, opaque or transparent, according
to the mode of production. -
They are all strictly stable, being equally un-
affected by exposure to light, air, or sulphuretted
hydrogen. They can be mixed with other pig-
ments without injury to themselves or to the
pigments with which they are compounded. They
are eligible both in water and oil, and dry well in
the latter vehicle.
I 36 A ME/LD'S CHROMA 7TOGRAPH. V.
The varieties which are not hydrated can be used
in enamel.
*===3 ºssºmºsº
OXIDE OF CHROMIUM
Or Opaque Oxide of Chromium, is found native in
an impure state ; but is always prepared artificially
for the artist's use. It is obtained by dry processes,
and consists of the anhydrous sesquioxide. It is a
cold, sober Sage green, deep-toned, opaque, and
although dull, agreeable to the eye. Its tints with
white are very delicate and pleasing.
Being very dense and powerful, it must be em-
ployed with care to avoid heaviness. In water
colour it washes rather badly.
TRANSPARENT OXIDE OF CHROMIUM.
This pigment, being very deficient in body, is only
eligible in oil. It is a very pale greyish green, in
powder; but, ground in oil, it yields an agreeable
yellowish-green of some depth, which is moderately
bright, but not very pure or clear.
VIRIDIAN,
Or French Veronese Green, is a very rich, deep,
and transparent pigment. It is a hydrated ses-
GAA. EAV P/GMEAVTS. I37.
quioxide of chromium containing two molecules,
of water. Its hue is of a bluish-green, its deepest
shades verge on black, while its light tints are
unsurpassed for clearness. No mixture of blue
and yellow pigments will afford a green so
beautiful and stable. Viridian is admissible in
- fresco ; but cannot be employed in enamelling,
for its colour depends on the water of hydration,
which is expelled by strong heat,
*===s===
COPPER GREENS
Comprise Emerald Green, Malachite Green, and
Verdigris. They are characterized by brightness
of Colour, good body, and considerable permanence.
When exposed to damp and impure air, they are
ultimately blackened. They darken by time, dry
well in oil, and are all more or less poisonous, even
those not containing arsenic.
*mºmºmº
EMERALD GREEN
Is an aceto-arsenite of copper. It reflects light
very powerfully, and is the most durable pigment
of its class, not being affected to an appreciable
extent by damp, or by that amount of impure air
138 A.I.E.L.D'S CHROMA TOGAEA PAH V.
to which pictures are usually subject. It works
much better in water than in oil, and in the latter
vehicle dries with difficulty. Bearing the same
relation to greens that pure Scarlet bears to reds,
its vivid hue is almost beyond the scale of other
bright pigments, and immediately attracts the eye
to any part of a painting in which it may be
employed. Where this colour is required, no
mixture of blue and yellow will serve as a sub-
stitute.
MALACHITE GREEN,
Or Mountain Green, occurs native in Cumberland,
and consists of hydrated bicarbonate of copper, but
malachite can be prepared artificially of a much
finer colour than the natural variety. In both forms
it withstands the action of light and air ; but in
common with the other non-arsenical copper colours,
it is blackened by the combined action of damp
and sulphuretted hydrogen. On the whole it
cannot be recommended as a pigment.
VERDIGRIS
Is a subacetate of copper, i.e. a compound of
acetate of copper with oxide of copper. It is of a
bright green colour inclining to blue.
GREAEAV P/GMENTS. I 39
Verdigris is the least durable of the copper
greens. As a water-colour, it soon fades by the
action of light and air, and is very susceptible to
damp and sulphuretted hydrogen. In oil it is
permanent with respect to light and air ; but
moisture and an impure atmosphere change its
colour, and cause it to effloresce, or rise to the
surface of the oil in spots. It dries rapidly, and is
exceptionally useful with other greens or very
dark colours. In varnish it stands better ; but
cannot be considered eligible either alone or
compounded.
The Italian painters used this pigment, and the
bright greens in many old pictures are produced by
glazings of verdigris.
CHROME GREEN.
The so-called ‘chrome greens’ are compounds of
chrome yellow with Prussian blue. They are often
called Brunswick Greens, or Cinnabar Greens,
and are fine bright colours, although quite unfit
for the artist's craft. Chromate of lead has a
chemical action on Prussian blue and ultimately
destroys it.
14O FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
HOOKER'S GREEN
Is a compound of Prussian blue and gamboge,
these two pigments have about the same degree of
stability, and are perfectly innocuous to each other.
Hooker's green is more durable and transparent
than the chrome greens which have just been
described.
PRUSSIAN GREEN
Like the preceding is composed of Prussian blue
and gamboge ; but contains a very large excess of
Prussian blue. " It is consequently a bluish-green
of the utmost depth and transparency, verging on
black in its deep washes.
SAP GREEN
Is a pigment of vegetable origin, and is prepared
from the juice of buckthorn berries, the green leaves
of woad, etc. It is usually preserved in bladders,
and is sometimes called bladder green. When good,
it is of a dark colour and glossy fracture, extremely
transparent, and is a fine natural yellowish-green.
Sap green is sometimes employed in flower paint-
ing. It is, however, a very imperfect pigment,
GA’A. EAW A/GA/A2/VT.S. I4 I
disposed to attract atmospheric moisture, and to
get mildewed. Having little durability in water,
and less in oil, it is not eligible in the one, and is
totally useless in the other.
TERRE VERTE,
Is a sober bluish-green with a gray cast. It is
a species of ochre containing silica, protoxide
of iron, magnesia, potash, and water. It is not
bright or powerful ; but is a very durable pig-
ment, being unaffected by strong light or impure
air, and combining safely with"other colours. It
has not much body, is semi-transparent, and dries
well in oil. The different varieties of Terre Verte
have been used as pigments from the earliest times.
It is very useful in glazing, and Rubens availed
himself of it largely for this purpose.
Terre Verte seems to get slightly darker in course
of time, and should therefore be used rather
cautiously.
COBALT GREEN,
Or Rinman's Green is a mixture of the oxides of
zinc and Cobalt, and is prepared by heating
I42 A/E/CD'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. V.
carbonate of zinc which has been precipitated with
a small percentage of carbonate of cobalt. It is
a moderately bright green, permanent both alone
and compounded ; but so sadly deficient in body
and power as to have become almost obsolete.
Rinman's green is an example of a pigment which
is chemically good and artistically bad.
CHAPTER XIII.
BLUE PIGMENTS.
THE painter will find that the number of good
blues at his disposal is somewhat limited in com-
parison with the reds and yellows. A pigment
which is permanent, but which otherwise has the
attributes of Prussian Blue, is much to be desired.
GENUINE ULTRAMARINE,
Also termed /Vative Oltramarine, and Real
Ultramarine, is the most costly, most permanent,
and most celebrated of all pigments.
It is obtained by isolating the blue colouring
matter of the Lapis-Lazuli, a stone brought chiefly
from China, Thibet, and the shores of Lake Baikal.
There is little doubt that lapis-lazuli was the
sapphire of the ancients.
Chemical analysis has shown that the colouring
matter of lapis-lazuli consists essentially of silica,
I 44 APIEZZO'S CHA’OMA 7TOGA’AA’Aſ Y.
alumina, Sulphur, and SOda, and that the colour is
probably due to Sodium Sulphide, and sodium
thiosulphate.
Genuine ultramarine is prepared from the stone
by a curious mechanical process, which, when well
executed, separates the blue very perfectly from all
extraneous matter, and yields first a deep and rich
product, then a paler One, and lastly a bluish gray,
which is known as Ultramarème Ash. The refuse,
containing little or no blue, furnishes a useful
pigment called Mineral Gray.
Genuine ultramarine, when of fine quality and
skilfully prepared, is a most exquisitely beautiful
blue, ranging from the utmost depth of shadow to
the highest brilliancy of light and colour. It is
transparent in all its shades, and leans neither to
green on the one hand, nor to purple on the other.
It is not injured by damp, by impure air, or by the
intensest action of light; and is so eminently
durable that it remains unchanged in the oldest
paintings. It dries well, works well in oil and
fresco, and may be safely compounded with all
Other pigments. In the representation of sky and
atmosphere it is unapproached.
Though unexceptionable as an oil-colour, both in
solid painting and glazing, it does not work so well
A/C UAE AE/GMEAVTS. I45
as some other blues in water; and, unless carefully
prepared, is not well adapted for mixed tints, on
account of a gritty quality, of which no grinding
will entirely divest it, which causes it to separate
from other pigments.
ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINES
Comprise Bril/iant Ultramarine, French Ultramarine
or Arezzch Blue, AVew Blue, and Permaanzerzá B/ue.
The unrivalled qualities of native ultramarine
prepared from the lapis-lazuli rendered it most
desirable to obtain an artificial compound which,
while possessing similar properties, could be pro-
duced in quantity, and at a less costly rate. The
problem was first solved in 1828, by M. Guimet,
who won the prize of £500 which had been offered
in 1824 by the ‘Sociéte d'Encouragement,” of
Paris. -
The artificial ultramarines are darker and less
azure than the natural varieties; but the superiority
of the latter consists, not so much in their greater
purity of colour, although this is considerable, as in
their far greater transparency. The finest French
ultramarine is brilliant, powerful, permanent, and
nearly, but only nearly, transparent. Possessing in
I 46 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
a subdued degree the characteristics and qualities
of the genuine variety, it works, washes, and dries
well ; and, being unaffected by alkalies, is eligible
in mural decoration.
BRILLIANT ULTRAMARINE
Or Factitious Ultramarine, is a specially fine pre-
paration of M. Guimet; and of all the artificial
ultramarines, presents the nearest approach to the
natural product in transparency, purity of Colour,
and chemical characteristics.
FRENCH U LTRAMARINE
Or French Blue, is a rich deep colour ; but less
transparent and vivid than the preceding variety,
which is preferable in unmixed tints. French blue
is a generally useful colour.
NEW BLUE
Is an artificial ultramarine, holding an interme-
diate position between French blue and permanent
blue.
A/C UAE PAGA/EAVTS. I47
PERMAN ENT BLUE
Is a pale ultramarine with a cobalt hue ; and is
probably, in spite of its name, less permanent than
the deeper varieties. It stands in the same relation
to French blue as Antwerp blue does to Prussian
Blue.
COBALT BLUES
Comprise Cobalt Blue, Cerulean Blue, and Smalt.
They are all obtained by the action of heat on
mixtures of cobalt oxide with other metallic bases ;
and, with the exception of smalt, are very durable.
COBALT ELUE
Is obtained by calcining a mixture of alumina
and basic phosphate of cobalt,
t was discovered in 1802 by M. Thénard.
Though not possessing the body, transparency, and
depth of ultramarine, it works better in water,
and hence is a great acquisition. It resists the
action of light ; but its beauty declines by time,
and it is greened and ultimately blackened by
impure air. Cobalt blue dries well in oil, does not
injure or suffer injury from other pigments, and
may be used in enamel and fresco.
I48 ATIEZZO'S CHA’OMA 7TOGRAPH. V.
CERULEAN BLUE,
Or Caeruleum, is a stannate of Cobalt, ie. a
compound of the oxides of tin and Cobalt.
This comparatively new pigment has the dis-
tinctive property of appearing a fairly pure blue
by artificial light, tending neither to green on the
one hand, nor to purple on the other.
This advantage, added to its permanence, has
conferred upon it a popularity which its mere colour
would scarcely have gained. It is a light and
pleasing blue with a greenish-gray Colour by day :
but possesses little depth and richness, and is
far excelled in beauty by a good cobalt blue.
A certain chalkiness, moreover, detracts from its
transparency, and militates against its use in water.
Moreover it washes badly. It is in oil, and as a
night colour, that cerulean blue becomes of service
For scene-painting it is admirably adapted.
SMALT
Was discovered about I 540, in Saxony, and is a
double silicate of cobalt and potassium. It is a
vitreous compound, in fact a blue glass, and is a
vivid and gorgeous violet blue. In consequence of
its gritty texture it washes badly, and has little
A LUE BIGMEAVT.S. I-49
body. Both in water and oil its beauty Soon
decays. It is chiefly employed in illumination and
flower-painting.
PRUSSIAN BLUE
Was discovered accidentally in 17 Io, by Diesbach, a
Berlin colour-maker.
It consists essentially of ferrocyanide of iron,
and is a colour of vast body and wonderful
transparency; it has a Soft, velvety richness, and
its deepest washes are so intense as to appear
black.
Prussian blue borders slightly on green, a quality
which militates against its use in skies and distances.
It dries and glazes well in oil; but unfortunately
cannot be called permanent, although it will last a
long time under favourable circumstances. It
fades under the action of a strong light ; but re-
gains its colour in the dark. Its colour, in fact, has
the singular property of fluctuating under certain
conditions, according to whether the surroundings
are favourable for it to acquire or relinquish oxygen.
It is darkened and discoloured by damp and impure
air, and, as its colour is destroyed by high tempera-
ture and alkalies, it cannot be employed in enamel
or fresco. *===s
L 2
I 50 Aſ IELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
ANTWERP BLUE
Is similar in hue to Prussian blue, but is paler
and less permanent. It is a compound of Prussian
blue with alumina.
*E=mº-mºmºmº-
CYANINE BLUE,
Or Leitch's Blue, is a mixture of cobalt blue and
Prussian blue. This pigment loses its colour by
degrees when exposed to air and light, and
gradually assumes the hue of the paler but more
permanent cobalt.
INDIGO,
Or Indian Blue, was one of the pigments known to
the ancients. It is chiefly derived from the leaves
of various species of “Andigofera,” which are found
in India, Africa, and America.
Indigo, like the colouring principle of madder,
does not exist as such in the living plant; but in
the form of a glucoside called Indicam, which is
colourless. When, however, the leaves are plucked
and macerated in water, a process of fermentation
sets in, and the indican is decomposed, with the
formation of indigo blue and glucose.
BLUE PIGMEAVTS. I 5 I
Indigo is not nearly SO Saturated in colour as
Prussian blue ; but is extremely powerful and tran-
Sparent. It has great body, and works and glazes
well both in water and oil. It is inferior in per-
manence to Prussian blue. Impure air has an
injurious effect upon it, and in tint with white lead
it is decidedly fugitive.
INTENSE BLUE
Is indigo refined by solution and precipitation. By
this process it becomes more durable, and is
rendered much more powerful, transparent and
deep. In other respects it possesses the properties
of common indigo. It is, however, more apt to
penetrate the paper on which it is employed.
I 52 A.Y.E./CD'S CHAOMA TOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER XIV.
PURPLE PIGMENTS.
WE have, unfortunately, no purple pigment
which is both permanent and saturated in colour.
Tolerable purples may be obtained by mixing
permanent reds with permanent blues.
---
PURPLE MADDER
Is prepared from the madder plant, and is, like the
rest of the madder colours, a lake formed by
precipitating the Colouring matter in combination
with a metallic oxide. It is the most useful, and
with the exception of Mars violet, the only
permanent purple pigment. In colour it is a
purple leaning to marrone; it is marked by soft
subdued richness rather than by brilliancy, and
affords the greatest depth of shadow without
coldness of hue. It has great transparency and
A URPLE PIGMEAVTS. I 53
body, and neither gives nor sustains injury by
admixture. It dries and glazes well in oil, works
well, and is altogether a most eligible pigment.
Purple madder may be used in fresco, as it is
quite uninjured by lime.
PURPLE LAKE.
This colour might almost be classed among the
reds, as it is a species of crimson lake with a purple
hue. It is transparent, deep-toned, and is useful
in shadows. In its general properties it resembles
crimson lake ; but is on the whole more durable.
BURNT CARMINE
Is obtained by partially charring carmine. It is a
magnificent reddish-purple of extreme richness and
depth. It is probably not more permanent than
ordinary carmine.
*º-ºm-º.
BURNT LAKE
Holds the same relation to crimson lake as burnt
carmine to ordinary carmine. Hence it is a weaker
variety of the preceding colour, with less richness
and permanence.
154 AZYAZZZO'S CHA’OMA 7TOGRAAAZY.
INDIAN PURPLE
Is prepared by precipitating cochineal extract with
sulphate of copper. It is a very deep-toned, but
rather cold and subdued purple, which is apt to
blacken on exposure to light and air.
VIOLET CARMINE
Is obtained from the root of the “Anchusa tinctoria.”
and is a brilliant bluish-purple of much richness.
On exposure to light and air it loses its colour and
blackens.
MARS VIOLET,
Like the rest of the Mars colours, is an oxide of
iron. It resembles Indian red in body, opacity,
and general properties, but is darker in colour. It
is very permanent and dries well.
( 155 )
CHAPTER XV.
EROWN PIGMENTS.
OUR list of brown pigments leaves nothing to be
desired. They are very numerous, and are, almost
without exception, characterised by great durability.
BROWN MADDER
Is a lake prepared from the madder root, and is an
exceedingly rich marrone-brown of great depth
and intensity. It affords the richest description of
Shadows, and in water-colour is especially in-
dispensable. It is, like all the madder pigments,
very permanent ; it dries well, works very pleasantly,
and altogether is a pigment which cannot be too
strongly recommended to artists.
RUBENS’ MADDER
Is also a preparation of the madder root. It is
more russet in hue than the preceding, and is very
pure, transparent, and permanent.
I 56 APIE / D'S CHA’OMA TOGRAPHY.
Although not employed so much as brown
madder, it is an exceedingly serviceable pigment.
It glazes admirably, but does not dry well in oil.
BONE BROWN
Is obtained by partially charring ivory dust until it
becomes of a brown colour. -
This pigment, although much esteemed by artists,
is not very eligible. It is a bad drier, and will not
withstand the action of strong light.
Bone brown is only used as an oil-colour.
BISTRE
Is prepared from the soot of wood-fires, and is a
very powerful citrine-brown, with a clearness about
it suited to architectural subjects. It is only used
as a water-colour, is perfectly durable, but has a
tendency to condense the moisture of the atmo-
sphere.
PRUSSIAN BROWN
Is a compound of Sesquioxide of iron and alumina,
prepared by calcining an aluminous Prussian blue.
It is an orange-brown, and resembles burnt sienna ;
but it is not so rich and powerful. It is transparent,
permanent, and a good drier.
PA’O WAV AIGME/WTS. I 57
BURNT UMBER
Is prepared by calcining raw umber. It is a quiet
brown, with a deeper tone and more russet hue
than raw umber. It works and washes well in
water, dries rapidly in oil, and is perfectly stable in
either vehicle. It is eligible in fresco.
ºmºmºmº-º-º-º
VERONA BROWN,
A. pigment confined to oil-painting, is a calcined
ferruginous earth. It is a very serviceable citrine
brown.
VANDYKE BROWN.
This pigment is a species of peat or bog-earth of
a fine, deep, brown colour, and is Semi-transparent,
The original brown used by Vandyke was an earth
brought from Cassel. The Vandyke brown of the
present day is a bituminous ochre purified by
washing and grinding. It is apt to vary in hue,
is durable both in water and oil ; but, like all
bituminous earths, dries tardily in the latter vehicle.
Vandyke brown forms clear pale tints, and deep
and glowing shadows. In water it sometimes has
the bad property of working up, and when it is
I58 AIEZ D'S CHROMA 7TOGRAPHY.
necessary to lay on a large body of colour the moist
tube colour should be preferred to the cake.
CALEDONIAN BROWN
Is a permanent native pigment, which is only used
in oil-painting. It is a magnificent orange-russet
brown of considerable transparency, and is marked
by great richness and depth,
CAPPAH BROWN
Is likewise a pigment peculiar to oil-painting. It
is a species of bog-earth containing peroxide of
manganese, and is found at Cappah near Cork. It
varies considerably in hue ; but always possesses
more or less richness and transparency.
Cappah brown works very well in oil and varnish,
dries promptly, but does not keep its place.
COLOGNE EARTH
Was originally a native bituminous earth; but the
pigment now known under the name is prepared
by calcining Vandyke brown, and is more per-
manent than the original variety. It is similar in
general properties to Vandyke brown, but deeper
in colour.
ARO WAV P/GMENTS. I 59
ASPHALTUM,
Or Bitumen, is a variety of pitch which rises to the
surface of the Dead Sea, concretes by the action
of the sun and atmosphere, and, floating to the
shore, is gathered by the Arabs.
The pigment now known as asphaltum is
prepared artificially by distilling resinous and
bituminous matter, and is obtained in great
abundance as a bye-product in the manufacture of
coal-gas. It is chiefly confined to oil-painting, and
its fine brown colour and perfect transparency lure
many artists to use it freely, notwithstanding the
certain destruction that awaits the work in which it
is much employed. Changes in temperature and
atmospheric condition cause it to contract and
crack, and it has a tendency to blacken. It is, in
fact, to be regarded rather as a dark varnish than
as a Solid pigment.
It is common to call the solution in turpentine
Asphaltum, and the mixture with drying oil
Bitumen. A preparation for the use of water-
colour artists is employed under the name of Liquid
Asphaltum.
I6o AZAZZZO’S CATA’OMA 7TOGRAAAZ P.
MUMMY
Is a bituminous product mixed with animal remains,
brought from the catacombs of Egypt, where, three
thousand years ago, liquid bitumen was employed
in embalming.
It resembles asphaltum in its general qualities,
and is often substituted for it as being less liable to
crack or move on the canvas.
& Mummy varies exceedingly in its composition
and properties, and but little reliance should be
placed upon it. It is only used as an oil-colour.
SEPIA
Is named after the cuttle-fish, “Sepia officinalis,”
from which it is obtained. All the species of
cuttle-fish are provided with a dark-coloured fluid,
which they emit to obscure the water when they
wish to escape from danger, or to seize their prey.
This liquid consists of a mass of extremely minute
carbonaceous particles mixed with an animal
gelatine, and is so concentrated that an ounce of
it will darken many thousand ounces of water.
Sepia is a powerful dusky brown of fine texture ;
it is transparent, works admirably in water, combines
well with other pigments, and is very permanent.
AA’O WAV P/GMAEAVT.S. I6I
It is extremely clear in its pale tints, and is perhaps
the best washing pigment we possess.
Sepia cannot be used as an oil-colour, as it dries
very reluctantly.
gººm-ºsmºsºmsºme
WARM SEPIA
Is the natural sepia warmed by mixing it with
browns of a red hue.
ROMAN SEPIA
Is a similar preparation to the preceding, but with
a yellow instead of a red tendency.
I62 A.Y.E./CD'S CHA’OMA 7TOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER XVI.
CITRINE AND OLIVE PIGMENTS.
CITRINE and olive are very poorly represented on
the palette. Our best citrine is not permanent,
and we have no stable olive pigment.
Fair citrine and olive colours may be produced
in great variety by mixing permanent green and
orange pigments, and permanent green and purple
pigments, respectively.
BROWN PINK,
Or Stil-de-Grain, is generally prepared from Avig-
non berries (seeds of the rhamnus infectorius)
or from Turkey and Persian berries; (rhamnus
amygdalinus) but is sometimes made from
quercitron bark. If produced from the berries it
must be branded as fugitive ; but if obtained from
the bark it may be termed semi-stable. In either
case it is a lake precipitated by alum from a
decoction of the colouring matter containing a
great excess of alkali.
CITRINE PIGMENTS. I63
The colouring principle of the berries has been
called Rhamnatin. It exists, however, combined
with glucose as the glucoside Rhamnin, but the
decomposition is easily effected by chemical re-
agents.
Brown pink is a fine rich citrine colour with
much richness and transparency. It works well in
both water and oil. In thin glazing it will not
stand, and the tints with white lead are very
fugitive. The variety made from berries dries
badly.
RAW UMBER
Is a natural Ochre, and is a hydrated silicate of
iron, manganese, and alumina.
It was first brought from ancient Ombria (the
modern Spoleto), in Italy, but the best now comes
from Cyprus, and is called “Turkish" or “Levant
umber.”
Raw umber is of a fine brownish-citrine colour.
It is semi-opaque, dries rapidly, and does not injure
other pigments by admixture. By time it grows
darker; but this disadvantage may to Some extent
be eliminated by mixing it with pigments of similar
hue which pale on exposure.
M
I64 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
MARS BROWN
Is either a natural or artificial ochre containing
iron, or iron and manganese.
It is a rich and strictly permanent pigment,
which is similar to raw umber ; but more orange in
hue.
*===s*=mº
OLIVE LAKE
Is exclusively an oil-colour. Originally it was a
lake prepared from the green ebony. This variety,
however, is now obsolete, and its place has been
Supplied by a mixture which is semi-stable, and
liable to blacken.
OLIVE GREEN,
Sometimes called Dewint's Green, is an arbitrary
compound, or mixed green, of a fine deep olive
colour, and sober richness. It is only used as a
water-colour, olive lake supplying its place in oil.
Like many other compound pigments, it is either
permanent, Semi-stable, or fugitive, according to
the constituents of which it is composed. Generally
speaking it is more beautiful than durable, and
often is decidedly fugitive, fading on exposure to
light and air, t
( 165 )
CHAPTER XVII.
GRAY PIGMENTS.
THERE is hardly any necessity for gray pigments,
so readily are they obtainable by admixture. The
following, however, have found a place on the
palette.
ULTRAMARINE ASH
Is, as already stated, obtained from the “lapis
lazuli,” after the richer and more intense blue has
been extracted. It is a valuable bye-product of a
pale azure gray colour which varies considerably in
tone. -
As a water-colour it washes much better than
genuine ultramarine, and affords very delicate tints.
MINERAL GRAY
Is obtained from the “lapis lagul: ” after the blue
and ash have been extracted. It is, in fact, an
M 2
I66 APIEZZO'S CHAOMA 7TOGRAPHY.
inferior kind of ultramarine ash, and is a pale
blue-gray. It possesses the permanence of ultra-
marine, and is a pigment peculiar to oil painting.
It is useful in the representation of misty effects.
NEUTRAL TINT
Is a compound shadow colour of a cool character.
It is permanent, except that on exposure the gray
is apt to become grey, a change which may be
prevented by a slight addition of ultramarine ash.
PAYNE'S GRAY
Resembles the preceding in being a compound
colour, and liable to become grey in course of time;
but differs from it in being more lilac in hue.
( 167 )
CHAPTER XVIII.
BLACK PIGMENTS.
WE have but few black pigments; but they are
all permanent, both in oil and water colour, and
meet in every respect the requirements of the artist.
Our black pigments, like those of the ancients,
are all derived from carbonaceous substances.
IVORY BLACK
Is obtained by charring ivory in closed retorts.
When well made it is the richest and most trans-
parent of all the blacks, and is perfectly durable
and eligible both in water and oil. If, however,
insufficiently burnt, it is brown, and dries badly,
and if too much burnt, becomes opaque and loses
intensity. Ivory black is a full, silky black, and is
serviceable where the sooty density of lamp-black
would be out of place. It has a tendency to brown
in its pale washes.
I68 AVIAEAE/O'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY,
As, chemically speaking, ivory black is nothing
more or less than animal charcoal, it is better not
to bring it in contact with organic pigments. The
powerful decolourising action of animal charcoal is
well known, although no doubt gums and oils
would retard the action. In compounding colours
therefore, blue-black, and lamp-black should be
substituted for ivory black.
LAMP BLACK
Is a smoke black, being the soot obtained by
burning resins or resinous woods. It is a pure
vegetable charcoal of fine texture, not quite so
intense and transparent as ivory black, but less
brown in its pale washes. It has a very strong
body that covers readily every underlay of colour,
works well, but in oil dries badly. Being a dense
solid pigment, it should be used sparingly to avoid
heaviness.
BLUE BLACK
Is a well burnt and levigated charcoal prepared
from vine twigs. It is of weaker body than ivory
black or lamp black, and consequently better suited
AZACK A/GMEAVTS. I69
for many purposes; especially in landscape, where
a black and sooty effect is to be avoided. In
common with all the carbonaceous blacks it has a
preservative influence on white lead. If white lead
be mixed with a small proportion of blue black, and
washed over with zinc white, it may be exposed to
any ordinary impure atmosphere with comparative
impunity.
CORK BLACK
Is a soft black obtained by charring cork ; it is a
blue but not a velvety black, and should not be
used when intensity is required. It is chiefly
valuable for mixtures.
*=mºsº
INDIAN INK,
Or Chinese ſná, is brought from China in oblong
cakes of a musky scent, ready prepared for painting
in water. It varies considerably in body and
colour.
The principal constituent of Indian ink seems to
be a Smoke black similar to our lamp black ; a
small percentage of camphor is present, and it has
been stated by Some authorities that sepia enters
into its composition.
17o FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
Indian ink is made into a solution for artists, to
avoid the tediousness of rubbing on the tile.
Bl-ACK LEAD,
Plumbago, or Graphite, is a species of carbon, and
contains traces of iron, silica and alumina. The
best blacklead is obtained from the Borrowdale
Mine in Cumberland. As a water colour, black-
lead may be effectively used in shading and
finishing pencil drawings. In oil it possesses a
remarkable covering property, forms a very pure
grey, dries quickly, has no action on any colour,
and endures for ever,
Blacklead has long been used for pencils and
Crayons ; but only in recent years has been em-
ployed as a pigment.
( 171 )
APPENDIX.
-º-º-º-
TABLES RELATIVE TO THE PERMANENCE
4 OF PIGMENTS.
TABLE I.
PIGMENTS AFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO LIGHT AND THE
NORMAL ATMOSPHERE.
Pure Scarlet.
Carmine.
Crimson Lake.
Scarlet Lake.
Indian Lake.
Dragons' Blood.
RED
(Kings' Yellow.
Citron Yellow.
Strontian Yellow.
Yellow Lake.
YELLOW . Italian Pink.
Gamboge.
Extract of Gamboge.
Gallstone.
\Indian Yellow.
172
FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
GREEN.
BLUE .
PURPLE
BROWN
CITRINE
OLIVE .
GRAY .
Chrome Green.
Hooker's Green.
Prussian Green.
Sap Green.
Antwerp Blue.
Cyanine Blue.
Indigo.
Intense Blue.
| Prussian Blue.
Purple Lake.
Burnt Carmine.
Burnt Lake.
Violet Carmine.
Indian Purple.
Bone Brown.
Brown Pink.
Olive Lake,
| Olive Green.
| Neutral Tint.
| Payne's Gray.
A PPAEAVO IX. I73
TABLE II.
PIGMENTS AFFECTED BY AN ATMOSPHERE CONTAINING
SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN.
Cremnitz White.
Blanc d’Argent.
Flake White.
WHITE . tº |
RED
Pure Scarlet,
| Red Chrome.
ORANGE . . Orange Chrome.
Pale Chrome Yellow.
Naples Yellow.
Deep Chrome Yellow.
YELLOW ſº |
Chrome Green.
Emerald Green.
Malachite Green.
Verdigris.
GREEN
Cerulean Blue.
Cobalt Blue.
Smalt.
Cyanine Blue.
BLUE .
PURPLE . . Indian Purple.
I74
APIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
TABLE III.
PIGMENTS which SUFFER CHANGE By ADMIXTURE witH
WHITE LEAD AND OTHER LEAD COMPOUNDs.
RED
YELLOW
GREEN.
e
|
f Pure Scarlet.
Carmine.
Crimson Lake.
Scarlet Lake.
Madder Carmine.
Rpse Madder.
Pink Madder.
Madder Lake.
Indian Lake.
\Dragons' Blood.
(Kings' Yellow.
Yellow Lake.
Italian Pink.
Gamboge.
Extract of Gamboge.
º: Yellow.
Gallstone.
Sap Green.
A PPEAVZ)/X. I75
| Indigo.
BLUE .
PURPLE
CITRINE
OLIVE .
Intense Blue.
Burnt Carmine.
Burnt Lake.
Indian Purple.
Violet Carmine.
| Purple Lake.
Brown Pink,
| Olive Lake.
Olive Green.
I76 AIE/AD'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. P.
TABLE IV.
PIGMENTS WHICH ARE DECOMPOSED BY ADMIXTURE
WITH OCHRES, AND OTHER FERRUGINOUS SUBSTANCEs.
(Pure Scarlet.
Carmine.
Crimson Lake.
Scarlet Lake.
Madder Carmine.
Rose Madder.
Pink Madder.
(Madder Lake.
RED
YELLOW . . Kings' Yellow.
Emerald Green.
GREEN wº . . Malachite Green.
Verdigris.
Indigo.
BLUE
| Intense Blue.
APPENDIX. . 177
PURPLE
CITRINE
OLIVE ,
Burnt Carmine.
Burnt Lake.
Indian Purple.
Violet Carmine.
| Purple Lake.
Brown Pink.
| Olive Lake.
Olive Green.
178 FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
TABLE W.
PERMANENT PIGMENTS.
Pigments which withstand the action of Light, of Atmo-
spheric Oxygen and Moisture, of Sulphuretted
Hydrogen, and which may be safely mixed with
Compounds of Iron and Lead.
Zinc White.
WHITE . e . . Chinese White.
Permanent White.
(The Vermilions.
Mars Red.
Light Red.
Venetian Red.
Indian Red.
\Red Ochre.
RED
AAPA’EAVO IX. - I79
ORANGE
YELLOW .
GREEN
BLUE .
PURPLE
Cadmium Orange.
Mars Orange.
Burnt Sienna.
Burnt Roman Ochre.
Neutral Orange.
‘Aureolin.
Cadmium Yellows.
Lemon Yellows.
Mars Yellow.
Raw Sienna.
Yellow Ochre.
Roman Ochre.
Transparent Gold Ochre.
| Brown Ochre.
Oxide of Chromium.
Transparent Oxide of Chromium.
Viridian.
Terre Verte.
Cobalt Green.
Genuine Ultramarine.
Artificial Ultramarines.
& | New Blue.
Permanent Blue.
Mars Violet.
| Purple Madder.
18o APIEZZ)'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. V.
(Brown Madder.
Rubens' Madder.
Bistre.
Prussian Brown.
Burnt Umber.
Verona Brown.
Vandyke Brown.
BROWN . . . Caledonian Brown.
Cappah Brown.
Cologne Earth.
Asphaltum.
Mummy.
Sepia.
..] Warm Sepia. -
Roman Sepia.
| Raw Umber.
CITRINE e
Mars Brown.
Ultramarine Ash.
GRAY . e
Mineral Gray.
Ivory Black.
Lamp Black.
Blue Black.
Cork Black.
Indian Ink.
Black Lead.
BLACK.
A PAX EAVZ) VX. & I8 I
TABLE VI.
PIGMENTS which WILL STAND INTENSE HEAT, AND
ARE HENCE SUITABLE FOR ENAMEL PAINTING.
WHITE .
YELLOW
RED
BLUE
ORANGE
GREEN
Zinc White.
Permanent White.
Naples Yellow.
Light Red.
Venetian Red.
Indian Red.
Red Ochre.
| Mars Red.
Cobalt.
Cerulean Blue.
Smalt.
Mars Orange.
Burnt Sienna.
Burnt Roman Ochre.
Oxide of Chromium.
Cobalt Green.
N 2
182 FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY.
PURPLE * . Mars Violet.
Burnt Umber.
Cologne Earth.
Prussian Brown.
Verona Brown.
BROWN
BLACK. e . Black Lead.
*-
A PPENDIX. 183
TABLE VII.
PIGMENTS WHICH WITHSTAND THE ACTION OF LIME,
AND ARE ELIGIBLE FOR FRESCO PAINTING.
WHITE .
RED
ORANGE
YELLOW
Permanent White.
(The Vermilions.
Light Red.
. . Venetian Red.
Indian Red.
| Madder Lakes.
(Cadmium Orange.
Chrome Orange.
. .( Mars Orange.
Burnt Sienna.
| Burnt Roman Ochre.
(Aureolin.
Cadmium Yellows.
Lemon Yellows.
Naples Yellow.
Mars Yellow.
Raw Sienna.
Yellow Ochre.
Roman Ochre.
|
| Transparent Gold Ochre.
Brown Ochre.
A Indian Yellow.
184
AZEZZO'S CHROMA TOGRAAAZ V.
GREEN
BLUE .
PURPLE
BROWN
CITRINE
(Oxide of Chromium.
Transparent Oxide of Chromium.
Viridian. -
Emerald Green.
Malachite Green.
Verdigris.
Terre Verte.
\Cobalt Green.
º Ultramarine.
Artificial Ultramarines.
New Blue. *
Permanent Blue.
Cobalt Blue.
Cerulean Blue.
- \ Smalt.
Purple Madder.
Mars Violet.
Bone Brown.
Bistre.
Prussian Brown.
Burnt Umber.
Verona. Brown.
Vandyke Brown.
Cologne Earth.
Asphaltum.
Mummy.
Raw Umber.
| Mars Brown.
APA’EAVO IX. 185
Ultramarine Ash.
GRAY . Mineral Gray.
Ivory Black.
Lamp Black.
Blue Black
Cork Black.
Indian Ink
Black Lead.
BLACK.
186 FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
A DICTIONARY OF PIGMENTS NOT IN
ORDINARY USE, AND OF SYNONYMS
OF PIGMENTS DESCRIBED IN PART III.
AFRICAN GREEN.—Syn. Emerald Green.
ALMAGRA.—A deep variety of Red Ochre found in
Andalusia.
ALMOND BLACK.—See Peach Black.
ANOTTA or ANNATTO.—A fugitive yellow pigment of
vegetable origin. Also called “Rocou,” and “Terra
Orellana.”
ANTIMONY ORANGE.-Sulphide of Antimony. Also
called Golden Yellow. Fades on exposure.
ANTIMONY RED.—Also Sulphide of Antimony. It is
sometimes known as “Mineral Kermes,” and is not
permanent.
ANTIMONY WHITE.-Oxide of Antimony. Has not the
body of white lead, and is turned yellow by sulphur-
etted hydrogen.
ANTIMONY YELLOw.—An obsolete deep variety of Naples
Yellow, which was principally used in Enamel
Painting.
ANTWERP BROWN.—Syn. Asphaltum.
A PPAEAVADIX. 187
ANTweRP RED.—A variety of Red Ochre.
ARCHIL PURPLE.—Prepared from Litmus; but is too
fugitive for artistic purposes.
ARMENIAN BOLE.-Syn. Red Ochre.
ARSENIC YELLOw.—Arsenite of Lead. It resembles
Orpiment in its general properties, and is very
poisonous. Also termed “Mineral Yellow.”
Azure.—Syn. Genuine Ultramarine. Also for Cobalt
Blue and Smalt.
AZURE BLUE.-An artificially prepared Carbonate of
Copper. It is blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen.
BARYTIC WHITE-Syn. Permanent White.
BERLIN BLUE.-Syn. Prussian Blue.
BICE.-A native Copper Blue, also called “Terre Bleu,”
and “Iris.”
BISMUTH YELLOw.—Chromate of Bismuth. It is very
fugitive.
BISMUTH PURPLE.—Bismuthic Anhydride. Unstable.
BLACK OCHRE.-A native earth which is permanent, but
artistically inferior to the artificial blacks. It is also
known as “Prussian Black,” and “Earth Black.”
BLANC FIXE.—Syn. Permanent White.
BLEU DE GARANCE.-Syn. Artificial Ultramarine.
BLUE ASHES.—A hydrated basic Carbonate of Copper
prepared artificially. Found native as “Mountain
Blue" in Cumberland.
BLUE OCHRE.-Hydrated Phosphate of Iron. Found in
Cornwall. It is a durable but rather dull blue, and
is not easily procured.
I88 APIEZZO'S CHROMA 7TOGRAPH. V.
BLUE VERDITER.—Hydrated Oxide of Copper. Not
permanent. Also called “ Bremen Blue.”
BOLE.-Syn. Red Ochre.
BONE BLACK.—Similar to Ivory Black, but warmer in
colour. It dries very badly.
BREMEN BLUE.-See Blue Verditer.
BREMEN GREEN.—See Green Bice.
BRONZE.—A species of Prussian Green.
BROWN-RED.—Syn. Red Ochre.
BRUNSWICK GREEN.—Syn. Chrome Green, also for
Emerald Green. The name is also, applied to
Oxychloride of Copper.
BURNT MADDER.—Obtained by charring Madder Car-
mine. It is a permanent and unexceptionable
pigment; but is rather expensive. -
BURNT VERDIGRIS.—An olive-coloured Oxide of Copper,
which dries well, but is ineligible.
CADMIUM WHITE.-Hydrated Oxide or Carbonate of
Cadmium. A very beautiful white, which is
deficient in body, and turns yellow in the presence
of sulphuretted hydrogen.
CADMIUM RED.—Sulphide of Cadmium. It is permanent,
but is not required.
CARNAGIONE.—An Italian Light Red.
CASSEL EARTH,-Syn. Vandyke Brown.
CASSEL GREEN.—See Manganese Green.
CASSEL YELLOW.-See Patent Yellow.
CASSIA FISTULA.—A Citrine pigment of vegetable origin.
It is now obsolete. -
A PAE EAWD/X. I89
CERUSE.-A French variety of White Lead. It is also
called “French White.”
CHESTNUT BROWN.—A Lake prepared from the horse
chestnut. Also known as “Hypocastanum.” It is
now obsolete.
CHICA RED.—Extracted from the leaves of a tree which
grows in Central America. It is not permanent.
CHINA WHITE.-An earthy white pigment.
CHINESE BLUE.-Syn. Prussian Blue.
CHINESE LAKE..—Syn. Scarlet Lake.
CHINESE ORANGE.-An aniline colour. Very fugitive.
CHINESE YELLOW.-Syn. Kings' Yellow.
CHOCOLATE LEAD.—A compound of the oxides of lead
and copper, prepared by a dry process. It dries
well; but is blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen.
It is sometimes known as “Marrone Red.”
CITRINE LAKE..—Syn. Brown Pink.
COBALT PINK.—A Compound of the oxides of cobalt
and Magnesium.
COBALT PURPLE ). Phosphates of Cobalt. Poor, chalky,
COBALT RED ; but very durable colours.
COBALT ULTRAMARINE.—Syn. Cobalt Blue.
COELIN.—Syn. Cerulean Blue.
COPPER BROWN.—Ferrocyanide of Copper. Not per-
manent. &
COPPER RED.—Suboxide of Copper. It is not perma-
nent.
COLOGNE YELLOw.—Or Jaune de Cologne. A com-
pound of Chromate of Lead, Sulphate of Lead, and
Sulphate of Barium. It is quite unfit for artistic use.
190 FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPH. V.
CoPPER YELLow.—Chromate of Copper; a very ineligible
pigment. -
CULLEN's EARTH.-Syn. Cologne Earth.
DAMONICO.-An obsolete Ochre. It may be imitated
by mixing Burnt Sienna with Burnt Roman Ochre.
Is also called “Monicon.”
DI PALITO.-A Light Yellow Ochre.
DROP GUM.—Syn. Gamboge.
DUMONT's BLUE.-Syn. Smalt.
DUTCH PINK.—Syn. Italian Pink.
DUTCH ULTRAMARINE.—Syn. Cobalt Blue.
DUTCH WHITE.-A White Lead containing a large per-
centage of Barium Sulphate.
EARTH BLACK.—See Black Ochre.
EGYPTIAN BROWN.—Syn. Mummy.
ELSNER GREEN.—Prepared by precipitating the colouring
matter of yellow dye-wood with Hydrated Oxide of
Copper.
ENAMEL BLUE.-Syn. Cobalt Blue.
ENGLISH GREEN.—Syn. Chrome Green.
ENGLISH PINK.—Syn. Italian Pink.
ENGLISH RED.—Syn. Venetian Red.
ERLAA GREEN.—See Green Bice.
FIELD's CARMINE.—Syn. Madder Carmine.
FIELD's LAKE..—Syn. Madder Lake.
FIELD's PURPLE
FIELD's ...}sº Purple Madder.
A PPEAVADIX. I9 I
FLEMISH WHITE.-Sulphate of Lead. . It has not the
body of Carbonate of Lead.
FLORENTINE LAKE..—A variety of Scarlet Lake.
FRANKFORT BLACK.—Said to be made by charring the
lees of wine. It is principally used in copper plate
printing.
FRENCH WHITE.—See Ceruse.
FRENCH GREEN.—Syn. Emerald Green.
GELBIN's YELLOw.—Chromate of Calcium. It is
soluble in water, and very fugitive. *
GIALLOLINo.—Syn. Naples Yellow.
GREEN BICE.-Also called “Green Verditer,” “Bremen
Green,” and “Erlaa Green.” It is hydrated Oxide of
Copper, and is one of the least elegible of the
Copper Greens.
GREEN EARTH.-Syn. Terre Verte. *
GREEN LAKES.—Compounds of Prussian Blue with
various yellow pigments.
GREEN SMALT.—Syn. Cobalt Green.
GREEN VERDITER.—See Green Bice.
GOLD BLUE.-A rather dull blue, similar in composition
to Gold Purple.
GOLD PURPLE.—Or Purple of Cassius, is a compound
of the oxides of Gold and Tin. It is not brilliant,
but is a rich, powerful, and permanent colour.
Since the introduction of Purple Madder it has
become obsolete, except in Enamel Painting.
GOLD REDS.—Red Lakes formed by precipitating colour-
ing matters on Oxide of Gold. Much too'costly to
be eligible pigments.
192 FIELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
GOLDEN YELLOW.-See Antimony Orange.
GUIGNET's GREEN.—Syn. Viridian.
HAERLEM BLUE.-Syn. Antwerp Blue.
HAMBURGH LAKE..—Syn. Crimson Lake.
HAMBURGH WHITE.—A White Lead containing a large
percentage of Barium Sulphate. *
HUNGARY BLUE.-Syn. Cobalt Blue.
HUNGARY GREEN.—Syn. Malachite Green.
HYPOCASTANUM.–See Chestnut Brozwn.
IMPERIAL GREEN.—Syn. Emerald Green.
INDIAN OCHRE.-Syn. Indian Red.
INDIUM YELLOW.-Sulphide of the rare metal Indium.
It resembles Cadmium Yellow ; but is at present
far too expensive to be employed.
IODINE PINK.—An iodide of Mercury. It is very fugitive.
IODINE'SCARLET.-Syn. Pure Scarlet.
IODINE YELLOW.-Iodide of Lead. A brilliant but
extremely fugitive colour,
IRIS.—See Bice.
IRIS GREEN.—Syn. Sap Green.
IRON YELLOW.-Ferrous Oxalate. . It oxidizes and
changes colour on exposure. Mars Yellow is some-
times termed Iron Yellow.
JAUNE DE COLOGNE.—See Cologne Yellow.
JAUNE DE FER
JAUNE DE MARS
JAUNE MINERALE.—A pale variety of Chrome Yellow
Syn. Mars Yellow.
made in Paris.
A PAEAAWZOAX. . I93
KERMES LAKE..—Prepared from the coccus ilicis of Southern
Europe. It is not so brilliant, and probably not
more durable than the Cochineal lakes.
KREMS WHITE
KREMSER WHITE | Syn. Cremnitz W hite.
LAQUE MINERALE-A French variety of Orange
Chrome. The name is likewise given to Mars
Orange.
LAZULITE
LAZURSTEIN
LEAF GREEN.—Syn. Chrome Green.
LEITHNER's BLUE.-Syn. Cobalt Blue.
LEMON CADMIUM.–Or Mutrie Yellow, is a preparation
of Sulphide of Cadmium. It fades too quickly to
be of artistic value.
LIEGE BLACK.—Syn. Blue Black.
LoNDON WHITE-Syn. Flake White.
Syn. Genuine Ultramarine.
MADDER MARRONE.-Or Marrone Lake. An obsolete
preparation, made from the madder root. It may
be imitated by mixing Brown Madder with a little
Rose Madder and Blue Black.
MADDER ORANGE.-A dull and non-permanent colour
made from Madder. Also termed “Orange Lake.”
MADDER YELLOW.-Also a preparation of the madder
root, is a dull and unstable yellow.
MAGENTA.—An aniline colour. Fades rapidly.
MAJOLICA.—A variety of Red Ochre.
MANGANESE BLACK.—Black oxide of Manganese. It is
permanent and dries very rapidly.
I94. A.IELD'S CHROMA TOGRAPHY.
MANGANESE GREEN.—Manganate of Barium. It is very
unstable, and is also known as “Cassel Green.”
MANGANESE BROWN.—Sesquioxide of Manganese. It is
durable ; and dries admirably; but is deficient in
transparency.
MARRONE LAKE..—See Madder Marrone.
MARRONE RED.—See Chocolate Zead.
MASSICOT.-Protoxide of Lead. It is a pale yellow
which is rapidly blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen.
It is principally used as a dryer.
MAUVE.—An aniline colour. Fades rapidly.
MILORY GREEN.—Syn. Chrome Green.
MINERAL BLACK.—An impure variety of carbon of soft
texture and grey-black colour, found in Devonshire.
Very durable and dries well.
MINERAL BLUE.—Syn. Antwerp Blue.
MINERAL GREEN.—A hydrated basic Arsenite of Copper.
It is also called “Neuwied Green.”
MINERAL KERMES.—See Antimony Red.
MINERAL PURPLE.—Syn. Mars Violet.
MINERAL YELLOW.—Syn. Yellow Ochre. See also
Arsenic Yellow and Patent Yellow,
MINIUM.–See Red Lead. -
MITIS GREEN.—Syn. Emerald Green.
MONTPELLIER YELLOw.—See Paſſent Ye/Zozo).
MoDAN WHITEl Earthy Whites, perfectly permanent
MORAT WHITE but inferior in body.
Monicon.—See Oamonico. -
MoUNTAIN BLUE.-See Blue Ashes.
MUTRIE YELLOW.-See Lemon Cadmium.
APPENDIX. 195
NATIVE PRUSSIAN BLUE.-See Blue Ochre.
NATIVE GREEN.—An impure Sesquioxide of Chromium,
found native.
NEUwil:ID GREEN.—See Mineral Green.
NoTTINGHAM WHITE–Syn. Flake White.
OCRE DE RU.-Syn. Brown Ochre.
OLYMPIAN GREEN.—Syn. Emerald Green.
ORANGE LAKE..—See Madder Orange.
ORANGE LEAD.—Similar to Red Lead in its composition
and properties.
ORANGE OCHRE-Syn. Burnt Roman Ochre.
ORANGE ORPIMENT.—Disulphide of Antimony. It
resembles Kings' Yellow, and is very poisonous.
Is also called “Realgar.”
ORANGE RUSSET.—Syn. Rubens Madder.
OXFORD OCHRE.-A variety of Yellow Ochre, found
near Oxford.
OUTREMER. —Syn. Genuine Ultramarine.
PARIS BLUE.-Syn. Prussian Blue. Also for Cobalt
Blue. -
PATENT YELLOW.-Oxychloride of Lead. This pigment
is also known under the names of “Turner's Yellow,”
“Montpellier Yellow,” “Mineral Yellow,” and
“Cassel Yellow.”
PATTISON'S WHITE.-Hydrated Oxychloride of Lead. .
PAUL VERONESE GREEN.—Syn. Viridian,
PEACH BLACK.—An obsolete violet black which was
made by charring the stones of fruit. Also called
“Almond Black.”
196 AºA2ZZO'S CHA’OMA 7TOGAEAAAZ V.
PEARL WHITE-Is (1) a basic Nitrate of Bismuth, which
is blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen, (2) a pre-
paration of mother-of-pearl, which is eligible only as
a water-colour.
PELLETIER's GREEN.—Syn. Viridian.
PERMANENT GREEN.—Syn. Viridian.
PERSIAN GREEN.—Syn. Emerald Green.
PLATINUM YELLOw.—A compound of Platinic Chloride
with the chloride of an alkali metal. A rich, deep,
transparent yellow which blackens on exposure. It
is too expensive to be available as a pigment.
PRUSSIAN BLACK.—See Black Ochre. A pigment also
called by this name is made by heating Prussian
Blue without access of air.
PRUSSIAN RED.—Syn. Venetian Red.
PURPLE BLACK.—A durable but obsolete pigment, pre-
pared from the madder root.
PURPLE OCHRE-Syn. Mars Violet.
PURPLE OF CASSIUS.—See Gold Purple.
PURPLE RUBIATE.—Syn. Purple Madder.
QUEENs' YELLOW.-Basic Sulphate of Mercury. A
beautiful lemon colour, which is, however, too
fugitive to deserve attention. It is also known as
“Turbith Mineral.”
REALGAR.—See Orange Orpiment.
REBOULLEAU's BLUE.-See Schweinfurt A/ue.
RED LEAD.—A compound of the Oxides of Lead in
varying proportions. It is blackened by sulphuretted
hydrogen, and is only fit for industrial purposes.
A PPEAVDIX. I97
Red Lead is also called “Minium ” and “Saturnine
Red.”
RED PRECIPITATE.-Mercuric oxide. It blackens on
exposure.
ROCOU.—See Antofta,
ROMAN GREEN.—A mixture of Prussian Blue with
Italian Pink.
ROMAN LAKE..—Syn. Crimson Lake.
ROMAN WHITE.-A variety of White Lead.
ROSE PINK.—Prepared by dyeing whiting with decoc-
tion of Brazil Wood. It is much used in paper
staining; but is too perishable for artistic use.
Rouen WHITE.-An earthy White.
ROUGE.—A species of Carmine prepared from Safflower.
It is a beautiful, rich, transparent colour, but
exceedingly fugitive.
Roy AL BLUE.-Syn. Smalt.
RUBENS BROWN.—A light variety of Vandyke brown.
A very beautiful and durable colour.
RUBRIC LAKE..—Syn. Madder Lake.
RUDDLE.—Syn. Red ochre.
RUSSET RUBIATE.—Syn. Rubens Madder.
SANDAL WooD PURPLE.—A fugitive lake with a tin base
prepared from Sandal Wood.
SANDARAC.—A native orange Sulphide of Antimony
employed by the Ancients.
SATIN WHITE.-A compound of Sulphate of Calcium
with Alumina.
O 2
I98 A.Y.E.Z.Z)'S CHA’OMA TOGA’AA’A. V.
SATURNINE RED.—See Red Zead.
SAUNDER's BLUE.-A copper blue.
SAXON BLUE.-Syn. Smalt.
SAxON GREEN.—Syn. Emerald Green.
SCARLET OCHRE-Syn. Venetian Red.
SCHEELE'S GREEN.—An Arsenite of Copper prepared by
precipitation. It is deeper than Emerald Green,
but otherwise similar in properties; and is also
known as “Swedish Green.”
SCHWEINFURT BLUE.-Also called “Reboulleau's Blue,”
is an Arseniate of Copper.
SCHWEINFURT GREEN.—Syn. Emerald Green.
SIL ATTICUM.—An ancient Red Ochre.
SILK GREEN.—Syn. Chrome Green.
SILVER RED.—Chromate of Silver. It is very fugitive.
SILVER WHITE-Syn. Blanc d'Argent.
SINOPER.—The ancient name for Red Lead.
SPANISH BROWN.—A native Ochre.
SPANISH OCHRE-Syn. Burnt Roman Ochre.
SPANISH RED.—A variety of Venetian Red.
SPANISH WHITE.-An earthy White pigment.
SPRUCE OCHRE-Syn. Brown. Ochre.
STONE OcHRE-Very similar to Oxford Ochre. It is
found in Gloucestershire quarries.
SULPHATE OF LEAD.—See Fémish White.
SweDISH GREEN.—See Scheele's Green.
TERRA DI SIENNA.—Syn. Raw Sienna.
TERRA ORELLANA.—See Anotta.
TERRA PUzzoli.-See Terra Äosa.
A PAASM/D/_Y. I99
TERRA ROSA.—A Red Ochre found in Italy. Also called
Terra Puzzoli. -
TERRA SINOPICA.—An ancient Red Ochre found in
Cappadocia.
TERRE BLEU.-See Bice.
THALLIUM YELLOW.-Chromate of the rare metal
Thallium. It is browned by sulphuretted hydro-
gen. *
THENARD's BLUE.-Syn. Cobalt Blue.
THWAITE's YELLOw.—Chromate of Cadmium. A very
beautiful yellow which is too unstable to be of any
value. * •
TIN WHITE.-Hydrated Stannous or Stannic Oxide. It
is very similar to Zinc White; but is inferior in body
and permanence.
TRoy WHITE.--—An earthy White.
TUNGSTEN WHITE-Tungstate of Barium. It is more
opaque than Zinc White; but is very deficient in
body.
TURBITH MINERAL.—See Queen's Yellow.
TURNBULL's BLUE.-A variety of Prussian Blue.
TURNER's YELLOW.-See Paſen/ Yellozer.
URANIUM GREEN.—An Oxide of Uranium. A durable
but dull colour.
URANIUM YELLOW.-Uranate of Sodium. A fairly
eligible; but rather expensive pigment.
VENETIAN LAKE..—Syn. Crimson Lake.
VENETIAN WHITE.-A White Lead containing a large
percentage of Barium Sulphate.
200 A.Y.EZZO'S CHA’OMA TOGAEAAA Y.
VENICE RED–An Italian Red Ochre.
VERDE WESSIE.—Syn. Sap Green.
VERT DE ZINC.—See Zinc Green.
VIENNA BLUE.-Syn. Cobalt Blue.
VIENNA GREEN.—Syn. Emerald Green.
VINE BLACK.—Syn. Blue Black.
VIRIDE AERIs.—Syn. Verdigris.
YELLOw MADDER.—True Yellow Madder is a dull and
fugitive preparation of the madder root. But so
called “Yellow Madder” is often Yellow Carmine.
YELLOW ULTRAMARINE-Syn. Citron Yellow, and
sometimes also for Lemon Yellow.
ZAFFRE.—Syn. Cobalt Blue.
ZINC GREEN.—Is (1) synonymous with Cobalt Green.
(2) Mixture of Citron Yellow with Prussian Blue.
ZINc YELLOw.—Syn. Citron Yellow.
I N D E X.
NotE.—Pigments mentioned in the “Dictionary” are not included
in this Index.
ABSORPTION LINES, I4
Absorption Selective, I6
Accidental Images, 34
Achromatic Colour, 39
Achromatic Contrast, 5 I, 52, 60
Advancing Colours, 46
Aërial Perspective, 47
Alexandria Blue, 5
Alizarin, II3
Anchusa Tinctoria, I 54
Animal Pigments, 74
Anthracene, II3
Antwerp Blue, I 50
Armenian Blue, 5
Artificial Illumination, 20
Artificial Pigments, 73
Artificial Ultramarine, 19, 31, 73
Asphaltun, I 59
Atmosphere, constitution of, 86
Atmosphere, Effect of on Pig-
ments, 85
Atmosphere of towns, 86
Aureolin, 74, I22
Avignon Berries, 76, 162
BALANCE OF COLOUR, 57
Balance of Stimulation, 39
Bistre, 156
Bitumen, 159
Black Lead, 170
Bladder Green, 140
Blanc d'Argent, 97, IOI
Blue Black, 76, 168
Body, 77, 81
Body White, Ioo
Boiled Oil, 82
Bone Brown, 156
Brewster, Sir David, 31
Brightness, 26, 39
Brilliant Ultramarine, 146
Broken Colours, 44
Browns, 45
Brown Madder, 155
Brown Ochre, 131
Brown Pink, 75, 76, 162
Brunswick Green, 139
Burnt Carmine, I53
Burnt Lake, I 53
Burnt Roman Ochre, 120
JAWADAX.
Burnt Sienna, I2O
Burnt Umber, I 57
CADMIUM YELLOWS, 73, I23
Cadmium Yellow Deep, I 23
Cadmium Yellow Pale, I 24
Cadmium Orange, 92, II 8
Caledonian Brown, I58
Cappah Brown, I58
Carbonic Acid, 86
Carmine, 74, 75, 79, 84
Carmine, Burnt, I53
Carmine Red, III
Carmine Vermilion, Ioff
Carminic Acid, I I I
Cerulean Blue, I48
Change of Luminosity, 35
Chevreul, 50
Chevreul's definition of Tone, 65
Chinese Ink, 169
Chinese White, 97, IO2
Chromatic Colour, 39
Chromatic Contrast, 5 I, 52, 62
Chrome Deep, 125
Chrome Green, I 39
Chrome Orange, II9
Chrome Yellow, 125
Chrome Yellow, Luminosity of,
I9
Chrome Yellows, 124
Cinnabar, 5, IO4
Cinnabar Green, 139
Citrine, 45
Citron Yellow, 125
Clerk-Maxwell, 21, 27, 31
Cobalt Blue, 73, I47
Cobalt Green, I4I
Cobalt Yellow, 122
Coccus Cacti, I Io
Cochineal, 74, I IO
Cochineal Lakes, I IO
Coeruleum, I48
Cold Colours, 45
Cologne Earth, 158
Colour, I2, 38, 77
Colour, Achromatic, 39
Colour, Advancing, 46
Colour, Balance of, 57
Colour, Beauty of, 8o
Colour Blindness, 28
Colour, Broken, 44
Colour Chart, Maxwell's, 32
Colour, Chromatic, 39
Colour, Cold, 45
Colour, Complementary, 24, 34,
54, 57
Colour Constants, 18
Colour Contrast, 49
Colour, Deep, 42
Colour Diagrams, 32
Colour Gradation, 57
Colour, Harmony of, 56
Colour, Local, 47
Colour, Negative, 38
Colour, Neutral, 39
Colour, Pale, 42
Colour, Perspective, 47
Colour, Positive, 38
Colour, Primary, 27, 30, 33, 43
Colour, Retiring, 46
Colour, Secondary, 33, 43
Colour, Semi-neutral, 45
Colour, Standard, 5 I
Colour, Tertiary, 43
Colour Top, 2 I
Colour, Warm, 45
JAV/O AEX.
2O3
Coloured Glasses, 31
Colours of Natural Bodies, 16
Complementary Colours, 24, 34,
54, 57
Constants of Colour, 18
Contrast, Achromatic, 51, 52, 60
Contrast, Chromatic, 51, 52, 62
Contrast, of Chromatic with
Achromatic Colours, 51, 55, 64
Contrast of Colour, 49
Cremnitz White, Ioo
Crems White, Ioo
Crimson Lake, 74, I 12
Crispness, 77, '82
Cyanine Blue, 150
DEEP COLOUR, 42
Dewint's Green, 164
Dilution of Pigments, 93
Dragons’ Blood, II6
Dry Process, 73
Dryers, 82
Drying Power, 77, 82
ELECTRIC LIGHT, 21,88.
Emerald Green, 31, 74, 137
Emerald Green, Luminosity of 19
Enamel Pigments, 94
Equivalent Grey, 43
Ether Luminiferous, 6
Ether Waves, 12
Extract of Gamboge, 133
Extract of Vermilion, Ioë
FACTITIOUS ULTRAMARINE, 146
Field's Orange Vermilion, Io'7
Fineness of Texture, 77, 81
Flake White, 97, Ioo
Flemish School of Painting, 91
Foster, Dr. Michael, 37
French Blue, 146
French Ultramarine, I46
French Veronese Green, I 36.
Fresco Painting, 94
GALLSTONE, 74, I 34
Gamboge, 76, 132
Gamboge, Extract of, I 33
Gaslight, 20, 88
Genuine Ultramarine, 143
Glazing, 82
Glucose, 75
Glucosides, 75
Gokathu Tree, I32
Gradation of Colour, 57
Graphite, 170
Grays, 45
Grecian Purple, 5
Green, Production of, 24
Grey, 38
Grey, Equivalent, 43
Guimet, I45
HARMONY OF COLOUR, 56
Helmholtz, 23, 27
Hooker's Green, 14o
Hue, I8, 40, 4I
Hydrogen Peroxide, 99
ILLUMINATION, ARTIFICIAL, 2O
Illumination, Intensity of, 35
Images, Accidental, 34
Images, Negative, 34
Images Positive, 34
Indian Blue, 5, 150
Indian Ink, I69
2O4.
IZVZ) E.X.
Indian Lake, 76, II6
Indian Purple, I 54
Indian Red, I Io
Indian Yellow, 74, I.33
Indican, 76, 150
Indigo, 5, 75, I5o
Indigofera Plant, I 50
Intense Blue, I 5 I
Intensity of Illumination, 35
Italian Pink, 75, 76, 132
Ivory Black, 167
JAPANNER's GOLD SIZE, 82
KINGS’ YELLOW, 128
Kremnitz White, Ioo
LAC LAKE, I I6
Lakes, 75, 82
Lambert, I 9, 22
Lamp Black, 76, 168
Lamplight, 20
Lapis Lazuli, 5, 143
Laws of Contrast, 52, 53
Lead Whites, 97
Leitch's Blue, 150
Lemon Yellow, I27
Lemon Yellow Pale, 127
Lemon Yellows, 74, 126
Levant Umber, 163
Light, II
Light, Effect of, on Pigments, II
Light, Electric, 21, 88.
Light Red, Io9
Litharge, 82
Local Colour, 47
Luminiferous Ether, II
Luminosity, I8, 25, 41, 51
Luminosity, Change of, 35
Luminous Bodies, I6
Luminous Ray, II
MADDER BROWN, 155
Madder Carmine, 75, II4
Madder Lake, II 5
Madder Lakes, 76, IO4, II 3
Madder Purple, 152
Madder Root, I 13
Madder, Rubens', I 55
Malachite Green, 138
Manganese, 82
Mars Colours, 73
Mars Brown, 164
Mars Orange, II9
Mars Red, Io&
Mars Violet, I 54
Mars Yellow, 129
Maxwell’s Colour Chart, 32
Maxwell's Discs, 21
Maxwell's method of Colour-
Mixture, 21
Medium, Effect of, on Pigments,
85, 89
Medium, Optical effect of, 78
Megilp, 82, 89
Metallic Powders, Colours of 19
Mile's Method of Colour Mix-
ture, 22
Mineral Gray, I44, 165
Mineral Pigments, 73
Mixture of Colours, 21
Moisture, Action of, on Pig-
ments, 87
Moonlight effects, 36
Mountain Green, 138
Mummy, I60
AVD EX.
2O5
NAPLES YELLOW, 128
Native Pigments, 73
Native Ultramarine, I43
Negative Colour, 38
Negative Images, 34
Negative Sensation, 12
Neutral Colours, 39
Neutral Orange, 121
Neutral Tint, 166
New Blue, 146
Nitrogen, 86
Non-Luminous Bodies, 16
Normal Spectrum, 46
OCHRES, 5, 73, 130
Oil, Value of, as a Medium, 79
Olive, 45
Olive Green, 164
Olive Lake, 76, 164
Opacity, 77, 8o
Opaque Substances, 20
Optic Nerve, II
Orange Chrome, I 19
Orange Vermilion, Io'7
Orange Vermilion, Field's, Io;
Orient Yellow, 127
Orpiment, 5, 128
Oxford Ochre, Io9
Oxygen, 86
Oxide of Chromium, Opaque,
136
Oxide of Chromium, Trans-
parent, I36
Ozone, 86
PAINT, 71
Pale Colour, 42
Paper, White, Luminosity of 19
Payne's Gray, 166
Penley's Neutral Orange, 121
Permanence, 77
Permanent Blue, 147
Permanent White, Iog
Perspective, Aërial, 47
Persian Berries, 76, 162
Persian Red, I Io
Pigment, 71
Pigments, Animal, 74
Pigments, Artificial, 73
Pigments, Insolubility of 90
Pigments, Mineral, 73
Pigments, Mutual Action of,
85, 90
Pigments, Native, 73
Pigments, Primary, 32
Pigments, Vegetable, 75
Pink, 75
Pink Madder, 115
Plumbago, 17o
Positive Colours, 38
Positive Images, 34 -
Primary Colours, 30, 33, 43
Primary Colour Sensation, 30
Primary Pigments, 32
Prussian Blue, 74, 149
Prussian Brown, I 56
Prussian Green, I4o
Ptolemy, 21
Pure Pigments, 26
Pure Scarlet, 74
Purity, I8, 41
Purple, Grecian, 5
Purple Lake, 74, 153
Purple Madder, 152
Purple Tyrian, 5
Purree, 133
2O6
INDEX.
QUERCITRIN, 76, 13 I
Quercitron Lakes, I 3 I
RAINBOW, I4
Raw Sienna, I29
Raw Umber, 163
Real Ultramarine, I43
Red Chrome, Io&
Red Lead, 5
Red Ochre, I Io
Retina, II, 27
Retiring Colours, 46
Rhamnatin, 163
Rhamnin, 76, 163
Rhamnus Amygdalinus, 162
Rhamnus Infectorius, 162
Richness, 4 I, 42
Rinman's Green, I4I
Roman Ochre, I 3 I
Roman Sepia, 161
Rood, Prof., 15, 19, 30, 37
Rose Madder, I I4
Rouge de Mars, IOS
Rubens, I4I
Rubens Madder, 155
Rubian, 76, II4
Ruskin, 23, 57
SAP–GREEN, I4O
Saturation, 4 I
Scarlet Chrome, Io&
Scarlet Lake, 74, II2
Scarlet Vermilion, 31, IO6
Secondary Colours, 33, 43
Selective Absorption, 16
Semi-neutral Colours, 45
Sensation, I2
Sensory Impulse, I I, 27
Sepia, 74, 160
Sepia Officinalis, 160
Sepia, Roman, I6 I
Sepia, Warm, 161
Setting-up, 77, 82
Shade, 4 I
Shades of Tints, 45
Siennas, 73
Silver, Polished, Luminosity of,
I9
Small Interval, 56
Smalt, 73, I48
Specific Gravity, 77, 81
Spectroscope, I4
Spectrum, I 3
Spectrum, Normal, 46
Standard Colour, 5 I
Steel, Polished, Luminosity of, I9
Stil-de-Grain, 162
Strontian Yellow, I26
Sugar of Lead, 82
Sulphate of Zinc, 82
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 86
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, Action
of, on Pigments, 88
Sulphuric Acid, 86, 88
Sulphurous Acid, 86, 88
TERRE VERTE, I4I
Tertiary Colours, 43
Thénard, I47
Time, Effect of, on Pigments, 93
Tingeing Power, 82
Tint, 40, 4I
Tone, 39, 4 I
Transparency, 77, 80
Transparent Gold Ochre, 131
Transparent Substances, 20
IWD.E.X.
2O7
Turkey Berries, 162
Turkey Madder, 113
Turkish Umber, 163
Turpentine, 91
Tyrian Purple, 5
ULTRAMARINE ASH, 144, 165
Ultramarine Blue, Artificial, 31,
73; I45
Ultramarine, Brilliant, 146
Ultramarine, Genuine, 73, 84,
I43
Ultramarine, French, 146
Ultramarine, Native, 143
Ultramarine, Real, I43
Unber, Burnt, I 57
Umber, Raw, 163
Umbers, 73
VANDYKE BROWN, 157
Vegetable Pigments, 75
Venetian Red, 73, Io9
Verdigris, 82, I 38
Vermilion, 78, IO4, Io;
Vermilion Carmine, Ioë
Vermilion, Extract of, Ioé
Vermilion, Field's Orange, Io'7
Vermilion, Luminosity of, IQ
Vermilion, Orange, IO7
Vermilion, Scarlet, 3 I, IO6
Verona Brown, I 57
Vierordt, I 5
Violet Carmine, 75, I54
Viridian, I 36
WARM COLOURS, 45
Warm Sepia, 161
Water, Value of, as a Medium, 79
Water Vapour, 86
Wave Length, I2, I 3
Wet Process, 74
White Lead, 74, 88, 97
White Light, 12
Working Property, 77, 81
YELLOW CARMINE, I 32
Yellow Lake, 76, 132
Yellow Madder, 132
Yellow Ochre, 130
Young's Theory of Colour, 27
ZINC WHITE, 97, IoI'
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