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‘_‘Kirkman’s Science Of Railways”
C A R S
Their Construction and Handling I
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_THIS VOLUME DESCRIBES AND ILLUSTRATES THE METHODS OF CONSTR UC-
TION OF FREIGHT AND PASSENGER CARSzWOODEN. COMPOSITE AND
STEEL: THEIR APPLIANCES: HOW HANDLED; SAFETY DE-
VICES. WITH THE STANDARD RULES AND REG-
ULATIONS CONNECTED THEREWITH. '
NOTE : —The Author of “THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS" served for ﬁfty years
as a railway oﬂicer and employe. However. in writing The Science of Railways.
and in its many subsequent editions and revisions (to meet the ever changing con.
ditions of the Service) he and those interested in the publication of the work. have
had throughout. the active advice and aid of practical experts. familiar with every
branch of railway operation: men who know. The books are. therefore. authoritative.
and are as valuable to railway men as standard text books are to Lawyers, Doctors.
' Civil Engineers and other representative men. -
CHICAGO
CROPLEY PHILLIPS COMPANY
1919


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Copyright by
CROPLEY PHILLIPS COMPANY
1919
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED


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Ema-a ’7 ~11?“ W. 9/; (s 2/“
CONTENTS
' PAGE
» ~ INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I. Classiﬁcation of Cars
' CHAPTER II. The Development of the American Car
CHAPTER III. Car Construction, Section I
Car Material, Section II 1. . . . .
_ CHAPTER IV. The Underframing, Sills, Body Bolster, Cross
Frame Ties, Truss Rods and Flooring .
CHAPTER V. Draft Gear and Coupling .
CHAPTER VI. The Freight Car Truck—Types
CHAPTER VII. Car Wheels and Axles
CHAPTER VIII. Truck Details
. CHAPTER IX. Brake Rigging, Hand Brakes, Law as to
Brakes, Foundation Brake, Brake Shoe, Brake Beam,
Slack Adjusters, Passenger High Speed Foundation
Brakes, Air Brake Hose . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER X. The Freight Car Superstructure, Framing,
Rooﬁng, Sheathing, Doors and other Parts . . . .
CHAPTER XI. Standard Safety Appliances * for Freight
Cars.
CHAPTER XII. Standard Box Cars, Typical Freight Car
Bodies, Box, Flat, Gondola, Ore, Stock, Tank, Refrig-
erator,etc..........
CHAPTER XIII. The Passenger Car—Framing, Platform,
Trucks.........
CHAPTER XIV. Steel Passenger Cars .
CHAPTER XV. The Steel Freight Car
CHAPTER XVI. Stenciling Cars . .\ .
CHAPTERXVII. Painting Cars . . .- . .
339691
v
1
13
23
40
133
158
213
235
286
312
‘352
396
416
470
507
562
589
598
iii
INTRODUCTIQN
As usually understood in railway parlance in America, the
term “Cars” denotes the vehicles used by railways in the con-
duct of their business of transportation.
Cars are divided into various classes, as will be seen later,
according to the service they perform or the materials from which
they are chieﬂy constructed.’ The vehicle used in the conduct of
freight traﬁ‘ic is commonly called a “Car”; that used in the con-
duct of passenger business, a “Coach”; and that used by a rail-
way for its own purposes a “Work Car.”
Frequently the cars of a railroad arereferred to as its equip-
ment, but this may be said to be a careless use of the term, as
the equipment of a railroad embraces not only its cars, but also
all other necessary and equally important adjuncts of its busi-
ness—such as its locomotives, .shops, stations, yards, bridges, etc.
The purposes conserved by the car equipment of a railway are,‘
however, both numerous and varied, and it represents a depart-
meut in railway operation equal in importance to any other
department thereof. Hence, the construction and maintenance of
cars require a distinct department in the organization of railways,
and has become a science demanding as much thought, attention;
and skill as any other great department, whether it be that of
construction of roadway, maintenance of track, operation and
maintenance of motive power, acquisition of trafﬁc, or admin‘
istration of ﬁnance and accounts. ' ' .
During the past few years, car practice has undergone radical
changes, and in fact is now in a course of rapid evolution, due,
amongst other factors, to the difference in the principal car ma‘
terials now used, the requirements imposed by state and federal
laws, the demand for increased tonnage in freight haulage and
increasied safety in both passenger and freight service, together
with the necessity of compliance with the standards and recom- .
mended practices of the Master Car Builders’ Association. These
V
INTROD UCTION
changes have been many and of the greatest importance, the new
cars being often quite diﬁerent in construction from former cars;
the details of their underframing, trucks, and superstructures being
altogether novel, besides representing general types likely to soon
become standards.
These and many other new features, including modern car
appliances, of much interest to car and train men, are inserted
in this new edition, which faithfully represents the most ap-
proved car design and practice. Amongst other matters of the
greatest importance, the ofﬁcial and authoritative tandards and
‘recommended practices of the Master Car Builders’ Association
rules as tocar details and parts, are given in full herein.
The tendency of present car practice and the various opinions
'of the diﬂt‘erent schools of car-thought among practical car. men,
regarding car parts and the proper methods of dealing with the
same, are also stated, as illustrating the present trend of aﬁairs
in the car world. The current Master Oar Builders’ Rules gov-
erning the condition of, and repairs to, cars and also Loading
Rules, are given apart in supplementary form.
vi
CHAPTER I.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARS.
Broadly speaking, Railway Cars may be divided into
classes: ‘ '
1. According to the materials from which they are chieﬂy
constructed.
'2. According to the commercial service which they per-
form. - , ‘
Under the classiﬁcation as to material, they may be divided
into -
A. Wooden Cars‘.
B. Composite Cars.
C. Steel Cars.
Wooden cars have wooden underframing and superstruc-
tures, and are termed such, even if they have steel centers
and all-metal trucks. The composite car is one composed of
a combination wood and metal frame; if they have wooden
superstructures and steel underframes, they are now generally
called “steel underframe cars.” If beside-p a steel underframe,
cars have steel upper frames w1th wooden sheathing, they
are usually called “steel frame cars.” By “steel car” is prop-
erly meant a car entirely or almost wholly constructed of
steel, although the term is often applied to steel-frame cars.
The "all-steel” car is wholly constructed of steel in all its
parts.
Under the classiﬁcation of cars as regards their principal
service, they may be brieﬂy divided into three. classes:
(1) Those used in Freight Service.
(2) Those used in Passenger Service.
(3) Those used by a railroad for. its purposes in such
work as construction or the maintenance of its.property of
all kinds. '
Amplifying this, the Master Car Builders’ Association has
adopted as its Recommended Practice, the following classiﬁca-
1
2 CARS
tion of cars, as the ofﬁcial designations thereof, with-the object
of harmonizing the terms used in designating the diﬁerent
kinds of cars in each class, according to their physical require-
ments. ‘The advantages of this classiﬁcation, as regards its
use in telegraphing and notation, together with its uniform
application to all railroads throughout the country, are so
obvious that this classiﬁcation is here given in full:
DEFINITIONS AND DESIGNATING LETTERS OF GENERAL SERVICE PAS’
SENGER EQUIPMENT CARS.
Class “B.”
“BA”—— Baggage Car. A car run in passenger service, having
wide side doors for the admittance of baggage, with or with-
out windows or end doors. '
“BE”-— Baggage Express. A car similar to baggage, used for
either baggage or express matter.
“BH"— Horse or Horse and Carriage Express. A car run in
passenger service for the transporting of ﬁne stock, ﬁtted
with stalls (movable or stationary) and space left for car-
’ riage or horse equipment. -
“BM”—-Milk Car. Exclusively for the transportation of milk,
being a car for thi purpose and fully equipped for handling
in passenger trains.
“BR”-—— Refrigerator Express. A car run exclusively in pas-
,; senger service and ﬁtted with ice 'bunkers or boxes, and
suitable to carry produce, oysters, ﬁsh or any commodity
l requiring icing in transit. '
"“BX”— Express Car. Exclusively for express matter, having
suitable side doors, with or without end doors or windows.
Class “C.”
“CA”— Combined Car, Baggage and Passenger. A car having
two compartments, one suitable for transporting baggage,
the other- ﬁtted with seats for passengers, the two compart-
ments separated by bulkheads. ' .
“CS’F— Combined Smoking and Baggage Car (Club Car). A
car having two compartments, separated by bulkheads, one
compartment suitable for transporting baggage, the other
CARS 3
ﬁtted with seats or chairs and used as smoking car; at
times equipped with buffet or bar.
“OO”-— Combined car having three separate compartments,-
separated by bulkheads, one compartment suitable for trans-
porting baggage, one for mail ﬁtted with suitable apparatus
for sorting and classifying mail, and the other ﬁtted with
seats for the transportation of passengers.
“CB”— Business Car. A special type of car for the convenience
of business men, used as smoker and ﬁtted with tables or
desks, carrying stationery and ﬁtted with typewriters and
carrying regular stenographers. '
Class “D.”
“DA”— Dining Car. Regular dining car, for the use of pas-
sengers in transit, ﬁtted with regular kitchen, tables, chairs
or seats, with or without bar, carrying cooks and waiters.
“DB”— Buffet Car. Car for the transportation of passengers
and ﬁtted with small broiler or buffet to serve simple meals
to passengers; cooking and serving done on removable
tables by regular porter in charge of car. With or without
facilities for serving liquor.
“DC”— Café Car. A car ﬁtted with kitchen, usually in center
of car, one end used as cafe where meals are served, also
liquor and smoking allowed, the other end of car ﬁtted with
either regular dining room or smoking and card room;
carrying cooks and waiters.
“DG”— Grill Room Car. Very similar to café car.
“DO’G— Cafe Observation Car. Car ﬁtted with café at one end,
kitchen in center or extreme end, having observation com-
partment ﬁtted with stationary or movable tables and obser-
vation platform at rear.
“DP”— Dining and Parlor Car. A car ﬁtted with dining com‘
partment, kitchen and compartment for passengers, ﬁtted
with chairs, stationary or otherwise, carrying regular cooks
and waiters. '
Class “E.”
“EQV— Electric Street Railway Service Car, direct current,
for transportation of passengers; without automatic coup-
lings.
‘ 4 CARS
“EP”— Electric Passenger Car, for long hauls or suburban
service, multiple unit and ﬁtted with automatic couplings
and air brakes. Third rail, trolley or pantagraph contact.
“EB”— Electric Baggage Car, for long hauls or suburban
service, multiple unit with automatic couplings and air
brakes and suitable for the transportation of baggage.
Third rail, trolley or pantagraph contact._
“EM”— Electric Mail Car, for use in United States Mail Serv-
ice, ﬁtted with side doors, with or without mail hooks, and
suitable apparatus for the sorting and classifying of mail
en route. With or without end doors or windows.
“EC”-— Electric Combined. A car for long hauls or suburban
service, multiple unit with automatic couplings and air
brakes. This car is. made up of two compartments, sepa-.
rated by bulkheads, one suitable for the transportation of
baggage and the other ﬁtted with seats or chairs for the
use of passengers. Third rail, trolley or pantagraph con-
tact. .
“EG”— Gasoline Motor Propelled Car, for inspection or private
use, or use in suburban service, hauling one or more
trailers. ,
“ED”—— Gasoline Motor Car. Gasoline engine or engine serv-
ing to run dynamo to furnish electricity for axle motors.
Car to' be used for inspection, private use, or as motive
power to haul trailer or trailers; ﬁtted with storage cells
and with or without booster. '
“ES”— Electric Passenger Car. For long hauls orsuburban
service; multiple unit, and ﬁtted with automatic couplings
and air brakes. Operating power, storage battery.
Class “M.”
“MA”— Postal Car. For use of United States Mail Service,
ﬁtted with side doors, with or without mail-bag hook, and
having suitable apparatus for the sorting and classifying
of mail in transit, with or without end doors or windows.
“MB”— Baggage and Mail. A car having‘ two compartments,
one for baggage and one for mail, separated by bulkheads“; -
the mail end ﬁtted with suitable apparatus for sorting and
classifying mail, and with or without mail-bag catchers,
CARS 5.
with or without end doors or windows, and having suitable
side doors.
“MP”—— Postal Car. Suitable for transporting newspapers or
large mail packages for United States Mail Service, having
side doors and ﬁtted with stanchions, with or without end
doors or windows. I
“MR”-— Postal Storage Cars. For United States Mail Service,
' suitable to carry mail in bulk, without appliances for sort-
ing or classifying, ﬁtted with side doors and stanchions
and with or without end doors or windows.
“MS”—- Mail and Smoker. A combined car having two separate
/' compartments, separated by bulkheads, one compartment
suitable for the transportation, sorting and classifying of
mail, the. other ﬁtted with seats or chairs to be used by
passengers as smoking car. -~ '
“MBE”— Combination Baggage, Mail and Express Car. A
car having three compartments, each entirely separate
from the other for handling its individual class of business.
Class “P.”
“PA”— Passenger Car. A car for‘ordinary short haul subur-
ban service, with seats and open platforms.
“PB”— Passenger Car. A vestibule (wide or narrow) car for
through service, ﬁtted with seats or reclining seats, and
having toilet rooms for men and women, also wash basins.
“PE”— Emigrant or Colonist Car. A second-class passenger
car, with ﬂoors either bare or ﬁtted with matting, used
expressly for emigrant trade on trains where low rate of
fare is charged.
“PS”— Sleeping Car. A car for passenger service having seats
that can be made up into berths, and usually having one
or more separate stateroom compartments, also toilet and
washroom facilities for men and women, and smoking com-
partment for men. Some cars of this class are all
compartments, and some compartment and observation
combined.
“PN”— Passenger car used exclusively as smoking car, with
seats or chairs and ﬁtted with cuspidors or having matting
or bare ﬂoor. I
6 CARS
“P0”— Observation Car. A car having observation compart-
ment at one end and ﬁtted with either berth facilities,
parlor chairs or compartments, usually run in ﬁrst-class
service.
“PV”-— Private cars used as oﬁicers’ or private individual’s
car and railroad pay car—usually composed of sleeping
compartments, dining compartments, observation endpand
with kitchen, servants’ quarters and toilet and bathroom.~
“PT”'—'1:ourist Car. A second-class sleeping-car, ﬁtted usually
' with cane seats convertible into berths and used mostly on
transcontinental trains; cars ﬁtted with smoking compart-
ment, toilet and washroom.
“PC”— Passenger, Parlor or Chair Car. A car ﬁtted with
individual stationary or movable chairs, used on trains for
daylight runs and having toilet and washrooms.
Class “I.”
“IA”— Instruction Cars for use of employes, usually run'from
one point to another in passenger trains.
NOTE— If. it is so desired, a small letter “E” can be placed
after the larger designating letters to indicate electric lighting,
and small “G” for gas lighting, also ﬁgures showing approxi-
mate length of car or length of baggage or mail compartment. ‘
GENERAL SERVICE FREIGHT EQUIPMENT CABS.
Class “X.”
“XM”— Box Car. General service, suitable to lading which
should be kept from‘ the weather. A box car is a closed
car having side and end housings and roof, with doors in
sides or sides and ends. '
“XA”— Automobile Car. Box car of similar design to general
service car, having exceptionally large side doors or end
doors. ‘
“XF”-— Furniture Car. Box car of similar design to general
service car, except usually greater capacity in cubic feet.
“XV”— Box Car, Ventilated. Similar to ordinary box, only
having ventilation, and suitable for the transportation of
produce orv other foodstuffs not needing refrigeration.
CARS 7
“XI”'-— Box Car, Insulated. A boxcar having walls, ﬂoor and
roof insulated, not equipped with ice bunkers or baskets.
This car ordinarily used for transporting vegetables,
freight, etc.
Class “R.”
“RA”——- Meat and Provision Refrigerator. A car equipped with
insulation and brine ‘ice tanks without ventilating devices.
“RB”—- Beer and Ice Refrigerator. A car with body and doors
equipped with insulation, having no ice tanks or ‘ventilating
devices.
“RM”—- Refrigerator or Produce Car. A car suitable for carry-
ing commodities that need icing in transit. This car is
equipped with two or more ice bunkers or baskets and
suitable means for draining off melted ice or briny water.
This car has side and end housings, roof and side doors,
usually insulated, with trap doors in roof for admittance
of ice and salt; also water seals inside of car.
“RS”—- Standard Refrigerator. A car equipped with insula-
tion, ice tanks and ventilating devices.
Class “V.”
“VA”— Vegetable Ventilator. A car equipped with insulation,
but having common box car end and side doors which
afford no protection against heat or cold.
"‘VS”— Standard Ventilator. A car equipped with insulation,
including insulated side, end and top openings, and venti-
lating devices without ice tanks.
Class “S.”
“SM”— Stock Car. This car is for transportation of stock on
the hoof, and is equipped with roof, slatted sides and side
doors, and single or double deck. With or without feed
or feed and water troughs. '
“SD”— Stock Car. Composite having drop doors in ﬂoor and
means of housing in sides and making drop-bottom box car.
“SP”—-- Stock Car. Used in poultry trade, ﬁtted with roof and
sides usually of wire netting, ﬁtted with shelves for storing
era, of poultry and leaving space for poultrymen, feed
baggnd watering facilities.
8 CARS
‘Class “G.”
“GA”——- Gondola Car. This car has sides and ends; open at
. top,v and drop bottom; suitable for general coal or ore trade,
stone or general trade. . .
“GE”—— Gondola car having drop bottoms and drop ends; suit-
able for general coal or ore or mill trade.
“GG”—— Gondola Coke Car. Gondola car ﬁtted with coke racks
and having drop bottoms._
.“GD”—— Gondola car having side-dump arrangement.
“GM”-— Gondola Car. Suited to mill trade, having solid bot-
tom, low sides and drop ends to facilitate twin shipments.
“GB”— Gondola Car. A car with solid bottom, sides and ends,
and open on top; suitable for mill trade.
‘Class “H.”
“HM”—— Hopper Car. Similar in general design to gondola
car, having sides and bottom ends and open at top,
equipped with hopper bottom and self-cleaning.
“HT”— Hopper (Twin). Similar to ordinary hopper, only
equipped with two or more hopper doors instead of one.
“HD”—— Hopper car equipped with side-dump hoppers.
“HC”—-Hopper car equipped with coke racks.
NOTE—If any of these hopper cars are provided with root
or cover for protection ofcontents, the letter “R” should be
aﬂixed to the regular symbol to designate its special class of‘
service.
Class “F.”
“FM”—— Ordinary ﬂat car for general service. This car has
ﬂooring laid over sills and without sides or ends.
“FG”— Flat or gun truck car for special transportation of
heavy ordnance. -
“FW”—— Flat well-hole car forspecial transportation of plate
glass, etc. This car is a ﬂat car with hole in middle to
, enable lading to be dropped down on account of clearance
limits.
“FB”—- Flat car having skeleton superstructure, suitable for
carrying barrels, known as “Barrel Rack Car.”
“FL”-— Flat logging car or logging truck. This is ei er an
ordinary ﬂat car, or car consisting of two trucks ﬂtt d with
CARS ' 9


cross supports over truck bolsters; the trucks connected-
by a skeleton of ﬂexible frame and logs loaded lengthwise
on cross supports.
Class “T.”
“TM”- Tank car for general service. This car is for general
oil or liquid service, and consists of a steel tank mounted
on frame or mounted directly on cradles over truck bolsters.
It is equipped with one or two safety release valves, and
is emptied by valves or valve at bottom. At the top is a
dome, with or without manhole, and openings through
which the tank may be ﬁlled.
“TA”—- Acid Tank. Of same general construction as oil tanks.
“TG”—- Tank car having glass or glass-lined tanks, for use
in hauling mineral waters and other special products.
“TS”-— Tanks for special commercial service.
“TW”— Tank car having wooden tank, instead of steel, and
used for water, pickles, etc.
Class “N.”
“NM”- Freight train‘ service caboose for convenience of
trainmen. This caboose is mounted on four wheels and
has lookout at top over roof. It is ﬁtted with bunks or
benches and a stove for cooking and heating purposes, also
tank for storage of drinking and washing water, and small
tool storage boxes.
“NE”— Caboose mounted on eight wheels and longer than four-
wheel caboose, but of the same general design.
Class “Y.”
_“YM”-— Yard Poling Car. This car used in hump classiﬁcation
and ﬂat-yard classiﬁcation. This car is usually ﬁtted with
small house or protection and benches, tool box and stove,
a counterweighted pole on each side and running board
or step near the ground for convenience of yardmen. It
is protected with safety appliances and, when in use,
coupled to an engine.
“YA”—- Yard pick-up car for use of car droppers and yardmen
I in'performance of their duty. It might be termed a “Car
Dropper’s Car.” It is protected by house, around which
10 ,_ ' CARS
runs a platform and railing, a long running board on sides
near ground and is ﬁtted with benches, tool box and stove.
No'rE—The capacity of car can be shown by affixing two
ﬁgures after designating letter: for instance, “80” would mean
80,000 pounds capacity; “10” would ~mean 100,000 pounds
capacity; “60” would mean 60,000 pounds capacity. Where
tanks are ‘in question the capacity numbers should indicate
capacity in gallons instead of pounds.
GENERAL SERVICE MAINTENANCE OF’ WAY ‘EQUIPMENT CABS.
Any of the following classes of equipment, having special
heating appliances for the protection of commodities against
freezing, to be covered by aﬁixing the letter “H” to the desig-
nating symbol.


“SH”— Horse Car. A car specially ﬁtted for the transporta- -
tion ~of horses in freight service.
Weed Burner —-A car equipped with machinery for propelling
itself, or otherwise, and burning weeds along the track as
it proceeds.
Ditching Car ——A car equipped with machinery for propelling
itself, or otherwise, and excavating ditches along the sides
of the track as it proceeds.
‘Rail Saw —A car equipped with machinery for sawing track
rails and similar material. a i .
Rail Bender ——A car“ equipped with machinery for bending
track rails and similar material.
Grass Cutter ——A car equipped with machinery for propelling
itself, or otherwise, and cutting grass along the track as
it proceeds. ' .
Track Layer -—A caryequipped with machinery for propelling
itself, or otherwise, and laying the track ahead of it as it
proceeds. ~ .
“MWB”— Ballast Cars. All descriptions of cars used for the
purpose of carrying ballast for the laying of new right of
way and repairs. The car used generally for this work is
of the gondola type, with side or center dump.
“MWD”— Dump Cars." On the type of contractors’ car\ used
for building up ﬁlls; the body of the car dumps, being
raised by means of counterweight, air or hand power.
CARS 11
wan..." ..
“MWF”— Flat Car. Used for transporting rails, ties or ballast
and for storage of wrecking trucks, or gathering scraps
along right of way. These cars are at times equipped with
low sides, about 10 or 12 inches high. -
“MWS”— Steam Shovel. Car equipped with donkey engine
housed in. Having a boom of wood or steel and the end
of which is a shovel orscoop. It may be propelled by its
own power or by means of a locomotive and run as a car
in freight trains, being equipped with safety appliances.
The cubic capacity of shovels, in yards, can be indicated
by ﬁgures after classiﬁcation letters.
“MWW”—Wrecking Derrick. A derrick used for wrecking
purposes, having donkey engine to raise and lower booms
and hoists; engine housed in and on separate platform
with boom, is pivoted in center of car frame in order that .
it can be worked on either sides or ends; usually ﬁtted
with anchor beams to be used for heavy lifting. Fitted
with safety appliances and propelled by means of locomo-
tive.‘ Lifting capacity in tons Shown by means of ﬁgures.
“MW ”—Wrecking Derrick. This derrick has boom and hoist
ﬁtted to frame of ﬂat car and lifting done by means ofhand
power; propelled by locomotive. '
“MW V”—-Wrecking Derrick. This derrick has boom and hoist‘
ﬁtted to ﬂat car and having drum at one end to furnish
means of hoisting; steam furnished to donkey engine, run-
ning drum, by means‘ of ﬂexible steam line from attached
locomotive; propelled by locomotive.
"MW ”—Tool and Block Oar. A car used for carrying all
descriptions of tool equipment and blocking. This car has
side and end housings and roof, also end platforms. There
are doors in sides and ends and usually windows. It is
ﬁtted inside with proper racks and boxes for storage of
tools. '
“MW ”— Caboose and Tool Car. Similar to tool car, but
having one end ﬁtted up as a caboose, with bunks, stove
and water storage, with or without lookout, and is used
in either work or wrecking trains.
I 12 ' cares
“MWH”—- Hand car. This car is ﬂat and mounted on four.
wheels and propelled by means of pushing; known as “Push
Car.” - - ‘
“MWL”— Hand Car. This is a small ﬂat car, with or without
seats, mounted on four wheels and propelled by means of
cranks or hand levers.
“MWG”-- Section Gang or Track Inspection Car. Flat car,
with or without seats or tool boxes, and equipped with
single or double cylinder gasoline engine serving as motive
power. . l _
“MWX”— Boarding Outﬁt Car. ‘This includes cars used for
I boarding, sleeping or cooking: purposes in-construction and
similar work.
“MWE”— Ballast Spreader and Trimmer. A car with blades
or wings for spreading or trimming ballast. '
-"‘MW ”-- Ballast Unloader. A car equipped with machinery
for pulling a plow through cars loaded with ballast.
“MWP”— Pile Driver. A car equipped with machinery for
pile driving. -
“MWK”—F Snow-removing Car. A car equipped with any spe-
cial device for removing snow from between or alongside
of rails. . . ‘
“MWM”—- Store-supply Car. A car equipped for handling
material to be distributed for railway use.
CHAPTER II.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN CAR.
The history of American car construction is a long record
of evolution. Beginning with only the experience of wagon
and coach makers as a guide, the railroad men having to do
with car construction have gradually perfected each detail
which enters into the completed modern car. They have
taken up each requirement as it appe red and have admirably
met the needs of transportation. A a consequence we now
have, instead of the open ﬂat or gondola car of the early
railroad days, special freight cars 6for handling stock, bulk
freight, furniture, carriages, liquids, barrels, ore, dairy prod-
uce, dressed meats, fruits, ordnance, etc. Also instead of
the stage coach like car we now have in passenger service the
sumptuous coach, chair car," parlor car, sleeping car, and
private car together with special dining cars, buffet cars,
smoking and observation cars. The barest necessities re-
quired in the caring for passengers are now superseded by
the most modern luxuries. Comfortable cushioned seats.
sanitary ventilation, carpeted ﬂoors, evenly distributed heat-
ing, brilliant lighting, continuous vestibuled trains and
practically all the comforts and accommodations of home life ‘
are furnished for the railway traveler.
The ﬁrst recorded use in this country of cars on railroads
for carrying passengers was on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad
in 1830. In that year the ﬁrst ﬁfteen miles of that system
had been completed to Ellicot’s Mills. The cars used were
adaptations of the Conestoga wagons which were common
in that territory as freight wagons for transporting over the
highways the large amount of goods and produce which was
then being handled at Baltimore as a market. The long wagon
box like body was constructed with high sides, the driver's
seat being located across the front and the facilities for
entering at the rear. A cover was placed over the part
assigned to the passengers. This was ﬁtted between the
13
14 CARS
posts with loosely draped curtains for protection. Some of
the cars were constructed strong enough to carry passengers
on the roof when the weather permitted.
Each of the cars in the brigade, as it was called, was drawn
by two horses. They made in regular service, what was for _
that ‘time, the remarkable speed of twelve miles an‘hour.
It is generally admitted that the original regular service
of a complete passenger train with steam engine as the
motive power was on the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad be-
tween Albany and Schenectady, N. Y., in 1831. This railroad
now is a part of the New York Central & Hudson River
Railroad. The cars were similar in design to .the old stage
coach with its outside and inside seats. There was ‘the space
for luggage both on top'and under the outside seats" at each
end. The simple lever brake which answered for the highway
was also used as was the method of suspending the body on
long strap springs. The precedent for. this practice was found
in England where coaches of this same type had already been
in use. Indeed the modern English railway coach is still built
on the plan of separate coach like compartments with the doors
for each at the sides of the car. In order to make larger cars
two or more coach bodies were joined together and so framed
as to form a single car. At ﬁrst only two pairs of wheels
were used under these long cars. Later, as an improvement,
double trucks were introduced, each truck having four wheels.
An early departure from the coach design was made when
a short four-wheeled‘ rectangular car was ‘built. This car was
carried by semi-elliptical springs resting‘ on the journal boxes
which were outside of the wheels instead of inside as had
been the custom with most four-wheel cars. End doors and
short platforms were provided but there were no steps and
the draft rigging had no spring attachment of any sort. The
gabled and shingled roof, small ' rectangular windows and
sheathing running lengthwise of the body were evidently
copied from house construction and gave the car the appear-
ance of a small shed placed on wheels. The interior was of
the most severely plain ﬁnish, the walls ‘being simply painted.
The two hard bench like seats extended lengthwise of the car,
one on eachside. However, these cars were short lived.
CARS 15
About 1835 there appeared the long car built somewhat on
the lines of the modern passenger car. The body of the car
was rectangular in construction and it was carried on two
four wheeled wooden trucks. The sides of the car were
panelled, being framed between the window rails and the sills,
but no truss rods were used. The short platforms were
greatly improved by the addition of steps and hoods. Double
cross Seats were arranged on one side of the car, the opposite
side having the old long bench extending from end to end.
All the windows were stationary. Ventilation, however, was
obtained through panels, between the windows, which could
be raised or lowered. The interior of the car was ﬁnished
in plain beaded siding which was painted a light drab. The
outside was painted yellow. This particular car was thirty-
two‘ feet long over the end sills, thirty-seven feet long over
the platform timbers and eight and one-half feet wide over
the side sills. The trucks had a wheel base of four feet and
nine inches while the spoked wheels were thirty-three inches
in diameter. The body bolster was of wood as was also the
entire truck frame. Wooden brake shoes also were used.
With this car as an origin there has been change after
change in small details and large until the present construc-
tion of passenger cars has resulted. Wooden trussing of the
sills was succeeded by iron truss rods, over-hanging wooden
platforms have been replaced by steel vestibuled platforms,
single reversible seats replaced the double benches placed
back to back. Thus improvements have been made for com-
fort, convenience and strength.
As early as 1836-37 eﬁorts were made to furnish sleeping
accommodations for passengers while en route; The Cumber-
land Valley Railroad ﬁtted up a passenger car with berths.
The car was divided into four sections each of which had three
berths, upper, middle and lower. Although crude in its con-
struction this car was kept in service until 1848 when it was
abandoned. Various ‘other means were devised to furnish
sleeping quarters. But with them all there were no bed
clothes supplied. The coarse mattress and pillow did not
appeal to the traveler. These efforts resulted solely in sup- _
plying a means of resting which indeed was more comfortable
16 CARSv
than sitting on the straight hard benches all night. In 1859
George M. Pullman experimented with some day coaches of
the Chicago & Alton Railroad, converting them-into sleeping
cars. The cars, as changed, were a decided improvement over
- past efforts to meet the wants of the public. They were very
well received and were kept regularly in service. In 1864
Mr. Pullman built, at the shops of this same company, the
' sleeping car “Pioneer” which was the ﬁrst car built on the
lines of present sleeping cars. It was a foot wider than pre
vious cars and two and a half feet higher. As a consequence
several of the bridges and all of the station platforms had
to be altered before the car could be run over the road. A
raised deck and an improved truck were also among the
changes in design which were introduced. As completed this
car became the standard as to height and width for future
Pullman sleepers.
Parlor cars for daylight travel naturally followed the solu-
tion of the sleeping car problem.‘ These added materially to
the comfort and luxury of travel as they were ﬁtted up solely
to meet these requirements. Together with the sleepers they
were soon considered as a necessary equipment of ﬁrst-class
trains.
Another step of the car building and car operating com-
pany, which had been organized by Mr. Pullman, was the intro-
duction of the “hotel” car “President” in 1867. Arrangements
were made for placing portable tables between the seats of
a sleeping car, one end of which was partitioned oﬁ as a
kitchen and pantry. In 1868 a complete car devoted solely
to the furnishing of meals, the “Delmonico,” was put into
regular service.
During all these general changes made in passenger cars,
minute and careful study was made of the various details
entering into their construction. Baggage, express, mail and
even horse cars were constructed to be handled in trains run-
ning as fast or faster than those carrying passengers. The
railway mail service which was conceived in 1864 and has
increased every year, takes for its exclusive use no small part
of the railway companies’ equipment. These cars have to be
‘especially constructed to meet the requirements of the govern-
CARS _ 17
ment' and at the same time they, are elaborately ﬁtted up with
everything which will assist in the work of distributing mail
while the trains are in motion.
The various investigations of the problem as to how to suc-
cessfully heat these trains resulted in the setting aside ﬁrst of "
the stove and then the independent system of hot water heat-
ing as‘ utilized with the Baker heater and the ﬁnal adoption
' of steam from the locomotive as the heat generating medium.
Practically all of the passenger cars used in sections of the
country which have cool weather are now equipped with con-
tinuous steam pipes under the cars which connect to radiators
inside. These radiators are arranged to heat the car directly
or by auxiliary hot water circulation, and at the present time
the modern Vapor Heating Systems which produce a more
uniform heat are rapidly coming into general use. *
The closed or vestibuled train‘was an early study. In 1852
patents were issued for a canvas covering to connect adjoining
cars and form a covered passageway between them. These
covers were used on the Naugatuck Railroad in Connecticut,
but were abandoned about 1861 after nearly four years’ trial.
In 1887 the narrow vestibule, which enclosed only the landing
between the steps, was brought out. This was followed by
the standard or wide vestibule which extends the .full width
‘ of the car and has drop doors over the steps to make the
platform level all the way across the car.
In the early days the tallow candle held in a sort of lantern
and suspended at each end of the car was the only method
of illumination. Oil lamps and gas and electric lights are
now the general means of lighting according to the location
of the railway and the character of its-train service. Improve-
ments in each of these systems have been and are still
constantly being made. Where it is possible to reach a
charging station, the gas lamp, supplied from storage reser-
voirs under the car, is much better and safer light than the
oil lamp. The gas systems have been reduced now to prac-
tically two types, that using Pintsch gas and that using

I"The subjects of lighting and heating passenger trains are
treated in another volume relating to trains.
18 ' _ ‘CARS
acetylene gas'. -Electric lighting of trains is also of two types:
ﬁrst, that in which a dynamo is operated in one, ‘generally
the baggage car for lighting all the cars in the train. The
second system is that in whicha dynamo is geared or belted
to a truck axle on each car. While the car is in motion
suﬁicient current is generated to illuminate the lamps and
also charge. a storage battery which is called upon to- supply
current for the lamps whenthe car is at rest. _
The introduction of the power brake on passenger trains
required the use of some sort of‘ coupler which would-leave
~no slack between the cars, but at the same time the cars should
have relative motion vertically without loosening the coupling. '
This necessity brought out‘ the Miller platform, consisting of
the spring buffer and vertical plane coupler or “hook” as it
was commonly termed. With the introduction of the auto-
matic coupler of the Janney type for freight cars the Miller
“hook” has!) been superseded by the former coupler. The gen-
eral idea of the buffer, however, has been retained on all
types of continuous platforms. ' V -
In 1827 a railroad was. ‘built between Boston and Quincy.
It was a crude affair, and was constructed for the purpose-of
handling granite for use in the Bunker Hill monument. This
was one of the ﬁrst places where cars on rails were .used for
transporting freight. The cars were of the plainest and
simplest type, being very much like the heaviest styles of
push or,“dollie” cars now used by railroads. They were hauled
by horses. The wheels were entirely outside the body, the
axles being arranged for ‘inside journals. About 1829 the
'Carbondale Railroad was opened by the Delaware and Hudson
Canal Company between the head of their canal at Honesdale,
» Pennsylvania, and the mines vat Carbondale, a. distance of
sixteen miles. The cars were pulled partly by stationary steam
engines and partly by horses. This was also the ﬁrst place
where a steam locomotive was used 'to handle the freight
trains, the initial trip of the engine being made. in August,
1829. ' ~ .
As an improvement over the heavy “dollie” car of the
Boston and Quincy Railroad cars were constructedof lighter
‘material. They were widenedvby placing the journals outside
CARS , 19
the wheels and letting the wheels project up into the framing
of the car, but not.far enough to disturb the ﬂooring. Sides
were ﬁtted to the car; at ﬁrst they were shallow, but gradually
higher ones were used until the gondola car was evolved.
This car also was originally designed to be hauled by horses.
A step toward the modern type of double trucked eight wheeled
car was the use of two of these light four wheeled cars without
the sides under a special framework made to carry ﬁrewood.
This framework rested on bolsters through which king bolts
attached it to the cars. This same manner of using two cars
for long loads was also used on the Boston and Quincy Rail-
road. Almost all improvements in freight equipment of
railroads have been along such lines; adaptations to the local
and immediate conditions and requirements. It was but a
simple change from the double car to a regularly designed
car having special trucks and with the draft rigging attached
directly to the car body. The necessity for a more permanent
covering than could be obtained with tarpaulins brought out
the construction of a framework over the simple ﬁat car.
Thus we have the beginning of the American Box Car.
Until 1848 there was very little change made in the designs
and construction of freight cars. They had increased to about
ten tons capacity, the dead weight being nearly as high. The
roofs were sometimes covered with duck that was painted
and sanded. Draw bars of the link and pin type with spring
attachment had then come into general use. However, it was
not until almost 1880 that any move was made to increase
the generally adopted standard capacity (ten tons) of the
cars. And this in spite of the fact that there was a great‘
demand for larger and stronger cars capable of taking greater
loads. Even the Master Car Builders’ Association in 1877.
deprecated the idea of building cars for carrying more than
,ten tons of freight. Nevertheless the demand for larger cars
increased. As a consequence the standard was gradually
increased, the cars being strengthened for taking ﬁfteen, then
twenty and twenty-ﬁve tons of lading until the thirty ton car
was developed about 1888 for general service with approx-
imately the proportion of the modern car. It must be noted
that with all the advances in the carrying capacity of the
D
20 . CARS
freight car there was no material departure from the original
form of construction as used on the old standard ten ton car
of 1848. The rule of thumb method of design and construction
had remained in force and continued to do so for some time
afterward. Notable examples of the results of this method of
construction were the many large capacity cars which did
not hold up, but sagged down in the center and also onto the
side bearings. This created a prejudice against these large
cars which was very nearly fatal to their adoption. The cars
were hard to handle on the road and were continually break-
ing down. However, about this time more accurate attention
was paid to the proper proportioning of the various parts to
stand up properly under their particular strains. This tech-
nical study of the car building problem gradually improved
the situation and paved the way for larger cars of either part
steel or all steel construction for carrying forty, ﬁfty and
even ﬁfty-ﬁve tons of lading each. The introduction of steel
into the car body was gradual. Until the Columbian Exposi-
tion in 1893 at Chicago there was no real attempt made to
develop its use. A steel car had been built in 1890, but it
did not in itself create favorable impressions. ‘Nevertheless
it opened the way for the useof steel for many parts of the
car, the use of which today is nearly universal.
In the development of the freight car, the causes producing
the rapid evolution of the steel freight car were ‘of the most
compelling character, especially after the frequent failures
found in large wooden cars whose use had been brought about
in an attempt to obtain a lower unit cost of transportation by
making said cars of very large capacity. With the steel car,
these causes were: 1. The growing demand for this' increased
capacity, which led to building huge wooden cars; which had
behind it the desire to increase tonnage without increasing
the length of the train. 2. _The need of greater structural
strength to resist operating stresses. 3. The approaching
equalization of the, costs of steel and suitable car lumber.
4. Greater economy— due to the longer life of steel cars and i.
the smaller cost of maintaining them in proper condition. '
5. Considerations as to safety, both as to lading and as to
passengers. ' 1—
CARS _ 21
Still, when the radical change in design from wood to
steel is considered, the rapidity with which steel cars have
been introduced is indeed most remarkable. The ﬁrst steel cars
were built about 1896-7, with a capacity of from 40 to 50 tons,
exceeding by two-thirds that of the former wooden car. Up
to 1897, there were few deﬁnite attempts to adopt the all-steel
car. In that year the Pittsburgh, Bessemer & Lake Erie Rail-
road ordered a number of 100,000 pounds capacity all-steel
cars. The success of this undertaking created such a favorable
impression that the construction of some nineteen thousand
steel cars occurred within the next two years. Since then,
the steel freight car has advanced by leaps and bounds, as
likewise steel passenger cars, both of whose progress will be
described herein later; in the chapters thereon. Suffice it to
say, that railroads have now practically ceased building wooden
cars, either freight or passenger. '
Not only. are freight cars still increasing in size, but also
their number has risen enormously to meet the needs of our
fast growing country and traﬂic; there being now in the
United States alone over 2,300,000 freight cars owned by
railroads and 140,000 owned by car companies or private
owners. Private car lines own 54,000 refrigerator cars; rail-
'roads own 49,000 such cars. For the transportation of
automobiles alone, there are 43,000 cars built specially for this
purpose. - '
The transitory stage when wooden cars were going out
and steel cars were coming in, is already past.‘ In the evolu-
tion of the freight car, the wooden car has gone under, and
the steel car arisen, according to the doctrine of the survival
of the ﬁttest. In' the long heavy trains of today, ascending
steep grades and propelled by tremendously powerful locomo-
tives, the weaker wooden car breaks in two, bursts its gears,
and causes Wrecks to such an extent that many railroads now
refuse to haul wooden cars unless they are strengthened by
being ﬁtted out with steel underfram'es, heavy center sills,
and eﬁicient draft gear or else draft-arms of steel so riveted
to the underframing as to prevent the sills from spreading.
As illustrating the present car status, one large railroad
now has the following proportion of the diﬁerent types of cars:
22 a _ CARS
Steel cars, 40 per cent; steel underframe cars, 40 per cent;
wooden cars, 20 per cent. Smaller roads have more wooden
cars, but their number is daily decreasing even with the
smallest of our railroads.-
At present, the type most in favor is the large capacity
freight car, of from 60 to 80 tons, with steel underframe and
steel upperframe having wood sheathing bolted to the latter,
to take the place of both the lining and sheathing found in
former wooden cars. On account of the still slightly favorable
balance in the comparative cost of ‘wood used for said lining-
and sheathing, this type may last for a time and prevail over
large areas; metal plates being used for rooﬁng, and the
wooden ﬂoor remaining for proper blocking of the lading.
However, this type is only a transitory one, as all car
‘men now admit that in the future, not far distant, all freight
cars will be of the all~steel type. This subject will be treated
of fully, later on; but it may here be noticed that there are
already in use in the United States many thousands of the
all-steel freight car. '
CHAPTER III.
SECTION I.
CAR CONSTRUCTION.
In the construction of cars there are problems to‘ be met
by the designer that, are peculiar to thee-individual railroad.
The physical characteristics of the road are often the limiting
features. A road that has many tunnels, a large number of
which are comparatively small in section, will have to build
its cars to suit these conditions. In order to make the best
use of all the space available the car body itself will be made
to just clear the limiting obstructions. All projecting attach-
ments will be made as short as possible. Even narrow
platforms will be provided at the ends of the freight cars
for the brakeman’s use when the train is passing through the
tunnels. The eaves of the passenger cars will be very low
and the clear-story will be quite high when the size of the
oval shape tunnel prevents the use of a more generous car
section. The total length and width of cars is often limited
on mountain roads by the sharp curves and projections on
the inside of the curve. This is especially the situation with
passenger equipment, in the building of which there is a
marked tendency to lengthen out the cars. Sometimes the
maximum allowable wheel loading will prevent the use of cars
of large capacity. It is thus that the car builder is often
hemmed in by many obstacles in his eﬁorts to supply the
demands for cars, and the peculiar appearance of the cars
he builds is often due to the necessities of the case. A design
or practice that is eminently suited to the conditions of a
given locality will very often not answer the purpose at all
at another place. Thus the progressive Master Car Builder
will continue to bring out a special design of car as each new
requirement of the service makes it advisable to prepare
special equipment.
23
24 CARS
Car construction should be of the very besti long experience
proves that true economy dictates that cars should be con-
structed of only the very best materials combined with the
best engineering skill, ﬁrst class workmanship, and the most
approved of modern appliances. Cars thus constructed would,
if properly maintained, not only be truly the most economical
in the end, but would produce increased net earnings by being
kept more days in revenue service, and fewer days ‘on the
repair tracks where they not only produce no revenue but
increase the railroads’ expenses and freight damage claims
-—thus trebly decreasing net earnings.
Nevertheless, the present practice of some roads appears
neither to be based upon this plainly apparent truth nor to
recognize the consequence of going contrary to it. It is all
well enough to save a few dollars, but it is evidently absurd,
by skimping on car materials or construction, to proceed to
build cars that will not stand even two years’ service without
having to be sent to the car shops and practically rebuilt. The
money saved on ﬁrst-cost is thus wasted ten to twenty times
over, in repairing such shoddy cars—a fact well known to
men in the car department. ,'
In this section we will deal solely with Car Construction,
pointing out the general tendencies nowadays; in the following
section, we will treat of car materials in detail, although
certain parts of this section such as car insulation also have
to do with the materials used therein. ~
In constructing a car, the design selected should be that
one which is truly most economical for general use on all
railroads, so as to handle its lading in the most eﬂicient
manner, and, therefore, to also be so durably constructed as
to keep the car out of the repair shop. Further, a car may
cost $5 or $10 more for its regular upkeep, but it may save two
or three times that amount in weight hauled about uselessly;
a considerable factor in increasing or decreasing net earnings.
On the other hand, a car should not be designed solely with
a view 'to lowering the cost of its upkeep. The weight of a
car is a serious matter, and manifestly it is not good business
to put weight into a car solely for occasional hard or special
. service. The cost of upkeep may thus be less, in truth, but
a
CARS 2 5


in practice only the average service of a car should be con-
sidered in designing that car.
As a general rule, it is best to make the new car design
‘a little ﬁne, and then strengthen it in its weak points; thus
obtaining a suﬂiciently strong car of the minimum weight.
This is plainly more sensible from an economical standpoint,
than building a car like a battleship. There is, of course,
considerable difference of opinion as to this among car men,
but still the above principle is the correct mechanical one;
it has stood the test of time, and should be followed as far
as possible. Yet, to illustrate the personal peculiarities of
opinions, one railroad recently built a car of 60,000 pounds
capacity that had a light weight of 48,000 pounds; while
another road built a car of 80,000 pounds capacity with a light
weight of only 36,000 pounds—and still both companies were
satisﬁed with their cars! ’ ~ -
Of course in some cases, with some types or classes of
cars, the design and construction of a car are absolutely ﬁxed
by authoritative railway associations or by law, either state
or federal. Thus, tank cars must be constructed strictly
according to Master Car Builders’ Speciﬁcations for Tank
Cars;* while postal cars must be built exactly according to
United States Government speciﬁcations for postal cars, in-
cluding every detail of material and construction for every
part of such cars. In this connection, it is interesting to
here notice that four types of construction are permitted by
postal speciﬁcations for the underframing of such cars:
1. IHeavy center sill construction, the center sills acting as
the main carrying members. 2. Side carrying construction,
the sides of the car acting as the main carrying members,
having their supports at the bolsters. 3. Underframe con-
struction in which the load is carried by all the longitudinal
members. The superstructure framing may be of steel, or
of wood reinforced as per Railway-Mail-Service speciﬁcation
plan No. 1. 4. Combination construction, in which the side
frames carry a part of the load, transferring the same to the
center sills at points remote from the center plate, for the
purpose of utilizing uniform center sill area.. Steel castings
‘See Chapter XII of this book for these speciﬁcations.
26 CARS
may be used as parts of the steel underframe, in any of the
above types.
Passenger car construction has made enormous progress
in the last six years, especially in- all-steel cars. In freight
car construction, the railways are now awakened to the need
of improved construction, so as to more fully protect the
lading and" endure modern operating stresses. As a rule, each
railroad has its own practice, to which cars built for it con-
form more or less accurately. All the car failures of today


do not lie with the smaller and older cars; there are freight.
cars of large capacity still in service that are a reproach to
both their designers and owners. There have been a number
of instances where 60,000 and 80,000 pound steel underframe
cars have been found too weak to withstand the shocks
received in service. Leaky roofs, broken doors, pulled out
drawbars, broken trucks, and racked superstructures are the
result of this poor car designing orconstruction. Fairness,
however, compels the admission that often this is caused by
false economy enforced by managers upon car departments;
also, the operating department frequently handles cars so
roughly as to prematurely break down anything short of a
solid steel ingot. Both these causes result in daily train
delays, overtime, damage to freight, and large increase in the
cost of car maintenance.
What is imperatively demanded today is a car that will
stand up to the requirements of present traﬂic conditions, no
matter what the capacity of the car may be. A standard
freight car should be determined upon and adhered to by all
our roads. All-metal trucks should be required ‘under all cars
without further delay. _ A standard minimum strength for
freight cars, a matter largely‘ depending on the draft-gear
and its attachments, and a minimum strength for underframes,
should be ﬁxed upon with the idea of adequately protecting
whatever road is handling the cars, not only from damage
to its own cars, but also from excessive claims or expenditures
for damages done to foreign ‘cars. In the ﬁrst steel cars, too
light material‘was used, especially in the center sills. As a ‘
result, there was not sufficient strength in the car to resist -
the buﬁing shocks, which the center sills must take care of.
CARS _ 27


These sills therefore buckled, and had to be cut loose and
straightened out again, and cover or strengthening plates
applied.
Unfortunately, this faulty ‘ designing of car parts is still
persisted in, in some quarters, as may be observed in any
car shop or repair yard. In some of the new all-steel and
steel underframe equipment but lately constructed, the center
sill has often been reduced to such a small area of cross-section
that cars ﬁtted with such are no stronger, if as strong, as the
former wooden cars. This has reached such a pass that the
Master Car Builders’ Association now proposes to ﬁx minimum
limits for the cross-sectional area of center sills.
Freight cars continue to increase in size; the new eastern
coal cars are. of 90 tons capacity, and ﬂat cars of 100 tons
capacity are in service. Hence, there is increasing need of so
strengthening cars as to enable them to .safely carry these
heavier loads. There are many problems, not the least of
which is the varying weights of cars, of themselves and as
compared with their various capacities; the diﬁerences
between which among cars of the same type and class oﬁer
, many perplexities to car builders and designers. If box cars
were standardized, such variations in weight for this large
class of cars would be greatly reduced. The American Railway
Association, probably the most powerful official association of
railways in our country, now has under consideration the
determination of a standard box car, which, when ﬁnally and
fully speciﬁed, will doubtlessly be adopted by the Master Car
Builders because of the many advantages arising from the
creation and maintenance of such a car.
In the structural-steel car, we already have practically a »
fair sort of standard car, for most purposes; but car men
unite in demanding one ﬁxed standard type or design for
each» of the various kinds and classes of cars. This is most
important to the car-user, because standard equipment is
always more economical than special equipment. The more
cars are standardized, the vgreater the facility of making, and
the less the cost of repairs. Serious delays often ensue at
present on account of special patented car-parts not being on '
hand to effect repairs; sometimes even the manufacturer is
28 _ CARS '
temporarily out of ‘them at the time. There are tens of thou-
sands of special car-parts on the market and in use on cars,
and no road can keep them all in stock. For this reason,
the demand for standards becomes daily more imperative.
Already we have increasing accuracy in standardizing wheels, -
axles, bolsters, arch-bars, brakebeams, couplers, air-brake
hose, etc.; and each year the Master Car Builders standardize
other parts of the car. , ' '
‘ Standard parts can always be kept in stock, not only by
the roads but also by the -makers thereof. The latter can
also make and sell them to the roads at lower cost. In rail-
road car shops and yards, the repairs are made more quickly
and cheaply, as the men do not have to contend with a multi- '
tude of special devices and parts peculiar to each patented
article. The American Railway Association and Master Car '
Builders have already adopted the inside measurements for
a standard box car of a certain length, as will be seen later.
This standardization of cars and their parts has the
powerful and energetic support of the Master Car Builders
Association, one of the most inﬂuential railway‘bodies in the
country, and of undisputed authority on car and car construc-
tion, as it is composed of leading oiﬁcials engaged in designing,
constructing, or maintaining the car equipment of railroads
or of private car companies or other companies owning and
operating 1,000 cars or over. By its adoption from time to
time, of Standards and Recommended Practices, in car con-
struction, this association is rapidly standardizing the car
equipments of nearly" all our railroads, adding thereto new
and advanced rulings at all of its annual conventions. By
adopting anything as a Recommended Practice, the association
puts the stamp of its approval upon it, as providing a basis
by which to properly design or limit certain parts of a car.
It does not compel railroads to make changes, and it may be
years before such Recommended Practices, having successfully
stood the tests of time and experience, become Standards and
are adopted as such by this association. Still, such Recom-
mended Practices represent the best thought _as to correct car
practice, of this expert body of car men, and, as such, they
carry the greatest weight next to Standards.
CARS 29
For the sake of brevity, we have adopted for use in this
book,‘ the following abbreviations of much used titles and
phrases:
Home Car—A car on a railroad to which that car belongs.
Home Road—The road which owns a certain car, or upon
which the home of a private car is located.
Foreign Car—A car on a road to which it does not belong.
Foreign Road—Any road other than the home road.
Private Car—A car having other than railroad ownership.
I. C. C.—Interstate Commerce Commission.
Am. Ry. Assn—American Railway Association.
M. C. B.-—-Master Car Builders.
M. C. B. Assn.—Master Car Builders’ Association.
Rec. Practice—Recommended Practice. '
By “Interchange” is meant the joint use of cars by rail-
road companies. In the case of freight billed to a point
beyond the limits of the railroad accepting it for shipment,
it is billed through to its destination; the car in which it
was originally loaded being transferred to the next road whose
tracks bear it onward to its ultimate destination, and so on
until the car with its freight reaches its goal. Such a car
is said to be oﬁered by the ﬁrst road in interchange (service),
and to be received in interchange by the second and other
roads—that is, provided said other roads do so accept it in
interchange. They may not so choose, but, under certain
rules and conditions, in which the condition of the car cuts
a large ﬁgure, they have the privilege and may prefer to
unload the original car and reload the freight into another
car, sending the latter on to its destination; As to which
road shall pay the cost of this transfer, the delivering or
receiving road, depends upon the Car Service Rules of the
Am. Ry. Assn. governing this matter. But when transfer is
due to defective equipment that is not. safe to run according
to M. C. B. Rules, if repairs cannot be made while car is
under load, then the ﬁrst or delivering road must pay the
cost of such transfer. For this reason, railroads must keep
their cars in proper order, if they wish to avoid this expense;
and obviously, it is much to their interest to keep all their
30 CARS
cars in such shape as ‘to be accepted in interchange ‘with
other roads. 7 ‘ " l' A‘ ' " ' 1 '
Each railroad prescribes its own rules regarding the
construction, rebuilding, and‘repairs of "its own cars while
on the home road. Concerning the condition of, and repairs
to, foreign cars- on its line, the code of rules termed the
M. C. B. Rules for Interchange of Trafﬁc now regulates this
matter concerning foreign cars. These rules specify when or
not cars are toube accepted in interchange, whether empty
or loaded. This code of rules is published by us as a supple-
ment to'this book, and should receive the close and constant
study of car men, as they are recognized by all the principal
railroads of the United States and‘ Canada as oﬂicial and
authoritative, and therefore, strictly ‘to be followed in hand-
ling or repairing foreign cars, whether freight or passenger.
These rules provide for the care of foreign cars, inter-
changing of freight cars with other roads and the settlement
for cars, ‘besides the settling of other disputes between roads
through the Arbitration Committee of the M. C. B. Association.
They determine whether the car owner, delivering road, or
receiving road, is responsible for damages to cars, and explain
as to how vand who shall repair them, also stating the use of
the various cards placarded on cars needing repairs, etc.
Rules for billing are laid down, rules as to the disposition of
worn-out or hopelessly damaged cars, rules as to the furnish-
ing of materials for repairs, and, ﬁnally, full price-lists not only
of many kinds of cars, car parts and material, but also the
charges for labor with the number of hours allotted for each
job. Plainly, all car men should have this code at their
ﬁngers’ ends.
Above all else, with cars in general, it is most important
that they should always be kept in good order, especially the
remaining wooden cars, old steel cars, and all cars of small
tonnage. Statistics as to the causes of the principal train
accidents, as determined by the I. C. C. for several years after
1902, show that of 177 such accidents, 96 were caused by
defective or weakened equipment. There is today a much
more rapid deterioration of rolling stock than there was a
few years ago. Often the cause is laid to defective car
CARS ' 31
material 01 faulty construction, whereas a large part of it
arises from the harder service and severer stresses to which
cars are now subjected, and from the mixing of strong heavy
cars in trains with lighter, weaker ones, besides the rough
handling that many cars receive.
Due to the overdoing of the modern craze for speeding
up and expecting super-eﬁiciency, much of the damage is done
in the yards where trains are made up or dispersed to tracks.
Here much of the weaker car equipment receives its death
blow. Inordinate demands for the maximum number of cars
switched per hour forces the switching of cars at too high
a speed, especially in hump yards, where vast damage is done.
Engineers unaccustomed to the heavier power and longer
trains of today also cause damage to cars by suddenly starting
or stopping their trains. An example of the terriﬁc stresses
encountered in modern freight service was given recently by
a 100-carloaded train of about 7,000 tons, on which an air-
hose burst. A dynamometer-car happened to be in the train,
and its instruments proved that the resulting shock was
977,000 pounds! Small wonder that two new steel cars on
that train were telescoped. Nevertheless, were cars themselves
properly constructed of sufficiently strong materials to enable
the combinations thereof to resist present operating stresses
of average magnitude, undoubtedly the break-in-twos and
damages to cars would be greatly reduced, especially if ~the
wooden car is—as it should rightly now be——forbidden use
in. heavy trains or interchange traiﬁc.
.The day of the all-wood freight car has forever passed.
True, there still linger on branch lines and small roads some
relics of the early car age of wood, but even these are greatly
changed, above all as regards their underframing, from the .
old 10, 20, and 30 ton wooden cars with their short draft
timbers and wooden sills. Cars with such draft timbers will
not now be accepted in interchange or handled by our rail-
roads, as they continually break down, especially if caught
by an impact between heavy steel cars. Like the weakest
link in a chain, the wooden-sill car is always the ﬁrst to give
way when “yanked up” short by a heavy locomotive hauling
a long train of cars. Their draft attachments, old style triple
32 CARS
valve, small 8-inch cylinders, and general construction keep
them most of the time on the repair tracks.
Where wooden cars still survive, they are reinforced with
steel center sills or complete steel underframes, and their
draft gear is always strengthened. Even so, the wooden car
is doomed to soon disappear, for several reasons: one of which
is that its annual deterioration is vso much greater than that
of steel cars; and, hence, its life is shorter. The M. C. B.
allowance for annual depreciation, upon the yearly depre-
ciated value, is 6 per cent ‘for wooden cars as against 5 per
cent for steel ones. This, however, is merely an arbitrary
rule, probably established for uniformity’s sake, and is only
tentative; for we have not yet used steel cars long enough to
actuallyknow just what the average life of the steel car is.
In the case of steel hopper cars, we know that the steel ﬂoor
and sheets will last. 20 years, the rest of the car about 40
years; and, at 'a small cost, the whole car can be made as
good as new again. Further, wooden cars now deteriorate
more rapidly every year, due to the increasing destructive-
ness of the heavier impacts they now receive from huge
steel cars.
It would, therefore, seem probable that the proper pro-
portion for annual depreciation is approximately 7' per cent
for wood as against 4% per cent for steel. But, in any event,
the longer life of steel cars proves that real economy dictates
their preference over wooden ones. As steel cars are already
nearly as cheap as those of wood, the factors of safety, security
from end shocks, and increased tonnage make it but a question
of a short time till the sight of .a wooden car will be a rare
one. Car construction will then deal almost entirely with
metallic materials, and the present problems of steel-car
building—heating and refrigerating, insulation and ventila-
tion, etc., will be satisfactorily solved to suit both ladings
and passengers.
As regards general car deterioration, the following M. C. B.
rules‘governing the settlement for cars destroyed on foreign
lines, are here of interest—giving, for freight cars, the depre-
ciation due to age, per year, ﬁgured upon the yearly depre-
ciated value of the same:
CARS 33
Wooden Car Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 per cent
All-Steel_Car Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 per cent
Car Bodies with Steel Underframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61/; per cent
- Steel Underframe, ﬂat cars, wood ﬂoors . . . . . . . . . . .- . . .5 per cent
Tanks of Tank-Cars handling non-corrosive substances 4 per cent
Tanks of Tank-Cars handling corrosive substances. . . . 5 per cent
Trucks other than All-Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 per cent
Trucks, All-Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 per cent
The allowances for depreciation shall in no case exceed 60 per
cent of value new. N o depreciation is allowed on the Air Brake
Apparatus.
Cars are still growing in average size, for the use of larger
cars, other things being equal, permits larger net earnings
therefrom. The M. C. B. Assn. contemplates the speedy retire-
'ment from freight service of all cars under 60,000 pounds
capacity; a step certain to take place very soon, not only as
regards these cars, but also regarding the cars of 60,000
pounds capacity for the following reasons: 1. Such cars
cannot as a rule be handled in heavy trains. 2. Because
many industries will not load them. In the meantime it is
suggested that railroads in general should conﬁne all such
light equipment to local business on their own lines. Cars
of 70 to 80 tons are now common, with coal cars of from 90
to 100 tons. In fact, their size is circumscribed only by the
delimitations set by the tunnels, bridges and other clearances,
and the permissible load‘ per wheel on rails and bridges.
Length, width, height, and weight all have their limits, and
some of said limits are already plainly insight (as regards
car construction) for cars intended to travel on foreign roads
whose tunnels, etc., will impose limits less than those
encountered on the home road.
In the transition from wood to steel in passenger car con-
struction, one of the most important features was long neg-
lected, and indeed still remains a matter of concern to car
builders—the question of the proper insulation of metal cars.
This was evidenced in early steel cars, which had to be given
an unusual and expensive amount of heating surface, and
even then such care were cold in winter. In steel freight
cars, trouble was had both from sweating and from the
excessive heating or chilling of the lading. For this reason,
we have in this book gone quite deeply into the subject of
34 _ ' ‘CARS
insulation, not only for steel cars but also concerning the
needs of special cars such as refrigerator, ventilated, and other
cars of that kind. .
Cars get into defective condition either because‘ theywere
poorly designed or ‘badly constructed—through faulty car-
engineering, or managerial desire to save on ﬁrst cost, or poor
shop-work—besides failing through lack of proper mainten'
ance. In many such cases, their rebuilding, vpractically, will
well repay the cost thereof many times over, in at least three
ways: 1. By reducing the cost of future maintenance.
2. By increasing earnings through giving cars more days
of revenue service. 3. By preventing damage to lading and
thus avoiding damage claims. This last item is important,
as an extremely large number of box cars have roofs, sides,
or ends which allow moisture to penetrate into the cars,
thereby damaging such commodities as ﬂour, grain, cement,
etc. Others have defects permitting grain, e_tc., to leak
through, causing heavy losses to the railroads every year.
- All these are remediable defects, and‘ careful car construction
avoids or speedily repairs them. .
Given a properly constructed car, the best way is to see
that timely and proper attention is continuously given to its
maintenance. This always results in a net decrease in the
total cost of maintenance over any given period of time. As
car men know, true economy lies in keeping cars in 100 per
cent condition.
Concerning passenger cars, better construction and‘ added
facilities have been universally introduced, induced by keen
.. competition and moral and statutory obligations to provide
for the increased‘ safety of passengers Among these are
the use vof gas and electricity for lighting; appliances for
' heating‘them by steam, vapor, etc.; ﬁtting up of all cars with
air brakes; raising of platforms to. a uniform height and
arranging‘ that the sills as well as the platforms coincide,
so that in the event of collision, the full strength of the cars
opposes their tendency to telescope. These, together with
better car-wheels, brake beams, 'etc., are now everywhere in
common use. 'i
CARS ‘ 35
In the chapters dealing with the freight car and its com-
ponent parts, we explain the present weaknesses and needs
of such equipment. A committee of the M. C. B. on Car
Construction has remarked lately as follows: “For new cars,
a greater strength should be required. Transportation require-
ments have increased greatly in the past ten years. Heavy
freight locomotives, including Mallet road engines, greater
efforts‘ to pass cars through yards quickly, and rougher
handling of cars have increased the strains to cars, due to
end shock, at least 50 per cent. Manufacturers of couplers,
draft gears, draft attachments, etc., are all busy increasing
the strength of their specialties, and are generally aiming to
double the original strength.”
To furnish the ‘maximum revenue returns, the money
expended for ﬁrst cost, repairs, and the dead weight should
all three be a minimum. The outside car builder builds his
cars to sell, and is not as careful as railroad car builders are
to make the cars strong enough. Cars should be built for
reasonably long service; not so that they have to be practically
rebuilt every three or four years or else scrapped. The rail-
roads of this country have built heavy equipment—they have
heavy train service to meet. _The smaller roads have no
need for the same strength of equipment as the larger ones,
but the same car built for the light railroad service also
goes into service on the railroad’ where the heavy service
exists. rLherefore this car too, must be strong enough to stand
the service on that road. There is, in fact, a medium ground
where weight, strength, and low cost of maintenance will
meet. While excessive light weight of car means a high per
cent of possible revenue, it also often means high cost of
maintenance, as no structure subject to shock can be whittled '
down too far without increasing the liability to earlier failure
and an increased repair account. Proper car construction
calls for the happy medium.
36 ‘ CARS
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR ECONOMIES IN FREIGHT
CAR REPAIRS)“
BY MR. H. H. HARVEY, e. o. o. B. a Q. R. R.
A short time ago our secretary asked me to present a paper
for the club and I was on the point of declining on account
of anything I could prepare suﬁering by comparison with the
many excellent papers previously read before the Western
Railway Club. I
Before doing so it occurred to me. that by presenting a
paper on theabove named subject I might start something
and others who took part in the discussion would bring out
points of great value to all of us, and with this end in view
I agreed to comply with his request.
It hardly seems necessary to say anything about the
increased size of locomotives, longer trains, rougher handling
of cars in switch yards, etc., as compared with conditions only
a few years ago as you are all familiar with these changes.
Neither is it necessary to call attention to the gradual
general increase in the cost of freight car repairs or the
necessity for economy in everything pertaining to the opera-
tion of our railroad, as you are all familiar with this also
and are no doubt making special efforts to keep expenses down
to a minimum in your particular department.
So far as the freight car repair problem is concerned one
of the most important questions at the present time is to get
rid of short draft timbers extending only to body bolster and
secured to draft sills by only about four seven-eighth or one-
inch bolts. Cars so equipped are not safe to handle in the
heavy tonnage trains in general use on all of our larger trunk
lines, and if owners wish to continue them in service, they
should placard them and keep them on their own rails regard-
less of the capacity of the cars.
Only recently I saw a box car that had been given heavy
general repairs, repainted and made practically new above
sills, and it had six ﬁve by eight longitudinal sills, with short‘

‘From a paper read before The Western Railway Club.
CARS ' 37
draft timbers depending entirely on the vertical bolts with
which they were attached to draft sills.
Work of this kind is not economical, nor is it safe, and
it should be discouraged in every possible way.
This, however, is not what I had in mind, but it is such
a good example of what should not be done that I cannot
forego the opportunity of mentioning it.
Many economical practices in freight car repairs have been
brought out in the past few years and would invite your
attention to some that have come to my notice. ‘
Before mentioning them I wish to state that few if any
of them are original with me and that most of them are in
quite general use on various roads, but they will‘ serve as
reminders to bring out others.
(1) Welding or piecing out old bolts. Bolts 78-inch and
over in diameter can be welded or pieced out to any desired
length under a Bradley hammer at a saving of at least $15.00
per thousand bolts and will give satisfactory service. '
(2) Old leg-inch truss rods from dismantled cars may
be made into brake shafts by upsetting lower end and trueing .
up drum under hammer, and drawing upper end down to
proper size for ratchet wheel for a distance of about four feet.
This makes a good stiﬁ shaft, at a' considerable saving over
cost when made of'new iron.
(3) Column bolts for arch bar trucks may be made from
old 13/8-inch body truss rods, by upsetting the two ends about
four or ﬁve inches, trueing up under a hammer and leaving
center of bolt 1% inches.
(4) Old 1%-inch truss rods from dismantled cars may
be hammered down under a Bradley hammer into 2x1/2 inches
ﬂat, 1 inch, 1%, inch or 1% inch round, at a saving from
$5.00 to $12.00 per ton over new iron. This of course, does
not apply where roads have their own rolling mill.
(5) Coupler pockets cracked or broken at rivet holes
may be pieced out at considerable saving.
(6) Coupler pockets may be made from old arch bars
from dismantled cars.
(7 )7 Draft springs that have taken a permanent set may
be heated, stretched to proper length and retempered.
38 " CARS
(8) Flanges may‘ be sheared from old truck channels,
and the‘web made into plates for strengthening wooden draft
sills between end sill and body bolster.
(9) Brake shafts from dismantled box and stock cars
may be cut off and made into shafts for coal and ﬂat cars.
(10) Brake rod jaws from dismantled cars may be cut
off and used in making'rods for repair work.
(11) Metal brake beams from dismantled cars may be
used for repair work on system light capacity cars, or in
changing from wood to metal beains. ,
(12) Very good brake beam hanger supports may be
made from old arch bars, which, when riveted to channel
type spring plank make an economical way to change from
outside to inside hung brakes.
(13) Many malleable castings may be replaced with
forgings or pressings ‘made from scrap at shops, at a less
cost than price of malleable; carlin pockets are a good
example of this. '
(14) Old wrought iron‘ body ‘bolsters may be sheared to
size and made into deadwood plates, carrier irons, tie straps
and many other things. ,
(15) A very good bottom brake shaft support may be'
made from old arch bar tie straps.
(16) The good part of broken sills, and good sills from
dismantled cars may be made into sill splices, at a saving
of about one dollar per splice.
(17) The bottom two-thirds of short pieces of second-
hand sills can be used in making running board saddles,
grain strips, blind girth, cripple posts, etc.
(18) Lining from dismantled cars, if carefully removed,
can be used in repairing other cars.
(19) Lower course of roof boards from dismantled ,_ cars
can, if carefully removed, be used in repair work.
(20) Good sheathing on dismantled cars, if carefully
removed, may be used below side and end doors, in making
end doors for repair work, also for sheathing on bunk and
company service cars.
CARS 39
(21). If a'road uses grain door nailing strips on inside
of side door posts, old ﬂooring from dismantled cars may be
used to good advantage in making these strips. I
(22) Oak carlins from dismantled cars can be made into
ﬁrst-class outside cross braces for side doors.
(23) Good second-hand brasses may be rebored alnd
relined at considerable saving; if ﬁlled brasses are used it is
often necessary only to rebore them.
(24) Second-hand nuts, if promptly picked up from
around repair tracks, can usually be reclaimed by simply
giving them an oil bath.
(25) It pays to remove nuts from broken stub ends of
bolts by hand, rather than in a‘ machine.
(26) Cracks in ﬂoors of box cars can be calked with
oakum and much ﬂooring saved.
(27) Use 'ﬁooring not to exceed six inches in width in
box cars and avoid renewal account of shrinkage cracks that
will cause leakage of small grain.
(28) Use plates at least three inches square under verti-
cal rod heads at side plate, also under heads of bolts going
through sills to prevent them pulling down into plate and sills.
This only applies to cars with wooden sills and plates.
(29) The ends of old box cars may be greatly strength-
ened by applying leg-inch end lining, extending from corner
post to corner post. Many grain leaks may be avoided by
ﬁtting this lining tight to ﬂoor and at girth.
The road with which I am connected has found it a good
proposition to build at their own shops from ﬁve to seven
hundred stock cars per year to use up good material from
dismantled cars, which would otherwise have been sold as
scrap. -
These are 36-foot ears with steel center sills, treated
intermediate and side sills, and in practically all cases we
have been able to use second-hand material in their construc-
tion, with the exception of the lumber, steel sills, post pockets,
brasses, bolts, etc.
This second-hand “material is carefully inspected, worked
over and worn parts removed, so' that cars are just as good
as if all new material had been used in their construction.
40 , CARS
In closing, I. again want to mention that many of these
practices are in general use, and no claim is made for any-
thing original.
SECTION II.
CAR MATERIAL.
Car material may be divided into three general classes: ,,
A. Metallic—made of various metals.
B. Composite—made up of various compositions, with or
without the use of metals. '
C. Wooden—made from lumber.
The value, desirability, and availability of all such mate-v
rial for use in cars depend ‘upon its: (1) Durability;
(2) Strength; (3) Comparative economy, and, (4) Adapta-
bility to the use intended. '
The stresses or strains to which materials used in con-
struction are subject, may be classiﬁed as those of: Tension,
tending to pull material apart; Compression, tending to com-
press or crush it, and Torsion, tending to twist it. The strength
of the material, as concerns the ﬁrst, is called its Tensile
Strength, or the number of pounds per square inch of cross-
section that is required to pull apart a specimen of a mate-
rial. By itself, it is by no means a safe guide for indicating
the value or quality of, say, a steel or an iron; and as to that,
even tensile strength and ductility combined are not con-
clusive proof of good steel, as so many other elements enter
in, to affect the quality. The Tensile Strength may be varied
.at will by the maker, from very soft to hard, in any of the
grades, and without much difference in the expense, simply
by the amount of the carbon allowed to remain in the steel.
The diﬁerence in the expense comes in, in the character of
the stock used, vand the care and time taken in melting down
and reﬁningthe metal, so as to give it density, homogeneity,
and body—those points which show up in a long life of hard
service. Still, it is of the ﬁrst importance, and especially
with metals, the Tensile Strength is always given by the
manufacturer, or is ascertained for the Car Department by
the Purchasing Agent, or by appropriate tests.
The principal car ‘materials are lumber, steel, forgings,
hardware stock, paint, hairfelt, piping, airbrake hose, etc.
\
CARS 41
Where the M. C. B. Assn. has thus far prescribed standards
for any such material, only such standard material should be
used in car construction. Paint is treated of, ‘in this book, as
a separate chapter; whilst M. C. B. airbrake hose is treated
of fully in Chapter vIX. Besides the costs of car parts, the
code of MIC. B. Rules in the supplement to this book also gives
the standard cost of all car material in common use. This
is useful for purposes of cost-comparison for car builders
having to do with home cars, besides its ofﬁcial value in esti-
mating and billing costs of repairs on foreign cars.
When using material for repairs to foreign cars for which
.the M. C. B. Assn. has adopted speciﬁcations as a standard,
the material must comply with the requirements of those speci-
ﬁcations. “Any company repairing foreign cars with wrong
material (and not in compliance with M. C. B. Rules 17 to 27,
inclusive) shall be liable to the owners (of the car) for the
cost of changing such car to the original standard,” is also
a requirement of the M. C. B. Assn. This last would be a
costly mistake to make, in many case, and hence the need
of familiarity with both this and present M. C. B. material-
standards.
METALS.
The metals commonly used in car construction‘ may be
divided into: Steels, Irons, Composite Metals, and other
Simple Metals. The Steels include: Structural, Forgings,
Castings, Pressed Shapes, Mild, Rivet, Spring, and Sheet or
Plate Steel. The Irons include: Malleable Castings, Wrought
Iron, Chilled Cast Iron, Reﬁned Merchant Bar, and special
irons such as galvanized, corrugated, sheet, etc. The Com-
posite Metals comprise journal-box brasses, other bearings,
brass, and a variety of other metallic compounds for orna-
ments, car-step treads, ﬂoors, roofs, and other parts of cars,
particularly passenger cars. Other metals used are tin, lead,
copper wire of different degrees of hardness and ductility, etc.
These materials come in a great variety of shapes for
car use, including hundreds of patented car parts and devices,
with a great number of special castings and pressed steel
shapes designed for use as bolsters, platforms, girders, etc.
The most common are: Angles, Channels, I-beams, T-beams,
42 CARS
Z-bars, Bolts, Flat (thin or sheets; thicker or plates), Sheath;
ing, Paneling, Interior Finish, etc. M. C. B. Rule 17 allows
the substitution of malleable iron standards for grey iron
standards, M. C. B., and vice versa. With steel, however,
M. C. B. standards plainly prescribe the kind of steel to be
used and its chemical composition; and these standards must
be rigidly adhered to for steels, owing to the fact that steel
members of a car are nearly always the most important parts
of a car, and beneath the car ﬂoor, the steel used must be
standard.
Metallic sheathing is coming into increased use in cars,
both steel and wooden. It makes an attractive exterior, pro;
vides cellular air-chamber insulation, is easily renewed in
sections, is ﬁreproof and durable, and reduces cost of main-
tenance. On all-steel or semi-steel passenger cars, steel
interior ﬁnish will soon be the- general rule. Various manu-
facturers already make specialties of it, furnishing it in many
pleasing and elegantly ﬁnished forms, including doors, seats,
and window frames for passenger cars.
Steel sheet and plate material now form a large part of
the stock in shops, and when formed and pressed, are of great
use. Such material must possess the qualities of: Strength,
ductility, durability, general workability, and low cost. If
possible, they should be so constituted or artiﬁcially protected
as to be both anti-corrosive and rust-inhibitive (rust-resisting),
to insure long life. Black, painted, galvanized or otherwise
plated sheets, sometimes specially faced, are available for the
last named qualities, coming in ﬂat, corrugated, and other
forms. Some steel sheets resist corrosion less than good iron
ones do; and of course the value of a galvanized sheet is
superior to one of plain iron or steel exposed to the elements.
In theory, all car metals should be thoroughly tested at
the car shops where they are received, to avoid frauds, substi-
tutions, and subsequent and unexpected car weaknesses.
However, few shops have even the simplest testing apparatus;
a testing plant being an expensive affair to purchase and
operate, and the expert services required being costly. For
this reason, tests are generally made at the manufacturer’s by
an inspector employed by the railroad purchasing material,
CARS 43
‘under conditions and speciﬁcations mutually agreed upon and
duly set forth in their contracts. The United States Govern-
ment in its Speciﬁcations for Postal Cars requires that:
“The physical and chemical properties of all material used
in the car framing shall be in accordance with the latest
Standard Speciﬁcations of the American Society for Testing
Materials . . .” as regards structural steel, steel plates,
shapes and bars; for wrought iron, iron bars, iron plates,
steel castings, malleable castings, and for grey-iron castings.
The M. C. B. Assn. has prescribedstandards for the mate-
rial, especially metal, used in many parts of both freight and
passenger cars, above all in the underframing, draft gear,
couplers, etc., as will be seen later on in this book; appropriate
tests therefor being also provided. Besides these‘ speciﬁcations
and tests for Air Brake Hose, heat treated knuckle pivot pins,
etc.,‘the following are the M. C. B. standards for Welded Pipe,
Wrought Iron Bars, and Steel and Iron Chain—those for
other metal materials being given herein under the headings
.to.-which they naturally belong:
PIPE, WELDED, SPECIFICATIONS FOR. RECOMMENDED PRACTICE. -
I. MANUFACTURE.
1. Process—(a) Steel used in the manufacture of pipe
shall be of a soft, weldable quality made by the Bessemer
process.
(b) The wrought iron used in the manufacture of pipe
shall be double-reﬁned. . v
(c) All pipe 2 in. nominal diameter or under may be butt-
welded, but all pipe larger shall be lap-welded.
II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS.
2‘. Tension'Test—‘The material shall conform to the follow-
ing minimum requirements as to tensile properties:


Steel. W. 'I.
Tensile strength, lb. per sq. in . . . . . . . 50,000 45,000
Elastic limit, lb. per sq. m . . . . . . . . . . 30,000 . . . . . . . . . .
Elongation in 8 inches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 12'


f <—
44 CARS
3. Hydrostatic. Tests-E-All pipe shall be tested to the fol-
[lowing hydrostatic pressures: , _.


Standard Grade Pipe. Extra Strong Pipe.
Single Thickness. Double Thickness.
Size ‘
Butt Lap Butt Lap
% 700 . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 . . . . . . . . . . . .
M 700 . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 . . . . . . . . . . . .
% 700 . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1/2 700 . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 00 . . . . . . . . . . . .
% 700 _ . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 00 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 700 . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1% 700 , . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1%, 700 1,000 1,500 2,500
2 700 1,000 1,500 2,500
- 2% . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
3 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 . . . . .. 2,000
3% . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
4 . . . . . . . . . . . .' 1,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000


4. Flattening Test—A section of pipe 6 in. long shall be
placed in a compression machine with the weld at the top
and ﬂattened until the distance between the plates of the
machine is ,60 per cent of original external diameter for
wrought iron and 25 per cent for steel pipe. The pipe shall
not show any opening, except that opening of the weld will
not be considered cause for rejection.
5. Bend Test—A sufficient length of pipe to be bent cold
180 deg. around a mandrel the diameter of which is 18 times
the nominal diameter of the pipe without any opening of
weld or cracks in any portion of pipe.
6. Test Specimens—Test specimens shall consist of sec-I
tions cut froma pipe; they shall be smooth on the end and
free from burrs.
7. Number of Tests—One of each of the above tests shall
be made from each diameter of pipe for each 2,000 ft. or less.
III. WEIGHTS. ‘ .
8. Weights—The standard weights for pipes of various
- inside diameters are as follows:
i
CARS 45


Standard Grade Pipe Extra Strong Pipe
Single Thickness Double Thickness
Wgight' of Weight of
Nominal Outside L112: Qutside Pipe £1” N f
Diameter, Diameter, threaded Dla'meter' Lm'. t" Tho’ 0d
In. In. with In‘ Flam ma 8
‘ Couplings Ends
% . 405 . 25 . 405 . 31 27
% . 540 . 43 . 540 . 54 18
%‘ . 675 .57 . 675 . 74 18
% . 840 . 85 . 840 1 . 09 14
34 1.050 1.13 1.050 1.47 14
1 1.315 1.68 1.315 2.17 11%
1% 1.660 2.28 1.660 3.00 11%
1% 1.900 2.73 1.900 3.63 11%
2 2.375 3.68 2.375 5.02 11%
2% 2.875 5.82 2.875 7.66 8
3 3.500 7.62 3.500 10.25 8
3% 4.000 9.20 4.000 12.51 8
4 4.500 10.89 4.500 14.98 8


Ten per cent of each lot shall be weighed and a comparison '
made with the sample. All pipe shall be rejected that varies
more than 5 per cent from that given in the above table.
IV. WORKMAN SHIP AND FINISH.
9. workmanship—The ﬁnished pipes shall be circular
within 0.002 in. All pipe shall be provided with the prevailing
standard thread, which will make a tight joint when tested
to the internal hydrostatic pressure at the mills. The threads
shall not vary more than one and one-half turns either way
when tested with a Pratt and Whitney standard gauge. All
burrs at the end shall be removed. _, .
(b) Couplings—Each pipe shall be provided with a stand-
ard coupling, having clean-cut threads tapped straight through
and of such a pitch diameter that will make a tight joint.
Coupling may be wrought iron or steel. ‘
10. Finish—The ﬁnished pipe shall be reasonably straight
and free from injurious defects. 9’
46 oaRs
v. INSPECTION AND REJECTION.
11. Inspection—(a) The inspector representing the pur- ,
chaser shall have free entry, at all times while work on the
contract of the purchaser is being performed, to all parts of
the manufacturer’s works which concern the manufacture of
the material ordered. The manufacturer shall aﬁord the
inspector, free of cost, all reasonable facilities to satisfy him
that the material is being furnished in accordance with these
speciﬁcations. . l I .
(b) The purchaser may make the tests to govern the
acceptance or rejection of the material in his own laboratory
or elsewhere. Such tests, however, shall be made at the
expense of the purchaser.
(c) All tests and inspection shall be so conducted as not
to interfere unnecessarily with the operation of the works. '
12. Rejection—Material which, subsequently to above tests
at the mills or elsewhere, and its acceptance develops weak
spots, cracks or imperfections, or is found to have injurious
defects, will be rejected and shall be replaced by the manufac-
turer at his own expense. ’
13. Rehearing—Samples tested in accordance with this
speciﬁcation, which represent rejected material, shall be pre-
served for 14 days from date of test report. In case of dissat-
isfaction with results of tests, the manufacturer may make
claim for a rehearing within that time.
WROUGI-IT IRON BARS REFINED, SPECIFICATIONS F OR. RECOMMENDED
PRACTICE.
I. MANUFACTURE.
1. Process—The ﬁnished product shall consist either of
new muck-bar iron or a mixture of muck-bar iron and scrap,
but shall be” free from any admixture of steel. Muck bars
shall be made wholly from puddled iron.
II. .PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS.
2. Tension Tests—Unless otherwise speciﬁed, the ‘iron
shall conform to the following requirements as to tensile
properties:
CARS 47
Tensile strength, lbs. per sq. in. . . .47,000—53,000
Elongation in 8 in., minimum per cent . . . . . . . ..22
3 _Permissible Variation in Physical Properttes—(a)Ten-
sile Strength—Large sections reduced or ﬂats and rounds
of W, in. or under may show a tensile strength of 45,000—
52,000 lb. per sq. in. '
(b) Elongation—Twenty per cent of the test specimens
representing one size may show the following percentage of
elongation in 8 in.:
1A in. or over, tested as rolled . . . . . . . .20 per cent
Under ll/z in., tested as rolled . . . . . . . . .16 per cent
Reduced by‘ machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 per cent
Flat Bars:
. 3/8 in. or over, tested as rolled . . . . . . . .18 per cent
Under ‘Y8 in., tested as rolled . . . . . . . .16 per cent
RedtTced by machining . . . . . . . . .~. . . . . .16 per cent
4. Bend Tests—(a) Gold-bend Test—For round, square
and hexagon bars under 2 sq. in. in section, and for ﬂats less
than % in. thick, shall bend cold around a pin the diameter
of which 'is equal to the diameter or thickness of the speci-
men. For rounds, ﬂats and hexagon bars, 2 sq. in. or over
in section, and for all ﬂat bars over % in. in thickness, around
a pin the diameter of which is equal to twice the diameter
or thickness of the specimen.
('b) ,Hot-bend Test—The test specimen, when heated to
a temperature between 1,700 and 1,800 deg. F. (light cherry
red), shall bend through 180 deg. without fracture on the
outside of the bent portion, as follows: For round, ﬂat and
hexagon bars under 2 sq. in. in section, ﬂat on itself; for
round, ﬂat and. hexagon bars 2 sq. in. and over in section,
around a pin the diameter of which is equal to the diameter
or thickness of the specimen.
(c) Nick-bend Test—The test specimen, when nicked
25 per cent around the round bar, and along one side for ﬂat
bars, with a tool having a 60-deg. cutting edge, to a depth
of not less than 8 or more than 16 per cent of the diameter
or thickness I of the specimen, and broken, shall not show
48 CARS
more than 10 per cent of the fractured surface to be crystal-
line.
5. Test Specimen—Tension and bend test specimens shall
be of the full section of material as rolled, if possible, other-
wise the specimens shall be machined from vthe material as
‘rolled; the axis of the machined specimen shall be located
at any point one-half the distance from the center to the
surface of round bars, or from the center to the edge of ﬂat
bars, and shall be parallel to the axis of the bar.
6. Number of Tests—(a) All bars of one .size shall be
piled separately. One bar from each 200 or less shall be
selected at random and tested as speciﬁed.
(b) If any test specimen from the bar originally selected
to represent a lot of material contains surface defects not
visible before testing, but visible after testing, or if a tension~
test specimen breaks outside the middle third of the gauge
length, one retest from a bar will be allowed. ' ‘
III. PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS IN GAUGE.
7 Permissible Variations—(a) Round bars. shall con-
form to the standard M. C. B. limit gages. _
(b) Flat Bars—Thickness shall not vary more than cor-
responding diameter for rounds: thus, 1 in. thick could vary
from 0.9905 to 1.0095 in.
(1) Sizes under 3 in. wide shall not be more than ,1, in.
under or over size in width.
(2) Sizes 3 in. and over shall'not be under size or more
than 1’; in. wider than ordered.
IV. FINISH.
8. Finish—The bars shall be smoothly rolled and free
from slivers, depressions, seams, crop ends, and evidences of
being burned.
V. INSPECTION AND REJECTION.
9. Inspection—(a) The inspector representing the pur-
chaser shall have free entry, at all times while work on the
contract of the purchaser is being performed, to all parts of
the manufacturer’s works which concern the manufacture of
the material ordered. The manufacturer shall afford the
CARS V 49
inspector, free of cost, all reasonable facilities to satisfy him
that the material is being furnished in accordance with these
speciﬁcations. '
(b) The purchaser may make the tests to govern the
acceptance or rejection of the material in his own laboratory
or elsewhere. Such tests, however, shall be made at the
expense of the purchaser.
(c) All tests and inspection shall be so conducted as not
to interfere unnecessarily with the operation of the works.
10. Rejection—Material which, subsequently to the above
tests at the mills or elsewhere, and its acceptance, develops
weak spots, cracks or imperfections, or is found to have
injurious defects, shall be rejected and shall be replaced by
the manufacturer at his own expense.
11. Rehearing—Samples tested in accordance with this
speciﬁcation, which represent rejected material, shall be , pre-
served for 14 days from date of test report. In case of
dissatisfaction with results of tests, the manufacturer may
make claim for a rehearing. within that time.
CHAIN, SPECIFICATIONS FOR. RECOMMENDED PRACTICE.
I. MANUFACTURE.
,1. Process—The chain may be made of either iron or soft
steel. Chain {g in. in diameter or less may have links twisted,
if so speciﬁed on the order; all other sizes shall have straight
links.
II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS.
2. Proof Test—All chain shall be proof-tested in ‘accord-
ance with Table No. 1 and shall stand these loads without
deformation. The manufacturer shall furnish a certiﬁcate of
proof test to the purchaser or his representative.
4. Tensile Test—A piece of chain 2 ft. long will be taken
from every 200 ft. or less of each size presented for shipment
and tested to destruction in accordance with Table No. 1.
5. Length—The length of 100 links, inside to inside of
end links, shall not exceed by more than 2 per cent the ﬁgures
given in Table No. 1.
50 CARS

TABLE No.1
{3 , STEEL CHAIN IRON CHAIN
E :5 Maxi-
"531-1 mum Wt. m
2% L565" ii‘? Min. Min. Min. Min.
g3 Link Lb'_’ Proof Break- Elon- Proof Break- Elon-
.,a In _ Test gaitgn, Test Vmfmg gags? ,
2° Lb'.’ Cent. Lb'.’ Cent.
% 102.0 0.75 1,050 8,800 12 1,400 2,800. 8
‘lie 114.7 1.00 3,000 6,000 12 2,500 5,000 8
% 114.7 1.50 4,000 8,000 12 8,400 0,800 8
"/16 127.5 2.00 5,500 11,000 15 4,650 9,300 10
1/2 153.0 2.50. 7,000 14,000 15 6,000 12,000 10
% 178.5 4.10 11,000 22,000 15 9,250 18,500 10
% 204.0 0.00 10,000 82,000 15 18,500 27,000 10
% 255.0 8.00 22,000 44,000 15 18,500 87,000 10 v
1 280.5 10.00 29,000 ‘58,000 15 24,500 49,000 10,
1% 808.0 13.00 80,000 72,000 15 80,500 01,000 10
1% 858.5 10.00144,000 88,000 15 82,000 74,500 10
1% 420.0 22.00 02,500 125,000 15 58,000 100,000 10
1% 479.7 ‘30.00 90,100 180,820 15 75,000 150,000 10
2 555.5 40.00 110,000 220,000 15 98,500 187,000 10


6.
7.
Weight—The average weight‘ per ft. shall not exceed
that given. in Table No. 1 and shall not vary more than 8 per
cent below. '
Workmansht'p—All chain shall be free from links that
III.
WORKNIANSHIP AND’ FINISH.
have been burned or overheated, or show cracks~ or ﬂaws,
whether caused by welding, bending, forging, overlapping, or
due to handling of original material in manufacture.
8. Finish—All chain shall have a smooth, workmanlike
ﬁnish, and the diameter of the bar at the welds shall not be
perceptibly larger or smaller than the bar. 7'
9. Paint—Chains shall not be painted before inspection.
1v. INSPECTION AND R-EJECTION.
10. Inspection—(a)
chaser shall have. free entry, at all times while work on the
contract‘ of the purchaser is being performed, to all parts of
The inspector representing the pur- ‘
CARS ’ -' 51
the manufacturer's works which concern the manufacture of
the material ordered. The manufacturer shall afford the
inspector, free of cost, all reasonable facilities to satisfy him
that the material is being furnished in accordance with these
speciﬁcations. I
(b) The purchaser may make the tests to govern the
acceptance or rejection of the material in his own laboratory
or 'elsewhere. Such tests, however, shall be made at the
expense ‘of the purchaser.
(c) All tests and inspection shall be so conducted as not
to interfere unnecessarily with the operation of the works.
11. Rejection—Material which, subsequently to the above
tests at the mills or elsewhere, and its acceptance, develops
weakness or imperfections, or is found to have injurious
defects, will be rejected and shall be replaced by the manu~
facturer at his own expense.
12. Rehearing—Samples tested in ‘accordance with this
speciﬁcation, which represent rejected material, shall be pre-
served for 14 days from date of test report. In case of dissat~
isfaction with results of tests, the manufacturer may make
claim for a rehearing within that time.
The Association also has now under consideration the
adoption of standards for the following: Elliptical Springs;
Refrigerator-Car Insulating Materials; Galvanized Sheets;
Malleable Iron Castings; Steel Castings; Rivet Steel and
Rivets; Mild Steel Bars; Steel Plates and Structural Steel.
In default of such data for steel, the following are the
Standard Speciﬁcations of Manufacturers, adopted by The
Association of American Steel Manufacturers:
Special Open-Hearth Plate and Rivet Steel.
Testing and Inspection—All tests and inspections shall be
made at the place of manufacture prior to shipment. The
tensile strength, limit of elasticity and ductility shall be
determined from a standard test piece cut from the ﬁnished
52 " ‘ CARS
material. The standard shape of the test piece for sheared
plates shall be as shown by the following sketch: (Fig. 1).

is’
‘i
,Ahcmél $1.-.- Bannister .... _. .
5 ,9 Not less than?’
:£ t r -O?
opgoooxjéoo AW!’
.——r ‘z ; g A. boo-3
0.-.”... ..J

Pleatobeofsamethicknesasthephte
Specimen fﬁirg'Tlest of Steel. ._
0n tests cut from other material the test piece may be
either the ‘same as for sheared plates, or it may be planed
or turned parallel throughout its entire length, and in all
cases where possible, two opposite sides of the test piece
shall be the rolled surfaces. The elongation shall be meas-
ured on an original length of 8 inches, except as speciﬁed.
Rivet rounds and small bars shall be tested of full size as
rolled. Four test pieces shall be taken from each melt of
ﬁnished material, two'for tension and two for bending; but in
case either test develops ﬂaws, or the tensile piece breaks out-
side of the middle third of its gauged length, it may be dis-
carded and another test piece substituted therefor.
Annealed Test Pieces—Material which is to be used with-
out annealing or further treatment shall be tested in the
condition in which it comes from the rolls. When material
is to be annealed or otherwise treated before use, the speci-
men representing such material shall be similarly treated
before testing. Every ﬁnished piece of steel shall be stamped
with the melt number. Rivet steel may be shipped in bundles
securely wired together, with the melt number on a metal
tag attached. All plates shall be free from injurious surface
‘defects and have a workmanlike ﬁnish. Flange or Boiler
Steel: Maximum Phosphorus,_ .06 per cent. Maximum Sul-
phur, .04 per cent.
Physical Properties—Special Open-hearth Plate and Rivet
Steel shall be of three grades: Extra Soft, Fire Box, and
Flange or Boiler Steel.
Fire Bow Steel—Ultimate strength, 52,000 to 62,000 pounds
per square inch. Elastic limit, not less than one-half the
CARS 53
ultimate strength. Elongation, 26 per cent. Cold and Quench
bends, 180 degrees ﬂat on itself, without fracture on outside
of bent portion. '
Flange or Boiler Steel—Ultimate strength, 55,000 to 65,000
pounds per square inch. Elastic limit, not less than one-half
the ultimate strength. Elongation, 25 per cent. Cold and
Quench bends, 180 degrees ﬂat on itself, without fracture on
outside of bent portion.
Boiler Rivet Steel—Steel for Boiler Rivets shall be made
of extra soft grade. \
Modiﬁcations in Elongation for Thin and Thick Material—
For material less than 153' inch, and more than 5.5, inch in
thickness, the following modiﬁcations shall be made in the
‘requirements for elongation: ~ .
Extra Soft Steel. Ultimate strength, 55,000 lbs. per sq. in.
Elastic Limit, not less than % the ultimate strength. Elonga-
tion, 28 per cent. Cold and Quench Bends,,180 degrees ﬂat
on itself, without fracture on outside of bent portion.
Flange or Boiler Steel: Ultimate Strength, 55,000 to
65,000 lbs. per sq. in. Elastic Limit, not less than % the
ultimate strength. Elongation, 25 per cent. Cold and Quench
Bends, 180 degrees ﬂat on itself, without fracture on outside
of bent portion.
Variation in Weight—The variation in cross-section or
weight of more than 2% per cent from that speciﬁed will be
sufficient cause for rejection, except in thecase of sheared
plates, which‘ will be covered by the following permissible
variations: Plates 12% pounds per square foot or heavier,
up to 100 inches wide, when ordered to weight, shall not
average more than 2% per cent variation above or 2% per
cent below the theoretical weight. When 100 inches wide
and over, 5 per cent above or 5 per cent below the theoretical
weight. Plates under 12% pounds per square foot, when
ordered to weight, shall not average a greater variation than
the following: Up to 75 inches wide, 2% per cent above or
2% per cent below the theoretical weight; 75 inches wide up
to 100 inches wide, 5 per cent above or 3 per cent below the
theoretical weight. When 100 inches wide and over, 10 per
cent above or 3 per cent below the theoretical weight.
54 CARS
Structural Steel—Steel may be made by either the open-
hearth or Bessemer process. All tests shall be made at the
place of manufacture prior to shipment. The tensile strength,
limit of elasticity, and ductility, shall be determined from
a standard test piece cut from the ﬁnished material. The
standard shape of the test piece for sheared plates shall be
as shown by the following sketch (Fig. 2):

,8"
,About 3' .S,,___ ._.B.=!.alls!..$.=.¢1i_°.'!-.__
' Not less than 9'
o& I _ - r‘‘'}
0 2 Q Q Q Q ' Q J ; 2 ' ~———---*
liii'if‘iréifém-iatnw.


Piece to be of same thickners as the .
Fig. 2.
Specimen for Test of Steel. _
On tests cut from other material the test piece may be
either the same as for sheared plates, or it may be planed
or turned parallel throughout its entire length, and in all
cases where possible, two opposite sides of the test piece
shall be the rolled surfaces. The elongation shall be meas-
ured on an original length of 8 inches, except as modiﬁed
otherwise. _Rivet rounds and small bars shall be tested of
full size as rolled. Two test pieces shall be taken from each
melt or blow of ﬁnished material, one for tension and one
for bending; but in case either test develop ﬂaws, or the
tensile test piece breaks outside of the middle third of its
gauged length, it may be discarded and another test piece
substituted therefor. Material which is to be used without
annealing or further treatment shall be tested in the condition
in which it comes from the rolls. When material is to be
annealed or otherwise. treated before use, the specimen rep-
resenting such material shall be' similarly treated before
testing. Marking: Every ﬁnished piece of steel shall be
stamped with the blow or melt number stamped on'the ends.
Rivet and lacing steel, and small pieces for pin plates and
stiﬁeners, may be shipped in bundles securely wired together,
with the blow or melt number on a metal tag attached..
Finished bars shall be free from injurious seams,’ ﬂaws or
cracks, and have a workmanlike ﬁnish. Maximum Phos-
CARS 55
phorus allowed: .08 per cent. Structural Steel shall be of
three grades: Rivet, Railway Bridge, and Medium.
Steel for Railway Bridges—Ultimate strength, 55,000 to
65,000 lbs. per sq. in. Elastic Limit, not less than % the
ultimate strength. Bending Test (same as for open-hearth
steel). Medium Steel: Ultimate Strength, 60,000 to 70,000
lbs. per sq. in. Elastic Limit, not less than % the ultimate
strength. Bending Test, same as above.
Variation in Weight—~The variation in cross-section or
weight of more than 2% per cent from that speciﬁed will be
suﬁicient cause for rejection, except in the case of sheared‘
plates, which will be covered by the following permissible
variations: Plates 12% pounds per square foot or heavier,
up to 100 inches wide, when ordered to weight, shall not
average more than 2% per cent variation above or 2% per
cent below the theoretical weight. When 100 inches wide
and over, 5 per cent above ‘or 5 per cent‘below the theoretical
weight. Plates under 12% pounds per square foot, when
ordered to weight, shall not average a greater variation than
the following: Up to 75 inches wide, 2% per cent above or
2% per cent below the theoretical weight; 75 inches wide
up to 100 inches wide, 5 per cent above or 3-per cent below
the theoretical weight. When 100 inches wide and over,
' 10 per cent above or 3 per cent below the theoretical weight.
Structural O'ast- Iron—Except when chilled iron is speci—
ﬁed, all castings shall be of tough gray iron, free from
injurious cold-shuts or blow-holes, true to pattern, and of a
workmanlike ﬁnish. Sample pieces one inch square, cast
from the same heat of metal in sand moulds, shall be capable
of sustaining on a clear span of 4 feet 8 inches a central .
load of 500 pounds when tested in the rough bar.
with both iron and steel car parts, resistance to corrosion
is an important feature, especially as regards sheets and
plates, and a proper understanding of the causes of metallic
decay through rust and corrosion, is here quite necessary.
After the era of Old Time Irons came‘ the Bessemer and
Open Hearth processes, and soft or mild steel was added to
the catalogue of car metals. The wonderful improvement
in toughness, ductility, and strength caused the appreciation
56 ‘ CARS
of these products to be tempered by the realization that these
virtues had been gained, by the sacriﬁce of some of that
necessary quality—durability. Nothing will emphasize a or
illustrate to a greater degree the desire to get maximum ton-
nage at minimum cost than. the decadence in quality when
comparing the old time hand irons with the modern metals,
shot through from one process to the other, with the metal
often in a constantly distorted state. The consequent strains
have their inevitable result in the tendency of the metal to
rapidly. disintegrate under corrosive inﬂuences. After all
these years of research and of improved metallurgy of iron
and steel, no product made from iron ore and containing 99
or more per cent of elemental iron is rust-proof. Rust itself
represents the union of the iron with the oxygen of the air,
thus forming iron oxide or rust. Iron ore, from which all ‘
iron or steel is derived, is iron oxide in its natural state.
This is rusting; whereas corrosion is not the even surface
formation of oxide, but the isolated and localized disintegra-
tion of the metal which we sometimes term “pitting.” The
old time irons did not corrode; they rusted. No one can
reasonably expect to get a ferrous metal free from rusting.
This rusting can, however, be largely prevented by a protec-
tive coating. ,
The theory of chemical electrolysis has never been dis-
proved. According to this well established theory, corrosion
is due to the electrolytic action taking place between segrega-
tions, which are groups of impurities scattered through the
metal. In ordinary iron and steel sheets the metallic impuri-
ties represent a percentage varying from .40 per cent to 1.25
. per cent, and in addition this high percentage of impurities
will be found collected in groups rather than uniformly
diffused throughout the sheet. Toncan metal has a
small percentage of metallic impurities; the Carbon, for
instance, rarely exceeding .01 per cent as compared with an
average of .12 to .18 per cent carbon in Steel sheets. In
addition, this small percentage of impurities is thoroughly
and uniformly diﬁused throughout the whole sheet. There
are no groups to act ,as poles, inciting the galvanic action
which occurs between a negative and a positive pole upon
CARS 57
the application of moisture. .It is owing to this action that
the material is drawn away from one spot in a sheet of high
impurity and improper workmanship, and deposited or placed
at another spot, leaving pit holes, and producing corrosion
deposits or cones, giving the sheet a “tubercular” appearance.
A metal is anti-corrosive because of its purity, care in
physical manipulation, its subjection to proper . caloriﬁc
inﬂuences, its density, and its homogeneity. All these render
it immune, practically, from the action of chemical electrolysis.
The corrosion of iron and steel, as made today, is a serious‘
problem. The problem is not only individual but general. It
necessitates frequent repairs and replacements, especially in
sheet-metal forms, although the rapid destruction of any iron
or steel product may be eliminated and its action prevented
by proper methods of manufacture. Due to this electrolytic
action, the higher the percentage of impurities in the ele-
mental iron, the greater the segregation which results, and the
greater the corrosion that covers the sheet with pits. No iron
or steel can withstand conditions which wood, stone, or por-
celain alone can endure.
Adding to sheet metal, impurities which will withstand
the action of acid, does not necessarily improve the durability
of the product, in actual railway service. It is possible, by
surface-hardening or by the addition of certain metals, to
make an iron product or one of steel, with one speciﬁc object.
in view, and that is to resist the-acid test—and the acid test
only. Still, this doping with added ingredients to make a
metal stand the Accelerated Sulphuric Acid Test, does not
prove either its durability or its ability to resist extreme
corrosive inﬂuences. Well made iron can resist it, but, after
'all, time and its experience alone can prove its durability.
The addition of other impurities is almost certain, in fact, to
greatly shorten the life of the steel or iron product. Too
much reliance should not be put by car men on the acid test,
to prove the worth of car metals.
Of course there are special causes of corrosion in railway
service, such as the salt-water drippings of refrigerator-cars
which have become such a menace to safety—through cor-
58 0.4128
rosion of bridge metals and destruction of brake-gear, etc.,——-
as to lately call for ‘serious attention from'railway men, and
for special protection by galvanizing the metals of such cars
and special rules permitting the removal of such brine only
‘at stated points. But nowadays, the amply destructive
inﬂuence of the elements is added to by the chemical-laden
air surrounding car metals, especially the sulphur found in
engine smoke and the drippings from ladings of coal con-
.taining such a large proportion of sulphur as greatly to
corrode the metals of coal cars. -
In the use and application of any iron base sheets, care
should be exercised that no connection is made with or no
metal which may be of a different elemental nature brought
‘ into contact with the iron base material. For instance, cop-
per nails driven through iron or steel rooﬁng set up a strong
galvanic action, causing early dissolution of the material in
the immediate vicinity of the nails.
Iron or steel when exposed to the air, especially if mois-
'ture'be present, unites chemically with the oxygen of the air
‘to form iron oxide or ‘iron rust as it is commonly called.
This surface coating of rust partly protects the metal beneath
it, but, being friable and-porous, if it is further exposed to
rain, etc.,¥tl_1en the underlying metal is rusted deeper, until
.in time the metal is entirely -eaten up by rust. For this
reason iron and-steel must" be provided with protective coat-
ings in order to prevent this oxidation and ensuing rust; be
" this coating composed of paint; or secured by galvanizing
the‘metal by dipping it in a.zinc bath; or electro-plating it
with nickel or other metal; or other method of surfacing
the metal. The subject of protectingsteel cars and iron and
steel car parts by paint ‘is treated of in a later chapter in this
book. However, we will say here that good sheets or plates
of iron or steel protected by any reliable surface coating will‘
give permanent results, if properly maintained, so far as rust
is concerned. Corrosion is another matter, as before stated.
Poor sheets, even though coated, will last only as long as
the coating does, causing in the end excessive labor charges
for ‘frequent replacements of such poor material.
CARS’ ‘ 59
Natural oxidation or rusting is somewhat auto-protective,
yet it is both unsightly and harmful. Absolutely pure iron
does not rust; and already certain United States ﬁrms are
making irons so relatively pure as to be guaranteed for com-
paratively long wear. Suchirons may yet become common,
but, at present, our ordinary irons rust rapidly. Therefore
we seek to avoid it by the application of a protective coating,
which is either a scientiﬁcally designed paint or a metallic
coating of zinc, tin or terne—the latter being an inferior
kind of tin-plate in which the tin used is alloyed with a
large percentage of lead. This coating of a metal with hot
zinc is termed “galvanizing” and the purer the zinc is, the
better the protection.
Zinc makes an excellent protective coating because of its
moderate cost, ease of uniform application, and general
resistance to atmospheric inﬂuences. Nickel is generally
electrically deposited on metal—this method being called
electroplating—and it forms an excellent protection.‘ How
ever, owing to its high cost and method of application, it is
conﬁned for railway use to small parts of passenger cars;
other parts of such cars being also‘ sometimes copper-plated
by the same method. Tin is generally used for domestic
utensils, leaving zinc practically the sole ﬁeld for railroad
purposes.
Thin steel sheets are somewhat soluble in molten zinc,
a portion of the steel thus dissolved in the hot bath forming
an alloy of zinc and steel, thus becoming a part of the coating
of the steel sheets afterwards dipped in the bath; thus form-
ing an alloyed coating which is much more subject to atmos-
pheric inﬂuences, rain, etc., than a pure zinc coating. Pure
metals, carefully treated, are not thus soluble in such hot
zinc baths, and only such should be used in car construction,
where the exposure, oxidation, and corrosion are the maxi-
mum because of the nature of railway service. In galvan-'
izing, only the highest grade of best western spelter (zinc)
should be used, and the thicker the coating, the longer life
the protective coating will have. The metal should ﬁrst be
carefully cleaned, by suﬂicient immersion in acidulated baths
if possible, and so manipulated in the zinc bath as to give
60 I CARS
a heavy, uniform and thorough coating, the base metal itself
being of a texture porous enough ‘to permit the spelter to bite
down deeply and coat thickly without possibility of ﬂaking
under the severest treatment in handling and fabricating.
It is usually made in sheets 2 feet wide and from 6 to 9 feet
long. 'The M. C. B. Standard for galvanized sheets should be
always required.
Regardless, however, of the coating applied to any product
made from iron ore, the life of the product depends ultimately
upon the base, because no coating is infallible, and in the
application and during the service the coating is often
impaired. A small surface defect in the coatings brings the
base into contact with atmospheric conditions, which now-
adays are acid to a relatively high degree, requiring the use
of a better base metal than needed prior to the last decade.
This emphasizes the necessity of a durable base.
Kalamined Iron is sheet iron coated ‘with an alloy of zinc,
lead, tin, and nickel in the proportion of 29 lbs. of tin, 75 lbs.
of zinc, 100 lbs. of lead, and 3 to 6 ounces of nickel. This
alloy melts at a lower temperature than. zinc, and gives a
more durable compound as" well as a thinner and more
adhesive coating. What we call Planished Iron is a substitute
for .Russia Iron, made by a secret Russian process, which
forms a‘ chemical compound of iron upon its surface at the
same time that it is highly polished, so that it is not likely
to rust.
In this connection, it may be said that the age of iron for
use in car construction is about over, and steel has now
almost entirely replaced it. This tendency was hastened by
the fact that steel can now be made quite cheaply, while
possessing the advantages of greater strength with less weight
than iron car parts. Steel braces, for instance, are as cheap
as iron ones, and are 25 per cent stronger and stiﬁer than iron
ones of the same dimensions. ~Wrought' iron axles are not
now being used with new cars; and malleable iron ‘castings
are decreasingly being used. Only the chilled cast-iron car
wheel still remains in large use, though it is necessarily also
doomed to disappear as the size of freight cars increases to
the point where iron wheels cannot stand up to the stresses
CARS ‘ 61
had, in wheel sizes now permissible; and already steel wheels
are being put under the largest freight cars now becoming
the general type for through trafﬁc.
For various car parts, many expert car builders differ as
to whether rolled steel, pressed steel, or cast steel are the
most desirable. In many cases, however, rolled or pressed
steel shapes can be used where, obviously, steel castings
cannot. Cast steel parts weigh less for other parts than
members built up of various pressed or rolled steel shapes
riveted together and carrying the same load, because the
metal in castings may be properly distributed in proportion
to stresses. In built-up construction, the metal overlaps at
the joints and this, together with the rivet-heads, makes an
additional weight which in cast construction is avoided. In
the latter, reliance is placed on a single solid member, and,
as there are no joints, there is no chance of their being
imperfect or becoming loose. The advantage in cast steel
to the car builder is also very great. To produce a platform
of the built-up type, at least 8 different classes of material
are required. This comes from 8 different manufacturers,
often located far apart, and obtaining it involves much delay,
storing, and congestion in the car plant, etc., together with
much traveling through the car shop departments for cutting,
I shaping, drilling, and so on, with the use of timing and‘
’ tracing methods, so as to have all the parts completed at the
same time.
When cast steel is used, but one material is purchased
from a single plant, only one piece is handled and that in
carload lots, and when it arrives it is immediately ready and
available for application without storage or rehandling,
facilitating completion of the car by leaving more car plant
machinery available for other work. Steel one-piece castings
are now being increasingly used, especially in passenger cars,
for body bolsters, truck bolsters, truck side frames, center
frames, end frames, and combined platforms and double body
bolsters. As regards its qualities, the authoritative United
States Government Speciﬁcations for Postal. Cars prescribes,
for instance, that for sills and car framing, cast steel may
be used instead of rolled steel with the same allowable stress
62 _ " CARS
limits except for tension stress, which must be at least 20
per cent less than those allowed for rolled steel.
These same Speciﬁcations permit the use of cast steel for
parts of the car underframe, and direct that all rolled steel
plates or shapes used in the framing are to be made by the
open hearth process; and permit the use of cast steel, rolled
steel, pressed steel, or built-up construction for end sills or
center sills. Draft sills maybe cast steel; body bolsters, either
of cast steel or of built-up construction. As to whether rolled
or pressed steel parts should be used for certain car parts,
car men' differ. - Standard sections of rolled material cannot
always be secured from the manufacturers on short notice;
and -many claim that pressed steel posts and braces, for
example, are lighter per unit of strength, because they can
be formed to the required shape, and can be formed with
- suﬂicient surface at the ends for the number of rivets required
to develop their full strength, whereas many rolled forms
require ~gusset plates for this purpose.
Many of the above named metal car parts now conform to
the oflicial M. C. B. Standards therefor; and, in fact, this
ﬁxing of standards for all car material not only is inevitable
'but is rapidly proceeding, "thanks to that Association. The
advantages of standardization of parts and material and the
immense value thereof are too widely recognized nowadays
by car builders and railroads to here need detailed explana-
tion; but the net result is ofthe greatest importance to rail-
roads because of the great savings effected thereby. Car
material and parts especially need standardizing because of
the huge expense to roads of constantly carrying on hand a
largestock with which to repair or replace the hundreds of
diﬁerent types of car parts now in use-ea burden growing
greater every year. With such standards, there will be less
trouble as to the repairs made on cars by foreign roads which
are not equipped with the special parts originally built into
the cars. They would be able to keep on hand a much smaller
stock that will meet all demands for home or foreign cars,
thus avoiding the delays necessary for sending away for the
necessary parts or material required on damaged cars; thus
CARS - 63
increasing the days of revenue service from cars speedily
returned from the repair tracks.
The M. C. B. Assn. is rapidly standardizing all the many
kinds of materials used in car construction and repairs; and
this, together with its standardizing of the parts of the car
from roof to wheels, promises relief to many vexatious prob-
lems encountered at present in car shops. These M. C. B.
standard car parts are given herein as they occur under the
various chapters appropriate thereto, and should be carefully
studied.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS.
There is used in car construction a great variety of what
may be called Composite Materials, inasmuch as they are not
simple homogeneous materials like wood or iron, but are made
by combining several kinds. This class covers admixtures
such as hairfelt, stony materials like cement or concrete, and
special substances like rubber, asphalt coatings, etc. Paint
is fully covered herein in the chapter on that subject; while
rubber as used for hose for train air, steam, or signal con-
nections is later dealt with under the M. C. B. Standards
therefor. The cements, concretes, sawdust and cement mix-
tures, etc., used- for the ﬂooring of passenger equipment cars,
especially those of steel, ‘need no special description. Some
of them are so well known and are in such general use, as
to be almost national standards; and many of‘them in which _
a more or less liquid composition is used, are secrets, unlike
journal hearings or brasses, which are also of a composite
nature. \ _
Some of them are used as substitutes for wood, such as
Agasote, and are used for headlining, side panels, ﬂoors, and
‘outside roofs. They often are insulating and sound-deadening,
and can be planed, scraped, molded or sawed. Such material
must not contain rosin or ‘acids injurious to paint or steel;
and must stand changes of temperature and humidity, besides
not warping, blistering,‘ or separating. These qualities must
also he possessed by another class resembling leather, such as
Pantasote, Fabrikoid, etc., most of which are made‘ of two
or more pieces of cloth or canvas with the warp running in
different directions; coated with secret compositions; greatly
/ f
64 CARS
resembling leather, and thus used for curtains, upholstery,
and interior decoration. Such materials, together with hair-
felts, special felts, etc., are especially largely used in steel
passenger cars because of their insulating and sound-deadening
qualities, and in both them and refrigerator cars because of
their value as non-conductors of heat and cold. Indeed, the
problem of proper insulation for such cars has become of such
vast importance, especially since the advent of the steel car,
that the problem is now engrossing the earnest attention of
all car men. If steel passenger cars are not properly insulated,
they are so hot in summer and cold in winter, and noisy all
the time, that they are unﬁt for service. This arises‘ from
the great conductivity of steel as compared with wood. With
the refrigerator car, improper insulation causes so rapid a
loss of the ice used to keep its contents cool, as not only to
cause great ice expense, but by reason of the ice melting,
the contents of the ‘car will spoil, causing heavy damage
claims.’ In the latter cars, special car construction is required,
but with both the‘ refrigerator and the steel passenger car,
special insulating material must be used. In order to properly
understand this subject, we must ﬁrst comprehend the prin-
ciples of physics involved in Insulation.
INSULATION.
The matter of the proper insulation of certain kinds of
cars is of such vital concern to railroads and shippers of com-
modities, that it is hard to explain why it has not received
greater attention in the past. It is certain that‘ in the ordi-
nary refrigerator car more than half the ice is melted in
summer by heat which preventably enters through the walls
and roof of the car, thus entailing a great and needless waste
and expense which could largely be saved by the use of
proper and suﬂ‘icient car insulation material. If improperly
insulated, the steel freight car may spoil its lading; while
' the steel passenger car is intolerably rackety, is roasting hot
in summer, and in winter double the amount of heating sur-
face has to be provided, at a greatly increased expense, in
cases where the best of insulation is not provided in the car.
“a,
CARS 65
A large proportion of the food we eat is transported long
distances in refrigerator cars, and the public health therefore
demands that such cars should be free from germs, odors, and
decomposing material. Insulating car material must therefore
be aseptic, germless, and odorless. It should be an absolutely
sanitary sterile material to ﬁt it for use in a car carrying food
products. However, the greatest damage to certain perish-
able products such as meats, fruits, dairy products, etc., is
caused by the temperature inside the car rising to a point
where the lading rots or is spoiled; while during cold weather,
the heat escapes, the load freezes, and if fruit, it is ruined.
Both these tendencies are retarded if not wholly prevented by
proper insulation material properly applied, which though
‘somewhat expensive as to ﬁrst-cost to roads or companies,
yet in the end, it is doubly economical—by saving/excessive
ice-cost and damage claims. A well insulated car is insurance
against claims; and 500 such cars are a better investment than
1,000 poorly insulated ones, as is proved by the claim depart‘-
ments of railroads using faultily insulated-carsf The insula-
tion of refrigerator cars must give adequate protection against
climatic changes, no matter how severe, from torrid heat- to
intense cold. For this reason, this class of cars now receives
serious attention, especially as it has been found that steel
box cars often ruin their ‘lading by sweating, unless properly
insulated.
The function of car insulation is to prevent outside heat
or cold from aﬁecting the temperature within a car. Of
course, it is impossible to absolutely stop the passage of out-
side heat or cold into car bodies; hence, the value of any car
insulating material is only comparative, though always most
‘important. How effective an insulating material is, depends
on whether it is a good or poor non-conductor of heat or cold.
A heat and cold insulator or non-conductor is a material
which by its structure and nature retards or obstructs the
passage of heat or cold through itself. The metals are very
good conductors of heat and cold, and are therefore worse
than worthless as insulators; whereas certain other materials,
such as wood, with its millions of minute air-containing cells,
is so poor a conductor as to be practically a non-conductor
00 ' 081198
or insulating material. In fact, the accepted theory is that
those materials which are ﬁlled with minute air-cells are the
most perfect insulators and oppose the greatest resistance to
the passage of heat and cold through themselves. Hair, felts,
various vegetable ﬁbres, etc., contain such air-cells, and are
therefore valuable materials for car insulation; the more air
they thus hold, the better they are for insulating purposes.
Of course, the denser the insulator is, the more perfect bar-
rier it is to outside heat or cold, if such insulator is a good
one. "
The requisites for a good car-insulating material are as
follows: It must be highly eﬁicient as a non-conductor of '
heat and cold; must be ﬁre-proof, economical, non-absorbent,
sanitary, easily cleansed, easy to apply, permanently vermin~
proof, odorless, unaffected by moisture or heat, without joints
or cracks, and be light in weight yet sufficiently strong. It
must be ﬂexible (to bend with the torsion of the car), cohesive
(must not ﬂake, crack, or fall apart owing to train vibrations),
durable (must not rot or decay, thus saving‘ repairs and
replacements), and be protective, preventing injury to the
metal in steel cars.
Manifestly, few if any of the present car insulating mate-
rials now on the market can fulﬁll all or even a majority of
these requirements. However, some of them come within a
reasonable distance of so doing, especially the vegetable-ﬁbre
felts now so largely installed in the best refrigerator cars. 01!
course, it is desirable that such material be ﬁre-proof, but
some of the so-called ﬁre-proof car insulating materials have
not a high insulating value; and in other cases, only the out-
side of the material is treated with the ﬁre-prooﬁng composi-
tion, so that it will remain undamaged upon the application
of ﬁre for a considerable period of time. Asbestos Fibrofelt,
made by the Union Fibre Co., is one of the new types that
combine both ﬁre-proof and insulating qualities, and thus
marks a new era in car insulation.
As regards the comparative value of diﬂerent kinds of car
insulating material, it may be tested either practically, by
actual application to cars, or academically, by submitting
specimens to colleges or companies possessing the necessary
CARS 67
apparatus and experts to make a report thereon. There are
different testing machines and test boxes for testing such
material; the general principle implying the obtaining of com-
parative results under constant conditions, doing away with
the various variable factors which affect vitally the value of
such tests and often produce varying results with the self-
same material. The general idea is that of using a small box
made from the material, supplied with ice on the inside of
the box, and equipped with thermometers to obtain the differ-
ence in temperatures. The best method of deciding whether
one insulation is more eﬂicient than another is to measure
the quantity of heat transmitted through each insulation by
conduction only. Heat radiation, on the other hand, depends
on the color and comparative smoothness of the radiating
surface. For this reason, refrigerator cars should be painted
white or a light silvery grey, as they tend to reﬂect the radiant
heat of the sun; while dark colors, especially red, will absorb
heat, thus adding to the ice meltage.
Little has been said about insulation or the construction
of the walls, roof and ﬂoor in order to prevent the outside
'heat from coming into the cooled space. Scarcely any of the
materials which were in the past accepted as proper for this
purpose are‘now admitted to be of any value. The spaces
between the exterior layers of board and the interior layer
were ﬁlled in the old days with materials which were then
considered proper non~conductors of heat. Among these may
be mentioned ashes, wood shavings, cane shavings, chopped
straw, mineral wool, peat dust, rice husks, sawdust, pumice
stone and charcoal. -
All these loose packings have this common drawback, they
become packed tight in a short time by the shaking of the
cars, thus leaving the upper parts of the spaces empty.
Moreover, in some materials the comparatively large weight
must be considered, and in most cases their strong tendency
to absorb moisture. The materials themselves not only lose
their insulating power but decay, and give oﬁ oﬁensive odors;
the decay also attacking the woodwork of the entire car which
soon begins to rot. None of these loose materials are used
at the present day since it is known that it is more advisable
68 CARS
to leave the space hollow than to use a ﬁlling material that
is faulty. Concerning hollow spacing, we may say that it
was largely used formerly, in connection with such materials
as boards, paper, wool-felt, etc., to insulate cars, though
generally with poor success. Of course a car thus insulated
by paper, boards, and air-space or dead-space is a little cheaper
at ﬁrst-cost, but the slightest experience proves its wasteful-
ness and worthlessness to both shipper and car owner.
A step forward was taken with the use for insulation, of
cow-hair, washed and quilted, its‘ high efficiency arising from
the large amount of air, per cubic inch, that is imprisoned in
the interlacing of the hair by the quilting process. This mate-
rial had serious faults, however, owing especially to the
occluded fat in it, which made it subject to nitrogenous decay,
especially in the presence of heat and moisture. It thus
not only tainted the food stuffs carried in refrigerator cars,
but itself disintegrated and fell apart, as can be seen in cars
that have had four years or so of service. This is almost
invariably true at the plate and belt rails of such cars ‘thus
insulated. From a sanitary standpoint, also, ‘cow-hair was
bad, because when an animal dies of disease, even though
. its meat is not used, still the hair is, since the hide goes to-
the tannery.
Other insulating car materials have been developed
since then, that possess both high insulating qualities and
yet do not decay nor become offensive. In fact, some of them
have as high as 30 per cent greater insulation eﬂ‘iciency than
hair felt. Probably the most important type among these is
that making use of certain vegetable ﬁbres felted together
and then quilted between layers of heavy waterproof paper.
Among the most suitable. of- such ﬁbres are hennequin or
sisal, hemp, ﬂax, etc. Sisal is cheaper than hemp and resists
moisture better—a valuable quality for refrigerator car use;
but, as yet, neither sisal nor hemp have been put to this use,
although both are chemically permanent vegetable ﬁbres, as
is ﬂax, also. Of’ course, various ﬂexible felts are still largely
used; but the vegetable ﬁbre ones seem to be the best yet
devised, for obvious reasons.
CARS . _ ' 69
The extreme length of ﬁbre is in its favor as a non-conduc-
tor inasmuch as a large proportion of long ﬁbres must lie
athwart the passage of heat, while hair which is but little
longer than the thickness of the felt will in the case of many
individual hairs, lie parallel in the direction of the passage
of heat. It is known that heat passes in the same direction
as the ﬁbre with much more readiness than it passes at right
angles across the ﬁbre. Hence, such vegetable ﬁbres often
make the best kind of insulation.
If paper is to be used for car insulation, either as a sepa-
rate layer by itself, or to inclose ﬁbre or other mats or felts,
‘it should be a standard insulating paper which will remain
quite unaffected by water. Concerning the insulating mate—
rial used for ﬂooring in cars, especially steel cars, fuller
details will be given later herein.
The result of the test made by several railroads some
years ago has been that every refrigerator car built since then'
by those who were familiar with said result, and in cases
where the roads were not absolutely limited as to cost, now
carries 50 to 100 per cent more insulation than was the prac-
tice in the past. Thus, where formerly two layers of
insulating material such as Linofelt, were deemed suﬂicient,
four layers are now used, as a rule, where the best is
demanded. Three or four layers are regarded as proﬁtable
and far better than the former 2-ply style. Four layers
are enough, though 6-ply is highly satisfactory, and new cars
are being built with 5 and 6 layers, in some cases.
This test proves that while undoubtedly there will be
secured greatly increased efficiency by the use of at least
'4-ply ‘insulation it is doubtful if the protection should be
increased to 6-ply insulation. However, experience in past
years in endeavoring to protect perishable freight against
frost and freezing shows that the bottom tier of fruit or vege-
tables next to the ﬂoor is always affected ﬁrst by frost. This
being true, it is recommended that the sides and ends of the
new cars be supplied with 4-ply insulation and the tops and
bottoms 5-ply insulation.
A typical insulation material for cars, one used in over
one-half of the refrigerator cars in service on our railroads,
70 ' . CARS
is Linofelt (Union Fibre Co.), a ﬂexible material 1/2 inch
thick, quilted between two sheets of Linocel paper—a heavy
black waterproof paper of the highest quality, weighing
90 pounds per 1,000 square feet. The complete Linofelt weighs
42 pounds per 100 square feet. As a matter of interest and
probable guide in framing speciﬁcations I for car insulation
of this type of material, we append the following: 7
Speciﬁcations and sizes of sheets for a refrigerator car
40 feet 9% inches long, 9 feet 13/8 inches wide, and 8 feet 1
inch high, outside measurements. (Supplied by the Union-
Fibre Co., Winona, Minn.)
Union Fibre Company’s Linofelt Refrigerator Car Insula-
tion 1/3-inch thick, made of degum'med ﬂax ﬁbre, chemically
prepared, clean and odorless, with the best quality of- black
3-ply, 90-pound waterproof ’ paper on each side of the vﬂax
ﬁbre ﬁlling, quilted to the ﬁbre with a good quality of
thread, the rows of stitches to be not more than 5 inches
apart, edges to be bound with paper to prevent fraying.
Insulation, with paper, should weigh not less than 42/100 of
a pound per square foot. Insulation. must be furnished in
rolls or pieces of the following widths and lengths:
(E4128
71
SIZE AND LOCATION
Sq. ft.
per
1 piece
N 0. pcs.
per car
Total
sq. ft.

28% in. wide x 104 in. long between car-
lines at center of car, upper intermediate
and lower layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . .
30%in. wide x 104 ‘in. long between car-
lines, upper, intermediate and lower
layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
23% in. wide x 104 in. long between car-
lines at hatches, upper, intermediate
and lower layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 in. wide x 30 in. long between hatches,
upper, intermediate and lower layers. .
11 in. wide x 104 in. long between end car-
lines and end plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18% in. wide x 23% in. long, hatch plug,
upperlayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
9% in. wide x 23% in. long, hatch plug,
lower layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97 in. wide x 551 in. long, outside layer at
sides and end of car from door post to
door post . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89% in. wide x 531% in. long, inside layer
at sides and ends of car from door ppst
to door post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89% in. wide x 533% in. long, intermediate
layer on sides and ends of car from door
post to door post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16% in. wide x 56% in. long, outside layer
over side doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12% in. wide x 51% in. long, inside and
intermediate layers over side doors. . . .
17 in. wide x 31% in. long, inside, inter-
mediate and outside layers side doors. .
25%_in. wide x 480 in. long, upper, inter-
mediate and lower layers between center
sub-sills of car ﬂoor . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
18% in. wide x 480 in. long, upper inter-
mediate and lower layers between inter-
mediate sub-sills of car ﬂoor . . . . . . . . . .
17% in. wide x 480 in. long, upper, inter-
mediate and lower layers between in-
termediate and side sub-sills of car ﬂoor
20.583
22.208
16.972
2.083
7.944
' 3.010
1.567
371 . 160
329 .419
330 . 659 ‘
6.299
4.493
3.719
85.000
60 . 833
59 . 167
30
18
123 . 500
666 . 250
101.833
37.500
47.667
12.040’v
12 .535
742 . 319'
658 . 838
661.318
12.598
v17.973
89 . 250
255.000
365.000
355 . 000

Grand Total, per car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. . .


129
4158.621
7 2 CARS
Material and workmanship must be ﬁrst class, in every
respect, and satisfactory to the railroad company’s inspector.
To be of practical value to the car man, tests of‘ insulating
material should be of different. kinds, in addition to the aca-
demical tests we have spoken of. As to the comparative worth
of different insulators regarding their heat and cold resisting
~properties, some'car men content themselves with accepting
so-called manufacturer’s tests, which often are made under


/ <4 ae'B OAR?
- . > ATERPROOF APER‘
7/5”B 0.4120
</ 7/8 "BOARD
~ ' -» _‘ ‘“WATéhPRbbFPAPE/Q
a. . - - __ . is... :' we
1 ’ HAIRFELT
./ 75"BOARD
.— _ . WAYZRPROOFPAPE'R
._\ \ r”? ‘\ 730.5 OARD


/
q,\‘l
~f;
\¥>-=> ‘Q? 7/9 "BOARD
. WITERPROOFPAPER
\ 749 "B 0/1121)
*- AIR SPA CE
== ./ ZQ"BOA 1w
4-WITERPRO0FPAPEI?
___ > (:57 *\ 7/61’50ARD 3
Fig. 3.
Linofelt Insulation for Refrigerator Cars.
Union Fibre Company.
such varying conditions as to be worthless, and which always
are open to the suspicion of self-interest on the part of the
material manufacturer. Other car men have generally con-
ﬁned their tests of the material to the amount of ice used on
a given run on the road, often with slight regard to differences
of temperature in a given season; and on cars using the mate-
rial in combination with other materials under divers con-
ditions of travel and temperature so diﬁerent as to give results
of only the most general kind. In two summer runs’ only 10
days apart, the amount of ice used may vary as much as 15
CARS 73
per cent- And other variations may be caused by high winds,
length of time car is- in motion, how long car doors are left
open to receive lading and other varying factors vitally affect-
ing this crude ice-usage test.
Contrast this with proper tests made by recognized author-
ities under'constant conditions, an example of which is here
given concerning diﬁerent types of car insulation.
The meltage. of ice per day coming through 100 square
feet, at a. difference of 40 degrees, in the specimens tested
above, was as follows:
Type 1: 64.8 lbs- Type 2: 93.4 lbs. Type 3: 187.0 lbs.
Besides indicating proper heat-test methods, the above results
show both the comparative worthlessness of the ordinary
hollow-space-and-paper insulation, and the value of vegetable
ﬁbrofelts over the others. a
Not only must such insulating material have high eﬁiciency
as an insulator, but it must also be able to withstand the hard
and racking service it will encounter in railroad service,
without going to pieces or falling apart. To insure this
quality, the material must be given certain mechanical tests,
before its acceptance. A Shaking-Down Test of a vegetable-
ﬁbre felt and of a hair felt lately conducted was as follows:
The material to be tested was put across the end of boxes
in sheets of 34 by 48 inches, arranged in such a manner that
a sprocket wheel with three sprockets raised the boxes two
inches and let them fall. .This wheel revolved at the rate of
sixty revolutions per minute, giving the material 180 two
inch lifts and drops per minute. This was kept up ten hours
per day for seventeen days.
The materials were then tested as to their tensile strength
thus: A piece 9 by 30 inches was ﬁrmly suspended from a‘
temporary vise and weights attached to the bottom edge until
the breaking point was reached. In the case of the ﬁbrofelt,
this was 223 pounds, far exceeding the hair felt in tenacity,
even as it had in stability by the ﬁrst test. Other tests can
easily be devised in any car shop, if so desired. Its ﬁreproof
qualities can be compared, its non-absorbency tried out, its
weight ascertained, and its ﬂexibility and ability to stand
up proven by actual tests.
74 CARS -
LUMBER.
Lumber used in car construction should possess the quali-
ties of strength, durability and light weight. Economy is
also a highly desirable factor, but in view of the comparative
scarcity of proper car lumber and the rising price of timber
of all kinds (which bid fair to rise still higher) car men
must pay the market price, no matter what it is, until steps
are taken to provide metal substitutes for all possible car parts
where wood is now used. Weight is another factor of great
importance, other things being equal, as' affecting net earn-
ings as regards hauling unnecessary dead weight; and when
it is possible, as it is today, to make a saving of 6,000 pounds
in the light weight of a car by using certain kinds of lumber
as against other kinds, this factor merits the earnest con-
sideration of every car department.
‘Owing to the decreasing quantity of possible car lumber,
. the timbers nowv in most general use include some regarded
as impossible for use, in the past, when oak, the best pine,
and hickory were the standards in general use. The last
is now too expensive for car use; the present timbers in use
nowadays being pine, poplar, oak, ﬁr, elm, cypressand spruce.
Other woods are also coming into use, and all of them, like
the ones named above, have their own special car use and
limits of usage in the car. The M. C. B. Association has ruled
that “white pine, yellow pine, ﬁr, or cypress may be used
when repairing siding, when of equal grade or quality to the
material standard to the car. Fir, oak, or southern pine
may be substituted for each other in renewing or splicing
longitudinal sills.”
With the rapid disappearance of the forests in our country,
it has become increasingly difﬁcult to obtain suitable car
lumber, especially of the higher grades and in lengths ﬁt for
sills, framing, etc., except at prohibitive prices for certain
kinds of car timber. This scarcity and exorbitant prices have
been large factors "in hastening the introduction of steel cars
and steel car parts under wooden cars. ‘ So far has this gone,
that car builders already have trouble in obtaining the proper
grade of lumber for even the modern steel freight car which
CARS 75
has a single wooden sheathing with no lining; and when
obtained, it is often not properly seasoned, owing possibly
to its thickness, which exceeds that of the sheathing on the
old wooden cars. This green timber naturally shrinks, after
being put on such steel cars, allowing the lading to either
leak out or be damaged by exposure to the elements, with
consequent frequent damage claims therefor. Owing to the
excessive demand for lumber and the greedy haste of lumber-
men to market their product, car men have now, more than
ever before, to be on the alert'to prevent the purchase of such
improperly seasoned timber, or, failing in that, to keep it
from being put into a car until seasoned. In all cases the
companies are not equipped with sufficient dry kiln capacity,
especially to handle the thick sheathing, etc., which has to
remain in the dry kilns longer than was necessary with the
former thinner sheathing. No matter by whom seasoned, good
car practice absolutely forbids the use of any wooden car-
parts except those properly cured.
Due to the high cost of lumber, railroads have been led to
adopt various methods and chemicals for the better preserva-
tion of car timber, especially for those parts to which water
has access with consequent rapid rotting thereof. Owing to
the exhaustion of the available supplies of the more durable
and harder woods formerly and exclusively used in car build-
ing, railroads now are largely resorting to chemical treatment
of the softer and cheaper woods they are now forced to use,
in order to preserve their life; and they have found the
investment therein a proﬁtable one, especially where a road
has facilities for so treating its car lumber.
Some car men advocate for this purpose the empty-cell or
zinc chloride process, as being cheaper and giving life to the
lumber equal to mechanical life; others use ordinary salt,
saturating the timber with the same by various methods.
Still others use creosote containing as large an amount as
is possible and economical, of the preservative acids found
in this distillate—the timber being ﬁrst steamed, placed in
a vacuum, and then subjected under heavy pressure to 'the
action of the preservative solution, followed by placing it
again in a vacuum. By this means, the preservative is driven
76 CARS
into the wood, especially. in sap wood, car decking, etc.,
though rarely penetrating hard wood over one inch all
around. Car sills and decking especially have been thus
treated, and undoubtedly it lengthens the life of the lumber
very ‘much. It is possible to use it in stock cars, but not in
box cars for decking, on account of its odor, which might be
absorbed by ﬂour or other lading. It may be noted that this
creosote treatment cannot be used for_car parts that show
externally and are therefore painted, and to this extent, its
use is limited, on account of the ‘fact that it is vimpractical to
paint timber after it has been creosoted. Most roads in this
country have a standard color for their cars, and they would
not want to change that color to black in order to please the
wood preservers. If any road should desire to change their
stock car color to black, then the creosoted timber would
be ideal, for the cars would be permanently painted, providing
the timber was framed before it was treated. .
There are also now on the market many different wood
preservatives, mostly designed for use with ties, some of I
‘which will—and many‘ of which will not—prevent, to a
' proﬁtable degree, decay in new lumber and stop decay in
old lumber, and all “warranted” to save both the lumber and
the labor cost of replacing rotten wood. The best of them
possess considerable penetrating power, antiseptic quality,
and staying power.
With the practical disappearance of the forests east of the
Rocky Mountains, car builders have had to go either to
Canada or even farther aﬁeld in order to obtain suitable car
, lumber, and already the Paciﬁc Coast promises to be the ﬁnal
source whence ample supplie’s 'may be had. ‘Of these western
woods, the best for car purposes are Douglas ﬁr, western
hemlock, and western spruce, all three of which may be had
in almost unlimited quantities at reasonable prices. As they
are practically all new .car timber, and undoubtedly will soon
form the main reliance in car-shops, a word or two concern-
ing them is of interest to car men. ‘ _
One of the best known car woods is Douglas ﬁr, of which
the United States Forestry Bureau reports that it “may per-
haps be considered as the most important of American woods
CARS 7 7
. . . As a structural timber, it is not surpassed, and prob-
ably it is most widely used and known in this capacity.”
_'_l‘he superior qualities and merits of this wood have been
widely recognized by our railway engineering staﬁs as
embodying to a great degree the prime requisites of great
strength, durability, light weight, and ease of handling and
working. As a strong wood with a record, of extreme dura-
bility when exposed to weather, it is widely used in freight
car construction, where it has the additional advantage of
being 8.1 pounds lighter per cubic foot than its nearest com-
petitor. In many shops it is used for all purposes in car
construction except for draft timbers. It is especially
valuable for refrigerator cars where dampness is constantly
present; sills of it after 14 years’ service under such cars
showing neither decay nor deterioration. Enormous quanti-
ties of this “future timber reliance of the nation,” officially
styled “the strongest wood‘ for its weight in the country,”
exist on the Paciﬁc Coast; for though the annual cut amounts
to one-eighth‘of all the lumber cut for all purposes in the
United States in the year of greatest supply, estimates show _
that there is enough of this timber now standing to supply
the market for 150 years.
Another valuable car wood is Western Hemlock, of which
the United States Forestry Bureau says: “The Western
Hemlock has now to contend mainly with a prejudice which
is based upon a knowledge of the eastern tree alone.
The wood of the Western Hemlock is far superior to that of
the eastern tree. . . And its qualities entitle it to rank
among the valuable timber trees of this continent. . . In
strength, ease of working, and freedom from warp and decay,
Western Hemlock differs greatly from the eastern species.
It possesses all the strength requisite for ordinary
building material.” Another car wood is Western Spruce,
which because of its entire lack of taste and odor is particu-
larly valuable for use in refrigerator cars, etc. It is a very
white, straight-grained wood of tough ﬁbre, light weight, and
easily worked. All three of the above car woods are among
the few remaining in this country in commercial quantities
and procurable at advantageous commercial valuations.
78 ' _ CARS
The following oﬂicial tests ' made by the United States
Government of diﬁerent woods named therein, are both
instructive and indicative of some of the above facts.
SUMMARY OF TESTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF TIMBERS
' ' By U. S. Government Forestry Department
’ TRANSVERSE STRENGTH
TEST A
Authority Lbs ._ per Authority Lbs. per
Trautwine sq. m. Pittsburg Testing Laboratory sq. 1n.
White oak,AAmerican . . . . . .600 Fir, cut 4 months (average of 11 tests). . .849
White pine, American. . . . .450 Fir, after 13 years’ servlce as stringer
Yellow pine, American. .. . . 500 _ (average of 4 tests) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . .588
Pitch pine, American . . . . . .550 ‘ F11‘, after 12 years’ service as budge
Georgia pine, American. . .850 chord (average of 4 tests) . . . . . . . . . . .690
‘ TENSILE STRENGTH
Oak, all classes . . . . . . . . . 10,000 Fir, cut 4 months (average of 5 tests) . 10,872
Pine, all classes . . . . . . ..10,000 Fir, after 13 years’ service as stringer
Fir or spruces . . . . . . . . . 10,000‘ (average of 4 tests). . . . . . . . . 10,932
(x) Fir, after 12 years’ service as bridge
chord (average of 4 tests). . . . . . . . . 11,132
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH‘ ,
White oak . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;.7000 Fir, cut 4 months (average of 2 tests). . 6097
White pine . . . . . . . . . . . . .5400 Fir, after 13 years’ service as stringer
' Norway pine... .. . . . . . . .6300 _ (averageof 4 tests). .0 . . . . . . . ._ . . . . ..8057
Georgia pine . . . . . . . . . . . .8500 F11‘, after 12 years’ service as budge
chord (average of 4 tests) . . . . . . . . . . .8607
TEST B
2 inch x 2 inch x 30inch Clear Beams.
Douglas Fir e Oak White Oak
No. of Modulus of No. of Modulus of No. of Modulus of
tests rupture tests rupture tests rupture
423 8350 80 7600 90 8600
TEST C
Douglas Fir—Green Timber Bending Test—Span 15 ft.
Fiber stress Modulus of Modulus of Calculated
at elastic _ rupture ‘ elasticity shear
Sizes No. of Lbs. per Lbs. per 1000 lbs. lbs. per
ins. - tests sq. in. sq. in. . per sq. in. sq. in.
8x16 191 3968 - 5983 1517 ‘ 269
5x 8 84 3693 5178 1533 172
2x12 27 3721 ' 5276 1642 256
2x10 ' 26 3160 ' 4699 1593 189
2x 8 29 3593 5352 1607 171
The M. c. B. Association has prescribed full oﬂicial speciﬁ-
cations for all kinds of timber now in use as car and locomo-
tive lumber; .all ofwhich should be carefully noted, as vitally
oARs 79
affecting permissible lumber for repairing foreign .cars. It
will be noted that some kinds of lumberv can be used for but
few purposes, such .as decking, etc.; while others can be used
for almost any car part, where lumber is generally or per-
missibly used. '
In 1910 a joint committee of the American Railway Master
Mechanics’ Association and the M. C. B. Association working
in conjunction with‘ the Railway Storekeepers’ Association
and the various Lumber Manufacturers’ Associations, sub-
mitted speciﬁcations and grading rules for car and locomotive
lumber, which, on motion, were ordered submitted to letter
ballot and adopted as Recommended Practice. They are as
follows:
In order to have standard descriptions of the various
woods used by railroads, the following standard names for
car and locomotive lumber were agreed upon by the Joint
Committee: 1‘
- LUMBER SPECIFICATIONS
Description of various woods used by railroad companies for car
and locomotive lumber. ,
1. Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover White, Black, Blue, Green and
Red Ash.
2. Basswood . . . . . . . . . .-.To cover Linden, Linn, Lind or Lime-
. tree.
3. Beech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover Red and White Beech.
4. Birch . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . .To cover Red, White, Yellow and Black
- Birch.
’ 5. Buckeye . . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover wood from Horse-chestnut tree.
6. Butternut . . . . . . . . . . .To cover wood from tree of that name,
also known as White Walnut. I
7. Cherry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . To cover Sweet, Sour, Red, Black and
Wild Cherry.
8. Chestnut . . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover wood from tree of that name.
9. Cottonwood . . . . . . . . . .To cover wood from tree of that name.
(Do not confuse with Popple or
Poplar.)
10. Cypress . . . . . . . . . . . ..To cover Red, Gulf, Yellow and East
_ Coast Cypress, also known as Bald
Cypress.
11. Elm—soft . . . . . . . . . . .To cover White, Water, Grey, Red or
Slippery and Winged Elm.
80
CARS
12.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Elm—rock . . . . . ._ . . . .To cover Rock or Cork Elm. .
Douglas Fir . . . . . . . . .To cover Yellow, Red, Western, Wash-i
mgton, Oregon, Puget Sound Fir or
Pine, Norwest and West Coast Fir.
Gum . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover Red Gum, Sweet Gum or Satin
Walnut. 7
Hemlock . . . . . . . . . . .'.To cover Southern and Eastern Hem-
lock; that is, Hemlock from all States
east of and including Minnesota.
Western Hemlock. . . . .To cover Hemlock from the Paciﬁc
. Coast.
H ickory .- . . . . . . . . . ..To cover Shellbark, Kingnut, Mocker-
' nut, Pignut, Black, Shagbarkv and
Bitternut.
Western Larch . . . . . . .To cover the species of Larch or Tam-
arack from the Rocky Mountain and
Paciﬁc Coast regions.
M aple—soft . . . . . . . . .To cover Soft and White Maple.
M aple—hard . . . . . . . .To cover Hard, Red, Rock and Sugar
, - Maple. . v ~
White Oak . . . . . . . . . ..To cover White, Burr or Mossy Cup,
Rock, Post or Iron, Overcup, Swamp
Post, Live, Chestnut or Tan Bark,
Yellow or Chinquapin and Basket or
Cow Oak.
Red oak . . . . . . . . . . . ..To cover Red, Pin, Black, Water,
Willow, Spanish, Scarlet, Turkey,
Black Jack, or Barn and Shingle or'
Laurel Oak.
Pecan . . . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover wood from tree of that name.
Southern Yellow PineTo cover Long-leaf and Short-leaf Yel-
low Pine grown in the Southern States.
White Pine . . . . . . . -. . .To cover wood from tree of that name
grown in Maine, Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota and Canada.
Norway Pine . . . . . . . .To cover Norway or Red Pine grown in
Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin and
Canada.
Idaho White Pine. . . .To cover variety of White Pine grown in
' ' western Montana, northern Idaho and
eastern Washington.
Western Pine . . . . . . . .To cover timber known as White Pine
grown in Arizona, California, New
Mexico, Colorado, Oregon and Wash-
ington; sometimes known as Western
Yellow or Ponderosa Pine, or Cali-
iiprnia White Pine or Western White
me.
CARS ' 81
29. Poplar . . . . . . . . . . . . ..To cover wood from the Tulip Tree,
otherwise known as Whitewood, Yel-
low Poplar and Canary Wood.
30.. Redwood . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover wood from tree of that name.
31. Spruce . . . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover Eastern Spruce; that is, the
, Spruce timber coming from points east
of and including Minnesota and Can-
ada, covering White, Red and Black
Spruce.
32. Western Spruce . . . . . ..To cover the Spruce timber from the
Paciﬁc Coast.
33-. Sycamore . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover wood from tree of that name,
otherwise known as Buttonwood.
34. Tamarack . . . . . . . . . . .To cover Tamarack or Eastern Tamar-
ack, . grown in States east of and in-
cluding Minnesota.
35. Tupelo . . . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover Tupelo Gum and Bay Poplar.
36. Walnut . . . . . . . . . . . . .To cover Black Walnut (for White Wal-
nut, see Butternut).
CLASSIFICATION, GRADING AND DRESSING RULES FOR
NORTHERN PINE CAR MATERIAL, INCLUDING
WHITE AND NORWAY PINE AND
EASTERN SPRUCE. -
1. Norway Pine. To cover Norway or Red Pine grown
in Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Canada.
White Pine to cover wood from tree of that name grown in
Maine, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Canada.
Spruce to cover Eastern Spruce; that is, the Spruce tim-
ber coming from points east of and including Minnesota and
Canada, covering White, Red and Black Spruce.
2. Northern Pine Lumber shall be graded and classiﬁed
according to the following rules and speciﬁcations as to
quality, and dressed stock shall conform to the subjoined table
of standard sizes, except where otherwise expressly stipulated
between buyer and seller.
3. Recognized defects in Northern Pine are knots, knot-
holes, splits, shake, wane, wormholes, pitch pockets, torn
grain, loosened grain, sap, sap stain, checks and rot.
82 ' _ CARS
KNOTS .
Knots shall be classiﬁed as pin, small and large or coarse,
as to size, and round or spike, as to form, and as sound,
loose, encased, pith and rotten, as to quality. "
A pin knot is sound and shall not exceed 1/2 inch in
diameter. Fig. 4.
A small knot is larger than a pin knot and shall not- .
exceed 1% inches in diameter. . Fig. 5.
A large or coarse knot is one of any size over 1% inches
inv diameter.‘ Fig. 6. - '
A round knot is oval or circular in form.
A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise direction. Fig. 7.
The mean or average diameter of knots shall be consid-
ered in applying and construing these rules. I
A sound knot is one solid across its face; is as hard as
the wood it is in and is so ﬁxed by growth or position that it
will retain7 its place in the piece, Fig. 8. '
A loose knot is not ﬁrmly set, but still retains its place -
in the piece. Fig. 9.
A pith knot is a sound knot with a pith hole not more than
14-inch in diameter. i ‘
An encased knot is one surrounded wholly by bark or
pitch. - Fig. 10. '
A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood it is in.
PITCH.
Pitch pockets are openings between the grain of the wood
containing more or less pitch or bark, and shall be classiﬁed
as small, standard and large pitch pockets.
A small pitch pocket is one not over 1/8 of an inch wide.
Fig. 11.
A standard pitch pocket is one not over 1%; of an inch wide,
or 3 inches inlength. '
A large pitch pocket is one over 3/8 of an inch wide or
over 3 inches in length. , '
A pitch pocket showing ‘open on both sides of the piece
1/8 of an inch or more in width shall be considered the same
as a knothole. ;
EXHIBIT A—NORTHERN WHITE PINE.
lg 4. 7

in Knots.
P

5.
Fig.
Small and Round Knot.
F
Spik
ig. 6.
i
e

Knot.
J-

.7 ,L‘
.3"
"
Fig. 8.
Fig 9
Loose
‘Knot.
a,‘
Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.
Small Pitch Pocket.

' ~$¢_A§_-35~,».57‘§¢.
. ~31 a».
CARS 87

Wane is bark, or the lack of wood, from any cause, on edge.
ser.
White or bright sap shall not be considered a defect in
any of the grades provided for and described in these rules,
except where stipulated.
M ISCELLANEOUS.
Defects in rough stock caused by improper manufacture
and drying will reduce grade, unless they can be removed
in. dressing such stock to standard sizes. _
All lumber ,for uses described in these i'ules shall be
inspected on the face side to determine the grade, and the
face side is the side showing the best quality or appearance.
Chipped grain consists in a part of the surface being
chipped or broken out in small particles below the line of
the cut, and as usually found should not be classed as torn
grain, and shall not be considered a defect.
Torn grain consists in a part of the wood being torn out
in the dressing. It occurs around knots and curly places,
and is of four distinct characters; slight, medium, heavy and
deep.
Slight torn grain shall not exceed 3,12 of an inch in depth,
, medium {E of an inch, and heavy 1,4; of an inch. Any torn
grain heavier than 1,4; of an inch shall be termed deep.
The grade of all regular stock shall be determined by the
number, character and position of the defects visible in any
piece. The enumerated defects herein described admissible
in any grade are intended to be descriptive of the coarsest
pieces such grades may contain, but the average quality of
the grade shall be midway between the highest and lowest
pieces allowed in the grade.
Lumber and timber sawed for speciﬁc purposes must be
inspected with a view to its adaptability for the use intended.
All dressed stock shall be measured strip count, via: Full
size of ‘rough material necessarily used in its manufacture.
Lumber must be accepted on grade in the form in which
it was shipped. Any subsequent change in manufacture or
i
88 . CARS
mill work will prohibit an inspection for the adjustment of
claims, except with the consent of all parties interested.
The foregoing general observations shall apply to and
govern the application of the following rules. The rules
referred to under the ﬁve following paragraphs govern 4 or 6
inch strips, and are intended to cover strips used for car
siding, car lining and car rooﬁng.
B and Better White Pine—Material of this grade shall be
practically clear and free of all defects, except will admit of
not exceeding four pin knots, and bright ‘sap not to exceed
25 per cent of the face of the piece. . ‘
C .and Better Norway Pine—Bright sap is no defect in this
grade and stained sap will be admitted to the extent of not
exceeding 1%; the surface of the face of the piece, if not in
combination with other defects. This grade shall be free from
shake, rot and splits, but will admit of not exceeding four pin
knots.
No. 1 Common White Pine, Norway Pine and Eastern
Spruce—This grade admits of small sound knots, but shall
be free from large or coarse knots, knotholes, should have
practically no shake, wane or rot, but will admit of bright
‘sap to any extent. '
No. 2 Common White Pine, Norway Pine and Eastern
Spruce—This grade is similar to No. 1, described above,
except that it will admit of spike knots, bright or stained‘
sap, ‘slight shake, slight wane on reverse side, but not a
serious combination of any of these defects.
No. 3 Common White Pine, Norway Pine and Eastern
Spruce—This grade, in addition to the defects mentioned in
No. 2, described above, will also admit of large or coarse
knots, more shake, sap, wane on ‘reverse side that does not
affect the tongue or groove and torn or loosened grain, checks,
pin wormholes and splits, but no loose knots or knotholes,
nor a serious combination of the defects named.
No. 1 Common Norway Pine Car Decking or Flooring—
This grade will admit of sound knots, any amount of sap,
and'shall be free from shake, wane, rot and large or coarse
spike knots. , ,_ - '
CARS " 89
STANDARD LENGTHS. ‘
Car Siding—8, 9, 10 and 12 feet or multiples.
.Car Rooﬁng—5 feet or multiples. »
Car Lining—8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 feet or multiples.
Car Decking—9 and 10 feet or multiples.
All orders shall be shipped in standard lengths; unless
otherwise speciﬁed, but no lengths of either car siding, lining
or rooﬁng shall be shipped except in the lengths speciﬁed or
multiplesxthereof. Those who do not desire stock shipped in
multiple ‘lengths should so specify.
. I
CLASSIFICATION, GRADING AND DRESSING RULES FOR
SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE CAR 'MATERIAL.
1. Southern Yellow Pine—To cover Longleaf and. Short-
leaf Yellow Pine grown in the Southern States.
2. Southern Yellow Pine Lumber shall be graded and
classiﬁed according ‘to the following rules and speciﬁcations
as to quality, and dressed stock shall "conform to the subjoined
table of. standard sizes, except where otherwise expressly
stipulated between buyer and seller-
3. Recognized defects in Southern Yellow Pine are knots,
knotholes, splits (either from seasoning, ring hearts or rough
handling), shake, wane, red heart, pith, rot, rotten streaks,
dote, red heart, wormholes, pitch streaks, pitch pockets, torn
grain, loosened grain, seasoning or kiln checks and sap, sap
stains and imperfect manufacture.
KNO'IS.
Knots shall be classiﬁed as pin, standard and large, as to
size; and round and spike, as to form; and as sound, loose,
encased, pith and rotten, as to quality. ’
A pin knot is sound and not over % ,inch in diameter.
Fig. 12.
A standard knot is sound and not over 1% inches in I
diameter. Fig. 13. \
A large linot is one any size over 1% inches in diameter.
Fig. 14. ’
A round knot is oval or circular in form.
1' "III'


a’
0
Fig. 13.
Standard Knot

Fig. 14.
Large Knot.

Fig. 15.
Spike Knot.
EXHIBIT B - SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE. "

Fig. 16. Fig. 17.
Loose Knot. Pith Knot.


Fig. 18 Fig. 19.
Encased Knot. Rotten Knot.
CARS , 93
A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise direction. Fig. 15.
The mean_ or“ average diameter of knots shall be considered
in applying and construing these rules.
A sound knot is one solid across its face; is as hard as
the wood it is in and is so ﬁxed by growth or position that it
will retain its place in the piece.
A loose knot is one not held ﬁrmly in place by growth
or position. Fig. 16.
A pith knot is a sound knot with a pithhole not more
than % inch in diameter. Fig. 17.
An encased knot is one surrounded wholly or in part by
bark or pitch. Where the encasement is less than % of an
inch in width on both sides, not exceeding one-half the cir-
cumference of the knot, it shall be considered a sound knot.
Fig. 18.
A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood it is in.
Fig. 19.
PITCH.
Pitch pockets are openings between the grain ofthe wood
containing more or less pitch or bark, and shall be classiﬁed
as small, standard and large ‘pitch pockets. Fig. 20.
A small pitch pocket is one not over 1/8 of an inch wide.
A standard pitch pocket is one not over % of an inch wide
or 3 inches in length.
A large pitch pocket is one over 1%; of an inch wide or
over 3 inches in length.
A pitch pocket showing open on both sides of the piece 1/8
of an inch or _more in width shall be considered the same
as a knothole.
A pitch streak is a well-deﬁned accumulation ofpitch at
one point in the piece, and when not suiﬁcient to develop a
well-deﬁned streak, or where ﬁbre between grains is not
saturated with pitch, it shall not be considered a defect.
Fig. 21. -
A small pitch streak shall be equivalent to not over one- I
twelfth the width and one-sixth the length‘of the piece it is in. t
A standard pitch streak shall be equivalent to not over
one-sixth the width and one-third of the length of the piece it
is in. (See Exhibit C.) .
EXHIBIT C.

Fig. 20. \
Pitch Pocket.


Fig. 21.
Pitch Streak.
CARS - 95
' WANE.
Wane is bark, or the lack of wood, from any cause, on the
edge.
. SAP.
Bright sap shall not be considered a defect in any of the
grades provided for and described in these rules, except where
stipulated.
SHAKE.
Shakes are splits or checks in timbers which usually cause
a separation of the wood between annual rings.
Through Shake—A shake which extends between two faces
of a timber.
Ring Shake—An'opening between the annual rings.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Defects in rough stock caused by improper manufacture
I and drying will reduce grade, unless they can be removed
in dressing such stock to standard sizes. -
All stock except car sills and framing shall be inspected
on the face side to determine the grade. Stock surfaced one
side, "the dressed surface shall be considered the face side.
Stock rough or dressed two sides, the best side shall be con-
sidered the face, but the reverse side of all such stock shall
not be more than one grade lower. _ -
Pieces of siding, lining or rooﬁng with 13g ‘of an inch or
more of tongue will be admitted in any grade, provided ‘it
does not run more than one-third the length of the piece.
In all grades lower than B and better, wane on the reverse
side, not exceeding one-third the width and one-sixth the
length of any piece is admissible; provided the wane does
not extend _ into the tongue, or over one-half the thickness
below the groove. .
Chipped grain consists in a part of the surface being
chipped or broken out in small particles below the line of
the cut, and as usually found shall not be classed as torn grain
and shall not be considered a defect.
Torn grain consists in a part of the wood being torn out
in dressing. It occurs around knots and curly places, and
is of four distinct characters—slight, medium, heavy and deep.
96 CARS
Slightly torn grain shall not exceed ,1, of an inch in '
depth; medium, 11'? of an inch; heavy, 1/8 of an inch‘; any
torn grain heavier than 1,43 of an inch 'shall be termed deep.
Loosened grain consists. in a point of one grain being torn
loose from the next grain. It occurs on the heart side of
the piece and is a serious defect, especially in ﬂooring.
Rot, Dote and Red Heart—Any form of decay which may
be evident either as a dark-red discoloration not found in
the sound wood, or the presence of white or red rotten spots,
shall be considered as a defect. '
Firm red heart shall not be considered a defect in any
of the grades of Common Lumber.
The grade of all regular stock shall be determined by the
number, character and position of the defects visible in any
piece. The enumerated defects herein described admissible
in any grade are intended to be descriptive of the coarsest
pieces such grades may contain, but the average quality of
the grade shall be midway between the highest and lowest
pieces allowed in the grade. ~
Lumber and timber sawed for speciﬁc purposes must be
inspected with a view to its adaptability for the use intended.
All dressed stock shall be measured strip count, viz. Full
size of rough material necessarily used in its manufacture.
Equivalent means equal, and in construing and applying
these rules, the' defects,.whether speciﬁed ‘or not, are under-
stood to be equivalent in damaging effect to those mentioned
applying to stock under consideration.
Lumber must be accepted on grade in the form in which
it ‘was shipped. Any subsequent change in manufacture or
millwork will prohibit an inspection for the adjustment of
claims, except with the consent of all parties interested.
The foregoing general observations shall apply to and
govern the application of the following rules:
B and Better Car Siding, Lining and Rooﬁng will admit
any two of the following, or their equivalent .of combined
defects: Sap stain not to exceed 5 per cent; ﬁrm red heart
not to exceed 15 per cent of the face; three pin knots; one
standard knot; three small pitch pockets; one standard pitch
pocket; one standard pitch streak; slight torn grain, or small
CARS 97
kiln or season checks. Where no other defects are contained,
six small pin wormholes will be admitted.
Select Oar Siding will admit of one standard pitch streak,
one standard pitch pocket, or their equivalent; and, in addi-
tion, will admit of not_ exceeding ﬁve pin knots and two
standard knots, or their equivalent; 10 per cent sap stain;
ﬁrm red heart; slight shake; heavy torn grain; defects in
manufacture or seasoning checks. Pieces otherwise good
enough for B, but containing a limited number of pin worm-
holes shall be graded select. This grade is intended to be
accumulated from running B and Better stock, and will con-
sist of all the droppings which do not contain defects in excess
of those mentioned in this paragraph.
No. 1 Common Oar Siding will admit of the following \
defects or their equivalent: Sound knots, not over one-half
of cross section of the piece at any point throughout its width;
‘ three pin knots or their equivalent; wane 1/2 inch deep on
edge not exceeding 1% inches wide and one-half the length
of the piece; torn grain; pitch pockets; pitch; sap stain;
seasoning checks; slight shakes; ﬁrm red heart and a limited
number of small wormholes well scattered. This grade is
intended to be worked from fencing stock, either kiln or air
dried.
Select Car Lining and Rooﬁng will admit of one standard
pitch streak; one standard pitch pocket, or their equivalent,
and, in addition, sound knots not over one-half the width
of the piece in the rough; 10 per cent sap stain; ﬁrm red heart,
slight shakes; heavy torn grain; defects in manufacture, or
seasoning checks. Pieces otherwise good enough for B, but
containing a limited number of pin wormholes shall be graded
select. This grade is intended to be accumulated from run
ning B and Better stock, and will consist of all the droppings
which do not contain defects in excess_of those mentioned in
this paragraph. -
' No. 1 Common Gar Lining and Rooﬁng will admit of the
following defects or their equivalent: Sound knots not over
one-half the cross section of the piece at any point- throughout
its length; three pin knots or their equivalent; torn grain;
98 CARS
pitch pockets; sap stains; seasoning checks; ﬁrm red heart, I
and a limited number ‘of pin or small wormholes well .scat-
tered. This grade is intended to be worked from fencing
stock, either kiln or air dried.
Standard Patterns—(Insert B/P reference, showing net
sizes after working.) " ‘
All-heart Oar Decking or Flooring will admit sound knots
not over one-third of the cross section of the piece at any
pointthroughout its length, provided they are not in groups;
pitch pockets; ﬁrm red heart; shake and seasoning checks
which do not go through the piece; loose or heavy torn grain,
or other machine defects, which will lay without waste or
will not cause a leakage in cars when loaded with grain.
Must be strictly all heart on both sides and both edges.
Heart Face Gar Decking or Flooring will admit of sound
knots not over one-third the cross section of the piece at any
point throughout its length; provided they are not in groups;
pitch pockets; ﬁrm red ‘heart; shake and seasoning checks
which do not go through the piece; loosened or heavy torn
grain, or other machine defects, which will lay without waste,
or will not cause a leakage in cars when loaded with grain.
-Will admit of any amount of sap provided all of the face
side of the piece is strictly all heart. '
No. 1 Common Oar Decking or Flooring will admit vof
sound knots not over one-half the cross section of the piece
at any point throughout its length, provided they are not in
groups; pitch pockets; sap stain; ﬁrm red heart; shake and
, seasoning checks which do not go through the piece; a limited
number of pin wormholes; loosened or heavy torn grain, or
other machine defects, which lay without waste, or will not
cause a leakage in cars when loaded with grain.
STANDARD LENGTHS.
Carv Siding—8, 9, 10 and 12 feet or multiples. ,
Car Lining—8, 9, 1'0, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 feet or multiples.
Car Rooﬁng—5 feet or multiples.
Car Decking or Flooring—9 and 10 feet or multiples.
All orders shall be shipped in ‘standard lengths, unless
otherwise speciﬁed, but no lengths of either car siding, lining
CARS


LUMBER 55c r/o/vs.
JHOWING 7.5 $6 Hem.
A.“ alarm 4'11 a" feral. JURFAGI 88'
Fig. 22.
100 O'ARS
.. multiples thereof.
or rooﬁng shall be shipped, except in the lengths speciﬁed or
Those who do not desire stock shipped
in multiple lengths should so specify.
CAR SILLS AND FRAMING.
No. 1 Common Heart Oar S'llls and Framing will admit of
sound 'knots, provided they are not in groups, the mean or
average diameter of which shall not exceed two (2) inches;
pitch; pitch pockets; slight shake; seasoning checks, or other
Q defects which will not ‘impair its strength more than the
defects aforementioned. Must be sawed from sound timber, _
‘f free from doty or rotten red heart and true to measurements,
if or at least the measurements at no point on the sill shall
'‘ be less than the size required. I
Measurement of the girth at any ‘point throughout the
T. length of the piece must show at least 75 per cent heartwood.
Cubical contents shall ‘not be used as basis for obtaining
f percentage of heartwood under this rule.
No. 1 Common Oar Sills and Framing will admit of sound
knots, provided they are not in groups, the mean or average
i diameter of which shall not exceed two (2) inches;
pitch ;
1 pitch pockets; slight shake; seasoning checks; sap; sap stain,
or other defects which will not- impair its strength more than
the defects aforementioned. Must be sawed true, to measure-
' not more than 14 inch scant when dry or part dry.
ments and from sound timber free from doty or rotten red
heart; must be square cornered, except that one (1) inch
of wane on one corner or one-half (14;) inch of wane on two
corners is admissible. - ‘ i " _
Sizes up to 6 inches in width shall measure full when green,
_ and not more than 1/8 inch scant when dry or part dry. Sizes
6 to 12 inches in width shall measure full when greenand
12 to 16 inches in width shall measure full when green and
not more than 3/8v inch scant when 'dry or part dry.‘ Unless
otherwise speciﬁed, 1/4 inch shall be allowed for each side
which" is 'to be dressed. In'pieces 3 by “6 inches and under
when ordered in lengths exceeding 30 feet, sound knots
shall not exceed one-quarter the width of the face through
‘ which they project, and the grain shall not cross suﬂiciently
to impair the strength.
Sizes .
CARS 101
CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING RULES FOR LOCOMO-
TIVE, FREIGHT AND PASSENGER CAR OAK.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS.
Those who are not familiar with the anatomy of the oak
tree should, when reading over these rules, take into consid-
eration that the rule describes the poorest piece that goes into
the grade and that a large percentage is above the grade
described. 1 '
DEFINITION or OAK FOR CONSTRUCTION PURPOSES.
The term “Construction Oak” means all such products of
Oak in which the strength and durability of the timber is the
controlling element in its selection and use. The following
is a list of products which are recommended for consideration
as “Construction Oak.”
I. CONSTRUCTION oAK.
(A) " -
((1%) Cover Maintenance of Way Material.
) .
(D) Locomotive Timbers: Sills, End and Truck Timbers.
(E) Car Timbers: Car Framing, including Upper Framing,‘ Car
Sills,F End and Truck Timbers, Car Decking, Inside Lining.
( )
(G)
(H) _ _
, (I) Cover Maintenance of Way Material.
II. STANDARD DEFECTS.
Deﬁnition of “Defect”—Fault, Blemish, Mark of Imper-
fection' that will materially injure the. strength.
Measurements which refer to the diameter of knots or
holes shall be considered as referring to the mean or average
diameter.
II. (A) KNOTS.
Sound Knot—A sound knot is one which is solid across its
face, and which is as hard as the wood surrounding it; it
may be any color and contain checks. Fig. 23.
Loose Knot—A loose knot is one not ﬁrmly held in place
by growth or position. Fig. 24. '
Pith Knot—A pith knot is a sound knot with a pith hole
not more than 14 inch in diameter in the center. Fig. 25.
102 CARS
Rotten Knot—A rotten knot is one that is not sound and
not as hard as the wood surrounding it. Fig. 26.
Pin Knot—A pin knot is a sound knot not over 1% inch in
diameter. Fig. 27.
Standard Knot—A standard knot is a knot not over 2
inches in diameter. Fig. 28.
Large Knot—A large knot is a sound knot more than 2
inches in diameter. Fig. 29.
Round Knot—A round knot is one which is oval or cir-
cular in form.
Spike Knot—A spike knot is one sawn in lengthwise direc-
tion. The mean or average width shall be considered in
measuring this knot. Fig. 30.
Bird Peck—Bruises apparently caused by bird peeks during
the growth process of the timber. Considered no defect.
Fig. 32. 0

Fig. 23.
Sound Knot.

Fig. 24.
Loose Knot.

. Fig. 25.
Pith Knot.

1
_ Fig. 26.
Rotten Knot.
40
V\>


Fig. 27.
Pin Knot.

Fig. 28.
Standard Knot.


Fig. 29. ' '


Fig. 30.
Spike Knot. .

Fig. 31.
Burl Knot.


Fig. 32.
Bird Peck.
108 CARS
II. (B) worm DEFECTS.
Pin Wormholes—Pin wormholes are very small holes
caused by minute insects or worms. These holes usually are
not over ‘1% inch in diameter, or smaller, and the wood sur-
rounding them is sound and does not show any evidences of
the Wormhole having any eifect on the wood other than the
opening. Fig. 33.
Spot Worm Defects—(Also known as Flag Worm Defects.)
Spot worm defects aﬁa caused, like pin wormholes, by minute
insects or worms working on the timber during its growth.
The size of the hole is about the same as pin wormholes,
but the surrounding wood shows a colored spot as evidence
of the defect. This spot is usually sound and does not affect
the strength of the piece. Fig. 34.
Grub Wormholes—Grub wormholes are usually from about
14, to 96 inch in width and vary in length from about 131; inch


Fig. 33.
Pin Worm Defects.


Fig. 34.
Spot Worm Defects.


F18. 37. i
/ Metal Rafting Pinhole.


Fig. 35.
Grub Wormholes.
110 CARS
to 1 inch, and are caused by grub worms working in the
wood. Fig 35.
Wooden Rafting Pinholes—This defect sometimes appears
on river timber which has been rafted and holes bored in
the solid wood for tying the timber, and a solid plug or pin
driven in the hole ﬁlling it completely (Fig. 36). These defects
must be treated and considered the same as knot defects.


Fig. 36.
Wooden Rafting Pinholes.
Ordinary metal rafting pin or chain dog hole is considered
no defect (Fig. 37).
II. (c) SAP.
Deﬁnition of “Sap”—The alburnum of a tree—the exterior
part of the wood next to the bark; sap wood not considered
a defect.
Sound Heart—The term sound heart is used in these rules
whenever heart of piece is split or opened and shows on
CARS 111
outside of piece and its condition is sound and solid, not
decayed. Openings between annual rings are checks not con-
sidered a defect.
11. (n) WANE.
Wane is bark or lack of wood from any cause on edges of
timber. \
II. (E) SHAKES. ‘
Deﬁnition of “Shakes”—-Shakes are splits or checks in
timber which usually cause a separation of the wood between
the annual rings.
Ring Shakes—Ring shakes are openings between the
annual rings usually showing only on the end of the timber.
Throughl Shakes—Through shakes are shakes which
extend between two faces of the timber.
Checks—A small crack in the wood due to seasoning; not
considered a defect. ~ . " i
H. (F) GRAIN.
Crooked or Cross Grain—Crooked or cross grain occurs
where the grain crosses the piece within a section of 24 inches
in running length of the piece. This is only considered a
defect in certain smaller sizes of dimension for speciﬁc pur-
poses.
‘ 11. (e) no'r.
Any form of decay which may be detected as giving the
timber a doty or rotten texture vis a rot defect, including what
is commonly known as dry rot. Water stain, or what are
sometimes. called scalded or burned spots, usually caused ‘by
timber lying in the water under certain conditions before
it is sawed, and- burned spots where the timber is improperly
piled green, not considered defects, as they do not aﬁect the
strength of the piece.
112 CARS’
ii
III. STANDARD NAMES FOR CONSTRUCTION OAK.
Standard names for Construction Oak timbers; White
Oak and Red Oak. Unle'ss specially mentioned, these terms
include the following: '
White Oak. Red Oak.
White Oak. Red Oak.
Burr or Mossy Cup Oak. Pin Oak.
Rock Oak. ' Black Oak.
Post or Iron Oak. Water Oak.
Overcup. Willow Oak.
Swamp Post Oak. Spanish Oak.
Live Oak. Scarlet Oak.
Chestnut or Tan Bark Oak.
Basket or Cow Oak.
7 Yellow or Chinquapin Oak.
Turkey Oak.
Black Jack or Barn Oak.
Shingle or Laurel Oak.
Term: Mixed Oak means any kind of oak.
1V. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR STRUCTURAL OAK TIMBERS.
(1-) General‘ Requirements—Except as noted, all struc-
tural timbers shall be white oak, to be, sound timber and
sawed speciﬁed sizes; free from~ ring shakes, crooked ‘grain,
rotten knots, large knots in groups, rot, dote and wane in
amounts greater than allowed in these speciﬁcations.
(2) Boxed Hearts—Boxed hearts are permitted in pieces '
5 by 5 square and larger. The center of the heart shall be
boxed as near the center of the piece as practical, and not
to exceed 30 per cent of the pieces can have the center of the
heart nearer than 11/2 inches from any face; 20 per cent may
show 'one heart face, corner or edge, not to-exceed 75 per
cent of the length of the piece.
Iv.—(3j WANE.
EXPLANATION.
The term 20 per cent of number of pieces or amount
shipped refers to each item and size of each car shipped. ‘
(a) Pieces 5 by 5 to 8 by 8 square may show 1 inch wane,
‘side measurement on any two corners or edges, and this
wane not to exceed more than 25 per cent of the length of
O'ARS 113
the piece singly, or 50 per cent in aggregate. In the absence
of wane aon all corners excepting one, the one corner may
contain wane 50 per cent of the length of the piece as above
described; not to exceed 20 per cent -of number of pieces may
have this defect.
(b) Pieces over 8 by 8, including 12 by 12, square may
show 1% inches wane, side measurement, edge of any two
'corners or edges, and this wane not to exceed more than 331,4;
per cent of the length of the piece /singly, or 66% per cent
‘in aggregate. In the absence of wane on all corners excepting
one, the one corner may contain wane 66% per cent of the
‘length of the piece as above described; not to exceed 20 per
cent of number of pieces may have this defect.
(c) Pieces over 12 by 12 square may show 1% inches,
side measurement, any two corners or edges, and this wane
not to extend more than 40 per cent of the length of the piece
singly, or 80 per cent in aggregate. In the absence of wane
on all corners excepting one, the one corner may contain
wane 80 per cent of the length of the piece as above described;
not to exceed 20 per cent of number of pieces may have this
defect. _
(d) In event that pieces have two faces as wide as above
described and two faces narrower, the proportion of the
amount of wane is admissible.
(e) Pieces 1 inch to 5 inches thick, not exceeding 8 inches
wide, are governed by defect speciﬁcations above mentioned,
with the exception that they shall not contain wane, and not
to exceed 20 per cent of pieces 2 inches and thicker may show
sound heart on one face; pieces under 2 inches thick must
be free of heart. Pieces 8 inches and wider may contain wane
as per paragraphs b and d. V ,
(f) Rough sizes of structural timber shall not vary more
than 1,4 inch scant of speciﬁed size. Dressed sizes may be 1/2
inch scant after dressing.
V.—(B) LOCOMOTIVE TIMBER oAK. PASSENGER CAR DIMENSION
oAK. REFRIGERATOR CAR ‘DIMENSION OAK.
1
Thickness cut to order, widths cut to order, lengths cut to
order. Unless otherwise noted, must be cut from white oak.
114 ' CARS
This stock, wherever practical, should be cut outside the
heart. and must be free of heart shake in pieces under 6 by 6
square. No attempt should be made to box the heart in pieces
smaller than 5 by 7, unless heart is very small and tight. When
heart is well boxed it must be ﬁrm and tight, and the center
of the heart must not be nearer than 2 inches from any face.
Must be sawed full to sizes with square edges, and cut from
sound timber and free from wormholes, with the exceptionof
a few small pin wormholes Well scattered, and an occasional
spot worm. None of these defects, however, to affect the
serviceability of the piece for the purpose intended. Must
be free from split, rot or dote, large, loose, rotten or unsound
knots, or, in other words, free of all defects affecting the
strength and durability of the piece. Sound standard knots
well scattered not considered a defect.
v.—(c) FREIGHT can TIMBER.
Freight car dimensions, including all cars other than
refrigerator and passenger cars. Sizes cut to order. Unless
otherwise ordered, must be sawed from good merchantable
white or red oak timber. This stock must be free of rot,
‘shakes and splits, large, loose, rotten or unsound knots, any
of which will materially impair the strength and durability
of the piece for the purpose intended. This stock is intended
to work full size and length without waste for side posts,
braces and end sills, end plates, drafting timbers, cross ties,
etc., used in the construction ‘of ordinary freight or stock cars.
0n pieces 3 by 4 inches or equivalent girth measurement and
larger (nothing under 2 inches thick), heart check showing
on one corner, admitted on 20 per cent of the pieces in each
car shipment. Well-boxed, sound hearts admitted in this
material in pieces 5 by 6 and larger.
0n pieces 3 ‘by 4 to 6 by 6, inclusive, or equivalent girth
measurement and larger (nothing under 2 inches thick), in
absence of heart defects,‘ wane on one corner, 64-inch side
measurement, admitted on‘ not to exceed 20 per cent of the
number of pieces in each car shipment. '
Pieces over 6 by 6 square may contain 1 inch wane, side
measurement, on one corner, with other conditions same as
3 by 4 to 6 by 6 sizes. '
CARS ' 115
CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING RULES FOR DOUGLAS
FIR CAR AND LOCOMOTIVE MATERIAL.
. 1. The term “Douglas Fir” will cover the timber known
likewise as Yellow, Red, Western, Washington, Oregon or
Puget Sound Fir or Pine, Northwest and West Coast Fir.
2. Douglas Fir Lumber shall be graded and classiﬁed
according to the following rules and speciﬁcations as to qual-
ity, and dressed stock shall - conform to the subjoined table
of standard sizes, except where otherwise expressly stipulated
between buyer and seller. '
3. Recognized defects, in Douglas Fir are knots, knotholes,
splits, checks, wane, rot, rotten streaks, wormholes, dog or
picaroon holes, pitch seams, shake, pitch pockets, chipped
grain, torn grain, loose grain, solid pitch, stained heart, sap
stain and imperfect manufacture.
KNOTS.
Knots shall be classiﬁed as‘ pin, small, ‘standard and large,
as to size; round and spike, as to form, and tight, loose and
rotten, as to quality.
A pin knot is tight and not over % inch in diameter.
Fig. 38_. - .
A small knot is tight and not over % inch in diameter.
Fig. 39. .
A standard knot is tight and not over 1% inches in
diameter. Fig. 40. . '
A large knot is tight and any size over 1% inches in
diameter. Fig. 41.
A round knot is oval or circular in form.
A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise direction. Figs.
42 and 43.
The mean or average diameter of knots shall be considered
in applying and construing these rules.
A tight knot or sound knot is one solid across its face, is
as hard as the wood it is in, and is so ﬁxed by growth or
position that it will retain its place in the piece.
116 CARS
A loose knot is one not held ﬁrmly in place by growth or
position. Fig. 44.
A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood it is in.
Fig. 45. "
.- (See Exhibit D—Douglas Fir.) ..
EXHIBIT D —- DOUGLAS FIR.

Fig. 40. _
Standard Knot.

Fig. 41.
Large Knot.


<$0

, Fi . 42.
Large Spike Knot.
.Aﬂ .
a.» .
s
.. at...
A. s at». .
.mmewsk a. w
. at. ._ ..
M . h L“. i .
Sat...
v .

Fi 43.
Small Spike Knot.

Fig. 44.
Loose Knot.

Fig. 45.
Rotten Knot. '


Fig. 46.
Pith Knot.

Fig. 47
Cluster of Knots.
PITCH.
Pitch pockets are openings between the grain of the wood,
containing more or less pitch and surrounded by sound grain
wood; they shall be classiﬁed as small, standard and large
pitch pockets.
A small pitch pocket is one not over 17$ of an inch wide.
Fig. 49.
A standard pitch pocket is one not over % of an inch
wide, or 3 inches in length.
A large pitch pocket is one over ‘if; of an inch wide or
over 3 inches in length. Fig. 50.
A pitch shake or seam is a clearly defined opening between
the grain of the wood and may be either ﬁlled with granulated
pitch or not, but in either case is considered a defect in any
of the grades hereinafter described.


Fig. 48.
Solid Pitch.


Fig 50.
Large Open Pitch Pocket.
‘if. I a t. if s
I e . I‘.
It’ A . . . . . it» “1.. 00;. i
. l . .-
it“. a . .
l *iI-JIMJI; rut.» . | 2.. . . i. l s .
6113-!‘ wee-‘l flu;
Fig. 49.
Small Closed Pitch Pocket.
v: Q 11.11,‘ v; 858» was‘)
. ..~ . $51!‘!!! .!£.‘l a. .dll, »
.. .... n. .. ‘issues (it. it 1
. i. .. .09..‘1 “A 7.1MA1 . . .
. .. gitebrhuti .. . .
- l I- i \\.v
.. .irilllllil;illii..l


Fig. 51.
Small Pitch Streak.
CARS 125
A pitch streak is a well-deﬁned accumulation of pitch at
one point in the piece, and when not sufficient to develop a
well-deﬁned streak, or where ﬁber between grains is not
saturated with pitch it shall not be considered a defect.
A small pitch streak shall be equivalent to not over one—
twelfth the width and one-sixth the length of the piece it is
in. Fig. 51. . 4
A standard pitch streak shall be equivalent: to not over
one~sixth the width and one-third of the length of the piece it
is in.
WANE.
Wane is bark, or the lack of wood, from any cause on edge.
SAP.
Bright sap shall not be considered a defect in any of the
grades provided for and described in these rules, except where
stipulated. . ~ -
"Sap stain shall not be considered a defect, except. as pro-
vided herein. ‘
Discoloration of the heart of the wood, or stained heart,
must not be confounded with rot or rotten streaks. The pres-
ence of rot is indicated by decided softness of the wood where
it is discolored or by small white spots resembling pin worm-
holes.
M IS CELLANEOUS.
Defects in rough stock caused by improper manufacture
and drying will reduce grade, unless they can be removed in
dressing such stock to standard sizes. .
All stock, except car sills and framing, shall be inspected
on the face side to determine the grade. Stock surfaced one
side, the dressed surface shall be considered the face side.
Stock rough or dressed two sides, the best side shall be con-.
sidered the face, but the reverse side of all such stock shall
not be more than one grade lower. '
Chipped grain consists in a part of the surface being
chipped or broken out in small particles below the line of
the cut, and as usually found, should not be classed as ‘torn
126 CARS
grain, and shall be considered a defect only when it unﬁts
.the piece for use intended. -
Torn grain consists of a part of the wood being torn out
in dressing. It occurs around knots and curly places, and is
of four distinct characters—slight, medium, heavy and deep.
Slight torn grain shall not exceed 75%; of an inch in depth;
medium 11$ of an inch, and heavy 1,4; of an inch. Any torn
grain heavier than 1,4; of an inch shall 'be' termed deep.
Loosened grain consists in a point of one grain being torn
loose from the next grain. It occurs on the heart side of
the piece, and is a serious defect, especially in ﬂooring.
The grade of all regular stock shall be determined by the _
number, character and position of the defects visible in any
piece. The enumerated defects herein .described admissible,
- in any grade are intended to be descriptive of the coarsest piece
such grades may contain, but the average quality of the grade
shall be midway between the highest and lowest pieces allowed
in the grade. '
Lumber and timber sawed for speciﬁc purposes must be
inspected with a view to its adaptability for the use intended.
All dressed stock shall ‘be measured strip count, 'via: Full
size of rough material necessarily used in its manufacture.
Equivalent means equal, and in construing and applying
these rules, the defects allowed, whether speciﬁed or not, are
understood to be equivalent in damaging effect to those men-
tioned applying to stock under consideration.
Lumber must be accepted on grade in the form in which
it was shipped. Any subsequent change in manufacture or
millwork will prohibit an inspection for the adjustment of
claims, except with the consent of all parties interested.
The foregoing general observations shall apply to and
govern the application of the following rules:
The rules referred to under Sections 38, 39 and 40 govern
4-inch or 6-inch strips, and are intended to cover strips used‘
' for car siding, car rooﬁng and car lining.
The term “Edge Grain” is here used as synonymous with
vertical grain, rift-sawn, or quarter-sawed. The term “Flat
Grain” is synonymous with slash grain or plain sawed.
38. No. 2 Clear and Better Edge Grain—Material of this grade
CARS 127
shall be well manufactured, with angle of grain not less than
forty-ﬁve degrees. This stock shall be kiln-dried and prac-
tically free from all defects, but will admit of bright sap on
the face; not exceeding three small close pitch pockets not
over 2 inches long, one pin knot, ‘slight roughness in dressing,
but not a serious combination of these defects.
39. N0. 2 Clear and Better Flat Grain—Material of this grade
shall be Well manufactured. The stock shall be kiln-dried
and practically free from all defects, but will admit of bright
sap on the face; not exceeding three small close pitch pockets
not over 2 inches long, one pin knot, slight roughness in
dressing, but not a serious combination of these defects.
40. No. 3 Clear—Material of this grade shall be sound com-
mon lumber and will admit of roughness in dressing, bright
sap, and also may contain ﬁve pin, three small and one stand-
ard knot and ﬁve pitch pockets in any continuous 5 feet of
length of the piece; or any combination of tight knots or pitch
pockets equivalent to those mentioned above. This . grade
particularly refers to stock used for inside lining of freight
cars. - ’
Standard Car Decking or Flooring—Material of this grade
shall be well manufactured from sound live timber and shall
be free from splits, shakes, rot, bark or waney edges, and“
unsound knots, or pitch pockets, pitch seams or large knots
which would weaken the piece for the use intended. This
grade will admit of sound knots not to exceed one-third width
of the piece, provided they are not in clusters, and sap.
Common Car Sills and Framing—Material of this grade
shall be well manufactured from sound live timber, sawed
full size to sizes ordered and free from rot, unsound knots,
cross grain, bark or waney edges or shakes, but will admit of
sap and any number of sound knots, provided they are notv
in clusters, and do not exceed one—third width of piece; pitch -
pockets or pitch seams that would not weaken the piece for
the purpose intended. -
Sizes up to 6 inches in width shall measure full when
green, and not more than 1,4; inch scant when dry or part dry.
Sizes 6 to 12 inches in width shall measure full'when green
and not more than 1/4, inch scant when dry or part dry. Sizes
128 CARS
12 to 16 inches in width shall measure full when green and
not more ‘than inch scant when dry or part dry. Unless
otherwise speciﬁed, 1/4 inch shall be allowed for each side
which is to be dressed. In pieces 3 by 6 inches and under
when ordered in lengths exceeding 30 feet, sound knots shall
not exceed one-quarter the width of the face through which
they project, and the grain shall not cross suﬁioiently to impair
the strength.
44. STANDARD LENGTHS.
Car Siding—8, 9, 10 and 12 feet or multiples.
Car Rooﬁng—5 feet or multiples.
Car Lining—8, 9, 10,12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 feet or multiples.
Car Decking—9 and 10 feet or multiples.
All orders shall be shipped in standard lengths, unless
otherwise speciﬁed, but no lengths of either car siding, lining
or rooﬁng shall be shipped, except in the lengths speciﬁed or
multiples thereof. Those who do not desire stock shipped in
multiple lengths should sospecify.
CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING RULES FOR CYPRESS
CAR MATERIAL.
1. Cypress to cover Red, Gulf, Yellow and East Coast
Cypress, also vknown as Bald Cypress.
2. Cypress Lumber shall be graded and classiﬁed accord-
ing to the following rules and speciﬁcations as to quality, and
dressed stock shall conform to the subjoined table of standard
sizes, except where otherwise empressl'y stipulated between
buyer and seller.
3. Recognized defects in Cypress are knots, knotholes,
sap, wormholes, shake, season ‘checks, splits and wane.
KNOTS.
Knots shall be classiﬁed as standard and small, as to size,
and sound or rotten, as to quality.
A standard knot is sound and not to exceed 11/4 inches in
diameter. Fig. 52. '
EXHIBIT F—CYPRESS.

Fig. 53.
Small Sound Knot.
/


Fig. 55.‘
Two Small Sound Knots Equal to One Standard Knot.


Fig. 54.
Rotten Knot.
CARS 131
A small knot is one not exceeding ~34 inch in diameter.
Fig. 53. _,
A sound knot is one solid across its face, is as hard as the
wood it is in. a
A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood it is in.
Fig. 54. '
SAP.
Stained sap- or bright sap shall not be considered a defect
in the material speciﬁed in these rules.
SEASON CHECKS.
Ordinary season checks are such as occur in lumber prop-
erly covered on yard or season checks of equal size in kiln-
dried lumber.
WANE.
Wane is bark or lack of wood from any cause on edge.
MISCELLANEOUS.
The grade of all regular stock shall be determined by the
number, character and position of the defects visible in any _
piece. The enumerated defects herein described admissible
in any grade are intended to be descriptive of the coarsest
pieces such grade may contain, but the average quality of the
grade shall be better than the coarsest pieces allowed in the
grade. . -
Lumber sawed for speciﬁc purposes must be ‘inspected with
a view to its adaptability for the use intended.
All dressed stock shall be measured strip count, via: Full
size of rough material necessarily used in its manufacture.
Lumber must be accepted 'on grade in the form in which
it was shipped. Any subsequent change in manufacture or
millwork will prohibit an inspection for the adjustment of
claims, except with the consent of all parties ‘interested.
The foregoing general observations shall apply to and
govern the application of the following rule. The rule referred
to in the_ following section is intended to govern 4-inch or
6-inch strips and to cover strips used for car siding, car
rooﬁng and car lining.
132 CARS
CAB ROOFING Ann SID'ING.
“C and Better” Grade—This-grade will admit ‘sound knots,
stained sap, pin wormholes, very slight shake and other
defects, but none that will prevent the use of each piece in
its full width and length for car rooﬁng and car siding; may
be randpm or speciﬁed lengths and maybe worked to pattern
speciﬁed and graded from pattern side or SZS and C. M. and
graded from the. better side.
CAR LININ G.
Shall be speciﬁed widths and s to 20 inches in- length.
Will admit. tight knots, stained sap, pin wormholes, slight
shake and other defects, but none that will prevent the use‘
of each piece in its full width and length for car-lining pur-
poses. -
CHAPTER IV.
THE UNDERFRAMING—SILLS—BODY BOLSTER—CROSS
FRAME TIES—TRUSS RODS AND FLOORING.
Sills—In the construction of a car the ﬁrst part that is
put together is the under framing. This is true of any sort
of car, ﬂat, gondola, box or special. The structure upon
which the car depends is the rectangular frame work of the
longitudinal sills, and the end sills, body bolster and center
cross~tie timbers. These various parts are indicated on ‘Plate
1., which illustrates a standard Box Car. Center sills No. 48;
Inside Intermediate sills No. 49; Outside Intermediate sills
No. 50; Side sills No. 51; End sills No. 52; Center cross ties
No. 58 and Body Bolster, the component parts of which are
indicated by numbers 116, 117, 173, 174.
Of the main longitudinal sills there are always four, the
two center and the two side sills; sometimes six, when two
intermediate sills are used, and frequently with high capacity
cars, eight when two more intermediate sills are added. With
the cross-tie timber or "Needle Beams” and the body bolster
on the under side, and bolted to each sill, and the end sills
framed to each longitudinal sill to which they are held by
the truss rods (No. 149 Plate I) which pass through the end
sills over the body bolster and under the cross-tie timbers,
‘ a construction is obtained which can be used as a car itself,
or a super-structure added to make box, gondola or other
cars. . -
The, longitudinal sills are of oak, ﬁr or southern pine,
generally one of the last two. Carefully inspected pieces only
are used for these timbers, the importance of which is self
evident. The end sills and cross-center ties are of White
Oak, only solid pieces of wood being used. In the selection
of the sizes of timber to be used a great deal is dependent
upon experience and standard practice. It is very desirable
if consistent to have all the long sills in a car of the same
133
134 . CARS
cross section, and this practice ' is usually followed when a \
car has a super-structure which can be depended upon to
assist in carrying the load. The sills vary in general between
a section of 41/2"x 8" to a section of 5"x 9". Sometimes the
intermediate sills are lighter, the dimension adopted depend-
ing upon the strength desired, the kind of car being con-
structed and the requirements of the particular service for
which it was designed. In passenger cars this is more fre-
quently the case than with freight cars. However, in the
construction of ﬂat cars the side sills will ordinarily be
increased in depth. This is done to get a longer bearing for
the stakes which are often used to hold the load on the car,
and also to stiﬁen the sides of the car so‘that it can withstand
the shocks due to sliding heavy and concentrated loads onto
‘the car. As this kind of car has no upper framing to help
support the load, the sill must be made of ample section to
stand it alone. Gondola cars also are sometimes built with
the side sills of greater depth than the remainder of the
longitudinal sills.
_ The longitudinal sills are framed with tenons into the
end sills, the whole structure being held in place as mentioned
before by the truss rod. Fig. 57 shows thegeneral method of
framing and securing the end sills of’ cars without end plat-
forms. _
As a means of protecting the framing of the corners of
the car, corner plates of either pressed steel or malleable
iron are used (Plate I, No. 168). They are usually the full
depth of the sill and extend far enough from the corner each
way to get good‘ support for the retaining bolts. Sometimes
the outside truss rods hold them to the end sills, a cast iron
ﬁlling block being used around the rod and between the corner
plate and sill. This block is used because the soft wood of
the sheathing is not strong enough to stand the pressure
under the truss rod nut. At times a pocket or cavity is
formed on this corner plate to make a convenient place for
resting the push pole, often used in moving the car by an
engine on the adjoining track. This has sometimes given it
the name of push pole plate. Similar (Plate 1, No. 169-170)
' plates or hands, but narrower, are used upon the super-


STANDARD AMERICAN BOX FREIGHT CAR. .
Particuiarizing every part of the car. Each part is given a number by
which it ma be recogn zed and easily referred to.‘ The following are the
names b w ich the diiferent arts of the car are known:
center. 49 811 s, inside intermediate. 50 Sills, outside
‘ s .
. ra
timber ﬁlling block. 56 Door ‘ ost. 56 Batting tlmlger. '57 Deadwood.
58 Center cross tie. 59 Cyiin or block. 60 Reservoir block. 61 Post,
end. 62 Post. corner. 68 Post, transom. 64 Post, intermediate. 65
Post, ladder. 66 Braces, end. 67 Braces, transom and corner. 68 Braces,
transom and intermediate. 69 Braces, intermediate and door post. 70
Side glrths. 71 End girths. 72 Side plate. 73 End plate. 74 Carlines.
D.
O
O
'1
b‘
0.
door top a .
Side door closed sto . 98 End door. 99 End door closed stop. 100 Hand
brake platform. d . 102 Grain door battens. 103 Grain
oor a . 104 Grain door leaf battens. 105 ; .
Beveled grain strips. 106 Turnbuckle block.
107 Pin lifter bracket, ad sill. 108 Pin
lifter brscklet, deadwood. 109 Draw bar
e.


Q}


handle. 127 Side door bracket. 128
Side door hasp. 120 de door seal
pin. 130 Side door stagle. 131 Side
door open clasp. 18 S e door closed
clasp. 133 d
2 i
Sid d Si et door w d
e oor open s o .
bracket wed e. ‘()3 doorehgog
era 1 7 E d door bracket. 138 En
door ha p 39 End door seal pin
1 nd door staple 14 n 001
bracket wed e. 1 n 00!. 0 en
clas . 43 nd door open stop. 144
Gran door ﬂoor block. Grain


_ lrlilolgr giilgesé il46d Grailnldoor guid
~ . ran 0 r
148 Grain door leaf hinges. 149 Longitudinal truss (redo d1H5p h'ﬁoks'
buckle. 151 Draw bar loop. 2 raw bar followers.
springs. 154 Draw bar carrier and brake step. 165 Draw bar. 156 Draw
n.
e. e 16
side bearln . 117 Body bolster wedge ﬁll-
ing. 118 ody bolster c
Post and brace Blocket.
brake wheel 121 and brake ratchet.
l. 123 Hand
172 End door chaﬁn stri s. 17 Bod
plate. 174 Body bolster bottom plate. 1 5 Klllijg bolt. 176 gll‘lJ eg? 177
8 Side door chaﬁng strip. 179 Side door threshold
plate. 180 End door threshold plate. 181 Carllne strap bolt. 182 Counter
brace rods. 183 Corner post rods. 184 Intermediate post rods. 185 Door
post rods. 186 Corrugated iron rooﬁna. 187 Brake cylinder. 188 Auxil-
iary reservoir. 189 Auxiliary reservo r release valve. 190 Triple valve
1 £35111) p. 192 (gait 1out colck. 196 P in pipe. 4 '
‘r0 _ ressure re a 11 ng va ve. ressure retninin .
I197 Cylinder lever. 198 Floating lever. 199 Floatin lever liiul‘cti'hvrg pg)?!
Cylinder lever and ﬂoatlné lever connection. 201 Cy¥ln 1- er
truck lever connection. 02 Cylinder \ever and mm brake connec ion.
203 Floating lever and live truck lever connection. 204 Hand brake chain.
205 Train pipe angle cock. 206 Train pipe coupling. 207 Train lpe
lcloupltllng' hgse. 208 Brake lever gulde- 209 End plate tie rod. 210 str-
ne e ro .
i
Fig. 56. ‘1
CARS 135
structure to strengthen the corner framing of the girths and
plates.
Body Bolster—These are sometimes called Transoms, Body
Transoms or Cross Bearers. They are the cross beams over
the trucks ‘near the ends of the cars, by means of which the
weight of the car structure and its lading is transmitted to
the center plates around which the trucks swivel. They are
the main support of the car. Upon the strength of the bolster
depends the success of the car design. On account of the
limited space and varying conditions with each car, there


"if
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IN4 .
a 9004! nvuuufl
'11-‘—

"7 A2‘! ‘ "’ 1.9 " "
2 ' ,
8‘ I8‘ 8 I a
o 4 I—1-9-lL0
l l -. .
' ' Fig. 57.
Method of Framing and Fastening End Sills.

l-iélﬂ-é‘ii-Jtihé. :2’ 4,; /2'—-e-4§i1-—/z}—'—Mg~
8' '


has been no general standard of construction used. Each
case has to be decided for itself and consequently there are
numerous types and forms of bolsters in common use. They
all are either iron or steel in the built up or solid form.
Fig. 58 illustrates a common form of bolster built of two
wrought iron plates with cast iron ﬁlling pieces between them
over the side bearing. Another ﬁlling casting is also usually
inserted between them in the space between the draft timbers
which project through them. This form of bolster is also
shown on Plate 1, where No. 173 is the top or tension plate
and No. 174 is the bottom or compression plate. Whatever the
136
CARS
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Son-mam 3.2% so: “smack?
.wm .mrm


CARS 187
design or material of the bolster, it is always bolted to all the
sills with usually two bolts to each sill.
Another form of bolster is shown in Fig. 59. This is made
up of steel plates pressed into the desired shapes and riveted
together. Its detail needs no explanation.
Fig. 60 showing a cast steel bolster is also very clear as
to its construction.
Fig. 61 illustrates the Bettendorf I beam Bolster. These
are made of two I Beams which are bound together in a

@-

usnaw rm “urn .
______-_-¢-—_——-
Fig. 59. i’
Pressed Steel Body Bolster.
parallel position by bands riveted to the ﬂanges at each end
and at the center. The Beams themselves as shown are shaped
by off-setting the web at each end so that the vertical depth
is less than at the center where the full shape of the I Beam
is preserved. '
The illustrations Figs. 62, 63, 64, 65 and 66 show some of
the bolsters of the types already indicated which are in gen-
eral use. The Commonwealth bolsters are of the cast steel
type, while the Simplex bolsters are of the built up or plate
5320mm ~00 .
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140 CARS
. type. The Williamson-Price bolster is also of the built up
type, the ﬁlling pieces of which are both cast or malleable
iron and rolled Z bar. ‘
Cross Frame Tie Timbers—Cross frame tie timbers (Plate
1, No. 58) of needle beams are the transverse beams under
‘the sills between the body bolsters. Their purpose is to tie '
the sills together, preserving the spacing and also to act as


Fig. 62.
Commonwealth Body Bolster.
supports for the truss rod bearings. They assist materially
in stiffening the sills to which they are' bolted. The top of
the cross-tie timber is usually gained for a depth of 5% inch
for each of the sills, thus forming a shoulder on each side
of the center and intermediate sills, and for the inside of the
side sills:
Truss Rods—The truss rods (Plate 1, No. 149) are used


Fig. 63.
-. Commonwealth Separable Body Bolster.
for the purpose of overcoming the deﬂection of' the longi-
tudinal sills when the car is loaded. (in ﬂat cars reverse truss
rods are also used, an example of this construction being
shown on Plate VI. These are added to give the same rigidity
to this class of car that is given the other kinds by the super-
structure.
The number of rods and their strength will depend upon
CARS 141
the load to be carried and also on the kind of car. Flat and
Gondola cars will need proportionately more support from this
source than the various forms of Box or Stock cars, as the
former lacks the support afforded by theside framing of the
latter. The trussing is secured by passing the rods through
the end sills, over bearings on the body bolster, and under
bearings on the cross-tie timbers. The bearings, saddles or
king posts (Plate 1, No. 110) are usually made deep enough
' to ‘raise the rod nearly to the ﬂooring. As illustrated in Fig.


Fig. 64.
Simplex Body Bolster.
58 a block is often secured between the sills on top of the body
bolster, and the bearing then- rests on top of this blocking.
Fig. 64 shows deeper saddles which are secured directly to
the body bolster. For the same reason that a deeper saddle
gives a better truss, the queen posts (Plate 1, No. 111) on
the cross-tie timbers‘ are made as deep as possible. Between
the queen posts at the center of the car, turnbuckles (Plate


Fig. 65.
Simplex Body Bolster.
I, No. 150) are located. After the rod is in place and the end
nuts drawn down so that the rod just projects through them,
the turnbuckles are turned up to set the rod in place. Later
when the framing is all completed the turnbuckles are drawn
up more. Usually they are tightened enough to give the sills
about one inch camber. A block (Plate 1, N0. 106) or key
is then passed through the opening in the turnbuckles. This
is secured from dropping out by keys through it.
Sometimes the diameter over the threads at the ends of
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CARS 143
each half of a complete rod is the same as the body of the
rod. The usual practice, however, is to make this diameter
about one-quarter of an inch longer. The threads for the
nuts are all right handed, half of those for the turnbuckles
are also right handed the other half beingleft handed. The
threads are cut td the United States Standard for the differ-
ent sizes of rods. This is true also of all other rods as well
as bolts.
Flooring—After the under framing is erected the ﬂooring
is laid. This is usually all of pine, either Norway or South-
ern. With box cars, however, the ﬂoor boards at the door
way are sometimes of oak. The general practice is to use
shiplapped ﬂooring, 1% inches to 2% inches thick, the thicker
material being used more especially on stock and ﬂat cars.
The shiplapped boards are used because of the ease with which
a broken or worn out board can be replaced. In fact a tongued
and grooved ﬂoor on a freight car is a- very rare thing at
the present date. The boards are usually laid cross-wise of
the car and are spiked to each sill. Special. arrangements,
however, are made for individual classes of cars, and all
kinds of cars which have inclined ﬂoors for assisting in
unloading the lading, usually have the ﬂooring laid so that the
load will slide along the grain of the wood, as this helps
materially in the handling of the commodity._
The Master Car Builders’ Association in 1901 adopted as
standard the following speciﬁcation. “Flooring shall be‘ of
three kinds: square edge'd, dressed all over, shiplapped, or
tongued and grooved, dressed all over, in accordance with
the section shown.” See Fig. 282.
The following are the M. C. B. Speciﬁcations (Rec. Prac-
tice) for cast _ steel bolsters such" as we have just shown:
When the manufacturer is ready to make a shipment of
material he shall notify the purchaser of that fact and await
the arrival of the purchaser’s inspector, to whom he shall
furnish free any assistance and labor needed to make satis-
factory inspection test and prompt shipment. The manufac-
turer shall protect all castings so that they do not become
covered with rust. At his option the inspector may require
that any or all castings be subjected to sand blast in‘ order
144 CARS
to make an examination of the surface for checks or cracks. '
Theyv shall not be painted before being inspected unless other-
wise speciﬁed. "
Process—Castings furnished under these speciﬁcations
shall be made by the open-hearth, process in accordance with
the best foundry methods. '’ '
From the coupon described in section 12 (a), which has
satisfactorily passed the physical requirements, borings shall
be taken for chemical analysis. '
Physical Properties and Tests—Physical Properties—The
physical properties of steel shall be as follows: Ultimate ten-
sile strength, pounds per square inch, not under 60,000.] Yield
point (by “drop of beam”), not under 50 per cent of ultimate
tensile strength. Elongation in 2 inches, per cent not less
than 1,400,000 divided by the ultimate tensile strength.
Annealing—Test coupons shall be annealed with the cast-
ings before they are, detached. To determine the quality of
annealing, the inspector will have one of the test coupons
mentioned in section 12 (b) cut halfway through and broken
off from the casting for examination of the fracture. If, in
his opinion, the annealing has not been properly done, he
may require the casting to be reannealed, using the'second
test coupon for examination in this case. If after annealing
or reannealing any casting is so much out of gauge as to
require heating in order to bring it within the gauge it shall
again be reannealed before. it may be accepted.
Sampling—For the purpose of determining whether the
physical and chemical requirements are complied with, the
inspector shall select at random one casting from each melt.
From this casting the two physical and chemical test coupons
shall be removed by the inspector, one of them shall be sub-
jected to physical test, but if the coupon cast-ing proves
unsound the other coupon shall be used in its stead for this
purpose. The manufacturer shall have cast on each truck
side two test coupons having a cross section of 1%, by 1%
inch and 6 inches long. These coupons are to be used for
physical and ,chemical tests and their location upon the cast-
ing shall be speciﬁed by the purchaser. There shall be two
additional coupons of a cross section not less than the average
CARS 145
cross section of, the casting. These coupons are to be used to
determine the character of the annealing as speciﬁed in
section 11.
Variation in Weights—Truck sides shall not vary more
than 3 per cent above or 2 per cent below what has been
determined as the normal weight of the casting except that
in case the casting has met all requirements save that of
overweight, it may be accepted at the maximum allowable
weight here speciﬁed. For the purpose of this requirement
the normal weight shall be previously agreed upon between
the purchaser and ‘the manufacturer.
6. Chemical Composition—The steel shall conform to the
following requirements as to chemical composition:
Carbon . . . . . .not below 0.20 or above 0.30 per cent
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not above 0.70 per cent
Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not above 0.05 per cent
Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not above 0.05 per cent
Ladle Analysis—To determine whether the material con-
forms to the requirements speciﬁed in section 6, an analysis
shall be made by the manufacturer from test ingot taken
during the pouring of each melt. Drillings for analysis shall
be taken not less than 1,4 inch beneath the surface of the’ test
ingot. A copy of this analysis shall be given to the purchaser.
Check Analysis—A check analysis may be made by the
purchaser from a test coupon representing each nielt, and this
analysis shall conform to the requirements of section 6.
Sampling for Chemical Analysis—From the coupon
described in section 12 (a), which has satisfactorily passed
the physical requirements, borings shall be taken for chemical
analysis.
Physical Properties—The physical properties of the steel
shall be as follows: Ultimate tensile strength, pounds per
square inch, not less than 60,000. Yield point (by drop of
beam), not less than‘ 50 per cent of the ultimate tensile
strength. Elongation in 2 inches per cent, not less than 1,400,-
000 divided by the ultimate tensile strength.
11. Annealing—All castings shall be thoroughly annealed.
Test coupons shall be annealed with the casting, before they
are detached. To determine the quality of annealing, the
146 CARS
inspector will have one of the test coupons mentioned in sec-
tion 12 (b) cut halfway through and broken oﬁ from the
casting for examination of fracture. If, in his opinion, the
annealing has not been properly done, he may require the
castings to be reannealed, using the second test coupon for
examination in this case. If after annealing or reannealing
any casting is so much out of gauge as to require heating in
order to bring it within the gauge, it shall again be annealed
before it may be accepted.
12. Sampling-r-For the purpose of determining whether the
physical and chemical requirements are complied with, the
inspector shall select at random one casting from each melt.
From this casting the two physical and chemical test coupons
shall be removed by the inspector, one of them shall be sub-
jected to physical test, but if the coupon casting proves
unsound the other coupon shall be used in its stead for this
purpose. '
(a) Coupons—The manufacturer shall have cast upon each
bolster two test coupons having a cross section of 1%; by 1%
inch and 6 inches long. These coupons are to be used for
physical and chemical test and their location upon the casting
shall be speciﬁed by the purchaser. (b) There should be two
additional coupons of a cross section not less than the average
. cross section of the casting, which coupons are to be used to
determine “the character of the annealing as speciﬁed in
section 11.
Weights—Bolsters shall not vary. more than 3 per cent
above nor 2 per cent below that which has been determined
upon as the normal weight of the casting, except that in case
the casting has met all requirements save that of overweight,
it may be accepted at the maximum allowable weight here
speciﬁed. For the purpose of this requirement the normal
weight shall be previously agreed upon between the purchaser
and the manufacturer. ‘ ‘ '
15. M arising—Each casting shall have the following markings
cast upon it in raised letters and ﬁgures: (a) Initials of
Railroad Company. (b) Month and year in which cast,
thus, 6-12. (0) Manufacturer’s serial number and trade
marks (or other designation). (d) M. C. B. S.
CARS . .147
workmanship—They shall conform to the dimensions
shown on drawings and shall be free from rust, scale, blow-
holes and shrinkage cracks. A
Rejection—In case the test pieces selected do not meet the
speciﬁcations, all castings from the entire melt shall be
, rejected. From each casting rejected by the inspector under
these speciﬁcations he shall cause to be chipped the "S” of
the letters M. C. B. S. which are speciﬁed in section 15 '(d).
In order to understand the nature and design of the under-
frame of a car, it must be remembered that it is a framework
which has two functions to perform: First, to carry the
weight of the ﬂoor, lading, and body of the car safely; and,
second, to receive and withstand the buffing and pulling
stresses the car suffers in a train, and this in such fashion
as to damage neither the car body and its lading nor the
underframe itself. In both freight and passenger cars, the
underframe, and body are rigidly connected, and thus
mutually stiffen and strengthen one another. The under-
frame proper includes all the framing below the ﬂoor, includ-
ing platform, draft timber and gear, etc., butdoes not include
the trucks. In the next chapter, draft-gear and couplers are
treated of in detail. ' > ' -
The strains which an underframe has to withstand vary,
and depend a great deal on the design and arrangement of
the body bolsters, side sills and body framing. With substan-
tial side sills and body bolsters, compressive strains can be
transmitted by the latter and thus part of the compressive
load can be taken care of by the side sills. However, there
is a limit to the load the side sills can take care of which is
based on the ratio of length to the‘ least radius of gyration,
the length being considered as the maximum distance between
adjacent ﬂoor beams. In the case of cars with wood body
side framing it would appear desirable to provide sufficient
Y area at the- smallest section of the center sills to take care of
end strains, allowing the side sill to carry only its proportion
of the vertical loads due to lading, weight of superstructure
and an allowance for vibration.
Freight car underframes with very few exceptions are
considered sufficiently stiﬁened by the ﬂoors of the car, be it
14s _ CARS
composite or steel. This -is economical" construction, inasmuch
as the ﬂoor is necessary anyhow. The general question of
resistance of the car towards longitudinal shocks is not receiv-
ing the attention that it should. Suppose a car, weak in that
direction, fails in a long train. It will naturally cause a
wreck and suffer damage, but what is ‘more signiﬁcant, all the
other cars, weak or strong, will suffer likewise. Therefore,
all the cars offered in interchange should be made of a certain
standard strength. We have standards and speciﬁcations for
bolsters, wheels, arch bars, axles, bolts, brake beams, couplers,
hose, and dozens of other details, but we have none for the
car itself. Occasionally we hear persons advocating a standard
car for all the roads, and rightly too, but until such a time we
should have speciﬁcations covering the minimum strength
longitudinally so as to make the trains of a uniform resisting
strength.
Cars do not, as a rule, fail because of the weight of their
lading; nearly always it is because there is something rad-
ically wrong about the car, either in its design, or because
it has not been kept in proper repair. Complaint is often
made that there is now much more rapid deterioration of
rolling stock than there was a few years ago; and investiga-
tion shows that an enormous percentage of these failures
arise from defects or faults in the underframing, including
the draft gear and its attachments thereto. Under the tremen-
dous impacts met with in the long heavy freight trains of
today, even oak sills crack—they are not strong enough to
resist modern buffing shocks when caught between two of
the present huge steel cars. Some roads are still putting
wooden material into their underframes, but this practice is
bound to speedily disappear as a useless waste, owing to the
rapidity with which these cars are disabled in heavy service.
In some cases when the center sillsv are broken, they are
replaced by steel sills. In any case, center sills should be
strengthened by the use of ﬁlling or ‘packing pieces secured
between them, butting against the end, sill, and extending
beyond the body bolster towards the center of the car a dis-
tance at least as much as that between the bolster and the
end sill—this also for draft gear purposes. Allowance should


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‘END FOR HOPPER DOOR OPERATING SHAFT.


99
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PIECES BUTT HERE TO BDLSTER SIDE PANEL


SECTION QC.


MASTER 611R BUIIIDERS'HSSOCIHTIQN.
STANDARD SPLICING or STEEL. s||.|_s.
v STANDARD SPLICING OF WOODEN SILLS.
STANDARD END FOR ‘HOPPER DOOR OPERATING SHAFT.
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SIDE SI Ll-
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‘’ SPLICING OF STEEL SILLS.

SECTION D. D.
m g. as.
ISOSJLIA.
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CARS 149
be provided therein for the M. C. B. coupler side clearance
of 2% inches.
For cars with wooden sills, the M. C. B. Rules permit the
substitution of oak, ﬁr or southern pine for one another in
renewing or splicing longitudinal sills. Draft timbers must not
be spliced. Longitudinal sills may be spliced at both ends,
except that not more than two adjacent sills may be spliced
at the same end of the car; and the splicing of any sill between
cross-tie timbers will not be allowed by the Association. Full
details of the M. C. B. Rules governing the permissible
splicing of sills, both wood and steel, together with numerous
drawings illustrating the same, with the bolts, etc., will be
found under M. C. B. Rule 22 in the supplement to this volume
containing the Code of Rules. See Fig. 68. In this connec-
tion, we may say that the comparison between steel and
wooden cars is based upon the compressive strength of wood.
The fact is that wooden sills fail from splitting or bending,
and from bending only when not properly supported; prac-
tically never from compressive weakness alone.
With a view to decreasing this chronic destructiveness of
wooden cars, railroads have been compelled to strengthen
the underframing of their cars in various ways; either by
putting in steel sills, or by using metal draft arms, or by
putting in complete steel underframes. When these are part
of wood and part of metal, they are generally called com-
posite underframes. The general condition and age of cars
have to be taken into consideration as to what method of
reconstruction should be used most economically to enable
them to cope with modern severe service shocks. Their con-
dition and age may not justify the expense of applying any
of the above named proper reinforcements _of a car, in which
‘ case it is better to junk them and apply the scrap credit to
new cars. For many of the older types, some roads are using
metal draft arms, which cost only one-third as much as com-
plete steel underframes. Many are not worth even this
expenditure, especially among the old 20 and 30 ton cars,
and this is why the latter are now about disappearing, as
both too weak and too small for present shippers’ demands.
150 CARS
STEEL UNDERFRAMES.
The day of wooden underframing is now past, though a
number of old cars equipped therewith may be seen about
the country, used now almost entirely for local tramc on
home roads. Sills, body bolsters, cross-frame ties, etc., are
now made of metal. The truss-rods have become ﬁsh-belly
girders, pressed steel forms, or been abolished in even indirect
forms. The wooden car had to undergo great changes, or
go under in the struggle for existence in the same train with
modern steel cars with which they competed. If a box car
is loaded, the superstructure considerably‘ assists the center
sills in their work; if empty, the conditions are no better
than with a ﬂat car. Steel is now the word for underframes, '
and its use has established the use of the temporary term
“steel underframe cars”—an appellation fated to soon dis-
appear as distinctive, as in a few years all cars will have
none other than steel underframes. As early as 1913, of the
freight cars not all-steel built that year, 7,871 were all-wood
(including underframe); 7,745 had composite underframes;
39,966 had steel underframes, and 22,207 had both steel under-
frames and steel upperframes. The stresses due to buﬂing
and pulling had increased tremendously over what they‘ -
formerly were, and hence the railroads had either to scrap
their old cars, or equip them with complete steel underframes,
with steel draft arms extending beyond the bolster, with or
without the addition of steel center-plates and trucks.
In the transition from wooden to steel underframes, the
mistake was frequently made, in the laudable endeavor to
keep the car’s light weight down to a minimum, of making
the center-sill construction far too light for either safety or
durability, and of not making suﬂicient use of cover-plates to
bind the steel center sills together. The importance of low
ﬁbre stresses apparently was not understood in the .early
designing of steel underframes, and the result was that steel
underframe cars were often so constructed as to be really
weaker than the old wooden cars. Like errors are still being
,made, as a matter of fact, as may be seen‘ every day in our
car shops, where one beholds cent'er sills buckled and distorted
in signiﬁcant fashion, as the results not of accidents, either,
CARS 151
but simply oi‘ ordinary service impacts. In some new all-
steel and steel upperframe (and underirame, of course) cars,
the cross-sectional area of the center sills has been so reduced
that they are no stronger than wooden cars.
Steel underframes when properly constructed have shown
up well in accidents. The chief diﬂiculty is to properly tie
the superstructure to the underframe so that it will not rack
loose. It the center sills and side sills have ample strength
to hold up the corners, the end braces and corner braces may
be omitted in steel cars. Experiments show that provisions
should be made in designing a steel underframe box car to
take care of an impact blow of 350,000 pounds transmitted
throughout all the sills; for box cars with wooden side
frames, of a blow of 300,000 pounds; of 200,000 pounds for
those with steel side frames.


Fig. 69.
Sub-Sills for Strengthening Old Cars. The Bettendorf Company.
The application of steel center sills to old cars will no
doubt prolong their life. This is now being done by almost
every railroad on cars built just prior to the advent of all-
steel underframe box cars, but care should be taken‘ to see
that sufficient metal is provided to withstand the present serv-
ice requirements, keeping in view a margin of safety for the
future, as no doubt it would be desirable to maintain in
service for at least ten years cars to which these steel center
sills are applied. .
A type of steel sub—sills used for strengthening old cars
is shown in Fig. 69.
Generally, it may be said that there are four types of
underframes: (1) Those carrying the weight equally on all
152“ ' CARS
the sills; (2) those carrying it on the center sills only;
(3) those carrying it on the side sills only; and, (4) those
carrying it on both sides and center sills. Of these, the ﬁrst
is the most largely used with wooden cars and in repairing
them. In type two, there are no real side sills, the super-
structure being attached to the angles, and the weight of the
body resting on the side-bearings as well as on the center-
plate; the center sills being girders of various forms tied
together in different fashions. The cross-bearers (equivalent
to the needle-beams of wooden cars) are transverse members
of the steel underframe between the bolsters, helping to dis-
tribute the weight of" the car, and in some types, tying the
various sills together. In this last case the cross-bearers
usually have a ﬁller between the center sills ‘and thus extend
acrossthe car. In such cars, the term Cross ,Tie is applied
only to those members whose sole function is to tie center
and side sills together. In type three, the car sides carry all
the weight, the center sills being used only for buﬁing and
pulling. A common form uses two I-beams running the full
length of the‘ car in one piece, and held up by three cross-
bearers which run under and are fastened to said beams—a
substantial body bolster being used, as the weight is carried
at the ends of the bolsters. Type four is only a combination
of types two and three, deep center sills being used together
with cast-steel construction which adapt it for. passenger car
use. Whether the freight car uses any of these types, depends
largely on its lading and use; and some of them have both _
heavy center sills and fairly heavy side sills.
The center girder type of center-sill construction is now
by far the most common; use being made of steel channels
or of pressed steel shapes, each of which has its partisans.
One of the best types, having the greatest strength for a given
weight, has continuous center sills, the cover-plates extending
through the body bolsters as ‘far as the- construction will
permit, with auxiliary cover-plates at ’the center, both top
and bottom. A still better one has a continuous cover-plate
over the top, also on the bottom throughout except at the
ends where it is omitted to make room for the draft attach-
ments, etc. '
CARS 153
Cover-platesare now almost universally used to bind the
center sills together, making of them a compact and durable
girder. Cars having a center-sill construction without cover-
plates, and using diagonal braces from the outer ends of the
body ‘bolsters, needle-beams, and end sills to the center sills,
frequently fail. Riveting draft arms made of pressed steel
shapes to center sills having no cover-plate or other means
of tying the center sills together, also results in frequent
serious damage to lading and equipment.
Where structural steel channels are used for center sills,
the practice is to extend them to the end sill to serve as
draft sills. It has been customary when ﬁsh-belly type center
sills are used, to provide pressed steel Z-shape draft sills
and splice them to the center sill web plates projecting
through the bolster. There is a tendency on the part of
designers today to do away with the splice by extending the
web plates of center sills and providing outside angles to
form the draft sill using a continuous cover-plate. Where
pressed steel center sills and cover-plates are used, the prac-
tice has been followed of extending this construction to the
end sill, bringing the cover-plate too near the end of the sill.
This construction requires the use of web plates about 1%
inch thick, so as to provide suiﬁcient bearing area for draft
lug rivets. When draft sills have suﬁicient net area behind
the bolster stop, the splice may well be dispensed with.
The M. C. B. requirement is that the space between steel
center sills shall be 127/8 inches. As to the types of steel
center sills, their diversity in design, length of cover-plates,
arrangement of cross-bearers, etc., may be seen in the common
kinds shown in Fig. 70. . V
The following are the general opinions and recommenda-
tions of experienced car builders, in view of the continuing
weakness of certain types of metal underframes:
Existing Steel or Steel Underframe Cars, which have less
strength than that speciﬁed below, should be classiﬁed with
wooden cars, and subject to the same rules for combination
defects: _
Area of center sills not less than 16 square inches.
Ratio of stress to end strain not more than 0.09.
/
154 CARS
The length of center or draft sill members, or part of
member between braces, to be not more than 20 d. where “d"
is the depth of the member, measured in the direction in
which buckling might take place.


=[ _— _
= .
TYPE A TYPE 8 TYPE C TYPE 0
‘I I’ ‘I "I
J L .l L J J L J L‘ L. J
TYPE E TYPE F TYPE 6 TYPE N
Fig. 70. '
Typical Sections of Modern Center Sills.
For new cars the area of steel center sills should not be
less than 24 square inches.
Ratio of stress to end load, not more than 0.06.


Fig. 71.
Cast Steel Needle Beams. Commonwealth Steel Company.
The length of center or draft sill members, or part of
member between braces, to be not more than 20 d. where “d”
is the depth of the member, measured in the direction in
which buckling might take place.
Even where steel sills of comparatively large cross-area
were used, it sometimes happens that the underframing
gives way, owing to a lack of their proper anchorage. The
. CARS 155

F lg. 72.
Ralston Patent Steel Underframe for Freight Cars. Ralston Steel
Car Company.


Fig. 73.
Steel Underi’rame i’or Freight Cars. American Car and Foundry Co.
156 CARS
anchorage of center sills may be accomplished in various ways,
the more common methods being by means of cover-plates,
or diagonal braces. The value of such braces increases the
value of the center sills. Cover-plates add direct value, and
diagonal braces add partial value, depending on their angu-
larity. Braces at right angles to the center sills add no value
to the .center sill area, unless speciﬁcally designed as hori-
zontal girders of sufficient strength to transfer all of the end
strains from the draft to the side framing, in which case the
side framing must perform the functions of center sills, and
must be subject to the same rules. The value of braces at
point of minimum strength may be added to the center sill
area, taking effect in the horizontal plane in which such
value lies.

1 / nm'J-m ‘ I W
I V


Fig. 74.
Pressed Steel Underframe for 50-Ton Capacity Box Car.
All agree that the limit for the maximum strength of the
underframe is based on the minimum cross-sectional area of
center sills; but the widest diversity, both as to theory and
practice, prevails among car men, as to the minimum amount
of this cross-sectional area. One large road uses 24 inches
or more for this area; whilst another uses two 15-inch chan~
nels properly reinforced, but without continuous cover-plate,
with results satisfactory to itself, at least. Some roads are
putting in 35-inch and even 40-inch areas into their new
equipment. One railway has some 30,000 cars having an area
of 19.8 inches, and ﬁnds that suﬁicient for the class of traﬂic
in which its cars are employed. Roads on which exceedingly
heavy trains are handled, may ﬁnd it desirable to use heavier
construction even at the expense of hauling heavier dead
weight; but others protest against the 500 pounds to the cost
CARS 157
of pulling a car, which the above mentioned 16 and 24 inch
requirements would add to the weight of a car. All agree, _‘
however, that the cars should be built for ten years’ service
or so, not for four or ﬁve years; and this depends largely
on ‘the life of the underframing, which must be so constructed
as to have a correspondingly long life. '
To illustrate various parts and types of modern steel
underframes, we show cast steel needle-beams, Fig. 71; the
box girder type of underframe, Fig. 72; the ﬁsh-belly type
of underframe, Fig. 73, and ‘ side and end sills in Fig. 74.
CHAPTER V.
DRAFT GEAR AND COUPLING. /
The method of attaching car to car in order to make the
connected line of vehicles a_complete train is, it will readily
be supposed, a matter of prime importance. It is a matter
that in marked degree affects the structure of the car. Not
only does the safe movement of the train depend upon it but
the act of coupling or detaching cars is one involving danger
to human life. Hence much thought has been given to the
devices that should be adopted.
The subject has received the'a'ttention of Congress and
the “Safety Appliance Acts” provide, amongst other things,
that “it shall be unlawful for any * * * common carrier
to haul or permit to be hauled or used on its line any car
used in moving interstate trafﬁc not equipped with couplers
coupling automatically by impact and which can be uncoupled
without the necessity of men going between the ends of the
cars.” The law also made provision for the ﬁxing of a stand-
ard height for drawbars for freight cars. The heights so pre-
scribed are: Standard-gauge roads, 341/2 ‘inches; narrow-
gauge roads, 26 inches, maximum variation between. loaded
and empty cars, 3 inches. . '
The term draft gear embraces the whole combination of
draft attachments and coupler'attachments. It includes draft
arms, automatic couplers, drawbar housings, uncoupling ar-
rangements, buﬁer blocks, dead wood, safety appliances, and
special ﬁxtures. Of these, the coupler is composed of several
distinct parts; the term drawbar being generally used synony-
mously with coupler, though now being largely used to mean
the part thereof behind the coupler head. In the same way,
draft gear proper now generally means the apparatus which
connects the coupler drawbar with the car sills. In connec- '
tion with the draw-bar housings, it is necessary to consider
the complete attachment or fastening of the coupler to the
158
CARS 159
car. At the end of the coupler drawbar is secured a pocket
or yoke which is of suflicient dimensions to enclose the
springs, etc., of that particular type of draft gear. The coupler
is held in place by the carry-iron, and, by the follower-plates
which extend through this pocket or yoke and engage the
housings on the draft timbers or metal draft members.
I 414 1
1a.... - 411/. ..LlL. _. _: ~


Ila/ea‘ Cored/g" Ho/es. cored‘; 3
Drawing A. Drawing B.
Fig. 75.
The draft gear carry-iron is a plate which extends under-
neath the draft sills and supports the draft gear. A drawbar
carry-iron is a U-shaped strap fastened to the underside of
the end sill and supporting the outer end of the drawbar.
The springs are called draft springs; while the follower
plates are plates which bear against each end of a draft
spring, and transmit the tension or compression (the pulling
or buﬂing) on the drawbar to the draft springs and to the
draft members or timbers. The M. C. B. standard for such
followers requires them to be of wrought iron or open hearth
steel, 1% inches thick for tandem spring gear; 21,4, inches
160 _ CARS
thick for twin spring and for friction gear. These followers
are conﬁned in their movements back and forth by the front
and back stops, the M. C. B. standards for which are shown
in Fig. 75. The yoke is a pocket strap, which contains
these springs and followers, and is the means of attaching the
drawbar to the draft gear; it is generally U-sh'aped. The
draft key is used in some forms of draft gear.
The deadwood is a piece of wood fastened to the end sill
on wooden cars, and usually arranged with a metal face——
called a striking plate—to take ‘the blow from the coupler
horn when cars are coupled by impact. Sometimes the carry-
iron and striking-plate are made of one steel casting, for use
with steel or wooden cars.\' In addition to the deadwood,
buffer blocks are sometimes used, being metal blocks secured
either to the deadwood or end sill, two to each end of the
car, and projecting out just far enough to take the entire
blow of impact without interfering with the operation of the
couplers. The term buffer is also applied to a cushioning
apparatus (using buffer springs, usually) applied to the end
of a. car to receive and absorb shocks. While generally con-
ﬁned to passenger equipment cars, others are now being de-
vised for use onfreight cars, such as the Gould Coupler Co.’s
Friction Striking Plate Buffer for Freight Cars shown in
Fig. 76 and in Fig. 77. This device is well adapted to wooden
cars with inefficient spring draft gears, and here the cast-
steel base contains the friction parts replacing the ‘ordinary
buffer blocks. Similar devices having high friction capacity
in buﬂing shocks, help greatly to protect car attachments and
lading, and, as they often are inexpensive means of prolong-
ing the life of cars and draft gears, they are likely to be
increasingly adopted, especially with the tremendous shocks
suffered in modern freight service. '
In order to offset these heavy shocks to cars and their
whole underge'ar, no doubt steel underframes eﬁect a mate-
rial improvement in various ways, but there is still room for
the latter, when we consider the multitude of light cars, weak
rigging, broken yoke rivets, loose and split draft timbers, and
light couplers, still in service. The draft gear is a most
important factor in the question of car maintenance and other
CARS
161
---—--- --_--

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.5, III )1
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Fig. 76.
Friction Striking Plate Buffer for Box Cars.


zl’Cwrfg


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0'
_ ._ ,9__. A]
Housing
Wedge
Wedge Plate
Leaf Springs
Pin
Cotter Pin
Cover Plates l
Spring Wear Plates
Bottom Wear Plate
Top Wear Plate
Cotter Pins
162 CARS
expenses resulting from car failures and delays due to “break-
in-twos” on the road. It is generally the only device that
we apply to a car to protect it and its lading from damage.
It has no other function to perform. It must destroy shocks
from impact, shocks from pulling, and shocks due to the recoil
of its draft gear. It is claimed by car experts that cars are
damaged in switch yards 20 to 1 for those damaged on the
road; and, while it is true that better draft gear is still
needed, that more careful operation, especially in switching,

Fig. 77.
Detail of Gould Friction Striking Plate Buffer.
\
is still more urgently needed to prevent damage to the whole
undergear of freight cars, nevertheless, a poor draft gear
causes more or less damage to the entire car, particularly in
case of a box car, where it is destructive to both car and
lading.
A reasonable estimate of the cost of repairs to freight
cars occurring through draft gear alone, is approximately
ninety million dollars a year: this with the resultant loss and
damage claims, cost of switching bad-order cars to and from
repair tracks, delay to traﬁic and consequent overtime,
CARS . 163
amount to about $250,000,000 annually, caused by draft
gear troubles. It is an important factor in keeping the average
daily mileage of freight cars down to 25 miles—a great source
of lost efficiency. The principal troubles were with the old
style of underframingz—l. Short draft timbers, which must
go, as cars equipped with them are now not accepted in inter-
change. 2. Not enough distance between bolster and end
sill. Some kinds of draft gear work up close to the body
bolster and so cannot get proper riveted connections to pro-
duce good construction. 3. Couplers insufficiently attached.
Heavy couplers must be ﬁrmly attached to handle greater
stresses that the new M. C. B. coupler will transmit to the
underframe. At present, standard draft lugs, their attach-
ment to sills, and also draft sills show weakness. 5. Im-
proper clearance on side-bearings; they should be increased
on railroads with short-radius curves. 6. Truck n'uts fall-
ing off. '
With the wooden car, there were always two draft timbers.
The purpose of such members is to carry the drawbar hous-
ings and transmit the pull to the car framing in such fashion
as not to put too great a strain on either part, and thus save
both car-damage and train delay. These draft members are
the most important present feature of car construction, and,
although they are now either coincident with or so framed
with the center sills as to form a component part thereof,
yet, they still present difliculties if not carefully constructed
and supported. In the old wooden car they extended from the
deadwood to the body bolster, or through the latter to the
butting timber, being usually made of white oak. Their use
is now forbidden, so much trouble did they cause in modern
service. What with draft bolts breaking, drafts, end sills,
center sills and couplers pulling out and drafts working back
and forth four to ﬁve inches at times, allowing the air hose to
be out enough to apply the air brakes, thereby delaying the
train, they have proved their utter worthlessness nowadays.
The short wooden drafts dropped down causing wrecks, and
when making couplings, sometimes the end of the car broke
down, making it very unsafe for trainmen and liable to incur
164 ' CARS’
damage suits. Hence, the M. C. B. Association decreed their
utter abolition henceforth.
The greatest difficulty is due to the way of fastening draft
gear to draft sills, together with occasional weakness in the
sills. With steel underframes, when structural steel channel
center sills are used, they generally are extended to serve as
draft sills; with ﬁsh-belly type center sills with cover-plates,
it is best to extend the web plates of such sills for this
purpose, avoiding the splicing of them, as said before. All
steel center sills have the M. C. B. standard space of 12%
inches between center sills. This Association also proposes
that “after Oct. 1, 1916, all cars of less than 60,000 pounds
capacity, having wooden or metal draft arms which do not
extend beyond the body bolster, will not be accepted in inter-
change.” Draft arms that extend only that far should never
be used in any case. Draft timbers should be held securely
to center sills, end sills, and deadwood by not less than six
.7/8-inch bolts or ﬁve 1-inch bolts. In all cases apply the draft
gear that will destroy the greatest amount of shock without
recoil.
Many hold that it is not the occasional heavy shock but ,
the great multiplicity of the smaller shocks that wears out '
cars, and hence, that a moderate capacity gear will pay in the
end, rather than trying to obtain a capacity which will take
care of the maximum shock, which may come only once a
week or month; Still, most car men agree that draft gear
should have ample strength to overcome very heavy shocks
if the extra expense can be stood, making the gear as light
as possible so as not to increase the dead weight of the car
overmuch. The steel car has no “give” like the wooden car
‘ has, and so it needs increased draft gear capacity to cut down
its coupler and draft gear troubles. The all-wood car had
some give which helped out the gear, but with a properly
designed steel underframe or steel car conditions changed, -
and the gear had to absorb the whole shock. Here, too, one
of the diﬁiculties is that we have to stay within a limitation
of 2% or 3-inch travel in the travel of the draft gear, and have
to build the drawbars within a limit of one square foot. If a
movement of 5 or 6 inches could be had they could make the
\
CARS A 165
friction parts take up much more shock, and with 5 or 6
square feet a stronger drawbar could be built. 1 At present,
the ﬁrst is out of the question, because we could not keep the
air hose coupled, and the second equally so, because of the
increased expense. Improvement could be had, however, by
eliminating rough switching, for on roads where the speed of
switching has been cut down to 2 miles or so an hour, millions
of dollars have been saved each year in both car repairs and
freight claims, even after putting on more switch engines and
crews. -
In cases where it is found that to equip the cars with
steel underframes would cost more than it was advisable to
put into old cars, metal draft arms have been placed under
such cars. Continuous steel construction or long metal arms
with open bolsters, locking them with both the top and bottom
members are still being used, but the best "type is that in
which these arms, which are now mostly cast steel, extend
back through the body bolster four feet or so, together with
open cast steel body bolsters. Draft arms made of pressed
steel plates riveted to center sills which have no cover plates
frequently fail. In most cases, the draft arms are locked to
the top ﬂanges of the body bolster, making them perfectly
stationary. This protects the draft bolts, and by these drafts
extending through the bolster it keeps them from spreading,
supports the center sills and the end of the car, and the
coupler is always carried up to the standard height. In a
late design, the compression timbers are placed in line between
the needle-beams, and from each needle-beam to the butting
face of the metal draft arm. They should be ﬁtted in so tight
that a jack is required to get them in place, and they should
be at least 5 inches'by 6 inches. This type of reinforcing,
including a modern friction gear can be applied to a car'for
about $140.00, and is quite eﬂicient, standing up well under
hard service.
'Fig. 78 shows steel draft sills, fastening to end sill and
bolster; Fig. 79, cast steel draft sills with pockets and stops
cast integral; Fig. 80, metal draft arms applied to wooden
center sills; Fig. 81, cast steel transom draft gear with rein-
forcement for old cars, and Fig. 82, steel transom draft ‘gear
166 CARS
applied to wooden sills. The casting of the stops integral with
the arms is an excellent feature, as it does away with the
shearing of the rivets used to fasten the stops to the draft
sills or members.
There are a great many forms of draft gears in use in this
country, all of which have been developed with the idea of
taking care of the pulling and buﬁing strains which come on
the drawbar, and by easing it up, bringing these forces to
bear gradually, thus absorbing the shocks and preventing them
from damaging the car and lading. All may, however, be
divided into two classes: 1. Those in which the drawbar


Fig. 78.
Steel Draft Sills Arranged for Fastening to Both Body Bolster and
End Sill of Freight Cars.
pull is taken up wholly by some combination of springs, com-
monly called Spring Draft Gear, and 2, Those which have
springs also, but in addition make use of some sort of friction
arrangement to absorb the heaviest strains, allowing the
springs to take care of the ordinary pulls. The last is called
Friction Draft Gear. Draft springs are attached to the draw-
bar and kept in bounds by the follower plates. Like nearly
all other main springs about a car, they are helical or spiral
springs, known as double-coil, triple-coil, etc., springs, accord-
ing as two, three or more springs are combined together by
placing one inside the other. Twin Spring Gear is one which
two springs are arranged alongside of each other; Tandem
Spring Gear when they are arranged in tandem.
Draft gear must protect the car by absorbing shocks.
whether due to pulling, buﬁing or the recoil produced by the

.' Fig. 79.
Cast Steel Draft Sills with Pockets and Stops Cast Integral.
The Bettendorf Company.
168' CARS
parts of the draft gear itself. To perform this function,
springs varying from 18,000 to 60,000 pounds capacity were
used and gave good protection in the past when cars were
light, trains short, speed slower, and engines less powerful
than today. But the day has passed when it was the practice
to use one or two simple springs between the followers for
a draft gear. Not only are the springs twice as powerful, but
they are so combined in spring gears as to offer great re-
sistance to shocks, though modern heavy cars and trains have
largely called for the use of friction gear to back up the
springs.
There are many kinds of both tandem and twin spring
gears now on the market, differing from one another in type,


Fig. 80.
Economy Draft Arms Applied to Center Sills—Body Bolster
Dropped to Show the Recess.
weight, strength, yokes and other attachments. A tandem
spring gear with the Murray Keyoke is seen in Fig. 83;
another very good type, in the Miner Tandem Spring Gear,
Fig.‘ 84; and another in the Buckeye Tandem Spring Gear in
Fig. 85. A twin spring gear of modern type is shown in the
Buckeye Twin Spring Gear, Fig. 86; a very popular one in the
Twin Spring Gear with Universal Yoke and Attachments, Fig.
87; another in the Twin Spring Gear with Double-Keyed Yoke,
Fig. 88; and another in the Farlow Spring Draft Gear with
Twin Springs, Fig. 89. A special kind called a transom draft
gear is seen in Figs. 81 and 82.
Under former conditions spring draft gear gave satis-
factory service, but time has changed this. The capacity of
draft springs is limited to their safe recoil effect, which, of
course, exactly equals the capacity of the springs to resist
CARS
169


Fig. 81.
Application of Cast Steel Transom Draft Gear with Reinforce-
ments for Old Cars. Commonwealth Steel Company.
OH
S2170
Fig. 82.
Cast Steel Transom Draft Gear.

Commonwealth Steel Co.
CARS 171
buffing shocks. The damage resulting from this recoil (or
“kick-back") is every severe on cars in transit, and is hard
on the lading, couplers, attachments and other parts of a car.
With steel cars the steel end sills are often so massive and
the capacity of the spring gears so disproportionately low
that the coupler head is continually being hurled against the
end sill until ﬁnally it breaks. As conditions of service became
more severe, more powerful draft gear was necessary. Greater
capacity was demanded without increasing the recoil—in fact,
it was felt desirable to reduce this recoil. These qualities
could not be had by increasing the capacity of the springs as
this would obviously increase the recoil. Hence, after much
experimenting the friction draft gear was devised to meet
these new conditions.


. Fig. 83.
Murray Keyoke for Use with Tandem Spring Draft Gear.
By friction draft gear is meant any sort of draft gear in
which the draft springs do not do all the work, but make use
of friction to take up the shocks beyond the capacity of the
springs. The principle is that arising from the friction be-
tween different pieces of metal pressed against each other
with great force. This friction between separate rough metal
pieces is great, and causes a large part of the energy delivered
by two cars striking against each other, to be used up in over-
coming this friction. One ﬁne feature with such gear is that
it practically does away with all shocks due from recoil, and
if it did nothing else it would still be enough better than the
old spring gear to warrant its substitution for the latter. The
use of friction gear is now imperative with present conditions,
and many railroads, recognizing this fact are now replacing
Fig. 85.
Buckeye-Tandem Spring Draft.Gear. Buckeye


Steel Castings Co.
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Miner Tandem Spring Gear. W. H. Miner.
MINER
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CARS 173
their spring gear with friction gears that have from three
to four times the shock-absorbing capacity of a spring gear.
Such gear should have practically no recoil. It has high


Fig. 86.
Buckeye Twin Spring Draft Gear. Buckeye Steel Castings Co.
eiliciency, and is the best draft gear yet produced. The
original friction gear had 21/2 inches travel as compared with
spring gear’s lift-inch travel. Now, some makes of friction
gear have a travel of 3% inches; and long travel is the most
efficient travel; it is not only desirable but also very effective
in absorbing hard blows. This, added to other notable
qualities helps solve many draft gear troubles. It has been
tested in every way, in the laboratory, by ramming bumping-
posts; and by long road service, and has proved its great and
incontestable superiority over all other present draft gears.
Draft springs are destroyed by heavy shocks, but with good
friction gear this failure can be reduced to a very low ﬁgure,
for the reason that the draft springs in such a gear are not
driven solid, even though the gear receives a shock suﬂicient
to close it. It decreases the number of couplers broken, and
after ﬁve years’ service is equally efficient as new ones in
absorbing shocks. It costs far less to maintain cars equipped
with it than cars equipped with spring gear. If there be some
who distrust it still it is likely that this is largely because
174 _ ~' ones
they do not yet understand how shocks can be absorbed by
friction. '
There is still some diversity of opinion among railroad
men as to which is best, spring-gear or friction-gear. Many‘
yet, hold to a spring-gear, while others hold the friction-_
gear to be a “life-saver.” The former ask: Does the good
, obtained from the friction-gear warrant the extra expense for
it? While a spring~gear is probably cheaper than a'friction-
gear as regards ﬁrst-cost, it will certainly cost far more in
the, long run in paying for repairs and damages on account
of poor ‘protection. Some railroads are still applying spring
draft gear to cars which is of too small a capacity for the
service it is subjected to. These gears should be replaced by
high capacity friction gears, as this will assuredly‘ effect a
big saving in the end. 'It is’ signiﬁcant that even as,_early as-
1918 ,only' 51,017 of‘ the freight-cars built that year were
equipped with spring draft gear, while 77,089 used some type of
friction gear. ' . '
There are many types and makes of friction draft gear,
and it remains to be seen which type is the best. The ideal _
type of friction-gear should have high shock-absorbing
capacity; be easy and economical to maintain; should exclude
small parts which may be easily broken or damaged; and-it
should not‘ be complicated, thus making it easy for the aver-
age repair man to handle it when necessary. - It should
have some means of compensating for slack which may occur,
due to wear of parts of the device, and this without reducing
the length of travel, as reduction in travel-'means reduction
in eﬁiciency. . Such a device should also be inspected regularly
the same as the air-brake, and ‘its construction should make
such inspection easy. .
The following statement .gives the actual comparative
service performance of spring-gears and friction-gears, and
clearly establishes the superiority of the friction-gear.
3 '6 8 m
2 c: ' 5;: =32 1?“ Ga
. g 2 8 $3 2 5" 2 8.2 8 o
. _ O m PQM Elli-4 mesa: EGO-t
Various Types of Spring-Gears. .1,526 710 2,421 3,143‘ 207
Various Types of Friction-Gears 168’ 93 438 86 12
CARS


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Fig. 87.; ‘
Twin Spring Draft Gear with Universal Yoke and Attachments.
Universal. Draft Gear _Attachment Co. ‘ ' r

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Universal Draft
Gear Attachment Company.
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Universal Double-Keyed Yoke-with Twin Springs.


CARS 177
The majority of the spring gears were applied to wooden
cars, which, to a certain extent, form a cushion themselves
and greatly protect the parts susceptible to failures. In order
to obtain a correct comparison, only defects that are common
I
Fig. 89.
Farlow Spring Draft Gear with Twin Springs. The T. H. Syming-
ton Company.
to both wooden and steel cars were considered, otherwise the
results would be much more favorable to the friction gear.
It is interesting to note that on 4,805 cars equipped with the
friction gears there were 828 failures, or 17 per cent of the
total number of cars, while of the 15,000 cars equipped with
178 ' - CARS
spring gears 12,211 or‘ 81 per cent failed, a difference of 64
per cent in favor of the friction device.
As examples of friction draft gears, may be mentioned the
‘Miner Friction Draft Gear, Class A-18 with Two-Part Cast
Steel Yoke with Key Connection to Coupler, Fig. 90; the Buck-
eye Frictio Gear with Yoke, Fig. 91; a friction draft gear
with Universal Keyed Yoke and attachments, Fig. 92; and the
'Farlow-Westinghouse Two-Key Draft Gear, Fig. 93.


The yoke is one of the most important parts of any draft
gear, and is either riveted or keyed to the end of the drawbar.
Of late years, in connection with riveted back and front stops,
it has been subjected to much criticism because of its failures;
being replaced by other attachments, largely on account of the
pocket rivets being in shear under impact. In present day
railroading, with 50 and 60 ton cars and humpeyard switch-
ing, some yoke attachments are undoubtedly too weak; but,
wrought iron or steel yokes should not necessarily be rejected,
and they are still widely used with favorable results compar-
able to other parts of the draft gear. Forged steel yokes are
now being replaced by cast steel yokes, as cheaper and pos-
sessed of ample strength. The failures of yokes are due to
shocks‘, but the wrought iron or steel yoke with 1%,x5-inch
section riveted to the coupler with two lift-inch rivets are
being operated with. very few failures, although the keyed '
type of yoke is now the more popular.
In all yokes, the design and distribution of metal should
be such as to preserve a minimum eﬂiciency of at least 50
per cent above supposable stresses, and the rivet~holes should
be ‘so proportioned as to reduce to the lowest chances the
shearing off of the rivets. During the past two years, a large
number of cast steel drawbar yokes have been applied to new
cars. These usually weigh from 155 to 195.pounds, depending
on the type of draft gear used. With key-connected cast steel
yokes it is possible to change the couplers without disturbing
the draft gear or yoke, thus avoiding much of the handling
in the shop and repair yards which is necessary with the old
riveted type of yoke. The rivets which have for years been
a source of heavy maintenance expense are entirely eliminated.
As regards strength, .yokes now manufactured are required

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(nor shared) rough edges and burrs removed
YOKE KEY
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MINER FRICTION
DRAFT GEAR
CLASS "A48"
TWO PART CAST STEEL YOKE
WITH KEY counscraou TO COUPLER
N. Y. C. LINES
GONDOLA CARS
IAIUI'ICYURI.
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CARRY IRON
SAFETY CLIP
STEEL
4 Per car
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Fl .91.
Buckeye Friction Draft Gear. -%uckeye Steel Castings Company.
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FRICYION DRAFT GEAR
To .
STEEL FREIGHT CARS
Umvllm but" in! A'r'racuncw Cc
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Fig. 92. - _ -
Universal Attachments for Friction Draft Gear. Universal Draft
Gear Attachment Company. -
CARS 181
to pull not less than 350,000 to 360,000 pounds ultimate and
have an elastic limit of 200,000 pounds.
The correct ‘harness for any draft gear should provide for
a limited key travel, to protect the cushioning device and
distribute buffing shocks on the car underframe in line with
its greatest strength. On some of the modern devices. over-

Fig. 93
Farlow-Westinghouse Two-Key Draft Gear. The T. H. Symington
Company.
load is distributed at six places on the car underframe. With
the yoke connected coupler, the drawbar side-thrust is often
25 per cent of the tractive effort exerted, and this extra train
resistance considerably decreases the tonnage that can be
hauled, besides increasing the locomotive's fuel consumption.
Proper attachments minimize this loss. In hauling around
curves, the coupler key should take a diagonal position in the
slots, under slight spring tension. This will give ample side
play to the coupler, permitting the tractive power to be applied
closer to the pivotal center of the car truck. This shortens
182 CARS
the pulling length of the car, and relieves side strain and
wear on ﬂanges, rails, brasses, and wedges. It also reduces
the possibility of derailment. Such attachments should pos-
sess ﬂexibility enough to enable them to pass easily around
the curves of the ordinary railroad. The weakest point under
buﬁing shock, is believed to be the draft stops which are
r
i
a>
Drawbar and Yoke Returned to an Automatic Coupling Position.
Forsyth Radial Keyed Yoke.
Fig. 95.


YOKE Foe TWIN


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STANDARD AUTOMATIC COUPLER YOKE.
'9 1,
u UNCOUP-l-ING ATTACHMENTS.
REVISED-
Jen-1'35»,
Fig. 94.
CARS ' 183
riveted to the center sills with nine ‘lg-inch rivets each, driven
into {é-inch holes. Some car men take this as convincing
proof that a yoke rigging with riveted draft stops is wholly
inadequate for modern service, claiming that in every day
service, ultimate buﬁing shocks are met with which are far
beyond the capacity of the riveted yoke attachment. Their
ideal rejects yokes, yoke rivets, draft stops, or follower plates
to break or maintain; and includes a device which makes it
impossible to jam the springs. ‘
The standard M. C. B. coupler yoke is shown in Fig. 94.
The rear of the yoke is formed with 'ig-inch radius at inside
corners, and is ﬁtted with ﬁller block of wrought iron or steel,
having 1-inch radius ends, and is secured by one %-inch
counter sunk rivet. The standard M. C. B. Inspectors’ Gauges
for this yoke are found in Fig. 99. The M. C. B. key’ is 5x1%
inches, so as to secure correctness and uniformity in the size
of the key slot. ' ‘
Due to the present enormous sidestrains, yoke‘ and draw-
bar ‘side clearance mean, if insufficient, both many bad-order
cars and increased expense, resulting from the excessive wear
and failures of couplers, sheared-off yoke rivets, distorted
draft~gear, and unnecessary wear of journal ends and brasses,
center bearings, etc. For this reason, new types, such as the
Forsyth Radial Keyed Yoke (Fig. 95) permit connection
with the drawbar by means of _. key or of yoke rivets (when
key is not available), and allow both yoke ‘and drawbar to
swing freely into the straight lineeof draft or buff on curves,
thus eliminating the injurious side strains, especially on cross-
overs or when cars are backed onto sharp industrial curves;
Always, if keys are extended through center sills, the key-
slots should be made so long that there will be no danger
of the keys striking the ends of the slots before full travel
of the gear is reached, especially on curves, when keys are,
of course, at a slant to the sills. - -
Types of the various kinds now in general use may be
_ seen in Figs. 82, 83, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91 and 93; ,both the solid
type and the hinged or two-part types being therein repre-
sented. Some of them make use of a single key, others of
keys, and a late type has three keys in use. The advo-
184 CARS
cates of the solid type—which is generally made of cast steel
—claim that it shows fewer failures than the two-piece types,
whose joining point is obviously a weak place. However, the
two-piece kind has its own advantages, and therefore is still
in common use. At present, the solid cast steel yoke ranks
highest in popular favor amongst car men.
No part of the draft gear is more important than the


. Fig. 96.
Gilman-Brown Emergency Knuckle. Railway Appliances Company.
ordinary automatic coupler now exclusively in use on all
cars, both freight and passenger; its use being made manda-
tory by federal law. There are many different types, varying
more or less; but all consisting of parts named, or corre-
sponding in function to, the coupler head, shank, knuckle,
knuckle pin, lock or locking-pin, and lifter or lock lever. If
we could put a draft gear between the coupler and the car
that would absorb the heaviest shock, there would be no
couplers broken, as the latest couplers are strong enough to
last as long as the life of the car. But as it stands today,
there is much trouble; on one large system the number of
couplers pulled out and broken has almost doubled during
the past year. For every coupler, there have been 7 knuckle-
pins which have failed, showing this to be about the weakest
part of the coupler. While knuckles wear out in service,
there are a great many of them that break from shocks, and,
CARS 165
here again, the draft gear that will relieve the coupler, will
aid the v.knuckle. Defective lock blocks are, however, respon-
sible for 1,993 defects out of a total of 3,000 coupler defects
tabulated by one road. The uncoupling chain is the .most
proliﬁc cause of defects to uncoupling mechanisms, as out of
a total of 4,701 defects of this kind, 2,324 cover the‘ defective
chains.
It is readily understood that when a knuckle is broken out,
the coupler is practically of no use until a new one has been
substituted. On account of the great number of couplers and
knuckles in use it is practically impossible to always have on


Fig. 97.
Hins‘on Emergency Knuckle.
a train a knuckle to suit the individual case of breakage.
With this idea in view an emergency knuckle has been designed
which can be applied to any type of coupler body, and which
will answer for all ordinary purposes until the train can reach
a point where the proper knuckle ‘can be obtained. This
knuckle and its mode of operation is shown in Figs. 96 and 97.
Because of the imperative need of uniformity as regards
.the couplers of cars, especially in interchange freight service, '
the M. C. B. Ass’n ﬁnally adopted a temporary Standard
Automatic Coupler, as shown in Fig. 98, which gives the
standard contour line; the coupler shank, however, being of
standard dimensions throughout, for all types of couplers.
As regards the mechanism of the coupling details, all that is
required to be standard is the general outline of the parts.
186 ' ‘ \ CARS
As a check on the ﬁnished coupler, the Association established
gauges for the coupler, knuckle, coupler shank, and I, ‘yoke;
see Fig. 99. There are many kinds of couplers in use which
are strictly M. C. B. standard, each being designed with differ-
ent methods for opening, closing and locking the knuckle.
Conforming as they do to the standard contour, each is capable
of being operated in connection with any other, especially as
the law has rigidly ﬁxed the height of the drawbar. ‘
The M. C. B. Ass’n has also ﬁxed standard speciﬁcations for
couplers, their parts, knuckle pivot pins, knuckles; and has
provided for. full tests thereof. These, together with the legal
height of couplers and the uncoupling arrangements for
M. C. B. couplers are as'follows: ' .
The couplers will be subject to the inspection and test of
the . . . . . . . . . . . . Railroad Company as to their workings,
general condition and strength. The test and inspection will
be made at the place of manufacture. All necessary assistance
and labor for making inspection, tests and ‘prompt shipment
shall be furnished by the manufacturer free of charge. Coup-
lers shall be ordered as far as practicable in lots of 1,000.
For each 1,000 ordered, the manufacturer shall furnish 1,013
and 6 additional knuckle pivot pins, and in the event of
additional couplers or knuckle pivot pins being required to
carry out the tests, they shall be furnished free of cost by
the manufacturer. The word “Coupler” as here used includes
the bar itself and the contained parts within the head, such
.as locks, knuckle throws, etc.
Manufacture—The couplers furnished under these speciﬁca-
tions shall be made of steel in accordance with the best
foundry methods and shall not be painted. All parts shall be
well annealed throughout. The testing machine approved by
the M. C. B. Ass’n shall be used‘ for the testing of couplers.
'11. Test No. LStriking Test on Closed Knuckle ofv Completed _
Coupler, Taking“ Sample for Test No. 1--After the inspection
by the manufacturer and the . . . . . . . . railroad inspector, as
per sections 38 and 40, the latter shall select ‘one complete
coupler, taken at random, from each of the lots as provided
for in section 39 and subject them to the following test:
Preparation for test No. 1: As a preliminary, the coupler
RADII NOT
BUTT FOR FRICTION GEAR.
MAX.
‘THIS DISTANCE TO BE USED FOR
FRICTION DRAFT GEAR
I.
LESS THAN I;
lZé-NO PROJ EC'I'IONS HERE
NOTE:- THE. TOTAL LIFT ‘OF LOCKING PIN SHALL NOT BE
M ..
ORE THAN 6, OPERATED EITHER FROM TOP 0 M,
ALLTOP-LIFT COUPLERS nusr HAVE'A I-ILF. ELET FOR LOCKING
DEVICE LOCATED IMMEDIATELY ABOVE LOCKING PIN HOLE.
ON ALLNEW TYPES OF COUPLERS AFTER _
MINIMUM THICKNESS 9F FRONT WALL OF COUPLER To BE I§,_
_ HE BACK OF BUTT To INSIDE FACE OF
aoérscuzs.
USED FOR ATTACHING YOKES T0 COUPLER B
5T0 F, UTTS.
WHEN KNUCKLE IS CLOSED ITS CONTOUR MUST COINCIDE WITH
com'ouR or HEA . f I-
COUPLEP’A'IAY BE MADE WITH EITHER 530R bi BUTTS
OF slzrpr seam.
ali- MAx -
l.
BUTT FOR SPRING GEAR.
G
THIS DISTANCE TO BE
SPRING DRAFT GEAR
PQOUECTIONS HERE
SURFACES G TO BE GROUND
SQUARE TO
STANDARD FOR EXISTING CARS.
TYPES AHER JAN. |- was
NOT MORE THAN l’.
LESS THAN 1'.
‘nus. DIMENSION To BEOF
SUFFICIENT LENGTH_T0 ALLOW
APPLICATION or a CUTTER
nmoucu PIN snow we.
STANDARD FOR EXISTING CARS.
TYPES AFTER JANA-I303.
NO‘I’Ei- THE KEY SLOT snownr
ON raz oaAwmss 0F was a;
coueusa su‘rr HAY senses
ON ALL STANDARD SIZES OF
COUPLER eu'r‘rs
DRAFI' GEAR STOPS.
LESS THAN-I:
OPEN
:5 ' casm
CUTTER
LUG.
55‘
FORM OF CONTOUR LINE.
GAR
COUPLER.
STANDARD conroua LINE. ,
STANDARD DRAFT GEAR s'roPs. 2mg“.
STANDARD KEY SLOT FOR .s'xs" ' AND 5"X7"SHANK$.
DIMENSIONS R VISED IBIL


SE - C- C.

0|-


“ \
. ' ..- I
SUFFICIENTLY ro CLEAR 'T" r... / , _
THIS LINE. \‘m' a ‘
n" t'" g“ .
. lb \ Wu, - y 5


Max-55 _ ' NOTE:- THE KEY sLoT SHOWN_
5|‘ IE4,- _- ON THE DRAWINGS OF THE 65
m5 sii.‘ m" NOT LESSTHAN'I ' . 33"T¢_ERS$E.TEAESYSIEESU?>$°
,; g 56- ‘I _ MCB.T'-.MPORARY STANDARD FOR EXISTING CARS. COUPLER BUTTE”
A. T 5} ON ALL NEw TYPES AFTER JANA-i903 _____ - _____ _.._
. __. _----— "58
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%////////////////////////////////////////. “N “LE "U51 OPEN - 4 "'"L'JT" i l
,,_ SECTION _ \—_--“ SUFFICIENTLY TO CLEAR “2' ____as_,_,i- ,. 5. -
9" BUTT FOR FRICTION EITK'A- - "51E; 54.‘ -_ a 5;‘ “' -i- “B ' “Is-""5,
' B - CI; R-ial-g- RAuIINoT Lass TIIANI' E ‘9 5A '
A __ 2'4“ MIN. - all; x“
mi a
G41”? G ‘rm; DISTANCE TO 3: uses FOR 23.—— g A '
F1 . 1 i m‘ FRICTION DRAFT GEAR L}? r__\ i - I; :12;\, . '3‘ 1“ Lam,
l_ ' ‘I _j_ _ _ \
_ii_l'}"j_ it NOT LEss THAN Ii ' émmx M n— ' '6 I \ I G‘
ht a, ‘ . m
d) . , Torr >- z ‘w rm mun z- ___ v ..m as MAL " __ 2| < _ _._ _ 5!
a‘! E ‘3 ‘3: l 32 i5 rimmun MM 4-}: . 5g / MI‘NIMun MAX. 4% - /mN Mu"
<.- a 2g 3 m MIN. 4-‘ _ 1\ ~ MIN. 4' °
:3.’ . z m z - 3 ANY VARIATION FRO 1 THESE DIMENSIONS MUST BE IN sxcEss, ANY VARIATION mon THESE DIMENSIONS MUST BE Ismail
_. ,
a" _ an. L ’ F3 /
" 4 R: 0
GT ~-|-_ -T--|-- l}]/ L ‘2_ ..l z J,
L '_ _l___l. J. T .- ' I
, g g i t 12% NO PROJECTlONS HERE ——
a .1 c _ - . _. _ I
NOTE:- THE TOTAL LIFT OF LOCKING PIN SHALL NOT BE '_'_ -__ y r‘ V1 ' ~ ~
MORE THAN 6', OPERATED EITHER mon TOP or BOTTOM. . rug % ALLT -L.\FT COUPLERS r1usT HAVE'Ali‘LEYELET FOR LOCKING //ﬁ )ﬁ é
DEVICE LocATEo lMMEDlATELY ABOVE LOCKING FIN IIoLE. THIS DIMENSION To BEOF Y _- - ~ -
0N ALLNEW TYPES OF COUPLERS AFTER JANUARY_|_|SOS igmlzgimroihzrgérgggéiélkw, KEY SLOT FOR .3 X 7 SHANK. KEY SLOT FOR 5X5‘ SHANK.
MINIMUM THICKNESS pF FRONT wALL or COUPLER T0 at 11' T u . ‘ “VIE; '——~: —~———13
THE DIMENSIONS_FROM THE sum or BUTT T0 lNSIDE FAcEToF “R0 G“ H" “Low um’ . /// . l /r//
__NUCKLE BE aoglgtcﬂzs. w Hv_5c_ E 5 44/ __3_
I}, RIvETs To an; usEo ‘FOR ATTACHING YOKES T0 COUPLER Bu'r'rs. - 1; 5 =5 ‘,1, ~35“ a‘-- 51- al I
HEN KNugKLE Is cLosEo rrs CONTOUR MUST coINcIoE WITH ' —— ' ' '
CoNTouRAF HEAD. ~ —7 I
couPLEe MAY BE MADE wrm EmIER argon Ag BUTTS RscARnLsss E) C ..C > O. C '
OF sIzE or SHANK. _ z: m, i all; - ’
/'=i —- C) 0.4;} [ o 0.: o as
2. a__ ‘£4 RM" Nmassmmt-w; mcsTEMPoRARY STANDARD FOREXlSTING cARs. ET, r M I? A '1?“ ~
. > . - ‘ 1' . _’_‘_:'_. I v \_
y I Is gag-on ALL NEW TYPES AFTER JANi-l Isoe. DRAMNGT_ DRAWING E‘ _
%.,,/// Viz/j '73 3 e . DRAFT GEAR STOPS. ,
- I . . <- NOT mm: “IAN-I. 4
.- ‘5' - h x 4 - ' “-
v - _ ‘ — - N
.‘ f; E .LNOT LESS TNAN~[ ‘ \ '
f WW I . KNUCKLE MUST OPEN
' CTlON


al ‘- MAX - Elg-
4' MIN.“ ZI'E
_ F“- //
._I_— la‘ ' -'~-£- FORM OFCONTOURLINE.
(92 BUTT ma SPRING GEARE": 21am‘; 2:: “mm r__‘l I 2,15‘- . ,
G ‘:R G P IN DRA _ D
, ,_~ ,. T ASTER GAR Blllll ERS ASSOCIATION
{Jilin-7— I“ ‘.2. 7;" STANDARD AUTOMATIC COUPLER.
.J ‘.0
i ",1 Z l . 2 STANDARD couroua LINE.
- é" ._ SUFFICIENT LEN" _ o m a .
11H ___r_ _T_\ I z I3’ 5 STANDARD DRAFT GEAR STQPS. RWRAMG?
l:.. Li‘; ‘ ,. '5 Ieoaml
“TWP-74: _4_ \I '_ ‘z’ 2 STANDARD KEY SLOT FOR S'XS" ' ‘w I
G s- mnggzcnous HERE -I§'_~_] 1 ND 5nx7u SHANKS. V ‘i I
r‘ SURFACES MARKED a T0 at GROUND 1 r -- a van om: gens "'
sauARE To GAUGE. I I 44:! l— T ‘ Q’é'iﬂucﬂg'ifu'gugps'gﬁ Guumlilg-m " REVISED i911. A;
I :1 mass. _ '
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EDGE smu. s: MALLEABLE n'Qb/v o/e STEEL.


mu M: ctr/Emu mun/.5717”; orua fan-mt! WIT/l
flit 1714M! I! I’ W ﬁll/Kl‘ P/A/ A101! 70 5! 6744'” RR
T/l: 1 '0 Mir .9!‘ ail/V! MTZA’ML, 41/014’! III/I50 Tllll‘lﬁl'S-i.
MASTER 611RBUIIIDERS'ASSOCIATION.v
. H’ '
STANDARD BEARING. WEDGE & LID.
‘n '
FQR JOURNAL 5 >< s".
' rm GENE/£11. ARRANBEMEM: _______ "v.95: Sl/EET,‘ 7
F01? Jul/MAL aox.______-__~____ __ 555 M557: 8
W
THE U0 SPRING MAYBEUfﬂ/VY DESIGN/MIDI)!” EESECl/ﬂfﬂ TO THE LID BYANY P171407’ [CABLE MET/10D
mow/0:0 THAT/Th'ﬂﬁ/(S PROPERLY ON THE STINLMRD 50)’ AND 15 0F 771E DESIGNATED $50770” Z'X If
A’R/VET' 0f,’ NUT MﬂYBf USED INSTEAD ﬂfﬂ 0077517 INHl/VGE PM! If PREFERRED


Fig. 177.
v.4»;


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GAUGES
AND YOKE.
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; STANDARD lNSPECTORS GAUGES FOR COUPLER SHANK AND YOK ‘T;
—-—_+ _ -- "I— ' STANDARD LIMIT GAUGES. i
newsman
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KNUCKLE LIMIT GAUGE.
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coupums WW“ nus-1;.“ Am'. Iﬁiwm A; “N ' - 7 ‘c’ “a: a’. “uni-‘gm A19 11:‘? nor-gotta I"
' ‘— m u“ “m ' cs AXIAL -
c D cu _‘“u w “a v a :g-A'j' mg’ nuucnu'. emu-Ill: Ana no" new :xocm
Fig. 100.
CARS 187
I
shall be marked on the bottom of butt with a center-punch
line, parallel to the axis of the shank, this line to extend to
the inner face of the knuckle (See Cut ‘1, Fig. 100). The
coupler shall be rigidly ﬁxed in the machine in a vertical
position, with the axis of the coupler in the center line of
drop, the pivot pin hole parallel to line through center of legs
of machine and the butt blocked solidly on the anvil to
prevent lateral motion, by means of steel ﬁllers and wedges,
the latter sledged down tight, this sledging repeated after.
each blow. The heights of support from bottom of butt end
should not be greater than 19% inches.
Striking Test—Blows to be struck directly on knuckle.
3 blows of 1,640 pounds falling 5 feet. 3 blows of 1,640 pounds
falling 10 feet.
Failure of Test No. 1—The coupler shall be considered as
havingfailed to stand this test if it is broken before it has
received three blows at 5 feet and three blows at 10 feet, or
if any crack appears more than 1 inch long or open more
than 11,; inch or the center-punch line measured at the contour
is distorted more than 1% inches after having received three '
blows at 10 feet, or if the knuckle is closed more than %, inch
from its original position, when pulled out against the look
by hand after receiving three blows at 5 feet, or if the knuckle
will not open, or if the locking device is inoperative after test.
For vmeasuring axial distortion and knuckle closure (see Cuts
1 and 2, Fig. 100).‘
Retest—If the coupler fails to stand the prescribed tests,
but, before failing, stands three blows at 5 feet and'one blow
at 10 feet, a retest will be admissible, and a second coupler
shall be taken from the same lot from which the ﬁrst coupler
was taken and tested as per section 11. If it stands the test,
that lot of couplers shall be accepted as far as test No. 1 is
concerned; otherwise that lot of couplers shall be rejected
and another lot substituted and tested in the same way.
Taking Samples for Tests Nos.\2, 3 and ./,—From each 1,003
couplers accepted by test No. 1, three complete couplers shall:
be selected by the inspector, one of which shall be subjected
to test No. 2, one to test No. 3 and one to test No. 4 hereafter
speciﬁed. If any coupler fails to stand the prescribed test,
18-8 CARS
but before‘failing stands a suiﬁcient number of blows to make
a retest admissible, a second coupler shall be taken from the
same lot or lots from which the ﬁrst was taken. For instance,
if the coupler selected for test No. 3 has been taken from the
fourth 100 couplers and'the failure allows a retest, a second ,
coupler shall be taken from the fourth 100 couplers. If it
stands the test, that lot of 1,000 couplers shall be accepted as
far as that test is concerned, otherwise that lot shall be
rejected and another lot of 1,000 couplers substituted.
" Test N0. 2, Guard-Arm Test of Drawbar—‘As a preliminary,
pivot pin, knuckle and locking device ‘having been removed,
the coupler must be marked on bottom with a center-punched
line (see points 1, 2 and 3 in Cuts 3 and 4, Fig. 100) parallel
to axis of shank and extending to the contour face; a center-
punched mark must also be placed at the end of guard arm and
on lug (Cut 3, Fig. 100). The coupler must be blocked rigidly
in a vertical position in the machine with steel ﬁllers and
wedges, the latter sledged down tight and the sledging repeated
after each blow. The butt must rest solidly on the anvil and
must be blocked to prevent lateral motion. The edge of guard
arm must be on line through centers of legs of machine.
Guard Arm Test—Blows to be struck directly on guard
arm. Three blows of 1,640 pounds falling 3 feet. Four blows
of 1,640 pounds falling 5 feet.
The coupler shall be considered as having failed to stand
this test if it is broken before it has received three blows at 3
feet and four blows at 5 feet, or if any crack appears more than
1 inch long or open more than {Zr-inch or if the center-punched
line is distorted more than 1% inches for 5 by. 7-inch shank,
or 1% inches'for 5 by 5 inch shank couplers, or if the distance
between center-punched marks on bottom of head has widened
more than 173' inch. For method of measuring axial and guard-
arm deﬂection, see Figs. 3 and 4. Should the bar before failing
stand three blows at 3 feet and two blows at 5 feet, another
coupler shall be provided and tested ‘as per Section, under
“Inspection” governing retest’.
Test No. 8, Jerk Test 0]‘ Complete Couplers, Preparation—
One coupler shall be placed in an inverted position in the
yoke forging of test machine and equalizer bar placed so as
CARS l89
to rest level, one end in the closed knuckle, the other resting
central on the spring follower cap.
Jerk Test—The weight shall strike the equalizer bar mid-
way between the center line of coupler and the center line of
the spring follower cap. Three blows of 1,640 pounds falling 5
feet. Three blows of 1,640 pounds falling 10 feet.
Failure of Test N0. 8—A coupler shall be considered as
having failed to stand this test if it is broken before it has
received three blows at 5 feet and three blows at 10 feet, or
if any crack appears more than 1 inch long or open more
than 116 inch or if the knuckle is open more than ‘54 inch
from its original position after the third blow at 10 feet, or
if the equalizer bar will not stay in place when struck, or if
the knuckle will not open or if the locking device is inopera-
tive after receiving the full test. Should the coupler fail to
stand the prescribed test, but stand three blows at 5 feet and
one 1310!? at 10 feet, another complete coupler shall be provided
and tested as per preceding section governing retest for tests
Nos. 2, 3 and 4.
Test N o. 4, Pulling Test of Go'mplete Coupler—One complete
coupler shall be supported in the machine by yoke forging
and looked as in a running position to a dummy, the axis
of the coupler and dummy to be in the same straight line.
The dummy shall have the contour lines of an M. O. B. coup-
ler, with the exception of a guard arm, which may be omitted.
The coupler shall stand a steady pull of 150,000 pounds.
Failure of Test No. 4—A coupler shall be considered as
having failed to stand this test if it is broken before it has
been pulled the prescribed number of pounds, or if any cracks
appear more than 1 inch long or open more than 116 inch or
if the knuckle has opened more than 5/8- inch from the original
position, when pulled out against the lock, or if it slips apart
from the dummy in the machine, or if the knuckle will not
open, or if the locking device is inoperative after test. Should
the coupler fail to stand the prescribed test, but before failing
stand a pull of 100,000 pounds, another complete coupler shall
be provided and tested as per section governing retest.
The measurement of the knuckle opening shall be obtained
after the pressure is released.
190 4 CARS
Failure of Parts—The ﬁnal failure of any part to meet test
shall not condemn the complete coupler, but only that part
which fails, and such part in all couplers presented shall be
replaced, after which the test shall proceed, using new coup-
lers, as if no. part of the test had been made. Any part of
any coupler which has been subjected to test is condemned
for service.
Test of Pivot Pins—If the lot of 1,000 couplers is accepted
on test No. 1, the inspector shall take at random from the
accepted couplers ﬁve pivot pins, and from the extra six pivot
pins one, making a total of six, which shall be subjected to
the requirements of the speciﬁcations for knuckle pivot pins.
If these pins pass the required inspection and test, the coup-
lers complete may be accepted. If the pins do not pass the
inspection and tests prescribed in the speciﬁcations for
knuckle pivot pins, the manufacturer will be required to
present a new lot of 1,000 pivot pins, which shall be treated
in accordance with the requirements of the speciﬁcations for
knuckle pivot pins. If these are accepted, then the manufac-
turer will be required to remove all the former lots of pins
in the couplers otherwise acceptable and substitute the lot
of pins which has been accepted. '
Dimensions—Couplers must conform to M. C. B. standard
drawings and contour lines, and the dimensions of butt and
shank shall be within the limits of variations shown by
M. C. B. standard drawings. Standard M. C. B. gauges shall
be used in gauging all parts for which gauges are provided.
workmanship—Bars, knuckles, locking pins or blocks and
knuckle pivot pins shall be accurately made to gauges fur-
nished by the manufacturer. These gauges shall govern all-
dimensions representing ﬁtting surfaces, thereby insuring
absolute interchangeability and freedom of motion between
the assembled parts without further adjustment or machining.
Bars and knuckles shall not be accepted if distorted by
improperly matched ﬂasks or by any other defects due to
molding. They shall be free from injurious shrinkage cracks,
ﬂaws, checks, and sand holes or blow holes. The holes for
pivot pins‘ in lugs of bars and knuckles may be drilled, or
if cored shall be broached out, and shall not be more than a‘;
CARS 191
inch larger than pin, and rivet holes in butt shall be ‘drilled,
or if cored, shall be broached out. The holes shall be parallel
to the face of the bar or knuckle and at right angles to the
axis of the bar or knuckle. The pulling and contact faces of
couplers and knuckles shall be clean, smooth, and at right
angles to axis of bar. .
M arising—The name of coupler shall be legibly cast on the
top side of head of the bar. The knuckle shall also hear the
name of the coupler and the manufacturer's name or identi-
ﬁcation mark legibly cast or stamped at some point where it
will not be worn off. Knuckle pins shall bear the manufac-
turer’s mark on the head of pin.
M. C. B. Marking—Every coupler and knuckle made to
comply with these speciﬁcations shall have a slightly raised
plate or ﬂat surface cast upon the head in plain view, where
it will not be subject to wear. After a lot of complete couplers
have successfully passed inspection and tests herein required,
the letters M. C. B. shall be legibly stamped upon the plate '
at each coupler and knuckle, this mark to be evidence that
the complete coupler is an M. C. B. Standard. Each knuckle
and drawbar shall bear the serial number legibly stamped
or cast on it. ‘
38. M anufacturer’s Inspection—The couplers shall be thor-
oughly inspected by the manufacturer to see that they meet
the requirements as to interchangeability, soundness and
dimensions of parts, etc., herein speciﬁed.
39. Couplers shall then be arranged in lots of 101 and 102 so
as to provide for the necessary 1,013 couplers speciﬁed herein.
‘Where possible,v care should be taken to put all couplers of the
same melt number or numbers in the same lot or lots.
40. Purchaser’s Inspection—The inspector shall then inspect
and gauge each coupler as to its compliance with drawing
sizes and for surface defects and proper contour lines. Any
irregularities or swollen parts on the working or hearing
faces shall be ground or chipped oﬁ before the couplers are
accepted.
Operating ‘Parts—Couplers shall have a lock set within the
head of the coupler. They shall be so designed as not to part
when the knuckle pin is broken or removed. They shall
192 CARS
couple or uncouple with each other (with either or both
knuckles open) and also with the master or sample coupler.
They should lock easily when the knuckle is pushed in with
the hand. They shall have steel pivot pins 1% inch in
diameter of sufficient length to permit applying a %-inch
cotter pin through the pin below the coupler lug and in every
way conforming to the requirements as stated in the speciﬁca-
tions for knuckle pivot pins. The lock lift shall be in the
central longitudinal vertical plane of the coupler, located
between the vertical plane of the striking horn and contour
lines, and shall operate either from the top or bottom by an
_ upward movement. The total lift’of locking pin shall not
be more than 6 inches.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR KNUCKLE PIVOT PINS, M. C. B. STANDARD.
The knuckle pivot pins will be subject to the inspection
and tests of the . . . . . . . . Railroad Company for general con;
dition and strength. The inspection and test will preferably
be made at the place of manufacture. All necessary assistance
and labor for making inspection, tests and prompt shipment,
shall be furnished by the manufacturer free of ‘charge.
Knuckle pivot pins shall be ordered as far as practicable in
- lots of 500. The manufacturer shall furnish three extra pins
with each order of 500 pins, and in the event of additional v
pins being required to carry out the prescribed tests they shall
be furnished free of cost by the manufacturer.
Process—All knuckle pivot pins ordered under these speci- ,
ﬁcations shall be made from open-hearth steel, properly
forged and then annealed and shall not be painted.
Drop-Test Machine—The testing machine approved by the
M. C. B. Ass’n shall be used in the test of knuckle pivot pins.
From each lot of 503 pins, the inspector shall select three pins
taken at random and subject them to the cross-bending drop
test as hereinafter speciﬁed.-
C'ross-Bendmg Test—The cross~bending test will be made
in a standard M. (J. B. drop-testing machine' The pins resting
‘on rounded supports held rigidly 10 inches center to center
to be subjected to a .blow by the standard weight of 1,640
pounds falling at a height of 3 feet. The blow of‘ the weight
(JARS 193
should be transmitted to the specimen by a block having a
round lower edge resting on the specimen. The radius of all
these round edges is to be % inch. All pins are 'to be tested
cold and shall not show any cracks or fractures. The bend
shall be directly under the nose of the plunger.
Pins will be rejected if they crack, break or show a deﬂec-
tion less than 15 degrees or greater than 35 degrees. If one‘
of the pins fails to stand the test herein required and the
other two pass, three more pins shall be selected at random
from the same lot from which the ﬁrst pins were taken. If
all three of these pins stand the prescribed tests, that lot of
pins will be accepted, otherwise that lot of pins shall be
rejected and another lot substituted and tested in same way.
Permissible Variations—All pins shall not be more than
131 inch nor less than 1&2 inch in diameter determined by a'
suitable gauge and shall not vary more than as inch above
or below-the proper length.
Workmanship—The head shall be well formed and the pins
. which are not straight and true, and those which have blisters
or surface defects of any kind, will be rejected. The lower
end of the pin shall be cut off square and have at least 1A-inch
bevel or chamfer. The cotter-pin hole to be properly drilled
for %-inch cotter. Pivot pins shall have the manufacturer’s
marks on the head of the pin.
Inspection—Knuckle pivot pins shall be thoroughly
inspected by the manufacturer to see that they meet the re-
quirements as to interchangeability, soundness,‘dimensions of
parts, etc., herein speciﬁed. Knuckle pivot pins shall then be
arranged in lots of 503, and, where possible, care should be
taken to put all pins of the same melt number or numbers
in the same lot or lots. The inspector shall then inspect and
gauge each knuckle pivot pin as to its compliance with draw-
ing sizes and for surface defects.
KNUCKLE mvo'r Pms, SPECIFICATIONS FOR HEAT-TREATED, ron
PASSENGER AND FREIGHT EQUIPMENT cans.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE.
1. MANUFACTURE. ‘
1. Process—The steel shall be made by the open-hearth
process.
194 CARS
2. Heat Treatment—The pins shall be properly heat.
treated to meet the requirements of the physical tests;
II. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS.
3. Chemical Composition—The steel shall conform to the
following requirements as to chemical composition:
Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . .0'.55——0.70 per cent
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..0.40——0.60 . “ _
Phosphorus, not over . . . . . . . .. 0.05 “
Sulphur, not over . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 “
Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.15—0.25 “
4. Ladle Analysis—An analysis shall be made by the
manufacturer from a test ingot taken during the pouring‘of
each melt, to determine the percentage of carbon, manganese,
phosphorus, sulphur and silicon. Drillings for analysis shall
be taken not less than 1,4, inch beneath the Surface of the
test ingot. A copy of this analysis shall be given the pur-
chaser or his representative. This analysis shall conform to
the requirements speciﬁed in Section 3. ‘ _
5. Check Analysis—A check analysis shall be made from
the ﬁnished material representing each melt, by the purchaser
or his representative, and shall meet the requirements speci-
ﬁed in Section 3. .
III. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS.
6. Drop Tests—This test shall be made on a standard
“M. C. B.” drop-test machine (see Plate 29-D), the pins rest‘-
ing on rounded supports held rigidly 10 inches center to
center, to be Subjected to a blow by a Standard weight of 1,640 -
pounds falling from a height of 3 feet, and shall Show a
deﬂection not less than 15 degrees or more than 35 degrees _
without cracking or breaking. ,
7. Number of Tests—The manufacturers shall furnish,
free of charge, one extra pin with each lot of 200 or less.
IV. PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS.
8. Permissible Variations—The diameter of the pins shall .
conform to the standard M. C. B. limit gauges for rounds.
The length shall not vary more than J/8-inch below or above
that speciﬁed. ,-
. v. 'FINISH. '
v9. Finish—The ﬁnished pin shall be straight, have a
l
CARS 195
smooth surface, be uniform in diameter and shall not be
4 painted.
v1. manxmas.
10.- Markings—The manufacturer's name or identiﬁcation
marks shall be stamped on the head ‘of each pin.
‘ v11. INSPECTION AND BEJECTION.
11. Inspection—(a) The inspector representing the pur-
chaser shall have free entry, at all times while work on the
contract of the purchaser is being performed, to all parts of
the manufacturer’s works which concern the manufacture of
the material ordered. The manufacturer shall afford the
inspector, free of costs, all reasonable facilities to satisfy him
that the material is being furnished in accordance with these
speciﬁcations.
(b) _The purchaser may make the tests to govern the
acceptance or rejection of the ‘material in his own laboratory
or elsewhere. Such tests, however, shall be made at the
. expense of the purchaser.
(c) All tests and inspection shall be so conducted as not
to interfere unnecessarily with the operation of the works.
12. Rejection—Material which, subsequently to above tests
at the mills or elsewhere, and its acceptance, develops weak _
spots, cracks or imperfections, or is found to have injurious
defects, will be rejected and shall be replaced by the manu-
facturer at his own expense.‘
13. Rehearing—Samples tested in accordance with this
speciﬁcation, which represent rejected material, shall be pre-
served for 14 days from date of test report. In case of
dissatisfaction with results of tests, the manufacturer may
make claim for a rehearing within that time. ‘ '
SPECIFICATIONS FOR SEPARATE KNUCKLES, M. o. B. STANDARD.
Knuckles will be subject to the inspection and tests of the
. . . . . . . . .' Railroad Company as to their general condition and
strength. The tests, and inspection will be made at the place
of manufacture. All necessary assistance and labor for mak-
ing inspection, tests and prompt shipment shall be furnished
free by the manufacturer. Knuckles will be ordered as far as
is practicable in lots of 100 each. For each 100 knuckles
ordered the manufacturer shall furnish 102, and in the event
196 CARS
of additional knuckles being required to carry out tests, they
shall be furnished free of cost by the manufacturer. ‘
Manufacture—The knuckles furnished under these speciﬁ-
cations shall be made of steel in accordance with the best
foundry methods and shall not be painted. All parts shall
be well annealed throughout. As many knuckles as possible
shall be cast from the same melt. .
Drop-Test Machine—The testing machine approved by the
M. C. B. Ass’n shall be used in the test of knuckles. From
each lot of 102 knuckles the inspector shall select two knuckles
at random from lot or lots and subject one to test No. land
the other to test No. 2.
Test No. 1—Striking Test—Preparation—The striking test
back block and knuckle supports are placed in the housing
against the back and sides, the knuckle dropped in between
the supports and 'held by insei'ting the pin through the holes
in the knuckle supports. The knuckle is then adjusted by
means of lines between the back block and the knuckle sup-
ports and between the knuckle supports and the housing.
The striking block is then placed in the housing casting rest-
ing upon the knuckle. A ﬁtting piece made to suit the type
of knuckle is slipped into position between the tail and housing
casting so that the striking face of the knuckle is in a,hori-
zontal position.
Striking Test—Blows to be, struck on striking block,
through which they are transmitted to knuckle. Three blows
of 1,640 pounds falling 4 feet. Three blows of 1,640 pounds
falling 8 feet. .
The knuckle shall be considered as having failed to stand
this test if it is broken before it has received three blows at
4 feet and three blows at 8 feet, or if any crack appears more
than 1 inch long or open more than 17}; inch. If this knuckle
fails to stand test No. 1, but before failing stands three blows
at 4 feet and one blow at 8 feet, a retest will be admissible and
another knuckle shall be taken from the same lot and tested
as per section above. .
Jerk Test—Preparation—The jerk test back block and
knuckle supports are placed in the housing against the back
and sides, the knuckle dropped in’between the supports and
CARS 197
held by inserting the pin through the hole in the knuckle
supports. The knuckle is then adjusted by means of liners
between the back block and knuckle supports and between
the knuckle supports and the housing. The striking block
is then inserted, resting on ‘the inner face of the knuckle,
and a block of suitable size inserted between the tail of the
knuckle and striking block so that the striking face of the
knuckle is in a horizontal position. If preferred by manu-
facturers, an old coupler and lock of the same kind in which
the knuckle ﬁts properly and which may be suitably reinforced
in order to endure as many tests as possible may be used in
place of supporting casting for this test.
Jerk Test-Blows to be struck on the striking block,
through which they are transmitted to the knuckle. Three
blows of 1,640 pounds falling 3 feet. Two blows of 1,640
pounds falling 6 feet.
Failure Test No. 2—The knuckle shall be considered‘ as
having failed to stand this test if it is broken before it has
received three blows at 3 feet and two blows at 6 feet, or if
any crack appears more than 1 inch long or open more than
116 inch. If this knuckle fails to stand test No. 2, but before
failing stands three blows at 3 feet, a‘ retest will then be
admissible, and another knuckle will be taken from the same
lot and tested as per section before last.
Dimensions—All dimensions shall be within the limits of
variations shown by M. C. B. Standard drawings. Standard
M. C. B. gauges shall be used in gauging all parts for which
gauges are provided.
workmanship—Knuckles shall be accurately made to
gauges furnished by the manufacturer. These gauges shall
govern all dimensions representing ﬁtting surfaces, thereby
insuring absolute interchangeability without. machining.
Knuckles shall not be accepted if distorted by improperly
matched ﬂasks or by any other defects due to molding. They
shall be free from injurious shrinkage cracks, ﬂaws, checks
and sand holes or blow holes. The holes for pivot pins in
knuckles should be drilled, or if cored shall be broached out,
and shall not be more than 3%; inch larger than 1%-inch diam-
eter pivot pins. The holes shall be parallel to the face of the
198 CARS
knuckle and at right angles-to the axis of the knuckle. The
pulling and contact faces of knuckles shall be clean and
smooth.
Marking—Each knuckle shall bear the name of the coupler,
a serial number and the name of the manufacturer or identi-
ﬁcation marks legibly cast at some point where it will not
be subject to wear. Each knuckle made to comply with these
speciﬁcations shall have a raised plate or ﬂat surface cast
upon the head in‘ plain view where it will not be subject to
wear. After a lot of knuckles have successfully passed the
inspection and tests prescribed herein, the letters M. C. B.
shall be legibly stamped upon the plate on each knuckle, this
mark to be evidence that the knuckle is an M. C. B. Standard.
Inspection—The knuckles shall be thoroughly inspected by
the manufacturer to see that they meet the requirements as
to interchangeability, soundness and dimensions of parts,
herein Speciﬁed. Knuckles shall then be arranged in lots of
102 and, where possible, care should be taken to put all
knuckles of the same melt number or numbers in the same
lot or lots. The inspector shall then inspect and gauge each
knuckle as to its compliance with drawings, sizes, and for
surface defects and proper contour lines. Any irregularities
or swollen parts on the working or hearing faces shall be
ground or chipped off before knuckles are accepted.
HEIGHT or CCUPLERS,’ M. C. B. STANDARD.
The standard height of couplers for passenger equipment
cars is 35 inches from top of rail when car is light. In 1911
the order of the Interstate Commerce Commission, regarding
the standard height of couplers,‘ was adopted reading as
follows: '
The maximum height of drawbars for freight cars meas?
ured perpendicularly from the level of top of rails to the center
of drawbars for standard-gauge railroads shall be 34% inches
and the minimum height of drawbars for freight cars on
Such standard-gauge railroads, measured in the same manner,
shall be 31% inches, and on narrow-gauge railroads the maxi-
mum height of drawbars for freight cars measured from the
level of tops of rails to the center of drawbars shall be 26
inches, and the minimum height of drawbars for freight cars
"’ CARS 199
on such narrow-gauge railroads, measured in the same manner,
shall be 23 inches, and on 2-foot gauge railroads the maximum
height of drawbars for freight cars measured from the level'
of the tops of rails to center of drawbars shall be 171,5 inches,
and the minimum height of drawbars for freight cars on such
2-foot gauge railroads, measured in the same manner, shall be
14% inches.
ADJUSTING HEIGHT OF COUPLEBS, STANDARD.
In 1896 it was decided that in adjusting the height of
couplers to meet the requirements of the United States law
ﬁxing the height from the top of rail to center of coupler for
standard gauge cars in interstate tramc, cars should be
adjusted when empty, as far as possible. In order to justify
a bill _for work done under the Rules of Interchange, an empty
car should be adjusted to 341/2 inches, or within 1,(g-inch
thereof, and when it is necessary to alter a loaded car it
should be adjusted to 33% inches, or within 14-inch thereof,
or as near as possible to such height as will bring it to 34%
inches when the car is unloaded. In 1901 this was changed
from Recommended Practice to Standard. This standard con-
forms to the order of the Interstate Commerce Commission
dated October 10, 1910.
UNCOUPLING ARRANGEMENTS FOR M. c. B. COUPLERS, RECOMMENDED
PRACTICE.
The special feature of this uncoupling attachment is the
slotted center bracket. By placing the rod back on top of end
sill or head block a longer arm is obtained, which gives suffi-
cient lift with ample slack in the chain, and by using a
sloping slotted bracket the _rod projects 1% inches in front
of coupler lock, which is about the best position for an efficient
lift. The slotted bracket allows the rod to slide back 3%
inches and avoids interference when slack‘ of train is bunched.
The handle shown should preferably project below end of
car or be bent in order to protect the operator's hand.
Three links 3%, inches, 5% inches and 7 64, inches long,
respectively, are shown. By using one of these three links,
therefore, a chain 6%, 8% or 10% inches long is obtained,
which should ﬁt all cars and M. C. B. couplers. These links
200 . CARS
‘should avoid the use of split links, “S” hooks and other tem-
porary repair devices now very common. The arrangement
as a whole is applicable to all types of cars, and if properly
applied, will largely obviate present troubles. Only a few
limiting dimensions are here shown in Fig. 101, as the others
must be adapted to each particular class of car. However,
the dimensions for center arm, chain slack, and position of
lift pin eye should be carefully adhered to. These uncoupling
arrangements now conform to the requirements of the United
States Safety Appliance Act.- The details of the uncoupling’
rod chain are shown in Fig. 94. An underneath locking
device operating with an upward movement, is- also now
ofﬁcially permitted. One of the best of modern devices along
this line is the Tennis “C” Uncoupling Device of the ‘Univer-
sal Draft Gear and Attachment Company, shown in Fig. 102.
This is a very important part of the draft rigging because
of the fact that upon its condition and action will depend
the question as to whether the drawgear complies with the
law in regard to the train men having to go'in' between the
cars to uncouple them. It is therefore absolutely necessary
to have this device always in the best possible condition and
operative. Its mounting and location have not only to obey
the requirements of the aforesaid Act, but also have to con-
form to the arrangements of varying types of car construction.
It is of course necessary to have some arrangement provided
to hold the locking pin in the open position. The lock is
generally operated from above, although it may also be
operated from below, and there are several kinds thus operated
from beneath.
The various apparatus used in the standard M. C. B. tests
for M. C. B. couplers, knuckle, and knuckle pin are show
in Figs. 103 to 108, inclusive. -
Regarding the coupler the following are the Standard and
Recommended Practice of the M. C. B. Ass’n:—
Action of the Association in 1889 permits the use of a
coupler 28 inches long instead of 30 inches as shown, for
use only on cars already in service and requiring such length
coupler. In 1909, a note was added that “the dimensions from
the back of butt to inside face of knuckle to be 30% inches.”


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The horizontal plane containing the axis of the shank of the
coupler must bisect the vertical dimensions of the,knuckle
and end of the guard arm. All new types of couplers put on
the market after January 1, 1909, must have a dimension of
9% inches from back of coupler horn to inside face of knuckle,
and the face or front end of coupler have a minimum- thickness
of 1%, inches. The length of the standard temporary coupler
head from back of striking horn to coupling face of closed
knuckle is ﬁxed at 12%, inches for existing cars. The M. C. B.
Temporary Standard Coupler is an M. C. B. coupler with an
elongated head as just stated.
Heavy couplers must be sufficiently attached. All knuckles
to be of steel, all knuckle-pins to be of special steel, core to be
round and annealed after heating, to eliminate all strains—-
thus giving uniform strength throughout. All ‘couplers must
close by impact. Springs in couplers must decrease. In
1913, the M. C. B. coupler was increased in weight from 300
to 500 pounds in practice to obtain additional strength. Cars
having couplers with stem or spindle attachments or
American continuous draft rods will not be accepted in inter-
change after September 1, 1914. Couplers ‘that exceed the '
distance of 51/Sinches between the point of the knuckle and
the guard arm measured perpendicularly to the guard arm,
must have defective parts renewed to bring the coupler within
gauge. The use of malleable iron couplers or open knuckle-s
is forbidden in repairing foreign cars. Guard Arm: vertical
dimensions at end of, ﬁxed at 7 1A; inches as minimum. Strik-
ing Horn: To be arranged so as to touch the striking-plate
before the back of the head of the coupler strikes the ends
of the draft-timbers—the vertical height being not less than
3% inches.
Coupler Shank: There is to be no projection on the bottom
of the coupler shank from the line of the horn back for 111/2
inches to provide for proper movement of shank on carrier
iron—the shank to be 5 by 7 ~inches not less than 20%, inches
back of the head.
Coupler Butt: For friction draft gear 5x5x9% inches;
back wall of butt, =54 inch thick; width of butt, 5 inches; not
less than 1% inches for yoke gib shoulder of the SEQ-inch butt

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CARS 203
to provide for increased length of gib, and a radius of fl; inch
on the yoke gib shoulder butt.
Knuckle: Vertical dimension not less than 9 inches as
minimum, and of not more than 1 inch for the diameter of
core hole in lug of knuckle to prevent the recurrence of the
slotted knuckle weakness—the solid knuckle to be used for
all'repairs and in all new couplers. Knuckle Pivot Pin must
be of steel, 1% inches in diameter, of sufficient length to per-
mit applying a % inch cotter pin‘: below the coupling lug.
Lock Lift: Underneath coupling arrangement adopted as
an alternate standard. Lift to be in the central longitudinal
vertical plane of the coupler located between the striking
horn and contour lines, and operate from the top by an upward
movement—the total lift of locking pins to be not more than
6 inches, and all couplers to have a 111;; inch eyelet for locking
device located immediately above locking pin hole.
Lock Set: For new equipment only-such couplers allowed
as have a lock set on or within the head and which do not
depend upon the uncoupling lever to hold up the lock. Lock
Bearing Surface on tail of coupler knuckle: Minimum area
not less than 4 square inches. Lock Bearing Surface on wall
of coupler; effective area equal to or greater than that on
knuckle tail. “
S'ide Clearance of Couplers: Total to be 2% inches. Spac-
ing between coupler horn and buffer beam to be 1% inches
for all Spring Gear, and 2%.‘ inches for all Friction Gear.
The M. C. B. gauge for worn couplers (and wheel defects)
is given later on herein, in Fig. 148. All proper car inspec-
tion should include the frequent use of this gauge on couplers,
for the detection of defects in couplers that have become so
worn and distorted as to be weakened to a point where only
a shock but slightly greater than usual will lead to an accident
and consequent damage out on the road.
A modern cast-steel coupler, the Simplex is shown in Fig.
,109. The head contains but three parts—the lock, lifter and
‘knuckle, with no small parts at all. The lock is a drop steel
forging; the knuckle and lifter being ground to accurate con-
tour, and gauges used on all parts 'to insure interchangeability,
besides meeting all M. C. B. requirements.
204 CARS
Anotherv well-known coupler, the Pitt passenger Coupler,
has given eﬂicient service on 4,500 all-steel passenger cars,
Fig. 110. Like all other high grade couplers, it combines
great ﬂexibility of curvature, wide lateral movement in stirrup,

Fig. 109.
Modern Simplex Coupler, Closed.
a ﬂexible pivoted head, together with great strength in the
details of a heavy head and knuckle, forged wrought-iron
stems, etc. A widely-used freight coupler is the Sharon,
Fig. 111, made in more than 100 dilferent styles, and com-
\plying with M. C. B. and U. S. Safety Appliance standards.
It has a lock and knuckle thrower combined in one piece, an
efficient knuckle thrower and lock set, can be operated from
top or bottom, and is economical. Other well-known couplers
are the Major Underlift Coupler, Fig. 112; the Penn Coupler for
Freight Cars, Fig. 113; the _Gould Z, the Latrobe, etc.
Among other couplers is a type designed to meet the
demand for greater strength under severe service, here repre-

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The Buckeye Steel Castings
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208 CARS
sented by the Buhoup Three-Stem Janney Coupler for Freight
Cars, which gives good service on heavy cars, is superior
to many ordinary single stem couplers. As seen in Fig.
114, it is attached to the car by three stems, the regular
center draft spring being reinforcedby two side-stem springs.
The use of these three springs, it is claimed, does not increase
the rebound from buﬁing shocks, as the two side springs
operate only under a draft strain, being however, applied
under suﬂicient compression to always keep the head in a

Fig. 113.
Penn Coupler for Freight Cars. McConway & Torley Co.
central position. It has the desirable feature of a rotating
head pivoted to the three draft stems, allowing a ﬂexible
movement to the head on the stems, thus relieving the car
from side strains on curves, facilitating the coupling of cars
on curves, and reducing the ﬂange wear on wheels.
Owing to the great desirability of standardizing couplers,
the ‘large number of present designs increasingly tends to an-
noyance and difﬁculty in replacing lost or broken parts, espe-
cially out on the road. There are now over 430 different pat-
CARS ‘.209
terns of couplers, and it is high time to standardize them in all
their parts. Couplers of increased weight are still in the
development stage. Similarly, the advantages possible in the
wedge-lock designs are so apparent as to warrant further
experiments, as the wedge-lock principle is applicable to all
couplers. The M. C. B. Ass’n is experimenting with a new
contour, still in the developing, which bids fair to be rec-
ommended for adoption in the end. This has been termed


Buhoup 3-Stem Janney Coupler for Freight Cars. McConway &
Torley Company.
the Krakau or straight line contour. It provides for a parallel
coupler face and face of the knuckle, both perpendicular to the‘
center line of the shank. The advantages claimed for it are
that it provides greatly increased strength through the hub
of the knuckle and in the front face of the coupler head, and
it shortens the average length of the lever arm from pivot
to buﬂing face and will practically stop the bending of the
knuckle under buﬂing shocks. Furthermore, owing to the
increase in the longitudinal clearance to 1%; inch when in the
coupled position, provision is made for the vertical angling
between couplers when passing over humps without putting
a strain on the couplers, and, in boiling on curves, as well as
on a straight track, the wedging due to the knuckle engaging
210 CARS
the face of coupler head and the face of the guard arm of
the mating coupler is' avoided. The proposed contour will
couple at a greater angle than the present coupler. .
The disadvantages of this contour are: A lesser maximum
angle through which this contour will swing when. coupled;
the amount of slack in the heads when coupled together; and,
the last portion of the knuckle closing is had by momentum
when coupling on curves—though this last would not hold on‘
large radius curves, as the new couplers will adjust themselves
to straight track conditions up to the limit of side clearance. _,
The M. C. B. Ass’n has lately developed two experimental
types of couplers, from which a more or less permanent stand-
ard is to be decided. It has provided a coupler that will stand
an ultimate load of at least 75 per cent over that of the
couplers previously used, at the same time increasing the ulti-
mate loads per pound weight of coupler over 10 per cent.
These new couplers are therefore a decided improvement over
former ones, and they are now in the hands of the railroads
to see what they will do in actual service.
SAFETY CHAINS
Among other methods of attaching cars together is that by _.
using chains. These are of two kinds: Permanently attached
or S'afety Chains, and Loose Chains carried for chaining up
special cars under conditions out of the ordinary; also wreck-
ing chains. Safety Chains are attached permanently to the
ends of cars; the chain to be fastened to the inside of the
end sill by draft springs and followers, so as to cushion any
’ jerk that may come upon them. These chains are, however,
in the opinion of others, best attached to the longitudinal sills
and not secured in any way to the end sills, in order to avoid
injury to the latter in case the safety chains are called into
vuse. This last fairly seems to be the best practice.
Not many freight cars are so equipped; mostly ﬂat or drop-
end gondola cars, generally steel cars. On some roads, a
limited number of' refrigerator, stock, horse, and special ven-
tilated box cars are equipped with safety chains for the .pur-
pose of running such cars in passenger trains and having
said chains coupled to the regular passenger car safety chains
in such service. If all ﬂat and drop-end gondola cars were
CARS 211
ﬁtted with such permanent hooks attached to the center sills
between the bolsters and end sills, when two cars have to be
chained together on account of carrying a double load or
other purpose, a short chain can be attached to these hooks
close to the center, and the cars can be fastened together
in a much better manner. -
A good many road-s oppose the use of safety chains for the
following reasons:
To permit of the cars passing freely around curves, there
must be considerable slack in such ‘chains when coupled, and
the further away from the center of the car these chains have
to be located, the greater the amount of slack necessary. It
has been found that when couplers give way, the jerking, due
to the slack in these chains, breaks the hooks and links and
cracks or pulls off the end sill. The necessary slack above
referred to will not prevent the movement of two cars carry-
ing double load relatively to one another due to drawbar
springs and slack, consequently the loads are apt to shift and
require rehandling. It is not found practicable to place these
chains nearer to the center of the car than the position shown
on M. C. B. Sheet “A,” on account of location of longitudinal
sills and dead blocks; also on account of interference with
air brake angle cocks and hose. It was supposed that a per;
manent safety chain could be used placed closer to the center,
perhaps’ attached under the end sills to the longitudinal sills
or draft sills and crossed under the coupler, in which case
the chain could have been hooked up fairly tight, but objec-
tion is raised to this on the ground that it would interfere with
the coupler and air brake connections seriously, which objec-
tion is valid.
The. hooks on ‘both chains are made alike for the reason
that either hook is strong enough. In most cases, the per-
manent safety chains are eﬁicient, and have held the cars
together when the couplers failed. With large steel cars in
heavy trains, the need of strong safety chains securely at-
tached to the car frame, makes their placing on all freight
cars more imperative. "
Permanent safety chains should be applied to all ﬂat and
‘drop-end gondola cars which are used in hauling twin and
212 CARS
triple shipments of lading, for the following reasons. 1. ‘To
provide a safety device in caseof failure of the coupler, thus
' preventing the lading from dropping to the track. 2. The
permanent safety chain is a labor-saver and when not applied
to Such cars used in this trade, necessitates chaining the
cars together with temporary chains. 3. ,When used in other
service, in case of failure of coupler, it provides a means
for hauling the car to shop without the use of a wrecking
chain and, therefore, is an advantage.
With wooden cars, the chain must be securely anchored,
and if to the endls'ill, the latter is in turn fastened by lug bolts,
body truss-rods, and anchor rods to the sills. With steel cars,
the method shown in Fig. 115 has proved 'very satisfactory.
The same illustration-shows also the M.-C. B. permanent
safety chains for both Steel and wooden ‘cars, the methods
of attaching the same, and the temporary chains used with
double loads. For interchange service, a common temporary
chain is necessary and has been provided for- chaining crippled
, cars together, as well‘ as for use in twin or triple shipments.
This chain is not necessary where cars are ﬁtted with per-
manent safety chain. In either case, the cars must be blocked
apart, to take up the, slack of from 18 to 20 inches, to prevent
the double load being disarranged and falling on or from the
car.


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PERMANENT SAFETY CHAINS FOR woooEN
UNDERFRAME FREIGHT CARS.
PERMANENT SAFETY CHAINS FOR sTEEI.
UNDERFRAME FREIGHT CARS.
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Fig. 115.
CHAPTER VI.
THE FREIGHT CAR TRUCK— TYPES
The wheel, in conjunction with the motive power, may be
said to be the essential thing in the art of transportation.
It is the thing that makes locomotion possible.
One or two hewn circular logs beneath a wider plank was
probably the ﬁrst conception of the wheel, such vehicles being
in fact in use before the dawn of Christianity. In the rounded
log the wheel and axle were in one, but in process of time,
and in order to minimize friction the axle was cut down. -
‘ The wheel remained a solid.piece of wood through the center
of which the axle passed. ‘Then the slab of wood forming
the wheel was strengthened by cross bars,'the axle became
a part of the frame of the vehicle and the wheel alone was
made to revolve. '
The spoke, the felloe and the hub were the developments.
of ages, simple as they may seem to us. It is remarkable that
in one of the highest manifestations of the art of transporta-
tion it should transpire that a return to ﬁrst principles should
be made, for the modern car wheel and axle revolve in unison
and the wheel disdains the felloe, the hub and the spoke, or
possesses them only in rudimentary forms. Yet the wheel of
the railway is strikingly distinctive from all forms that ever
preceded it—the ﬂange by which it is kept on' the track, the
conical tread designed partially to facilitate passing over
curves and partially to keep the wheels central upon the rails,
and the axle bearings outside the wheel so that the gauge of
the track should not circumscribe the width of the vehicle,
are its especial distinctions.
The word truck in one of its earlier meanings indicated
~ simply a small wheel. By natural adaptation it came in time
to include low vehicles used for the carriage of- goods and in
due season became the appellation for that part of the rail-
way car which furnishes‘ it with the means of movement. The
car truck is in fact mechanically a small car of itself, with
213
214 CARS


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Fig. 116.
STANDARD AMERICAN FREIGHT CAR TRUCK.
1 Double plate wheel. 2 Wheel ﬂange. 3 Wheel tread. 4 Wheel rim.
5 Wheel brackets. 6 Wheel hub. 7 Axle. 8 Axle Wheel Seat. ;9 Axle
dust guard seat. 10 Axle journal. 11 Axle Collar. 12 Axle Journal
bearing. 13 Journal bearing key. 14 Truck column. 15 Brake
hanger hook. 16 Truck column guide. 17 Brake hanger arm. 18
Brake hanger pin. 19 Brake head. 20 Brake Shoe key. 21 Brake
shoe. 22 Brake lever fulcrum. 23 Brake lever safety loop. 24 Dead
brake lever. 25 Live brake lever. 26 Brake lever connecting rod.
27 Dead brake lever guide. 28 Dead brake lever guide hook- 29
Brake beam truss rod. 30 Brake beam. 31 Arch bar. 32 Inverted
arch bar. 33 Tie bar. 34 Column bolt. 35 Journal box. '36 Journal
box lid. 37 Journal box bolt. 38 Truck bolster. 39 Truck bolster
plate. 40 Truck bolster transom bars. 41 Truck bolster strut. 42
Truck bolster spring plate. 43 Springs. 44 Spring Seat. 45 Truck
golsgler Sid; bearing. 46 Truck bolster center plate. 47 Journal box
us guar . > .
CARS 215
four or six wheels'placed under each end of the car body
and carrying its weight.* - '
The car truck of the present day is, in common with other
railway appliance-s, the result of evolution and may be ‘said
to have been brought into being by the exigencies of railroad
construction in America. The object sought and attained is -
to enable short wheel-bases to be used in connection with
long car bodies.
The American Freight Truck (Plate III) Fig. 116, con-
sists of four wheels, two axles, four journal boxes and a
frame ‘in which these are guided or secured, this frame trans-
ferring the weight of the car and its load from its center
through the boxes and journals to the wheels. The truck
is center-bearing and connected only at one point with the
car body, hence it is free to move around this point and adjust
itself to any position demanded by the curvature of the track.
The essential members of a truck it will be noted are:
Wheel, (Plate III, No. 1') Fig. 116; Axle, (Plate III, No. 7);
Journal Boxes, (Plate III, No. 35); Arch Bars, (Plate III, Nos.
31, 32); Tie Bars, (Plate III, No. 33); Truck Columns, (Plate
III, No. 14); Bolster, (Plate III, No. 38); Springs, (Plate III,
No. 43).
Wheels—These are circular frames or disks revolving on
an axis, which support the truck upon the rails and upon
which the vehicle moves. They were at ﬁrst very much like
the ordinary wheels of a common wagon and were guided by
a ﬂange or lip on the outside of the rail. The ﬂange on the
wheel was a later device. That part of the axle on which
the journal-bearing rests, is called the journal—the journal
box containing the journal, journal bearing and key, besides
holding the packing for lubrication. This bearing is a metal
block on which the load rests—a key or wedge being used
to hold the bearing in place and distribute the load equally.
The Spring Plank is a transverse member of the truck;
it lies underneath the truck bolster, and the bolster springs
rest upon it. It is bolted to the lower arch-bar of the truck-
trame in rigid-bolster trucks, said ‘bar itself resting on the

‘In England the word “truck” is never used in this connection.
but is descriptive of the freight car as a whole. The truck there
is known as a. “bogie.”
216 _ ‘ CARS
journal-bearings. These arch-bars form the top and bottom
members of a diamond-arch truck side-frame; being attached
to the bolster guides or truck-columns by column bolts, and
to the journal boxes by the journal-box bolts. The springs
carried on the spring plank and supporting the truck bolster
. on which the weight of the car rests, are variously known as .‘
“truck springs,” “bolster springs,” “bearing springs,” and
‘body springs.” The helical or spiral spring is the kind com-
monly used for freight cars; elliptical springs being used for
passenger trucks, and only occasionally for caboose car trucks
and livestock, or for some of the special house or steel freight
cars. _ ' ~ .
The car axle is the metal shaft of wrought iron or steel
upon which a pair of wheels is mounted, both rigidly secured
to the axle. The practice is to hold the wheels to the axle
by close ﬁtting of the parts, the wheels being forced onto
the axle by heavy hydraulic pressure of not less than 30
tons. The parts of the axle, beginning at the middle are
known as Center, Neck, Wheel-Seat, Dust-Guard Bearing,
Journal and Collar.
The Bolsters are cross-beams or members on the under
side of a car body, located at the center of a truck, and
through which the weight of the car is transferred. The
Body Bolster, fastened to the longitudinal sills, transmits their
load from‘ the sills to the Truck Bolster, which in turn trans-
fers the load to the springs as just explained above. A double
body bolster—a wide one with two cross-beams is used on cars '
vequipped with six-wheel trucks. Both kinds of bolsters are
equipped with Center-Plates, the male one (that on the body
bolster) ﬁtting into the female one—the one on the truck
bolster. The Center-Pin or kingbolt passes through both
. center-plates, thus allowing thev truck to swivel about it,
‘although the stress is borne by said Center-Plates. Both
bolsters are also ﬁtted with Side-Bearings, at each end of each
bolster, to reduce friction in going around curves, and to
keep the car from rolling or rocking too’ much on the Center-
Plates, permitting the truck to turn without too much friction.
Freight car trucks may be ' classiﬁed according to the
. bolster suspension as (1) Rigid and (2) Swing Motion. Ac-

GENERAL PLAN—HIGH FREIGHT Tnvcx. 60.000 Lss. CAPACITY.
May“ In ‘MIC’ 9" 11:1? imp?
[ Ass-way. oo.ooo. [ Plate N
Fig. 117.

CARS . 217
cording to their general design they may be classiﬁed as (1)
Diamond Trucks and (2) Shaped Metal Trucks. Swing Motion
_Trucks may be further distinguished as (1) those carrying
the bolster. by pivoted hangers and (2) ‘those carrying the
bolster by rollers. There are various special designs of each
type. , ' j ‘
- Figure 117, Plate IV, illustrates a type of the “Rigid” Dia-
mond truck which is in common use still, but mostly on
small capacity cars. It will be noticed that this truck also
has a channel iron spring plank, a practice which is very
much in favor when the 'arch bar truck is used.

Fig. 118.
Commonwealth Truck.
Ano'the'r arch bar rigid truck is shown in Fig. 118, which
illustrates one style of the Commonwealth Truck. This com-
bines the standard arch bars with especially designed bolster
’ and column castings. It is claimed for this truck that it has
all the strength'of the ordinary arch bar truck, is exceedingly
ﬂexible, easily following the irregularities of the track, and
is light and strong. ‘ . . .
The truck-shown in Fig. 119, which is a design prepared
by' the Middletown Car Works, is another good example of,
the rigid arch bar truck. The special bolster which is pro-
vided is made up of standard sections as rolled by the Amer-
ican Iron and Steel Association, thus facilitating repairs in
218 '
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any part of the country. Another special feature shown here
is the scheme for suspending the brake beams from inwardly
projecting arms from the column castings.
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Of the rigid shaped metal style of truck the Fox-Solid
Pressed Steel truck shown in Fig. 120 illustrates all the
points. It is to be noted that the truck sides and bolster are
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222 _ CARS
all combined in one rigid construction. The springs, instead
of being under the bolster are here placed in special recesses
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The Pressed Steel truck frame shown in Fig. 121 and 122
is of the Schoen- patent type. This also is ‘a perfectly rigid


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truck and has the same method for holding the springs as
is used on the Fox truck.
In “Swing Motion” trucks the design is to allow a limited
lateral motion in addition to the vertical motion on the springs
so that the lateral movements of the wheels may be absorbed
and not imparted to the car itself. The claim is made that
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Fig. 125.
30-Ton Swing Motion Truck.
the use of the Swing Motion truck results in decreased ﬂange
wear on wheels, reduces the racking of the car‘ as a whole
and makes the riding of the car easier. It is admitted, how-
ever, that’on account of its simple construction the “Rigid”
truck is cheaper to build and maintain. Swing Motion Trucks
are shown in the illustrations of the Schoen pressed steel
Diamond Truck and the American Cast Steel Truck. (Figs.
123, 124.) The drawing (Fig. 125) illustrates the construc-
tion of a 30 ton Swing Motion Truck.


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GENERAL Pun—'LowFkmcar TRUCKl-_ 80,000LSSTCA1’ACI'1‘Y...
Mn}! an m 61am‘: 9*‘ ‘an! ﬁnk.

F Amwnv. 00.000. —] Plate V
CAR-S ' 225
Bolsters are therefore either swing-bolsters, which permit
lateral motion to mitigate shock, or else they are rigid-
bolsters, which permit no such ‘motion. In freight cars,‘ rigid
bolsters are preferred and are the most numerous. In pas-
senger and other swing-motion trucks, a swing spring-plank
is used, being supported by hangers or links so that it can
swing sideways.
Following are practical speciﬁcations for Freight Trucks:
SPECIFICATIONS FoR LOW FREIGHT TRUCKS FOR CARs 0F 80,000
POUNDS CAPACITY.
The drawing, Plate V. shows the general plan.
The following supplementary speciﬁcations for material will
form a part of these speciﬁcations:
1. Speciﬁcations for Car Axles.
2. Speciﬁcations for Wrought Iron.
3. Speciﬁcations for Steel Channels.
4. Speciﬁcations for Mild Steel.
5. Speciﬁcations for Cast Iron Wheels.
6. Speciﬁcations for Helical Springs.
The following materials will be furnished, free of charge
at the works of the builder, by the railway company. .
1. Bolster springs. ‘
2. Journal bearings.
3. Paint stocks of all-kinds ready for use.
General Instructions—The trucks are 80,000 pounds
capacity, of rigid design, and have Railway Company’s stand-
ard M. C. B. oil boxes, brass, wedge, axle and brake head and
shoes, known as the Congdon patterns. Rivet holes must be
punched 1'’; inch larger than the rivets. All rivets must be
put in with either the pneumatic or hydraulic riveting
machines.
The drawings give all necessary dimensions and instruc--
tions relative to design, sizes, weights, etc.
Aules—Axles are Railway Company’s standard M. C. B., of
80,000 pounds capacity. The date the axle is put under the
car must be plainly stamped with IAz-inch ﬁgures on one end.
The wheel seat must be ﬁnished straight—no “taper” will
be allowed. The ﬁtting cut must be made smooth with a
broad faced tool to prevent thread forming on the wheel seat.
226 CARS
Journals must be ﬁnished with smooth cut, if necessary‘
smoothed with emery to insure a proper surface.
Wheels—Wheels must conform in construction and ﬁll all
requirements and guarantee of Railway Company’s speciﬁca
tions for car wheels. The wheel seat must be bored parallel,
and must be pressed on axle at a pressure of not ‘less than
twenty-ﬁve (25) nor more than thirty (30) tons. The gauge
of the wheels is 4 feet 7 3g inches, and must be determined by
a gauge that will be furnished by the Railway Company. On
the inside plate of wheel must be cast a diagram of raised
ﬁgures; those indicating the year and month the wheel was
placed under the car must be chipped oﬁ.
Journal Bones—Are Standard M. C. B. box of cast iron,
and must be thoroughly cleaned by rattler or otherwise, to
avoid sand on inside when ready to be applied. They must
be packed with one and one-quarter (1%) pounds of the best
cotton waste, and enough (one gallon at least) lubricating oil
of good quality to insure cool running of same. The spring
on lid must be sufﬁciently strong to hold lid ﬁrmly against
the box. - .
Journal Bow Wedges—Journal box wedges are of cast steel
or hydraulic forged iron and must conform to sizes and
shapes of M. C. B. standard box for cars of'80,000 pounds
capacity.
Journal Bearings— Are M. C. B. standard, and will be fur-
nished by the Railway Company. ‘
Dust Guards—Are made of basswood, and are ﬂ-inch thick.
They must ﬁt tightly on the axle dust guard. A piece of zinc,
1 inch wide, must be inserted in the ends and securely clinch I
nailed to prevent splitting. After the trucks are put together
-a small block of wood must be driven tightly into the dust
guard opening.
Arch Bars—The top arch bar is 1% inches by 5 inches;
the lower bar is 1 inch by 5 inches. The tie straps are of
wrought iron 1%; inch by 41/2_ inches. The arch bars must be
bent hot. The tie straps may be bent cold. The holes in the
arch bars must be drilled. The holes in the tie straps may be
pun'ched.
CARS 2227
Arch Bar Bolts—Those used in the truck end are 1% inches
in diameter; under the head must be a ﬁllet of at least 1;§-inch
radius. The bolt holes in the top side of the top arch bar
must be countersunk in such a manner, either by punch or
drill, to receive this ﬁllet when the head is pulled down tight
to the bar. Oil box bolts are 1% inches in diameter, with a
small ﬁllet under the head.
Bolsters—Are two channels 7 inches high and 7 feet 71/2
inches long, of 13.6 pounds per foot, with 1/2 inch by 111,12
inches by 7 feet 7% inches plate riveted on top of channels,
tying them together with 34-inch rivets between these chan-
nels and secured at the ends with i)g-inch rivets is a 7-inch
tension channel of 13.6 pounds per foot, ‘bent as shown on
detail drawing and separated at center of bolster by a malle~
able iron strut casting. The lower ‘channel, or spring plank,
is a 13-inch channel 31.5 pounds per ‘foot, the ends rest on the
lower arch bars and are secured to truck pillars by %-inch
bolts, with double nuts.
Malleable Castings—Spring seats. Lower spring seats.
Truck pillar. Truck side bearing. Dead lever connections.
Brake hanger. Truck bolster guides. Truck bolster strut.
Brake head. Brake beam fulcrum. Truck center plate.
Bolster Springs—Will be furnished by the Railway Com-
pany, and are class “J” of speciﬁcations for helical springs.
Brake Heads and Shoes—Are M. C. B. standard. The shoes
are 15% inches long and have seven pieces of wrought iron,
1 inch by 174 inch by 2% inches long, let into their face after
' the Congdon pattern of shoe.
Bolts and Nuts—All bolts and nuts have U. S. standard
threads and cut to work with the Railway Company’s stubs
which will be furnished. '
(matings—If desired, a set of sample castings will be fur-
nished by the Railway Company. All castings must be equal
in weight, dimensions and quality to those furnished. Pattern
numbers and the initials of the Railway Company must be
cast on each piece. All malleable iron castings must have the
shop or trade marks of maker cast upon them, for future
identiﬁcation of castings.
228 ' CARS
Painting—All ‘iron work shall receive one coat of black
asphaltum paint. All paints used will be furnished free at
the works of the builder by the Railway Company, on requisi-
tion of builder.
Lettering—On one bolster of each truck must be stenciled
the initials of the Railway Company and the number of the
car as shown on drawings. '
General Instructions—All material which enters into the
construction of trucks built under these speciﬁcations must
conform to them fully in weight, size and quality. All work
must be done in a thorough and workmanlike manner; and the
material and workmanship is subject to inspection by a rep-
resentative of the Railway Company, at all times. Companies
or individuals furnishing material for these trucks, or those
who are building them, must furnish every facility to expedite
the inspection of material and workmanship. It is the inten-
tion that these written speciﬁcations and the drawings that
form a part thereof, shall harmonize in every particular. Any
change from the speciﬁcations or the drawings, or any discrep-
ancies which may be found, should be reported at once, in
writing, to the Railway Company for decision. All speciﬁca-
tions and drawings for low freight truck for cars of 80,000
pounds capacity, which have been issued by the Railway
Company prior to this date, are null and void. To prevent
mistakes, they should be returned to the Railway Company.
The Bolsters used in these trucks are covered by letters
patent.
Propei'ly designed trucks made of correct materials should
be: Simple, with as few parts as possible; strong, with wide
distribution of load, and also should follow M. C. B. Standards
so far as adopted. If of the arch-bar kind, it must take any
style of M. C. B. standard journal-boxes used with such arch-
bar trucks. It must have large spring'capacity; and must be
rigid as to twisting or angular horizontal movement, while
possessing enough vertical ﬂexibility to allow the truck to
adapt itself to all conditions of the track, high or low joints,
with all the wheels on the rails, andwithout any undue strains
on any part of the truck. These qualities, together with low
cost, light weight, and durability, are the requisites of the
.37»
_ CARS 229
perfect truck. Few trucks equal this ideal, but several already
approximate closely to it, except in the details of cost and
weight.
The M. C. B. Ass’n is planning the details of a standard
M. C. B. freight car truck, which will probably be adopted,
after the ﬁxing of a standard No. 2 brakebeam for freight
cars by the Association. It is now designing the following
details of the coming standard bolster: Distance of Side
Bearings from center line on cars of from 60,000 to 100,000
pounds capacity; and arrangements of Springs on large
capacity cars; The derailment of trucks on curves when mov-
ing at high speed is often due to the excessive spread of the
side-bearings, leading to the wheels climbing the rails, as the
heavy pressure on the side-bearings grips fast the truck and
prevents it from swivelling freely. For this reason, certain
trucks, such as the Barber, make use of various devices which
allow the bolster enough lateral travel to avoid this danger.
Trucks may be classed as all-metal trucks and composite
trucks. The last have wooden parts, especially in the bolster,
which, however, is now usually made wholly of steel; although
cars, particularly wooden ones, equipped with bolsters of
wood or of wood combined with iron, are still to be seen on
small roads or branch lines. ' The principal troublewith such
composite trucks resulted from the many parts bolted together
which require constant attention. This is increased by the
necessary and frequent renewal of wooden parts, and the
wear of all its parts. A new composite truck of the strongest
design will soon warp, so that the pedestals are not plumb
on the boxes, and the truck soon gets out of square.
All-metal trucks are now the- only advisable type; even
wooden cars now must have them. Practically all of them
are made of steel—pressed steel shapes, cast steel, structural
steel, and various combinations thereof. The cast-steel ones
are now extensively used and have proven quite satisfactory,
although their ﬁrst cost is rather higher than that of com-
posite trucks. The structural steel truck equals the cast-
steel truck, and is not only somewhat cheaper in ﬁrst cost,
but it is also much easier and cheaper to repair, as in case
of any breakage, due to accident or unusual conditions, it is
23c CARS
only necessary to replace the damaged part, whereas with the
cast-steel truck, in cases of breakage it is necessary to replace
the entire truck frame. Further, like all well built all-metal
trucks, once it is made plumb and square, it remains so,
requiring less than one-half the power to move this type
than other and distorted trucks that are not square.
Varieties of trucks are the roller side-bearing truck and
the pedestal truck. The former is a lateral motion diamond
truck, the frame of which is very much like a swing-motion
truck with a rigid spring-plank. Lateral motion is given to
the truck-bolster by placing it upon cylindrical rollers resting
upon the spring caps; the latter and the bolster being con-
caved, so that the motion of the rollers is restrained and the
truck bolster given stability. The pedestal truck has its
journal-boxes held in,'and guided by, pedestals, which are
either a part of or attached to the side-frames; and are shaped
like an invertedletter U. The axles and boxes can thus move
vertically in the pedestals, and shocks due to the unevenness
of the tracks are not transmitted to the truck frames so much
as in a truck that has its side-frame and journal-boxes rigidly
connected. Fig. 120 shows a pedestal truck for freight cars,
with the two “pedestal-legs” closed at the bottom of the “jaws”
by a “pedestal tie-bar.”
The trucks commonly used under freight cars have four
wheels, but six-wheel trucks are used in special cases, and, in
fact, are rapidly increasing in number, especially with the
latest large capacity steel cars. Two of our largest railroads
are making great use of them. One of such freight-car trucks
is shown in Fig. 126. It weighs about 15,000 pounds, and has
a double cast-steel bolster which carries the center plate. This
rests on four nests of three double-coiled springs each. A six-
wheel truck for a 100-ton ﬂat car is seen in Fig. 127.
‘ There are some trucks in use in which the weight of the
car is transmitted at the sides instead of the center; these
are called side—‘bearing trucks. A balanced Side-bearing truck
is one where the car body is so balanced on the truck that the
weight is equally distributed to all the wheels all the time.
An example of the former is seen in Fig. 128, and of the latter
in Fig. 129.
CARS 231
A new type of truck, designed for 70-ton freight cars, is
illustrated in Fig. 130. The height of the center plate and
side frames does not exceed that of smaller capacity trucks,

Fig. 126.
Six-Wheel Freight Car Truck.
though much stronger. The load on the side-frames is applied
at points near the journal-boxes, rather than at the center
of the side-frames. This is intended to reduce the stresses
in the frames. permit the use of larger ends on the bolster,


Fig. 127.


Fig. 128. .
Barber Side Bearing Truck. \
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Fig. 129.
Summers’ Balanced Side Bearing Truck.


CARS :33


Fig. 130.
Bettendorf Truck for 70-Ton Freight Cars. The Bettendorf
Company.


Fig. 131.
Freight Car Truck with Cast Steel Side Frames and Integral
Pedestal Jaws.


Fig. 132.
Buckeye Pressed Steel Truck.
234 .- CARS __
and allow of the application of springs longer than ordinary
ones. '
Another truck for freight cars of 70 to 75 tons capacity,
in use on a number of roads, is shown in Fig. 131. It has
cast~steel side-frames, wheels,- and bolster, and weighs only
8,600 pounds—a saving per car of 2,000 pounds, it is claimed,
partly effected by the use of Davis Cast-steel wheels instead of
cast-iron ones. The side-frames weigh 500 pounds each
(Andrews type); the bolster, 1,000 pounds; axles, 980 pounds
each, and the journal-boxes, 125 pounds each. These ﬁgures
‘are, however, less than in most steel trucks of this special
type. In this truck, the side-frames are held rigidly at right
angles with the axles by a heavy channel-iron spring-plank
which is riveted to each frame with 10 rivets, or a total of
20 rivets per truck. ,
The Buckeye Pressed Steel Truck, ‘one typical of its kind,
is shown in Fig. 132. -
CHAPTER v11. ,
CAR WHEELS AND 'AXLES
The American freight car wheel is shown in Figure 116
(Plate III), which depicts the ordinary chilled cast-iron wheel.
The Hub is the central part into which the axle is ﬁtted; that
part into which it ﬁts being known as the Wheel S'eat or Fit,
which is made truly cylindrical and very slightly larger than
the Axle Wheel Seat. The part outside of the Hub which con-
nects that with the rim, occupying the place of and ﬁlling the
same purpose as the spokes of a wheel, is known‘ as the
Plate in wheels like Figure 116 (Plate III), though sometimes
called the Center Piece in steel-tired wheels, and in other
wheel types being replaced by steel or iron spokes. On the
inner side of plate car-wheels, projections known as ‘Wheel
Ribs or Brackets are usually cast, to lend strength _to the
wheel. Outside the plate lies the Rim, from which projects
the Flange, whose object is to keep the wheel on the rail;
the exterior cylindrical or conical surface of the rim inside
of the ﬂange which comes into contact with the rail being
termed the Tread. '
Each of these parts of the wheel has a diﬁerent and im-
portant part to play in the wheel and its use, and for this
reason special design, construction, treatment, and often
special metal are used in producing the present common car
wheels. The harder the tread the better, because of the
great wear it has against the rail. Soft but tenacious plates
are necessary for strength to carry heavy loads and resist
the temperature stresses to which the wheel is subjected,
due to the friction between wheel and brake-shoes when a
train stops. The hub must be soft enough to admit of being
machined to the nicety required for perfect axle ﬁt. The
ﬂange ‘exercises the important function of guiding the truck.
and in going around curves, it is the ﬂange that takes up the
lateral thrust of the car by being forced against the rail—this
severe contact producing wear in both rail and ﬂange. It is
235
236 CARS
P
for these reasons that the common freight car wheel of cast
iron has its tread hardened by chilling; and for use on engines,
‘tenders and passenger equipment the steel-tired wheel was
devised, using an iron center and a steel tire with resulting
durable and eflicient tread and ﬂange.
The entire car structure and contents are absolutely de-
pendent upon the character of the wheel used. It follows,
therefore, that the car wheel must be the best that can be
produced. The statistics collected by the I. C. C. as to ac-
cidents lately, extending over ﬁve years are as follows:
Number due to Number due to Total
Year defective wheels- other causes. number.
1908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1,031 1,765 2,796
1909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 913 1,449 2,362
1910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,046 1,688 2,734
1911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 997 1,827 2,824
1912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,235 2,612 3,847
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,222 9,341 14,563
The statistics above quoted are suﬂicient, says the report,
to indicate the alarming frequency of accidents due to defec-
tive wheels and the seriousness of the problem confronting
railroad companies in securing sound wheels and providing
an adequate system of inspection, which will insure that de-
fective wheels will not be placed or remain in service, and
that worn wheels will be removed from service in ample time
to provide for the safe operation of trains.
The prime requisites of a car wheel are safety, economy
and durability. Often a cheaper wheel has such a short life
that its advantage in ﬁrst cost is offset by the greater
durability of a more expensive one. Indeed, this is one
reason for the present increasing number of steel wheels in
use under heavy steel freight cars. The ideal wheel has
simplicity of construction, the lightest weight consistent with
efficiency and durability, and must not crush or ﬂow under
' heavy loads.
As will later be seen, the M. C. B. Ass’n has adopted cer-
tain standards for wheels, and for the details thereof and
appropriate gauges which are now generally followed. Stand-
ardization of wheel designs and the elimination, as far as

CARS 237
possible, of slight differences in dimensions of wheels for the
same service are important from the standpoint of the user,
because standard equipment is always more economical than
special equipment, and further, because of the greater facility
with-which wheels of standard dimensions may be obtained.
Standardization is also of great importance to the manufac-
turer because a given number of a single type of wheel can
be made more economically than the same number of varying
designs. .
Railroad practice has long since ﬁxed some details of the
wheel. The diameters of the standard wheels for railroad
service were thus determined, as there are no official standards
yet established. The M. C. B. Ass’n simply prescribes speciﬁca-
tions for the ordinary types of 33 and 36-inch car wheels of
both steel and iron, long in vogue on, our railways. The
most popular rim thickness for all types of car wheels is
2% inches, though some freight car wheels with only a 2-inch
rim are made, to provide as cheap a wheel as is possible for .
this class of service. The contours of treads and ﬂanges are
nearly always the oﬁicial M. C. B. standards. The holes in
the web or plate are 2 or 4 in number, 1% inches in diameter,
and on a radius of 81/2, 10, 11 or 12 inches. As to the coning
or dishing, the relative positions of the hub and rim are also
well established and now generally regarded as standard.
In the very important matter of the ﬂange, especially of
cast iron wheels, little progress has been made; the manufac-
turers being restricted by limits of track clearance from in-
creasing the thickness of the ﬂange to provide a proper con-
tour for the larger and stronger wheels now demanded‘ by
increased car weight, which has brought about greater rail
and axle capacity in its turn. This matter probably will be
adjusted, as likely will that resulting from the complaints
arising from the change in the taper of the tread from 1 in
38 to the present M. C..B. standard cone of 1 in 20. This last
has worn rails to a noticeable I taper, though it has also
markedly decreased ﬂange breakers. Formerly, when the
wheels were cylindrical or nearly so, one wheel usually ran
against the rail, and the other away from it—the result being
that the former often broke its ﬂan~e and derailed the train.
238 ' CARS
Wheel breakages being much more numerous and dangerous
than rail breakages, this question as between rail-expense
and wheel-expense will probably be decided in favor of the
wheel, especially as the European and British tread contour
is like’ our present M. C. B. tread, 1 in 20. .
Car wheels are either simple or compound, that is com-
posed of one single piece of metal or of two or more fastened
together by bolts,‘ rivets, shrinkage, retaining-rings, etc. Of
the ﬁrst kind are cast iron wheels and those of cast or
wrought steel. Of the second kind are the two-piece type,.
having steel or iron centers with steel tires, while the built-up
types have three or more separate parts—one Such having, for
example, a rolled steel tire, a cast-steel center, and a cast-
iron hub. ‘
Car wheels are composed of iron, steel or of iron and-
steel combined. The iron used is generally cast iron, though
wrought iron disk-centers are used in certain types of steel-
tired wheels. The all-Steel or solid steel-wheels are made
of either cast steel or wrought steel. As to their compara-
tive weights, one efﬁcient cast steel wheel made of the best
material weighs only 600 pounds, while a cast iron wheel
able to endure the same stress and service would weigh
850 to\ 900 pounds, and many rolled steel wheels or Steel-
tired ones will weigh even more. Efficiency-value is the only
fair measure of car wheel weights. As to comparative cost:
The 33-inch cast iron wheel value is given in the M. C. B.
Rules as $9.00; that of the 33-inch cast or forged steel wheel
as $19.50; both being freight car wheels. The ‘cost of the steel
Wheel is, however, being steadily lowered, while that of cast
iron ones rises rapidly with the'larger types necessary for
use under the new steel" freight cars. In fact, many car men
disbelieve in the possibility of using iron wheels under such
heavy cars, in which case cost is not such a factor, if neces-
"sity compels the use of onlyr steel wheels for these new
freight cars.
Each railroad in purchasing car wheels has its own speciﬁ-
cations, whichstate the kind of wheels wanted, diameter,
weight (including minimum weight) and time guarantee, be-
sides prescribing certain tests—chemical, physical (drop test),
CARS = 239
and thermal. The design of the wheel, markings, brands,
gauges to be used, and tolerances allowed are also stated; and
provisions are made somewhat as follows, in case car wheels
fail before the time of service guaranteed has expired. Cast
iron freight car wheels are guaranteed on a time basis and
passenger car cast iron wheels on a mileage basis.
Claim for replacement shall be made on the following
basis: Bills will be rendered against the manufacturers of
the wheels, or car builders (if placed under by such) for
the. difference between the cost of the new wheel delivered
to the Railway Company, less time made by the wheel, and
the value of the scrap computed on the basis of the agreed
valuation per gross ton for same. To which will be added
50 cents for each freight wheel and 75 cents for each passenger
wheel for the labor of removing and replacement of all failing
to make their guaranteed time. The following example illus-
trates the method of computing this:
Value of new wheel . . . . . . . . .39 . 00
Value of scrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.75
Net cos . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 . 25 for 5 years or 7 cents per month.
One year’s shortage — 7 cents per month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$ .84
Add for labor of changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Amount due to the railway company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 . 34
No credit will be allowed manufacturers for wheels that
make more than the guaranteed mileage or time. In failure
of wheels to make the guaranteed mileage or service in time,
each wheel will be considered independently of its mate on
the same axle and without reference to its location in truck.
No claim for failure of a wheel shall be made on account of
failure of its mate, nor shall claim for failure on account of
defect of any wheel bar a claim for failure on account of
similar defect of its mate, or other wheels located in same
truck. Claim for failure to make guaranteed mileage or time
service will be made and prompt settlement required when
caused by any of the following defects: Shelled out, if due
to quality of the metal; comby; seams; worn through chill
or worn hollow; burst, if under 30 tons pressure; broken
240 , CARS
‘flange, when not caused by being worn thin or derailment;
cracked plate; cracked brackets; broken in pieces, if not due
to wreck or derailment.
No failed wheels will be held longer than one week for
manufacturers’ inspection, the Railway Company reserving
the right to dispose of the same promptly and to its best
advantage. Manufacturers, however, will be given facilities
and assistance in the inspection of any wheels that are await-
ing disposition which have been removed for defects charge-
able to manufacturers under these speciﬁcations. _ -
' The fact that wheels pass both the foundry inspector an
the railroad inspector at the foundry, is no proof that they
will pass inspection at the railroad shop when being mounted,
as additional defects may develop, such as: Hubs may be
found to be hollow when they are being bored; the metal in
the bore may be found to be too hard to be machined, and
the core of the wheel found to be in bad condition; warped
wheels may be discovered; the process of ﬁtting the wheels
may develop ﬂaws which have been “doctored” by preparations
of various kinds at the foundry; cracks in brackets and plates
may be discovered; and wheels may be found to have been
previously rejected—any of which may require the rejection
of wheels before they are put in service.
If, when starting to bore the wheel, it is found that the
metal is too hard for proper machining, this can sometimes
be overcome by chipping away enough metal to start the tool;
if not, then reject the .wheel. When re-boring second-class
wheels, the thickness of the metal left in the hub must never
be less than one inch. Hollow rims are discovered at times.
Also, wheels are found to be painted -up, ﬁlled with some
'metal or other “dope,” to hide defects from the railroad
inspectors. In all such cases, wheels are to be held and
reports made thereon.
Wheels may be classiﬁed as follows: First-class includes
all new wheels; second-class includes all second-hand wheels
suitable for furtherservice; third-class includes all wheels
unﬁt for further service. Second-class wheels removed from
passenger equipment or tenders, and unﬁt for further service
in that class of equipment, can be transferred to freight serv'
CARS 241
ice. Third-class wheels, or wheels unﬁt for further service,
should be condemned.
Defects of wheels that develop on the road may consist of
defects already mentioned which have not been caught by
the foundry inspector, the railroad inspector, or by inspection
when the wheels were ﬁtted up at the railroad shop. What
has previously been said about rejection and renewal would _
apply to all such cases. In addition to such defects, however,
actual use of the wheels in road service is liable to produce
other defects. .
One of the most common causes requiring renewals of
wheels in real service is due to wheels'being slid ﬁat. Slid
ﬁat wheels are caused by: Brake leverage too strong for the
weight of the car; too high pressure of air carried in the train
pipe; piston travel too short; faulty triple valves; improper
designing, or improper .hanging of the brakebeam; wheels
being oblong instead of truly round; improper handling of
the air or hand-brakes. ,
Broken wheels are the result of temperature stresses
arising from brake friction, and show conclusively that the
metal has not been proportioned to the stress. In designing
any structure, a unit of material is used to resist a unit of
stress, and when all service conditions are known it is a
simple matter to proportion the metal to fully meet them. If
wheels were designed to meet the most severe service condi-
tions instead of average conditions, there would be no broken
wheels. The brake leverage of the car should be calculated
so that on freight cars 85 per cent of, the light weight of the
car is braked, and on passenger cars so that 90 per cent of
the light weight of the ‘car is braked. Standard train pipe
pressure should be carried in all cases, because leverage is
ﬁgured on the basis of the standard train pipe pressure, and
if a higher pressure is carried trouble will result. The
standard pressure on the road is 70 pounds.
On wheels that are oblong instead of truly round, there is,
of course, a tendency of the brake-shoe, when the brake is
applied, to catch and hold the wheel as the largest diameter
comes against the shoe. Improper handling of the air-brakes
may cause brakes to stick or fall to release after the train
242 ' CARS
has come to a stop; or, on starting the train, one or more
pairs'of wheels under such a car may start off sliding instead
of revolving. Setting up hand-brakes too hard (with a club),
or leaving hand-brakes set when Starting to move a car may
also cause one or more pairs of wheels to slide. Even if the
tread of cast-iron wheel is of good mixture, the friction
between the rail and the wheel when the wheel is sliding will
ruin the iron at the point of Contact of the wheel with‘the
rail; that is, at the location of the ﬂat spot. The amount of
.damage will depend on the distance the wheel slides and the
Character of the surface of the rail it is sliding on; that is,
whetherthe rail is wet, dry, greasy or sandy.
As a general rule when wheels are slid ﬂat the nature
of the metal at the ﬂat spot is changed, and the wheel becomes
comby, as illustrated in Fig. 133. When both wheels on the
same axle have the same defect at points opposite each.,,other
there is hardly any doubt but that the original cause for the
comby or defective spot was that the wheels had been slid ﬂat.
Brake burns on the tread of wheels are caused by over
heating the tread of the wheel by continued pressure of the
brake-shoe against the wheel. Brake burns are especially
liable to occur when trains are operated down long grades,
unless care is taken to prevent the wheels from becoming
overheated. Fig. 134 illustrates brake burning. The sectional
view of the tread of a wheel illustrated in Fig. 136 shows a
black spot where the structure of the metal in the wheel has
been changed. This black spot is due to a brake burn. As
can be seen from Fig. 134 cracks at a right angle to the tread
of the wheel develop from brake burning and the tread
evehtually becomes comby (see Fig., 133) from this burning,
and thus causes rapid deterioration of the wheel. Care must
be exercised in distinguishing brake burning from defects
which may be due to the eﬁects of over-heating. Brake
burned wheels should be replaced when the tread becomes
defective from excessive deterioration due to this cause; that
is, in general when the area of the ﬂattened, burned or comby
part of the tread spreads out over a length of 2% inches.
Road service may Show up a seamy tread that might not
before have been apparent. Fig. 135 shows a case of this

2U
CARS
Fig. 133.
Slid Flat “'heel. Cornby.
Z‘h CARS
kind. The cause has been explained in a previous paragraph.
A seam 1 inch long or over at a distance of 1,5 inch or less
from the throat of the ﬂange, or a seam 3 inches or more
long on any other part of the tread, is suﬂlcient cause for
removal of the wheel. As this defect occurs in manufacture,
such a wheel will be replaced by the foundry.

Fig. 134.
Brake Burning of Car Wheel.
Fig. 137 illustrates several shelled out wheels. What
causes wheels to shell out has not yet been satisfactorily
explained. Some segregation of the metal during the process
of manufacture leaves this weak spot. Inspection of the
wheel before it goes into service will seldom, if ever, show
up this defect, but as soon as the wheel goes into service,
the defect develops. A small shell out does not necessarily
mean that the wheel must be removed. The appearanre of
O
CARS 245
the shelled out wheel will readily determine whether or not
the wheel should be taken from service. The same general
rule that applies to slid ﬁat wheels, applies to shell cuts;
that is, a shell out the length of which is 2% inches or more
would be sumcient to require the removal of the wheel, or

Fig. 135.
Seamy Tread of Wheel.
if numerous shell outs occur around the tread, the wheel
should be removed. The good judgment of the inspector, how-
ever, must be relied on in cases where the shell out is less
than 2% inches. The shell out is a foundry defect; therefore,
all shelled out wheels are subject to replacement by the
foundry.
Fig. 138 illustrates a case where service has worn down
the tread of the wheel through the chill. This wearing may
246 CARS
occur throughout the circumference of the wheel, or it may
occur only in spot. This is simply a case where the wheel
was too soft to render the service guaranteed by the maker,
or, in other words, it has failed to give the guaranteed mileage.
Such a wheel should be removed if the worn spot is over 2%
inches long, or if the wear extends clear around the circum-


Fig. 136.
Black Spot Due to Brake Burn.
ference and is below the M. C.‘ B. gauge limit. (See Fig. 143a.)
Such wheels will be replaced by the foundry; proper credit
being allowed the foundry for the mileage that the wheel has
actually made. Care must be taken to distinguish this defect
from ﬂat spots caused by sliding.
Fig. 139 illustrates a wheel with a chipped rim. (It will
be noticed that the rim of the wheel illustrated at the left
was seamy.) This usually is caused when wheels are passing
over frogs and switch points, due perhaps to worn rails or
other parts of the switch layout, sharp ﬂanges on wheels, or
defective maintenance at switches or crossings, any one of
which may permit the rim of the wheel to strike one of the
CARS 247
rails of the layout, instead of being raised so as to ride it.
Whether or not the wheel should be removed on account of
a chipped rim can be accurately determined by the use of
the M. C. B. gauge, as illustrated in Fig. 139a. Should the

. Fig. 137.
Shelled Out Car Wheels.
\
defect extend within the gauge limit mark (the inside edge
of the outer notch when gauge is placed as shown in the
ﬁgure), the wheel should be condemned; otherwise, it may
be left in service. The wheels shown in Figs. 139 and 139s
were condemned for this cause as indicated by the M. C. B.
gauge.
248 CARS
The chipping of ﬂanges may occur on the inside of the
ﬂange, as shown at A, Fig. 140, or on the throat side of the
ﬂange as shown at B, Fig. 140, and in Fig. 141. Chipping is
usually caused by trucks being loose; that is, by their having

Fig. 138.
Treads ,Worn Down Through Chill of Wheels.
too much play at the center casting; or, it may be due to im-
proper mounting of wheels, or to the striking of the ﬂange
against guard rails or parts of frogs, including crossings,
that are out of line, or to the striking of some foreign object
lodged in the throat of a frog.
If the chipped place is on the inside of the ﬂange, that is,
away from the gauge side, there is no necessity for condemn-
CARS 249
ing the wheel, but if the chipped portion is on the throat side
of the ﬂange, the standard M. C. B. gauge should be applied
at the place where the chipping is out, and if the chipping is
beyond the gauge line, the wheel is unsafe for service and
should be removed. Wheels having chipped ﬂanges are not.
replaced by the manufacturer unless the chili is over one

Fig. 139. Fig. 139-a.
Wheel with Use of M. C. B. Gauge for Chipped
Chipped Rim. Rims of Wheels.
inch deep; thus indicating that the metal is too hard, and,
consequently, brittle. Wheels removed on account of chipped
ﬂanges are, therefore, broken for examination to determine
the depth of the chill.
Sharp flanges are caused by wear of wheels in service.
Mic-mated wheels, wheels mounted too far apart or not equally
distant from the middle of the axle, or wheels mounted on
250 CARS
trucks that are out of line, that is, out of square, cause exces-
sive ﬂange wear. A sharp ﬂange in itself will not necessarily
cause derailment, but in connection with some other defect,
such as a faulty switch point or a defective frog, may cause
serious results. There is also the danger of the ﬂange break-
ing, when it becomes too thin. Therefore, sharp ﬂanges may
be‘ considered as one of the most serious defects in wheels

Fig. 140. Fig. 141.
Chipping of Flanges on Inside Chipping of Flange on Throat
of Flange. Side of Flange.
that occur in service. Sharp ﬂanges are readily discernible,
and should be carefully watched, and tested by the M. C. B.
gauge. Figs. 142 and 143 show cases of a. sharp ﬂange, also
methods of testing for sharp ﬂanges with the M. C. B. gauge;
the wheels illustrated being beyond the prescribed limit.
(Fig. 143a illustrates the method of gauging for worn treads.)
A crack of any kind in a wheel, with the exception of
small cracks in the tread of a wheel on a spot where brake
CARS 251
burning has occurred, or where small slid ﬂat places appear,
is suﬂicient cause to warrant removal of the wheel from serv-
ice. This includes cracks in the tread, plate, bracket, ﬂange,
throat, hub, or anywhere else on the wheel.
The discovery of a wheel that is loose on the axle naturally
calls for its immediate removal. Such a condition, however,
is seldom discovered by inspectors. It is usually only evident


Fig. 143.
Testing for Sharp Flanges by Use of
M. C. B. Gauge.


Fig. 142.
Testing for Sharp Flanges by
Use of M. C. B. Gauge Fig. l43-a.
Gauging for Worn Treads.
when the wheels are being removed from the axle in the
press. Wheels may require removal for unusual causes, such
as being damaged in a wreck or being in a ﬁre, and thus
becoming warped, cracked, or blistered on the tread. It might
be well to call attention to the fact that where wheels begin
to show badly seamed and rotten rims—that is, where there
is evidence of deterioration of the material—inspection of the
date when wheel was cast will usually indicate that the wheel
is approximately twelve years old. While there are no
instructions to this effect, inspectors are justified in removing
252 CARS


.> halﬁwiﬂs ‘w;- ' \i-a-
< Ava" - L

Fig. 144.
Cracks in Steel Wheel Due to
, Brake Burns.
' --a

Fig. 145.
Steel Wheel- Seamy or Shelled.
o
s
‘v
CARS 253
such wheels if ﬂanges are at all close to the sharp ﬂange
limit, when in their judgment the appearance of the wheel,
particularly the appearance of the rim, indicates a weakened
condition of the metal that might produce a failure.

Steel Wheel: Shell Outs. Steel Wheel: Shell Outs.
Fig. 144 shows cracks in a steel wheel due to brake burns
and Fig. 145 shows a wheel shelled or seamy, perhaps from
brake burning. Figs. 146 and 147 show shell outs. It can
be noticed in this connection, however, that shell outs on
steel wheels differ in their nature from those on cast-iron
wheels; the shell outs in steel wheels being laminated in
structure, in other words, the metal appears to have been
built up in thin layers instead of being one solid piece.
254 CARS
Concerning the inspection of steel-tired wheels, it is neces-
sary to keep the keenest lookout for checks in the tire.
Neglect to so do sometimes leads to serious accidents like
the one later alluded to by us, which was caused by the burst-
ing of a tire which a number of inspectors had previously
inspected but found nothing wrong with it. Yet investigation
showed: That the fracture of the tire was occasioned by the
presence of deep‘ thermal cracks in the tread, one of which
had separated the metal of the tire to a depth of one-half its
thickness and had an area of over Ill/5., square inches: That
these cracks were visible on the surface of the tread and the
edge of the outer end of the tire. A series of observations of
this kind could properly be placed before car inspectors for
their information and guidance.
'Methods of inspection may need revision to meet current
conditions of railway service, wherein is shown a marked
tendency to increase the working stresses, and in so doing
decrease the margin in strength remaining between them and
the rupturing loads of the materials. Inspection for the dis-
covery of occasional structural defects and inspection for
noting approach to the limit of endurance of materials are
quite distinct problems, the latter presenting great difficulties.
High wheel loads and the introduction of high-speed brakes
are factors in the present case. Nearly always, ‘the wider
and longer cracks are conspicuous, fully admitting of discov-
ery upon proper inspection of the tire. Such cracks in steel
have grave signiﬁcance. They lead to early ultimate failure,
especially when the causes that occasioned their formation
are aided and combined with independent straining forces.
The shrinkage strains are always present in the cold tire,
and they alone would have a tendency to complete the fracture
of the tire when a thermal crack had reached a certain stage
of development. With the wheels now commonly used, tapping
them with a hammer will not indicate anything. The most
approved method of inspection at present is by actual observa-
tion of the car wheels. And above all is this necessary with
the steel-tired wheel.
Some railroads occasionally purchase, and some manufac-
turers supply, wheels already mounted on axles, both of them
CARS 255
of speciﬁed design and material; the tests of which vary with
different roads. As a rule, the best and general practice
contemplates the mounting of wheels in the railroad shop,
where the wheels and axles are assembled. -
In selecting and mounting wheels, the recommended prac-
tice of the Association is as follows:
MOUNTING WHEELS.
First. That wheels with ﬂanges worn to a thickness of
111;; inches or less shall not be remounted. Second. That the
thickness of ﬂanges of wheels ﬁtted on the same axle should
be equal and should never vary more than 11,; inch. Third.
That in mounting wheels, new or second hand, the standard
wheel check gauge should be used in the following manner:
After one wheel is pressed into position, place the stop “A” -
or “B” of the check gauge against the inside of the ﬂange of
the wheel with the thinner ﬂange with the corresponding
tread stop “C” or “D” against the tread of the wheel. Press
the other wheel on the axle until the opposite tread stop
comes in contact with the tread with the corresponding gauge
point “E” or “F” in contact with the outside of the thicker
ﬂange. 7
I The M. C. B. Rules also direct that‘: Wheels on the same
axle must be of the same circumference. In no case shall
two wheels be mounted on the same axle when the thickness
of their two ﬂanges together will exceed the thickness of one
normal and one maximum ﬂange, or 2% inches. New wheels
must not be mated with second-hand wheels. Prick punching
or shimming the wheel ﬁt must not be allowed. To these rules
may be added: Second-class wheels showing a tendency to
wear at the throat, and likewise wheels showing a tendency
to wear away from the ﬂange, should be mated together.
Too great care cannot be exercised in properly mating /
the wheels, which means mounting'two wheels of the same
size on an axle. After they have been mated, they aresb'ored
to the proper size, the wheel ﬁt being turned to such a.:size
as will allow the wheels to be forced onto the axle .under
heavy pressure. The axle is ﬁtted to the wheel, not the wheel
to the axle. This ﬁt must be such that wheels for cars of
60,000 pounds capacity will go on their axle at not less than
256 ‘ 0412s
35 tons and not more than 45 tons pressure \;V7 for 80,000 pound
capacity cars, not less than 45 nor more than 55 tons pressure,
and for 100,000 pounds capacity cars, not less than 55 nor more
than 65 tons pressure—said pressure being always applied
hydraulically. If less pressure forces a wheel into place,
remove it from the axle and replace it by another which will
ﬁt properly. If a greater pressure than is allowed is used,
and the wheel bursts, the railroad has to suffer the loss, as
' it is not here chargeable to the manufacturer.
Wheels mounted too closely together produce a stepped
tread on each of them; when too far apart, cut ﬂanges and
thin ﬂanges result. .A stepped tread will also be produced it
one wheel is mounted closer to the center than its mate. It
can thus be seen that a careful mating and mounting of wheels
in tho onmnanv’a qhnnn is: mnnt. nnsmntial- Tncnrrect practice
in either leads to serious results.
The following standard terms and gauging points for
wheels and track have been adopted by the M. C. B.
1. Track rails are the two main rails forming the track.
2. Gauge of Track is the shortest distance between the
heads of track rails. _
3. Base Line, for‘ wheel gauges, is a line parallel to the
axis 01' the wheels drawn through the point of intersection
of tread with a line perpendicular to the axis, and passing
through the center of the throat curve.
4. Inside Gauge of Flanges is the distance between backs
of ﬂanges of a pair of mounted wheels measured on the base
line. _
5. Gauge of Wheels is the distance between the outside
face of ﬂanges of a pair of mounted wheels measured on a
line parallel to the base line, but 5/8 inches ‘further from the
axis of the wheels.
6. Thickness of Flange is the distance measured parallel
to the base line between two lines perpendicular thereto, one
drawn through the point of measurement of “inside gauge
of ﬂanges,” and the other drawn through the point of meas-
urement of “gauge of wheels.”
7.‘ Width of Tread is the distance measured parallel to
the base line from a line perpendicular thereto, drawn through
I .


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MASTER can BUILDERS’HSSOGIATION. '
STANDARD LIMIT GAUGE FOR REMOUNTING CAST IRON WHEELS.
STANDARD WHEEL CIRCUMFERENCE MEASURE FOR CAST IRON WHEELS.

STANDARD WHEEL CIRCUMF'ERENCE MEASURE
FOR CAST IRON WHEELS. ,
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Fig. 149.


pg...” . -—'G~kUGE over ALL-514%‘
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STANDARD 4L6 z_9 ..
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DIAMETED OF Wl-ﬁEL IS BE
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T WILL DDODUCE THE ExAcT CON'IOUQ
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WHEEL MOUNTING AND cHEcK GAUGE.- than” ' 2“ ie—‘Ei" V time. 575$ \7,
' WHEEL TDEAD AND FLANGE.
Fa? WHEEL DEFECT AND WORN COUPLER UMIT GAUGE,
MASTER 611R BUILDERS'HSSOCIIITION.
STANDARD TERMS a GAUGING POINTS FOR wHEELs &TRACK._
STANDARD GUARD RAIL a FROG wmc GAUGE.
STANDARD WHEEL MOUNTING AND CHECK oAucE.
STANDARD WHEEL DEFECT AND WORN COUPLER Lmrr GAUGE._


‘ 22mm FLVQNGE THW'SSS GAUGE FOR STANDARD WHEEL TREAD AND FLANGE _
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Tmcljg; Hgijsggmggrgmmms STANDARD FLANGE THICKNESS GAUGES FoR cAs-r mon WHEELS
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Fig. 148.
CARS 257
the point of measurement of “gauge of wheels” to the outer
edge of tread.
8. Check Gauge Distance is the distance measured parallel
to the base line between two lines perpendicular thereto, one
drawn through the point of measurement of “inside. gauge
of ﬂanges” on either wheel, and the other,’ drawn through
point of measurement of “gauge of wheels” on mate wheel.
9. Over All Gauge is the distance parallel to base line
from outer edge of one wheel to the outer edge of mate wheel.
The above-mentioned gauge distances are either directly or
by inference as follows:
Feet Inches
Inside gauge of ﬂanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 5 7—32
Gauge of wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 7 11—16
Thickness of ﬂange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 11—32
Width of tread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a 4 11-32
Check gauge distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 . 6 29—64
Over all gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 4%
These are all shown in Fig. 148, which shows the M. C. B.
Standard Gauge for locating the wheels on the ‘axle; all axles
to be carefully marked at the exact central point between the
centers of the journals. Thus, in mounting wheels, they
should be carefully gauged from this center, so_ that they
should not only be equidistant from that center but also the
correct distance from each other. Immediately after being
pressed on an axle, every wheel must be carefully inspected
for a cracked hub.
In this same ﬁgure are shown the standard M. C. ‘B. tread
and ﬂange of wheels, both iron and steel, together with
M. C. B. gauges for wheel defects, and maximum and minimum
ﬂange-thickness gauges for cast-iron, solid steel, and steel-
tired wheels. In Fig. 149 is depicted the standard M. C. B.
limit gauge for remounting cast-iron wheels; also standard
M. C. B. wheel circumference measure for cast-iron wheels.
The oﬂicial gauge for, and determination of, wheel
defects such as ﬂat spots, shelled out places, broken or worn
ﬂanges, worn tread, etc., are fully described in the
M. C. B. Code of Rules from Rule 68 to 83, both inclusive.
These cover the defects of both iron and steel wheels. For
the corresponding data as to passenger car wheels, see M. C. B.
258 . CARS
Rules 13 to 15 inclusive, under head of "Passenger Equip-
ment,” which further direct that: The gauges for condemning
worn ﬂanges of steel and steel-tired wheels under passenger
cars to be the same as are used for worn ﬂanges of same kind
of wheels under ‘freight cars; thegauges for condemning worn
ﬂanges of cast-iron wheels under passenger cars to be the
same as are used for the same defect and purpose with cast-
iron car wheels under freight cars of 80,000 pounds capacity
or over.
It may be seen from the above that special gauges (pret-
erably micrometers) should be used when turning axles and
boring wheels, and should be kept in good condition and
tested frequently enough to make sure of their correctness.
Boring mills should be tested frequently enough to insure
wheels being bored true and central. All gauges should also
be so tested, by comparison with master gauges kept at the
shops and yardsfor this purpose.
CAST-IRON WHEELS.
The cast-iron or chilled-iron wheel as it is commonly
called, is now’ and long has been the wheel generally used
under freight cars. As to whether it will long remain so in
the future, is now a moot question depending upon several
important railroad matters still pending. This standard
chilled wheel is cast solid and chilled hard in the tread and
ﬂange, leaving the wheel tough in the center. This chilling
is a kind of crystallization produced when melted cast iron
is cooled suddenly, and is usually eﬁected by bringing the
molten iron in contact with a cold metal mold, generally made
of iron. This sudden cooling produces a clear white iron to
a depth of from 1,4; to 3/4 of an inch, which is called a “chill,"
and is often harder than tempered steel, thus giving the tread
an extremely hard wearing surface. The plates of this wheel
are formed by a sand mold and dry sand core, whereby the
cooling of the melted metal is retarded, resulting in a strong
iron structure. The opening in the hub is a dry sand. core,
and the slow cooling of the metal here produces a strong
open grain, necessary for the machine work required for per-
feet axle ﬁt. '
1mm mo H011 mo Puma-sat mums ‘a ‘o 'W
‘091 ‘Sta

260 - CARS’
The scientiﬁc casting and subsequent heat-treatment of
this chilled wheel are parts of the processes through which
it passes, and have brought this wheel to a high state of
efficiency for a cast-iron structure. For ﬁfty years it ‘was
the standard wheel for all kinds of equipment, fairly keeping
pace until recently with the carrying capacity and growth
of cars. Ninety-ﬁve per cent of our present freight cars are
equipped with chilled wheels, and about 90 per cent of the
50-ton cars have them. The .M. C. B. Ass’n. recommends
these wheels for freight service as follows:
625-lb. Chilled Iron Wheel for 30-ton cars
675-lb. Chilled Iron Wheel for 40-ton cars
725-1b. Chilled Iron Wheelfor 50-ton cars
The ordinary M. C. B. chilled wheel is seen in Fig. 150.
As to their comparative cost, they are at present by tar
the most economical, as regards their ﬁrst cost, which is less
than one-half-that of any freight car wheel of steel. As to
their relative value for heavy steel cars, opinions still diﬂer.
The M. C. B. speciﬁcations for 33-inch chilled wheels for
cars of maximum gross weights not toexceed 95,000, 132,000,
and 161,000 pounds, are as follows:
SPECIFICATIONS FOR 33-INcII CAST-IRON WHEELS FOR cans 0F MAX-
IMUM GROSS WEIGHTS, NOT TO EXCEED 95,000 PGUNDS,
132,000 AND 161,000 POUNDS.
I. MATERIAL AND CHILL.
The wheels shall show clean, gray iron in the plates, except
at chaplets, where mottling to not more than 1/2 inch from
same will be permitted. The depth of pure white iron shall
not exceed 1 inch nor be less than 1/2 inch in the middle of
the tread.
(a) It shall‘ not exceed 1 inch in the middle of the
tread nor be less than 3/,_=, inch in throat for wheels having a
maximum weight of 625 pounds.
(b) It shall not exceed 1 inch in the middle of the tread
nor be less than 17g inch in the throat'for wheels having a
maximum weight of 675 pounds.
(c) It shall not exceed 1 inch in the tread nor be less
than 1/2 inch in- the throat for wheels‘ having a maximum
weight of 725 pounds. _
\
CARS 261
(d) The depth of white iro'n shall not vary more than
1,4 inch around the tread on the rail line in the same wheel.
II.‘ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS.
Sampling—When ready for inspection, the wheels shall be
arranged in groups, all wheels of the same date being grouped
together, and for each 100 wheels which pass inspection and
are ready for shipment, two representative wheels shall be
taken at random, one of which will be subjected to the drop
test. '
Drop Test—The wheels shall conform to the following drop-
test requirements: . ‘
(a) The test wheel shall be so placed on the three sup-
ports, with ﬂange turned downward, that the tup will strike
centrally on the hub. When tested in accordance with the
following conditions, the wheel shall stand the following
speciﬁc number of blows:


TABLE 1
Wt. of Wheel Weight of Tup Height of Drop Number of
Pounds Pounds Feet Blows
625 200 ' 9 - _ 10
675 200 10 12
725 200 _ 12 i 12


Thermal Test—Should the test wheel stand the given num-
ber of blows without breaking into two or more pieces, the
inspector will then subject the other wheel to the following
test:
(a) Preparation—The wheel shall be laid with the ﬂange
downward in the sand and a channel way 1% inches wide
and 4 inches deep must be molded with green sand around
the wheel. The clean tread of the wheel must form one side
of the channel way and the clean ﬂange must form as much
of the bottom as its width will cover.
(b) Test—The above described channel must be ﬁlled
with molten cast iron, which shall be hot enough, when
poured, so that the .ring which is formed, when the metal is
262 CARS
cold, shall be solid' or free from wrinkles or layers. . The
time when pouring ceases must be noted, and two minutes
later an examination of the wheel must be 'made. If the
wheel is found broken in pieces. or if any cracks in the plate
extend through or into the rim, all wheels of the same tape
size as the wheel broken will be rejected.
' Drop-Test Machine—The three supports shall not be more
than 5 inches wide. The anvil shall be supported on rubble
masonry at least two feet deep and shall weigh not less than
1,700 pounds. The striking face of the tup shall be 8 inches in
diameter and be ﬂat.
' III. RETEST. ,
Number of Tests—In making the drop test, should the test
wheel break into two or more pieces with less than the
required number of blows, then the second wheel shall be
taken from the same lot and similarly tested. If the second
wheel stands the test it shall be optional with the inspector
‘whether he shall test the third wheel or not. If he does not
- do so, or if he does and the third wheel stands the test, the
.100 wheels will be accepted as ﬁlling the requirements of the
drop test. ' .
Dimensions—The normal diameter of the wheel produced
by the chill must be the M. ‘C. B. standard 33 inch, measured
at a point 2% inches from the outside of the tread of the
wheel. Wheels furnished under this speciﬁcation shall not
vary more than 1/4: inch above or below the normal size meas-'
ured on the circumference and the same wheel shall not vary
more than 31g inch in diameter. The thickness of the ﬂange
shall be regulated by the maximum and minimum ﬂange
thickness gauges adopted by the M. C. B. Ass’n. All wheels
shall be taped with M. C. B. standard design of ‘wheel circum-
ference tape, having numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 stamped 1/8 inch
apart, the ﬁgure 3 to represent the normal diameter 103.67
inches circumference. The ﬁgure 1,, the smallest, and the
ﬁgure 5, the largest.
All wheels furnished under these speciﬁcations shall con-
form to the respective sections shown by the M. C. B. drawings
CARS 263
for diﬁerent weights of wheels, and weights shall be as
follows:


Maximum Gross Weight Maximum Weight of Minimum Weight of
of Car Wheel Not Exceeding Wheel Not Less Than
Pounds Pounds Pounds
95,000 025 015
132,000 075 665
161,000 725 715


In case of wheels ordered with cores smaller in diameter
than the standard, the additional weight should be considered
as an addition to the normal weight and paid for by the pur-
chaser. Weights given in the above table are based on
M. C. B. Standard drawings covering wheel design, adopted
in 1909. Wheels that are under minimum weight will be set
aside and not further considered. Wheels that are over the
maximum weights will be at the expense of the manufacturer.
Workmanship—Chills shall have an inside proﬁle that,
in the ﬁnished wheel, will produce the exact form of the
ﬂange and tread contour shown by the M. C. B. drawings
adopted ‘in 1909. The body of the wheel must be smooth and
free from slag, shrinkage or blow holes. The tread shall be
free from deep and irregular wrinkles, slag, chill cracks and
sweat or beads in the throat, and swelled. rims. All wheels
shall be numbered consecutively in accordance with the
instructions from the railroad company purchasing them, and
shall have the initials of such railroad company, also the
wheel number, the weight of the wheel and month, day and
year when made, plainly formed on the outside plate of casting.
No two wheels shall have the same number. All wheels shall
also have the name and place of manufacture plainly formed
on the outside plate in casting. Wheels conforming to the
requirements and furnished under this speciﬁcation shall have
the letters M. C. B. 1909 plainly formed on the outside plate
in casting.
_ Lt in any lot of wheels submitted for test the test wheel fails
to meet the requirements of the drop, chill or thermal test,
then all of the wheels in tape number and weight correspond-
ing to the test wheel will be rejected. In case the rejection
264 CARS
‘I.
is for high chill, weak breaking strength or failure in the
thermal test, the test will be continued in the next higher
number of tape size. If the rejection is for low chill, the
test will be continued in the next lower number tape size.
The standard M. C. B. 33~inch cast-iron wheels are shown
in Figs. 151, 152 and 153.
A variety of this wheel is the nickel-chrome chilled iron
car "wheel seen in Fig. 154 which, while more expensive than

Fig. 154.
Nickel-Chrome Chilled Iron- Wheel.
the ordinary chilled wheel, is said to have four times as
great ﬂange strength and twice as much mileage capacity
under 50-ton cars. Tests of comparative mileage cost are said
to reduce its cost to one-half of the ordinary chilled wheel's,
and only one-third that of the steel wheel's mileage cost. It
is quite probable that if chilled wheels are to be used under
the latest huge cars, some special alloy of cast iron like this
will have to be resorted-to eventually.


~
' _i_
33" CAST IRON WH
5 ma CARS or MAXIMUM eao'ss
Monro excess 95000 LBS.
‘,


mum; gm: Bummans'nssocmnon.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
FOR
SE'CAST IRON WHEELS FOR CARS OF MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT .
NOT TO EXCEED $5000 L85.


ml!


'|\
. '_
_33-__
FINIBCD M Simon
STANDARD CORE
6' DIAM


33" CAST IRON WHEELS FOR CARS OF MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT
NOT TO EXCEED I3Z.OOO LBS
.f.
i
Fig. 152.
MASTER can BUIhDERS'llSSOGIllTION.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
- FOR
33"CAST IRON WHEELS FOR CARS OF MAXIMUM GROSS
WEIGHT NOT TO EXCEED ISZOOO LBS.


a-L'
JO
'- w
61 [

STANDARD CORE
6% DlAM
45' _


33" CAST IRON WHEELS FOR CARS OF" MAXIMUM .GROSS WEIGHT
NOT TO EXCEED IGLOOO LBS.
MASTER cm; BUILDERS’ASSOGIHTION.
' 33" CAST mom 'wHEELs FOR CARS or MAXIMUM canoes
WEIGHT NOT TO EXCEED ISLOOO LBS.
/


Fig. 153


DIAMETER or w
MEASURED 6N uNl A-l


TIRE FASTENING
FOR STEEL TIRED WHEELS .


PLANE GAUGE
FOR SOLID STEEL WHEELS

MASTER CIIR BUIIIIIERS’IISSOGIIITION.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
FOR
MINIMUM THICKNESS FOR sTEEL TIREs‘.
WHEEL TREAD AND FLANGE FOR sTEEI. AND STEEL TIRED wHEELs.
ROTUNDITY AND PLANE- GAUGES FOR SOLID sTEEI. WHEELS.
TIRE FASTENING FOR STEEL TIRED WHEELS. ,
WHEEL cIRcuMFERENcE MEASURE ‘9


FOR STEEL AND STEEL TIRED WHEELS. I T’


m‘ on ME,§TOEPEASJREDOILIIAQI -
WHEEL TREAD AND FLANGE FOR
STEEL AND STEEL TIRED WHEELS
11
-\
~-\~
\ I QEWTIRE
SURING LINE
‘CRITICAL ' ‘ME '
GRADUKI'IM on TAP!
‘m u smug Arm
STEEL TIRE.
SHRINKAGE FASTENING ONLY,
WHEEL CIRCUMFERENCE MEASURE FOR STEEL AND STEEL TIRED WHEELS.
FIG. '
STEEL WHEEL.
MINIMUM THICKNESS FOR ‘STEEL TIRES.
IZOTUN -m' qAueE
FoR 33'02 3602 as‘ SOLID STEEL WHEELS
‘I ‘ _ Fig. 155.
CARS ' 265
The ordinartr chilled wheel, even under 50-ton cars, carries
a minimum guaranteed time service of six years. The makers
" of these wheels allege that out of.a million of such wheels
under 50-ton cars, less than 1 per cent fails. Still, they have
requested of the M. C. B. Ass’n. that this guarantee be now
reduced, and they have submitted the following schedule
to the Association: '
Weight of car. Weight of load. Total weight. Average mile— Ton miles.
' . age per-year.
30-ton car. 15 tons 30 tons 45 tons 8000 360,000
40-ton car. 20 tons 40 tons 60 tons 8000 480,000
50-ton car . 25 tons 50 tons 75 tons 8000 600,000
30-ton car, 360,000 ton miles, .6 years—2,160,000 ton miles guar.
40-ton car, 480,000 ton miles, 4% years—2,160,000 ton miles guar.
50-ton car, 600,000 ton miles, 3% years—2,160,000 ton miles guar.
We ask for guarantee:
6 years—625-pound wheel.
5 years—675-pound wheel.
4 years—~725-pound wheel-
The 6-year guarantee for the 30-ton car using the 625-pound
wheel was satisfactory to both maker and user, but when the
cars increased in capacity from 30 to 50, tons, or 66% per cent,
and the wheel only increased from 625 to 725 pounds, or 16
per cent, the service conditions materially changed. For, the
tread surfaces of the three classes of M. C. B. chilled wheels
are identically the same, and the heavier the loads, the more
severe the service on the tread metal. If, therefore, chilled
wheels are to be used under modern heavy cars, obviously
considerable increase must be made in both weight and contour
of the chilled wheel. The makers conﬁdently advertise their
' ability to design a chilled wheel for even 100-ton cars.
Whether they can make them or not for such capacities,
depends on several things, but most car men do not believe
the chilled wheel can be made strong enough for such cars.
The excessive weight of such wheels, even if possible to make
them, would be ample to condemn them, unless special alloys
are used.
Quite a number of the freight cars of 100,000 pounds
capacity, built immediately after their advent in 1898, were
provided with cast-iron wheels of the lighter designs, and as
practically all cars of the capacity named, built in the earlier
266 _ CARS’
years, were for mineral traﬂic, the combination of light wheels
and heavy work resulted in more frequent failure and rapid
wear than was desirable. Notwithstanding the fact that the
weight of the cast-iron wheel has “been increased from time
to time, it cannot be said that cast-iron wheels in general use
today give as good results for cars of 100,000 pounds capacity,
as were obtained with similar wheels for cars of 60,000 pounds
capacity. These conditions, coupled with the construction
of cars having capacities as high 'as 140,000 pounds carried
on eight wheels, without doubt extended the use of the steel
wheel ‘and stimulated production. The increase in ‘weight
alone is a great drawback. As compared with a cast-steel
wheel weighing only 600 pounds, we might have a 900-pound
chilled wheel, making a difference of 2,400 pounds in car
light weight, and this for even a 70-ton car. _
To increase their factor of safety, the makers of chilled
wheels seek to increase the thickness of the ﬂange 1,5 inch;
this increase to be placed on the back of the ﬂange and below
the tread line and center of the wheel; alleging that this
will enable the wheel to carry the heaviest car now in service.
Any' considerable increase in ﬂange thickness, however, will
interfere with road clearances, such as frogs, switches, and
crossings; and although the several thousands of wheels with
this added 14, inch are now operating. safely, yet a further
increase of ﬂange will have to be made for cars of over 70
tons capacity. That point will be impossible, because of the
enormous expense involved in altering such clearances all
over the country. For this reason, it seems that the ordinary '
chilled wheel has limits beyond which it cannot safely go,
and, hence, for cars of 80 tons or over, it must give way to
the steel freight car wheel.
It may here be noted that recent tests‘ on chilled wheels
with brakeshoes, show that metal added to the rim does not
decrease the stress on the wheel, which is proportional to
the difference in temperature between the hub and the rim.
It‘ also shows that the M. C. B. plate design might be improved,‘
by making its inside a smooth curve with a comparatively
large radius, instead of reversing the curvature of the plate
and giving it as sharp a curve as it is now made with.
CARS _ 267
STEEL'TIRED WHEELS.
A steel-tired wheel is one with a steel or iron center,’ with
a steel tire which is usually shrunk on, welded, bolted, or
fastened by retaining-rings to the center. The Tire is a
heavy band of steel forming the rim of a wheel to impart
strength to it and resist wear. Face Plates, known as Front
and Back Face Plates, connect the tire and hub. Also, the
part surrounding the hub and connecting it with the tire
is called a Center Filling Piece or Skeleton. A Wheel Center
.is a hub and center ﬁlling Piece combined; it is sometimes
in one piece, sometimes made up of two parts—ethe hub and
center ﬁlling piece.
A retaining ring is a ring used to fasten a tire to the
wheel. There are several kinds in car wheel use, including:
Double Lip Retaining Ring—one of the common methods of
securing tires; Mansell Retaining Ring, using a ring of L
or U shaped cross-section which secures tire to wheel, ﬁrmly
holding every part of the tire, no matter into how many
pieces it may be ruptured. The Key Ring Tire Fastening is
composed of two rings, one of U shaped cross-section, the‘
other nearly rectangular; the former holding tire and wheel
together, the latter holding the U ring in place and ﬁlling
up the groove in the tire. When both rings ‘of this last
device are in place, the outer lip of the groove in the tire is
slightly hammered over, thus gripping the second or key
ring and retaining it in its place. There are other devices,
such as the Gibson, but most retaining rings are similar to
the above types. .
The use of steel-tired wheels was brought about, years
ago, at a time when cast, or wrought-steel wheels were not
yet being made. The steel-tired wheel was required for the
severe use and demands for safety of locomotives, tenders,
and, later, of passenger equipment. Lacking solid steel
wheels, the steel-tired wheel performed useful and indispen-
sable functions under such rolling stock, despite their high
ﬁrst cost and occasional rupture. They were gradually
improved, resulting in the standard bolted type, where the
steel tire is shrunk on and then securely bolted, the bolt
passing through the tire as well as the wheel center. Great
268 CARS
improvements were made in both tire fastenings and tire
steel; tires being now made of crucible steel or open-hearth
steel—the weldless rolled steel tire being about the best.
The M. C. B. Recommended Practice for the Minimum
Thickness for Steel Tires of steel-tired car wheels, requires
the tire to be 1 inch thick, measured normal to the tread and
radial to the curved portions of the ﬂange through the thinnest
part within 4% inches from the back of the ﬂange—the thick-
ness from the latter part to the outer edge of the tread to be


Fig. 156.
Steel-Tired Wheel: Cast-Iron Plate Center: Tire Held by Shrink-
age and Bolts.
not less than 1/2 inch at the thinnest part. When the wheel is
new, a small groove is cut in the outer face of the tire, at
a radius 17g inch less than that of the tread of the tire when
worn to the prescribed limit. This is done to facilitate inspec-
tion.
This is illustrated in Fig. 155, which gives the standard
M. C. B. wheel circumference measure for steel and steel-
tired wheels; the wheel tread and ﬂange for such wheels;
and the two methods of retaining-ring fastening, besides the
shrinkage fastening alone; all of these approved by the M. C.
B. Ass’n.
CARS - 269
The various kinds of steel-tired wheels formerly in most
common use, were:
Iron Plate Center Type: Using shrinkage and bolts, Fig.
156; using shrinkage, rivets and double-lip retaining ring;
using shrinkage, rivets, and Mansell retaining ring; using
shrinkage, bolts, and Mansell retaining ring; using shrinkage
and Gibson retaining ring; using shrinkage and shoulder.
Except the ﬁrst named, all these are now obsolete on American
railways.
Using a cast-steel plate center, other kinds employed the
same devices—bolts, rivets, rings, etc.—-as the above types
of wheels.
Other combinations of parts of steel-tired passenger car
wheels in use were as follows: Cast Iron Spider with steel
plates secured by bolts; Cast Iron\_ Spoke-Center with tire
secured by shrinkage, bolts, and retaining-rings; Cast Iron
Spoke-Center with tire secured by shrinkage and Mansell
retaining-rings; Cast Iron Plate Center, with tire secured
by welding. Others were: Cast: Iron Double-Plate Center
type: (a) Having internal rib's, tire secured by shrinkage
and Gibson retaining-ring; (b) Having internal ribs, tire
secured by shrinkage and Mansell retaining-ring; (c) Having
internal spokes, tire secured by bolts and Mansell retaining-
rings; (d) Tire secured‘ by shrinkage and Mansell retaining-
rings. The Wrought-Iron Disc-Center type had:—Tire secured
by shrinkage and Mansell retaining-rings: Tire secured by
shrinkage and double-lip retaining-ring: and Tire secured by
shrinkage and Internal-Lock. Another kind has a Cast Steel
Plate Center—the bolted type of coach wheel. Those with
steel centers and the M. C. B. fastenings just shown alone
survive; the rest are obsolete.
The M. C. B. Standard steel-tired wheels are 33, 36, and
38 inches in diameter; wheel centers of 28, 31, and 33 inches
being allowed.
The good points of the steel-tired wheel we have already
enumerated; as a rule it rendered good service, but with the
advent of cheaper cast steel and wrought steel wheels than
formerly, it is likely that this kind of wheel will soon dis-
appear entirely. Its defects are those to be expected of any
270 CARS
built-up wheel; unless ﬁrmly locked together in all its parts,
it will shake loose in time, and cause serious trouble. The
M. C. B. tire fastening should always be rigidly insisted upon;
but, even if great care is taken, careless inspection will over-
look thermal or heat cracks in this wheel.
The worst defect of the steel-tired wheel can most brieﬂy
be illustrated by reference to a serious accident lately caused
by the failure of a steel tire on a passenger truck, as depicted
in Fig. 157.
The wheel on which the tire was broken was known as
a single-plate, solid-center wheel; the tire was applied to the
wheel center by shrinkage, and there were two retaining rings


Fig. 157.
Broken Tire with Thermal Cracks.
which clamped the tire, one on each side, being held in posi-
tion by 10 or 12 rivets. The shrinkage of the tire upon the
wheel center was the chief element of strength or resistance
which kept it in place when intact. When fractured this
resistance was lost, and only the strength of the rivets of the
retaining rings would then be available for holding it in
place. Successive side lurches of the car, common to all train
movements, overcame the strength of the rivets by ﬂange
blows, ultimately forcing the tire off the Wheel center. From
the design of the wheel the retaining rings can act in two
capacities—to hold fragments of a broken tire against outward
centrifugal forces, and to restrain the tire against lateral
thrust parallel to the axis of the axle. The latter movement
or tendency would ordinarily be an inward one, since the
wheel ﬂanges are on the inside.
Investigation showed that the tire exhibited deep thermal
cracks, the extension of which under unusual stress, resulted
in the rupture of the tire and the derailment of the train.
CARS ., 271
It is possible that here, as in other cases, allowance could be
made for imperfect material, faulty manufacture, or improper
fastening of tire to wheel center, but the real factor was the
heat crack. The greatest. factor in the case is the application
of the brakes. The tread is suddenly heated by the friction
of the brake shoe and the tire expanded before the center is
affected, no doubt causing wide ﬂuctuations in the magnitude
of the shrinkage strains. Momentarily the tire may be left
with very little shrinkage resistance when there is sudden
application of the brakes, thus laying the last straw of strain
on an already overtaxed wheel.
In conclusion, it appears that the retaining rings and rivets
in the construction of the wheel did not have adequate
strength, shrinkage resistance having been lost, to hold the
fractured tire on its wheel center: That the fractured tire,
insecurely held, was forced off its wheel center by side thrusts
usual to train movements, thus precipitating the derailment:
That the formation and extension of these cracks was due to
the heat generated under the brakeshoe: That adequate
means should be employed to hold a tire of this type on its
wheel center independent of shrinkage resistance.
STEEL \VHEELS .
The development of the all-steel wheel came about ﬁrst,
from the need of a substitute for the steel-tired wheel, for use
under engines, tenders and passenger cars : and, second, by its
application to modern heavy cars, especially steel cars, and
'those designed for the heaviest mineral and coal traffic—all
cases where the cast-iron'wheel was plainly not strong enough
for the severe service or great' load. Even in the early stages.
of the development it was apparent that wrought steel wheels
could be produced at prices which would warrant their in-
troduction in lieu of steel-tired wheels, and consequently a
considerable number of them are now in service under pass-
enger cars and the heavier locomotive tenders. The results
obtained in such service indicate equal safety, with decreased
investment and maintenance cost, as compared with those
formerly used.
272 , CARS '
Wrought steel wheels are now used in large numbers for
freight carrying cars. The length of time in such service has
not been suﬂicient to give really- conclusive information as to
the relative economy of the wrought steel and cast iron wheels,
especially the cast iron wheels conforming to the recently
strengthened designs, and made under improved methods of
manufacture. The data available, however, indicates that in
the wrought steel wheel at present prices the cast iron wheel
has found a competitor, and that a further reduction in the
price of the steel wheel will probably lead to its more extended
use for freight car purposes.
Solid steel wheels are no longer an experiment: hundreds
I of thousands of them are now in use‘ under cars of all kinds,
and their superior safety value, great durablity, and ultimate
economy have been amply demonstrated. Their application to
cars increases those cars’ carrying capacity greatly: in the case
of the 100,000 to 110,000 pounds nominal carrying capacity
cars, they increase the permissible load to- 120,000 pounds by
using them instead of the common chilled iron wheel. As
there is no doubt of the wheel having ample strength to permit
obtaining the full capacity of the axles, this increase in
capacity not only adds to the earnings of the cars, but assists
in keeping them always provided with a full set of steel wheels,
as this kind of wheel only is the standard for cars of over
100,000 pounds marked capacity.
The construction of many freight-carrying cars of over
100,000 pounds capacity still further broadens the ﬁeld for the
use of the steel wheel, and makes necessary the further
strengthening of the cast-iron wheel on the lines already indi-
cated by the makers. Already there are in service many cars
of 90 to 100 tons capacity—a prohibitive size for ordinary
chilled wheels, and hence making the use of steel wheels
under such cars obligatory.
For steel wheels the records of the mileage of a number
of wheels under 100,000 pounds capacity cars in freight service
show that an average of about 180,000 miles per wheel has
been obtained without reaching a condition requiring turning.
This mileage represents from 18 to 22 years of service under
the average freight car.
CARS 273
Accurate information regarding the mileage of cast iron
wheels under cars of 100,000 pounds capacity is, unfortunately,
not available, but from records made in 1907 it was found that
the average age of a number'of wheels removed from service
from cars of 100,000 pounds capacity, was 'four years, corres-
ponding to a mileage of from 32,000 to 40,000 per wheel. As
there can be no question as to the relative strength of an equal
section of wrought steel and cast iron, it would seem that for
cars of 100,000 pounds capacity and over, the steel wheel must
have preference from this view point. They are being used on
gondola and hopper cars of 50 tons and over, for mill and
mineral use; those under 50 tons still being of cast iron, as a
rule. '
Experience shows that steel wheels exhibit remarkably few
ﬂange defects, the feature that is the weakest point in the cast
iron wheel. Another advantage is their comparatively small
weight—the Davis wheel, for instance, weighing only 600
pounds.
Steel wheels are made of either cast steel or wrought
(forged, rolled) steel. M. C. B. Rule 70 permits the substitu-
tion of forged steel wheels for cast-steel ones, as of equal
strength and present approximate cost. _ The wrought-steel
wheels weigh more than the best cast-steel ones, so far, due
probably to the superior strength of the metal used for the cast-
steel wheel. Generally, steel wheels are sold at. so much per
wheel, without regard to the price per pound.
The solid cast-steel wheel is seen in Fig. 158; a solid rolled
steel wheel in Fig. 159, and the solid forged freight car wheel
in Fig. 160. '
The standard M. C. B. speciﬁcations governing dimensions,
composition, tolerances, etc., for solid wrought steel wheels
for freight and passenger car service are as follows:
Process—The steel shall be made by the open-hearth
process. A suﬁicient discard shall be made from the top of
each ingot from which the blanks are made, to insure freedom
from injurious piping and undue segregation.
274 CARS


Fig. 158.
Davis Cast Steel Wheel: \Veight—33-inch, 600 lbs.; 36-inch, 675 lbs.


Fig’. 159.
Solid Rolled Steel Wheel.
CARS 275
Chemical Composition—The steel shall conform to the
following requirements as to chemical composition.
ACID. BASIC.
Carbon . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . 0.60 —0.80 0.65 -0.85 per cent
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . 0.55 —0.80 0.55 —0.80 per cent
Slllcon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 —0.35 0.10 —0.30 per cent
Phosphorus. . . . . . . .not over 0.05 not over 0.05 per cent
Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not over 0.05 not over 0.05 per cent

Fig. 160.
Solid Forged and Rolled Steel Freight Car Wheel. Carnegie Steel
Company.
Ladle Analyses—To determine whether the material con-
forms to the requirements speciﬁed in the above section, an
analysis shall be made by the manufacturer from a test ingot
taken during the pouring of each melt. A copy of this analysis
shall be given to the purchaser or his representative.
Check Analyses—A check analysis may be made by the
purchaser from any one or more wheels representing each
melt and this analysis shall conform to the requirements speci-
ﬁed above. A sample may be taken from any one point
276 CARS
in the plate; .or two samples may be taken, in which case they
shall be on radii at right angles to each other. Samples shall
not be taken in such a way as to impair the usefulness of the
wheel. Drillings for analysis shall be taken by boring en-
tirely through the sample parallel to the axis of the wheel;
they shall be clean from scale, oil, and other foreign sub
stances. All drillings from any one wheel shall be thoroughly
mixed together.
Wheels should be furnished rough. bored and with faced
hubs and have a contour of tread and‘ ﬂange as rolled or
machined according to recommended practice Sheet M. C. B.
—C. They should conform to dimensions speciﬁed within the
following tolerances: ‘The height of ﬂanges'should not be more
than 1/8 inch over and must not be under that speciﬁed or
1 inch. Thickness of ﬂange shall not vary more than 133 inch
over or under that speciﬁed. The radius of the throat shall
not vary more than {E6— inch over or under that speciﬁed. The
thickness of rim to be measured between the limit of wear
groove and the top of the tread at the point where it joins the
ﬁllet at throat of ﬂange. The average thickness of service
metal of all wheels in any shipment must not be less than 1%
inches measured from the limit of wear groove to top tread.
The thickness of rim should in no case be less than ‘133' inches
under that speciﬁed. Thev width of rim shall not be more '
than Mo, inch less nor more than 1/8 inch over that speciﬁed.
The thickness of the plate of the wheel shall not-be less than
3/4 inch at the point where the plate joins the ﬁllet at the rim
and’ not less than1 inchat the point where the plate joins the
ﬁllet at the hub. Intermediate minimum thickness to be pro-
portional. The limit of wear groove to be located as shown
in Sheet M. C. B.——C. The diameter of rough bore shall not
vary more than 3;; inch above or below that speciﬁed. When
not speciﬁed the rough bore shall be 1/1, inch less in diameter
than the ﬁnished bore subject to the above limitations. The
hub diameter may be either 10 inches or 11 inches in diam-
eter as speciﬁed with a maximum variation of 1/8 inch below.
The thickness of the wall of the ﬁnished bored hub shall not
vary more than 5/8 inch at any two points on the same wheel.
The length of hub shall not vary more than 1%; inch over or
CARS 277
WW"
under that speciﬁed. The depression of the hub must be made
so that the distance from the outside face of the hub to the
line “AB” shall not exceed 1&2; inches for wheels used on 5%-
inch axles and under and 11% inches for wheels used on 6 by
11-inch'axles. Black spots will be allowed within two inches
of the face of the hub, but must not be of such depth that they
will not bore out and give clear metal at ﬁnished size of bore.
The eccentricity between the tread at its center line and the
rough bore shall not exceed 63; inch. The maximum height of
block marks must not be greater than 61; inch. All wheels
shall be gauged with a ring gauge and the opening between the
gauge and tread at any one point shall not exceed {3' inch.
Wheel shall be gauged with a ring gauge placed concentric and
perpendicular to the axis of the wheel. All points on the back
of the rim equidistant from the center shall be within a varia-
tion of {2; inch from the plane, of the same gauge when so
placed. Wheels shall not vary more than ﬁve tapes under
nor nine tapes over the size called ‘for: The tape sizes shall
be marked in plain ﬁgures on each wheel. Wheels must be
mated to tape sizes and shipped in pairs. Gauges and tape‘
_ used shall be M. C. B. Standard or Recommended Practice as
follows: _ .
Wheel circumference measure, M. C. B. Standard, Sheet C.
Maximum ﬂange thickness gauge, M. C. B. Standard, Sheet
16. e a»
Minimum ﬂange thickness gauge, M. C. B. Standard, Sheet
16.
Rotundity gauge, M. C. B., Sheet C.
Plane Gauge, M. C. B., Sheet C.
Gauge for measuring service metal, M. C. B., Sheet C-l.
The name or brand of the manufacturer, date, and serial
number shall be legibly stamped on each wheel; also pur-
chaser’s name and serial number, if speciﬁed. The tape‘ size
shall be legibly marked on each wheel. Sheet M. C. B. C-2.
The wheel shall be free from injurious defects, and shall
have a workmanlike ﬁnish. Wheels shall not be offered for
inspection if covered with paint, rust, or any other substance -
to such an extent as to hide defects. Inspector representing
the purchaser shall have free entry at all times while work
278 CARS
m .n'x'tﬂw‘w-r - .- — . . . - -v - v... _ - , ,.
, _“ A a .‘ I. ‘o a.‘ . .g _ A n
' - - -. -‘ ‘.- _ w _ " , ' -
.‘|_ '. . ' ' - ' > ‘ ‘
. _- , . ‘ - _. _ _
on the contract of the purchaser is being performed, to all
parts of the manufacturers’ work which concern the manu-
facture of the material ordered. The manufacturer’ shall
afford the inspector, free of cost, all reasonable facilities and
necessary gauges to satisfy him that the wheels are being fur-
nished in accordance with these speciﬁcations. Tests and in-
spection at the place of manufacture shall be made prior to
shipment, and free of cost to the purchaser. The purchaser
may make the tests to govern the acceptance or rejection of
material in his own laboratory or elsewhere as may be decided
by the purchaser. Such tests,'however, shall be made at the
expense of the purchaser. All tests and inspection shall be
so conducted as not to interfere unnecessarily with the opera-
tion of the works. Wheels that show injurious defects while
being ﬁnished by the purchaser shall be rejected, and manu-
facturer properly notiﬁed. Samples of rejected material must
be preserved at the laboratory of the purchaser for one month
‘from date of test report. In case of dissatisfaction with the
results of the test, manufacturer may make claim for a re-
hearing in that time. .
Standard steel wheels of the M. C. B. Ass’n. are 33, 36 and.
38 inches in diameter; wheel centers of 28, 31 and 33 inches
being permitted by the Association. '
The M. C. B. Recommended Practice for'33-inch, 36-inch
and 38-inch solid- steel wheels, for various sizes of standard
axles, is shown in Fig. 161, Fig. 162 and Fig. 163.
The M. C. B. Recommended Practice for the gauge for
measuring steel wheels to restore contour is shown in Fig.
164; the M. C. B. Recommended Practice for branding of solid
steel wheels, with details of the letters and ﬁgures for same
are shown in Fig. 165.
GAR AXLES
The car axle is a shaft made of wrought iron or steel upon
which a pair of wheels is mounted, both wheels being rigidly
fastened to the axle, making a hydraulic press ﬁt, as before stated.
The parts of the axle are: Center of Axle: Axle‘ Collar, a rim or
enlargement at the end of the axle which receives the end thrust
of the journal bearing; Axle Wheel Seat or Wheel Seat or Wheel
::-n\ . |-.
in. \-__-_ J‘. _l\ .v
’' eaueuq POINT


GAUGING PQINT .
‘____4i - II‘;
.2 -3! . 54 ~
. 8 < ,_ _ _ .
ease LINE: | T I" 1% means;
. I n
'4 I -a I ' ,5
2'1"
25 \ 2 aa
1 a-
k 9 ‘k z
" a
w :-
Z '1
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2 0 ‘n’ U!
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"5 I
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_ I ‘ I ‘— 0
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2 4i“ - .°
_ Foe ‘SW59: AXLES 2
séxIo \


K
. I

MUST NOT BJKGEED
""I
4-H’


32
lg BASE LINE I

33" DIA. ON LINE AB


FOR 6 X II AXLE
I
MIISTER GAR Iamuns'nssocmnou.
FOR
410(8', s'xs'; aii'x Io’. AND 6"xll"AxI.Es. ,

Fl:- 161.


qnucqmqgépo ‘r _. - qAuqmq - m1"
‘—
‘ *“i: ‘i x - A f ’ _ a. I l


“ THAN é
Lg?‘ . .ggiﬁ é
a MUST NOT / I q- ‘n , g
E Excsso /%‘ He 2 NOT Lass
_ ' \
N01‘ LESS " ‘ "
/ THAN ,


' ------ lb‘ogu’mk—ﬁ
to" be 'u'ol - .
FOR d'xu‘ AXLE

H DlA---—>I
1“, |
8 ‘x
$79 \
____ s 1
bill‘
as

MASTER cm; BlllhDERS'llSSOtlllllON.
RECOMMENDED PRAc'rIcE FOR
as'soun STEEL WHEELS
1
FOR
_ M'xai s'x egslé'x lo'mw G'XII'AXLES. L |

36183162.


G‘Aue‘x'ﬁépo‘ T GAuGIINeI Flinn-r ' ‘5"
5 - , ‘ -4——— I, ‘-
5" a j 23- IE . § 5..
< ‘ ~ ‘7' ‘a ' < I:_ I - 8 I
BASE UNEI a ll . __ iBASE UNE BAsE LINEI - J! m ‘ “ - . ' 352 {BOSE L‘NE
. . A I .. _— l _u it: . D n
‘.m — .a- w .I" ’ 64-
~ '5' iST * ' T ‘4 T;
5&—
- 2'1-
ii? I- 2?;— 232
< A
In , ..
z \3/
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NOT Less (
% ‘I'H Iu
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MUST ~0TII~2%
EK'EED NOT LESS
. ' THAN
NOT Less Q’
THAN ~ 7. ,
I l6 . “IE:
/
I " _ ' '
. .. 4- .. /
'13“, Via——
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': *KB- I ‘I i > I
ill F0 53w AxLEs EQR e XII AXLE
0 5L Io
‘Q I ' I
r I
’
MASTER GAR BUIIIIJERS ASSOCIATION.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR
_38" soup sTEEI. wHEELs
FOR
1 471m: s'x e‘: six Io". AND 6'x|_|.”AxLEs.

Fig. 16?.


IT'“'"J [
n» It!‘ __ %_
4.- r ‘—
ONE THUS 51'


I 7%.. ‘
~ ,‘—'L-;" J . _.. ' | “Ii
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e -* f ‘ I I r
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l qt; f 17h’ /I I p A . I I Y‘ L
._ ' / 1 I LT‘. . ‘f’ T LN‘ ‘
‘1%. if __ ,/ , // I,’ \ 4 : i =1: it” I _:F__ a“
1.. ' / I’ ' ° :‘1 - L "-.; "E -
n *2,’ // ’ " ". - 12E ' i :u ‘a; 5 ~_- —: .3;
/ /’ I," l ' 1 . SCALE :x -._ _.
J " 1- I,’ ’, ll ‘\ i " a l i l : : :
:‘h 1% / ’ l I EL ' I l = = I 5 Eu. s cm: TO as
‘f’ /, I l -—r M ‘ .~ _ : scmeso o FRouT _
I g x _ - = u
= " ’ ’ “m l t s ' 71"?“ ~‘ : a, ‘ i
‘5- 3 ﬁat“: I.’ i ..l “2 _+ , .i d A: a) ‘E E TAPER l'nl 1 'L— “l2 ‘b:
t "' ">7 .' " "'1 is is 23k = .0
l ' l" z .,_.|.. _ m-
' “'l 8 3- I n _ I
l A " M’ a 1— 15' ——r- .-
4 .- ‘—'~_li"lz I = '6 7" l -' ‘
l": l "2 ' J __——*‘___ ‘3" : _ 3L2" :
“and A.‘- |r‘'1| ‘:5 " our. ‘mus 51' DR\\.\_ Fog
.4§'|._ . '- L |*%" , ALL-D 65.R\VET
5 on: 'mus e-r. " I“ . ‘.N-
ALL‘D -.~ ' ‘m i l 3- —| -- ' "n
I%I_. .0] — D F 6 i‘_%- N I l‘- 1‘
on: THUS 51-. T T 9‘" I E E‘:
Y '-;°—- ,_ :El" —-— -- _ — . I H
L" ‘
an»; ,, I I
—- *4“: one Tuus I I I gm " I I 2 ,l
T .1- | I n
- m “st—— -- ~ \- .. I g}
I | .. kg‘ .352 — ||
| - a I -
[f 3"‘ 'l I T .
n on: THUS 7| -+ j
H's‘ , I
l 3.: [174 L. :-,' L
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I6
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i m “.2 a, : OldiLTl us 51',
I u '1'" J— ‘ . '“ =12
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spams STEEL
_ l 5 Tuus A- n‘i'
' m A‘ HS 611 BUILD 'l-lSSOBlllTIU
. | | nus A- E M .
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
FOR
GAUGE FOR MEASURING STEEL WHELS
TO RESTORE OONTOUR.


Fig. 154. -

- \


l a ' DETAIL 'oF LETTER$ AND FIGURES FOR
DEPTWYTTILETTER BRANDING soLIo STEEL. WHEELS


MASTER OAR BIIIIIIIERS' ASSOCIATION.
RECOMMEI‘lQPOEFI‘D PRACTICE
_ I BRANDING OF SOLID STEEL WHEELE AND DETAILS
I ' OF LETTERS AND FIGURES.
BRANDING 0F SOLID STEEL WHEELS


Fig. 165.
CARS 27 9
Fit—the part of the axle that goes into the hub of a wheel. This
last part is made truly cylindrical and very slightly larger than
the axle seat of the wheel. This Axle Seat is the inside surface of
the hole in a car wheel which comes in contact with the axle.
The Axle Journal is that part of the axle on which the journal
bearing rests. All these parts together with the Neck and the
Dust Guard Bearing of the axle may be seen in Fig. 116.
‘Steel has almost entirely superseded wrought iron as a material
‘for making forged car axles of all kinds, and iron axles are no
longer being purchased in any quantity. Even using the stronger
grades of steel, axle prices are steadily becoming cheaper, and the
demand for greater safety, added to the difficulty of securing in
quantity the required high grade of wrought iron, is gradually rel-
egating the iron axle to the background. Some roads having
facilities for making their own axles, and also enough high grade
scrap iron, still make their own iron- axles, generally using the
dimensions of the standard M. C. B. iron axle, which hitherto have:
proved ample for keeping the maximum ﬁbre, stresses within safe
limits, where good hammered iron is used.
In the selection of steel for axles, care has to be taken as to its
chemical and physical properties, as with iron axles, and its
method of manufacture also has much to do with its successful
use. The resultant axle should have: A high elastic limit: freedom
from internal stresses: and, above all, it should be uniform in
structure and strength. These requirements apply to both iron
and steel axles. Initial ductility in an axle such as a wrought-
iron one, does not insure the retention of this property under
severe and prolonged conditions. A soft iron axle is easily
ruptured by repeated alternate loads of low magnitude which
would cause no deteriorationv in a high grade steel axle. This,
plus ultimate economy, plus modern greater-safety demands, is
consigning the iron axle to the oblivion of disuse.
Axles are sold at a base price per pound, plus certain extras
for size, workmanship, and special quality. All axles are lathe
cut to exact length and centered with sixty degree centers. They
may be furnished either smooth forged all over; rough turned on
journals and wheel-seats,‘ or rough turned all over, according to
the requirements of the ‘speciﬁcations of the buyer.
\
280 CARS
'any clearly deﬁned open seams.
~ where they are made.
drop test for iron axles of its class.
I The Master Car Builders’ Association has adopted ﬁve standard
axles, and these are now in. general use by the railroads. The
dimensions of these axles (which are known by their letters as
Axle A,‘ Axle B, etc.) and the standard dust-guards are shown
in Fig. 166. .
The speciﬁcations for standard M. C. B. iron axles are as
follows:
1. All axles must conform in shape to the dimensions shown
in the blue prints which will be furnished by the R. B-
Company.
2. All axles must be. cut off and faced to exact lengths and
to be centered with 60 degree centers in the manner indicated
in blue prints, so as to prevent lathe centers from bottoming.
Axles must be made of double-work fagoted scrap, 16 per cent
of new bar iron worked into the center of the axles being
allowed if desired. Axles must be well hammered and free from
They must ﬁnish in the lathe
with journal free from ﬂaws in the shape of holes, pieces shelled
out, or open seams large enough, so that with a knife blade scale
or dirt can be removed from such seams or open seams showing
a clear opening of one thirty—second inch or over, and being more
than 1 inch long. The maker ’s name or initials must be stamped
plainly on each axle. '
3. All axles are to be inspected and tested at the works
The shall be notiﬁed when they
are ready for inspection. Under no circumstances shall car axles
be shipped from the works where they are made‘ until they
have been tested, inspected and accepted by a proper representative
of the company.
4. For each one hundred axles or fraction thereof ordered,
one additional axle must be furnished for test. This axle will be
selected at random from the pile, and subjected to the prescribed
If it stands the test the
one hundred axles or fractional part thereof that it represents,

will be inspected, and only those accepted that are made in a
workmanlike manner and are free from defects mentioned in
these speciﬁcations. All axles received are subject to rejection
if they do not ﬁnish in the lathe in accordance with the require-
\\


._ FRET‘- CENTER TO CENTER OF JOURNAL. 6‘-6" P
i " 1“ a- 5" 7;— —-
\ v —* \ "I _.
AXLE E DESIGNED TO CARRY : ' I I II
"A? 50. S. ‘as!’ ' -~ ,,,~ TI-IIs Poanou TO EE A srEAIsI-IT ‘PIPER _g; f , , I:
THE MATERIAL roe ‘nus AXLE Is'ro BE IN AccoRDNoE wrrIH - 6 v; ‘m
SPECIFICATIONS OF THE M135 ASSOCIATION. OFTHE‘I'WO PDETI N5 ,
'MARKED'A'WHICHARETOBE LEFT UNFINISHED, ONE or THESE M 5T - I
as srmsro wmI-rIIE HEAT DR sLow NUMBER AND THE OTHER .34., - I .
sTAMPED wrm THE NAME oI= THE MANUFACTURER, , - , _ g r u) . if
‘ .3“ r“ u T
'Hz—E—E————————3-6i— -~--_ .
I!
= T-ci QvERA1;I=—— ———


' ~ " I
AXLE D DESIGNED TO cADDY ' I
58.000 LBS. T10 M
II’)
I
I
I

THE PODTION mBEAsTDAIGHTTADED-—-— I


EENTDE TO CENTRE OF JOUQNF— -_


.
‘..k. I ‘J? Y I
‘*P 1—._..' : $4851: _- —— -
L— ——‘— —-— '—_-_—_ FQOM CENTPE TO CENTIPE G'JOLDNALS —— 4 -———
— ~-—-——- - ——--———- TOTAL LENGTH OVEDALL———~ —————— - _—


I—-—- - _ - _ FQOM TOTAL LENGTH CNEDALL —-—7 4-2 ——- ——- _- -_
— 9" °" -—7?——,'" I2’ 33' ' I.
. ‘ '\1 L Iéﬂé .
a, . I
“W , I’ _ / I I I
f’ l . I AXLE. C DESIGNED TO CAPPY I c ..L. .I,___ __--w_ _AQQQJEBS. ____ __ MID“:
“7 | ‘I, TI-ns poDTIoN To BE A STRAIGHT TADED _-1 ‘II’ I “ll
: I LI


Fig. 166.


~ HTTP—7?; - t3"
r—zp; Ev-PI—J "Eh-I? _
I l l AXLE B DESIGNED TO CADPY i i
3 -..¢ as :iv _ _ 22.090 LBS; ____ _ _ m m
{IT “P THIs DoDTIoN TO BE A STDAIGHT TADED ‘I‘ ‘If 7
L_I_ I \JQ ~ - I I
-—*-—-— -—- —FDoM CEN'I'DE TO CENTDE oFJousN/us- -: ',.—_ ’
,1 i . _ _ _ _ _ _ mam-m mm --- -_ -- .___ MASTER GAR BUILDERS ASSOCIATION.
'-— 1' Z" 7"‘ “'M'" . -__l_ STANDARD AXLES. STANDARD DusT GuARDs.
. t Z '6 ‘6W’: "5 '2 STANDARD IIIANNER or TAKING BORINGS FOR
' . AXLE A DEeIGNED TO CAI-aw I I QMTOEIESIHQXIJES
A w, ‘m: ,1, -...o ‘I, ll? _ _ I5.000 LBS. LIL, q _ I _ 1
II- ‘I’ ' v ‘II “.I' I I nus DoDTIoN TO BEA STDAIGHT TADED -—~ ‘I!’ ‘Y = J‘
I ' I - I ' 1.. 1
4- ' ' ./ I ‘_L__’_. ._—____ __ -_l .—_'__I'_ _ R. I- T
I ' ” __—__55D—CETTDFTDENTQEBTJWE—lg* T ‘ a
' __ ___. _ ____.—'____ ______, __ - ___:__ 4: -—"___ ___ cine-Famo- "-1"-
I—————-————- - —-——-—— “TOTAL LENGTH OVED ALL 8. — SKﬁmv-wmm I E‘ongq'i'cﬁxus ,___
CARS 281
ments herein given. The manufacturer must furnish, free of charge,
the axles that are to be tested, the testing apparatus, and the
assistance necessary to enable the inspector to make a satisfactory
inspection and test. Axles will not be accepted if the diameters
fall below the dimensions for forged sizes given in the blue prints,
or if exceeding those dimensions by more than 17$ inch. Car
axles in the rough must not have less than the prescribed minimum '
weight, nor more than the prescribed maximum weight for axles
of their class.
AXLE DROP TEST.
5. All axles will be tested physically by drop test. The
testing machine must conform in all essential parts to the drawings
adopted by the Master Car Builders’ Association. These essential
parts are: The points of supports on which the axle rests during
test must be three (3) feet apart from center to center; the tup
must weigh 1,640 pounds; the anvil which is supported on springs,
must weigh 17,500 pounds; it must be free to move in a vertical
direction; the springs upon which it rests must be twelve in
number, of the kind described on drawing, and the radius of the
supports and of the striking face on the tup in the direction of
the axis of the axle must be ﬁve (5) inches. When an axle is
tested it must be so placed in the machine that the tup will strike
it midway between the ends, and it must be turned over after the
ﬁrst and third blows, and when required after the ﬁfth blow.
After the ﬁrst blow the deﬂection of the axle under test' will be
measured in the manner speciﬁed below.
6. It is desired that the axles when tested as speciﬁed above
shall stand the number of blows at the heights speciﬁed in the
following table without rupture, and without exceeding, as the
result of the ﬁrst blow, the deﬂections given.
\
Height of
Axle. No. Blows. Drop Deﬂection
M. O. B., 4%, by 8 inch journals. . . . 5 21% ft. 7% in.
M. C. B., 5 by 9 inch journals. . . . . 5 29 ft. 61’; m.
M. C. ., 5% by 10 inch :iournals.. 5 36 ft. 55in.
282 CARS
7. Axles will be considered as having failed on drop test
and will be rejected if they rupture or fracture in any way, or if
the deﬂection resulting from the ﬁrst blow exceeds the following:
M. C. B. axle, 4%, by 8 inch journals . . . . . . . .8% inches.
M. C. B. axle, 5 by 9 inch journals . . . . . . . H81’; inches.
M. C. B. axle, 5% by 10 inch journals . . . . "611;; inches.
In order to measure the deﬂection, prepare a straightedge
as long as the axle by reinforcing it on one side, equally at each
end, so that when it is laid on the axles the reinforced parts will
rest on- the collars of the axle, and the balance of the straightedge
not touch the axle at any place. Next place the axle in position
for test, lay the straightedge on it, and measure the distance from
the straightedge to the axle at the middle point of the latter.
Then, after the ﬁrst blow, place the straightedge on the now bent
axle in the ‘same manner as before, and measure the distance
from it to that side of the axle next to the straightedge at the
point faigthest away from the latter. The diﬁerence of the two ‘
measurements is the deﬂection. _
The following are the M. C. B. Standard speciﬁcations for steel
axles for passenger and freight equipment cars: '
1. Process—The steel shall be made by the open-hearth process.
2. Chemical Composition—The steel shall conform to the
following requirements as to chemical composition:
Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.38 —— 0.52 per cent.
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.40 --~ 0.60 ‘ ‘
- Phosphorus, not over. . . . . 0.05 ‘ ‘ \
Sulphur, not over . . . . . . .. 0.05 “
Analysis—An analysis shall be made by the manufacturer
from a test ingot taken during the vpouring of each melt, to deter-
mine the percentage of carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulphur and
silicon. Drillings for analysis shall be taken not less than 14 in.
beneath the surface of the test ingot. A copy of this analysis
shall be given the purchaser or his representative. This analysis
shall conform to the requirements speciﬁed in Section 2. A check
analysis shall be ‘made from the ﬁnished material representing
each melt, by the purchaser or his representative, and shall meet
the requirements speciﬁed in Section 2.
CARS 283
Drop Tests—The axles shall conform to the following drop-
test requirements: (a) The test axle shall be so placed on the sup-
ports that the tap will strike it midway between the ends. It shall
be turned over after the ﬁrst and third blows, and when required
after the ﬁfth blow. When tested in accordance with the following
conditions, the axle shall stand the speciﬁed number of blows
without fracture, and the deﬂection after the ﬁrst blow shall not
exceed that speciﬁed in Table No. 1.


_ Weight of Tup, lb.
Size (Iwf Axle, Dis—
n. Capac- ‘life 1640 2200
fiig ‘:8 W...
. 0 am up‘ Height Num- Max. Height Num- Max.
J 81 Dla'm- Lb- Ports, of her Deﬂec- of her * Deﬂec-
om'n ‘ C at Ft’ Drop of tion, Drop, of tion,
enter Ft. Blows In. Ft Blows In.
43458 4% 60000 a ‘s4 5 7% 5 89 5% 80000 3 43 5 6y 534110 5% 100000 3 4s 7 452 0 111 67,118 3 . . . . . 40 7 5%


(b) The deﬂection is the diiference between the distance
from a straightedge to the middle point of the axle, measured
before the ﬁrst blow and the distance measured in the same
manner after the blow. The straightedge shall rest only on the
collars or the ends of the axle.
Drop Test Machine—The anvil of the drop-test machine shall
be supported on 12 springs, as shown on the M. C.\B. drawings,
and shall be free to move in a vertical direction, and shall weigh
17,500 lbs. The radii of the striking face of the tup and of the
supports shall be 5 inches.
Number of Tests—(a) One drop test shall be made from
each melt. ‘Unless otherwise speciﬁed, not less than 30 axles shall
be oﬁ’ered from any one melt. (b) If the test axle passes the
physical tests, the inspector shall draw a straight line 10 in. long
parallel with the axis of the axle, and starting with one end of it
he shall prick-punch this line at several points. A piece 6 inches
long shall be cut oif from this same axle so as to leave some prick-
punch- marks on each piece of axle. Drillings for chemical analysis
shall be taken by using a %-inch drill and drilling in the cut-off
284 CARS
end 50 per cent of the distance from the center to the circumfer-
ence and parallel with the axis of the axle. .
Workmanship—All axles shall be made and ﬁnished in a
workmanlike manner and all journals and wheel seats shall be
roughturned. In centering, unless otherwise speciﬁed, 60-degree
centers shall be used with large diameter of countersink not less
than "/8 inch and with clearance drilled 1/2 inch deep. The axles
shall be free from injurious defects and shall have a workmanlike
ﬁnish. _
Permissible Variation—The axle shall conform in size and
shape to the standard M. C. B. drawings (see Fig. 166). Length
shall not be 'less than shown and not more than 332 inch over.
Marking—The manufacturer ’s name or brand, melt number
and month and year when made shall be legibly stamped on each
axle on the unﬁnished ‘portion, unless otherwise speciﬁed.
Storing—If, as a result of the inspection and tests, more
axles are accepted than the order calls for, such accepted axles in
excess shall be stamped by the inspector with his own name, and
will then be piled and allowed to remain in stock at the works,
subject to further orders from the purchasing agent. On,,receipt
~of further orders, axles once accepted will not be subjected to
further test. In all cases the inspector will keep an accurate
record of the melt numbers and the number of axles in each melt,
which are stored and will transmit this information with each
report.
Inspection—(a) The inspector shall examine each axle in
each melt for workmanship, defects, and to see whether the axles
conform to the dimensions given on the order or tracing, or
whether they conform to the speciﬁcations. All axles not satis-
factory in these respects shall not be considered further. If in
this inspection defects are found which the manufacturer can
remedy while the inspector is at the works, he may be allowed to
correct such defects. (b) The inspector representing the pur-
chaser shall have free entry, at all times while work on the contract
of the purchaser is being performed, to all parts of the manufac-
turer’s works which concern the manufacture of the material
ordered. The manufacturer shall aﬁord the inspector, free of'cost,
all reasonable facilities to satisfy him that the material is being
furnished in accordance with these speciﬁcations. (c) The-pur-


. Fig. its,‘ J
MASTER GAR BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
FOR '
AiLE' 'rEsr,


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MASTER 611R BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION.
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STANDARD BEARING, wens: a. go.
FOR JOURNAL 3%"x7'!

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NOTE ‘

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Fig. 169- '
any
CARS 285
O
' chaser may make the tests to govern the acceptance or rejection
of the material in his own laboratory or elsewhere. Such tests,
however, shall be made at the expense of the purchaser. (d) All
tests and inspection shall be so conducted as not to interfere
unnecessarily with the operation of the v.‘ rks.
Rejection—Material which, subsequ-.itly to above tests at
the mills or elsewhere, and its acceptance, develops any imper-
fections, shall be rejected and shall be replaced by the manu-
facturer at his own expense.
Rehearing—Samples tested in accordance with this speciﬁca-
tion, which represent rejected material, shall be preserved for
14 days from date of test report. In case of dissatisfaction with
results of the tests, the manufacturer may make claim for- a
rehearing within that time.
The M. C. B. Recommended Practice for the Axle Test is
shown in Fig. 168. ' -
M. .C. B. Rule 86 gives a full table showing the prescribed
limits for axles. 1. For cars marked with “capacity,” of from
30,000 to 140,000 pounds capacity. 2. For cars marked “max-
imum weight,’ ’ of from 58,000 to 210,000 pounds maximum weight.
3. Tank-Cars marked “Limit Weight I”—58,000 to 210,000
pounds. 4. Tank-Cars marked “Limit Weight II”—58,000 to
210,000 pounds. These are important and should be studied, as
they are oﬂicial standards. ‘
The M. C. B. method of taking borings for axles is given in
Fig. 166.
CHAPTER VIII.
TRUCK DETAILS.
The Journal is that part of the axle on which the J ournal.
‘Bearing rests: see Figure 116 (Plate III). The Journal Box
is a metal box inclosing the Journal of the axle, the Journal Bear-
ing, and the Key or Wedge, besides holding the Packing, oiled
to‘ lubricate the axle. The Journal Box Lid covers an opening '
in the end of the journal box, by means of which oil and packing
are supplied, and journal bearings are inserted or removed. These
' covers or lids are made of cast iron, malleable iron, pressed steel,
and sometimes of wood. They are usually closed by a ﬂat Spring
designed to hold the lid in place. The key or wedge we have
before described.
As to the journal bearing, a standard shape has been adopted
" by the M. C. B., but the composition of the metal composing it
has not yet been speciﬁed. The lead-lined bearing is one covered
with a thin sheet of lead over the brass or other base, to make it
self-ﬁtting on the journal.‘ This bearing, often called the Journal
Brasses, is often made of Babbitt metal in some of its many
combinations of sundry metals. Babbitt metal is generally com-
posed of nine parts of tin and one of copper: other varieties
being—Copper one, tin ten, with one of antimony: copper one,
tin 50, antimony ‘ﬁve parts: etc. The term is usually applied to
any white alloy, as distinguished from the box metals or Brasses,
in which copper predominates.
A committee of the M. C. B. Association lately proposed the
following speciﬁcations for journal box brasses: Composition of
shell—10 to 30 per cent of lead; tin, not over 7 per cent; copper,
for the remaining per cent. Composition of Lining—Lead, tin,
optional per cent; antimony, not over 14 per cent. Great variation
as to these exists in practice‘ amongst the railroads, and hence the
Association did not accept these chemical formulas. They would
seem, however, to ﬁt the purpose for which thus recommended.
286
.


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MASTER CAR BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION.


STANDARD JOURNAL BOX 8. CDNTAINED PARTS.


FOR JOURNAL 3%.”.x7"
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CARS 287
Malleable iron or steel-backed journal-bearings cannot be used
in repairing foreign ears, according to M. B. C. rules. The same
authority forbids, in cars built after October 1, 1915, the use of
journal-bearings other than M. C. B. standard, for cars used in
interchange service. Bearings are solid or ﬁlled; either made of
one metal (simple or compound), or are made of one metal and
faced with another softer one, such as lead, by which the bearing
more quickly and smoothly ﬁts the axle.

Fig. 187.
Buffalo Journal Box. Pratt Letchworth Company.
The M. C. B. standard journal boxes with their contained parts
—together with wedge gauges—for journals of all sizes up to the
6 by 11 inch one, are given in Figs. 169 to 182, inclusive; the
6 by 11 inch one being shown in Figs. 183 to 186, inclusive.
Heretofore, journal boxes have largely been made of cast-iron,
but under the new heavy capacity cars they frequently have their
sides knocked out by heavy shocks. In any journal box, the pres-
sure of the springs on its ﬂat side should hold the lid tightly
closed, thus preventing dust and grit from entering, with no clat-
tering or lifting from vibration, and no wear on the bolt or lug.
288 CARS
The lid must be self-closing, easily opened for inspection, and
face and binge must be M. C. B. standards. Coil springs are now
used, besides the ordinary ﬂat spring, to close the lid; and, in
some cases like ‘the Buffalo box, the two types of springs are
combined, as witness Fig. 187. This is a malleable iron box, that
is of both the self-closing and locked-tight types.
The M. C. B. Association has adopted standards for Journal-
Box Bolts; for which see Fig. 188. These bolts are on either side
of the journal box which they secure between the‘ arch bars and
the Pedestal Tie Bar. The Pedestal Tie Bar is a bar extending
across the mouth of a Pedestal Jaw underneath a journal box, and
is bolted to the jaws of the pedestal. Column Bolts are bolts pass-
ing through arch bars and holding both the truck frame together
and the, Truck Column (or “Bolster Guide Bar”) in place. The
Truck Bolster Guide Block is a cast-iron shoe for the end of a truck
bolster, which slides vertically between the Columns or Bolster
Guide Bars.
The Dust-Guard is a thin piece of wood, leather, felt, asbestos,
or other material inserted‘ in the dust-guard chamber at the back
' of a journal box and ﬁtting closely around the Dust-Guard Bear-
ing of the Axle. Its function is to exclude dust and grit, and
prevent the escape of oil and packing/from said box. The part of
a journal box most likely to give trouble is the hinge pin, as it
is on constant duty; and while this duty is light, the fact that it is
unremitting will develop defects, if any exist. The results of
such defects are box lids missing, inoperative, or, by reason of
wear of bolt, ineﬁ‘ective. -
The standard M. C. B. arch bars, column bolts and journal-box
bolts for cars of 80,000 and 100,000 pounds capacity are shown
in vFig. 188. The standard M. C'. B. pedestal for journals 3%
by 7 inches is seen in Fig. 191 ; and the standard M. C. B. passen-
ger car pedestals for journals 4% by 8 inches and 5 by 9 inches
are shown in Fig. 192.

The arch bar truck for freight cars was for many years prac- .
tically standard. Numerous designs intended to replace it were
developed from time to time, but the archv bar type retained its
position as a favorite, and has given excellent service under both
freight cars and locomotive tenders. With the increase in the
weight and capacity of freight cars, however, the problems of
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STANDARD JOURNAL BOX & CONTAINED PARTS.
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srANoARo JOURNAL Box.
FOR JoURNAL s‘x 9'.‘
Fig- 175.
cares 289

maintaining these trucks have increased enormously; not the least
of these is the cracking of the arch bars, and the construction of.
this type of truck makes repairs in a case of this kind slow and
expensive. Broken column bolts are another source of annoyance
and expense, and the difficulty of keeping the various bolts supplied
with nuts is well illustrated by the fact that recently on the west-
ern district of the New York Central a ton 'of nuts was used for
this purpose in one day. In view of these conditions, and the
proportion which car maintenance repair bills have assumed, the
general adoption of a type of truck which will give better service
under heavy equipment than the arch bar type would seem worthy
of the most careful consideration. There are several satisfactory
designs of the cast-steel frame truck now in use, and it is probable
that it is in this direction the railroads will have to turn to ﬁnd
relief.
This type should have proper nuts or bolts, and a Spring ‘Cotter
or a spring key put into every bolt, to keep the nut in place, thus
preventing the arch bar from spreading when the nuts fall oif. In
fact, all truck nuts should fasten with double nuts, spring cotters,
or some nut-lock, for undoubtedly many accidents occur from loss
of truck nuts en route. The M. C. B. rule, as above quoted, pre-
scribes an alternative to using double nuts, and should be strictly
obeyed. A Lock-Nut is the outer one of a pair of nuts on one bolt
which by screwing up separately to a tight bearing, locks the inner
nut. A large‘ number of special forms of Lock-Nuts and Nut-
Locks, which serve the same purpose, are in use today, many of
them simple, effective and inexpensive. Gold punched nuts, castel-
lated nuts, three-thread nut-locks and positive nut-locks and bolt
fasteners that prevent bolts from turning anda backing out, are
now in service. The best of these are not spring or jam nuts, but
lock-nuts—a nut that locks itself upon the thread of a bolt, and
which no amount of vibration can loosen.
The presént consensus of opinion is that the old .type of Dia-
mond Arch Bars should be abandoned, because it causes so many
wrecks and so much trouble, as to be quite prohibitive. Many
thousands of them are defective structurally, especially because of
light arch bars and of arch bar bolts not properly fastened. Of
course when this type of side-frames for trucks is used in pressed
steel or cast-steel forms, many of the present objections are over-
i
290 ' _ 0412s ' ’ '
come; and there are many of the cast-steel ones doing excellently
today. But, here as with the original shape composed of a number
of parts held together only by bolts, great care must be taken to -
see that if nuts are used, they are properly secured by one of the
above-mentioned suitable devices.
As to other truck side-frames, we give here the standard
M. C. B. speciﬁcations for cast-steel truck side-framesz—
1. When the manufacturer is ready to make a shipment of
material he shall notify the purchaser of that fact and await the
arrival of the purchaser ’s inspector, to whom he shall furnish free
any assistance and labor needed to make satisfactory inspection
test and prompt shipment. 2. Manufacturer shall protect vall
castings, so that they do not become covered with rust. 3. Clean-
ing—At his option the inspector may require that any or all cast-
ings .be subjected to sand blast in order to make an examination
of the surface for checks or cracks. 4. Painting—They shall not
be painted before being inspected unless otherwise speciﬁed.
5. - Process—Castings furnished under these speciﬁcations shall
be made by the open-hearth process in accordance with the best
foundry methods. 6. Chemical Composition—The steel shall con-k
form to the following requirements as to chemical composition:
Carbon . . . . . .not below 0.20 or above 0.30 per cent
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not above 0.70 per cent
Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not above 0.05 per cent '
Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not above 0.05 per cent
'7. Ladle Analysis—To determine whether the material con-
forms to the requirements speciﬁed in. Section 6 an analysis shall
be made by the 'manufacturer, from test ingot taken during the
pouring of each melt. Drillings for analysis shall be taken not '
less than 54 inch beneath the surfacer of the test ingot. A copy
of this analysis shall be given the purchaser. 8. _ Cheek Analysis
——A check analysis may be made by the purchaser from a test cou-
- pon, representing each melt, and this analysis shall conform to_ the
requirements of Section 6. -
9. Sampling for Chemical Analysis—From the coupon de-
scribed in Section 12 (a), which has satisfactorily passed the
physical requirements, borings shall be taken for chemical analysis.
I
CARS __ 291
10. Physical Properties—The physical properties of steel shall
be as follows: (a) Ultimate tensile strength, pounds per square
inch, not under 60,000. (b) Yield point (by “drop of beam”),
not under 50 per cent of ultimate tensile strength. (c) Elonga-
tion in 2 inches per cent not less than 1,400,000’ divided by the
ultimate tensile strength. '
11. Annealing—Test coupons shall be annealed with the cast-
ings before they are detached. To determine the quality of an-
nealing, the inspector will have one of the test coupons mentioned
in Section 12 (b) cut half way through and broken off from the
casting for examination of the fracture. If, in his opinion, the
annealing has not been properly done, he may require the casting to
be reannealed, using the second test coupon for examination in this
case. If after annealing or reannealing any casting is so much
out of gauge as to require heating in order to bring it within the
gauge it shall again be reannealed before it may be accepted.
12. Sampling—For the purpose of determining whether the
physical and chemical requirements are complied with, the in-
spector shall select at random one casting from each melt. From
this casting the two physical and chemical test coupons shall be
removed by the inspector; one of them shall be subjected ‘to
physical test, but if the coupon casting proves unsound the other
coupon shall be used in its stead for this purpose. ‘
(a) Physical Test Coupons—The manufacturer shall have
cast on each truck side two test coupons having a cross section of
1% by 1% inches and 6 inches long. These coupons are to be
used for physical and chemical tests and their location upon the
casting shall be speciﬁed by the purchaser.
(b) Annealing Coupon—There shall be two additional coupons
of a cross section not less than the average cross-section of the
casting. These coupons are to be used to determine the character
of the annealing as speciﬁed in Section 11. i
13. Variation in Weights—Truck sides shall not vary more
than 3 per cent above or 2 per cent below what has been determined
as the normal weight of the casting except that in-case the casting
has met all requirements save that of overweight, it may be accepted
at the maximum allowable weight here speciﬁed. For the purpose
of this requirement the normal weight shall be previously agreed
upon between the purchaser and the manufacturer.
292 ’ CARS
14. Workmnship—They shall conform to the dimensions shown
on the drawings and shall be free frogn rust, scale, blowholes and
shrinkage cracks.
15. Marking—Each casting shall have the‘following markings
cast upon it in raised letters and ﬁgures: (a) Initials of Rail-
road Company. (b) Month and year when cast, thus,'6-12. (c)
Manufacturers’ serial ‘number and trade mark (or other designa-
tion). (d) M. C. B. S. I '
16. Rejection—In case the test pieces do not meet the speciﬁ-
cations, all castings from the entire ,melt shall be rejected. All
castings which fail to meet the requirements of the proof test shall
be rejected. -
17. Removal of S.——From each casting rejected by inspector
under these speciﬁcations, he‘ shall cause to be chipped the “ S”
of the letters M. C. B. S. which are speciﬁed in Section 15 (d). '
The M. C. B. Recommended Practice for Truck Sides of Cast
Steel with the Limiting Dimensions for 80,000, 100,000 and 140,-
000 pounds capacity cars are shown in Fig. 18.9 and the Ganges
for same in Fig. 190. '
The advantage is obvious of thus providing safe truck sides
interchangeable for the given capacity of cars ; besides its tendency
to eliminate those of weaker design. Also, it should produce the '
highly desirable result of stopping the creation of countless widely
varying truck sides such as has hitherto prevailed; few of them
being interchangeable with each other, thus compelling costly de-
lays in sending for new ones in case they were seriously damaged. I
Side frames in common use today are shown in Figs. 193 to
197, inclusive. The Buckeye Channel Section Truck Frame, Fig.
198, has the same weight and vertical strength of the ordinary
“T” Section Frame, but its makers claim that its side ﬂanges
make it 100 per cent stronger transversely. The Buckeye Pedestal
Truck Frame has the same advantages as the last named, but has
also the added advantages of eliminating the journal box bolts and
tie bars, with no load on the safety bolt, as seen in Fig. 199; the
wheels being changed with a minimum of labor, it is said.
Journal Springs are springs supporting the weight of the car,
which are placed directly over the journal,'and which usually rest
on the journal box under the truck frame. A Pedestal Spring is
one that rests on a journal box between the jaws of a pedestal.
CARS 293


Fig. 193.
Cast-Steel Truck Side Frames.


Fig. 194.
Andrews Cast-Steel Freight Car Truck Side Frame for Use With-
out Tie Bars.


Fig. 195.
Andrews Cast-Steel Freight Car Truck Side Frame for Use with
Short Tie Bars.
294 ' CARS
Both of these are, like the generality of freight car truck springs,
helical springs of various kinds. Elliptical springs are used almost
exclusively for the bolster springs of passenger cars; two or
more of them being used, bound together by a Spring Band—a
wrought~iron strap, which embraces the plates at the center. Ellip-


Fig. 196. '


Fig. 197. y
’ Bettendorf Cast-Steel Side Frame for Freight Cars.
tical Springs are termed double, triple, quadruple,‘ etc., according to
the number of springs thus fastened together. They are made of
two or more sets of parallel plates of constantly decreasing length.
The “set” of elliptical springs is the total amount of bend or
compression of which the spring is capable.
The standard M. C. B. Springs and Spring-Caps for freight car
trucks are exhibited in Fig. 200. Those for 140,000 pounds cars are
shown in Fig. 201. ‘


IYWE- W/cw‘aFBox may or MADE Elﬂ/E/E clear/LAB oe spans:
anon’ 7w: cE/vrﬁe u/vs, Maw/0:0 ALL THE Ewe'lvrml.
£0
WHEN JOI/EAML 80X MMADE 0F MALLEAJLE IEO»; IPEDUGT/M
FITTING OF GONTA/NED HQETJ, HIE ADI/[£50 7' 0.
MASTER 6BR BUILDERS’ HSSOGIHTION.

sTANoARo JOURNAL BOX FOR PASSENGER cARs.
JOURNAL 5'x 9'.’
Fig. 178.


MASTER CHRBUIhDERS’HSSOGIilTlON.
JOURNAL BOX AND CONTAINED PARTS.
FOR JOURNAL Sié'X IO'.
FOR FREIGHT CARS.
Fa? Jul/FM: Bax‘ sn- sum J1,‘
f0}? Ef/Wl/VG, W506‘? M0 4/0__ _ __-_ ._ n - - --"-_ (2.
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04/ M. c. 8. JOURNAL 50x F01? 5'X9"./00/mm.
Fig. 179.
SECTION 6.6‘
SECTION B. B.
SECTION OF BOX MAY BE MADE EITHER CIRCULAR OR SQUARE
BELOW THE CENTER LINE AND MATERIAL, MAY BE CAST IRON, MALLEABLE
IRON, PRESSED STEEL OR CAST STEEL, PROVIDED ALL THE ESSENTIAL
DIMENSIONS ARE ADHERED T0.
WHEN JOURNAL BOX IS MADE OF MATERIAL OTHER THAN CASTIRON,
REDUCTION IN THICKNESS OF METAL AND CORING TO LIGHTEN WEIGHT IS
PERMISSIBLE PROVlDED ALL THE ESSENTIAL DIMENSIONS WHICH AFFECT
INTEHCI-IANGEABILITY AND THE PROPER FITTING OF CONTAINED PARTS ARE
ADHERED T0. ~
IFTHE METHOD OF MANUFACTURE DOES NOT PERMIT 0F PLACING THE
LETTERS 'PLCBI' ON THE SIDE OF THE JOURNAL BOX. THEY MAY BE PLACED
ONTHE TOP BETWEEN THE HINGE LUG AND SEAT 0F TRUCK SIDES.
MASTER CIIRpEIJpIhBIEBéEEéQCIATION.

FOR JOURNAL 5'/z"X IO"
FOR FREIGHT CARS.
6.56770” A A.
for GENERAL AA’PANGE‘ME/VZ - .SEétﬁHEEL/O.
F01? ems/Ive, Wm AND up.-- ___,._ _-..._..__/2
Fig. 180.


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H906‘Et‘0/N65 0F (ass. 6,, .


MASTER cm; BUILDERS-ASSOCIATION.
STANDARD JOURNAL BEARING,WEDGE AND LID.
FOR JOURNAL SEXIO".


Fol? GENERAL ARRANGEMENL_$£E..$HE£Z' IO.
POI? JOURNAL BOXv .,._-.. ---- n- .. n. -.J/.


wznazsmuise'as mos-mean ass/2H‘,

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Fig. 181.
WEI/0 SEPIA/6 MYE'éF/WY MS/GWA/Yﬂ/iMYﬁ 6567/1750 70 THE U0 BY/WYHWCT/Oiﬂf


3.3.3.4
HEN. Gm.
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335w 1:31:32


Fig. 199.
Buckeye Pedestal Truck. Buckeye Steel Castings Company.
CARS 297
The following are the M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for Helical
Springs for freight and passenger equipment cars:—
1. The steel shall be made by the open hearth, electric, or cru-
cible processes. -
2. Chemical Composition—The steel shall conform to the fol-
lowing requirements as to chemical composition: -\
_ Bars 1 in. and under Over 1 in.
Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.90—1.10 per cent 0.95-1.15 per cent
Manganese, not over. . . 0.50 per cent - 0.50 per cent
Phosphorus, not over. . 0.05 per cent 0.05 per cent
Sulphur, not over... . . 0.05 per cent 0.05 per cent
3. Analysis—An analysis shall be made by the manufacturer
from a test ingot taken during the pouring of each melt, to deter-
mine the percentage of carbon, ‘manganese, phosphorus, Sulphur
and silicon. Drillings for analysis shall be taken not less than
1%, inch beneath the surface of the test ingot. A copy of this analy-
sis shall be given the purchaser or his representative. This analy-
sis shall conform to the requirements speciﬁed in Section 2.
4. Check Analysis—A check analysis shall be made by the
purchaser or his representative from the ﬁnished material repre-
senting each lot as speciﬁed in Section 5, and shall meet the require-
ments speciﬁed in Section 2.
5. Number of Chemical Testa—One sample from each 500
springs or less shall be taken. If the springs are small, the entire
spring shall be taken; if large, a section weighing 1;& pound shall
be cut from any part of the spring. The sample shall be stamped
as soon as chosen with the inspector ’s stamp. If the sample for
chemical analysis is cut off hot, it shall be cooled in such a way
as not to harden it.
6. Tests—( a) Free Height—Place each spring on a ﬂat plate,
and measure the distance between the plate and the other end of
the spring. This measurement is the free height.
(b) Solid Height—Place the measured springs, either singly
or in lots, in the testing machine and apply a load at least 25 per
cent greater than the capacity of‘ the springs, then measure the
distance between the two plates of the machine. This is the solid
- height.
298 CARS
(c) Set—Remove the load and again measure the free height
at the same point in the circumference at which the ﬁrst free height
was taken. If now the second free height is less than the ﬁrst by
more than 3%; inch the spring or springs will be regarded as having
taken permanent set and willbe excluded from further consider-
ation. ‘
measure the height.
7. Number of Tests—Unless otherwise speciﬁed, 10 per cent
of all springs will be subjected to the above tests."
8. Compression Tests—All springs shall be" compressed solid
at least six times before submitting them for inspection and tests.
Unless otherwise speciﬁed, all springs shall be tested after
being assembled. '
Dimen-s'lons—Height—All springs shall not vary more than
1/8 inch from speciﬁed height or 113 inch from speciﬁed diameter.
Weight—Ten per cent of the springs shall be weighed, and if any
springs are found that weigh less than the speciﬁed minimum, the
' whole lot shall be weighed, and all springs that weigh less than the
minimum shall be excluded.
Finish—The bars shall be free from injurious defects and shall
be rolled within 0.01 inch of the speciﬁed diameter.
Marking—The bars shall be marked as speciﬁed by the pur-
chaser. I
Inspections—The, inspector representing the purchaser shall have
free entry at all times while work on the contract of the pur-
chaser is being performed, to all parts of the manufacturer ’s works
which concern the manufacture of the material ordered. The man-
ufacturer shall afford the inspector, free of cost, all reasonable
facilities to satisfy him that the material is being furnished in
accordance with the speciﬁcations. The purchaser may make the
tests to govern the. acceptance or rejection of the material in his
own laboratory or elsewhere. Such tests, however, shall be made
at the expense of the purchaser. All tests and inspection shall. be
so conducted as not to interfere unnecessarily with the operation
of the works. ‘
Rejectlon'——Material which, subsequently to the above tests at
(d) Working Height—Apply the speciﬁed working load and‘
the mills or elsewhere, and its acceptance, develops imperfections


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MASTER (311R BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION.


“: L ENG rn nun f/LLETS or BEARING
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JOURNAL BEARING AND WEDGE GAUGES
_FOR JOURNALS
Mix-I.’ zmfxai' s‘xs'nm: snbno'.
Cl/Kl’i 0’. TOP OF 78'1940/05.
BEAM/V6“ W-LM/TUQI/VAL JL'CT/O’V 6701/65
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BEARING G WEDGE GAUGES
Fig. 182.


3'
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MHSTER 811R BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION.
STANDARD JOURNAL BOX AND CONTAINED PARTS
FOR JOURNAL e">< 11 "
FOR FREIGHT CARS.
F00 ‘1011/7141 80X - ___ __ __ _..______ SEE $15571 _ I28.
In? Elli/NE, 175065 Ill/D l/ﬂ ______ __,,_ - _ ,, __ -JEC .
JOUﬁA/AL BEAR/N6‘ M0 [Vt-‘ME GIVGES--. ,, _ _ __,,_ _ _ . I4A .

Fig. 183.
QARS "
299
or does not come within the permissible variations given above,.
will be rejected and shall be replaced‘ by the manufacturer at his
own expense.
Rehearing—Samples tested in accordance with this speciﬁcation,
which represent rejected material, shall be preserved for 14 days
from date of test report. In case of dissatisfaction with results
of tests, the manufacturer may make a claim for a rehearing
within that time.
Each railroad usually has its own standards and speciﬁcations
for springs, and generally furnishes them to the truck or car
builders. The new heavy cars have compelled the use of much
more powerful springs, and combinations thereof into nests or
groups of such springs. One new grouping consists of four nests
of three double~coiled springs each, and has an extension beyond
the side frame to allow the attachment of a bridge which carries
the side bearing at the center of the truck; the bridge ‘being
bolted to the bolster extensions. Each group of springs consists
of three nests of an outside coil of 1% inch diameter wire, 5 inches
outside diameter, with an inside coil of ‘193' inch wire, 2% inches
outsidediameter. The springs work at 40,000 pounds stress in
the bar when the car is loaded to a 10 per cent overload. The
free height is 11% inches with a total deﬂection, free to solid, of
1% inches. ~
The M. C. B. Association now authorizes a standard spring
for 140,000 pound capacity cars with arch bar trucks, such as some
roads are already using. The line of investigation thus far made
covers the use of alloy steel springs. If alloy steel springs, which
- will stand about 35 per cent more stress whﬁi solid, can be fur-‘
m'shed, it will be possible to adopt springs with suiﬁcient ﬂexibility
for trucks having 51/2 by 10 inch journals without any change
whatever in the space now allotted for springs. For trucks having
6 by 11 inch journals it would then be advisable to use ﬁve springs,
of exactly the same details as the four springs used for the 5%
by 10 inch journals, which will require the same height and about
40 per cent more width for spring space. It would then be ad
visable to make the bolster for the 140,000 pounds capacity truck
somewhat ‘wider, in order to avoid, to some extent, increasing the
depth. '
300 CARS
The Spring Plank receives the load from the springs, and in
. the rigid form of truck the load is then passed through the spring
plank directly to the arch bars or truck sides. With a swing—
motion truck, the spring plank is suspended by Hangers from the
transoms through which the load is transmitted to the truck sides.
As with bolsters and transoms, standard forms of channels and
I-beams are often used for spring planks. Special channels, called
‘ ‘ Truck Channels,” are used; and steel castings for all three of the
above parts are now in common use. A Spring Plank Bearing is
a casting on which the spring plank rests; a Spring Plank Bolt
being a horizontal bolt connecting the spring plank and the truck
columns. The Spring Plank Safety Hanger is a U-shaped strap
of iron attached to the transoms and passing under the spring
plank, so as to hold it up in case the swing hangers or their attach-
ments should break. 7
The Truck Bolster is now made either of iron or steel, the use
of wood therefor having ceased, especially with the present large
cars. Formerly, wood, either alone or with alternate layers of
plates of iron, was commonly used for the bolster. \ With the
wooden bolster was used (for rigid trucks) a Truck Bolster Truss
Rod, a rod attached near the ends of the wooden bolster and pass-
ing over a Central Truss Block. In swing-bolster trucks, rods
of a similar nature are sometimes used and are termed Transom
Truss Rods. Commercial shapes, especially of steel, are gener-
ally used for bolsters, although many special pressed- or cast-steel
truck bolsters are now in service. The cast-steel bolsters especially
predominate, and are gradually excluding the others from the
ﬁeld. Various types of both body and truck bolsters, combined and
" alone, are shown in Fig. 193 and in Figs. 202 to 213 inclusive.
‘ The following are the M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for cast-steel
bolsters :—
1. When the manufacturer is ready to make a shipment of
material he shall notify the purchaser of that fact and await the
arrival of the purchaser ’s inspector, to whom he shall furnish free
any assistance and labor needed to make satisfactory inspection
test and prompt shipment.
2. The manufacturer shall protect all castings so that they do
not become covered with rust. , ' ‘ ‘
FRONT VIEW
SECTION OF BOX MAY BE MADE EITHER CIRCULAR OH SQUARE.
BELOWTHE C N TERIAL MAY BE CAST IRON, MALLEABLE
D ALL
M
IRON, PRESSED STEEL 0R CAST STEEL, PROVIDE THE ESSENTIAL
DE OF‘ MATERIAL OTHER THAN cAST IRON
REDUCTION IN TNIcxNEss or METAL AND COHING To LIGHTEN wEIsNT Is
PERMISSIBLE PROVIDED ALLTHE ESSENTIAL DIMENSIONS WHICH AFFECT
INTERCHANGEABILITY AND TIIE PROPER FITTING 0F coNTAINEn PARTS ARE
ADHEHED To.
IFTHE METHOD OF MANUFACTURE DoEs NoT PERMIT OF PLACING THE
LETTERS "Mn-IAI'ONTHE SIDE 0F TNE .IouRNAL BOXJHEY MAY BE PLAcED
DNTHE TOP BETWEEN THE HINGE Lue AND SEAT OF TRUCK SIDES.
MASTER 6BR BUIIiDERS'ASSOClIlllON.
STANDARD JOURNAL BOX FOR FREIGHT CARS-
F’OR JOURNAL 6'')( II".
M? GINA-‘RM ARRANGE/WEN!" - - $55 SHEET.-- I24.
Aw? aEARI/vs, #5065 AND z/0____ ,,_ - -,, _----~lzc.
JOURNAL BEARING MID new: 640659. -..- _-_,.- - - - - 14A.


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' E "’ :. 1’ FOR JOURNAL e" x u'.
.5
'1! l FOR GENERAL ARRANGEMENT. ______ _ -ssz sn££r__/24.
" r " =1 - FOR JOURNAL BOX __________ __;, -.__,,____IZB.
5 g 1 JOURNAL BEARING AND mesa: aAua£s__-..__-..- _ I4A.
Li's-e, 'L =* '


... ..- ‘ u .- I - , as.‘ ammo
mum/rs mortar an mzsunmno sax 41m IS or 111: ass/mm: xenon :13!‘ 2
4 M57 ORIIW we: can mmm on cone» mums: PIN If PIPEFEII‘RED.


\
Fig. 185.


cr WEDGE -


anus; FOR uouRNAI. BOX wnnens.‘
\ Gluﬁﬂ FOR JOURNAL BEARING}.


"ETHI- ﬁﬂET-T}
MASTER GAR BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION.


STANDARD JouRNAL BEARING AND WEDGE GAUGES
FOR JOURNAL G'Sul".
m1? GENERAL ﬂ‘RRANGE/WENZ _ ; _ _ SEE .SHEEL I2-A .
FOR JOURNAL BOX __________ __ .,_ ,,_ _ _ l2-B .
FOR- BEA/TING, nae-pa: AND no ____ _ _ .. __ ., _ __ IZ-C
I Fig.186.
CARS 301


Fig. 202.
Cast-Steel Truck and Body Bolsters for Freight Cars.


Fig. 203.
Simplex Body Bolster with Cast-Steel Web Filler in Position on
Simplex Truck Bolster, with Susemihl Roller Side Bearings.


Fig. 204.


Fig. 205. ‘
Box-Shape Cast-Steel Truck Bolster for Freight Cars.
302 ‘ CARS


Fig. 206. ' '
I-Shape Cast-Steel Truck Bolster for 30-Ton and 40-Ton Capacity
Freight Cars.


Fig. 207.
Gould Improved Z-Type Cast-Steel Truck Bolster for Freight Cars.


Fig. 208.
Simplex Truck Bolster for 40-Ton Capacity Cars.
‘ ~ ‘4;,’ Q’ ‘


- Fig. 209. .
Bettendorf Truck Bolster and Spring Plank for Freight Cars.


' Fig. 210.
Empire Truck Bolster for Freight Cars.


BOTTOM
ARCH BARS AND COLUMN AND JOURNAL BOX BOLTS. FOR 80.000 LBS. CAPACITY CARS. CENTER, PLATE.
TOP ARCH


BOTTOM m BAR MASTER CAR BUILDERS’BSSOCIHTION. .
[STANDARD ARON-BARS AND COLUMN AND JOURNAL BOX BOLTS;
FOR
".000 LIS.‘ AND IO'OMO LIS- CAPAGITY DANS.
STANDARD CENTER PLATE .


BARS AND COLUMN AND *JBOX BOLTS FOR‘ IOQOOO


cAPAcITY cARs.

FIE.


Loss Suouuo BE PROVIDED
A'FE' To PREVENT Box
BOLTS FROM


RAG
F’ce Spams BoL'r
CLEARANcES-


PLAN or: Spams SEAT.


0F BRAKE HANGER
KET.
WmTH cs Suns Fianna Asovs 40 Ton Jouaum. Box,A|.so BOLSTEQ SO “ 5.
Guns: ATX'X,SHOULDBE Fox '70 -- 6"_

SIDE FRAME
ai-I'H“ CoNFoRM To VIII-B. STANDARI:
i-X
‘mo
9e:
22'
ID
2%
“'3
£0
a‘)
t‘
h.

MASTER CAR BUIhDERS'IlSSOCUlTION.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
FO
TRUcK SIDES. CAST STEEL,LIIITING DIMENSIONS FOR
_ ' 80000,!00000
AND 140000 LBS, OAPACiTY CARS-


Flg. 189.
Is A MlNIMUM DIMENSION.


Q???
i mvzrs I Rmr ron TIE DAR 0;; am
%;$ g R» PM 3:
l 5.’! L I L-x-sg
I-®L-—— @——-~I~ ——l—, ~ (9


ou-rsIDE BRAKE HANGER 'Ii’iésxﬁﬁ'ilillféin
GAUGE GAUGE
r-zF-‘q n— -—5'-- fr- ‘i’ ,4— —ei,' -— -q_§
.T ' ,r ,r
~i@ “Q L

COLD ROLLED STEEL BOLTS TO BRAKE HANGER PiN GAUGE-
BE USED WITNJOURNAL BOX BOLT
HOLE SPACING GAUGE.


': i ' ' TI
'~——e—+-e— - ‘pi-1"‘;
STRAIGHTENING AND JOURNAL BOX soLT SPACING GAUGE WITH BRAKE HANGER sPAcINq GAUGE ATTAcI-IED. Tin]? I
Y
_ P _ _ _
. T @— —'.<—- @ — I
Trig coLuMN GUIDE GAUGE. __ _~ — -_ @ __ _ . _-- _ ‘xi’ in y I l
4: " *
a“ "* ' a _-_[_ [ET—Ila ‘T _ :- :2 l
a l _ A_ _ H b T . r}; | __J I
o 1 I a‘): I‘, l
‘i. din- wil-
. . l
p—Q—J jﬂL—Ih—Il n—-—- @ ---—---_-|i
__ M Q ‘ I BDLSTER OPENING qAuqE.


D
EEIHEEHEIEHEIZEHEHSHIEEEEHEEESEW
Eﬂiliiil’. IHSIZQEYIEHREIRHEHEEIMEEIEEHEIEEIBEEQIHI51]
TISSHEHEIHEEIEHEZIEHESETUBEIEHBQEEQQP; jgmmsmmimm


9
MASTER GIIR BUIIIDERS ASSOCIATION.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
I FOR
GAUGES FOR cAsT STEEL TRUCK SIDES FOR soooo,
IOOOOO AND I4000O LBS, CAPACITY FREIGHT cARs.


SQUARING GAUGE FOR J°vR~lL 90! JOURNAL aox nIvET I-IDLE
AND SPRING SEAT- GAUGE-

Fig. 190.


CARS
303
Fig. 211.
Monitor Truck Bolster with Creco Roller Side Bearings for Freight
Cars. Chicago Railway Equipment Company.
304 CARS
3. Cleaning—At his option the inspector may require that
any or all castings be subjected to sand blast in order to make
an examination of the surface for checks or cracks.
4. Painting—They shall not be painted before being inspected
unless otherwise speciﬁed.


Fig. 212.
Cast-Steel Truck Bolster for 70-Ton Capacity Cars.


Fig. 213.
Compo Truck Bolster for Freight Cars.
5. Process—Castings furnished under these speciﬁcations shall
be made by the open-hearth process in accordance with the best
foundry methods.
6. Chemical Composition—The steel shall conform to the fol-
lowing requirements as to chemical composition:
Carbon . . . . . .not below 0.20 or above 0.30 per cent ‘
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not above 0.70 per cent
Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not above 0.05 per cent '
Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .not above 0.05 per cent
O'ARS v 305
7. Ladle Analysis—To determine whether the material con-
forms to the requirements speciﬁed in Section 6, an analysis shall
be made by the manufacturer from test ingot taken during the
pouring of each melt. Drillings for analysis shall be taken not
less than. 1/4 inch beneath the surface of the test ingot. A copy
of this analysis shall be given to the purchaser.
8. Check Analysis—A check analysis may be made by the pur-
chaser from a test coupon representing each melt, and this analysis
shall conform to the requirements of Section 6.
9. Sampling for Chemical Analyst's—From the coupon described
in Section 12 (a), which has satisfactorily passed the physical
requirements, borings shall be taken for chemical analysis.
10. Physical Properties—The physical properties of the steel
shall be as follows:
Ultimate tensile strength, pounds per square inch, not less than
60,000. -
Yield point (by drop of beam), not less than 50 per cent of the
‘ ultimate tensile strength.
Elongation in 2 inches per cent, not less than 1,400,000 divided
by the ultimate tensile strength.
11. Almcaltng—All castings shall be thoroughly annealed.
Test coupons shall be annealed with the casting, before they are
detached. To determine the quality of annealing, the inspector
will have one of the test coupons mentioned in Section 12 (b)
out half way through and broken oﬁ from the casting for exami-
nation of fracture. If, in his opinion, the annealing has not been
plroperly done, he may require the castings to be reannealed, using
the second test coupon for examination in this case. If after
annealing or rearmealing any- casting is so much out of gauge as
to require heating in order to bring it within the gauge, it shall
again be annealed before it may be accepted.
12. Sampling—For the purpose of determining whether the
physical and chemical requirements are complied with, the inspector
shall select at random one casting from each melt. From this cast~
ing-the two physical and chemical test coupons shall be removed by
the inspector; one of them shall be subjected to physical test, but if
the coupon casting proves unsound the other coupon shall be used
in its stead for this purpose
306 _ ‘ CARS
(a) Physical Test Coupons—‘The manufacturer shall have. cast
upon each bolster two test coupons having a cross section of 1%
by 1% inches and 6 inches long. These coupons are to be used _ i
for physical and chemical test and their location upon the casting
shall be speciﬁed by the purchaser. " c ,
(b) Annealing Coupons—There should be- two additional cou-
pons of a cross section not less than the average cross section of the
casting, which coupons are to be used to determine the character
of the annealing as speciﬁed in Section 11. '
13. Weights—Bolsters shall not vary more than 3 per cent
above nor 2 per cent below that which has‘ been determined upon
as the normal weight of the casting, except that in case the casting
has met all requirements save that of overweight, it may be ac-
cepted at the maximum allowable weight here speciﬁed. vFor the
purpose of this requiremeht the normal weight shall be previously
agreed upon between the purchaser and the manufacturer.
14. Workmanshlp—They shall conform to the dimensions
shown on drawings and shall be free from rust, scale, blowholes
and shrinkage cracks.
15. Marking—Each casting shall have the following, markings
cast upon it in raised letters and ﬁgures:
(a) Initials of Railroad Company.
(b) Month and year in which cast, thus, 6-12.
(0) Manufacturer ’s serial number and trade marks (or other
designation) . ‘ '
(d) M. C. B. S.
16. Rejection—In case the test pieces selected do not meet the
speciﬁcations, all castings from the entire melt shall be rejected.
17. Removal of S—From each casting rejected by the in-
W
> spector' under these speciﬁcations he shall cause to be chipped the
“ S” of the letters M. C. B. S. which are speciﬁed in Section
15 (a). _ _ .
The standard M. C. B. standard center plate is seen in Fig.
.188, its bearing area being 100 square inches; Some car men
think that this area is not sufficient for cars of steel construction:
The upper plate, that on the body bolster is often called the male
plate; that on the truck bolster, the female plate. Custom has
ﬁxed their present position, but there are many eminent car men
who think that the plates are upside down; the female plate from


STANDARD PEDESTAL.
FOR JOURNALS 3%"X1'.

I Fig. 191.
P‘
MHSTERGAR BUIhDERS'IlS'SOBIHTIONI '

n "P
G
/40000 Las. CARS (ms 73 7:51. swarm/~45 TRUCKS}
$56770” A-B

1i‘? .
4'" _
\\ I!!EI§§€ZZ%
T ////
Ti
IQ,
s%~~=
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or
9%
‘Iris
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r—F-J.


-___
JEC770N SHOW/N6
RECESS FOR BOLT/15405
Ill/SPRING CA PS


TEA/BARS. F/VE BARS Mao/4, 7.3 %'Lo/va MPfRED 70 60%.‘
' " ' a’ ' 7474' - ~ - 77%: ‘
NOR/‘44L W7‘. OFEACHIJF/l/E BARS 231.85. MIN/MUM zzms. .502,
- - '- 'zw' - 6LBS-702.’ 6'4~,
ours/05 0m 0Fl£ F/VE CO/LJ 52a’; mam/£27.:
HE/6HT5: F/RS TF/VE COILS 8%’ FREE,’ 62's’ SOL/D,‘ 7%! 7400L55, CAP'YJﬁOOLBS.
' ‘SECOND ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' 2/00 ' ' 5500 '
C L US 7' ER 0F SPRINGS
HE/GHTS MTHOUTCAPS, BKr'F/PEE; 6%’SOL/D; 7%‘47500LBS: CAP')’, GOOOOLBS.
Fig. 201.

MASTER 611R BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
FOR '
spams FOR mopoo LBS. CARS
(CAST STEEL SIDE FRAME TRUCKS)


SPRIN “ " Sﬁmmra'p
80000 45.5 CARS 505 BAR rﬁucms). /00000 106. CARS (Am-H BAR TRUCKS)
54-0‘ 5507/04! 29-0’ Se'cr/a/v .Ts-c“


14-5‘
SPRING "B "
70000 .400 oms (ARCH 00;? _TRuc/ns)
' sscmw .‘s-c'


Smmv
60000 155 CARS (ARCH EAR TRUCKS).
SECTION 23g


p
A-B”


5501/0” 2-5‘ I


_l _


i
‘ ‘ _ 0a Wz'ﬁia 6 5M5‘
\ | p ' ' I / ' ‘ _ if — '__...
£1007‘ 540.5, FDWEAFS / 0m, ssgfava' 1205050 70 72?. 000m; 23 ‘as; Mw/Mz/M 07: 2245: Joe. 4 a: 52? 0”” “PM” 7” 9050,’ E 3 4B”: [go/4 _Jzzajys [P50 7” a”.
n 5 f , I v m 599 I I , 73/’
NORMAL m: arm/13:’- " 1 6% I . J 6 P " w-W' 5% - - 1,5 ,0 l ”m’w‘ 0'7"” If m‘ MEWR’MMW/Wwvwzzuqioz " I ' I7 1 ' ' " " 0'
- . . . 2w , . 3 , s . . . .5‘ .23 quirk-,5, acﬁmi's u’ 7”” ‘ a may” 85‘ w ‘ ' - - 2:’ m0 - 6 702 , , , 4 _ mag/nu IVZﬂ/‘EIO//£"F0649M251&5'M/MMO”WZZ£1£1 ~6'02.
" - . ' 05 0/4M0r 15’ F000 00 ’ " M, 1 . n 5 -
007547504457, firm”? was ‘5},’ 210;;yf50/[5 aé "HF/{76 a .F” u . , , r 75/ Ms 5 , 2_ 77rd to”; g/ - . . - 2- I - - .. 4 0
- - 0:. 0 5000, 7 29000100 mm,’ 50000405. . I , _ e n .
”Hiwsdywﬁww 5%.?” Egzsww Jgagmmmypk ,ﬂolm 4 5'0 4 I Mejia/‘7075:0000 0,; F955, 5;]; 50,,“ 71' mmsfwlamln CWT-570! ulnar/{ram Calls , axe/00:13:?’
' -~ L" - - 7;- - 4%’ . 0'23‘ I530 . - .3060 - * ' P I ' 1 . 2/00 . , m - ”imli'm“? 09/15 4 n.- ' 4 v -
CAI/$751? 0r sop/#55 , ‘71/575’? "F W”: - 2:’ . . . . . . 2100 . . 0500 .
u: in» p.‘ , ' .-. ‘ 0276/03 0717/00 \ q ‘I _ ‘N 5405755 0;- Jpﬁl/A/Gs .
” ' ' l/E/GWZT 000007-040; az'rriqsjsim/n; 74130000156047. 5400010:

51’ Smnv ”
00000 .405 0405 (PEDESTAL mun/rs) 100000 £50. 0405 (fave-aim 70001159
l'_'— 8' _' — "—'
r
/
/A\\ ,
GP
60000 L50.‘ CARS (PEAESML 701/0119)


MASTER GAR'BUIIIDERS’HSSOCIHTION.
- I/////// r <_
T, / .
- *si / _~ RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
FOR


—--—6%" -—-
4"Mrl/l/JJUJBT1
._.. ‘Earle—u.‘ '


Twm/gmlqé’m, 57,5'1006, my 79 7573 ' 77mm /EHR/%'ﬂll, 703200, 0:12:50 70 em‘
E'E-%-6//4‘ a’ 2", 65' .02,’
(2.
l


MHZ/5r, MMLSQMVIMW "7,3314: 1,;
- . I I4 - /


. . .
norm /0 . 2:10.: aqzammunnaus 1002 .
- -21“'/0-0. . .ln-z. , ‘elm/4.‘. I -/:,/.r- '_,4- - ' -
All/4750M 7; z: 0011. 46' _ mraarP/M Arm/1. 8’, 2:" CM 435' . M”! "M1 Wm“ 6’? 251w" "9 - Sec-rm Snowms
Alf/647$, [ECO/l 7490205221445; 'azmm arr/mam #:1511751!!!” 7%7154' Isl/P: 65 SZOOIQ‘U'IU" ‘ma: 05mm‘ 11! m; 7}‘?m52W4'6‘Z/M14g Wrzoaaam BO
- E:s-6%-4;.55’w. . 7000-. . 2.7%. . 6*’3700- - 71¢?‘ 1 ze.7&‘..sz'-6§’ﬂ$ﬂ' 119060, mspoi “HEADS
cumze or m: Cum 0: was; (404722 0: smwes - IN SPQJNG Caps.
00007-1? - - n. .. ,.. “,5,” ' " P’ 005 _j _ w N»
Fig. 200.


CARS 307
its position underneath catching the dirt and dust, producing a
grinding action destructive to the metal. Many hold that the
clearance of 1,5 inch is too small, and that it should be 14 inch, as
where the plates are cast integral with the bolsters they are often
very rough, and considerable expense is entailed by having to
machine them. The larger clearance would lessen this trouble, but
with such integral-cast plates, the king pin holes are worn oblong,
in any event, and the outside ﬂange is often broken 06, thus con-


Flg. 214.
Baltimore Ball Center Bearing. T. H. Symington Company.
demning the bolster. For these reasons, many now favor the
use of removable center plates; the slight increase in cost of such
plates being more than offset by their advantages, in their opinion.
Others wish to increase the size of the female plate. The drop-
forged center plate is coming into increasing use, and gives better
service than the cast-steel ones.
There are many diﬁerent kinds and types of center plates.
Most of them are plain in pattern, while others have ball bear-
ings, or use cones or rollers, etc. The steel roller bearing plate
308 CARS
gives the truck free radial travel, lessening train resistance and
preventing derailments. Both the ball-bearing and cone-disc types
have many advocates; they are shown in the Baltimore Ball bear-
ing plate, Fig. 214, and the Barber Roller Center Bearing, Fig. 215.
When a car passes a curve, its body naturally tilts, and part of
its weight is carried on the Side Bearings. The location and


u
‘71
-- “wimp. m..." Wm"
Fig. 215.
Rollway Center Plate with Cone Disk Rollers.
clearance of these bearings are of great importance. Sometimes
the inside wheels on curves rise clear of the rail, at high speeds,
due to an excessive spread of the side bearings, and deraihnent
ensues. For this reason, the'M. C. B. Association is now con-
sidering an arrangement of the coming standard truck bolsters, so
as to give them adjustable side bearings. This derailment tendency
is due to the comparatively short distance between truck centers
CARS 309
on the ordinary freight car, especially with some of the new rigid
high capacity steel cars which occasionally leave the rails where
other more ﬂexible cars pass over the curve safely. Box cars with
ladings of high centers of gravity also inﬂuence this tendency,
especially with the increase in height of car sides beyond the safety
point. In these last, derailment occurs even on straight track, due
- to excessive side bearings and clearances which allow the car to
roll from side to side, until the lateral thrust lifts the wheel oﬁ
the rail.
The tendency to frequent derailment depends much on the
location of the center of gravity of the car. This accounts for
much of the trouble with refrigerator cars that are loaded up to
their roofs with ice; and with high side gondolas of large capacity,
having a relatively high center of gravity. With such gondolas,
decreasing the clearance often stops the trouble. Such cars, gen-
erally having %-inch clearance or more, when they strike short or
reverse curves or sudden elevations, start up motions that lift their
wheels oﬁ the rails, especially with stiff cars or. those of very
large capacity. After such cars are limbered up, they are able to
take the torsion of the curves even without any change in the side-
bearing clearance. In some cases, raising the center plates and
allowing %-inch instead of 14-inch clearance with certain cars
suﬂiced.
Of course, the correct car is one carrying its load on its center
plates, leaving the side bearings just clear. Trouble arises, how-
ever, from the fact that the side clearance diminishes more or
less on- all types of cars with service, and it is diﬂicult and expen-
sive to maintain the proper side-bearing clearance on cars of steel
construction with metal body and truck bolsters unless adjustment
is provided for in their design. In any case, the spread of side
bearings must be taken into consideration along with the side-
bearing clearance, The widest diﬁeremce prevails among our
railways as to this spread of the side bearings; and for this reason,
a committee of the M. C. B. Association lately so stated, while
recommending that as there are but few 140,000-pound cars now
in service, that 50 inches be taken as the spread for such cars;
the spread for the 80,000 and 100,000-pound cars to be decided upon
later. This, however, was rejected by the Association. At pres‘
310 ' CARS
cut one road will have a car with ‘55-inch clearance close up to the
center plate, and another will have a 3-inch clearance with a
spread out over the rail. One road in its speciﬁcations for 80,000
pounds capacity cars, box and ﬂat, ﬁxes the distance from center
to center of side bearings at 5 feet; the bearings being, for the
box car, two of 10 inches by 175 inch, of pressed steel, for each
bolster, each bearing to be riveted to the bolster with 4 rivets of
‘A; inch each. For the ﬂat car, malleable iron was speciﬁed.
Adjustable side bearings will probably soon be generally
adopted for the above reasons. A large bearing area is always
necessary with all side bearings, and theyshould be self-lubricating
and dustproof, if possible without undue expense. The clearance
should be adjusted as readily for a roller side bearing as for
the solid kind. ‘The present tendency is to attach the roller side
bearing to the body bolster rather than to the truck bolster; the
adjustable plate being attached to the truck bolster. The Rec-
ommended Practice of the M. C. B. Association for the side-bear-
ing bearing clearance for new cars is as follows:—


Minimum Maximum ‘
Per Side Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8 inch 156 inch
Total ‘(one truck) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,4 inch 5/8 inch

Generally the side bearings have been ﬂat blocks or plates of
steel or iron attached to both body and truck bolsters. But there
are now many different kinds in wide use and many of them
eﬁicient. The most common types are the anti-friction, ball-bearing,
gravity, rocker, and roller kinds. One of these, the J oliet, Fig. 216,
is so constructed that when a car passes around an ordinary curve,
the rollers of the bearing run between high-carbon steel plates :
while on very sharp curves, the rollers run free from the upper
plate, and the load is carried on large trunnions. .
The Miner Single Side Bearing as applied to truck bolsters for
freight cars is shown in Fig. 217 ; the rocker type of bearing, in
Fig. 218 ; the Susemihl type in Fig. 203 ; and the Creco Roller type
in Fig. 211. ' '


42' 3:83’): /? ZS'fee/p/ofe hardened
"my, I/I/
id'w,
MIINER SINGLE
ROLLER SIDE BEARING
AS APPLIED TO
TRUCK BOLSTER$
FOR
FREIGHT EQUIPMENT
MANUFACTURED
BY
M l N E R
cmcaeo


W. ll.
"rue IODKERY"


Fig. 217.
Miner Single Roller Side Bearing. W. H. M'Iner
CARS . 311

Fig. 218.
Car-dwell Rocker Side Bearing. Cardwell Mfg. Co.
. CHAPTER IX.
BRAKE RIGGING. HAND- BRAKES. LAW As T0 BRAKEs.
FOUNDATION BRAKE; BRAKE SHOE; BRAKE BEAM;
sLAcK" ADJ'USTERS; PASSENGER HIGH SPEED
FoUN'pATIoN BRAKES; AIR BRAKE HOSE.
Schemes for. the braking of cars for years afforded a fertile
ﬁeld for the inventor. Many ideas’ were worked out which had i
for their principal vobject the application of the retarding force
to the rail. On account of the slowness of action and the tendency
to cause derailmen-ts these forms were entirely abandoned. Various
methods have been developed for applying the brake shoes to the
circumference of the wheels. The earliest forms consisted of a
‘simple metal bar with a wooden shoe or a plain wooden stick which
was so arranged as a lever that pressure could be applied directly
to the wheel tread. Improvements over this resulted in the use of
brake beams with wooden. shoes, which were operated by hand
through a lever or a hand wheel. In-the early eighties there was
an evident need for power brakes. Various types of buﬁer, mo-
mentum, steam, air, electric, and vacuum brakes were devised.
None of them had been tried out in Height service although a
few had been used on passenger cars. In order to determine what
each type could do and also to ﬁnd out the exact requirements of a
power brake for long freight train service, a series of tests were made
on the Chicago, Burlington &_ Quincy Railroad under the auspices
of the Master Car Builders’ Association in 1887. As a result of
these tests and supplementary ones in the followingyear, it was
demonstrated that the quick action, automatic air brake was the
best type for freight service. Today this is a standard portion
of the equipment of all new cars.
By Brake Rigging is meant the whole combination of detail‘
parts, by means of which the movement of a car is retarded. For
many years all train braking was done by manual power. That has
now given place to automatic mechanical devices operated by com-
pressed air which are used to the exclusion of other systems on all
passenger and freight car equipment.*
*The subject of the Air Brake as regards its construction and
operation is fully treated in another volume of this series.
312
CARS 313
The “Safety Appliances Acts” of 1893 and 1903 provide that I
it shall be “unlawful for any common carrier engaged in interstate
commerce by railway to use on its line any locomotive engine in
moving interstate traﬂic not equipped with a power driving-wheel
brake and appliances for operating the train-brake system or to
run any train in such traﬂic * * * I that has not suﬂicient
number of cars in it so equipped with power or train brakes that
the engineer on the locomotive drawing such tra' can control its
speed without requiring brakemen to use the common hand brake
for that purpose,” and that “whenever *. * * any train is
operated with power or train brakes, not less than ﬁfty per centum
of the cars in such train shall have their brakes'used and operated
by the engineer of the locomotive drawing such train; and all
power-braked cars in such train which are associated together with
said ﬁfty per centum shall have their brakes so used and operated. ”
Provision is made in the act that the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission may from time to time increase the minimum percentage
of power or train-brake cars to be used. In accordance with this
provision, the I. C. G. has raised this percentage to eighty-ﬁve per
cent, all brakes in the train to be associated together.
By the term “Foundation Brake Gear’ ’ is meant all the parts
by which the pressure of the air in the brake cylinder is trans-
mitted to the wheels; the levers, rods, brake beams, etc., by which
the piston-rod of the brake cylinder is connected to the brake shoes
in such a way that when air pressure forces the piston out, the
brake shoes are forced against the wheels. It is of the greatest
importance that this foundation gear be correctly designed. It
seems impos’sible to have a standard design that will perform sat-
isfactory service on all the diﬁerent kinds of underframes and
trucks, but there still remains an opportunity to increase the
braking eﬂiciency by a careful study of the foundation gear.
Brakes are now beginning to be put on each side of the wheel, for
instance, not only with passenger cars but also with heavy steel
freight cars; a combination valuable both for its increase in brak-
ing power and because this double or clasp brake prevents axles
rolling out of their bearings. The use of clasp brakes, formerly
prohibitive with freight equipment on- account of its cost, is now
made imperative by the long trains and huge cars of today. Figs.
314 - CARS
417 and 419 illustrate the latest improvement in clasp brakaappli-
cation for passenger trucks.
In some cases, the clasp brake has been found to be less eﬁi'
cient than the single-shoe brake because of incorrect design and
application- of the foundation gear. One road found that by stif-
fening up the members of the foundation gear, it is now able to
decrease the stops some~ 200 or 300 feet, on many of its trains.
Indeed, no part of the car offers such a chance for the inventive
genius of man to improve, as the brake rigging; for, while its
different parts are being rapidly standardized by the M. O. B.
Association, at the same time there is a vast ﬁeld for him who can
mechanically combine the three brake requisites: Simplicity (in-
cluding few parts); Durability (embracing ﬁtness for the job);
and Economy—not necessarily ﬁrst cost but ultimate cost. The
M. C. B. Recommended Practice demands only 70 per cent of the
light weight of the car as the maximum brake power on- freight
cars, yet the technical ‘problem is still unsolved mainly because
of faulty mechanical application of the power. -
The precursor of all effective freight car brakes was the Hand
Brake. Even today, the U. S. Act of 1910 requires that all cars,
both freight and passenger, shall be equipped with ‘ ‘ eﬂicient hand
brakes, ’ ’ in addition to the air brake requirements; ‘ ‘provided that
in the loading and hauling of long commodities requiring more
than one car, the hand brakes may be omitted on all save one of
the cars while they are thus combined for such purpose.” Some
cars have hand brakes at only one end, supplied with and applied
by a wheel; while others have hand brakes with wheels or their
equivalents (frequently ratchet devices) at both ends of the car
—-this last applying‘especially to passenger cars. In any case, the
hand brakes must work harmoniously with the power brakes. The
' U. S. requirements and M. C. B. Standards regarding the hand
brake are illustrated in Fig. 220. I
The hand brake is an apparatus ‘designed to permit of brakes
being applied by hand.. When cars are being switched in yards, ‘
or when left dependent upon themselves on grades, they must rely
on such brakes. Their essential parts are as follows, outside of
the parts they have in common with the air brake: Brake Shaft—
an- iron or steel‘ shaft, usually vertical (horizontal in some types)


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Fig. 220.


PLATE A


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CARS . 315
and having a hand wheel at one end, by means of which a chain
connected to the brake levers may be wound upon the shaft, and
the brakes thus applied to the wheels. The connections are the
Rods and Chains connecting the Shaft with the Brake Levers.-
The Shaft Step is the bearing which holds the lower end of the‘
brake shaft—generally consisting of a U-shaped iron bar or strap,
the upper ends of which are fastened to the car body, with a hole
in the bar that receives the end of the shaft. The use of the half-
yoke (half U) as a shaft step, is now forbidden by the M. C. B.
The Ratchet Wheel and Brake Pawl are fastened to a suitable
metal device attached to the roof; the upper end of the shaft being


Fig. 221.
Perfect Brake “'hee]. .Dayton Malleable Iron Co.
guided by an attachment also placed on the roof. In some cases
the ratchet wheel has the ratchet upon the under side, instead of
upon its edge; the pawl being automatically pressed upwards
against the teeth by a counterweight called the Brake Paw] Dog,
without being adjusted by the brakemen ’s foot. In other instances,
the ratchet wheel has its escapement controlled by springs. A
good type of modern brake wheel is shown in Fig. 221.
For ﬂat and gondola cars, the pawl and ratchet are secured
close to the ﬂoor of the car, ordinarily on the end sill, and the
shaft is just high enough to be operated conveniently by the train-
men. If the shaft cannot project far enough above the roof to
make it convenient to operate, a step is provided for the trainmen
to stand upon when manipulating the hand brake—a construction
now made compulsory by custom. The M. C. B. standard height
316 , CARS
of brake shaft for standard box cars, from top of rail to top of
shaft, is 144 feet. The same authority also condemns the half-yoke
still largely used, and takes as. its ‘Recommended Practice a
U-shaped carrier-iron for brake-shaft bow for new cars. A
welded brake shaft is also forbidden by it and other authorities.
The M. C. B. Standards for hand brakes are the same as the
U. S. Safety Appliance Standards, and are as follows:—
BOX AND OTHER HOUSE CARS
HAND BRAKES
Each box or other house car shall be equipped with an eﬁicient
hand brake which shall operate in harmony with the power brake
thereon. The hand brake may be of any eﬁicient design, but must
provide the same degree of safety as the design shown on Plate A
(Fig. 220).
The brake shaft shall not be less than one and one-fourth (1%,)
inches in diameter, of wrought iron or steel without weld. The
brake wheel maybe ﬂat or dished, not less than ﬁfteen (15), pref-
erably sixteen (16) , inches in diameter, of malleable iron, wrought
iron or steel. The hand brake shall be so located that it can be
safely operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft shall be
located on end of ear, to the left of and not less than seventeen
(17) nor more than twenty-two (22) inches from center. There
shall be not less than four (4) inches clearance around rim of
brake wheel. Outside edge of brake wheel shall be not less than
four (4) inches from a vertical plane parallel with end of car and
passing through the inside face of knuckle when closed with
coupler horn against the buffer block or end sill. Top brake shaft
support shall be fastened with not less than one-half (1,5) inch
bolt or rivets. (See Plate A.)
A brake-shaft step shall support the lower end of brake shaft.
A brake-shaft step which will permit the brake chain to drop under
the brake shaft shall not be used.v U-shaped form of brake-shaft
step is preferred. (See Plate A.) Brake shaft vshallbe arranged '
_ with a square ﬁt at its upper end to secure the hand-brake wheel;
said square ﬁt shall be not less than seven-eighths (‘T/8) of an inch
square. Square~ﬁt taper; nominally two (2) in twelve (12) inches.
GARS 317
(See Plate A.) Brake chain shall be of not less than three-
eighths (‘95), preferably seven-sixteenths (173) inch, wrought iron
or steel, with a link on the brake~rod end of not less than seven-
sixteenths (11;), preferably one-half _ (1,5) inch, wrought iron or
steel, and shall be secured to brake-shaft drum by not less than
one-half (1,5) inch hexagon or square-headed bolt. Nut on said
bolt shall be secured by riveting end of bolt over nut. (See
Plate A.) Lower end of brake shaft shall be provided. with a
trunnion of not less than three-fourths (1%,), preferably one (1),
inch in diameter, extending through brake-shaft step and held in
operating position by a suitable cotter or ring. (See Plate A.)
Brake-shaft drum shall be not less than one and one-half (Ill/2)
inches in diameter. (See Plate A.) Brake ratchet wheel shall
be secured to brake shaft by a key or square ﬁt; said square ﬁt.
shall be not less than one and ﬁve-sixteenths (1.153’) "inches square.
When ratchet wheel with square ﬁt is used, provision shall be made
to prevent ratchet wheel from rising on shaft to disengage brake
pawl. (See Plate A.) Brake ratchet wheel shall be not less than
ﬁve and one-fourth~ (51/4), preferably ﬁve and one-half (5%),
inches in diameter and shall have not less than fourteen (14), pref-
erably sixteen (16), teeth. (See Plate A.) If brake ratchet
wheel is more than thirty-six (36) inches from brake wheel, a
brake-shaft support shall be provided to support this extended
upper portion of brake shaft; said brake-shaft support shall be
fastened with not less than one-half (1,5) inch bolts or rivets. The
brake pawl shall be pivoted upon a bolt or rivet not less than ﬁve-
eighths (éé) of an inch in diameter, or upon a trunnion secured
by not less than one-half (1,5) inch bolt or rivet, and there shall
be a rigid metal connection between brake shaft and pivot of
pawl. Brake wheel shall be held in position on brake shaft by a
nut on a threaded extended end of brake shaft; said threaded por-
tion shall be not less than three-fourths (9/4) of an inch in diam-
eter; said nut shall be secured by riveting over or by the use of a
lock-nut or suitable cotter. ‘Brake wheel shall be arranged with a
square ﬁt for brake shaft in hub of said wheel; taper of said ﬁt,
nominally two (2) in twelve (12) inches. (See Plate A.)
In some kinds of brake gear, arrangements are made whereby
the shaft can be dropped; a device necessary for use especially on
cars occasionally used for logging purposes, where it would other-
318 CARS
wise be necessary to remove the brake shaft entirely at times, to
avoid injury from the lading overhanging the end of the car.
Such a device is the Vertical Drop Brake Shaft (Fig. 222) whose
mechanism besides conforming to the I. C. C. requirements, has its
shaft square instead of the less desirable round shape in cross
section. Fewer pieces are necessary than with the round shaft;

Fig. 222.
Vertical Drop Brake.
no keys or pins to shear oﬂz‘, work loose or get lost; brake chain
winds on separate sleeve casting or drum which ﬁts upon end of
shaft and turns with it; sleeve free to turn with shaft, but always
held in place on brake-shaft step; use of sleeve eliminates wear on
shaft as well as bending and shearing strains at shaft ’s end—the
shaft being stiffened by sleeve; preventing weakening of shaft
by drilling for attachment of chain; lugs and ﬂanges prevent
sleeve from lifting out of step, take up wear and strain, etc.; all
of which offer many advantages in this type of gear.
CARS 319
In some brake gears, the shaft is permanently located and
worked horizontally; in others, its normal position is vertical, but
it can be shifted to a horizontal position when necessary, as seen
in the Feasible Drop Brake Rigging, Fig. 223, which is made of
reﬁned malleable iron in such fashion as not to extend beyond the
stake pockets. It is readily raised or lowered with brakes on or
oﬂ‘, and is adaptable to end sills of ﬂat logging or drop-end gondola
cars. Still another rigging is that of the ratchet type as applied
to hopper cars and drop-end gondolas, Figs. 224 and 225.
no'um
mm GU!


Fig. 223.
Feasible Drop Brake Staff.
The step, wheel and sleeve are still largely made of malleable
iron, although steel is increasing in favor for these parts. Cast-
iron is not permissible for any of them.
The strict regulations of the American Railway Association
require: That all cars on freight trains shall be equipped with
power brakes, and that every truck wheel under each car in passen-
ger service shall be braked; that 70 per cent of the total empty
weight of a freight car should be used in estimating the braking
power, and 90 per cent for a car in passenger service; and that
brakes should be so arranged that they can be applied not‘ only
from the locomotive but from each car in the train.
320
CARS
' ‘.1


Fig. 224.
Ratchet Brake Applied to Hopper Car.

Fig. 225.
Ratchet Brake Applied to Drop-End Gondola.

CARS
$1
Fig. 226.
American Automatic Slack Adjuster Applied to Brake Cylinder.
American Brake Company.
322 CARS
seemed to the brake beam by an Eye or Clip.
To take up the varying slack in the brake rigging, there are
now several. well-known devices in use, all designed to keep the
gear capable of exerting its maximum pressure on the brake shoe.
Types of these are Figs. 226 and 227. All take up the slack be-
tween the cylinder and the brake shoe, so that the piston travel
will not be too great. To prevent the ends of the brake shoes
from coming into contact ‘with the wheels when brakes are re-
leased, use is made of a Brake Beam Adjusting Hanger, a link
attached to the truck by a Beam Adjusting Hanger Carrier, and
’ 24/


Fig. 227.
W‘Vestinghouse Latest Improved. Slack Adjuster.
‘The M. C. B. standard brake beam, its details, master gauge,
:and gauges for its parts, together with their contours, are seen in
Fig. 228. _
The types in general use are shown in Figs. 229, 230, 231, 232,
233, 234a, 234b, 235,236, 237, 238, 239 and 24,0. .
M. C. B. requirements as to standard brake beams are: Stand-
ard heights of brake beams when- measured from the top of the
rail to the center of the face of new shoes to be as follows: For
inside hung beams, 13 inches; for outside hung beams, 14% inches.
Attachments for safety hangers shall be 51 inches from center to
center. The angle of the lever fulcrum shall be 40 degrees from
.the vertical. The lever-pin hole shall be either 2 or 3 inches in
front of the top of the brake-head lugs; the variations in either
direction not to exceed 113 inch, and holes to be made straight and
aumvzs MARINE M60’

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LIMITING CONTOUR GIAUGE'HEAD.
MASTER GIIR BUILDERS’ IISSOGIIITION.
STANDARD BRAKE BEAM.
STANDARD MARKING or STRUT.
STANDARD BRAKE arm GAUGE AND DETAILS.
STANDARD umrme ouruue FOR BRAKE sums.
STANDARD LEVER PIN HOLE GAUGE. '
STANDARD MASTER FOR BRAKE BEAM GAUGE.‘
STANDARD LIMITING cou'roua GAUGE-HEAD.
STANDARD Lmlrme couroua ewes -imo-r|-|.
_l


FIB. 228.


Fig. 229.
Q‘NTRAL. STEEL BRAKE BEAM


Fig. 230.


Fig. 232.
324 GARS


Fig. 233.
. _ . . , NATIONAL HQLELDW ERAKE BEAM


Fig. 235.

CARS " 325


Fig. 237.
Simplex Brake Beam.


Fig. 238.
The "Waycott” Freight Brake Beam.


Fig. 239.
The Damascus Standard Brake Beam.
326 ~ - CARS
true by drilling, reaming, or broaching, and to be not less than
13% inches nor more than 1% inches- in diameter. Brake beam
hangers are to be "'78 inch in diameter. On cars built after Sept.
1, 1909, it will not be permissible to hang brake beams from any
portion-of the body of the car. The brake-beam hanger shall be
attached to some rigid portion of the truck. The space from cen-
ter to center of brake heads shall be 60 inches, with an allowable
variation of 1/8 inch in either. direction. The brake-beam gauge
determines the following dimensions and adjustments: Limiting
outline of brake beam; length of beam; proper alignment of the
heads in relation to each, other; proper location of pin hole and
center of strut; and angle of lever fulcrum. '


Vanderbilt Brake Beam.
The M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for the standard brake beam No.
1 are :— -
Initial Load—Apply an initial load of 4,000 pounds, then reduce
it to 'zero. Test Load—Apply a test load of 6,500 pounds, and
under this load measure the deﬂection which is desired to' be {g inch
or 0.0625 inch, but shall not exceed 0.07 inch. Load to Failures-If
desired the beam may then be loaded ,until failure occurs. Under
this test the maximum load borne by the beam shall not be less
than 20,000 pounds.
Sampling—For each 500 brake beams or less which pass
inspection and are ready for shipment, one representative
beam shall be taken at random and subjected by the com-
pany manufacturing the beams, in the presence of the railroad.com-
pany’s inspector to the above test, in a suitable machine. In» case
a brake beam shall fail in the test described herein, then a second
beam shall be taken from the same lot and similarly tested. If
CARS 327
the second beam stands the test, it shall be optional with the
inspector whether he tests a third beam or not. If he does not do
so, or if he does so and the third beam stands the test, the 500
beams or less shall be accepted as fulﬁlling the requirements of
this test. The beams shall be equipped with suitable heads and
shoes, and the shoes placed in contact with castings representing
the tread of the wheel. When mounted in this manner, the load
shall be applied to the fulcrum in the normal line of pull.
Rejection—A lot of 500 brake beams or less submitted for test,
that fail to meet the prescribed test, will not be accepted. Indi-
vidual beams which do not conform to the standard dimensions
and those that have physical defects will not be accepted.


Fig. 241.
Davis Truss Brake Beam. Davis Brake Beam Company.
Many car builders think a stronger brake beam is needed for
extra heavy work, and accordingly a committee of the M. C. B.
Association prepared diagrams and speciﬁcations for a No. 2
Standard Brake Beam. but the Association has twice rejected it,
largely because three of the largest roads in the country after long
investigation found that from 70 to 75 per cent of their defective
beams were removed on account of worn brake heads, indicating
that if beams were properly hung and the locations for hanger
holes and hanger brackets were standardized, a large number of
failures could be prevented. Certainly, even using the best brake
beam, the practice of attaching it to the truck with a pot-hook'
hanger of small dimensions, or with the hook and eye hanger, or
the U-shaped hanger attached to the beam with a small bolt to
hold it in place, accidents are bound to happen often, by the beam
dropping, causing its destruction, and producing derailments or
other damage. By using a more substantial hanger having a more
328 CARS
substantial bolt to holdv it in its proper position, failures will be
greatly reduced.
As shown by the preceding illustrations, brake beams are of
the solid type or the trussed type. The solid type is sometimes
used for light freight service, but more often for heavy service,
especially on freight equipment. It is made from I-beams, deck
beams, I-beams and deck beam sections combined, channels, special
shapes, etc. The trussed kinds are sometimes one-piece steel cast-
ings or made of pressed steel; but generally they are made up of
three parts—the compression member, the strut, and the tension
member or brake-beam truss-rod.
PAT. AUTOMATIC
ADJUSTABLE NEVER
‘NTERNAL KEY
LOOSE HEADS ~
SAFETY LOCKING No my sen WEAKNESS
OOLLARS “o RIVET HOLES
TH EAM WITH BACK BONE
._._§
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mrzmuu. spnmc
TAKES up ALL WEAR
NO DANG ER NO THREADED
or WHEEL ' TENSION MEMBER
FLANGE CUTTING ONE PIECE PAT: TO CRYSTALIIE
Tamas STRUT AND BREAK


Fig. 242.
Huntoon “Emergency” P. C. Beam for Steel and Other Passenger
Equipment. Joliet Railway Supply Company.
One of the best of the trussed kind is the Davis truss, shown in
Fig. 241, where. the truss is formed of one solid bar, giving it a.
great advantage over built-up brake beams. Its makers claim this
strength for it:
Service Load at Center Deﬂection
No.2 Freight 12,000 pounds ' 1% inch
No.3 Freight 15,000 pounds 1’; inch
No.4 High Speed 30,000 pounds 11,; inch
No.4 High Speed 45,000 pounds 332 inch
Figure 242 illustrates another trussed beam, exhibiting its avoid-
ance of the stated weak points of brake beams, and having only
- ‘lg-inch deﬂection at 40,000 pounds load, according to its manu-
facturers. Its weight of only 185 pounds is quite low.
C'ARS 329
M. C. B. Rule 3, Interchange Code, states that after October 1,
1916, cars equipped with brake beams other than all-metal will not
be accepted in interchange: The brake hangers must have an angle
as near as possible to 90 degrees from a line drawn from the cen-
ter of the brake shoe to the center of the axle when the shoes are
half worn. As a rule, with trussed beams, the best are those in
which the truss rods pass through the compression member and
are secured thereto without the use of a nut‘.
The Brake-Beam Safety Hanger is a metal strap or chain sus-
pended from a truck frame and surrounding a brake beam, so that
in case the Brake-Beam Hanger fails, the beam will not drop to
the track. The form generally used is a chain, having two or
three long %-inch links. It is often given little attention, so long
as it can be seen hanging to the truck. Its strength, inadequate
at any time, is generally negligible when called on to do its work, as
usually the metal links are worn down to one-half or one-third of
their original thickness. The M. C. B. consider this device ineﬁi-
cient, and a source .of expense from a maintenance standpoint.
Unless they are designed with a strength at least equal to the
load imposed upon the brake-beam hangers, and to prevent undue
wear, they will certainly not be efﬁcient in time of emergency.
With the present lack of interchangeability and uniformity of
brake-beam design, it is impracticable to design a standard safety
hanger which would be generally applicable. The remedy lies in
properly designing, carefully manufacturing, and frequently in-
specting brake-beam hangers and—connections.
Further, Bake-Beam Hangers should be hung so that the cen-
ter line of the hanger makes a right angle with a line drawn from
the center of the wheel, to connect with the central point of con-
tact of the brake shoe against the wheel. The proper placing of
these hangers is of great importance. More than once, serious
diﬂiculties have arisen because of faulty hanging that has resulted
in falling beams, worn heads, lost shoes, ﬂattened wheels, and
brakes that either would not properly apply or promptly release,
because the connection of the beam to the truck was faulty. On
one of our large roads, 75 per cent of the defective brake beams
found were removed on account of worn brake heads; whereas if
the beams had been correctly hung and the locations for the
hanger holes and hanger brackets were standardized, a large num-
330 CARS
ber of failures would be prevented. The failure of the compres- ‘
' sion and tension members are largely due to poor ﬁts between the
heads, struts, and other members. Improperly hung beams are a
great and constant trouble to all roads; they drop off the car, and
often cause wrecks thereby. Moreover, it is diﬁicult to maintain
the shoes properly on the truck if the beams are not hung right;


' Fig. 245$.
Brake Heads for Ajax Brake Beams.
for as soon as they are applied, they take a falseposition, wear
of rapidly, and then the beam becomes defective due to a worn
head. What is also needed, is a more substantial hanger with a
heavier bolt to hold it in its place.
The M. C. B. Standard Brake Shoe and Key are shown in Fig.
243. The head is attached to the brake beam, and the shoe, held
to'the head by a long slim piece of metal called a. key. Many
heads are adjustable, some of them automatically so. Such heads
. xiii;
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B-IS MIN. WIDTH FOR CENTER LUG
LINEC-IS MIN. HEiGHT or SLOT m CENTER OF‘ LUG MEASURED FROM BACKOF sHoE
_ . EIGHT or SLOT m CENTER or LUG MEASURED mom BAcKorsnoE AR N
UN: 2- iii; THICKNESS OF END was on BACK OF SHOE '
BRAKE SHOE GAUGE STANDARD BRAKE HEAD,SHOE AND KEY.
STANDARD GAUGES FOR BRAKE HEAD &SHOE.


Fig. 243.

CARS ‘ 331
require no setting; they adjust themselves to the contour of the
wheels, insuring even wear, automatically taking up all wear be-
tween head and sleeve, and also not becoming loose or rattling.
Such heads and others of diﬂ’erent kinds are seen in Figs. 244,
245, 246 and 247.
The brake shoe is a piece of metal shaped to ﬁt the tread of
a car wheel, its purpose being to retard the revolution of the
wheel through friction caused by its pressure with more or less

Fig. 246. .
Adjustable Brake Heads. Buffalo Brake Beam_Company.
force against the wheel. It is attached to the brake head or ‘brake
block by a key or some other form of fastening It has been the '-
subject of much investigation and experiment to ascertain the most
suitable metal to be employed. Many patented shoes as to form
and composition have been placed upon the market. The shoe
should vary in composition for ‘diﬂferent kinds of service; thus one
kind will be required for chilled wheels, another for steel tired
driver wheels and another for steel tired coach wheels, and so on.
332 ' ' CARS
The following are the M. C. B. Standard Speciﬁcations for
brake shoes: _ " . _
Kc'nds'of Test—Shoes shall be tested for coeﬁicient of friction
and for wear upon the Master Car Builders ’ Association testing
machine, or upon a machine with equivalent characteristics.
Coeyﬁet'ent of Friction Test—Cast-Iron Wheel—Shoes shall de-
velop .upon the cast-iron wheel, in effecting stops from an initial
speed of 40 miles per hour, a mean coeﬂ‘icient of friction of not


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Fig. 247. . ' .
Self-Adjusting Head and Sleeve for C'reco Freight Brake Beam.
less than: (a) 22 per cent when the brake-shoe pressure is
2,808 pounds. (b) 16 per cent when the brake-shoe pressure is
6,840 pounds. Steel-Tired WheeL—Shoes shall develop upon the
steel or steel-tired wheel, in effecting stops from an initial speed 7
of 65 miles per hour, a mean coeﬂicient of friction of not less than:
(a) 12% per ‘cent when the brake-shoe pressure is 6,840 pounds.
(b) 11 per cent when the brake-shoe pressure is 12,000 pounds.
(c) No limitation is placed‘ upon the rise in coeﬂicient of friction
at the end of the stop.
‘ CARS * - 333


Fig. 248.
Plain Cast Iron Shoe.


l
_ Fig. 250. Fig. 251.
Lappin Brake Shoe. Corning Brake Shoe.


Fig. 252. Fig. 253.
Diamond “S” Brake Shoe. Streeter Brake Shoe.
334 a ‘ ‘ ‘ CARS


Fig. 254. Fig. 255.
“U” Brake Shoe.


Fig. 256. , Fig. 257.
Lappin Steel Back Shoe. Streeter Steel Back Shoe.


Fig. 258. , Fig. 259.
Safety Wire Back ‘Shoe. Improved Steel Back and Tug Shoe.
0
CARS 335
Shoe-Wear Test—'Cast-Iron Wheel—Shoe wear shall be deter-
mined upon the cast-iron wheel by making not less than 100 appli-
cations of the shoe to the wheel, under pressure of 2,808 pounds,
and at a constant peripheral speed of the wheel of 20 miles per
hour. At each application, the shoe shall remain in contact with
the wheel during 190 revolutions of the latter and between appli-
cations the‘ shoe shall remain out of contact during 610 revolutions
of the wheel. Under these conditions, the shoe shall lose in weight
not more than 0.8 of a pound for each 100,000,000 foot-pounds of
work done. ‘Steel-Tired Wheel—“Shoe wear shall be determined


, Fig. 260.
Interlocking Brake Shoe.
l
upon the steel or steel-tired wheel by making not less than ten
; stops from initial speed of 65 miles per hour and under a pressure
of 12,000 pounds.
Ten- minutes shall intervene between succes-
sive applications of the shoe. Under these conditions the shoes
shall lose in weight not more than 4.0 pounds from each 100,000,-
000 foot-pounds of work. N ate—When a shoe, not entirely metallic
in its composition, is tested for wear, its actual loss in weight shall
be increased in the ratio which the density of the cast iron bears to
the mean density of the abraded parts of the shoe, in order to
determine the weight which is to be compared with the speciﬁ-
cations. - -
Gauging—That the back of the shoe be made to conform to the
gauge shown, Sheet M. C. B. 17. Drawings—In 1912 the draw-
ing of the brake head was. changed to show the hanger hole
0
336 , ' 0.412s
straight with a radius of % inch at each end to accommodate the
straight hanger with ﬁlleted corners. ' "
In connection with the brake shoe problem the following outline
of its development is interesting.* Practically all these 'diiferent
‘styles of shoe are found in use at the present time. V
The Plain Cast-Iron Shoe consists of a body of unchilled cast
iron- having a lug or connecting part formed with the body metal.
This shoe has high frictional qualities, and has been largely used
on all classes vof railway equipment.
The Congdon Brake Shoe, with a body of unchilled cast iron
and inserts of wrought iron in the wearing face to prolong the
life of the shoe, was introduced in 1876, and marks the ﬁrst step
in the improvement of the ordinary cast-iron shoe.
This construction produces a very durable shoe, extensively used
on chilled wheels at the present day. It is not suitable for use on
steel-tired wheels because of the liability of hard spots to form
on the face of the insert and groove the .tire.
The Lappt'n Brake Shoe—The diﬂiculties attending the ‘use of
the preceding shoe on steel-tired wheels, brought forth in 1884 an
improvement in cast-iron shoes. This consists in chilling the body
metal, forming alternate hard and soft areas on the wearlng face,
producing a shoe of 'great durability which will not injure the
steel ‘tire.
The Corning Brake Shoe—Introduced in 1896 as an improve-
ment on the preceding, consists of a body of hard iron, cast about
an insert of soft iron located in the wearing face. This construc-
tion guarantees a positive area of soft metal for frictional eﬁe'ctp
durability,’ being obtained by the chilling of the body metal ‘against
the insert and end chill blocks.
The Diamond “8” Brake Shoe—In the eﬁort to increase the
wearing qualities or durability of the cast-iron shoe, the preceding
designs were successful, but at some expense of friction or with
bad effect on the wheel tread. In 1897 the Diamond “S” Shoe
was introduced as one ‘of high durability, secured at a minimum
expense of retarding effect. This was obtained by casting the
body metal about a bundle of expanded sheet steel, forming a com-
'posite structure of cast iron and soft steel. This, as the shoe wears
\.
*American Brake Shoe and Foundry Co.
CARS 337
down, presents a bearing face of unchilled iron interwoven with‘
strands of steel which delay the rapid grinding of the cast iron,
and produce high retardation without injury to the wheel tread.
The Streeter Brake Shoe—In view of the fact that a shoe of
hard iron when cast about an insert is structurally weak, the
Streeter shoe was brought out in 1899 'as an improvement on the
past practice. It consists of a body of soft non-chilling iron
surrounding a spiral insert of chilled iron extending the length of
the wearing face of the shoe. This construction guarantees a posi-
tive relation of hard and soft metal producing a brake shoe of
uniform qualities and great ‘durability.
The “U” Brake Shoe—The function of the brake shoe being
primarily the generation, of friction, the ‘ ‘U’ ’ type of shoe was
introduced in 1900 as an improvement over the preceding face
chilled shoes in which the hardened surfaces come in direct con-
tact with the wheel tread. ' -
The “U” shoe consists of a body of hard iron having tapered
ends projecting beyond the length of the ordinary shoe, the exten-
sions being heavily chilled from the inclined surface. This con-
struction provides a brake shoe having unchilled or soft iron con-
tact with the wheel equal in extent to the full ‘face of the ordinary
shoe. The hardest metal is in the extended ends, which, by their
large‘ expanse of smooth surface away from the wheel, radiate the
heat from friction more rapidly and are not so liable to break on
account of high heating as shoes ‘provided with the face chill.
This construction produces a shoe of maximum durability and
frictional qualities. Y
The Herron Reinforced Shoe—Shoes with hard body and inserts
being structurally weak, are liable to be broken. The Herron
improvement, introduced in 1890, is a means of strengthening the
insert shoe. It consists of the application of one or more rods of
wrought metal in the body of the shoe lengthwise just above the
inserts. These rods serve to hold the parts of the body metal
together and prevent fracture.
‘ The Lappin Steel Back Reinforcement—While the preceding
invention materially strengthens the brake shoe, the location of the
reinforcement within the body metal of the shoe, permits it to be
destroyed before the shoe has been worn out. To accomplish the
‘338 - CARS '
I same resultsas regards strengthening the shoe and yet permit it
to remain longer in service, the ﬂat steel plate located at the back
of the shoe was introduced in 1893. This consists of a‘ plate of
wrought metal having openings through which the‘ body metal
ﬂows and anchors, located ﬂush with the back of the shoe. This
construction permits the shoe to be worn, to the plate before removal.
The Diamond “S” Reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 252, con-
sists of a bundle of expanded sheet steel about which the body
metal is cast. The steel strands extending to the back of the shoe
.serve as a bond and prevent fracture throughout the life of the
cast iron. _ . r
The Streeter Steel Back is similar to the Lappin back previously
noted, and was introduced in 1900. It consists of a plate of mild
steel imbedded in the back of the shoe, the body metal ﬂowing up.
through dovetailed openings along the edge of the plate for anchor-
age. This steel back diﬁers from the Lappin, and is an improve-
ment thereon, in having two turned up projections which form
reinforcing points to support the Christie lug, preventing failure
of the lug when the shoe is worn to the plate.
The Safety Wire Back, introduced in 1902, provides a rein-
forcement to the cast-iron body which extends to the attaching lug.
The ordinary cast-iron lug is weak, and this defect is magniﬁed
when the body metal is of chilling iron, as the thin section at the
top of the lug becomes very ‘brittle. The Safety Wire Back forms
the top of the lug with loops of wrought'metal, entirely eliminating
the possibility of breakage in the lug; at the same time the ex
tended end of the wrought metal loops furnish admirable rein-
forcement for the main body of the shoe.
The Improved Steel Back and Steel Lug Shoe—The steel back
reinforcement previously mentioned consists of steel plates curved
longitudinally to ﬁt the shoe, but ﬁat transversely. These plates
being located ﬂush with the back of the shoe, aiford insuﬂicient
anchorage and stiffness to the body metal, which when worn thin
is liable to fall away from the plate.
The improved design of back, introduced in 1904, provides 'a
plate arched transversely as well as longitudinally. The transverse
curve permits the outer edges of theback to be slightly submerged
in the body metal, and the process of curving opens the cut-outs
GAR8 539
g» 11.—T.- .lru -
along the center of the plate so as to form tapered openings into
which the body metal ﬂows and is securely anchored. This con-
struction furnishes a stronger anchorage for the body metal and
a stiﬁfer support than is possible with the ﬂat- plates. This con-
struction also embodies a wrought lug formed integral with the
steel back, permitting the shoe to be worn to the limit of the cast-
iron body without the possibility of failure under any conditions
of service.
The Interlocking Brake Shoe—Another special form of shoe is
illustrated in Fig. 260, which shows the “Interlocking” Brake
Shoe. The shoe itself is practically entirely worn out before any
part of it is thrown away. The illustration shows how a partially
‘ worn shoe is inserted in the face of a new shoe, the old shoe then
being used up before the new shoe touches the wheel.
Steel-back shoes must be removed if 1/2 inch thick or less; grey
iron shoes, if 3/1, inch thick or less. All inserts must extend, in
new shoes, to a depth equal to at least one-half of the total depth
of the shoe, as required by the M. C. B.
The prevalence of thermal cracks in brake shoes is a con-
spicuous feature. They are present commonly, if not invariably,
in shoes, even those which have been- but a short time in service.
The conditions of exposure are the same, for the time being, for
the rubbing surfaces of the shoe and the tire. The same tenden-
cies necessarily exist for the formation of thermal cracks in each,
but more accentuated in the shoe.
The determination of brake shoe eﬁiciency is now, after many
years of tests, fairly‘ well solved, and the values of brake resist-
ance and the rate- of wear approximately understood. The heavier
cars and severer service all have led to the necessity of obtain-
ing higher brake pressures and to the wider use of clasp brakes
on steel freight cars. All the points concerning the clasp brake
are not yet fully understood; and the steel-back shoe still breaks
in'the middle, sometimes. The prime brake shoe requisites of high
friction, long life, and a clear-through reinforcing of the shoe, are
hard to obtain in actual railroad service. In the last tests, six
kinds were tested, such as the Diamond “S” (ﬂanged and un-
ﬂanged), the steel-back Lappin, etc., on- the M. C. B. brake shoe
testing machine, upon a steel-tired wheel under brake shoe pres-
sures of 12,000, 14,000, 16,000 and 18,000 pounds. The initial
'1 340 - CARS .


speed of the machine was 65 miles per hour, with 9 stops made
at each pressure, the shoe having been given a full bearing sur-
face, and then weighed before the test. Taken as a whole, the
results - of the tests were generally satisfactory. ‘
The M. G. B. Recommended Practice for High Speed Founda-
tion Brake Gear for passenger service for 6-wheel trucks and for
4-wheel trucks is shown in Figs. 261, 262 and 263.
The fundamentals of this gear are: Braking power to be 90
per cent of the light weight of the car; equalized pressure in brake
cylinder, 60 pounds per square inch; maximum pressure in brake
cylinder, 85 ‘pounds per square inch; maximum stress in levers,
' 23,000 pounds per square inch; maximum stress in rods, except
jaws, 15,000 pounds per square inch, no rod to be less than %
inch in diameter; maximum stress in jaws, 10,000 pounds per
square inch; maximum shear on pins, 10,000 pounds .per square
inch, diameter of pins to provide a bearing surface not to exceed
23,000 pounds per square inch—all of which are M. C. B. re-
quirements. -
‘The M. C. B. standards for Air Brakes on freight cars, and the
standard location of Main Air Pipe on same, are given in Fig.
264. ‘ '
The fundamentals for freight car air brakes, M. C. B. Rec.
Practice are: Maximum train pipe pressure, 70 pounds per square
' inch; all levers to be 1 inch in thickness; all pins to be 1332 inches
in diameter; all jaws and clevises made of 5/4 inch by 2% inch iron;
'all rods, % inch in diameter; and angle of ‘brake-beam lever, 40 de-
grees with vertical; maximum brake power of freight car, 70 per cent
of the light weight of the car. In 1909, the use of malleable iron
was discontinued, the truck connections to be made of round iron
or steel not less than 1% inches in diameter; and, later, the use
of cast steel for truck lever connections was permitted. A standard
bottom rod for use with all-steel or steel-tired wheels with inside-
hung brakes was adopted; the additional lever being so devised
that the hand brake and air brake work in harmony on .double hand
brake cars. For brake cylinders larger than 8 inches or for
brake cylinder pressures over 50 pounds per square inch, the
size of brake rods and levers should be increased, if necessary, so’
that the ﬁber stresses shall not exceed 15,000 pounds per square
inch for rods and 23,000 pounds per square inch for levers. Brake
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RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
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HIGH SPEED FOUNDATION BRAKE GEAR
FOR
PASSENGER SERVICE. SCHEDULE FOR
6- WHEEL TRUCKS.
WI!!! 'ImPﬁM'ﬂ/l” ‘A’!!!
HIGH SPEED FOUNDATION BRAKE GEAR


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‘MASTER GIlR BUIhDERS’IlSSOGIIlTION.
STANDARDS FOR AIR BRAKES ON FREIGHT CARS.
snuomo Locmou '01- MAIN AIR PIPEION FREIGHT cARs.


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CARS 341
chain shall be of not less than % inch, preferably 1% inch,
wrought iron or steel, with a link on the brake rod end of not less
than {£6 inch (preferably % inch) wrought iron or steel, and shall
be secured to brake shaft drum by not less than ‘1,42 inch hexagonal
~ or square-head bolt—the nut on said bolt to be secured by riveting
end of the bolt over nut.
Air-Brake Hose are ﬂexible tubes made of rubber and canvas,
located one at each end of the car, and connected to the air pip-
ing. They are used to make a ﬂexible connection between con-_
secutive cars and thus allow the air‘ which operates the brakes to
pass through from one end- of the train to the other, or to as
much of it as is coupled up. The following are the M. C. B.
standard speciﬁcations for air-brake hose:
I. MANUFACTURE
1. All hose shall be soft and pliable and not less than four-
ply. They shall be made of rubber and cotton fabric, each the
best of its kind for the purpose.
II. _ PH-YSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS
2. Hose shall be subjected to the following tests, which‘ must
be made at a room temperature of not less than 65 degrees F.
3. Friction Test—The quality of friction shall be determined
by suspending a 20-pound weight from the separated end of the
duck of one of the 1-inch test specimens described in Section 9,
the force being applied radially. The separation shall be uniform
and regular, and the average speed shall not exceed 8 inches in 10
minutes, the distance being measured while the weight is still in
place. '
4. Stretching Test—Test specimens from tube and cover will
be quickly stretched until the _2-inch marks are 10 inches apart
and immediately released. They will then be re-marked as at ﬁrst
within ten seconds after starting to release and again stretched to
10 inches between the new marks, remaining so stretched for 10
minutes. The specimens shall then be completely released, and
within 30 seconds after starting to release the distance between the
marks last applied will be measured, and the initial set must not
be more than 54 inch. At the end of ten minutes the distance
342 CARS
between the marks will again be measured, and the ﬁnal set must
not be more than 1% inch. These test specimens may be cut from
the tube and cover of the friction test specimen, but shall not be
used for tensile test. _
5. Tensile Strength—Test specimens from tube and cover
shall be pulled in a tensile machine with a test speed of 20 inches
per minute. The inner tube must have a tensile strength of not
less than 800 pounds or more than 1,200 pounds per square inch,
I and the cover not less than 7 00 pounds or more than 1,100 pounds
per square inch. The elongation shall be ,such that the marks
originally 2 inches apart, stretch to at least 10 inches before
specimen breaks. If the tensile strength in, pounds per square inch
is greater than that required, the sample may be accepted, providing
the per cent increase in elongation is equal to or greater than the
per cent increase in tensile strength in pounds per square inch
above the maxi-mum ﬁgure.
6. Tensile Strength of Duck—From the 3-inch section remain-
ing after the friction, stretching and tensile tests are made, a strip
of duck the entire length of this section will'betaken. One piece
will be cut 3 inches wide and parallel with the warp threads of
the duck, another piece will be cut 3 inches wide and parallel
with the ﬁller threads. The tensile strength of each of these
pieces shall be determined in the usual manner by the use of'standard
M. C. B. grips (see Fig. 265) placed 1 inch apart directly opposite
one another on the center of'the test section. The section- thus
tested must develop a tensile strength of at least 225 pounds per
inch for both warp and ﬁller threads. The rate of separation of
the grips shall be approximately 20 inches per minute and in no
case shall the test be counted when the duck breaks in the grips.
7. Porosity Test—The remaining 17 inches shall be mounted
and placed in a test rack, the circumference will be measured and
the hose ﬁlled with air at 140-pound pressure per square inch, the
rubber cover shall be cut from clamp to clamp (taking care not to
injure the duck) and this pressure maintained for 5 minutes.
At the end of this time the hose will be submerged in water to
determine whether the inner tube is porous. The escape of air
through the tube shall be distinct enough so that the porosity will
not be confused with the escape of air which ‘is conﬁned in the
structure of the hose. ~ In the event the hose fails on bursting test
3rd. .9210 M 0 870


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at the point at which cut was made for porosity test and a satis-
factory hydraulic test is not obtained, the porosity and hydraulic
test will be repeated onranother piece of hose. _
8. Bursting Test—The section of hose which was used for
‘porosity test shall then be subjected to a hydraulic pressure of
200 pounds per square inch, 'under which pressure it shall not
expand more than 1% inch in circumference for air-brake hose
and %% inch for air signal hose, nor develop any small leaks or
defects. After the above tests, this section shall then stand a
hydraulic pressure of 500 pounds per square inch for 10 minutes
without bursting or developing any leaks or defects.
9. Test Specimen—A hose shall be selected at random and a
section 5 inches long cut from one end. Two. sections, each 1 inch '
long, shall be cut from the 5-inch section for making the friction,
stretching and tensile tests, the remaining 3-inch section shall be
used for making the tests on the duck or additional tests which
may be desired on the tube and cover. Stretching and tensile _
specimens shall be cut from tube and cover with a die having
the dimensions shown in Fig. 266. '
10. Number of Tests—For each lot of 200 pieces of hose one
extra hose shall be furnished free of costs for test purposes.
III. PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS


O ts'd I 'd Tgckllé/zsl of
u 1 e um e -
Leligir’h’ Diameter, Diameter, cagigeduon,
' - In. In. In.
Air-Brake Hose
Maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . 22% 2% 1%; %2
Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2%6 1% %2
Air-Signal Hose
Maximum . . . . . . . . . . 22% 1% 1%.; - ‘54::
Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . 22' 11%: 1% ' 11432

IV. " WORKMANSHIP ANDY FINISH
11. Workmanshtp—(a) Tnbe—sThe ‘tube shall be made-either .
by hand or machine. It shall be free from’ holes and imperfec-
tions, and in joining must be so ﬁrmly united to the cotton fabric "
CARS ' 345
that it will meet the friction tests prescribed in Section 3. The
tube shall be of such a composition and so cured as to successfully
meet the requirements of tests given in Sections 4 and 5, the tubes
to be not less than 332 inch thick. _‘
(b) Cover—The cover shall be of the’ same quality of rubber
as the tube and shall not be less than 11¢; inch thick, and shall meet ,
the requirements of tests given in Sections 4 and 51
(c) Duck—The canvas or duck used as a wrapping for the
hose shall be made of long ﬁber cotton, loosely Woven, and shall
sis-_-
\ 3.1.. _ T
. 3.. ______x ,_
. Fig. 266.
Specimen for Air-Hose Tests.
l

weigh not less than 22 ounces per linear yard, 40 inches wide.
The canvas or duck shall be frictioned with rubber on both
sides and shall be applied on the bias and edges lapped at least
1,4,, inch and not sewed. ' '
12. Finish—The hose shall be smooth and regular in size
throughout its entire length.
V. MARKING
13. Serial Number—Each lot'of 200 or less shall bear the
manufacturer ’s serial number, commencing at 1 on the ﬁrst of
the year and continuing consecutively until the end of the year.
14. Label—Each length of hose shall have vulcanized on it
the label for air-brake hose of red rubber, as shown under the
speciﬁcations for “Label for Air-Brake Hose.” This label shall
be applied around the hose at a point 6 inches from the end and
with the top of the lettering toward the center of the hose.
346 CARS
VI. INSPECTION AND REJECTION
15. Inspection—(a) The manufacturer shall aﬂ‘ord the in
spector, free of cost, all reasonable facilities to satisfy him that
the material is being' furnished in accordance with these speciﬁ~
cations. ' .
(b) The purchaser may make the tests and inspection to
govern the acceptance or rejection of the material in his own .
laboratory or elsewhere. Such tests and inspection shall be made
at the expense of the purchaser. ‘
I (c) All tests and inspection shall be so conducted as not to .
interfere unnecessarily with the operation of the works.
16. Rejection—Material which, subsequently to above tests at
the mills or elsewhere, and its acceptance, develops .weak spots or
imperfections, within three months from date of shipment and
prior to being placed in service, or fails to pass any one of the
tests herein required, will be rejected and shall be replaced by the
manufacturer at his own expense. ,
17. Rehearing—Samples tested in accordance with this speciﬁ-
cation, which represent rejected material, shall be preserved for
14 days from date of test report to the manufacturer. In case
of dissatisfaction with results of the tests, the manufacturer may
make clai'mfor a rehearing within that time. -
SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTS FOR WOVEN AND COMBI-
NATION WOVEN AND IWRAPPED AIR-BRAKE HOSE
All air-brake hose under this speciﬁcation is to consist of not
less than three plies of woven, braided or knitted fabric, or of two
or more‘ plies of canvas wrapping surrounded by at least one ply
of woven, knitted or braided fabric. The hose should be ﬂexible
without kinking easily. The rubber, fabric or duck should be the
best of its kind made for the purpose, and no rubber substitute
or short ﬁber fabric will be allowed. '
The inner tubes should be composed of three calendars of rub-
ber and not less 'than £2 inch thick at any point. Should a
machine-madetube be used, it must not be less than 1,5 inch thick
at any point. It must be free from holes and imperfections, and
in joining it must be so ﬁrmly united to the cotton fabric that
it can not be separated without breaking or splitting the tube.
CARS ' 347
Each ply of the hose should be separated by a distinct layer of
rubber, and over this is to be a cover 11; inch thick, and at each
end a 133 inch cap should’ be vulcanized on, the cover and the cap
to be of the same material at the inner tube.
The hose is to be furnished in 22-inch lengths, and variations
exceeding 14 inch from this length will not be permitted. The
rubber caps at each end are not to be less than 11;; inch nor more
than ‘5% inch thick. The inside diameter of the hose must not be
less than 1% inches ‘nor more than 1116 inches, nor must the outside
diameter be less than 23’; inches nor greater than 233, inches. I The
hose must be smooth and regular in size throughout its entire
length.
Each length of hose must‘ have vulcanized on it the label for .
air-brake hose of white or red rubber, as shown under the speciﬁ-
cations entitled “Label for Air-Brake Hose.”
Each lot of 200 or less must bear the manufacturer ’s serial
number, commencing at ‘ ‘ I’ ’ on the ﬁrst of the year and continu~
ing consecutively until the end of the year, and the serial number
should not be duplicated, even though the hose bearing the original
numbers be rejected. For each lot of 200, one extra hose must be
furnished free of cost.
TESTS TO WHICH SAMPLES \V-ILL BE SUBJECTED
Bursting Test—All hose selected for test will have a section 5
inches long cut from one end and the' remaining 17 inches will
then be subjected to a hydraulic bursting pressure of 400 pounds per
square inch for ten minutes, which it must stand without failure.
At a pressure of 100-pounds per square inch it must not expand
more than 17./i inch vin diameter or change in length more than
1,4 inch, nor develop any small leaks or defects.
Friction Test—A section 1 inch long will be taken- from the
5-inch piece previously cut off, and the quality determined by sus-
pending a 20-pound weight to the separated and, the force “being
applied radially, and the time of unwinding must not exceed 8
inches in ten minutes. . ,
Stretching Test—Another section 1 inch long will be cut from
the balance of the 5-inch piece and ‘the inner tube or lining will be
separated from the ply and cut at the lap. Marks two inches
apart will be placed on this section, and then the section will be
_ 348 CARS
‘quickly stretched until the marks are 8 inches apart and imme-
diately released. The section will then be remarked as at ﬁrst
and stretched to 8 inches and will remain so stretched ten
minutes. It will then be released and ten minutes later the
distance between the marks last applied will be measured. In no
case must the test piece break or show a permanent elongation of
' more than 14 inch between the marks last applied. ' One-inch strips
will also be taken from the cover and will be subjected to the
same test.
Tensile Test—Another section 1 inch long will be cut from the
remainder of the 5-inch piece and the rubber tube or lining will
be separated from the ply and cut at the lap. It will then be
reduced in the middle for a distance of 2 inches by 1A; inch wide
parallel. The parallel section shall be spread to the full width
of 1 inch at the,-end by curves of 1/2 inch radius. This specimen
shall be stretched uniformly by gripping the enlarged ends, and in
no case should the tensile strength per square inch be less than
400 pounds, nor‘ the elongation at the time of failure less than 8
inches, measured by marks placed originally 2 inches apart before
breaking.
If the test hose fails to meet the required tests the lot from
which it was taken may be ‘rejected without further examination
and returned to the manufacturer, who shall pay the freight charges
in both directions. If the test hose is satisfactory the entire lot
will be examined and those complying with the speciﬁcations will
be accepted.
The M. C. B. standard Coupling and Packing Ring, and the
Label for Air-Brake Hose are shown in Fig. 267.
The location of the Air-Brake Label is six inches from the
end. In mounting the air hose, the coupling should be applied to
the end near which the label is located, so that the drawbar will
not obscure the same when an inspector is on the right forward
or left back side of the car, thus making it unnecessary for him
to go between the cars to inspect the hose. The label should show
towards the side of the car in such a; position that the car inspector
can readily see it. The use of the former square label (see Fig.
268) on the hose is optional with a road wishing to keep a hose ‘
record in this manner, but‘ the new label must be used in any
event. It itself contains provisions for all the records necessary

A.B.C. ROAD _ n-— 6
NAME OF’ MANUFACTURER ‘SERIAL NUMBER A LABEL FOR AIR-BRAKE HOSE.


i'
1
\\\\\\\\\\\
LABEL ‘To BE MADE OF E50 RUBBER
VULCANIZED To CovEizA'r LOCATION SHOWN.
LEI-meme AND Flsurazs MUST BE N01‘ LESS
THAN {HIGH _ANo STAND IN REpEF- No'r
Lass THAN


POSITION OF AIR BRAK‘E IIIOSE LABEL O-N MOUNTED HOSE.
AND BOLTING LUGS OF’ CLAMPS
MASTER CAR BUIhDERS’ASSOCIllTION.
STANDARD LABEL FOR A|R BRAKE HOSE.
STANDARD COUPLING AND PACKING Rme FOR AIR BRAKE HOSE.
, STANDARD POSITION OF AIR BRAKE HOSE LABEL on MOUNTED HOSE.
_it: - ‘AND BOLTING LUGS or CLAMPS.


Tie—J: 5__
2|
-—>
STANnARD COUPLINGANDPACKING Rme FbRAIRBRAIG l-rosE.
Fig. 267. '
CARS 349
for keeping track of the hose. The M. C. B. Association has secured
a trade mark covering this label, and‘ grants to manufacturers
authority to apply it to air-brake hose and steam hose meeting
the M. C. B. speciﬁcations. The latest changes in such hose are
slight and are given above. Better service for hose made accord-
ing to said speciﬁcations over those of 1905, has notably been
had, because of the strictness of the speciﬁcations and the cer-
tainty that hose containing more rubber must now be used. The
temperature at which tests shall be made has lately been raised
15 degrees.

SEIIIIII. numn M. c. B. STD.
NAM E OF ROAD
03 I'23456
M'I'laalunlz
% l23456
n'lR'I89IIllII2
NAME OF MANUFACTURER

3--—03
Fig. 268.
Master Car Builders’ Standard Hose Brand.
The average life of air-brake hose is now about two years.
A great many roads not following M. C. B. speciﬁcations are now
getting even a better hose, especially for head end service. If
such hose is a better grade than that called for by the M. C. B.
requirements, the M. C. B. label should not be put thereon, some
M. C. B. members say: although it is hard to see just why, inas-
much as said hose comes up to (and surpasses) the M. C. B.
requisites. When the old rectangular label is used, in addition to
the M. C. B. label, a space of at least two inches should be left
between the two labels. After October 1, 1914, no new hose
should be purchased or applied unless it bears the M. G. B. band
label.
350
CARS
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CARS 351
The M. C. B. Association has adopted a standard Air-Brake
Defect Card, to be attached as near the car number as possible,
to report to division terminals such defects as are found by train-
men, and which require the brake to be cut out. The use of this
card is deﬁned as follows: If car can be placed between air-brake
cars, wire the card near triple valve where it can be readily seen.
If car must not be placed between air-brake cars, wire card to
brake pipe near angle cock at each end of the car. The color
of the card is red; its size 314 by 9 inches, including the stub,
which is ‘3%, by 2% inches. The card is to be ﬁtted with eyelet,
as seen in Fig. 269, and each card supplied with suitable wire
for attaching it to the car. ‘
- CHAPTER X
THE FREIGHT CAR SUPERSTRUCTURE; FRAMING—ROOF-
ING—SHEATHING—DOORS AND OTHER PARTS
Framing—The framing of freight cars above the sills is very
much the same for all classes with the exception of the open
topped types, such as Gondola cars. The most common type of
enclosed car is the box car, and a treatise of its. general design
will outline the methods used for all styles.
The frame work consists of the posts (Plate I, Nos. 55, 61,
62, 63, 64 and 65), Braces (Plate I, Nos. 66, 67, 68 and 69),
Side Plates (Plate I, No. 72), End Plates (Plate I, No. 73),
' Carlines (Plate I, No. 74), Purlines (Plate I, No. 76), Ridge
Pole (Plate I, No. 75) and Girths (Plate I, Nos. 70 and 71).
These when all properly secured in place form the framing to which
the covering peculiar to the kind of car being ‘built is secured.
The plates, connected together in the form of a rectangle having
the same outside dimensions as the side and end sill construction,
are “elevated on the posts. These are either framed directly into
the plates‘ and the sills with mortises and tenons or are set into
metal pockets which are framed into the plates and sills by means
of round or rectangular projections. The whole structure is then
tied together with framing rods. Braces, placed in the panels to
preserve'the vertical position of the frame, are framed to ﬁt their
respective locations without tenons, or any special fastening other
than, at times, the metal pockets such as are also used for ‘the post
(Plate I, N o. 119). They are held in place by the sheathing
on the outside and the lining and ﬂooring 'on the inside. The
heavy thrust of the braces on the top of the side door posts is
guarded against by ﬁtting a strip between the door posts and nailing
it to the underside of the plate. The thrust on the corner posts
is taken’ up by the upper corner plate and a strap bolt secured‘
to the side plate and passing through the end plate. One or more
“ girths or nailing strips are secured to the posts and braces with
nails or screws. Carlines, placed at proper intervals, extend from
352
0.412s ' s53
side plate to side plate and support the purlines and ridge pole to
which the roof is secured. - '
There are varied styles adopted in the construction of frames,
though none of them involves principles diﬁferent from those
indicated. The variations in arrangement are due mostly to the
experience of the designer and the facilities at hand for the
construction and care of the car. The main desire is to distribute
the material so as to form a truss lengthwise of the car to assist
in carrying the load and at the same time have suﬂicient stiﬁ‘ness
to resist the lateral pressure from the load.
Figure 270 shows a common form of side framing. Another
form, in general use also, is shown in Fig. 271. This illustrates the
use of post and brace pockets which are also shown in the outline
(Fig. 330) of a modern stock car.
The usual method of end framing employed is illustrated in
Fig. 272, the dimensions indicated, of course, being varied to suit
the particular car. 1
When the car does not have an end door or when the door
is located at the side next to the corner post, the end framing shown
in Fig. 27 3 is sometimes used. This does not make as stiff a frame
to withstand pressure from the inside, because there is only one
full sectioned post instead of two, as in Fig. 272. Naturally the
stronger construction is in more general use both with and with-
out end doors.
As a recommended practice the M. C. B. Association has adopted
the styles of framing shown in Fig. 274 for the sides and ends of
cars with the capacities indicated.
Posts—The posts are designated as door posts (Plate 1, No.
55), body posts, of which there are two kinds, the intermediate
post (Plate 1, No. 64) and the transom posts (Plate 1, No. 63),
corner posts (Plate I, No. 62), and end posts (Plate I, No. 61).
The body posts are usually of white oak or long-leaf southern pine.
As mentioned. above they are made thick enough to stand the
outward thrust of the lading, 2% inches by 5 inches to 6 inches
being the most common dimensions selected. The corner and door
posts are almostv always made of white oak. In sections they are
more nearly square, the inside corner being gained out to receive
the lining that is secured across the face of theyintermediate
posts. The sizes usually met with are from ﬁve to ﬁve and one-half
354 CARS
inches square, although occasionally larger sections are. used.
The end posts are invariably made heavier than the body posts.


Fig. 270.
Arrangement of Side Framing.
n _ .
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"if 5'' ‘ ‘t, g,’ mas’ §"
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Fig. 271.
Arrangement of Side Framing.
The shifting of imperfectly loaded material causes such excessive
strains onjathese posts that they are ordinarily made very deep.
Instead of having the sheathing cover these posts they usually
CARS 355


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Fig. 272.
End Frame Construction.
project out beyond it and thus gain in strength in the proper
direction for stiﬁness. Of course, the outside corners are then
gained to form a place for securing the sheathing. This same
method is frequently used also on all the other posts of the car,
356 CARS
more often, however, with the door and corner posts. When extra
precautions are desired, a band of ﬂat iron is secured by bolts to
the side of the post. This iron is then bent at right angles at
both ends of the post and secured to the sill and plate by lag
screws or bolts. The reinforcing construction makes a very rigid


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' Fig. 273.
End Frame Construction.
El\\i// /3
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Mumvwé‘wmm ﬂqurmwmm ,
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FRAMING 0F‘ BOX CARS.
Fig. 274.
'Master Car Builders’ Recommended Framing.


and strong post, and one that will last under the severe strains
of service much longer than the simple wooden post.
Braces—Compression braces (Plate I, Nos. 66, 67, 68 and 69)
are usually made of the same material as the body posts, white
oak and southern pine being the most common woods used. They
are ordinarily-of the same thickness as the body posts, but they
never project, as‘ the posts sometimes do, beyond the outside faces
O'ARS' 357
of the sills and plates. When the brace is to be subjected to a
tensile strain it is made of iron, in the form of a strap or a long
rod, and it is usually designated as a brace rod (Plate I, No. 182).
Braces are called “Right-hand” or “Left-hand” according to
the inclination of their top to a person facing the car. “
Plates—The side plates (Plate 1, No. 72) are usually made
of the same material as the sills with a thickness at least that of
the posts. Usually the plate is slightly thicker. It is not less
than ﬁve inches deep, with the top face beveled to suit the pitch
of the roof. However, the top face is at times left square to suit
the framing of the carlines. In that event a ﬁlling block is used
on top of the plate, which is beveled to the roof pitch. On account
of its small dimensions and because the roof boards are nailed
to it, this block is made of oak.
The end plates (Plate 1, No. 73) are of oak, but sometimes
hard pine is substituted. At the ends where it is framed to the side
plate by mortises to suit the double tenons on the side plate it
has the same depth as the outside face of the side plate and ﬁll-
ing block, if the latter is used. The depth at the center is made
to suit the roof pitch. It is gained out to receive the purlines and
pole. ,- ,
In order that the sides of the car may assist in carrying the
load, it will be seen that the side framing of the freight car forms
a truss which is designed to strengthen the car, and is composed
of the various posts, sills, plates and compression braces or brace
rods. As a rule, the truss used for this side framing is either
the Pratt or Howe type, in the former of which all the braces
are tension members, while in the latter they are all compression
members. The Pratt truss is rarely used alone for this side truss;
ing, but is generally combined with the Howe truss—the latter
being usually furnished with vertical posts alongside of the
vertical tension members. As ordinarily built, the freight car is
not a perfect truss, for the middle panel (containing the door)
lacks braces or counterbraces. Long cars are reinforced with
strong trusses of the bridge or roof type, besides being strength-
ened by body truss rods.
The roof of the car is supported by the carlines or rafters—
bars of wood or metal which extend across the top of the freight
car and are let into or otherwise fastened to the plate. On these
358 _ CARS
.carlines rest the purlines, longitudinal pieces of wood or metal
extending from one end'of the car to the other, the center one of
which is called the ridge pole. To these purlines are fastened the
rooﬁng material, whether composed of boards or metal plates. A sub-
carlin'e is a strip of wood under the main carline of refrigerator
cars, used to support the sub-roof of such cars. The purlines,
though usually made of metal in all-metal roofs, are generally
rectangular ‘pieces of timber, used as nailing strips as well as
supports for the rooﬁng ‘proper (see Plate I), and are gained
into and fastened to both the end plates and carlines. Generally,
they are not continuous pieces of wood; the joints, however, being
always made over a carline. The ridge pole is usually twice as
wide as the other purlines, and has its top face beveled to suit'the ..
roof pitch on each side of the car.
The carlines formerly were invariably made of oak, but other
woods are now being used, and the metal carlines promise to re-
place wood altogether, being used exclusively in all-steel and other
metallic car roofs. The pressed-steel carlines are the strongest
and lightest carlines made today, and are better than wood or wood
and metalcombined. These and various other structural shapes
should have large bearing surfaces for ridge pole and purlines;
should compel no changes in the car framing, and should be strong
enough to ensure long life. Different types of these carlines are -
seen in Figs. 275, 276, 277, 278 and 279. They are made for inside
or outside roofs, with or without pockets, and increase the inside
height of the car. With such cars often goes a metallic end plate
such as Fig. 280, especially metal roofs.
With wood carlines, the under side is made straight across, the
top being tapered to the roof pitch, the material being about 1%
inches thick to 1% inches—more carlines being used if greater
strength is desired. Usually, they are three feet apart. There is
a variety of ways and details for framing the carlines to the side
plates. If the carline is shallow a single thick tenon is used; if
the depth will allow it a double tenon is used. When a mortise
and tenon joint is used some sort of tie is necessary; strap bolts
(Plate I, No. 181) secured to the ends of the carline; passing
through the plate and sheathing; a short rod running through the
ﬁrst purline and side plate; a framing ‘rod (Plate I, No. 210) along
side or underneath the carline extending through the plate and
CARS 359


Fig. 275.
Western Steel Car-line.


, Fig. 276.
Steel Angle Roof Carline.
_lﬁ Q _,
Fig. 277.
Cleveland Type-B Pressed Steel Cariine for Wood Framing. Cleveland Car
Specialty Company.


Fig. 278. _
Standard Type-L Pressed Steel Carline for Steel or Wood Framing.
Cleveland Cur Specialty Company.
A»
Fig. 279.
Cleveland Pressed Steel Channel Carline for Outside Roofs.
Cleveland Car Specialty Company.


Fig. 280.
Pressed Steel End Plate. Cleveland Car Specialty Company.
360 CARS
sheathing with the nuts exposed at both ends. These ties are
usually placed on every other carline. A more simple framing of
the .carline is to lip the carline over the top of the plate which
is left square or gained to receive the carline. It is then secured
by screws to the plate with a framing rod at every other carline.
One of the most troublesome problems in box car construction
is the roof, the difficulties about which are so great that all of
them cannot yet be said to have been overcome, although the
increased attention lately paid to car rooﬁng has resulted in
marked improvement therein. Still, the number of freight cars
now in service that will fail under a water test is much too large;
but the practice of submitting the roofs to leakage-tests before
assigning the cars to certain kinds of service has recently been
given more consideration, and railways increasingly recognize
that they must do their part by systematic attention-to the in-
spection and maintenance of‘! roofs if satisfactory results are to
be had. In new orders for cars, diﬁerent types of roofs are being
placed in suﬁicient numbers of each kind, to permit of fair tests
and comparisons of said types being secured. One important rail-
road now has but little roof trouble, because it has certain regu-
lations in force which make it necessary to give the roofs frequent
attention and thus prevent the development of slight and com-
paratively important defects. That particular road is fortunate
because its ,cars are not so generally interchanged as those of other
roads. If it,is not possible to give the roofs systematic and fre-
quent attention in order tokeep them in ﬁrst-class condition, then
it is not only desirable, but necessary, that a type of roof be used
which will not need such attention.
The functions of the car roof are two: To protect the lading
and to strengthen the car. The supporting frame thereof must
have sufficient strength to carry the roof and also to tie the sides
andends of the car together. If the roof is rigid, as in some of
the metal roofs, it stiifens the upper part of the car, just as rigid
underframes stiiﬁien- the lower or bottom part of the car. Further,
the present severe service of freight cars causes a great increase
in leaking and damaged roofs as well as in bulged or broken ends
and side doors damaged or missing. The stresses to which a box '
car roof is subjected, even with the strongest of framing in the
body of the car, are such that it must be given va reasonable amount -
CARS 361
of attention when it is placed in service, and must not be prac-
tically neglected, as is too often the case.
A good freight car roof should be absolutely weather-proof,
economical in ﬁrst cost and maintenance, and of such design and
construction that the shocks and vibrations incident to the service
will not impair its eﬁiciency. It should have long life, the minimum
dead weight, the least cave-width, the greatest cubic capacity, and
hence the greatest earning capacity; and it should stand the ﬁre
hose test to prove that it is impervious to the elements. Its shape
must also be such that it is both safe and easy to walk over, and
not liable to injury on this account.
’ Freight car roofs are constructed of wood or of metal, or of
both combined. There are in use ﬁve- general types of roof con-
struction: 1. The double-board roof. 2. The single-board roof
covered with metal sheets or plates. 3. The sheet-metal roof pro-
tected by a single layer of roughly matched boards. 4. The all-
metal or metallic roof. 5. The so-called plastic roof, consisting
of an inside wooden roof covered with plastic materials of different
kinds, with an outside roof built over that to protect said materials
from injury. These plastic materials at ﬁrst were tar paper,
asphalted canvas, etc., but now (especially when used in ventilator
or refrigerator cars) they are generally made of very heavy-layers
of woolen or other ﬁbre felt, sometimes saturated with compounds
tending to preserve not only the materials but also the upper and
lower boarding with which it comes in contact. The metal roof
covered with boards is now generally called an Inside-Metal Roof,
while by Outside-Metal Roof is meant one that has a metal cover-
ing over a single layer of boards.
The double-board or all-wood roof is still the one in largest
use. In the construction of this roof, only the best seasoned timber
(white pine, Douglas ﬁr, etc.) should be used. A common practice
is to use boards dressed on both sides and edges to a uniform size
_of about % by 51/8 inches and have two semi-circular grooves of
1%, inch diameter on one side, near each edge. The purpose of
these grooves in the top course of boards is to catch and carry off
as much of the water as possible, keeping it out of the joints;
these same grooves in the under course catch and carry off such
of the water as penetrates the joints of the top course. As the
grooves in the under course are apt to become clogged with dirt
362 CARS '
sometimes the two grooved sides are placed in contact so as to
increase the size of the channel for carrying 01f the water. The
boards of both courses are nailed to the plates, purlines and ridge
pole.
Wooden screws are sometimes used in place of nails, but


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Double Board Roof.
they are expensive and troublesome. The edges and faces of the'
boards are always heavily coated with paint before they are laid.
The pitch of the roof varies from 1% to 2 inches rise per foot.
The steeper the pitch the better the protective qualities of the roof
but the more dangerous to the trainmen who have to pass over it.
The construction of a double board roof is shown in Fig. 281.


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CARS 363

Fig. 283.
Interior View of‘ Box Car with Franklin Flexible Metallic Root.


Fig. 284.
Hutchins' Sectional Metal Inside Roof.
364 CARS
This form of roof, made up of tongued boards, sometimes has
the boards grooved on its face only on the upper boards. The
M. O. B. standard Rooﬁng is shown in Fig. 282.


Fig. 285.
Hutchins' Improved All-Steel Cariine Roof.


Fig. 286.
Hutchins’ Outside Metal Roof.
PARTS OF HUTCHINS’ TYPE "D" ROOF.
A, Lock Roll Joint. B, Torsion Eave Bead. C, Galvanized Rooﬁng Sheets.
E, Galvanized Joint Eave Filler Piece. F, Galvanized Center Hood.
G. Galvanized Saddle Cover.
The single-board roof covered with metal (or outside-metal
roof) is slightly more costly than the double-board roof, but when
properly constructed of durable materials not only sheds water
far better but also has a longer life, though liable to injury
through being walked on, and more diﬂicult to rigidly fasten the
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CARS
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3G6 CARS
roof and hand brake appliances to. At ﬁrst tin was used, but is
now obsolete because it wears out so_ rapidly and is so easily
injured; its place being taken by iron or steel sheets, generally
galvanized or Lohmannized -to prevent rusting and consequent
decay. The inside-metal roof is also much used, it is made of
corrugated metal—iron, steel or zinc sheets, covered with boards
and resting on roof strips. Metallic sheets, when used for car
rooﬁng, have their joints made and closed in' various ways,- but all
are designed to prevent water from penetrating to the interior.
The metallic roofs are now generally all-steel, some kinds using
steel carlines, while others have no ridge poles or purlines. Others
have their c‘ai'lines outside, of the rooﬁng sheets. Instead of rooﬁng
boards they often use ilg-inch galvanized steel plates with rolled
steel carlines, the drainage’ of the roof being through the ridge '
pole and carlines'. The cave application is important, and should
eliminate all strains from the rooﬁng sheets. Often they provide
for ventilation at the sides and ends of the car. One of the larger
systems has a solid riveted roof, with air spaces at the sides to pro-
vide for ventilation, which was applied to about 110 cars a year
and a half or two years ago, and has given splendid satisfaction—so
great satisfaction, in fact, thatv cars in service or under order to the
number of 10,000, either have or are being equipped with it. The
argument is constantly being advanced that it is necessary to have a
ﬂexible roof on all box cars to provide against the various stresses to
which the superstructure is subjected. The designers of the solid
riveted roof under consideration argue that it has been found
necessary to develop rigid underframes and that it is just as neces-
sary' to have a rigid roof, the former stiﬁening the box at its lower
end and the latter at the top.
Roofs of these diﬁerent types are shown in Figs. 283, 284, 285,
286 and 287, a type of the plastic car roof is shown in Fig. 288.
An important adjunct of the box car roof is the Running Board
(see Plate I), by means of which the trainmen pass over the train.
The ‘M. C. B. Standard, therefore, as part of the U. S.
Safety Appliances ordered by the I. C. C., provides that each box
car shall have one longitudinal running board. On outside metal
roof cars there shall be latitudinal extensions from longitudinal
running board to edge of roof above ladder locations, except on
refrigerator cars where such latitudinal extensions cannot be
CARS
367


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368 CARS
applied on account of ice hatches. Latitudinal extensions shall
not be less than twenty-four inches in width. Longitudinal running
board to be not less than 18, preferably 20, inches wide, and to
extend along the center of the roof the full length of the car; to
be continuous from end to end, and not cut or hinged at any
point—provided that the length and width of running boards may
be made up of a number of pieces securely fastened to saddle blocks
with screws or bolts. Running boards shall be made of wood and
securely fastened to car. The ends of longitudinal running. boards
shall be not less than 6 nor more than 10 inches from a vertical
plane parallel with the end of the car and passing through inside
face of knuckle when closed with coupler horn against the buﬁer
block or end sill, and if more than 4 inches from edge of roof
of car shall be securely supported their full width by substantial
metal braces. '
The running board is usually made of three 1 by 6-inch strips
supported on hardwood cleats (or saddles of wood or metal for
metal roofs) at proper intervals. The braces or brackets for the
extensions beyond the car ends are made of steel or wrought iron,
with a cleat fastened by bolts. Sometimes the middle board is made
thick and forms a peak for the cap of the roof, being gouged out
to ﬁt snugly over the roof boards; the boards at each side being
secured on short cleats. Gondola and ﬂat cars usually have no
running boards; on tank cars, as will be seen later, they are
ordinarily placed on the side of the car.
After the underframing is erected, the ﬂooring is laid, such
timber as the different kinds of pine, Douglas ﬁr, etc., being largely
used for this purpose. With box cars, the ﬂoor boards at the
doorway are made‘ of oak or other hardwood, if not too expensive.
The boards are usually laid crosswise of the car and are spiked to
the sills. The M. C. B. Standard for ﬂooring may be seen in
Fig. 282. It prescribes "that ﬂooring shall be of three kinds:
Square-edged, dressed all over; ship-lapped, dressed all over;
tongued and grooved, dressed all over. Metal plates and other
materials have been used, but it seems that freight car ﬂoors
must continue to be made of wood, to secure proper blocking of
the lading. The general practice is to use ship-lapped ﬂooring,
because of the ease with which a broken or worn out board can be
replaced; tongued and grooved boards being rarely used in freight
CARS 369
cars. For stock and ﬂat cars, thicker ﬂooring is ordinarily used,
because of the rougher wear and tear they receive. I
The girths (Plate I, Nos. 70 and 71) are stiﬁening pieces for
the framing as well as nailing strips for the sheathing. Sometimes
they are called belt rails. They are usually made thick enough
to ﬁll the space between the sheathing and lining and extend from
7/8 inch to 1 inch inside of the posts and braces. When made of a
solid piece of wood it is gained out to receive all the posts'and
braces. A much better construction is to use approximately square
ﬁlling blocks and nailing strips which extend between braces and
posts at the proper location and then use a board as the girth
about 1% inches by 6 inches across the inside faces of the posts
and braces. This girth is secured to each post and brace by
screws as well as to the blocks, and is usually made of oak.
For cars of‘ ordinary size a single girth is all that is required but
frequently two are used. -
The sheathing (Plate I, No. 88) of a car is the covering
placed on the side outside of the frame work. The material used
is generally dressed and matched boards of best quality white
pine; however, the particular kind of lumber used is governed by
considerations of cost. It is essential that it should be well
seasoned or kiln dried, otherwise the natural shrinkage will be so
great that the car will soon cease to be weather-proof.
As a rule the boards are surfaced on both sides to a thickness
of from % to 74; inches. They are tongued and grooved and are >_
beaded on the outside face, a “V” groove being sometimes used.
They are applied with vertical joints and nailed securely to the
plates, braces, girths and sills. The number of nails to each board
depends on the width of the board, steel wire nails being preferred
to cut nails. Usually one nail is driven blind at each nailing
place.
The standard M. C. B. Sheathing is illustrated in Fig. 282.
Trouble occasioned by water following beading or grooves in
horizontal sheathing is best overcome by bevelling the top outside
corner of each board. This will eliminate the gutter effect of the
sheathing where it is not entirely tight. Vertical sheathing is
best, if accompanied by economical and convenient design of side
framing, though’ the truss form of the framing lends itself
naturally to horizontal sheathing. Often the sheathing shrinks so _
370 ' CARS
much as to be quite open, causing anxiety to car men on account
of possible damage to lading; especially nowadays when good
fully kiln-dried lumber is hard to obtain at all times. This is one
reason why metal is being more and more recommended for
sheathing, especially with steel upper frame cars. For this purpose,
both iron and steel, galvanized or specially treated, ﬂat and cor-
rugated are now being extensively employed.
The inside sheathing is called lining (Plate I, No. 89). It is
run lengthwise of the car on the sides and across the car at the
ends. In quality it is “second” or “common” grade of white
pine or any suitable lumber, matched and grooved. This lining -
does not extend to the ﬂoor, but is usually raised at least 1%
inches above it by spacing blocks which are nailed close to the
ﬂoor. at each post. At the end of the car it extends up to the
plate. At the ﬂoor and against the outside sheathing is secured a
triangular piece of lumber called the “grain strip’ ’ (Plate 1, N o.
105). This is of such dimensions that all grain which might
get in behind the lining will be thrown out from under the lining
onto the ﬂoor where it can be readily reached when unloading the
car. If necessary, additional provision is made for letting out
the ’ grain where the post and braces come together at the ﬂoor
' line. A hole is simply cut through the bottom board of the lining.
This triangular grain strip and the opening in the lining is also
used above the girths where the lining extends to the plate at the
ends of the car, and above the lower girth when two are used on
the sides with the lining extending up to the second._
The M. C. ,B. Association has adopted as a standardthat the sec-
tion of siding or sheathing and lining shall be as shown in Fig. 282 ;
the Recommended Practice for the ends of the car, from the ﬂoor
to the underside of the carline, calling for planks 1% inches thick.
This inside lining of freight cars is nailed to the inside of the posts,
and in box cars ‘it extends only half way up the sides of the car
to the girths, being carried up to the carlines at the ends, as just
stated. We speak later of the modern steel car with outside steel
frame and the lining and sheathing combined in one; the frame
being left exposed, and the inside lining becoming inside sheathing.
This is shown for the M. C. B. standard type in Fig. 289. In
order to reduce the shrinkage of the side planks, this combined
lining and sheathing should be made narrower in width than usual.


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MM am
BOX CAR END DOOR.


. ‘ LP .
zROUNDED CORNERS OF noose ac. 0F STOCK CARS.


MASTER 6BR BUIIIDERS ASSOCIATION.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
FOR
BOX OAR END DOOR


ROUNDED CORNERS OF DOORS &C. OF STOCK OARS.
LINING FOR OUTSIDE FRAMED CARS.
AXLE FOR GENERATOR PULLEY.
new‘.
.\
LINING FOR OUTSIDE FRAMED CARS.
"
Fig. 289.

cites 371
Ordinarily, in this type of car, the material is used in 5%, inch
widths, but some roads use planks only 3%, inches wide, the lining
1% inches thick being connected to the members of the metal
framework by %-inch carriage bolts. The lower side board is
cut in 1/5 inch at the ﬂoor level to allow the ﬂoor planks to pass
under the edge. At the ends of the car, the ﬂoor board is gained
1/2 inch to allow the lower end lining‘ board to ﬁtbelow the ﬂoor
level, thus insuring a tight ﬁt.


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Fig. 290.
Box Car End Door.
The End Door is a- small door _at the end of a freight car
located from half way up to the roof. The M. C. B. Recommended
Practices for box car end doors and end door ﬁxtures are shown
in Fig. 289. In some kinds of automobile cars, one end of the car
is arranged in the form of a double swinging door. There is no
ﬁxed rule for the location of end doors, though they are
generally placed in the center between the posts and above the
girth. Their usual construction and method of suspension are
seen in Fig. 290.
Ordinarily, the construction of the end door is about the same
as that of the side door, but on a smaller scale; and what is said
37 2 CARS
herein as to side doors applies with almost equal force to the
end door. If the end door is locked from the inside, a pin and
bracket are used; if on the outside, a hasp and staple with proper
provision for sealing.
Formerly, such end~ doors were common, being especially em-
ployed for loading lumber, etc., but each year fewer new cars
with end doors are being built. , At present, those so built are, in
some cases, quite small—'24 inches or so—being often hinged and
hung from above or below, besides the kind that slides on metal
strips. In some cars, end doors are located near the top of the
car; others have two small end doors, one near the roof, the other
near the ﬂoor. Ventilator cars, besides having side ventilator doors
(in addition to regular side doors), also often have sliding end
doors, half or more of which is made up of slatted openings. In
modern cars, end doors are of very substantial nature and cannot
be entered or pilfered, which has always been one of the draw-
backs to this door. Further, yard clerks in obtaining accurate
seal records of end doors, ran great risk of personal injury on
account of the inconvenient location of these doors. Cars were .
pilfered, and claims paid on account of no end-door seal record,
in many instances on our roads.‘ New cars are, therefore, being
built without end doors, especially the all-steel cars and those
with steel /ends, in both of .which end doors- are rarely put in.
If put in, with such cars,- they are very small and are hinged.
Many. roads are permanently‘ fastening them in place, on most of
their old cars, leaving end doors operative only on short box cars.
This indicates that with the’ advent of the 40-foot box car, the end
door will gradually disappear. 3
For the above reasons, the M. C. B. committee on this subject
has suggested, the following recommendations, in view of the fact
that there ‘sometimes are .special lengths or designed pieces of
lumber that cannot go in the side door, and hence have to go in
through the end door:—
(a) End doors used for loading lumber in box cars are essen-
tial only on roads having long lumber loading in box cars as
an essential feature of traffic. (b) End doors must be so con-
structed that when closed they lock automatically, by means of a
lock accessible only-:from the inside of the car, thus avoiding the
CARS 373
necessity of taking seal records. (c) Seal appliances now in use,
and not accessible from the ground or from end ladders, should
be revised to be so accessible to promote the safety of employees.
This, however, is hardly possible, as regards locking end doors
automatically on the inside, for the large class of ventilator cars
used for hauling fruit and vegetables must necessarily have ven-
tilator doors at both top and bottom, being provided with means
for closing the solid door and alsofor applying the seals when the
end door is closed. During the winter such perishable products
coming from the south must have end doors open for ventilation,
while on reaching the cold north, said doors must be closed‘ and
the car made as frost-proof as possible. Still, ventilators should be
put in ends in such a manner that no one can enter the car; and,
all the recent cars built have the end doors put in solidly so that
they cannot be removed. They also mostly have inside locks,
which is the best way to close such doors and keep them in shape.
With many automobile cars, it is impossible to seal the end doors;
some of them have double doors, which, when used as automobile
ears, open out, while an inside door (which can convert the car
into a grain car) is closed. In fact, no general rule can be laid
down in this matter, to cover all possible cases.
The important detail of the End Construction of freight cars
was largely neglected in the past, until investigations of box
car repairs led to a realization of the ever-increasing damage to
box car ends with the attendant expense thereof. Weak end
construction gave trouble in three ways; it did not provide
adequate resistance to prevent the lading from bursting or bulging
out the ends under the severe shocks encountered in shifting the
cars or in rough service on the road; also, combined with other
poor construction, cracks and openings "developed, causing leakage
of grain and other commodities; and, lastly, great loss of revenue
ensued from such faulty cars being frequently laidoﬁ? from service
and put on repair tracks for end repairs. The standard con-
struction on box cars, until lately, was to use a light inside lining
and the standard outside sheathing fastened to the wooden end
and corner‘ posts, thus making the end only a very little stronger
than the sides of the car, to resist shifting loads and end shocks.
This was very hard on lumber, as it left only the posts to resist
present hard thrusts.
374 CARS
The great number . of cars with burst and bulged-out ends
proved that wooden ends without metal. reinforcement no longer
meet modern railroad demands. Metal ends and metal reinforce-
ments were accordingly tested and found to be much superior to
wooden ends. On one road, 65 per cent of its freight cars were
found unﬁt to transport grain, due to defective ends, even though
they had steel underframes. In many cases, the end of the car
appears tight and leakage-proof when the car is standing still,
but the vibrations during transit open up the cracks and allow the
grain to leak out, especially with the heavier equipment and longer
trains of today.
In practice, various methods are in vogue to strengthen car
ends. Some car men strengthen the corner posts and secure them
to the sides of the car, using 2%-inch lumber and carrying it up
4 feet in height, southat the inside lining would assist in resisting


Fig. 291.
Cleveland Pressed Steel End Tie Band for Box and Stock Cars.
Cleveland Car Specialty Company.
stresses. This materially strengthens the end, if the end is properly _
secured to'the sides of the car. On another road, the end is also
reinforced at the bottom of the lining for the full width of the
car by placing a 1,4-inch steel plate on the outside of the lining,
extending about 9 inches above the ﬂoor and riveted to the end
and corner posts. The lower edge of this plate is ﬂanged at the
bottom and is riveted to the end sill cover-plate. This not only
stiﬁens the ends but is an additional precaution against the leak-
age of grain at that point. Also, the end construction for new
cars, with two vertical 4-inch Z-bars and 1%-inch end lining satisﬁes
some other roads. Speaking generally, steel cars should have steel
plate ends.
Other cars are equipped with end stiﬁ’eners—reinforcing mem-
bers extending across the end of a freight car to prevent it from
bulging or breaking out. One such device is called an “end tie band,
a specimen of which is given in Fig. 291. This band has its ends
bent and fastened to the side of the‘ car, thus tying the end of the
car securely together.
CARS 375
The future practice seems to favor all-metal ends for box cars,
especially as some kinds of steel ends even now cost only $15.00
more than standard wooden ends, and last much longer. These
metal ends can be used either with or without wood lining; some
roads employing such lining to stop sweating when it rains,
especially if .grain is to be carried in the car. When using metal
ends without wood lining, the inside surface of the plates must
have no projections, such as bolt or rivet heads, as the I. O. 0.
Regulations prescribe that in a freight car used to carry dangerous
explosives, special care must be taken ‘ ‘to have no projecting nails
or bolts or exposed pieces of metal which may work loose or
produce holes in packages of explosives during transit,’ ’ The
design must be such that rivet heads will not project. If there is
to be no interior wood lining, and projection of the rivets cannot
be avoided, it would seem that the above regulations require a
special wood lining to be placed in the end of a car of this kind
at least as high as the lading reaches.
One railroad employs a 14-inch steel plate fastened to the end
sill and extending up under the sheathing; a heavier inside lining
than usual being used, and the sheathing bolted to the frame and
held by clamps. On another railway, it was discovered that 65
‘ per cent of the cars unﬁt for use in grain service had wooden
ends. Another road had _many cars with ends bulged out, the same
bad results occurring equally with cars of old and new design,
although they all had wooden ends, plainly indicating that such
ends as were used in the past and found adequate, are quite
unsuited for present railroad service. This last road reinforced
its wooden ends ' with the heaviest wooden construction, but still
found much diﬂ‘iculty with its ends, because of the damage caused
by shifting loads. Finally, after much experimenting, this road
adopted for its box cars the steel end shown in Fig. 292, which
proved so successful that it is now being used on both new equip-
ment and in rebuilding and strengthening old cars. vWhen applied
to a. wooden car, the lower edge of the end is ﬂanged and ﬁts
under the ﬂoor plank of the car, effectually preventing the leakage
of grain at the end. This road made some very severe tests with
box cars loaded with car wheels, and tried to destroy the cars. -
With the heavy reinforced wooden end cars-ends that cost only
$15.00 less than steel ends—the cars were practically destroyed;
376 (JARS


rm
while those equipped with steel ends, had simply to take off a
small section of the end, repair it, and quickly return the car to
service. This road is lining these steel-end cars with wood, to stop
sweating in case of rain.
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' Fig. 292.
Steel End for Freight Cars.
Concerning this type of steel end, its great strength, as com
pared to the wooden end, prevents damage to both the car and the
lading because of shifting loads and thus reduces the time the car
must be held out of service for repairs. The steel construction is
CARS ' 37'?
lighter than that of wood; the old style wooden end on a certain
class of New York Central cars weighed 1,863 pounds; a better
design of reinforced wooden epd weighed 1,790 pounds; and the
steel 'end for the same class of car weighs 1,607 pounds. No end
posts are used with the steel end and the inside length of the car
is thus increased by about one foot, with a corresponding increase
in the cubical contents of the car. There is no possibility of the
ends becoming loose and thus allowing grain or similar lading to
leak out, as is so often the case with the wooden construction.
If the end is seriously damaged it has a considerable value as scrap,
while the wooden end is valueless. '
The end is made in two parts to facilitate erection on the re-
pair tracks or where an overhead' crane ‘is not available. If de-
sirable the two parts may be riveted together in advance, if it
is desired to apply them at shops where there is a good crane
sefvice. The two-part end has the additional advantage of re-
duced expense for replacement if one-half should be seriously
damaged and need renewal. Since the lower half of the end is
usually subjected to the greater punishment due to shifting loads,
it is made slightly heavier than the upper half being IA inch thick,
as compared to 134; inch for the upper half. The reduction in
thickness of the upper half is estimated to save about 300 pounds
in the weight of the car. The lower half of the end is said to be
equivalent in strength to a ﬂat steel plate "/8 inch in thickness.
One railway in a recent order for 300 ﬁfty-foot furniture
cars and 500 forty-foot automobile cars—all of 40 tons capacity
with steel underframes—required all of them equipped with rein-
forced or steel ends, specifying the Van Dorn pressed steel freight
car end, which is seen in Fig. 293. This end is a heavy steel plate
corrugated into concentric rings, and it has proved very eﬁicient,
although some prefer the Murphy end. To meet the demands of
those desiring a two-piece end of this type, there is the two-piece
Van Dorn section steel end‘shown in Fig. 294. It is made of heavy
pressed steel, the two sections being riveted together along the
horizontal center line. The ends are further reinforced by tie rods
at the top, which are continuous throughout the car and pass
through both ends—a special patented feature of the Van Dorn
end.
378 CARS


Fig. 293.
Van Dorn One-Piece Steel End for Box Cars. Pyle-National Electric
Headlight Company.


Fig. 294.
Van Dorn Two-Piece Steel End for Box Cars. ‘Pyle-National
Electric Headlight Company.
CARS 379
In reinforcing wooden ends by means of the diagonal braces
mentioned in the above M. G. B. suggestions as to car .ends,
emphasis must be laid on the fact that the braces must not run
from the corners to the ridge but from the center sills to the side
plates each end of the braces being attached to the longitudinal
car members, either directly or through other members, by fasten-
ings suﬁcient'in strength to develop the full strength of the end.
The following is the Recommended Practice of the M. C. B.
Association for Box Car End Design and Strength:
New cars should have steel plate ends 14 inch thick, reinforced
between corner posts with the equivalent of either two vertical
steel braces with a total section modulus of not less than 9; or
one vertical and two diagonal steel braces with a total section
modulus of not less than 10; or three horizontal steel braces with
a total section modulus of not less than 10.
New cars may have the following alternative arrangement:
Three or more steel braces, two of which run diagonally, with a
total section modulus of not less than 12%, and wood lining 1%,
inches thick. '
To concentrate strength at a point near ﬂoor line on vertical
center line of car, diagonal braces should extend from the center
sills to the side plates, and not from the bottom corner to the
ridge.
The attachments for the braces and the members to which they
are attached must be sufﬁciently strong to realize the full strength
of the braces.
Hardwood or yellow pine may be considered equivalent to the
steel members, if the section‘ modulus is four times as great.
Wooden posts and braces should be set in metal pockets not less
than 1% inches deep, and must be held in place by adequate tie
rods. ,
Lining at car ends should be supported at intervals not greater
than 30 times the thickness.v
Two 4 by 3-inch Z-bars, 12.4 pounds per foot, have a total'
section modulus of 9.84.
Two 5-inch I-beams, 9.75 pounds per foot, have a total section
modulus of 9.6.
Three 4-inch I-beams, 9.5 pounds per foot, have a total section
modulus of 10.2.
380
CARS
Three 3-inch Z-bars, 14.2 pounds per foot, have a total section
modulus of 10.3.
Type of ends similar to Van Dorn ends, made of 1;5,-inch plate,
or Murphy ends, with the lower half made of 174-13611 corrugated
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Fig. 295.
Box Car Door—Batten.
,~ plate, ‘and the upper half with fag-111C111 corrugated plate, may be
substituted for those described.
The simplest and most commonly used form of door (Plate I,_
92) is the “batten” door. Its construction is not complicated
which has probably been the reason for its general use. The
boards of which it is made are similar to those used for the siding
CARS ' 381
of the car. These are clinch nailed to three or more battens as
indicated in the illustration, Fig. 295.
Another form of construction sometimes used is the framed
door which consists of a hardwood frame to which a panel of
sheathing is applied as indicated in the illustration, Fig. 296.
This construction, however, is very expensive and is not used to
any great extent. The rails are subject to rotting out on account
of the water which is caught on them as it runs off from the
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Fig. 296.
Box Car Door—Framed.
panels. A better construction of framed door and one more in
general use is shown in Plate 1. In this the panel of sheathing
completely covers the rails (Plate I, Nos. 94, 95 and 96) and is
made ﬂush with the stiles (Plate I, 93). This door will shed
the rain freely and there are no places for it to lodge and cause
decay.
The material used for the frame is usually ash rather than oak,
because it is less liable to distortion, a trouble which seriously
interferes with the working of car doors. The stiles and rails are
secured to each other by mortises and tenons or by gaining, either
382 . , CARS
form of construction being used as suits the particular ideas of the
designer. '
The framing and the boards composing the panel must be
securely fastened together preferably with screws.
In the suspension of doors it is necessary to so arrange the
details that there will be no chance for the rain to beat in around
them and thus damage the lading. If the style of hanging makes
a cap over the top of the door to act as a water-shed there is no
need of any further protection. However, if no shed is thus
provided a special cap or protecting covering has to be used.
This is noticeable in the details of the doors shown.
, Side doors are made to slide backwards and forwards for open-
ing and shutting, usually opening to the right. There are two
general methods of construction; ﬁrst supporting the door at the
bottom and second, suspending it from the top.
In the ﬁrst method the door slides by means of two cast-iron
grooved shoes secured to it by bolts with square or oval heads let
in ﬂush with the inside face of the door on a track which is a bar of
wrought iron usually 37/2 inch by 2 inch section. The groove of the
shoes should be ample in depth and width to prevent cramping if
the track be bent. The track is as long as the door is wide with
the width of the door opening added. It is blocked out from the
side of the car with cast-iron brackets bolted, the nuts of which
should be on the inside of the sill. The door is kept in place and
guided at the top by a cap which may be a hard wood strip
rabbeted to ﬁt over and hold the door. A more'ei'tﬁcacious and
stronger method is to use a strap of iron to lip over the door
which is a little lighter than that used for the track and support
it in place by a strip of lumber. Sometimes hooked hangers are
_ secured to the top of the door which lip over this guiding strap _
with the idea of providing an auxiliary means of support for the
door if the bottom rail or shoe should in any way become defective
or be lost. A space is left between the door and the cap to pro-
vide against bulging of the door caused by swelling of the lumber.
The door is usually prevented from running back off its track
by a stop of wood or cast iron (Plate I, No. 134) attached to the
side of the car. The. stop is fastened to the car by one or two
lag screws or bolts extending throu h the siding and into the girth
or into one of the posts or braces. The stop need not be used


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STANDARD BOX CAR OUTSIDE HUNG SIDE DOOR.
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Fig. 297.


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Fig. 298.
STANDARD BOX OAR FLUSH SIDE DOOR.


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CARS 383
if the end of the track is turned in and bolted to the car. A
closed door stop (Plate I, No. 97) is also provided to hold the
door in the correct position in front of the door opening. It is of
oak and is secured by bolts to the door post as shown. The sus-
pension illustrated in Fig. 295 shows the general scheme of sup-
porting doors from the bottom and guiding them at the top.
The second method of placing doors, viz., by supporting from
the top, may be described as follows: A track (Plate I, No.
177), is supported immediately above the door, cast-iron thimbles
at each bolt, or a strip of wood extending the length of the track,
being used. The hangers (Plate I, No. 125), are of malleable
or wrought iron, each fastened to the door with bolts. They are
at times made plain but more frequently are provided with
some form of cast or friction rollers, or sheaves, on which the door
rolls. The door is guided and kept in place by cast-iron brackets
(Plate I, No. 127). These may be arranged to allow the proper
clearance or an additional space may be allowed so that a wedge
may be inserted in a slot provided for that purpose when the
door is closed, thereby shutting it tighter. Sometimes a gravity
button of cast iron or wood faced with a wrought-iron plate is
hinged with a bolt or lag screw to each lower corner of the door.
This button will swing or can be forced into place when the door
is shut, accomplishing the same purpose as the wedge.
There are two kinds of freight car doors, classiﬁed regarding
their relative position to the side of the car; Outside-Hung Side
Doors and Flush~Side Doors. The M. C. B. Standard doors of these
two kinds are shown in Figs. 297 and 298.
_ The M. C. B; Recommended Practice for the rounded corners,
etc., of stock cars is illustrated in Fig. 289. Flush or inside doors
should always be absolutely ﬂush, in either their open or closed
positions. This type of door adapts itself to stock and refrigerator
cars as well as to other box cars. With it the car door cannot
be scraped oﬂ’, although it has the disadvantage of encroaching
on the loading space. Usually, car doors slide on the top door-
track, being then termed overhung doors; the underhung door being
one supported and sliding on a rail below the door.
A grain door is generally a close-ﬁtting movable door on the
inside of a box car, by which the lower part of the door opening is
closed when the car is loaded with grain, to prevent the latter from
384 - CARS ‘-
D
escaping. Such doors are usually so made that they can be thrown
over on one ‘side of the doorway or be suspended from the roof,
and thusbe out of the way when they are not in use. Very
few cars, however, are now ﬁtted with such doors, and ordinarily
a temporary arrangement is used which is nailed in place. Some-
times a burlap covering is used to prevent the grain leaking out
at the joints. What is called a grated door is one consisting of a
wooden frame with iron or wooden bars, used on cars for carry-
ing fruit, live stock, etc.
The weakest part of the box car superstructure has long been
the side door, designed for loading goods into a car or removing
them therefrom. Despite the many attempts made to improve
the general type, it was, as a rule, sadly neglected, and still is so
poorly constructed that its weak points have not yet been overcome '
and car door and door post failures remain so frequent as to
present a costly problem to railroads. The car door is to the car
what the link is to the chain, determining its value as a safe carrying
unit; and, as such unit, the car is no better than its doors'make it.
Also, no car door is better than itsfoundation, and no foundation
is better than its anchorage. A great part of the responsibility
for the heavy cost of maintenance is traceable to .low ‘car door
eﬂiciency, and that spells lost revenue, death or injury to employees,
and heavy damage claims on account of lost or spoiled lading.
Grain leakages, waste of- employees’ time, and cost of continual
door repairs, all show that the three essentials of car-door integrity,
ultimate economy, and safety are far from being obtained so far.
Doors get loose, hang by one corner, are easily pried open and
pilfered, swing out and side—swipe passing trains, tearing the
doors off and causing damage and injury to cars and passengers,
and frequently falling on the tracks and causing wrecks. For these
reasons, the best doors now have a chain at the bottom of the
door, the chain sliding on a metal rod, to prevent the door swing-
ing out too far from the side of the car, whether the door is open
or closed. _
The idea of cheapness has so far prevented the making of
substantial parts that would sustain the shocks and strains to which
a freight car door is constantly subjected. Yet a dollar saved in
ﬁrst cost often means $5- to $500 lost in the end; it may mean
a loss or damage claim exceeding the original cost of even the '7
CARS’ 385
whole car. Like all other cheap articles, the car door on which
two or three dollars has been saved, swells up the cost of repairs
enormously, later on. For example, although it would cost only
ﬁfty cents more per car to put on three hangers instead of two
yet false economy often still puts only two instead of the three
hangers recommended by the M. C. B. Association, thereby cans--
ing loss of both money and time, in the end. Here, as elsewhere,
the small additional expense is compensated by many advantages,
besides ultimate economy.
The inferior car door causes both direct and indirect losses to
railways that in many ways interfere with net earnings. The
cheap and poor car door falls oﬁ' or is destroyed in a way to put
a car out of service every 30 minutes in our country, as statistics
show. On 20 miles of track of one of our large terminals, 250
car doors fell oﬁ in 30 days, and this is by no means unusual
at other terminals. The loss from doors falling oif is merely a
small part of the expense incurred by using inferior car doors,
for damaged freight claims mount up into formidable sums. Carry-
ing grain in cars with such doors is often an expensive matter to rail-
roads. The records of one road showed that 20 to 28 per cent
of cars arriving leaking, was due to faulty doors. One railway
paid out in one year for grain lost in transit, $200,000, and taking
statistics as a guide, $40,000 of this was due to door or post
failures. Grain shippers say that $1,700,000 worth of grain is
‘annually lost in transit, of which $340,000 is due to low car door
eﬁ'iciency—all to save a few dollars on the door ’s ﬁrst cost. Another
railroad, through the same cause, lost on 125 miles of its road
$100,000 by freight car pilfering; yet every door was in place
and was counted safe at the loading sheds. And, as to this, the
real danger with 90 per cent of doors is not in their coming off,
but in their deceptive appearance and presumption of ‘ ‘ security.”
Poor car doors may mean, for instance, the degrading of
a car of hay entailing a selling loss to the shipper of several times
the cost of growing and shipping said hay; or a loss and damage
claim on valuable merchandise that would pay for the installation
of good doors on a hundred cars. Poor doors entail enforced car
idleness during periods of car shortages, meaning lost revenue
measured in terms of per diem value of a car, at the least; deten-
tion of merchandise shipments en route, due to necessary repairs;
386 ' CARS \
death or injury to employees through dislodged doors; reputation
'for poor service and loss of shippers’ patronage due to disgruntled
shippers, and waste of employees’ time through operating cars with
poor doors.
Good car doors should possess the following requisites: They
should the proof against rain, frost, air, moisture, cinders, and
dust, beside being safe from burglars; they should be economical
in ﬁrst cost and maintenance combined; and should not. only be
grain-proof but have an air-tight ﬁt if possible. They should
require very little clearance, if grain doors for elevators and for
platforms extending above the bottom of the car; and, in all box cars
should, when closed, wedge against the top, bottom and sides of the
car. Burglar-proof brackets should be furnished forth, and the
doors be ﬁt for installation in rebuilt cars. They ought to ‘be
easily operated, with the weight of the door supported by the
wheels thereof only. while the door is being operated. The doors
must open and close easily, without sticking or binding, under
all conditions; and it should not be necessary to use crowbars,
patent car-door starters, or like instruments to release the door
from its closed position, thus wasting much time of the employees
besides frequently damaging the door, car, or both, due to faulty
door 'design. The best type requires not over two minutes to
place the doors in position ready for loading grain, while ordinary '
grain doors require from one to two hours’ time to equip the car
ready for loading grain. In unloading grain cars, it should take
only about half a minute to open the door and have the grain-
ﬂowing into the receptacle; while the ordinary grain door wastes
5 to 15 minutes in so doing.
Double doors are necessary on automobile cars, but in general
both they and the old type grain doors should be eliminated on
grain cars. The new types are better, having auxiliary top doors
which avoid necessity for temporary grain doors, with their expense
for installation, ' burlapping, etc.; the grain sampler being thus
able to get samples by simply opening the top door without having
to open the main door. For this and other reasons, an increasing
number of this type of door is being introduced. Such. doors
are made of wood, metal, or of wood and metal combined, the
number of all-steel doors being on the increase. One of such steel
doors is shown in Fig. 299.
CARS 387
The type with auxiliary top door is seen in the Williams All-
Service Car Door, Fig. 300. This is a combined steel and wood
door. It is steel-hinged, each side having two parts, so arranged
that the door can swing in either direction, and capable of being
released when there is only a G‘inch space between elevator and
car side. The ﬂanged portion of the door sill prevents leakage and
makes it water-proof. The upper folding doors are 'made of
wood bound with iron straps, and fold up into the roof; the steel
portion of the door weighing 600 to 700 pounds. It can be re-


Fig. 299.
All-Steel Door for Box Car.
leased in 5 seconds, and replaced and closed in the same time;
thus allowing a car of grain to be unloaded in 25 minutes. This
car can also be used as an ordinary boi car.
The ordinary grain door, Plate I, No.-101, is really a continua‘
tion of the lining across the door opening, and is therefore of the
same height. There are many kinds in use, covered by patents;
but the diﬂiculty formerly was to devise a door that is both durable
and undetachable. Instead of using a collapsible grain door,
many roads still use only a cheap slab door which usually is
thrown aside when the car is unloaded, as they consider this
practice more economical than to attempt to apply and keep in
repair any form of permanent grain door.
The old style of grain door is seen in Fig. 301.
Other grain doors are shown in Figs. 302, 303 and 304.
An all-steel freight car door is depicted in Fig. 305. A two-
piece door for an automobile car is shown in Fig. 329.
. 388 CARS

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CARS 389
The Jones Car Door is displayed in Fig. 307.
The Rumsey door has pressed-steel posts, recessed and ﬁrmly
anchored at top and bottom, being held against lateral spread
by the resistance of anchor bolts that pass through the feet of
carlines. Another type has the door placed directly over the
opening, which it is forced to ﬁt by the side ﬂaps of the refrigerator
car door (Edman Car Door), thus insuring an air-tight ﬁt on all
sides of the door, and eliminating from grain cars the leakage of


Fig. 301.
Grain Door.
grain or entrance of water, the door posts of the refrigerator cars
being rabbeted with a rubber insulator. One of the Camel Doors
has a 10-foot opening, and is intended for automobile cars, being
double, with one part 4 feet and the other 6 feet in width. The
4-foot door is equipped with a movable post which has an auto-
matic locking device at the top and is substantially fastened at
the bottom when the door is in a closed position—the post wedging
between the side plate of the car and the sill, thus giving the
necessary support to the upper portion of the car.
Side Door Fastenings are a hasp (Plate I,’ No. 128) staple -
(Plate I, No. 130) and pin (Plate I, No. 129). These are made
in various forms either of cast, malleable or wrought iron. Care
should be taken that they are so securely attacked with bolts that
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CARS , 291


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Canale’s Patent Grain ‘Door.
392 - CARS

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McGuire’s Star Grain Door.
they cannot be removed when the door is closed. The pin is per-
forated near its point so that a wire or tin strip can be passed
through it for the purpose of sealing.
The fact that a perfectly satisfactory car door is so difﬁcult
to attain has led manufacturers to .make -a specialty of this par-
ticular part of a car. Doors must have suﬁicien-t fastenings, not
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Fig. 307.
Jones’ Car Book.
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CARS 393'
besides protecting them from being pilfered. The present wooden
doorstops put on without being reinforced—a little fastening
with only a single %-inch bolt to hold the hasp and a staple
fastened through a single doorstop that will easily split open-are
manifestly inadequate to either protect the lading or withstand
the shock of the application of the ordinary quick-action air-brake,

Fig. 308.
National Safety Car Door Fastener.
which tears out many door fastenings. If our doors are still
defective, the ordinary fastenings of said doors are worse, when
they can be opened with a stone by any thief who desires to plunder
the car of its lading. Not only the doors but their fastenings
must be made so substantial as to defy both thieves and weather.
All sorts of ‘car locks have been invented, but most of them and the
seals soon prove ineﬂicient because the door is not strong enough,
or the door shoes or hasps are so faultily designed that they can
be manipulated without leaving traces of robbery. When the car
can be tampered with in this way, leaving no trace'of its having
‘394 CARS
been entered, railroads are put to much needless expense in trying
to trace the shortage.
Designed to make the car burglar-proof are several types of
locks and fastenings such as the National Safety Car Fastener,
Fig. 308, where the safety lugs on the staple lie beneath the hasp
so that the hasp and staple cannot be separated unless turned at
right angles, which is impossible when the fasteners are locked

POSITION WHEN LOCKED.
Fig. 309.
Dayton Freight Car Door Lock. Dayton Malleable Iron Company.
and sealed. A good modern lock is 'the Dayton Freight Car Door
Lock, Fig.'309. An Automatic Car Door Lock is shown in Fig.
310.
In all freight car door locks, the nuts should be inside of
the car, and should be so secured as to withstand the severest
service shock without becoming loose or lost. There are various
devices by which this can be attained, and it should properly be
often inspected, to see that the lock and its attachments are in
the best of condition. Some looks, like the aforesaid Automatic,
has a rear lock to lock the door open, thus preventing damage
while traveling (empty while the front lock locks the door shut.
CARS 395

0 Fig. 310.
Automatic Car Door Lock. Railway Utility Company.
CHAPTER XI is
STANDARD SAFETY APPLIANCES FOR FREIGHT CARS
One of the most important and diﬂicult problems confronting
car men is the proper application, location, and maintenance in
correct condition, of safety appliances, to conform to the Federal
law as expressed in the orders of the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission, whose full powers to regulate and compel the use of such
devices are conferred by said law. The M. C. B. Association had
previously adopted standards as to certain of such appliances, but
in 1911 the United States Safety Appliance Standards, as contained
in the‘ order of the said I. C. C. dated March 13, 1911, were at once
adopted as Standards by the M. C. B. Association. This last
powerful association insists upon full and strict compliance with
these legal standards on the part of all railroads in the country be-
longing to it. The time limit set by the I. C. C. for the completion
of the equipping of all cars with these standard appliances expires
July 1, 1916; after which date failure of a railroad to have any
of its cars so equipped, subjects it to severe legal penalties. The
law applies to both freight and passenger cars, and to both old
and new cars alike.
There are over 250 different items on a freight car which may
constitute a violation of this law, and it requires careful study
to become acquainted with them all. Hence, car foremen, inspec-
tors, repairmen, etc., must know exactly what the law requires as
. to each part of a freight car. At each shop‘there should be one
or more inspectors specially educated as to this law and then
- detailed to instruct and check up those who are engaged in apply-
ing or repairing safety appliances. These instructors would be
under some ofﬁcial of the mechanical department of the road
especially well qualiﬁed and trained to follow up safety appliances,
and to act as ﬁnal authority on this subject for his company.
Applying properly these devices is not the only important part
of ‘the problem; each road must equally emphasize the absolute
396
CARS 397
necessity of maintaining all the details of cars which have once been
correctly equipped with the proper appliances. In any event, in
making partial repairs to cars which have not been so equipped,
it is good practice to make and locate these devices in accordance
with the law, which must be fully complied with. The wrong-
repairs proposition here is one of the biggest parts of the trouble,
due to both ignorance of the law and carelessness in complying
with its provisions as to details. Naturally, there is much variation
among car men in the manner of applying the safety appliances
to cars. One road, let a large number of one class of cars go out
for service with handholds two inches shorter than the law requires;
which will subject that road to severe ﬁnes, if detected by the
United States inspectors working under authority of the I. C. 0.
Similarly, as to what ought to be the clearance on a caboose car
grab-handle, opinions of car men still diifer as to whether or not
the hold at the middle of the handle should dip down and clear,
so that the hand can go around it. These and other differences
of opinion and car practice, as to just what the law demands,
exist not only between different railroads but even between the
government inspectors themselves, thereby causing much trouble.
.Many car men do not know yet just how the safety appliances are
to be put on cars to comply with the law.
The remedy for all this lies in the systematic education of car
men as regards this subject, so that cars will not leave shops or
the hands of repairmen with mistakes that constitute plain viola-
tions of the law. To this end, some roads are getting out illus-
trated pamphlets giving the law more or less fully, and sending
out special instructors to their shops. The roads are making every
effort to comply with the law, and in view of the great importance
of this matter to all car men, inspectors, etc., we here give full
data as to it, together with the M. C. B. plates illustrating the
number, dimensions, locations, and manner of application of these
safety appliances to all classes and kinds of freight cars in com-
mon use. These should be carefully studied and frequently con-
suited by all engaged in car building or repairing or inspecting
cars.
In 1911, M. C. B. designating marks for freight cars equipped
with U. S. Safety Appliances were adopted by that association
both for cars built prior to July 1, 1911, and those built after
398 ~ ‘CARS ‘
that date. These markings will be found herein in the chapter on
Stenciling Cars. '
The car parts covered by the law are as follows: Automatic
Coupler; Running Boards, Hand Brakes and Brake Steps; Ladders
and End Ladder Clearance; Automatic Uncoupling Attachments,
Sill Steps and Handholes. Of these last, there are several kinds
of handholds: Roof, Side and End, both vertical and horizontal,
for tank-cars, tank-head handholds, besides Safety Railings; while
for caboose cars, there are side-door, cupola, and end-platform hand-
holds, also platform steps and running boards.
Of these parts, we have already treated of the Automatic
Coupler; of the Standard Running-Board for box and other house
cars in Chapter X, and have described the Standard Hand Brake
and Brake Steps for box and‘ other house cars in Chapter IX,
the Standard Hand Brake being shown in Fig. 220, and the Standard
Brake Chain in Fig. 94. The last named ﬁgure also shows the
Standard Uncoupling Attachments. With these additions just
mentioned, the U. S. and M. C. B. Standard Appliances are as
follows: - _ ' >
Sill Steps—Four: Minimum cross-sectional area one-half by one
and one-half inches, or equivalent, of wrought iron or steel. Min;
imum length of tread, ten, preferably twelve inches. Minimum clear
depth, eight inches. One near each end on each side of car, so
that there shall be not more than eighteen inches from end of car
to center of tread of sill step. Outside edge of tread of step shall
be not more than four inches inside of face of side of car, prefer-
ably ﬂush with side of car. Tread shall be not more than twenty-
four, preferably not more than twenty-two inches above the top
of rail. Sill steps exceeding twenty-one inches in depth shall have
an additional tread. Sill steps shall be securely fastened with
' not less than one-half inch bolts with nuts outside (when possible)
and riveted over,'or with not less than one-half inch rivets.
Ladders—Four: 'Minimum clear length of tread s- Side ladders,
sixteen inches; end ladders, fourteen inches. Maximum spacing
‘ between ladder treads, nineteen inches.‘ Top ladder tread shall
be located not less than twelve nor more than eighteen inches from
roof at eaves. Spacing'at ladder treads shall be uniform, within
a limit of two inches from top ladder tread to top tread of sill
step. Hardwood treads, minimum dimensions one and one-half by
CARS 399
two inches. Iron or steel treads, minimum diameter ﬁve-eighths of
an inch. Minimum clearance of treads, two, preferably two and
one-half inches. One on each side, not more than eight inches
from right end of car; one on each end, not more than eight
inches from left side of car; measured from inside edge of ladder
stile or clearance of ladder treads to corner of car‘. Metal ladders
without stiles near corners _of cars shall have foot guards or
upward projections not less than two inches in height near inside
end of bottom treads. Stiles of wooden ladders will serve as foot
guards. Ladders shall be securely fastened with not less than
one-half inch bolts with nuts outside (when possible) and riveted
over, or with not less than one-half inch rivets. Three-'eighths inch
bolts may be used for wooden treads which are gained into stiles.
End-Ladder Clearance—No part of car above end sills within
thirty inches from side of car, except buﬂ’er block, brake shaft,
brake wheel, brake step, running board or uncoupling lever shall
extend to within twelve inches of a vertical plane parallel with
end of car and passing through the inside face of knuckle when
closed with coupler horn against the buffer block or end sill, and
no other part of end of car or ﬁxtures on same above end sills,
other than exceptions herein noted, shall extend beyond the outer
face of buffer block.
Roof HandhoZds—One over each ladder. One right-angle
han-dhold may take the place of two adjacent speciﬁed roof hand-
holds, provided the dimensions and locations coincide, and that
an extra leg is securely fastened to car at point of angle. Min-
imum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an inch, wrought iron or steel.
Minimum clear length, sixteen inches. Minimum clearance, two
preferably two and one-half inches. On roof of car: One in-line
with, and running parallel to, treads of each ladder, not less than
eight, nor more than ﬁfteen inches from edge of roof, except on
refrigerator cars where ice hatches prevent, when locations shall
not be less than four inches from edge of roof. Roof handholds
shall be securely fastened with not less than one-half inch bolts
‘with nuts outside (when possible) and riveted over, or with not
less than- one-half inch rivets.
Side Handholds_Four: [Tread of side ladder is a side hand-
hold.] Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an inch, wrought iron
or steel. Minimum clear length, sixteen inches. Minimum clear-
400 - , CARS '
ance, two, preferably two and one-half inches. Horizontal: One near
each end on each side of car. Side handholds shall be not less
than twenty-four nor more than thirty inches above center line of
coupler, except as provided above, where tread of ladder is a
handhold.‘ Clearance of outer end of handhold shall be not more
than eight inches from end of _ car. Side handholds shall be
securely fastened with not less than one-half inch bolts with nuts
outside (when possible) and riveted over, or with not less than
one-half inch rivets. '
Horizontal End Handholds—Eight or more. (Four on each end
of car.) _ [Tread of end ladder is an end handhold] Minimum
diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum
clear length, sixteen inches. A handhold fourteen inches in length
may be used where it is impossible to use one sixteen inches in
length on end sills. Minimum clearance, two, preferably two and
one-half inches. One near each side on each end of car, not less
than twenty-four nor more than thirty inches above center line of
‘ coupler, except as provided above, when tread of end ladder is an‘
end handhold. Clearance of outer end of handhold s all be not
more than eight inches from side of car. One near each side of
each end of car on face of end sill or sheathing over end sill,
projecting outward or downward. Clearance of outer end of hand-
hold shall not be more than sixteen inches from side of car.- On
each end of cars with platform end sills six or more inches in
width, measured from end post or siding and extending entirely
across end of car, there shall be one additional end handhold not
less than twenty-four inches in‘ length, located near center of car,
not less than thirty nor more than sixty inches above platform
end sill. Horizontal end handholds shall be securely fastened with
not less than one-half inch bolts with nuts outside (when possible)
and riveted over, or with not less than one-half inch rivets.
Vertical End Handholds—Two on full-width platform end-sill
cars, as heretofore described. Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of
an inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clear length, eighteen, .
preferably twenty-four inches. Minimum clearance, two, prefer-
ably two and one-half inches. One on each end of car opposite
ladder, not more than eight inches from ‘side of car; clearance
of bottom end of handhold shall be not less than twenty-four nor
more than thirty inches above center line of coupler. Vertical
, CARS ' 401
end handholds shall be securely fastened with not less than one-
half inch bolts with nuts outside (when possible) and riveted over,
or with not less than one-half inch rivets.
Uncoupling Levers—Two: Uncoupling levers may 'be either
single or double, and of any eﬂicient design. Handles of uncoups
ling levers, except those shown in Fig. 101, or of similar designs,
shall be not more than six inches from sides of car. ‘Uncoupling
levers of design shown, v'Fig. 101, and of similar designs shall
conform to the following prescribed limits: Handles shall be not
more than twelve, preferably, nine inches from sides of cars.
Center lift arms shall be not less than seven inches long. Center
of eye at end of center lift arm shall be not more than three
and one-half inches beyond center of eye of uncoupling pin of
coupler when horn of coupler is against the buffer block or end sill.
Ends of handles shall extend not less than four inches below bottom
' of end sill, or shall be so constructed as to give a minimum clear-
ance of two inches around handle. Minimum drop of handles shall
be twelve inches; maximum, ﬁfteen inches over all. ‘ Handles of
uncoupling levers of the “rocking” or “push-down” type shall
be not less than eighteen inches from top of rail when lock block
has released knuckle, and a suitable stop shall be provided to pre-
vent inside arm from ﬂying up in case of breakage. One on each
end of car. When single lever is used it shall be placed on left
side. of end of car.
HOPPER CARS AND HIGH-SIDE GONDOLAS WITH
FIXED ENDS
Hand Brakes—Number: same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.” Dimensions: same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.” Each hand brake shall be so located that it can be
safely operated while car is in motion. The brake shall be located
on end of car to the left of, and not more than twenty-two inches
from center. Application: same as speciﬁed for ‘ ‘Box and other
house cars.’ ’
Brake Step—Same as speciﬁed for ‘ ‘Box and other house cars. ’ ’
Sill Steps—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars. ’ ’
Ladders—Number: same as speciﬁed for ‘ ‘Box and other house
cars.” Dimensions: same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars,” except that top ladder’ tread shall be located not more than
402 (JARS
four inches from top of car. Location: same as speciﬁed for “Box
and other house cars.” Application: same as speciﬁed for “Box
and other house cars.”
Side Handholds-Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.’ ’ Horizontal End Han-dholds—Same as speciﬁed for “Box
and other house cars.” Vevzttcal End Handholds—Same as spec-
iﬁed for “Box and other house cars.’ ’ Uri-coupling Levers—Same
as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.’ ’
End Ladder Clearance—No part of car above end sills within
thirty inches from side of car, except buffer block, brake shaft,
brake wheel, brake step or uncoupling lever shall extend to within
twelve inches of a vertical plane parallel with end of car and pass-4
ing through the inside face of knuckle when closed with coupler
horn against the buifer block or end sill, and no other part of end
of car or ﬁxtures on same above end sills, other than exceptions
herein noted, shall extend beyond the outer face of buffer block.
DROP-END HIGH-SIDE GONDOLA CARS
Hand Brakes—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.’ ’ Each hand brake shall be so located that it can be safely
operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft shall be located
on end of car to the left of center- Applied, same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other. house cars.”
Sill Steps—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.’ ’
Ladders—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars,”
except that top ladder tread shall be located not more than four
inches from top of car. One on each side, not more than eight
inches from right end of car, measured from inside edge of ladder
stile or clearance of ladder treads to corner of car. Application,
same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars. ’ ’
Side Handholds—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.’ ’ '
Horizontal End H andholds-Four: Dimensions, same as spec-
iﬁed for “Box and other house cars.” One near each side of
‘each end of car on face of end sill. Clearance of outer end of
handhold shall be not more than sixteen inches from side of car.
Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars. ’ ’
CARS 403
Uncoupling Levers—Same as speciﬁed for ‘tBox and other
house cars.”
End Ladder Clearance—No part of car above end sills within
thirty inches from side of car, except buﬁt‘er block, brake shaft,
brake wheel or uncoupling lever, shall extend to within twelve inches
of a vertical plane parallel with end of car and passing through
the inside face of knuckle when closed with coupler horn against the
buffer block or end sill, and no other part of end of car or ﬁxtures
on same, other than exceptions herein noted, shall extend beyond
the outer face of buﬁer block.
FIXED-END LOW-SIDE GONDO'LA AND LOW-SIDE HOP-
PER CARS \}
[Cars with sides thirty-six inches or less above the ﬂoor are
low-side cars.]
Hand Brakes—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.’ ’ Each hand brake shall be so located that it can be safely
operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft shall be located
on end of car, to the left of and not more than twenty-two inches
from center. Application, same as speciﬁed for ‘ ‘ Box and other
house cars. ’ ’ ‘
Brake Step—Same as speciﬁed for ‘ ‘Box and other house cars. ”
Sill Steps—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.’ ’
Side Handholds—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars. ” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars. ’ ’ Horizontal: One near each end on each side of car, not
less than twenty-four nor more than thirty inches above center
line of coupler, if car construction will permit, but handhold shall
not project above top of side. Clearance of outer end of hand-
hold shall‘ not be more than eight inches from end of car. Appli-
‘ cation, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Horizontal End Handholds—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars.” One near each side on each end of car not less
than twenty-_four nor more than thirty inches above center line
of coupler, if car construction will permit. Clearance of outer
end of handhold shall be not more than eight inches from side of
car. One near each side of each end of car on face of end sill,
404 CARS »
Q
projecting outward or downward. Clearance of outer end of hand-
hold shall be not more than sixteen inches from side of car. Appli-
cation, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Uncoupling Levers—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars. ’ ’ .
End-Ladder Clearance-No part of car above end sills within
thirty inches from side of car, except buﬁer block, brake shaft,
brake wheel or uncoupling lever, shall extend to within twelve
inches of a. vertical plane parallel with end of car and passing
through the inside face of knuckle when closed with coupler‘ horn
against the buﬁer block or end sill, and no ‘other part of end of
car or ﬁxtures on same, other than exceptions herein noted, shall
extepd beyond the outer face of buﬁer block.
DROP END LOW-SIDE GONDOLA CARS
Hand Brakes—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Each hand brake shall be so located that it can be safely
operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft shall be located
on end of car to the left of center. Applied, same as‘ speciﬁed
for “Box and other house cars”,
Sill Steps—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.’ ’
Side Handholds—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Horizontal: One near each end on each side of car, not
less-than twenty-four nor more than thirty inches above center line
of coupler, if car construction will permit, but handholdv shall
not project above top of side. Clearance of outer end of hand-
hold shall be not more than eight inches from end of car. ‘Appli-
cation, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
End Handholds—Four: Dimensions, same as ' speciﬁed for
“Box and other house cars.” Horizontal: One near each side
of each end of car on face of end sill. Clearance of outer end of
handhold shall be notmore thansixteen inches from side of car.
Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Uncoupling Levers—Same as speciﬁed for “Box. and other
‘house cars. ’ ’
End-Ladder Clearance—No part of car above end sills within
thirty inches from side of car, except buffer block, brake shaft,
CARS 405
brake wheel or uncoupling lever, shall extend to within twelve
inches of a vertical plane parallel with end of car and passing
through the inside face of knuckle when closed with coupler horn
against the buﬁer block or end sill, and no other part of end of
car or ﬁxtures on same, other than exceptions herein noted, shall
extend beyond the outer face of buffer block.
FLAT CARS
[Cars with side twelve inches or less above the ﬂoor may be
equipped the same as ﬂat cars. -
Hand Brakes—same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Each hand brake shall be so located that it can be’ safely
operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft shall be located
on the end of car to the left of center. Application, same as
speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars. ”
Sill Steps-Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.’ ’
Side Handholds—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.’ ’ Horizontal: One on face of each side sill near each end.
Clearance of outer end of handhold shall be not more than twelve
inches from end of car. Application, same as speciﬁed for f‘Box“
and other house cars.” -
End HandhoZds—Four: Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other house cars.” Horizontal: One near each side
of each end of car on face of end sill. Clearance of outer end
of handhold shall be not more than sixteen inches from side of car.
Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.’ ’
Uncoupling Levers—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.”
TANK CARS WITH SIDE PLATFORMS
Hand Brakes—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars.” Each hand brake shall be so located that it can be safely
operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft shall be located
on end of car to the left of center. Applied, same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other house cars.”
406 _ CARS
Sill Steps—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.’ ’
Side Handholds—Four or more. Dimensions, same as speciﬁed
for “Box and other house cars.” Horizontal: One on face of
each side sill near each end. Clearance of outer end of handhold
shall be not more than twelve inches from end of car. If side
safety railings are attached to tank bands, four additional vertical
handholds shall be applied, one over each sill step and securely
fastened to tank or tank bands. Application, same as speciﬁed
for “Box and other house cars.” ‘ ‘
\ End Handholds—Four: Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for
"‘Box and ‘other house cars.” Horizontal: One near each side
of each end of car on face of end sill. " Clearance of outer end of
handhold shall be not more than sixteen inches from side of ‘car.
Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Tank-Head Handholds—Two: [Not required if safety railing
runs around ends of tanla] Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an
inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clearance, two, preferably
two and one-half inches. Clear length of handholds shall extend
to within six inches of outer diameter of tank at point of applica-
tion. Horizontal: One across each head of tank, not less .than
thirty nor more than sixty inches above platform. Tank-head
handholds shall be securely fastened.
‘Safety Railings—One continuous safety railing running around
‘sides and ends of tank, securely fastened to tank or tank bands at
ends and sides of tank; or two running full length of tank
at sides of car supported by posts. Not less than three-fourths
of an inch, iron. Running full length of tank, either at side sup-
ported by posts or securely fastened to tank or tank bands, not
less than thirty nor more than sixty inches above platform. Safety
railings shall be securely fastened to tank body, tank bands or
posts.
Uncoupling Lever—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars. ’ ’ _ V
End-Ladder Clearance—No part of canabove end sills within
thirty inches from side of car, except buffer block, brake shaft,
brake-shaft brackets, brake wheel or uncoupling lever, shall extend
to within twelve inches of a vertical plane parallel with end of
car and passing through the inside face of knuckle when closed
with coupler horn against the buﬂ’er block or end sill, and no
CARS 407
other part of end of car or ﬁxtures on same above end sills, other
than exceptions herein noted, shall extend beyond the outer face
of buffer block.
TANK CARS WITHOUT SIDE SILLS AND TANK CARS
WITH SHORT SIDE SILLS AND END PLATFORMS
Hand Brakes—N umber, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.” Each hand brake shall be so located that it can
be safely operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft shall
be located on end of car'to the left of center. Applied, same as
speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Running Boards—One continuous running board around sides
and ends; or two running full length of tank, one on each side.
Minimum width on sides, ten inches.~ Minimum width on ends,
six inches. Continuous around sides and ends of cars. On tank
cars having end platforms extending to bolsters, running boards
shall extend from center to center of bolsters, one on each side.-
If side running boards are applied below center of tank, outside
edge of running boards shall extend not less than seven inches
beyond bulge of tank. The running boards at ends of car shall
be not less than six inches from a point vertically above the inside
face of knuckle when closed with coupler horn against the buffer
block, end sill or backstop. Running boards shall be securely
fastened to tank or tank bands.
Sill Steps—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
One near each end on each side under side handhold. Outside
edge of tread of step shall be not more than four inches inside of '
face of side of car, preferably ﬂush with side of car. Tread shall
be not more than twenty-four, preferably not more than twenty-
two inches above the top/of rail. Application: same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other‘; house cars.”
Ladders—[I f running boards are so located as to make ladders
necessary.] Two on cars with continuous running boards. Four
on cars with side running boards. Minimum clear length of tread,
ten inches. Maximum spacing of treads, nineteen inches. Hard-
wood treads, minimum dimensions one and one-half by two inches.
Wrought-iron or steel treads, minimum diameter ﬁve—eighths
408 CARS
of an inch. Minimum clearance, two, preferably two and one-
half inches. On cars with continuous running boards, one at right
end of each side. On cars with side running boards, one at each
end of each running board. Ladders shall be securely fastened with
not less than one-half inch bolts or rivets. ,
Side Handh0lds_Four or more. Dimensions, same as speciﬁed
for “Box and other house cars.” Horizontal: One on face of
each side sill near each end on- tank cars with short side sills, or
one attached to top of running board projecting outward above
sill steps or ladders on tank cars without side sills. Clearance
of outer end of handhold shall be not more than twelve inches from
end of car. If side safety railings are attached to tank or tank
bands, four additional vertical handholds shall be applied, one
over each sill step and securely fastened to tank or tank bands.
Application: same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
End Handholds—Four: Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other house cars.” Horizontal: One near each side
of each‘ end of car on face of end sill. Clearance of outer end of
handhold shall be not more than sixteen inches from side- of car.
Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.’ ’
Tank~Head Handholds—Two: [N at required if safety railing
runs around ends of tanla] Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an
inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clearance, two, preferably
two and one-half inches. Horizontal: One across each head of
tank, not less than thirty nor more‘ than sixty inches above plat-
form on running board. Clear length of handholds shall extend
to within six inches of outer diameter of tank at point of applica-
tion. Tank head handholds shall be securely fastened.
Safety Railings—One running around sides and ends of tank,
or two running full length of tank. Minimum diameter, seven-
eighths of an inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clearance, two
and one-half inches. Running full length of tank, not less than
thirty nor more than sixty inches above platform orirunning board.
Safety railings shall be securely fastened to tank or tank bands
and secured against end-shifting. " V
I Uncoupling Levers—Same as speciﬁed for ‘ ‘Box and other house
cars.’ ’
End-Ladder Clearance—No part of car above end sills within
thirty inches from side of car, except buffer block, brake shaft,
\
CARS 409
brake-shaft brackets, brake wheel, running boards or uncoupling
lever, shall extend to within twelve inches of a vertical plane
parallel with end of car and passing through the inside face of
knuckle when closed with coupler horn against the buffer block
or end sill, and no other part of end of car or ﬁxtures on same,
above end sills, other than exceptions herein noted, shall extend
beyond the outer face of buﬁer block.
TANK CARS WITHOUT END SILLS
Hand Brakes—Number, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.” Each hand brake shall be so located that it can be
safely operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft shall be
located on end of car to the left of center. Application, same as
speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Brake Step-Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house
cars. ’ ’
Running Boards—One: Dimensions, Minimum width on sides,
ten inches. Minimum width on ends, six inches. Continuous
around sides and ends of tank. If running boards are applied
below center of tank, outside edge of running boards shall extend
not less than seven inches beyond bulge of tank. Running boards
at ends of car shall be not less than six inches from a point
vertically above the inside face of knuckle when closed with coupler
horn against the buffer block, end sill or backstop. Running board
shall be securely fastened to tank or tank bands. .
Sill Steps—Four: [If tank has high running boards, making
ladders necessary, sill steps must meet ladder requirements]
Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
One near each end on each side, ﬂush with outside edge of running
board, as near end of car as practicable. Tread not more than
twenty-four, preferably not more than twenty-two inches above
the top of rail. Steps exceeding eighteen inches in depth shall have
an additional tread and be laterally braced. Sill steps shall be
securely fastened with not less than one-half inch bolts with nuts out-
side (when possible) and riveted over, or with one—half inch rivets.
Side HandhoZds-eFour or more: Dimensions, same as speciﬁed
for “Box and other house cars.” Horizontal: "One near each
410 CARS
end on each side of car over sill step on- running board,‘ projecting
downward not more than two inches from outside edge of running
board. Where such side handholds are more than eighteen inches
from end of car, an additional handhold must be placed near each
end on each side not more than thirty inches above center line of
coupler. Clearance of outer end of handhold shall be not more
than twelve inches from end of car. If safety railings are on
tank, four additional vertical handholds shall be applied, one over
each sill step on tank. Application, same as speciﬁed for ‘ ‘ Box and
other house cars. ’ ’
End Handholds—Four: Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other house cars.” Horizontal: One near each side
on each end of car on running board, projecting downward not
more than two inches from edge of running board, or on end of
tank not more than thirty inches above center line of coupler.
Applicatiom'same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Safety Railings—One: Minimum diameter, seven-eighths of
an inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clearance, two and one-
half inches. Safety railings shall be continuous around sides and
ends of car, not less than thirty nor more than sixty inches above
running board. Safety railings shall be securely fastened to tank
or tank bands, and secured against end-shifting.
Uncoupling Levers—Number, same as‘ speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars,” except that minimum length of uncoupling lever
shall be forty-two inches, measured from center line of end of car
to handle of lever. Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars,” except that uncoupling lever shall be not more
' than thirty inches above center line of coupler. _
End-Ladder Clearance—No part of car above buﬁer block
within thirty inches from side of car, except brake shaft, brake-
shaft brackets, brake wheel or uncoupling lever, shall extend to
within twelve inches of a vertical plane parallel with end of car
and passing through the inside face of knuckle when closed with '
coupler horn against the buffer block or backstop, and no other
part of end of car or ﬁxtures on same, above buffer block, other
than exceptions herein noted, shall extend beyond the face of
buffer block.
CARS 411
CABOOSE CARS WITH PLATFORMS
Hand Brakes—Each caboose car shall be equipped with an
eﬁicient hand brake which shall operate in harmony with the power
brake thereon. The hand brake may be of an eﬂicient design,
but must provide the same degree of safety as the design shown,
Fig. 220. Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.” Each hand brake shall be so located that it can
be safely operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft on
caboose cars with platforms shall be located on platform to the
left of center. Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.”
Running Boards-One longitudinal running board. Dimensions,
same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.” Full length
of car, center of roof. ' [0n caboose cars with cupolas, longitudinal
running boards shall extend from cupola to ends of roof.] Outside
metal-roof cars shall have longitudinal extensions leading to ladder
' locations. Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.”
Ladders—Two: Dimensions, none speciﬁed. .One on- each end.
Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Roof Handholds—One over each ladder. Where stiles of lad-
ders extend twelve inches or more above roof, no other roof hand-
holds are required. Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars.” On roof of caboose, in line with and running
parallel to treads of ladder, not less than eight nor more than
ﬁfteen inches from edge of roof. Application, same as speciﬁed
for “Box and other house cars.”
Cupola Handholds—One or more. Minimum diameter, ﬁve-
eighths of an inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clearance,
two, preferably two and one-half inches. One continuous hand~
hold extending around top of cupola, not more than three inches
from edge of cupola roof. Four right-angle handholds, one at
each corner, not less than sixteen inches in clear length from
point of angle, may take the place of the one continuous hand-
hold speciﬁed, if locations coincide. Cupola handholds shall be
securely fastened with not less than one-half inch bolts with nuts
outside and riveted over, or with not less than one-half inch rivets.
Side Handholds—Four: Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an
inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clear length, thirty-six
\
412 GAR/S’
inches. Minimum clearance, two, preferably two and one-half
inches. One near each end on each side of car, curving downward
toward center of car from a point not less than thirty inches above
platform to a point not more than eight inches from bottom
of car. Top end of handhold shall be not more than eight inches
from outside face of end sheathing. Application, same as speciﬁed
for “Box and other house cars.”
End HandhoZds—Four: Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for
‘ ‘Box and other house cars. Horizontal: One near each side
on each end of car on face of platform end sill. Clearance of
outer end of handhold shall be not more than sixteen inches from
end of platform end sill. Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box
and other house cars.”
End Platform Handholds—Four: Minimum diameter, ﬁve-
eighths of an‘ inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clearance, two,
preferably two and one-half inches. One right-angle handhold on
each side of each end, extending horizontally from door post to
corner of car at approximate height of platform rail, then down-
ward to within twelve inches-of bottom of car. Handholds shall
‘ be securely fastened with bolts, screws or rivets.
Caboose-Platform Steps—Safe and suitable box steps leading
to caboose platforms shall be provided at each corner of caboose.
Lower tread of step shall be not more than twenty-four inches
above top of rail. .
Uncoupling Levers—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.”
CABOOSE CARS WITHOUT PLATFORMS
Hand Brakes-Number, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.’ ’ Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house cars.’ ’ Each hand brake shall be so located that it can be
‘safely operated while car is in motion. The brake shaft on caboose
cars without platforms shall be located on end of car to the left
of center. Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other
house. cars.’ "
Brake Step—Same as speciﬁed for ‘ ‘Box and other house cars. ’ ’
Banning Boards—Number, same "as speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars. ’ ’ Full length of car, center of roof. [On caboose
cars with cupolas, longitudinal running boards shall extend from
D
CARS 413
cupola to ends of roof.] Outside metal-roof cars shall have lat-
itudinal extensions leading to ladder locations. Application, same
as speciﬁedfor ‘ ‘Box and other house cars.”
Sill Steps—Same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars. ’ ’
Side-Door Steps—Two: [if caboose has side doom] Minimum
length, ﬁve feet. Minimum width, six inches. Minimum thick-
ness of tread, one and one-half inches. Minimum height of back-
stop, three inches. Maximum height from top of rail to top of
tread, twenty-four inches. One under each side door. Side-door
steps shall be supported by two iron brackets having a minimum
cross-sectional area seven-eighths by three inches or equivalent,
each of which shall be securely fastened to car by not less than
two three-fourths inch bolts.
Ladders—Four: Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars.” Location, same as speciﬁed for “Box and
other house cars,” except when caboose has side doors, then side
ladders shall be located not more than eight inches from doors.
Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
End-Ladder Clearance—No part of car above end sills within
thirty inches from side of car, except buffer block, brake shaft,
brake wheel, brake step, running board or uncoupling lever, shall
extend to within twelve inches of a vertical plane parallel with
end of car and passing through the inside face of knuckle when
closed with coupler horn against the buffer block or end sill, and
no other part of end of car or ﬁxtures on same above end sills, other
than exceptions herein noted, shall extend beyond the outer face
of buffer block.
Roof Handholds—Four: Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other house cars.’.’ One over each ladder, on roof in
line with and running parallel to treads of ladder, not less than
eight nor more than ﬁfteen inches from edge of roof. Where
stiles of ladders extend twelve inches or more above roof, no other
roof handholds are required. Roof handholds shall be securely
fastened with not less than one-half inch bolts with nuts outside
(when possible) and riveted over, or with not less than one-half
inch rivets. '
Cupola Handholds—One or more. Minimum diameter, ﬁve-
eighths of an inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clearance,
two, preferably two and one-half inches. One continuous cupola
414 CARS
handhold extending around top of cupola, not more than three
inches from edge of cupola roof. Four right-angle handholds, one
at each corner, not less than sixteen inches in clear length from
point of angle, may take the place of the one continuous handhold
speciﬁed, if locations coincide. Cupola handhold shall be securely
fastened with not less than one-half inch bolts with nuts outside
and riveted over, or with not less than one-half inch rivets.
Side Handholds-_Four: Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other house cars.’ ’ Horizontal: One near each end on
each side of car,_not less than twenty~four nor more than thirty
inches above center line of coupler. Clearance of outer end ‘of
handhold shall be not more than eight inches from end ‘of car.
Application, same as speciﬁed for “Box and other house cars.”
Side-Door Handholds—Four: Two curved, two straight. Min-
imum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an inch, wrought iron or steel.
Minimum clearance, two, preferably two and one-half inches.
One curved handhold, from a point at side of each door opposite
ladder, not less than thirty-six inches above bottom of car, curving
away from door downward to a point not more than six inches
above bottom of car. One vertical handhold at ladder side of each
door, from a point not less than thirty~six inches above bottom of
car to a point not more than six inches above level of bottom of '
door. Side~door handholds shall be securely fastened with not
less than one-half inch bolts with nuts outside (when possible)
and riveted over, or with not less than one-half inch rivets.
Horizontal End Handholds—Number, same as speciﬁed for -
“Box and other house cars.” Dimensions, same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other house cars.” Location, same as speciﬁed for
“Box and other house cars,” except that one additional end hand-
hold shall be on each end of cars with platform end sills as here-
tofore described, unless car has door in center of end. Said hand~
hold shall be not less than twenty-four inches in length, located
near center of car, not less than thirty nor more than sixty inches
above platform end sill. Application, same as speciﬁed for "‘Box
and other house cars.’ ’
Vertical End Handholds—Same as speciﬁed for ‘ ‘ Box and other
house cars. ’ ’ .
Uncoupli/ng Levers—Same as speciﬁed for ,“Box and other
house cars. ’ ’
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MASTER CAR BUIIIDERS’ASSOGIATION.

CARS 415
SPECIAL RULINGS OF THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE
COMMISSION


1. Gondola and ballast cars with swinging side doors at lad-
der locations may be considered as cars of special construction.
Ladders and handholds need not be applied to swinging side
doors. A side vertical handhold shall be placed on corner post
, of such ears, as nearly as possible over sill step.
2. High-side gondolas and ballast cars with end platforms
18 inches or more in length may be considered as cars of special
construction. Ladders should be placed on such cars as prescribed
for high-side gondolas and hopper cars, with sill step under ladder,
\ or as near under ladder as car construction will permit.
1 3. Ladders, etc.; The spacing of top ladders shall be taken
“ from cave of roof at side of car, whether longitudinal running
1, board is used or not.
4. Box and other house cars, automobile cars with swinging-
‘end doors: End Ladders—These are cars of special construction-
iend ladders to be placed as nearly as possible in designated
vlocation.
I 5. High-side drop-bottom ore cars of narrow construction are
fto be regarded as cars of special construction. On such cars off-
set sill steps may be applied where, owing to the construction of
/ the car, the standard sill steps would foul the oil-box and prevent
the proper opening of the lid.
6. Air Hose are not to be regarded as ﬁxtures, as that word
is used in that part of orders relating to ‘ ‘ End Ladder Clearance.’ ’
The applications of these devices to diﬁerent kinds of cars
are shown in Figs. 311 to 326, inclusive.
I
l
l l
f;
._\
*On November 2, 1915, I. C. C. Order of March 4, 1911, was
extended for a period of ‘12 months from July 1, 1916.

On April 12, 1917, I. C. C. Order of November 2, 1915, was
extended for a further period of eight months from July 1, 1917.
CHAPTER XII -
STANDARD BOX CARS. TYPICAL FREIGHT CAR BODIES:
BOX, FLAT, GONDOLA, ORE, sTocK, TANK,
REFRIGERATOR, ETC.
The railway world is just now witnessing' a tremendous revolu-
tion in,the design, types, and construction of freight cars in com-
mon use, as well as in the radical change in the principal material
from which they are constructed. Beginning a few years_ ago, this
car revolution is now in full swing, and promises to greatly change
both general car practice and design in the near future. Already ,
this has led to the evolution of a number of novel types of freight
cars ﬁest ﬁtted to survive the hard service of today and aptly
accommodated to present railroad circumstances as inﬂuenced by
modern commercial demands; the_tendency being ever towards thie
development of the most efficient cars intended to serve certain
classes of traﬂic in a way conducive to both better. service aiud
ultimate railroad economy. Thus, the number of classes of cars
designed for special purposes has increased, and all along the likne
freight car capacity has increased even faster. \‘
To produce a lower unit cost of transportation, the capacity ‘'
of freight cars has grown rapidly. To increase the tonnage with-.
out increasing the length of the train, the capacity of freight
. cars has risen from the former 30 and 40 ton cars to those of
50, 60, and now of 70, 80, 90, and even 100 tons capacity. There
is a constant pressure on the part of shippers of light and bulky
articles for a car of a size permitting the shipment of the maximum
amount that can be loaded. Competition has been responsible for
the building of cars so large as to be positively unsafe for use
in some parts ‘of the country; huge unvvieldly structures that soon
rack loose, offer great resistance to pulling, and are too large to go
through tunnels. On the other hand, the private ownership of’ cars
has resulted in the building of many of these private cars with
reference to the most convenient sales unit and with no regard for
the economy of railroad service. Thus, for instance, we have oil
416
\-~
CARS 417
(tank) cars of widely varying capacities, yet the roads pay the
same “per diem” for each, although one car may have. twice
the capacity of another such car.
Cars are either purchased from car builder companies or are
built in railroad shops, though sometimes obtained by both ways
combined. Some roads have not the necessary facilities needed
for building cars, and hence have to buy all their new cars from
private car builders. Others are so equipped as to be able to turn
out a number of new cars from their shops each year, besides
attending to the repairing of present equipment. Such com-
panies thus affect considerable economies, in addition to constantly
maintaining an eﬂicient force of skilled car men of all kinds. This
is a matter of great importance to the car department, as repairs
must be made promptly if loss of revenue (due to damaged cars
whose repairing is unduly delayed) is ever to be avoided, with
its bad eifect on net earnings for 'the company. This past year
has witnessed grave deterioration in railway rolling stock; one
large road alone having over 15,000 freight cars on the hospital
list, with battered ﬂooring, rotten roofs, twisted underframes,
smashed couplers, etc. And although this has been partially offset
by the purchase of some 16,000 new cars during May, double the
number of new cars ordered for the same month last year, still
both economy and wise forethought condemn both the decreasing
of shop forces and repair-capacity as well as the general loss of
revenue resulting therefrom.
Concerning the general box car, it may be said that the present
tendency seems to doom the all-wooden superstructure to speedy
and total disappearance, its place being taken by other types, pos-
sibly for the near future by the steel underframe and steel upper~
frame types with single wooden sheathing, and, ultimately, by the
all-steel car. These last two types are in this work regarded as
coming under the head of “steel cars,” and will be treated of in
the chapter on that subject. As will be seen below, but few
wooden box cars are now being ordered. Even as early as 1913,
of the freight cars actually built, only 7,237 were all-wood, being
only half the amount built in 1912; the others built in 1913 being
70,631 all-steel and 108,610 having steel underframes with
more or less wooden superstructures. The cars ordered during
that year were as follows:—— ‘
418 CARS
CLASSIFICATIONS or FREIGHT "CARS ORDERED
- DURING 1913 .

Steel
, frame
and Com-
steel Steel posite
All- under- under- under-
steel frame fregme frsame Wcfiod Not

a b c spec. Total
~Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 20,457 20,296 5,234 3,339‘ 3,640 53,066
6 6 206
Refrigerator . . . . . . . . . . . 505 4,934 1 _ 1 750 ,
Hopper, includ. Ore. 31,460 - . . . . . . . . . 405 151 32,016
Gondola, including


General Service. . . 19,919 . . . 10,229 1,240 329 120 31,837
Coal (not otherwise V
speciﬁed)... . . . . . . 1,710 . . . . . . 40 2 1,050 2,802
Coke (not otherwise / '
. speciﬁed)......... 1,512 1,512
Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,225 3,535 875 371 150 6,156
Flat, includ. Logging 4,168 . . . . . . . . . 2,646 591 7,405
Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,881 . . . 24 . . '. . . . .. . . 1,905
Caboose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 602 . . . 268 27 917
Miscellaneous. .. . . . . 1,627 . . . 346 355 495 87 2,910
Total . . . . . . . . . . . 62,377 22,207 39,966 7,745 7,871 6,566 146,732

Due to the frequent troubles arising from the use of small
old style box cars nowadays, the M. C. B. Association is trying
to arrive at some plan for retiring such cars as these, of 40,000
and 50,000 pounds capacity from active service, or from use
in interchange in any event. Some railroads will not now accept
such cars in interchange, owing to their frequently breaking down;
and they therefore transfer the lading to other larger and stronger
cars better ablev to bear the stresses of modern heavy service.
The, M. C. B. Association has already adopted this Rule: “After
October‘ 1, 1916, all cars of less than 60,000 pounds capacity having
wooden or metal draft arms which do not extend beyond the body
bolster, will not be accepted in interchange.” Besides this, rail-
way opinion approves the prohibition of the use of 40,000'pound
, capacity cars in interchange at an early date, to be soon fol-
lowed by a like ban on the 50,000 pounds capacity car. ‘In fact,
some roa'ds favor speedy prohibition of the 60,000 pounds ‘capacity
car likewise, for interchange, use. The M. (J. B. Rules already
permit the rejection of the former two classes of cars, and allow
the lading to be transferred; a permission now taken advantage .
of, on some railroads The number of these cars now in service
are shown in the following table:
CARS
419
NUMBER OF CARS IN REVENUE SERVICE
Of each of the constructions named below, as of January 1,

/,cars are involved in this question, but the point is this:


1914.
4 . . ' .
0,029 lb 40,022 lb 00,092 lb 60,000
less 50,000 lb. 00.000 lb. lb-
All steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 . . . . . . . 161 445
Steel underframe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 492 98,674
Steel center sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2,217 34,317
Metal draft arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 11,197 9,192 110,835
Wooden draft timbers, extending
through body bolsters . . . . . . . 29,122 31,413 1,746 166,614
Wooden draft timbers extending
to body bolsters . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,522 12,875 5,515 227,881
Grand total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49,867 55,624 19,323 638,766
Metal body bolster . . . . . . . . . . . 29,727 37,712 17,188 428,758
American continuous draft gear 6,359 2,796 23 29,617
NOTE—Summary of all cars according to capacity compiled from 138 replies
to M. C. B. Circular N o. 20, Retirement of 40,000 and 50,000 pounds capacity cars.
There are ‘about 2,700,000 freight cars in this country, and of
these only about 120,000 are causing all the trouble, limiting our-
selves to the 40,000 and 50,000 pounds capacity cars. However,
some of the 60,000 pounds capacity cars give four times as much
trouble as regards repairs, break-downs, etc., as the 80,000 pound
ones; the true criterion of car efﬁciency as regards repair-economy,
being not the capacity but the strength of the car.
struction marks many of the old 60,000 and 80,000-pound cars;
though railroads are now thoroughly strengthening all their cars
that were built before 1912 or so. Thus, refrigerator cars have
light capacities, comparatively, yet their use is prolonged in the
public service.
So with stock cars, the western roads have a great many 50,000
pounds capacity cars still in use. On stock and furniture cars, one
cannot carry the full capacity of such cars; in cars marked 80,000
pounds capacity one cannot put an 80,000-pound load. If the
60,000-pound furniture car is not barred out, the same is true of
the stock car and the 50,000-pound furniture car. Only 2,900 stock
A large
number of cars built years ago were of from 40,000 to 50,006
Weak con- ,
‘420 - - CARS
pounds capacity, yet the load carried by them, stock, never exceeds
24,000 pounds. It is said that it costs $8 more per car for coal
consumption alone, to transport cattle from Chicago to New York
in the new high capacity steel cars, than in the present smaller cars.
In any case, nevertheless, nothing gives a road more trouble than
a lot of old'stock cars whose use entails a number of claims against
the company. The stock car is as important as any other car, often
more so; and when one of them is wrecked and a lot of stock killed,
it quickly runs into large money. It is useless to build 60,000 to
100,000-pound cars to carry live stock, as not over 24,000 pounds of
stock can be carried in the 60,000-pound cars,land 40,000 pounds of
stock in a 100,000-pound car. Still, all the present small capacity
stock cars must be so strengthened as to meet modern railroad con-
ditions, or else be withdrawn from interchange service.
Each year has seen more and different parts of the box car
standardized by the M. C. B., and soon its superstructure will
follow suit, thus greatly tending to economy, reduction in stock
at yards and shops, avoidance of delay in repairing and necessity
of sending to manufacturers for parts thereof, besides ease in hand-
ling, determination of clearances, etc. Some years ago, the Ameri-
can‘ Railway Association decided upon a standard 36-foot box car,
but almost immediately the traffic departments of our roads began
to ask for a‘ variety of different sizes of cars, and today very
few railroads limit themselves to buying or building 36-foot cars.
It would, therefore, be a great beneﬁt all around if standards
were adopted for the principal dimensions of 40-foot and 50-foot
freight cars. It may here be said that in- view of the still increas-
ing size of box cars, some of the old standard dimensions would
not hold. However, we give here the Standard Dimensions for
Box Care as adopted by the American Railway Association in
1901 and later modiﬁed:—
(1) That the dimensions of the Standard Box Car is 36 feet
in length, 8 feet 6 inches in width and 8 feet in height, .all inside
dimensions. Cross section, 68 square feet; capacity, 2,448 cubic
feet. The side door opening to be 6 feet in width. .
(2) That the Standard ‘36-foot car he consideredlthe unit for
the establishment of minimum carload weights; and that where
necessary in any classiﬁcation territory to recognize cars under
36 feet in length it shall'be by a reduced minimum of 2% per
CARS ' 421
cent for 35-foot cars and 5 per cent for cars 34 feet 'or under,
inside dimensions. '
(3) That for cars over 36 feet in length the percentage of.
increase of the minimum weights shall be as follows: For cars
of 37 feet and 38 feet 10 per cent over the minimum for the
36-foot car. For cars of 39 feet and 40 feet 25 per cent over
the minimum for the 36-foot car. For cars of 41 feet and 42
feet 40 per cent over the minimum for the 36-foot car. For cars
of 43 feet and 44 feet 55 per cent over the minimum for the
36-foot car. For cars of 45 feet and 46 feet 65 per cent over the
minimum for the 36-foot car. For cars of 47 feet and 48 feet
70 per cent over the minimum for the 36-foot car. For cars of-
49 feet and 50 feet 80 per cent over the minimum for the 36-foot
car. For cars over 50 feet 150 per cent over the minimum for the
36-foot ‘car.
(4) That any diminution of revenue incident to the minimum
proposed in the accompanying schedule shall be adjusted in the
rate. (5) That the minimum carload weights of heavy articles,
such as iron, brick, lumber, minerals, etc., should as fast as
practicable be advanced to the stenciled capacity of the car. (6)
That no box cars of larger dimensions than those prescribed for
the Standard Car shall be hereafter Iconstructed, and that all
owners and builders of cars be officially notiﬁed of the adoption
of this resolution. That six inches above any given length shall
be rated as even length in feet of whatever length it may approx-
imate. Lengths of over six inches shall take the minimum of the
next greater length; thus, a length of 38 feet 6 inches shall be
rated as a 38-foot car; one of a fraction over 38 feet 6 inches as a
39-foot car. '
This standard box car is shown in Fig. 327.
In May, 1914, the American Railway Association ordered that
the dimensidns for the standard box car should be strictly adhered
to, except in the construction of special equipment such as auto-
mobile cars: That special equipment should not exceed the inside
dimensions of 40 feet 6 inches in length, 8 feet 6 inches in width,
and 9 feet in height, with maximum outside dimensions of 9 feet
2 inches in width at 13 feet above the top of the rail; And the
Association requested the M. C. B. Association “to design and
adopt a standard frame for closed cars in accordance with the
Diagrams Showing Inside Measurements of the Standard Box Car
Ac Adopted by the American Railway Association October 23, 1901
.__.. g '- 6 '4 857M?” 1 "mm.


maximum Section. Cross Section.
' Fig. 327.
Standard 36-Foot Box Car. American Railway Association.
CARS 423
present standard inside dimensions of box cars.” For box cars
built on low trucks, the height from top of rail to upper edge of
caves is 12 feet 1% inch; the width of caves at ‘that height being
9 feet 7 inches, and the height to top of ﬂoor being 3 feet 6 inches
above rail.
To obtain these particular dimensions it may here be explained
that the limiting measurements of all the roads in the country
were tabulated and chartered, and a composite of the maximum
dimensions of a car which could be run over the roads of the
country was developed; the work being carried on through three
years. On many of the western roads it was found that they are
building a car 40 feet in length, as they are also on most of the
eastern roads—the western roads stating that they themselves had
a class of traiﬁc to handle which requires larger cars than those
recommended. Hence, many railroads demanded that the 40-foot
box car be made the standard. Inquiry among the roads compos-
ing the American Railway Association elicited the following facts:
Four-ﬁfths of the roads favor adopting a standard frame for
box cars; about half of them prefer to retain the present standard
height of 8 feet inside, as well as the standard width of 8 feet
6 inches, in a longer car, rather than to increase both the length
and height; one-sixth of them were willing to increase width,
height and length. Half of the roads prefer to adhere to the
present standard; a few favoring a 6-inch increase of height. The
Association was equally divided as to favoring or opposing a box
car 40 feet 6 inches long, 9 feet high, and 8 feet 6 .inches wide, with
maximum outside dimensions of 9 feet 2 inches wide at 13 feet
above the top of the rails.
The reasons given by these roads for favoring or opposing
any change in the present standard box car are instructive, and
were as follows: Favoring: On account of the use of steel under-
frame cars, the maintenance cost will not be any greater for a
longer car than for a shorter car, and the unit capacity of the car
would be increased. The cost of construction is only slightly in-
creased, but not in proportion to the gain in cubic capacity. The
same is true as to operation and maintenance; better suited for
certain class of trafﬁc, '5. 6., lumber, and bulky commodities such
as grain, hay, cotton, etc. Will have tendency to reduce length of
train by getting the tonnage in fewer cars. Several roads favor
424 CARS
a longer car, but do not think it practicable to make any change
in height because changing center of gravity will increase danger
of derailment.
Opposing: More expensive construction, operating and main-
tenance without any relative increase in earnings per car, and
will not sufficiently assist in moving commodities to warrant the
increased expense incident to ﬁrst cost and additional weight to
be hauled in service. Also the average loading- is below the
capacity of 36 foot car, which would increase the dead haul. Will
deteriorate more rapidly on account of greater vibration. By
making cars higher, as proposed, would add to danger of accident '
caused by derailments on curves and imperfectly surfaced tracks,
on account of increased swaying motion of cars. Majority of
commerce handled today has been adjusted to present standard
capacity. Present size large enough for many important clearances.
The necessity for an absolutely rigid set of standards for all
freight cars used in interchange has led the American Railway
Association to request the‘ M. C. B. Association to prepare designs '
therefor; and a committee of the latter is now at work on the same,
as standardization, especially of sizes, is sure to come. This will lead
to greater economy in the, matter of continually rdevising new
types of cars to ﬁll special requirements, which‘has now gone to
extremes on many roads.
In this connection, the classiﬁcation of cars made by the
M. C. B. Association and given in Chapter I of this volume,
should be carefully studied; for freight cars, there are two general
classes. 1. General Service, Freight Equipment Cars, and 2
General Service, Main-tenance of Way Freight Cars. Of the ﬁrst
class, the chief are the bog: and other house cars, illustrations of
. which are given in Plate I of this volume, Plate VII of Portfolio
2, and in Plate V, Fig. 328.
Present lengths of box cars are from 36 to 40 feet; their ton-
nage capacity ranges from- 30 to 80 tons for cars in general use.
For automobile cars, the following are average ﬁgures: 30 tons
capacity, 36! feet long and 8 feet 6 inches high; 40 tons, 36 feet
long, 8 feet 6% inches high, 8 feet 6 inches wide; another of 40
tons is 40 feet long, 8 feet high, and 8 feet 6 inches wide. The
furniture car is 50 feet long, 9 feet wide, and is 10 feet to bottom
of carline. Most of the automobile and furniture cars have wooden


4-1,"
GENERAL PLAN—BOX CAR- '80,000 LBS. CAPACITY.)
113.328.
CARS
425
I..H.& I\I.S.
_I _ I)
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Fig. 329.
Steel Undert'rame 40-Ton Capacity Box Car for Automobile Traffic.
Length, 36 ft.; Inside Width, 8 ft. 6 in.: Height, 8 ft. 6% in.
- AL‘I‘UMHHH 1
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nﬂvburu: n-
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Weight. 39.000 lbs.: Inside
Barney & Smith Car Co.
I 426 CARS
upper'frames, steel underframes, and strong ends made of steel
or reinforced wood. Most of these two kinds are of 40 tons
- capacity. Automobile cars, Fig. 329, have exceptionally large side
doors or end doors, and usually have a double deck half way
between the main ﬂoor and the roof. Other automobile cars are
shown in Figs. 329 and 439. '
Stock cars are from 35 to 40 feet long, about 8 feet 6 inches wide,
and from 7 to 8 feet 8 inches high; varying in capacity from 30 to 50
tons. The common wooden stock car is shown in Fig. 330, Plate VI.
These cars are designed for transporting live animals, generally
cattle, horses, sheep, hogs, etc. They are roofed over but not tightly
enclosed at the ends and sides. Sometimes they are double-decked
for the carriage of. smaller animals such as hogs, calves, sheep,
etc. Formerly they were provided with appliances for feeding and
watering such animals, according to state laws regulating the
same. The federal law requiring the unloading of stock every
28 hours for feeding and watering is now strictly enforced; and
hence has made such feeding and watering appliances on such
cars unnecessary. Special forms of these cars are Poultry Cars,
with wire-screened sides; with two, three, or more decks; and with
or without coops; and Horse Cars, with or without separate stalls _
or partitions, padded or unpadded. A Box Stock Car ‘is an
ordinary box car-with large grated openings for ventilation, but
excluding rain. This ‘last is now but little used, except for horses.
Some roads have special grain cars; on others they are made
by reconstructing stock‘ and other house cars, so as to be in a-
condition to handle grain, temporarily or permanently, by cleaning
and lining them with burlap, heavy odorless paper, etc., so as to
prevent grain leakage. Seven‘ western roads in 1914 announced
that in addition to their former equipment they had 20,650 new
large grain cars available. New grain cars show increased carry-
ing capacity; formerly they carried 40,000 to 60,000 pounds, while
the new cars carry 80,000 pounds.- Refrigerator cars are nearly
all of 30 tons capacity, as are most of the ventilator cars.
Convertible cars are those so built as to be converted, without
~. reconstruction, from one type or use to another. - Thus M. C. B.
Class SD is a stock car having drop doors in its ﬂoor, with means
of housing in the sides, thus making drop-bottom box cars; see
Fig. 331. A general service steel frame stock car is depicted in


GENERAL PLAN—STOCK CAR.
60, 000 Les. CAPACITY.
F18- 330.
CARS 427
Fig. 332. A car for use as a Heater, Ventilator, or Refrigerator
car is illustrated in Fig. 333. This class includes cars changeable
from center-dump gondola to side-dump gondola, and others,
similar to the Hart gondola, shown in Figs. 334 and 335. The last-
named is used as either a ﬂat-bottom gondola or a center-drop
one, as desired.

Fig. 331. _
Interior View of Steel Underframe 30-Ton Capacity Drop-Bottom
General Service Car. Weight, 40,000 lbs.; Inside Length,
36 ft.; Inside Width, 8 ft. 6 in.: Inside Height,
8 ft. Ralston Steel Car Company.
Because of their general utility, these convertible cars are
rapidly increasing in both number and types, on account of their
economy in operation and ability to dispense with the furnishing
of other cars by railroads. There are a number of roads where
traﬂic conditions are such that during certain seasons of the year
the transverse movements of empty box and stock cars amounts to
a considerable item. Thus the mileage of one road out of St. Louis
88f?
S’HVO

Fig. 332.
Steel Frame 40-T0n Capacity Drop-Bottom General Service Car.
Weight, 45,000 ibs.; Inside Length, 40 ft.; Inside Width, 8
ft. 8 in.; Inside Height, 7 ft. 9 in. National
Dump Car Company.


Fig. 333.
Steel Underframe 30-Ton Capacity Combined Heater. Ventilator
and Refrigerator Car. Weight. 43.400 lbs. Alcohol
Heating and Lighting Company's System.
430 CARS

Fig. 334.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Ore Car. Hart Convertible Car with
one-half of ﬂoor raised, showing method of converting from
side to center dump. The end boards are moved in so
that the inside length of the car, when used as
center dump, is the length of the raised
portion of the ﬂoor.
, I
CARS 431
and Kansas City alone amounted to 4,511,170 miles each year; an
equal number of empty box cars being hauled to these points
from the stock-loading territory for bringing back general mer-
chandise. This made a total empty-car mileage of 9,023,420 miles
each year, moved at a cost of $162,000. In order to obtain box
cars when the shortage became acute, it had been the custom to
take stock cars, thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting them, and
covering the roof and entire inside surface of the cars with tar
paper, at a cost of $5 to $6 per car, and then loading them with
certain kinds of freight. This road thus treated about 3,000 cars


Fig. 335.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Drop-Bottom Gondola. Weight. 43,300
lbs.; Inside Length, 40 ft.; Inside Width, 9 ft. 6 in.;
Inside Height, 4 ft. 3 in. National Dump Car Co.
during six years with considerable success, but the car construction
was such that the sides could not be made entirely proof against
leakage.
To oﬁset this condition, an oﬂ‘icial of the road devised a car
to ﬁt the case; a car built in the same manner as a box car,
which, with the exception of the slats—is leak-proof in every
respect. To convert this stock car into a box car, it is only
necessary to cover the openings between the slats with an odorless
asphalt paper, at a cost of $1.50 per car for labor and material,
which with the 50 cents charged for cleaning and disinfecting, as
required by the government, makes a total of $2.00 per car. This
type of car, which can also be used by southwestern cotton-carrying
railroads in the spring months, is shown in Fig. 336. By loading
432 CARS
these cars in both directions and saving one-half the empty car
mileage, the 2,000 convertible cars would prevent the necessity
of owning 1,000 cars—making a net saving of about $102.50 per
car per year. These cars may be used for general merchandise,
cotton, hay, and indeed all freight moving in packages, bales.
boxes, barrels or like containers. They are of 80,000 pounds
capacity, and have an outside steel frame superstructure.


Interior of Car When Prepared Interior of Car When Prepared
for Merchandise Shipments. for Shipments of Stock.
Fig. 336.
Convertible Box and Stock Car.
Another box car of this type, here used for both grain and
coal, is a Burnett hopper-bottom’ grain car used by the Canadian
Paciﬁc. The hinge of the hopper (Fig. 337), is made by inter-
locking the edge of the door and the car ﬂoor, making it a con-
tinuous hinge which instead of weakening the edge, strengthens
it as would the use of an angle-the load always tending to
tighten the joint. The hopper door is hinged at the bottom, and
is almost vertical; it has no closing-shaft but is closed by hand
and secured by a shaft having projections which engage the edge
of the door at diﬁerent points. The grain doors, formed by sec-
tions of the ﬂoor at the doorway folding against the doorpost,
are thoroughly reinforced and easily maintained in good condition.
In building the cars, each hopper is ﬁlled with ﬂaxseed, which is
then hammered, and the hoppers are made absolutely tight under
CARS 433
this test—the severest test possible with the exception of water.
This hopper door arrangement increases the car's weight about 800
pounds compared with a car not ﬁtted with grain door equipment,

Fig. 337.
Burnett General Service Box Car. Interior View, Showing Grain
Door and one Open Hopper.
but with cars so ﬁtted, this diﬁ'erence is diminished by the weight
of the grain door and ﬁttings. The maintenance cost of the ordinary
door and ﬁttings, including the usual nailing strips on doorposts,
estimated at from $6 per car per year and upwards, is thus
eliminated in'this car. The additional cost of applying the hopper
bottom and folding grain doors is approximately $50 per car.
434 CARS
Where ordinary grain doors are used a force of men is engaged
at elevators in removing nails from the doorposts and inside
lining and getting the cars ready for load, while the hopper bottom
car this force, as well as the shipping of temporary grain doors
back to the point of loading, is almost entirely done away with,
thus effecting an additional saving. Besides this, it can be
unloaded in about one-third the time ordinarily consumed in un-
loading a box car. The development of this car resulted from the
desirability of securing a car suitable for carrying coal in one
direction and grain in another, thus avoiding to a large extent
empty car mileage and the hauling of other cars for coal.


Fig. 339.
Steel Frame 75-Ton Capacity Flat Car. Weight, 44,000 lbs.; Length
of Platform, 34 ft. 6% in.; \Vidth of Platform, 10 ft.;
Height, Rail to Top of Platform, 3 ft. 2 in.
The Flat Car is a platform upon wheels, having the ﬂoor
laid over the sills, and is without any housing or body above. It is
used to transport such coarser kinds of freight as need no protec-
tion from the elements, and is of such character that it is not
liable to depredations. Practically all modern ﬂat cars are all-
steel or have steel frames; ranging in capacity from 40 to 110
tons, and being from 34 to 70 feet 8 inches in length, with an
average width of 8 feet to 10 feet, and a height from top of
platform to top of rail of from 3 feet 2 inches to 4 feet 2 inches.
In Fig. 338 is shown the ordinary wooden ﬂat car. Flat cars
often use overhung truss rods or hog chains to strengthen the car
and keep its ends from dropping, just as the underhung ones do
the same for the middle of such ﬂat cars as use truss rods. A
Barrel Car is a ﬂat car racked so as to carry many barrels; being
made very long and the racks very high in order'to make up a
carload weight. A modern ﬂat car is shown in Fig. 339. A, 100-

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90.000 ‘LBS. Camem,
F18. 338.


Fig. 340.
Steel Frame 100-Ton Capacity Four-Truck Flat Car. ‘Weight,
90,000 lbs.: Length of Platform. 70 ft. 7 ln.; \Vldth
0! Platform 8 ft. 6 in. McGuire-Cummings Mfg. Co.
436 CARS
ton ﬂat car, Fig. 340, uses at each end two 4-wheel trucks, or 16
wheels to the car, in order not to exceed the wheel load allowed.
The weight of this last car is 90,000 pounds; length of platform,
70 feet 7 inches; width of platform, 8 feet 6 inches.


Fig. 341.
Wooden 42% Tons Capacity Hopper Bottom Gondola Car. Weight.
40,700 lbs.; Inside Length, 36 ft.; Inside Width, 8 ft. 61,4 in.;
Inside Height, 4 ft. 3 in. American Car & Foundry Co.


Fig. 342.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Drop-Bottom Gondola. Weight, 40.300
lbs; Inside Length, 40 ft.; Inside Width, 9 ft. 6% in.
Inside Height, 4 ft. 2 in.
A gondola is a car with sides and ends but without a roof
covering, used to transport freight in bulk; being sometimes dis-
tinguished as high-side or low-side gondolas, drop-bottom or hopper-
bottom gondolas, etc. In all gondolas the ﬂoor is normally level.
The side planks and ends are permanently attached, or are remov-
able or are ‘hinged; the ends are often hinged so as to allow of
the use of twin cars for long timber, etc. Gondolas are mostly
used for the transportation of lumber and coal, and are provided
according to the service they are placed in, with various appliances
CARS 437
to facilitate the handling of the freight, such as hopper bottoms,
inclined ﬂoors for coal, etc. The hopper bottom gondola, Fig. 341,
is one having a level bottom and one or more hoppers equipped
with drop doors for discharging the load. The drop-bottom
gondola is one with level ﬂoor having a number of doors; Fig. 342.
These cars are now nearly all of all-steel construction, as are the
solid bottom gondolas. These last also often have drop ends.
Gondolas are generally of 50 tons capacity.


Fig. 343.
Dumping Position of the Two-Way Side Dump Car. Dumping
Angle, 49 Degrees. The Body Bolsters of Cast Steel Have Cast
Integral with Them Center Plates, Side Bearings, and
Spring Pockets. The Latter Contain Coil Springs
Which Absorb the Shock as the Body Dumps.
FitzHugh, Luther & Company.
A variety of this class is known as side-dump cars, usually
dumping their load in two ways (on either side), the body carrying
the load being so cradled by supports that the load can be dumped
by the machinery attached thereto and actuated generally by com-
pressed air which is often taken directly from the air brake train
line into a storage reservoir. These cars, ordinarily of 30 tons
capacity, and made of steel, composite, or steel underframe con-
struction, are shown in Figs. 343, 344-21, and 344-b. A Billet Car
is a low-side gondola built of steel throughout, for the transfer
of hot steel billets or other heavy material.


Fig. 344-21.
Ali-Steel 30-Ton Capacity Two-Way Side Dump Car. Operated by
Compressed Air. Inside Length, 24 ft. The
Kilbourne and Jacobs Mfg. Co.
\

.0 En. “tic.
USE-:5.“ @330: cm 25 ‘Had-35. was 3:51 02. £58: 5 En. "$0-?
440 CARS
The steel gondola, with cross-section and longitudinal section
of the same, is shown in Plate-VII of Portfolio 2. The ordinary
wooden gondola is seen in Plate VIII, Fig. 345. '
A stake is a piece of timber inserted in a pocket on the sides
and/ends of ﬂat cars to hold the load in, place; the sides of
gondolas being sometimes held in the same, way. The side stiffen-
ing pieces on steel gondolas and hopper cars are also often called
stakes. The M. C. B. Recommended Practice as to permanent
stake pockets is as follows: The method of securing permanent
stake pockets to cars of wooden construction is by U-bolts; to
cars of steel construction, by rivets or U-bolts; Malleable Iron is
to be used in the manufacture of said pockets, and stakes should
be located to suit the construction of the car or the requirements
of the service, but should not be placed farther apart than 4 feet
' from center to center. The M. C. B. dimensions for temporary
stake pockets are: For ﬂat cars and gondolas with sides less than
30 inches high, 4 inches wide by 5 inches deep; for gondolas with
sides over 30 inches ‘high, 4 inches wide by 4 inches deep. The
M. C. B. plan for the longitudinal spacing of temporary stake
pockets is given in Fig. 115. In place of the vulnerable old style
strap pocket, various modern kinds have been introduced, one of
which, the Collapsible Stake Pocket, is applicable to sides and ends
of gondolas. ‘When not in service, the pocket drops to the side _
of the car, thereby increasing the inside width of car for any form
of lading, as well as preventing damage to either pockets or lad-
ing, besides maintaining its shape, and being always available for
- ‘stakes of M. C. B. dimensions, as shown in Fig. 346.
A Hopper Car is one with a ﬂoor sloping from the ends or
sides to one or more hoppers, which will discharge the entire load
by gravity through the hopper doors. They now are nearly all
of all~steel construction, though some have wooden sides and ends
with steel frames; and they generally are of 50 tons capacity.
In length they average 30 feet, the larger ones being about 40 feet
. 3 inches. Their inside width averages 9 feet, and their height
from rail to top of body is from 9 feet 8’ inches to 10 feet 8
inches. The M. G. B. standardfor the 2-inch square end for
hopper-door operating shaft is given in Fig. 68. When used to
carry coal, these cars like all others carrying coal, should use
galvanized piping under the ‘car, because of greater economy
GENERAL PLAN—GoNnoLA CAR.

80.000 Les. CAPACITY.
Fig- 345.
CARS 44 1
maintenance and more satisfactory brake operation, as water
dripping from coal contains chemicals which soon rust out and


Fig. 346.
Collapsible Stake Pockets Applied to Gondola Car.


Fig. 347.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Hopper Car. Weight, 43,600 lbs; Inside
Length. 31 ft. 6 in.; Inside Width, 9 ft. 4 in.; Capacity.
Level Full, 1,790 cu. ft.
destroy unprotected iron and steel. The ordinary styles of hopper
cars most largely used are seen in Figs. 347 and 348.
An Ore Car is a hopper car made especially for carrying iron
or other ores. Because of the great weight relative to its bulk,
442 CARS
ore cars are usually made shorter and hence of less cubic capacity
than other kinds of hopper cars. Nearly all of them are of all-


Fig. 348.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Hopper Car. Weight, 36,800 lbs; Inside
Length, 30 ft.; Inside Width, 8 ft. 9 in.; Length Over
End Sills, 33 ft. 3 in.; Height, Rail to Top of Body,
10 ft. 8 in.; Extreme Height, 11 ft. 4 in.;
Capacity, Level Full, 1,858 cu. ft.
.AM o. GARFIELD _,
Y 1199 ~ ‘


Fig. 350.
All-Steel 60-Ton Capacity Ore Car. Weight, 42,300 lbs.; Inside
Length, 23 ft. 10% in.; Inside Width, 9 ft. 10 in.;
Inside Height, 6 ft. 9% in.
steel construction, and of from 50 to 60 tons capacity. They
average 16 to 23 feet long inside, with a width of from 8 to 9
feet. An ore car of former type is seen in Plate IX, Fig. 349.
Modern types of ore cars are seen in Figs. 350 and 35].
_41.
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GENERAL PLAN—ORE, Cam,
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Fig. 349.
CARS 443
Figures 351-a and 351-b show ballast cars—cars used for the
purpose of laying new right of way or repairs; such cars are
generally of the gondola type, with side or center dump. Those
here shown are of the center dump kind, and depicts them in the
act of spreading ballast over the right of way.
Caboose cars are affected by the laws passed by various states,
prescribing standards of construction therefor. The wooden eight-


Fig. 351.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Ore Car. Weight. 32,600 lbs.; Inside
Length, 17 ft. 1 in.; Inside Width. 8 ft. 6 in.;
Capacity, Level Full, 650 cu. ft.
wheel caboose is giving way to the eight-wheel steel underframe
caboose; the superstructure being always of wood, as seen in Figs.
352 and 353.
A Tank Car is one the body of which consists of a tank for
carrying liquids, such as oil, molasses, vinegar, etc. The tank itself
is usually a metal cylinder, but is also made of wood, and some-
times of rectangular shape. Glass-lined tanks are in use for carry-
ing mineral water and liquids which would attack metal. Their
capacity is from 8,000 gallons or 40 tons to 12,000 gallons or 50
tons, averaging about 33 feet 6 inches tank-length, with an extreme
height from top of rail of about 13 feet 5 inches. There is no
light-weight marking on tank cars, owing to the very great dif-
. _0 I‘
444 ' CARS
l
ference in the weights of the L different commodities they carry;
for it was found that marking them with weight and capacity
caused much contention between shippers and consignees.


‘Fig. 351-9..
.Rodgers Ballast Car. National Dump Car Company.


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Rodgers Ballast Car. National Dump Car Company.
One of the faults of tank cars is the bad construction of the
discharge valves. There is a great deal of trouble from leaking.
The tanks move on their frames, the valves are often corroded and
leaky, and thus the contents of the tank are lost. The present
discharge valve is indeed a poor device, and should be speedily
CARS 445

Fig. 352.


Fig. 353.
Steel Underframe 8-Wheel Caboose. Weight, 35,900 lbs.
improved. Some think that the tank should be held in place with
head blocks instead of anchoring the tank to the underframe, by
a saddle riveted to the underframe. If the end sills are distorted
446 CARS
by movement of the loaded tank, increase the sectional area of
I the center sills (55-pound channels), reinforcing the head blocks,
and having two heavy steel castings. Of attachments employed
for securing the tank to the underframe, one device is known as
the “Lind” cast'steel center attachment, by which the tank is
ﬁrmly secured against shifting, both laterally and longitudinally,
besides permitting free expansion of tank and the removal of
tank from underframe without cutting out rivets; a point of
importance in making repairs. If possible, all efﬁcient tank
, attachments should fulﬁll these same prime requirements.
Concerning the question of the continued use service of old
tanks, originally mounted on wooden underframes‘; also, whether
old tanks transferred to new steel underframes should not be put
on the same basis as tank cars built after 1903 (that. is, to be
required to stand 60 pounds pressure), the tests of the latter
showed that a tank which stood 20 pounds water pressure without
leaking, would withstand shocks received during transportation,
when ﬁlled with liquids of the same viscosity as water. However,
the M. C. B. committee examining into this matter, deems it unwise
‘to permit the unrestricted transfer of old tanks to steel under-
frames, especially when they are to carry inﬂammables such as
gasoline. In testing tanks, air pressure, steam pressure, or hot
water must not be used, as they do not insure the detection of
leaks as well as cold water. The interval between the required
- hydraulic tests should be shorter as the age of the tank increases.
Deﬁnite efforts should be made to retire from transportation all
tanks which cannot meet the test requirements. Further, distinc-
tion should be made between cars carrying inﬂammables and
those carrying products not involving the safety question. The
M. C. B. ‘Association has also ordered that tank cars, empty or
loaded, shall be rejected after January 1, 1915, if the safety
valves are not stenciled to show that they have been adjusted, etc.,
within the time-limit required by Paragraphs 5, 6 and 7 of the
M. C. B. speciﬁcations for Tank Cars.
These M. C. B. speciﬁcations for tank cars are as follows :—
Deﬁnitions: Tank Car—any car to which one or more tanks, '
used for carrying liquids or compressed gases, are permanently
attached. Tank Cars shall be divided into two classes, Ordinary
and Special. An Ordinary Tank Car is one used for the trans~
OARS 447
l
portation of inﬂammable products, the vapor pressure of which
at a temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit, does not exceed 10
pounds per square inch. This class may also include cars for the
transportation of non-inﬂammable products, the vapor pressure of
which, at a temperature of 100 degrees F., does not exceed 25
pounds per square inch. Special Tank Car. One used for the
transportation of inﬂammable products, the vapor pressure of
which, at a temperature of 100 degrees F., may exceed 10 pounds
per square inch.
GENERAL REQUIREHEN TS
'(a) Tank cars offered for movement over the lines of a rail-
road must conform to the following speciﬁcations. (b) Designs
for “special” tank cars must be submitted to the Master Car
Builders ’ Association for approval. (c) Tanks which bear evidence
of damage by ﬁre must be withdrawn from transportation service,
provided, that where the damage to the tank is local only, or con-
ﬁned to a section- which can be replaced, the railroad and the car
owner may, after a joint inspection, agree that all damaged
material shall be replaced and the tank made absolutely safe for
transportation service; but before being returned to service, the
tanks and ﬁttings must be again submitted to the prescribed
hydraulic test and properly stenciled. (d) Tanks which do not
meet the prescribed tests shall be withdrawn from transportation
service. -
SPECIFICATIONS FOR ORDINARY TANK CARS, OTHER
THAN WOODEN UNDERFRAME CARS
No tank cars built hereafter shall be accepted for transportation
unless equipped with steel underframing or with reinforced shell.
The design and construction of the car throughout must be at
least as strong as the following detailed speciﬁcations. Steel or
iron tanks constructed subsequent to 1903 must be designed for a
bursting pressure of not less than 240' pounds per square inch.
When riveted, all longitudinal and head seams must be double-
riveted. Where head blocks are not used, head seams need not be
double-riveted. Dome heads and covers must be made of either
cast or pressed steel, or of malleable iron.
448 CARS '
The joint of the dome cap must be made tight against vapor
pressure, and when necessary to insure this a satisfactory gasket
must be used. _
Tanks must be carefully inspected and tested before being
put into service, again at an interval of ten years, and after
that at intervals of not over ﬁve years; with the exception that
where tanks are used for carrying corrosive products, deterioration
is to be expected in a shorter time, and the’ ﬁrst test period shall
then be reduced to ﬁve years. Tanks requiring this ﬁve-year test
shall be those used for carrying chemicals, such as acids, ammonia
liquors, and such other products as hereafter may be speciﬁed.
Provided, that any tank damaged to the extent of requiring re-
newal of sheet, or extensive reriveting or recaulking of seams,
shall be re-tested before being returned to service. All tests shall
be made by completely ﬁlling the tank with water of a temperature
which shall not exceed 7 0 degrees F. during test. The prescribed
pressure must be held for not less than ten minutes after the
tank has been caulked tight, and may be applied in any suitable
manner. The tests for tanks built prior to 1903 shall be at 40
pounds per square inch, and for tanks built since that date at 60
pounds per square inch, which they must stand without leak or
evidence or distress. After January 1, 1915, all tanks tested to
less than 60 pounds pressure shall be stenciled “Not to be used
for liquids requiring the inﬂammable placards under the I. C. C.
regulations.” After January 1, 1918, all tanks in transportation
service shall be subjected to the full test requirements of 60 pounds
per square inch. '
Tanks when tested must be stenciled with the date, pressure
at which tested, place where test was made, and by whom, as
follows:
Tested ' (date) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressure (pound per square inch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At (place) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
By (name of ﬁrm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The tank-car owner shall be responsible for the proper carry-
ing out of all inspections and tests and stenciling, and for the
certiﬁcation of the tests to the Bureau for the Safe Transportation
of Explosives and Other Dangerous Articles.
CARS 449
Safety Valves—By January 1, 1915, all tanks carrying products
that give off volatile inﬂammable vapors at or below a temperature
of 80 degrees F., and having a vapor pressure of not more than
10 pounds per square inch at a temperature 'of 100 degrees F.,
shall be equipped with 5-inch safeiftaféés of approved designs
(Figs. 354 and 355), and ‘these valves shall be set to open at a
pressure of 12 pounds per square inch. Provided, that when the
lading is such as not to give 0E inﬂammable vapors (as determined
by ﬂash point from Tagliabue’s open-cup tester as used for test
of burning oils) at a temperature below 80 degrees F., the settingiof
the 8-pound valves to 12 pounds may be deferred to such time as
the valves require removal. All required pressures for safety valves
are subject to a tolerance of one pound above or below that
speciﬁed. One valve shall be provided for a capacity of 6,500
gallons or less, and two valves for a capacity of more than 6,500
gallons. Where tanks carrying such products are divided into-com-
partments, each compartment must be provided with a safety valve.
Safety valves must be tested and adjusted if necessary (a) on
new cars, before the cars are put into service; (b) on existing
cars, by January 1, 1916; and thereafter on. all cars at intervals
of not over two years. When valves are tested, the date, pressure
to which tested, ‘place where test was made, and by whom, must
be stenciled on the body of the tank, near the end and adjacent
to the stenciling for test of tank, as follows: ‘
Tested (date) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressure (pound per square inch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At (place) . . . . . . . . . . .k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . .
By (name of ﬁrm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In addition to stenciling on body of car, there shall be stamped
on body of valve, in 1/4 or %-inch ﬁgures, the date of test and
pounds pressure to which valve was tested. Date of test ontank
and last date on valve must correspond. The test may be made without
the removal of the valve from the car, provided the valve unseats
at a total pressure corresponding with the area of the seat
multiplied by the required pressure Valves improperly set, or not
450 CARS


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M. C. B. Alternative 5-inch Safety Valve for Tank Cars.
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M. C. B. Standard 5-inch ‘Safety Valve tor Tank Cars.
CARS 451
tested and stenciled at proper intervals, shall constitute defects
for which the owner shall be responsible. The tank-car owner shall
be responsible for certiﬁcation of tests to the Bureau for the Safe
Transportation of Explosives and Other Dangerous Articles. Cer-
tiﬁcates of all tests of tanks and their safety valves shall be sent
to the Bureau for the Safe Transportation of Explosives and .
Other Dangerous Articles, in such form as may be prescribed by
the Bureau. ' 4
Five-Inch Safety Vents with Lead Disks—Tank Cars carrying
volatile non-inﬂammable products whose vapor pressure at a tem-
perature of 100 degrees F. does not exceed 25 pounds per square
inch, may be provided with vents depending on frangible lead disks
for safety, which vents shall be of approved design, as shown
by Fig. 356, or the disks to be of a thickness that shall insure
rupture at a pressure not higher than 30 pounds per square inch.
Tank cars carrying non-inﬂammable or non-volatile material,
such as sulphuric acid, vinegar, linseed oil, cottonseed oil, lard oil;
ﬁsh oil, tannery products, glucose, molasses, calcium chlorid,
caustic soda, silicate of soda, etc., need not be provided with 5-inch
safety valves, but each tank must have a small open vent or valve,
equal to not less than 2 inches in diameter (see Fig. 357.) If, for
any reason, splashing of the liquid or contamination by moisture
is to be avoided, a 2-inch vent with frangible lead disk, of a thick-
ness which will insure rupture at a pressure not higher that 30 '
pounds, should be used in place of the 2-inch open vent (Fig. 357.)
The center-sill construction of the underframe between bolsters
must have an,’ effective cross-sectional area of at least 30 square
inches, distributed as shown in Fig. 358, or equivalent. Each car
must be equipped with steel body and truck bolsters, steel couplers,
and a draft gear of approved design, having a capacity of at least
60,000 pounds. Particular attention must be given- to the long-
.itudi‘nal anchorage of the tanks, which must be thoroughly sub-
stantial, to prevent injurious end-shifting. The preferable method
of securing tank against end-shifting is by anchoring the tank to
the underframe at some one point, rather than by conﬁning it
between the head blocks, as the necessary play between tank and
head blocks too often results in damage to the head, bending of
the underframe at the bolsters and breakage of the discharge
nozzles.
452 - CARS
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M. C. B. 5-Inch Safety Vent with Lead Disk for Tank Cars.


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Fig. 357.
M. C. ‘B. 2-inch Frangible Lead Disk of Vent for Tank Cars.


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Fig. 358.
M. C. B. Center 8111 Construction for Tank Cars.
CARS ' 1.5-5
MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR LONGITUDINAL AN-
CHORAGE OF TANK TO UN DERFRAME
Tank connection:
Shearing area of rivets, 25 square inches For tanks of 8,500 gal~
Bearing area of rivets, 20 square inches. lons capacity or over.
Shearing area of rivets, 18 square inches. rFor tanks of less than
Bearing area of rivets, 14 square inches. 8,500 gallons capacity.
Frame Connection:
Shearing area of rivets, 12% square inches For tanks of 8,500 gal-
Bearing area of rivets, 10 square inches. \ lons capacity or over.
Shearing area .of rivets, 9 square inches. For tanks of less than-
Bearing area of rivets, 7 square inches. L 8,500 gallons capacity.
Tanks must be secured from turning on the underframes either
by means of an anchorage or by dome yokes, and must also be
secured to underframe by means of tank straps, two for tanks not‘
more than 76 inches in diameter, and four for tanks of greater
diameter, or their equivalent. The sectional area of dome yokes
and tank bands must at no place be less than 97.’; of a square inch,
or 1 inch round iron upset to 1%; inch at threaded end.
Cars having no underframe, with tank securely riveted to body
bolsters, do not require dome yokes or tank bands. Explanation:
A threaded end, 1% inch in diameter or more, with a body consist-
ing of a ﬂat band 2 by % inch, or equivalent section, or round iron
1 inch in diameter, will be accepted as meeting the requirements.
The dome yoke proper which passes around the dome may be a
rod 1% inch in diameter, or its equivalent, to which is secured the
strap or rod which is fastened to the underframe. The sectional
area of dome-yoke strap must be the same as required for tank
straps. Where tanks are equipped with a greater number of tank
bands than called for, the total sectional area of all bands will be
considered as meeting the requirements, if they equal the total
sectional area of the rods speciﬁed. Steel underframe tank cars
in which the tank is secured from end-shifting by means of head
blocks, must have a longitudinal clearance for tank valve extension
of not less than 6 inches on each side of valve. If discharge valves
are used, the valves must be so located that breakage of the con-_
454 ' CARS
nection pipe will not unseat the valve. Preferably the top of the
discharge-valve handle should be within the tank, but in the event
that it is carried through the dome, leaking must be prevented by
packing and cap nut. If the car has no underframe the tank shall
at bottom must be at least 5/8 of an inch thick, and all circum-
ferential seams in bottom sheet, except head seams, must be double-
riveted. Each car must be equipped with air brakes of a capacity
equal to not less than 70 per cent of the light weight of car, and
at least one hand brake operating the brakes of both trucks. There
shall be a push-pole pocket at every corner of the car. Where,
from the construction of the car, the push-pole pockets can not
well be placed on the body, they must be applied to the trucks,
so placed above the journal boxes that the push-pole will push
toward the center of the truck. Each truck must have a strength
equal to or greater than the strength of the axles used. All tank
cars at home on a railroad must be inspected by inspectors in the
employ of that railroad company, and when such tank cars meet
the requirements herein set forth, the legend shown by Fig. 359 _
must be stenciled on each tank head, with the initials of the rail-
road company making such inspection and the date the inspection
is made. If foreign tank cars and individual tank cars at home
on foreign lines, stenciled with the legend ‘ ‘ M. C. B. Construction”
by a foreign road, are oﬁered for movement over another railroad,
and some of the details do not conform to the requirements of the
tank-car speciﬁcation, a report of same should be made through
the proper oﬁicers to the oﬁicial in charge of equipment, and the
car allowed to proceed until further notice.
SPECIFICATION FOR OLD TANK CARS HAVING WOODEN
UN DERFRAMES
Tank cars having wooden underframes, of railroad or individual
ownership, will be required to conform to the requirements of the
“ Speciﬁcation for Ordinary Tank Cars,” relating to test of tanks,
' safety valves, test of safety valves, 5-inch safety vents with lead
disks, 2-inch vent hole or small valve with lead disk, dome yokes,
tank straps, tank-valve extension clearance, discharge valve, brakes,
push-pole pockets, trucks, etc., and inspection for compliance with
M. C. B. speciﬁcation, and, in addition, must be as strong as the-
construction covered by the following detailed speciﬁcation:
CARS 455
Where tank cars are ﬁtted with cast-iron dome heads and covers
not suﬂiciently strong to stand the necessary 40 pounds hydraulic
test, they must be replaced by others of cast or pressed steel, or
of malleable iron. Tank heads less than 115 of an inch thick, bear-


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Figure 359
M. C. B. Legend to Show Compliance with Speciﬁcation.
ing evidence of damage from impact with head blocks, should be
reinforced at bottom by means of steel plate shoes 1% inch thick,
riveted to head and shell.
If cars are not equipped with intermediate sills, the under-
frames must have two center sills, each not less than 5 inches
wide by 10 inches deep, or the equivalent in strength. If the
car is equipped with intermediate sills, the center sills must not
456 ' CARS
be less than 5 inches wide by 9 inches deep, or the equivalent in
strength. Center sills must not be spaced more than 18 inches apart.
Where draft timbers are underneath the center sills, the space
between the center sills must be ﬁlled in with timbers not less in
depth than center sills, extending from end sill to the center of
nearest cross-beareror cross-timber, provided the latter is located
not less than 4 feet 6 inches from center of bolster. On cars
where the draft arrangement is between center sills, the ﬁller
timber must be extended to the cross-tie timber when the cars
go to shop for repairs to center sills. Center sills and ﬁlling
timbers must be securely bolted together by means of %»inch
bolts. On cars having center_ or intermediate sills not less than
10 inches wide by 10 inches deep, which may be made up of two
5 by 10 inch sills bolted together, the ﬁlling timbers may be
omitted. End sills not reinforced by buffer blocks must not be
less than 9 inches wide by 1.0 inches deep. End sills 6 inches
-wide by 12 inches deep, reinforced with buﬁer blocks not less
than 6 inches wide by 10 inches deep and of suﬁicient length to‘
overlap center sills, will be accéptable as a substitute for 9 by
10 inch end sills. On existing cars, if buffer blocks are used
for the purpose of reinforcing end sills which do not come within
the speciﬁed requirements, the buifer blocks in no case must be less
than 4 inches thick nor end sills less than 6 inches thick. The total
strength of the end sill and buﬁer block must be equal to the
strength of the construction speciﬁed.
Draft timbers secured to inside ‘of center sills and extending
to cross-bearer or cross-timber will be accepted as a substitute for
ﬁlling timbers referred to above. Where center sills are 9 inches
wide by 10 inches deep, or over, and draft timbers are placed
between same, they need not extend farther back than body bolster,
provided they are adequately secured to center sills by means of
seven Zg-inch bolts or their equivalent, and butt against body
bolster. Draft timbers located underneath the center sills must
not be less than 4 inches wide by 8 inches deep, and each draft
timber must be held to center sills, end sills and buﬁer blocks
- by means of seven or more 'T/S-inch bolts or six 1-inch bolts. Where
an arrangement for supporting draft timbers is substituted for
one or more bolts and the construction is of equal strength, the same
will be acceptable. Draft timbers extending beyond bolster must be


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Fig. 360.
M. C. B. Minimum Requirements for Tank Cars with Wooden
Underframes.
CARS _ 457
secured to center sills by additional bolts. The draft gear and
draft attachments must be at least as strong as the design shown
in Fig. 360. Cars should be provided with draft-gear stops gained
into draft timbers or heeled on end sills, ﬁller timber or body
bolster, and secured with ﬁve %-inch bolts; but cars having stops
gained into draft timbers or heeled on end sills, ﬁller timber or
body bolster, secured with three iii-inch bolts, may be continued
in service until such time as they go to shop for repairs, when
ﬁve bolt stops must be provided. In all cases, tail yokes or attach-
ments of equal strength must be used. Tail bolts, tail straps, or
American continuous draft gear, will not be accepted.
I Head blocks must not be less than 10 inches wide unless rein-
forced by metal plates, and of suﬁ'icient depth to extend at least
6 inches above bottom of tank, and may be made of two pieces
bolted together and bolted to underframe by means of not less
than four ‘78-inch vertical bolts. They must be cut out to suit
curve of tank. The ends of each head block should preferably be
tied to corresponding end of head block at the other end of car
by means of rods not less than 1 inch in diameter, with 11/8-inch
threaded ends, and each head block supported at center by means
of a substantial casting securely bolted to end and center sills.
‘Where the construction of the car does not permit of this fastening‘,
the following may be substituted: The ends of each head block
tied to corresponding end of head block at the other end of car by
rods not less than 1 inch in diameter, with 11/8-inch threaded ends, and
each head block secured by two stay rods 1 inch in diameter anchored
to center sills; Or, head block supported at center by means of a
substantial casting securely bolted to end and center sills and two
1-inch rods passing diagonally through head block toward bolster
and secured to underframe; Or, head block secured by two stay
rods 1% inches in diameter, anchored to center sills; Or, head
block secured by two stay rods 1 inch in diameter, anchored to
center sills, and two 1-incli rods passing diagonally through head
block toward bolster and secured to underframe; Or, head block
secured by two stay rods 1 inch in diameter, anchored to center
sills, and two straps not less than % inch thick and 3 inches
wide, passing over head blocks and securely fastened to under-
frame.
458 ' CARS
SPECIFICATION FOR SPECIAL TANK CAR FOR CARRY-
ING VOLA‘TILE INFLAMMABLE PRODUCTS WITH A
' VAPOR TENSION OF OVER TEN POUNDS PER SQUARE
INCH AT A TEMPERATURE OF 100 DEGREES F.
‘For these cars the tanks may be either welded or riveted; with
or without steel underframes. The welded tank is preferred on
account of tightness. Where riveted tanks are used, all longitud-
inal and head seams must be double riveted. Heads must be
not less than 1/2 inch thick; and if head blocks are used, heads
must not be less than 5/8 inch thick. 7 .
Domes of steel plate, preferably drawn without vertical seam-s,
riveted or welded to the shell proper. Dome must have a capacity
to provide for an expansion of 3% per cent of the contents of
the tank, measuring from the inside top to shell to the top of the
dome. Cover for dome may be secured either by screw joint, by
bolting, or by yoke with center screw. Lid must be provided with
suitable gasket to insure tightness against the escape of gas under
pressure. V
The safety valves to be of the same pattern as those used for
other inﬂammable products, set to blow at a pressure of 20 pounds
gauge pressure, with a tolerance of 1 pound above or below that
pressure. The safety valves must be tested and adjusted, if neces-
sary, at intervals of not over six months, and the pressure and
date of the last test shall be plainly stenciled on the body of the
valve, as follows: I
Tested (date) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressure (pounds per square inch) . . . . . . . .- . . . . . .
At (place) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
By (name) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The test may be made without the removal of the valve from
the car; provided the valve unseats at a total pressure correspond-
ing with the area of the seat multiplied by 20 pounds. Valves
improperly set, or not tested at proper intervals and stenciled,
shall constitute defects for which the owner shall be responsible.
The barrel, ends and dome to be lagged with a thickness of 2
inches of 85' per cent carbonate of magnesia, or its equivalent,
covered ‘with sheet-iron jacket 14:, inch thick. Tank before lagging,
CARS 459
to be well painted.v The sheets of the jacket to be lapped so as
to shed rain and maintain the dryness of the lagging. Tank to
be tested before being put into service and once every two years
thereafter with a cold-water pressure of 100 pounds per square
inch, which it must stand without leakage or evidence of distress.
The tank car owner shall be responsible for the proper carrying
out of all tests and inspections. Tanks, when tested, must be
stenciled with pressure, date and place where test was made, and
by whom, as follows: '
Tested (date) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Pressure (pounds per square inch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At (place) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
By (name) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
If discharge valves are used, the valves must be so located
that breakage of the connection pipe will not unseat the valve.
Preferably the top of the discharge-valve handle should be within
the tank, but in the event it is carried through the dome, leakage
must be prevented by packing and cap nut. An alternative
arrangement by which the valve is placed on top of the car and
the contents of the car discharged by air, will be accepted. In
some convenient location on either the sides or ends of the car
shall be stenciled the words: “For Liqueﬁed Petroleum Gas.”
On the side of the dome shall be stenciled: “Caution: Liqueﬁed *
Petroleum Gas (Casing Head Naptha) : ' Before removing manhole
cover, safety valve must be lifted and held open until the internal
pressure, if any, is relieved. ’ ’ All other requirements for these
special tank cars to be the same as those for Ordinary Tank Cars.
The designs for these Special Tank Cars to be submitted .to the
M. C. B. Association for approval.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL TANK CAR FOR TRANS~
PORTATION OF LIQUEFIED CHLORINE GAS
, Liqueﬁed chlorine gas may be shipped in a lagged tank car
of approved design, which shall be tested before put in service
with a cold-water pressure of 300 pounds per square inch, and
stenciled in accordance with the requirement in this respect of the
speciﬁcation for ordinary tank cars. Car shall be provided with
460 CARS
an approved design of small safety valve and. fusible seal, which
must be so located that in case the car became involved in a ﬁre
the seal would be exposed. The designs for these special tank cars
to be submitted to the M. C. B. Association for approval.
A Refrigerator Car is a box car suitable for. carrying- com-
modities that need icing in transit, and is therefore. equipped with
one or more ice bunkers, and suitable means for drawing off melted
ice or briny water. It has side doors and doors in the roof-(hatches)
for admitting ice and salt. The temperature usually desired in
these cars is about 40 F. or 8 degrees above freezing. These
cars are often converted into Heater Cars during cold weather when
it is desired to transport perishable products, by simply placing
in said cars suitableheating apparatus. The doors of these cars
must ﬁt tightly, and be of heavy insulated construction in keeping
with the rest of the car‘. The piping under such cars must, accord-
ing to M. C. B. rules, be galvanized to protect it from the corrosion
due to accidental leakage of briny water. This brine if allowed
to drip through the ﬂoor, damages the car appliances, brakes, rails,
bridges, etc., and is especially hard on brake beams, often corrod-
ing and thus weakening them .so that they drop oﬂ’ and occasionally
cause wrecks. ‘
For this reason the M. C. B. Association ruled that “After-
October 1, 1915, no cars carrying products requiring for their
~refrigeration the use of ice and salt, will be accepted in inter-
change unless equipped with suitable devices for retaining the brine
between icing stations.” The following is the Recommended
Practice of the Association in this connection:— ‘ '
1. All salt-water drippings should be retained in the ice tanks
and drained off only at icing stations.
2. The total capacity of drain openings should not exceed
the capacity of traps, and the capacity of both drains and traps
should be sufficient to release all ‘drippings within the time limit
of icing the train. '
3. The mechanism adopted for handling drain valves should.
be simple and positive, and so designed as to insure closing the
valves before hatch plugs can be returned to their places.
4. Salt drippings should be conducted from ice tanks through
the drain valves above described and thence to the outside of cars
through the regular traps and drain pipes. ‘


a // U
REFRIGERATOR CAR
DOOR FASTEN ER
AND
LA FLARE INSULATION


by )7)!’ l3 barbed ﬁn: nouuv- cum
.- ‘,1 '1 . nap ofdaor m be ‘<5 a
\1 covered In?!) zinc, ' M
fl ~'_ fumed donn / 'md)
F“ "' s/(Ie d'dooc secured W. N. MINER
{r—f— /j-'—-|-— 1‘— 11'


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i


f/nned roof/09 mils
nalomrt'apan PATENTED IN THE UNITED STATES
AND CANADA. OTHER PATENTS PENDING.
Z/nc; no nails 10 mp surface
Zmc ﬂasheddann on edge
ml fa door post only.


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Carr/age oa/fs
g'CarnaqeDc/b


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Defaﬂs shom'oy anal


leaf/on of
pad/oak m'fh mre seal and of
seal on/ In pofferns 042/4
and D-/ 20
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23(4: 4'-6' 70119, of f/Ires/ro/d as
add/ﬁana/ supper-f for floor/'09.
Lower Keeper, Pa” 04238
Sect/on of 6—H
[Carr/09¢ bolts, nufs an
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Ho/es of rods pluy9ed


NOTE — /MPO/? T/FN 7'!—
Lock-bar guide-phase Paff Nil? 0227-22 and 04223-24 mg‘
ml!) foo and Def/om edges of door Amman:
from cenfer of bar f0 cenfer of r/ghf-hand bo/f m keepers.


e I‘ ‘ I
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I, . Locafe keepers accurafe/g f0 d/menslons g/ven from my
~‘- ‘4-------»--< Mama-
Ends of bo/fs f0 be ﬁve/ed over ours
mside corner of "WW/7004.1 obor rounded
as shown
Doors musf be hung fa have é'c/earance a// around excepf
0f Do/fom wh/eh must be near/g f/ffed f0 fhreshald-pbfe.
Care musf be falter; f0 bore o// spr/n; holes exact/q fhesame
depfh, as shown, fa msure equal compress/on on a// spr/ngs and
the prqoer sef fo fhe msu/af/on.


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17w /3 barbed
aporf
N9 6 Canvas, secured
ﬁnned mlls ‘nor over


0M ,4 me, a ‘Nd/3 \
bra/“fangs; main/gem? 090,-’ . L/nseed 01/ appl/ed f0 edges of doors musf be dry before
Net‘? a le, d1‘ hd \ ., I ' .
Is‘pringlrzn/Zsg'lzj'rfvoid mm_ 7( ~ - IN apply/[)9 canms' _
corners m 1 rad/us Top end ‘be/ow Canvas msu/afron offer belna app/led mus,‘ be coded w/fh
1mm insulaflon, ba/fom ‘ have fhresho/d haf fallow
Spring sfnp fo pro/ed faf'rom face ofposf ‘


Sfeel sonny.


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Cur/"armada a‘f'ar ﬁve/masses of M’Gcarws
Fu//-s/ze defm/ of
IDSUhf/Oﬂ 0/ fhre’J/JO/d
15'
M5? -4


Seer/on at J—ff
Secf/an or‘ 6-0. I
R/qh/ hand door
Left hand door

Fig. 361.
Miner Refrigerator Car Door Fastener and L. Flare Insulation.
W. H. Miner.
CARS 461


In Portfolio 2, Plate VII, may be seen a general view of a
refrigerator and ventilator car, with a section through the ice-box
or tank. Such cars have a blind ﬂoor—a layer of boards under
the sub-ﬂoor and fastened to nailing-strips secured to the bottoms
of the sills; and also a blind lining—a thin layer of boards between
the outside sheathing and the inside lining, and sometimes called
“the intermediate lining.” Many of such cars have special door
fasteners one of which is seen in Fig. 361. About 80 per cent
of refrigerator cars now have steel underframes, with all-metal
trucks, the arch-bar type of the latter being discarded as defective
because of its frequent failures. The cast-iron wheel is also being
abandoned, because the heavy tare weight of these cars often
breaks such wheels down.
The M. C. B. Association has adopted 48 inches as the minimum
height of the refrigerator car ﬂoor above the top of the rail; and
has recommended to the Maintenance of Way Association that 44
inches be adopted as the maximum height of freight house plat-
form, to avoid trouble in opening the car doors at the freight
houses.
By the term “refrigerator” is meant the chamber constituting
the main body of the car, in which the paying load is carried.
If used as a meat car, it is furnished with hanging boards or meat
timbers—transverse bars (resting usually on bogus plates) to which
the load of meat is suspended from books. The M. C. B. Recom-
mended Practice requires for fresh meat cars, ice-tanks of a
minimum capacity of 5,000 pounds; for fruit and dairy cars, of
3,000 pounds per tank or 6,000 pounds per car.
The loss and damage due to improper or insuiﬁcient refrigera-
tion is still great, but is now being rapidly reduced very much,
thanks to better icing service and especially to better insulation,
which in improved refrigerator cars gives 16 per cent greater capac-
ity when icing is not required. The M. C. B. Association will soon
likely adopt standard refrigerator car heat-insulation materials,
which it is now considering. ‘
In the White Enamel Refrigerator Car system, each bulkhead
has 5 sections of Bohn syphons, these syphons raising up under
roof and there locking, while the ice grates fold up against the
end of the car. The modern bulkheads are of galvanized pressed
_ steel.
462 I ' ones
The cars used for refrigeration must always be suitablewehicles
specially constructed and strong enough to withstand the trans-
portation of the lading in heavy trains up steep grades, with safety
to the property they carry. One large road has found it necessary
to forbid the use of refrigerator cars or others for loading danger-
ous explosives requiring specially prepared and placarded cars, on
account of sparks getting through the hatches or ventilators, and
because such car ﬂoors are sometimes ﬂooded from ice bunkers.
The ﬂoor of the car must be kept perfectly dry, so that the
air in the car will be free from moisture; and the car must have
ice-capacity suﬂicient to keep its lading in good condition. The
ice must last from the loading station to the next icing point or
the delivery point of the connecting road. Most of them‘ are
intended to transport eggs, cheese, fruit, butter, etc., and such
perishable freight as will not contaminate other articles in. the
same car, or leave an odor in the car that will make it unﬁt to
transport dairy line freightu For this reason, fresh meat or ﬁsh
must not be loaded in such cars which carry a general lading,
unless packed in ice in boxes or barrels; nor hides, onions, cabbages
and like freight.
What are known as Ventilator Cars, Box Fruit Cars, Ventilated
Box Cars, or Fruit Cars, are similar to the ordinary box car, but
have arrangements for ventilation that ﬁt them for the. safe trans-
portation of fruit, produce, or other food stuffs not requiring refrig-
eration. Such cars generally have special-end doors for the ven-
tilation of the lading at the top and bottom; being open in the
South and closed in the North, during winter. By a Milk Car is
meant one similar to a refrigerator car, but generally built for
operation in passenger trains, for carrying fresh milk in cans.
The growing demand for convertible cars, cars that can be
used for more than one purpose, is exempliﬁed by the increased
construction of cars that besides being used as refrigerator cars,
can also be used as heater or ventilator cars or\ both. Where the
earning power of such special equipment justiﬁes the additional
ﬁrst cost, they can be useful as refrigerator cars in summer and
heater cars in winter, making such a-car available for service and
a revenue producing one during the entire year. We have just
shown a combined refrigerator and ventilator car; others are avail-
able for use as heater or refrigerator cars.


CARS 463
A Heater Car is one equipped with heating apparatus, for
carrying fruits, vegetables, or other perishable products during
cold weather. Refrigerator cars are sometimes used for this pur
pose. A Heater Box is a box applied to refrigerator cars for
heating purposes. A Car Heater is any apparatus for heating cars
by convection—that is, by conveying hot water, steam, or warmed
air into or through a car. Steam heating in passenger cars is
usually replaced in freight cars by special heating apparatus.
Formerly this last was eﬂFected by portable or removable heaters,
but a recent decision of the I. C. C. has ruled that portable
heaters cannot be used after 1918 for heating freight cars in
transit or in motion, though they may be used for heating cars
before loading or for heating cars which reach their destination
when the weather is too cold to permit of their being unloaded-
thus saving the expense and trouble of running such cars into
round houses.
The objection to using portable heaters in transit, in addition
to the constant expense, is the increasing ﬁre hazard endangering
both life and property, the ineiﬁciency of such practice as the
freight nearest the stove is kept too warm while at the extreme
distance from the stove it may be freezing. There is little or
no circulation of the air in cars so heated and by the natural laws
of gravitation the warm air rises to the roof of the car instead
of going underneath and around the load where it is needed, and
such heaters inside the car take up loading space. There is the
objection to opening the doors frequently which is necessary for
inspection and care of the stoves, and ﬁnally the vitiation of the
air is injurious to food products and it would endanger human
life to be inside cars so heated.
With such cars, one essential is to ﬁnd a fuel that would not
produce smoke, soot, or gases injurious to the car or its lading.
The burner must be automatic in its action, safe and acceptable
to the railroad companies to handle in theirv trains without having
caretakers accompany the shipment. Also, the fuel supply must
be such as to burn continuously during the entire trip without‘
replenishment, if possible. The fuel must be a safe one to use,
and must be so located and supplied to the burners as not to
endanger car or lading. The fuel must be low in cost and a
supply of it available everywhere.
464 CARS
One of the very best systems now in large use on railroads
here and in. Canada is that of the Alcohol Heating and Lighting
Company, which is shown installed in Fig. 333, in a combined
Heater, Ventilator and Refrigerator Car. The car is similar in
construction to the Standard Railway Refrigerator Car; the heating


Fig. 362.
Phantom View of Heater Box. Alcohol Heating and Lighting
Company's System.
system comprising two heater boxes placed at each side of the
car, under the ﬂoor. A phantom view of the heater box is seen in
Fig. 362. Each box contains two alcohol supply tanks and two
burners. Above the boxes and just under the ﬂoor, running length-
wise of the car, are four horizontal ducts or ﬂues, two for heated
air direct from the heater boxes and two for the cooler or return
air which is conducted back to the heaters for reheating. Through


Fig. 363.
Automatic Burner for Alcohol Heater. Alcohol Heating and Light-
ing Company's System.
the ducts the warm air passes in both directions to the ends of the
cars, where it rises through vertical ducts into the ice chambers,
which ‘act as chimneys and liberate the warm air near their upper
grated openings, as shown in Fig. 364. The heaters are equipped
with automatic burners, Fig. 363, which produce a clean smokeless
ﬂame 5 inches high. The fuel used is denatured alcohol; each
car having reservoir capacity of 24 gallons, or enough to keep
one burner in each box going continuously for eight 24-hour days;
CARS 465
each burner using one-half pint per hour at a cost of 2%, cents.
This car using this system was approved by the Bureau of
Explosives, and roads accept it without accompanying attendants.
The alcohol causes no fumes and does not aﬁect the lading. Cost
of installation of this system in car is about $150.
,A i


Fig. 364.
Section Through Refrigerator Car Equipped with the Alcohol Heat-
ing and Lighting Company’s System, Showing Location
of Heater, Passages, and Flow of Air Currents.
The Economy Freight Car Heater, Fig. 365, uses kerosene oil
as a fuel, which is everywhere obtainable and lower in cost than
any other fuel available for such a purpose. They save the expense
of installation, and may be returned by freight or express. They
are far better than stoves and free from danger of ﬁre if properly
secured. The burner is 5 inches in diameter. Inside the burner
is a water tube 3 inches in diameter, fed from a water reservoir,
preventing the overheating of the metal parts and providing for
the immediate extinction of the ﬂame should the Heater be over-
turned. Both water and oil reservoirs are galvanized iron and have
466 CARS
baﬂle plates to prevent the swashing of the liquids. The oil
reservoir holds two gallons. This will maintain a steady ﬂame for
about twenty-four hours.

Fig. 365.
Economy Freight Car Heater.
When used in refrigerator cars the heaters are placed in the
ice tanks, one at each end, and are attended to without breaking
seals. They are readily raised and lowered through the ice hatches.
When used in box cars they are placed between the doors, one or
two being used according to the temperature.
The Gold Improved Storage Heater is shown in Fig. 366.
CARS
4‘7


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Fig. 366.
Gold's Improved Storage Heaters, as Applied to a Refrigerator
Car. Gold Car Heating & Lighting Co.
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Half Section Through Express Refrigerator Car.

Fig‘. 367.
Half Section Through Express Refrigerator Car.
CARS 469
A modern steel underframe refrigerator car for express service,
equipped for operation in passenger trains, is shown in Fig. 367,
and illustrates the kind of insulation now most in vogue for such
cars. It is ﬁfty feet long over end sills, weighs 86,000 pounds and
has a capacity for 60,000 pounds of lading and 14,000 pounds of
ice. This type also has running boards on their roofs, ﬁtting them
for use in freight trains. Particular attention has been given to
the insulation. On top of, and riveted to the underframe mem-
bers, is a layer of No. 16 galvanized iron, over which a course
of one-eighth inch asbestos paper is applied. There is an
air space between this and the thirteen-sixteenth inch deafening
ﬂoor, on top of which is a layer of one-half inch Keystone hair
felt held in position by seven-eighths inch wood furring.
To the latter is nailed a single course of three-eighths inch
yellow pine, which supports the second course of one-half inch
Keystone hair felt, the latter also being held in position by seven-
eighths inch nailing strips. These in turn‘ support another
course of three-eighths inch yellow pine, on top of which is
laid the third course of one-half inch Keystone hair felt. This
insulation is all located below the main ﬂoor, between three-inch
by six-inch yellow pine nailing sills. Resting on the four nailing
sills and the two four-inch by eight and three-fourth-inch side sill
ﬁllers, is a course of thirteen-sixteenth inch by ﬁve and one-fourth
inch yellow pine forming the sub-ﬂoor. A layer of Neponset red
paper is applied between this and the main ﬂoor, which is of
thirteen-sixteenth inch by three and one-fourth inch yellow pine.
Over the main ﬂoor, except at the ice bunkers, is placed water-
prooﬁng and Mastic ﬂooring, and this also extends up the sides of
the car for six inches. This permits the ﬂoor of the car to be
cleaned by ﬂushing with water. The insulation of the sides, ends
and roof is similar to that of the ﬂoor, three courses of one-half-
inch Keystone hair felt and a layer of Neponset red paper being
used; and it will be noticed that three air spaces are provided.
The Bohn system of refrigeration is used, and also the Bohn
all-steel collapsible bulkheads. The hatch covers are placed in
the lower deck of the roof, and each bunker.’ has a capacity for
7,000 pounds of ice. The ice grates are made of white oak bars
and when not in use can be folded back in a three-inch recess in
the end of the car, thus leaving the ends ﬂush.
CHAPTER x111
THE PASSENGER CAR—FRAMING, PLATFORM, TRUCKS.
Included in the denomination “passenger cars,’ ’ are various
kinds that might not strictly be so considered, but the custom is
to describe as passenger cars all that are regularly used in
passenger trains or-are ﬁtted up for that service. In this classi-
ﬁcation then we ﬁnd baggage, mail and express cars, besides those
specially arranged to carry passengers in various degrees of ease
and comfort. Different combinations are sometimes made in a
single car; baggage and mail, and baggage, mail and smoking
room are some of these. Other examples of cars ﬁtted up en-
tirely for a single service are mail, baggage, smoker, coach, chair,
sleeper, dining and private cars. In all cases the general con-
struction of the car framing is the same. I
The specially arranged diagram shown in Plate X, Fig. 368,
illustrates in detail the different parts of passenger, buﬂ’et, sleep-
ing and observation cars. It also‘ outlines the special equipment
supplied for heating and lighting, together with a vestibuled and
an observation platform.
From the former average length of- ﬁfty feet for passenger
cars, this dimension has increased to the following average lengths
for modern passenger equipment, all of which now nearly always
have the six-wheel truck-the width of the car depending, to-
gether with the height, on the physical conditions of the roads,
their clearances, tunnels, bridges, etc.:— ‘
Steel Vestibuled Day Coach, seventy feet ﬁve inches to seventy-
two feet six inches: Steel underframe chair car, vestibuled, over
end sills, seventy feet. Steel, open platform day coach, over
body, sixty feet. Steel vestibuled dining car, over end sills,
seventy-two feet up to eighty feet. Wooden observation parlor
car, eighty-three feet eight inches, and wooden vestibuled day
coach, over end sills, sixty-two to sixty-nine feet. _
In Portfolio 2 will be found illustrations of the 'following
passenger carsz—Day Coach, Buffet, Sleeping Car, Observation
470;
ing bri e. 70 Body side-bearing pillar. 71 Body-bolster. 720ut- 222 Hoiwawgigfi fmmthegg‘é Zﬁﬂgglwcggfeplsgiltgsuﬁlggsg' 3 7o _ _ , r I i " ._ v V ._-, "_ ___ 2‘
‘me D Y'tmnsmn pillar‘ 73 Intem‘adme WWW-2.111.; pull?" 3353353‘. bott0m1..e2ggAsh-plt door‘. 231 Ash-pit door niinalo. 232Coal 395 - ' ,, ' '. ~' ' I 74 Body'tmnsom center—bearing P11132423??? ggﬁ‘aﬁ'igﬁtbar 3331!]; box. 233 Feed door. 234 Feed door handle. 285 Safety plate handle. 39; -.___i3 ‘7
AMERICAN PASSENGER, BUFFET—SLEEPING AND OBSERVATION CARS.


03
we so: 299 p 5., ~ '9’ w PLATE XI.
1, _ , , ___ i___, I ' +1—I _ I -‘—' 3 u I _L - _. a
' atzs'sri'mzif' ""1221. E ‘.5? " 7'1”: l‘ "96:: - e w I. ._ . I l _. . , ,5 5..
us'r OF THE VARIOUS PARTS on runs}: cans. snn ILLUSTRATION snowmo sans, PLATE II. ,, 3”.-__---r_h..—:i'l—='—-n .__~._._l£-; 7 ---.._- -1l-_n~ ’


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TRUCKS AND THEIR ATTACHMENTS. AUTOMATIC WATER-RAISING SYSTEM. 5;} W]; 175 Water tank. 176 Air tank. 177 Drip cock In air tank. 178 .pj-é
5 w‘hgexllfgmzr 6831,3132‘? $23513‘? 1?; iiéiﬁﬁﬁz‘ﬁng 3 if; Air pressure governor. 179 Check-valve 1n alr pipe. 180 Water 1, -.
- . 181 Three-way cock. 182 Stem of three-way cock. 183
-ri rivets. 9 Steel tire. 10 Trend of wheel. 11 Flange ‘an? 5""
3211:2531. 11812 Journal box. 13 Journal-box cover. 14 Journal-box Mam aim“)! 1'51“: “1&4 i511‘ Vent‘ fggm lggaféglgaalg}; e1.18? ewntcr
cover-spring. 15 Journal-box cover-bolt. 16 Journal-bearing or swim"- "5 0“ ° 0 8811 81-11! R - P P -
brass. 17 Pedestal. 18 Pedestal bolts. 19 Pedestal tie-bar. 20


Pedestal stay-rod. 21 Pedestal brace. 22 Wheel- iece. 23 Out- LAVATORY FITTINGS IN SMOKR‘G ROOM‘ 7 7 a
side wheel-piece. 24 End-piece of truck-frame. 25 rid-piece plate. 188 Hot water when 139 Hot water D‘ it‘, bowl’ 190 Cold 606. :. ‘15 564 —— _ _ 1,? ,_,_;,:A__:_W_T_w‘w V_: ___:f_!?¢__i‘~____
36 End 91608.01‘ end 8111 corner-918":- 2701381118 "amwm- wont" water pipe to bow . 191 Combined hot on cold water cock. 192 - 4.1 <\ ' I[01031011fﬂvfojﬁﬁojvjqqoﬁojohjvlq ""' '"'" l " ‘
side transom plate- 29 Transom corner-Plats 3° Transom "n85- Wash-bowl or basin. 193 Basin plug. 194 Basin coupling. 195 Basin 805 I 7 566‘ .‘t ‘
rod- 31 Transom “'“Bs'md sea.“ 32 Tmnwm "'“Bs'wd "she" 33 waste'pipe. 196 Slab. 1m Riser. 198 Towel-holder. m Towel-holder 3 7 {Wk
Transom chﬂﬁnk-Plme- 34 Middle "81180111- 35 Middl“ ‘ransom bracket. 200Water cooler. 201 Water cooler faucet. 202 Water ‘ _‘
l to. 36 Safet -beam. 87 Safety-beam iron. 38 Safety-bum tie- lass or mmmcn 203 water 1388 bracket
120%. 89 Middleysafety-beam. 40 Center-pin. 41 Center-bearing g g


.,
I9‘
llllllnh—q—t 1‘ 1' .


arch-bar. 42 Center-bearing stool. 48 Body center-plate. 44 WATER CLOSET_
Truck center-plate. 45 Center-plate block. 46 Center-bearingbeam. ' a 7 I
47 Center-bearing arch-bar. 48 Center-bearing inverted arch-bar. 204 Floor ipe. 215 Iron hopper. 208 Cover for iron hopper. 207 I .
49 Center-bearing beam- late. 50 Center-bearing beam-strips. 5i Dump pan. Porcelain bowl. 209 Drip tray. 210 Seat. hinge. 211 _ _ . _ ; l v‘ - I z-__~\., ‘ Truck-bolster. 52 True -bolster chafing-plate. 53 Spring-beam. Operat ng lever. 212 Sliding rod. 213 Supply pipe. 214 Vent pipe. '25 - , A . a , _ I ‘ p t ._ _;_v__": I I‘ i
54 Spring-beam chaﬁng-plate. 55 Bolster-spring ca . 56 Bolster- 215 Water tank. 216 Toilet paper holder. 217 Coat hook. 18 37a _~\ .. _ _ .: _ - I” I ‘ . _ I U ‘ ,_
spring seat. 57 Bolster-springs.l £8 Sprglig-band. 62-tSIprln8-1wimk. Stained glass art-window. 37a ,1 7 _ " ' J ' ' I ' _. .‘w _ ———’_l . l. . —— F a ‘numb,’
. lank beari . wing- ngers. pper 5 ng- ' . . _ , v . r 7 _ _
M1125? ggrgt. 63 Lower :vgving-hnnger pivot. 64 Swing-hanger pivot- HEATING SYSTEM—OOMBIh ED HOT WATER APID STEAM. - l w

bearing. 65 Swing-hanger staple. 66 Swing-hanger staple casting.
67 Truck sided-waxing. 68 Sideqwaﬂng bridge_ 69 Body slde_bear_ 219 Baker 11681.81‘. 220 Expanding generator 0011. 221 Inner 0011.


or;
- .77E ualizln -bars rln
mg “Him” ‘1 gﬂngﬁock, gochecmham 31 check. as Outside casing. 237Inslde casing. 2388moke ﬂue. 239Slnoke 394


cap‘ 79 Equalizing-bar Sp ﬂue base. 240 T0 of heater. 241 Ring for Russia-iron top. 242 _ l‘
chain honk‘ 82 Check'cmm loop' Bacheck'cham eye-bolt‘ “(meek- Smoke pipe. 243 gamper. 244Circulating drum. 245 Combination 354 _Q _ _ g ‘ p n .7 p w 4 _ I I v ‘ I ‘I H z I p I p ‘I _ ‘ I 1 ‘ i‘ I K ' : hfﬁ‘
chain chaﬂnB-Plate- drip cock. 246Fiilling flannel.l 247lSafe2t5y) galve. l‘248kF2qor galvie. 353 _ r-‘_._' I . _. a V _ . _ 7 _. _ a _ p . . 7 i ., _ _ .1 ,; __, _I .I _ _ _ _ . _. a: . _ - . . _' .. . I. V _ . 1‘- _ _ _ I , .. , "I r. ~ direct steamboat 11g 24 Aug eva ve. team so e no re n 52; 1 ,- I :f- -——- H . 5 ' ~ . V _ ~ ______ —-——— I _ __ ..,, -— _ _ P _ _V 7- _' V = f ‘ _ p : _ _____ ‘ l _ V i D V V V “as A; :1.
AIR BRAKE. AIR SIGNAL AND HAND BRAlsisEBAppﬁaATtii' heater)- 251 Steam inlet to acket. 252Steam outlet. from acket. 253 320 iE- __.¢Zlw;= ; y . _ I . .- . 1 ~ - ., .. V _ . ,. _ _ ; g v _ v _ _ ‘ ‘ “£5,926: '74 3'9
86 Brake-himgef- 37 Brake'hanger c8" ,8!‘- 90 Tm‘e'd md ‘ Steamclrculstingplge. 254 ct waterclrculatlngplpe. 255 eat Radi- 322 _ﬁ. ,i ll '67 p ‘ . _ ‘i.’ TM‘ /265.
justing-hanger carrier. 89 Brake-hanger pln. russe wggiRen ators. 256Foot‘guar over heater-pipes. 257 Blow-oi! for water. 258 266 ‘JV '7 H; a . V w h l‘ ‘t ‘ ~ _‘ £\‘+‘\v I F26‘,
orakobeam- 91 Hollowbrake-beam "2131-8116 safety-5R8?- . 8' Blow-off forsteam. 259Handle fol'steam blow-off. 260Automatlc 6 ,1 =_ I “re-I" M J‘ ; x 79 a". “A” > V
lease spring. 94 Upper balance-8mm:- % Lower balance-,fpﬂgg- water trap. 261An le drip valve. 262Retu1'n _bcnd. stsstcum hose. 1 2 .v I,’ , _Iv. ‘kid! I . ‘ _ ‘no 0. ‘ 6° \ “m 65
QGBBIBDOG-BPTUIK 1‘0d- 97 Bmke‘h?ad- gsggilfe'igoeﬁmggggzagstsﬁ 264Hose-band. 265 team hose coupling (Gibbs). 266 Steam hose '53 v.“ '65 p‘. ’ ‘. t - A v "j: v I ’ m ‘ ‘— - I ._-) \ “0 6
Eflfmwfmotétesiigeer iiiiig-iiiiffl 1:flulccrum. 166 Cnesntgr-brake transom. coupling (sewam' 267 End steam valve' 164 ‘'86 414 ‘412 408 . - I . ‘ ‘ ._ .- ' - 1v ‘ .576 u 68, ,6, H“ 62
104 Center brake-beam. 105 Center brake-hanger. 106 Center-brake LIGHTING APPARATUS AND FIXTURES—GAS ELECTRIC M Th8 M; _l T l n \ . v - __ ‘ I ‘ p.‘
8mm“, ,mogegmmgkek,,,e,,e_,p,m , mofwlmm LIGHT. Em . WW3, W335? DIA AM SHoWIgIqEgIE DIFFERENT PARTS or PASSEh GER, BUFFET-
. _ ..,__ a‘. i ,6,
b lance-s ring. 1 enter- re s a ance-sp ng r ‘a I _— r J
bake-910%— "1 Crescent unk- lmcreswnnmk'hanger' "3 Equal‘ 268Filling valve cover. 269 Filling pipe. 270 Holder valve. 271 C _ 1 - I \\ a:
izing brake-lever. 114 Truck brake-lever. 115 Truck-lever ful- ks home“ mGas holder supports. 27;; CM. gang‘, 274 Reg,,_


\_,
cl-um.I 116Dead truck-lever. 117 Live truck-lever. liSBrake-lever “on 275 pipe to 18m , 276 Main gas cock (in closet).
Wrrn VES‘I'IBULI him OBSERVATION PLATFORMS, Gas AND Ensc'rnxc LIGHT, BAKER Hanna AND STEAM HEATING, &c.
stop. 119 Inside connecting-rod. 12) Outside connecting—rod- 121 77Bmltet gaslamp. 278 lobe. 279Globe holder. 280Center sus-
Particularizing the dllferent parts thereof and giving the technical names by which they are known by those com shed with the car do rtment of railroad . I H _ v 9 '0
The right hand portion of the chart illustrates the construction of a passenger coach having seats with reversible bit is and a Baker heateﬁoom. The left hagd ‘ is at once 3 Chan and an Encycloyedm' each part of the car being given a number 80 m“ it may be recognized and
, _ rtion illustrates the construction 0 a buﬁet slec ing car with berth l quickly referred to‘ the who“, being chasm“! and" Bub-IIMI
Lower brake-0011118014011- 122 Adlusﬂng tum-buckle- 123 Upper brake’ tension lamp. 281 Four-arm lamp. 282 Electric bulbs. 283 Vesti- The wide vestibule latform is added to the coach end of the car with a Pintsch gas lamp in the dome and outside else to corner lights. The four wheel truck used ooac sect‘ on and sem's' "be but!“ k‘t'chen- the smoking and W116‘ T001118. ﬁnd an obs ‘ m
connection. 1% Hand brake-connection. 1% Brake-chain shaft. 126 oule lamp 284 Glass bowL 235 Glass Gama 235 Globe hinge. 287 ‘ad observation 0 of me car is such as is used in the construction of these heavy modem cm l n the h and of the car is such a. is used very largely in the construction of American passenger coaches, although six wheels are often used. The ol'i'giigilffui'ﬁ gilgw‘iigliiii‘o'iliilo re'ar'
Brake racheb-Wheel- 127 Brake hand'wheel- 1m Rachet'brake- 129 Spring catch. 288 Reﬂector. 289Cluster. 290 Plug for cluster. 81 eeplng
or H ‘3° assessments-crass 533%" Check e2 mass is“ ma c" is?" vEs'rmULE A... moon. 8 1.. .
carrier. 132Cy n or ever. y n or ever i‘ 1‘ tips, 295 Body casting. .. F nos. 7 cut ator. out at ng ' tep nger brace. 882 Extens on folding step. 383 Extension step truss-rodq sen-post. 426 Over-hang truss-rod seat. 427 Brace-rod 484 Lotte
lever connecting-rod. 185 Brake cylinder. 136 Cylinder front-head. chimney. 299 Burner cook. 30) Roof casting. 301 Gas way. 802 hinge. 384 ‘Side-stems’. 385 Side-stem thimble. 386 _Side-stem washer. 42 Brace. 429 Brace-rod 430 Stud. 431 Window posts. 487 Deck 2:81;‘; (ringlxdihrgifnzﬁ‘gecl‘k‘golitsmugindgr-Eazhes 7%, land.‘ deck cemng' 5298mm panel‘ 530 Blink ‘pron’ 531 Hammock hook- BUFFET KITCHEN
I37 Cylinder back'hm- 138 Allwmaﬂc slack'adjusw" 139 Auto‘ Thimble. 303 Reducing elbow. 304 Smoke bell. 305Gas we hang- 336 vestibule end of car. 337 Vestibule door. 338 vestibule door spring. 387 Slde-stem pm. 388 Center-stem. 889 Inner gulde center- 432 Sheathilt rail. 43: Sheathing furring. 435 Plate. 436 Body window screens. 490 Deck screen-post 491 Outside h 'thi 4°92 532 mmmock' 533 Mirrors‘ 584 Electric push—buttons‘ sa‘r’Annuncmmr '
matlc pressure-11381118101‘ f0!‘ High speed Bmke- 14° Piston-travel ers. 306Ventilator. 307 Electric connector. 808 Electric res. 309 lock. $19 vestibule door drop-handle. 340 vestibule door hinges. stem. 390 Center-stem spring. 391 Center-stem pin. 392 Follower end-plate. 427 Rafter. 438 Roof boards. 439 Clear-story. 440 Deck Upper wainscot panel 493 Lower Wainscot anel 4984 8‘: hing- box. “Tabla WTable leg' sssTable hook-plates‘ 539 HM hooks‘ 573 Bun“- 574 Overhead W be $8 k 5
recorder. 141 Piston Omssheﬂd- I42 Alum"? maervoir- “3 Electric switch-board. 310 Platform electric lamp. 811 vestibule 841 vestibule door guard-rod 342 Glass in vestibule door. 343 \‘es- center-stem. 393Pressure bar. 394 Short buffer-plate. 395 Thres- end-sills. 44' Deck sill. 442 Deck sill facing. 443 Deck post. 444 Back. 496 Head roll ' 497 Back band 4% Aprm ‘ 9?) on. 4% 540 smoking room‘ 541 Smokmg mom pmels‘ 542 Wainscot mnels— a r n I 75 S“ nor“ for overhead
Auxiliary reservoir bands 144 Auxiliary reservoir mocks- Wi electric corner-light. 312 Electric berth light. 313 Electric deck fac- tibule dome. 344Vestlbule hood. s45 Diaphramface-plate. 846111- hold plate. 396 Foot plate. 397 Safety coupling chain. ass Safety ‘ ' ms“ 4 S‘mend
water tank. 576 Overhead water tank tiller 577 '
. Deck panels 445 Deck late. 446 U r deck carlins. 447 - - ' - 5433M“- 5'44 wlndm' “Twin-rod. 545 Window dra r . . ' n . . ' ‘p9 from Overhead
Release-cock or bleeder- 146 Pipe '0 auxin"! Ye§¢"°"~ 147 ing 11 ht. 314 Combined gas and electric chandelier. 315 Electric ner face-plate. 347 Diaphram. 348 Top face-plate guide. 349 B9t- coupling hook. pound carlins. 448 Deckpsash. 449 Degrsash lintel 450 Deckgggh :51]; QSQZiSZkE‘iooS'QQZ‘ZZEWM" 502m)“ mu‘ “striker smut‘ 547m "waive" 548 C‘m‘muous basket ‘gig QzioBbggg“ :13“ tigblgggrgldlirg aqgg glosfztl' 515mlD Bracket for bread
Triple v81V0- "8 Check'valve 0886- 149 Bfsnch 9196- 150 Cut- lights sdes. 315 Side ‘amp. 317 Side lamp bracket. 818 Side lamp tgm face-plate guide. 350 Face-plate buffers. 351 Face-plate chaln. CAR FRAMING‘ ETC‘ openers. 451 beck sash pivot 452 Deck sash uli. L53 Ceiling. 454 rack brackets. 55OBasket rack rod. 551 Basket rack nettinﬁ- 552 582 late rack. 583 saucer rack 5543",“ b: r so’ °§nned Boodl-
out cock. 151 Strainer tee. 152 Pressure retaining valve. 158 chimney, 352 Back gravity-bar. 353 Front face- late gravity-bar. 854 (Jrav- Inside deck cornice. 455 Inside lining. 456 nslde cornice fascia SE Parcel and umbrella rack. 5530bservation end of car. 554 Revolv- 586 China closet. 587 Shelves for las w- 5:; i 580 Mgwh "18'
pipe mgr-assure retaining valve. 154 Train brakc'pive- 155 Pipe ity-bar fulcrum-bolt. 355 Chain-sheave racket. 356 Chain sheave. 899 End-sill. 400 Side—sill knee~lron. 401 Side-sill. 402 Sill tie- board. 457 Dull sash hinge. 458 inside window sill. 450 Pilaster CTIONS AND SLEEPING BERTHS. 1118 shall‘. 5660hair base casting. 590 Hot water 501 Milk 502 Dri gt 8 “Ell-98‘ Um' 580 Coﬂee'
name‘ 156 Tee an,“ m conductors vplve. 1'127An8r1i2n220p2p8133 COUPLING APPARATUS AND DRAFT GEAR. 357 End post. 858 vestibule ggzd 1garh‘ne. 350 Water drlip.f 360Plat; rods. 4?}ﬂSéll agd P181436” tie-rod. 404 Bridging. 405 Floor timber base 460 Pllsster. 461 Pilgster cap. 462 window cove molding, 505L011" berm 507 Upper berth down an Upper berm up Gas pi% Sink 595' Qaninzp'Jgé- 59:}! (Ilgédbgvrteggfsalgéatth 594
' ‘. - - - . - . . . . . ' ' ' - v ' - - e -
gdlsiugltfglg. vaillsvlekirxbmlggligggf'oicg Xinigrod brake ose. its Alr- 3191111181‘ coupler. 320 Automatic vertical-plane coupler ..41 “"11 '°°' 36‘ R00! apron 1m 0m hood 383 P M Ol'm r00 brace 81' 001’ Deafening ceiling 408 Cross“ “Inher- 463 Window @8111 - 464 Window 8*116- 466 Window aash- mwin- 509 Bert-h from panel. upper pm 510 Berth from. lower mn- DOOR AND TRIMMR‘GS- am‘- I R r
. carlins- 364 Platform roof end carlins. 865 Platform floor andmat- ‘ 409 Body truss-rod. 410 Body queen- st. 411 Body ueen- st dow glass. 461W dow in. 468 W1 d _
hose coupling. 154 Signal hose coupling- 165 318118111088- 166 A!" Knuckle- wKlmcklbpm- 323 Drawbar- 3'34 5mm“- ,335 Dlgi’gm'g ting. 366Platform trap-door. 36? Platform sill. 368 Platform short brace. 412 Turn-buckle. 413 Truss- anchor-iron. 414 russPfod l n ow lock ‘69 window 'wp' 5" Benn ‘mm
mored slgnalbolw 167 TF8“! signal Pipe- 168 Train Sign“! 5'01?‘ “"9- 3% Draft‘gp'm strap'bon‘s' 3:77 Draws!“ “3' ran’ all]. 819 Platform end sill. 370 Platform rail-post. 371 Base washer stub-ends. 415 Truss- lank.
cock. 1!» Signal branch-pipe to car discharge valve. 170 Signal 8 ring followers. 329 ail~bolt or stem, 330 Dmwbgr curry-iron,
panel 5,2 86m, h h ions. can Lcliig dick‘: in L0 k “13 “d ‘'1 ker' 11mm"
_ 6, mg 513 Berth 6“ D u l 55., n r. c er 00:. Q4 Lockerpa els.
470 Rafter col-ice. 471 Window blind sash. 472 Window blind slats. . ring from . Be ' ha tc an not me‘ Car door‘ 558 Top doomau- 559 Middle n
“6 Tnmsplank ca 4" Belt ran‘ 473 Window and mum“. a‘ mdow blind H“ m window lstpvi 516 mesh 5slgxetyrtll’iosgring c in. 515 Berth chain pul- door-rail. 560 Bottom door-rail. 561 Lower door panels. 562M ddie
- 7 Berth mattre s. 518 Be th (1 s RKERS'
. for rail-post. 372 Platform-rail. 873 Platform rail chain. 374 Plat 418 Belt. rail cap. 419 ompression beam. 420 Auxli ry compression shade. 47613050m bar had . 477 Shad l h. ' m 8 r om. an“ I 563 Upper door sash 564 Lower door sash- 566 MA ‘ .
branch-FIDO to 01" (1159113118 valve. 171 C8!‘ litnll'v‘lve- 172 3i!‘ 1 In." d'a'b" c"ry'ir°n'8853% Urzoiuphng 19W?!‘- 3‘ UlcouPlllR form tie-rod. 375 End sill tie-rod. 876 Platform te. 377 Platform beam. 421 Compression beam brace. 422 Counter brace. 423 Coun- fringe. 479 Slide 850 or:20 Ogtslde windgwmsitﬁb :ﬁtlc Wlglsoihtiiﬁ 2g%1111§&?:81'1n519 Phgguti'gi mgﬂiiilpéno'l 521 Berth c'urmms. sash- i“. 566 Door Bash lock- 567 Door knob. “8 Door holder. 56: 606 H.‘ “a m hwr m Tau 1.‘ : : . '
uni cord 17! Signs] cord hanger. 174 Anglo ﬁtting. shaft. 834 Uncouvling rod. re t t mbers. step riser. I78 Tread board. 879 Step iron. Step hanger. 3211 121' brace rod. 424 Hog-chain or overhang truss-rod- 425 Oval-hang cornice board. 482 Vflindow panel. 4811 Outside window molding- Berth portitiongshso Head boanrd 51:7 hovc‘iﬁr‘ln'i’i‘of “$8150.23 Efemuilrlder “ML 570 Escumneon‘ 571 Do“ hing” m um‘ p - p. . . “..—
. ' (l ' s‘ I '
1- lg. 368 . . r
a‘ I '
: AS. in.
CARS 471
Car, Postal Car, Buffet Car, Dining Car, Compartment Sleeping
Car, and Pullman Sleeping Car, together with details of said cars.
The width varies in different parts of the country and on
diﬁ‘erent roads from nine to eleven feet 'measured over the side
sills. The average height of passenger cars from the top of‘ the
rails to the top of the clear story roof is about fourteen feet, three
inches. '
But few railroad companies build their own passenger cars,
evidently because it has been demonstrated that the work can be
more cheaply and eﬁectively performed by private car manufac-
turers making a specialty of this business.
The ﬂoor framing is, in general construction, very similar to
that of freight cars, ‘consideration being made for the diﬁerence
in length. The material for ‘the longitudinal sills is usually long
leafed Southern yellow pine, while white oak is selected for the
end sills and cross-tie timbers. However, these latter members
are very often made of bulb-iron or deck beams. With a very
long car, a second set of cross-tie timbers is used, placed between
the ones at the center of the car and the body bolster.
The longitudinal sills are at least six in number, but for all
the most modern large cars there are eight. A general idea of
the framing of the ﬂoor timbers can be obtained from Fig. 369,
which also shows the platform timbers, the double bolster for a
six-wheel truck and the truss rods which are used only under the
outside sills. .
Practically all the various types of bolsters used for freight
cars are adaptable for passenger cars. When a four-wheeled truck
is used under a light car, the single bolster is usually placed about
six feet from the outside face of the end sill. However, when
a six—wheel truck is to be used, there is a little more complica-
tion in the arrangement of bolsters. ‘The six-wheeled truck. was
introduced because of the great weight to be carried. For the
same reason the double transom arrangement is used. Although
slightly more expensive than the single transom, this’ double ar-
rangement is much‘ more preferable, because the load is dis’
tributed more widely and the end of the car is held up from
sagging, due. to the shorter distance from the end sill to the ﬁrst
bolster. The space between the two bolsters is spanned by a
d-

‘all
9"‘.
I“.
“we, 7%.
v/V/W/l.

'i'iilyi'aomlul
Fi . 369.
Passenger Car Floor Framing.
CARS 47 3
built up beam (a trussed design being shown in Fig. 369) to
which the center plate is secured. This center plate is ordinarily
about eight feet from the outer faceof the end sill for cars using
six-wheel trucks.
'The ﬂoors of passenger cars are usually double, the ﬁrst layer
being at least one inch thick, matched and grooved, placed diag-
onally across the car. The top or ﬁnished course is about seven-
eig'hths of an inch thick, matched and grooved and extends length-
wise of the car. Yellow pine is used considerably for both courses,
maple is also selected for the upper layer, especially in the aisles.
Special precautions are also taken in the ﬂooring to deaden. the
sounds, a layer of tar or building paper being put on top of the
sills under the lower ﬂoor course. Further precautions are to
seal up the space between the longitudinal sills and ﬁll the open-
ings with some sound deadening material, such as saw-dust or
mineral wool.
The side framing of passenger cars is composed of posts,
plates, tie rods, belt and panel rails, panel furring and the need-
ful bracing, Fig. 368.
The full length posts, with the exception of those at the
corners, are window posts; they range in size, the dimensions
depending on the requirements of the window sash and blinds or
curtains; one and one-fourth by four inches is probably the aver-
age size used. The posts are framed to both sill and plate with
tenons, which are usually one and one-fourth inches thick, those
entering the sill being three inches long and of a driving ﬁt for
‘ the purpose of giving the car lateral stiffness. -
The plates vary in size from two by ﬁve to four by six inches;
the latter size, or one approximating it, is used when.- the plate
is set on edge, as is usual in baggage and express cars. For
passenger cars it is preferable to apply it with the side up, be-
cause it is desirable to have as much room above the windows _
as possible, and even with this, the space is insuﬁicient when the
window has but one sash, that is when it is without a transom.
In such cases the plate is provided with slots, which permit the
sash to ascend until stopped by the roof boards. The plate is
secured by vertical rods placed at intervals of about three feet
or at every second post; these rods are either of three-eighths-
474 CARS
inch iron and have one-half-inch screw ends or are one-half-inch '
throughout, the former plan being adopted to reduce weight; but
the reduction is small when compared ' with the total weight of
the structure. ' v
The outer edges of the posts are notched to receive the belt,
and, between this and the sill, one, but usually two, panel rails.
The belt rail was formerly, and is in many instances yet, a part
of the outside ﬁnish, and is in that case not less than two and one-
half inches thick, one and one-fourth inches of which, or the
thickness of the panels and battens, project beyond the face of
the posts. ‘ The width is about four inches, the protruding por-
tion being beveled on top where it comes in contact. with the
outside window sill, and grooved or rabbeted on the lower edge
to receive the panels or siding. Usually the belt rail is of the
same thickness as that of the panel rails, which is one and one-
half inches, and is, like these, let in ﬂush with the face of the
post. To avoid the cutting away of the posts more than this is
absolutely necessary, and at the same time add to the rigidity
of the frame by locking the joints, the gains in these are not
more than one inch deep, the remaining one-half inch being
taken from the rails themselves. The rails are secured in place
with wood screws, the panel rails with one and the belt with two
to each bearing. _
Above the belt, when the space between the windows is not
so narrow that the posts themselves occupy the whole of ‘it, three
or four blocks, termed window panel furring are provided. These
are of pine or some other soft wood, are from seven-eighths to
one and one-fourth inches thick, and of the same width as the
window posts when the inside panel is not let in ﬂush, in which
case they are the thickness of this, narrower. The furring blocks
rest in shallow gains cut in the sides of the posts, and are fastened
with glue and nails. '
The bracing in the side frames of passenger cars is of necessity
con-ﬁned to the space below the windows, and as this is compara-
tively low and the different members constituting the truss are
limited in size, this cannot be relied upon to carry the weight
without truss rods, but if - properly constructed will materiallyaid
in doing so. There are several different styles of bracing, each
of which is claimed to ‘be the best by those using it; generally
CARS 475
speaking, that in which the members are long and the joints con-
sequently less numerous is less apt to sag, although it possesses
the disadvantage that it cannot be adjusted when once out of
shape without removing the outside covering.
Figure 370 illustrates a common form of framing and side-
trussing. In addition to the framing the sides and ends also are
blocked in. That is, blocks not less than seven-eighths inch
thick are carefully ﬁtted to each opening between posts and
‘braces. These blocks are either set in and glued against stops
or'the posts are slightly gained ‘to receive them. As a result of
this blocking, the car side is made a practically continuous board,
giving it great rigidity and strength.
The principal members of the end frames of passenger cars
are the corner and door posts. Both are shaped in the form of a
quarter circle, the radius of which is usually ﬁve and one-half
and ﬁve inches, respectively. The corner post is framed to the
plate with a tenon, but is secured to the sill with screws only;
the supplemental posts, however, which are so securely attached
to it with both glue and screws, so as to make the whole prac-
tically one piece, have tenons at the lower ends also. A lintel
of the same circular section as the door posts themselves, and
usually also of wood, although cast-iron arches are sometimes used,
connects these at the top and forms a rectangular opening with
slightly rounded corners. The top of the door opening is also
frequently a semi-circle, elliptic, or perfectly straight, with sharp
corners, the latter mostly for both the end and side doors of
baggage and kindred cars, it being in that case often nothing‘
more than a piece of board covering the lower edge of the plate.
The studding and belt and panel rails are the same as those
at the sides, although the former are ‘perhaps one or one and
one-half inches narrower when end windows are omitted, as is
the case in sleeping cars and frequently in day coaches also. The ‘
braces are in that case—that is, if braces are introduced at all to
stiifen the frame-longer and extend to the angle formed by the
junction of the door post with the plate.
The end plate is usually two and one-half or three inches thick
and from ﬁfteen to seventeen inches-wide in the center; this last
dimension being governed by the pitch of the rafters, which also
determines the outline to which the upper edge is shaped. The


Fig. 370.
Passenger Car Side Framing.
CARS 477
plate is secured to the side plate and deck sills with joint bolts
and to the end sill with four ﬁve-eighth-inch tie rods.


Fig. 371.
Passenger Car End Framing.
In the construction of- roofs of passenger cars a clere-story
or upper deck is generally used, this form of construction advantageous for purposes of ventilation and light. The clere-
story or deck side is composed of a sill and plate, and posts sepa~
rating these. The posts and tie rods passing through these, cor-
47 8 ~ CARS
respond in number and location to the side window panels, there
being as many decks as there are side windows. The rafters which
form the connection between the deck sill and side plate are
usually not less than one and one-half inches thick, about ﬁve
inches wide at the lower end, two and one-half inches at the
upper end; both edges are curved to a given radius or shaped to
whatever other outline the fancy of the designer may select. The
rafters are attached to the plate with at least two large screws
in each and to the deck sill with a pin and tenon or a tenon and a
small joint bolt; they are spaced about eighteen inches from
centers, when this is practicable—in a day car there is one to-
every window and panel. The deck carlines, which are spaced to
correspond with the rafters, are one and one-half by two inches,
and are also curved, but to a much larger radius.
An iron carline is introduced either every six feet, or at every
second panel, for the purpose of strengthening the roof vertically.
It is a ﬂat bar of ﬁve-eighths or three-fourths by two inch iron
set on edge and bent to conform to the contour line of the roof
and deck; the ends are bent at right angles where they meet the
plates, and are attached to these with two one—half-inch bolts in
each. The iron, or compound carline, as it is designated, because
it is attached to the sides or between the wooden rafters and deck
carlines, is placed ﬂush with the upper edges of these, but the
. vertical portions project from the deck sides the full width of the
iron; to let them in ﬂush would cut in two both the sill and plate.
The projections are, however, not objectionable, because they are
usually hidden by the deck screens.
The roofs of passenger cars‘are usually covered with tin, can-
vas being sometimes used. The tin, or whatever other material
the roof proper may be composed of, is supported by the roof
boards. These are tongued and grooved strips of from ﬁve-eighths
to three-fourths of an inch thick, which are applied longitudinally
and securely held in place by screws or nails. It is advisable to
use as wide boards as possible; these are made sufﬁciently pliable
to form the required convex surface by partially cutting through
them, if necessary, longitudinally at intervals of from two to
three inches; ordinarily, however, boards not much wider than
this are used. For the roof ends it is necessary to use very nar-
row, thin and pliable strips and apply them in two layers to obtain
I
CARS 479
the required thickness; in- most cases, straight grained pine or
poplar will answer this purpose, but when the curves are very
severe bass wood is used.
The outside covering of passenger cars is generally of yellow
poplar; that wood being non-resinous and having a close grain
affords a good foundation for paint. It goes without saying that
it must be well seasoned and free from sap.
The form of exterior generally adopted dispenses with panels
as they are expensive to maintain, being liable to check and split.
Narrow tongued and grooved boards are used. To obtain the
best effect, the strips should be very narrow, from one and one-half
to two inches, exclusive of the tongues, or be centerbeaded if they
are double this width. The form of these so-called heads, but
which are in reality grooves, is semicircular or V-shaped with
either sharp or rounded corners, the latter being the more popular;
the grooves are very minute and do not exceed three-sixteenths
of an inch. The boards are secured in place in all properly con-
structed cars by blind nailing through the tongues, with glue
applied at the back and joints; if more than two inches wide
some additional nails are driven through the face of the boards
also. .
The construction of the deck side exterior varies with the
arrangements made for windows and ventilation. In, the case of
stationary windows, a light covering surrounds the openings and
covers the face of the frame and a soﬁit board and eaves molding
complete the ﬁnish. When the deck sash is on hinges for purposes
of ventilation, a screen is placed several inches distant from the
windows, and this, with the addition of a narrow fascia board
and molding, forms the exterior.
The inside lining is principally arranged for decorative eﬁect.
The inside lining or ﬁnish is generally as follows: The wains-
coting, as that portion below the windows and above the truss
plank is termed, is either composed of narrow matched and headed
strips applied longitudinally, or of three members, two rails and
a panel. Both the upper and lower rails in that case are three-v
fourths of.an inch thick and about six inches wide, the former
requiring to be substantial, as the seat, back, arms and stops are
attached to it. The rails are rabbeted to receive the panel which
is one-half—inch thick. There is usually no great attempt made
480 a CARS
to ornament this part of the ﬁnish; the edges of the rails are,
however, chamfered or molded, and sometimes a series of grooves
or beads is cut in the panel.
On the upper wainscot rail rests the inside window sill; this
' is about one-half by four inches, {and is nailed to the above rail
and to the window sill furring. 11 some cases a window sill cap
and belt molding under the sill proper are added, but ordinarily
nothing more than a single member is used.
The wood work above the ' windows is usually arranged in
much the same fashion as that below these and with rails and
panels of about the same thickness. Sometimes nothing more
than these three members are used, in which case the panel be-
comes a belt molding, its surface being variously shaped, beaded
and carved. In other cases the rails are continuous, but the panels
are in short sections, usually corresponding in length to the width
of one or more windows. They are separated by stiles framed
in between the rails with a mortise and tenon. The edges of
both the stiles and rails are chamfered, or molded, and grooved to
receive the panels. The panels may be ﬂat and surface carved,
be beaded or have raised centers, which may be left plain or be
ornamented with carved rosettes, beads, etc.
The space between the windows is lined with panels which are
applied vertically. These are about three-fourths of an inch thick,
and usually very elaborately ornamented with grooves and carving.
' At the junction of the side and head lining is a large molding
to properly terminate the. wall ﬁnish; and supplementing this,
very often a narrow fascia board, the lower edge‘of which is
notched or in some other way ornamented.
Some additional work is required at the ends unless the ceiling
is hipped, in which case the side ﬁnish is simply continued until
it meets the door opening. In other cases the additional space
is paneled.
The deck ﬁnish consists of a one-half-inch facing aroundv the
window openings, a cornice at the deck ceiling and a more or less
ornamental deck sill facing with one or more moldings. '
The head lining is either a painted canvas or of three-ply
veneer, the center of which is of one-eighth-inch poplar. It is
manufactured in molds of the exact curve required and in sections
‘ corresponding in length. to the spacing of the side windows. These
CARS 481
sections are secured in place with nails and the whole surface is
divided off into panels by narrow moldings, some of which are
necessary to cover the joints. The veneer head lining is always
more or less decorated, but is usually not painted, although this
is done in some instances, especially when the design is partially
in relief.
The saloon and other partitions are built up of stiles, rails
and panels, much in the same manner as a door is constructed
and are of a design in keeping with the ﬁnish at the sides; the
stiles and rails are about one and one-fourth inches thick.
The interior of baggage and similar cars is not so elaborate.
The sides and ends are lined with matched and beaded boards of
the usual dimensions, which are applied horizontally. Ordinarily
there is no head lining in such cars; the roof boards are beaded
on the under side and the rafters, deck sills and plates, etc., are
dressed and chamfered; a molding and fascia board at the junc-
tion of the roof and lining complete the ﬁnish.
A distinctive feature of passenger equipment is the platforms
at the ends of the car and the devices used for coupling, Fig. 368.
The Miller hook and platform was one of the early devices which
was designed to meet the requirements of the situation. It mate-
rially aided in the smoothness of handling passenger trains and
reduced to a minimum the jerking in stopping and starting trains.
Illustrations (Figs.'372, 373, 374 and 375) show the original
drawings of the Miller device, which remained practically un-
changed in its general plan up to the time of its retirement by
the M. C. B. Coupler, and three-stem buffer. The hooks or couplers
were generally solid forged iron or steel castings. The bolt con-
nection was sometimes changed to a strap or yoke. Flat followers
are to be made of wrought iron or open-hearth steel, one and ﬁve-
eighth inches thick for tandem spring gear and two and one-fourth
inches thick for twin spring and friction gear. The draw and
buffer springs~ shown in the drawings are of the volute type, but
the general practice became to use springs of the same dimen~
sions and resistance as those used in freight cars. The drawbar
side or stop castings were modiﬁed so that their removal when
removing springs or follower plates was avoided, this being accom-
plished by using loose wrought bars bolted to the castings in
place of the lower retaining ﬂange.
482 CARS
The buﬁer as shown is an iron or steel forgin‘g consisting of
three parts, the head, the bar and the stem. The stem passes
through the spring and buﬁ'er spring beam, in the rear of which
it is ﬁtted with a strong cotter to retain it. The shoulder formed
by the junction of the stem with the bar bears directly on the

Fig. 372.
Miller Platform and Hook.
spring, if this is of the volute pattern, but if it is a spiral a plate
must be provided. The bar is rectangular in section to prevent
turning, the guide is retained in its socket by a plate attached to
the face of the end timbers.
A pair of three or four-inch timbers, termed platform timbers,
which resemble the draw timbers in shape, extend back to the
CARS 483
bolster, and are bolted to the intermediate and end sills, together
with the draw timbers form the foundation of the platform. The
two short beams, the platform sills framed in between the end
sills and end timber, may be dispensed with if the intermediate

Fig. 373.
Miller Platform and Hook.
ﬂoor timbers, and consequently the platform timbers also, can be
placed to meet the requirements of the platform ﬂoor.
The platform end timber, which is in its largest cross section
eight inches wide and seven inches deep, and otherwise shaped as
shown, is kept in place by two three-quarter-inch rods usually
running back to the transom, and in addition to this by two ﬁve-
eighth-inch rods located close to the platform sills, but extending
484 CARS
through the end sill only. The end timber, which is raised above
the platform timbers one inch, or the thickness of the ﬂoor so as
to be ﬂush with this, carries the end railing, uncoupling lever,
brake shaft and coupler guide or stop. The railings, ordinarily
of wrought iron, are supported on four wrought-iron tapering

Fig. 374.
Miller Platform and Hook.


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Fig. 375.
Miller Platform and Hook.
posts, which are ﬁrmly attached to the timber by means of nuts, -
and are braced by large cast-iron washers or sockets. The un-
coupling lever, which passes through a slot in the timber, and is
pivoted to the under side of this by suitable trunnion plates, is
connected with the coupler by a short chain; the upper or handle’
end of the lever is conﬁned within a guide usually formed in one
piece with the railing, and which is shaped with several notches
for the reception of the lever when it is desired to lock the hook
in the uncoupling position.
CARS 485
On the opposite side is placed a cast-iron stop designed to
limit the lateral motion of the hook enough to prevent uncoupling.
This casting is secured by a seven-eighth-inch bolt passing both
through it and the end timber, and is maintained in its vertical
position laterally _by a one-half by three-inch bent bar, which also
does duty as a step for the brake shaft, and in the other direction
by a brace attached to one of the draw timbers.
To prevent uncoupling the hook has an inclined face, and in
addition is acted upon by a two-leaf spring placed alongside of it,
which is kept in place by the two carry irons, the second or back
hanger, serving as a fulcrum; the spring is strained to any de-
sired degree by a bolt and bracket provided for this purpose.
The main carry iron is attached to the under side of the truss
beam by four three-quarter-inch bolts; its position is oblique and
several inches from the center line, and on its proper dimensions
and adjustment greatly depends the automatic ‘action in coupling.
In addition to doing duty as a support to the side spring, the back
hanger serves as a safety hanger to the drawbar; it does not,
however, carry the drawbar as long as all the parts are in proper
repair. ‘
The original form of the J anney platform and coupler are
shown in Figs. 376, 377 and 378. The principal member is a lever
or combination yoke pivoted on a one and one-half-inch bolt, which
is located a few inches above the draw-bar, and passes through
the draft timbers, the holes in which are bushed with iron ferrules
to guard against wear. The connection of the upper arm with
the buﬁer equalizer and spring is effected through a one and one-‘
quarter-inch T bolt. As- the buifers are intended to move outward
whether the draw-bar moves in the same or a contrary direction,
the latter must be able to act in the ﬁrst case on the portion of the
yoke above the fulcrum, or the upper arm, and _in the other case on
the lower arm. The upper connection is made with a T bolt and
post or horn ﬁtted to a slot in the drawbar; the lower by simply
bringing the yoke which surrounds the drawbar in contact with
the protruding end ‘of the post.
The buﬁers are two in number. They are retained by malleable
iron guides let into and bolted to the end timber, and attached
to the equalizer, by the use of which as ﬂexible a connection as is
486
CARS
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CARS
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488 CARS
obtained with a single buﬁer is insured. The equalizer is sup-
ported by the draft or main knee timbers, which are provided with
suitable mortises and guides for that purpose.
The buffers and equalizer are either malleable castings or
forged iron; the latter is usually preferred, because it is more
reliable, and can be produced at very nearly the same cost. The
combination yoke is always a casting (malleable or steel.)
The construction of the platform itself is in the main not
altered. A change is, however, made in the form and fastening
of the end timbers, but not for the reason that any feature of
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J anney Platform.
the coupler or buffers requires this. It is composed of two sepa-
rate pieces, one of which, the inner piece, is three and one-half
inches thick by ﬁve inches wide, and of the usual length; it rests
on the knee timbers, which are cut down at the ends to receive it,
and is secured to them by one ﬁve-eighth-inch bolt through each,
those passing through the main knee timbers also assisting to
retain the drawbar carry iron. The outer piece is six inches thick
for a distance of three feet, the remaining one and one-half feet
at each end being reduced to the same thickness as that of the
main end timber. Its width is six and three-quarter inches at the
center line, ﬁve and one-quarter inches where the buﬁers are
attached,‘ and tapering from those points to the ends. This timber
is, like the ﬁrst, fastened to the platform timbers with vertical
bolts, to the draft timbers with the iron straps that cover the
ends of these, and to the end sill by two three-quarter~inch rods.

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PASSENGER CAR PLATFORM AND COUPLER.
F18. 379.
CARS 489
These two platforms were the ﬁrst ones of their types. From
them all the various modiﬁed devices have been derived. In their
original form they are not now in very extensive use. A more
modern platform framing and draw bar arrangement is shown in
Fig. 379.
Many passenger cars are now equipped with vestibules which
are not only a convenience to passengers and others in passing
from one car to another but have the effect of steadying the train
by making it practically a continuous and solid structure. The
vestibule, it is claimed, in addition to answering these purposes,
decreases the resistance of the atmosphere on the train and also
tends to obviate telescoping of the cars in the event of collision.
There are two kinds of vestibules in general use, known as
wide and narrow. The narrow was the ﬁrst to be used. Its doors
enclose only the platform between the steps. The general con-
struction of a narrow vestibule is illustrated in Figs. 380 and 381.
The platform on which the vestibule is located is strengthened
by plating the platform timbers with iron, as shown; this, as well
as the strengthening of the side frames of the body, is necessary
to obtain the proper resistance to the strain produced by the fric-
tion of two vestibule or diaphragm plates in con-tact. Another
change is the form and size of the buffers. These constitute prac-
tically the only changes required in the construction of the plat-
forms and draw gears.
The buffer bars or stems are hinged to a cast-steel plate, which
takes the place of the ordinary buifer heads. They are hinged
'- to permit adjustment on curves and a third stem, which is in the
center of the plate, is provided to take the strain when in contact
with a car equipped with the ordinary Miller or single stem buifer.
To close the opening between this buffer plate and the platform
end timber, and thus make the platform continuous, a thin wrought-
iron plate which slides on a recessed plate of cast iron on the end
timber is attached to the buﬂfer head. -
The so—called vestibule plate is in the form of an inverted U,
the ends of which are attached to the buffer with rivets or counter-
sunk headed bolts, the whole forming an opening which is three
feet wide and nearly seven feet high. Its face is wplaned. To
obtain a practically dust and rain proof joint between a pair of
these plates an arrangement of levers and springs is provided in

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Narrow Vestibule_
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492 CARS
the platform hood, the springs to give the desired compression,
'which is nearly equal to that of the buﬂ’ers, "and the levers to
compensate for the angularity produced when the cars are one.
curve. A single equalizer like that employed for the buffer would
answer the purpose if it were convenient to introduce it on a line
with the points of attachment of the ‘frame plate. The arrange-
ment used consists of two bars or stems which are attached to the
vestibule plate with‘ ball and socket joints by means of suitable
castings and are guided boxes secured to the end carline and
side walls of the vestibule. The spiral compression springs are
located on these stems between shoulders ,formed on them and the
ends of a pair of vertical levers which have their fulcrums on the
side walls and whose upper ends are connected by short chains
to the ends of a horizontal equalizer which in its turn is ful-
crumed-to a timber framed in above the end plate of the car.
This cross-timber and the brackets forming the side walls of the
vestibule are substantially and securely fastened with corner irons
and bolts. The connection between the vestibule plate and the
framing of the vestibule is made with heavy sheet rubber or can-
vas which is shaped like the folds of an accordion.
The ceiling of the vestibule is dome-shaped and is furnished
with a lamp; there are also provisions for ventilation. The doors
fold back upon themselves, so as to be less in the way when open.
‘They are usually decorated, with bevel-edged plate glass and brass
grills. All the attachments of the platforms are also very elabo-
rate; the ornamented railings and brackets, brake wheels, etc.,
are of polished brass, and the ﬂoor and treads on thesteps are
covered with corrugated rubber mats.
The wide_ vestibule is of practically the same general con-
struction as the narrow vestibule. The exception being in the
location of the doors. These are placed out practically. ﬂush, with
the sides of the car and the whole platform is then enclosed.
Large panes of glass are used above the line of the window rail
of the car, in both the side doors and the end framing of the
platform. Trap doors let down ﬂush with the ﬂoor of the plat-
form and cover the openings over the steps behind the side doors.
The ‘trucks used on passenger cars differ from those used on
freight cars, being as a rule more elaborate. The four andv six-
wheel types are illustrated in detail in Figs. 383, 384 and 385.
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CARS
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Following is a list of namesof parts of passenger car trucks
indicated in the foregoing ‘illustrations:
Perhikikieieieoqwwwwwwwmwwmi-ll—ll-ll-Ji-ll-ll-il-l
9°91!““Pl-‘PPYPSDWF‘FPIPP’PEP:\‘$’=P‘t>9°l\°l-‘9°89°ﬁ?°P'P$”P°1-‘
Wheel.
Axle.
J ournal-box.
J ournal-box lid.
Pedestal.
Pedestal Tie-bar.
Pedestal Stay-rod.
Pedestal-brace.
Pedestal-brace Tie-bar.
Wheel-piece.
Outside Wheel-piece Plate.
- Inside ‘Wheel-piece Plate.
Wheel-piece Truss-rod.
Arch-bar.
Inverted Arch-bar.
Auxiliary Arch-bar.
End-piece of Truck-frame.
Transom. 4
MIDDLE TRANSOM FOR SIX-WHEELED TRUCK.
OUTSIDE TRANSOM FOR SIX-WHEELED TRUCK.
Transom Tie-bar.
Transom Truss-rod.
Transom Truss-block.
Transom Truss-rod Washer.‘
Transom Chaﬁng-plate.
Transom-casting.
Transom-pillar.
Truck-bolster.
Truck-bolster Chaﬁng-plate.
Lateral-motion Spring.
Lateral-motion Spring-pin.
SPRING-BEAM.
Q
. . Spring-plank.
Spring-plank Bearing.
Spring-plank Safety Strap. .
Swing-hangers.
CARS 497
47.
Upper Swing-hanger Pivot.
Lower Swing-hanger Pivot.
Swing-hanger Pivot-bearing.
Swing-hanger Friction-block.
Safety-beam.
MIDDLE SAFETY-BEAM.
Safety-beam Block.
Axle Safety Bearing.
Axle Safety-strap.
Axle Safety-bearing Thimbles.
Safety-beam Tie-rod.
SAFETY-BEAM IRON.
Truck Side-bearing.
SIDE-BEARIN G BRIDGE.
Truck Center-plate.
Center-plate Block.
CENTER-BEARING BEAM. '
CENTER-BEARING ARCH-BAR.
CENTER-BEARING INVERTED ARCH-BAR.
Check-chain. I
Truck Check-chain Hook.
Truck Check-‘chain Eye.
Equalizing-bar. l
Equalizing-bar Spring-cap.
Equalizing-bar Spring-seat.
Bolster Springoseat.
Bolster Spring-cap.
Spring-block.
J ournal-spring.
. ‘Equalizing-bar Spring.
Bolster-spring.
Truck-frame Knee-iron.
Brake-head. .
Brake-beam.
. . Brake Eye-bolt.
Brake-hanger
Brake-hanger Carrier
Brake-beam Safety-chain.
498 CARS ' ' ' '- '
89. Brake Safety-chain Eye-bolt.‘
90. Brake Safety-strap. ' w
91. Release-spring. - l
92. Brake-lever.
93. Brake-lever Fulcrum.
94. Brake-lever Guide.
95. Brake-lever Stop.
96. Brake-lever Sheave.
97. Lower Brake-rod.
98. Brake-shoe. I
104. King-bolt or Center-pin.
1 12. ‘Journal-bearing.
114. Stop-plate.
115. Dust-guard. . y - .
120. Brake-beam Adjusting-hanger Carrier.
121. Brake-beam Adjusting-hanger.
123. Brake-beam Adjusting-hanger Clip.
124. Brake-beam Adjusting-hanger Plate.
130. ‘ END-SILL CORN ER-PLATE.
131. TRANSOM CORNER-PLATE.
Names ‘of parts in capital letters in‘ the foregoing list are
special to six-wheel car-trucks. ' -
The follbwing are the Safety Appliances for Passenger Train
Cars prescribed by law and made standard by the M. O. B. Asso-
ciation: -
PASSENGER TRAIN CARS WITH WIDE VESTIBULES.
Hand Brakes—Each passenger car shall be equipped with an
eﬂicient hand brake, which shall operate in harmony with the .
power brake thereon. Each hand brake shall be so located that it
can be safely operated while car is in motion.
Handholds: Side—Eight: Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of
an inch of metal; minimum clear length, sixteen inches; minimum
clearance,‘ one and one-quarter, preferably one and one-half inches.
.Location, vertical—one on each vestibule door post. Side hand-
holds shall be securely fastened with bolts, rivets or screws.
End—Four: Minimum diameter, ﬁve~eighths of an inch
wrought iron or steel; minimum clear length, sixteen inches.
CARS 499
Minimum clearance, two, preferably two and one-half, inches.
Handholds shall he ﬂush with or project not more than one inch
beyond vestibule face. Horizontal: One near each side on each
end, projecting downward from face of vestibule end sill. Clear-
ance of outer end of handhold shall be not more than sixteen
inches from side of car. End handholds shall be securely fastened
with bolts or rivets. When marker sockets or brackets are located
so that they cannot be conveniently reached from platforms, suit-
able steps and handholds shall be provided for men to reach such
sockets or brackets. .
Uncoupling Levers-Uncoupling attachments shall be applied
so they can be operated by a person standing on the ground.
Minimum length of ground uncoupling attachment, forty-two inches, .
measured from center line of end of car to handle of attachment.
On passenger-train cars used in freight or mixed train service,
the uncoupling attachments shall be so applied that the coupler
can be operated from left side of car. . -
PASSENGER-TRAIN CARS WITH OPEN END PLATFORMS.
Each passenger-train car shall be equipped with an eﬁicient
hand brake, which shall operate in harmony with the power brake
thereon. Each hand brake shall be so located that it can be safely
operated while car is in motion.
End Handholds—Four: Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of
an inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clear length, sixteen
inches. Minimum clearance, two, preferably two and one-half,
inches. Handholds shall be ﬂush with or project not more than
one inch beyond face of end sill. Horizontal: One near each side
of each end on face of platform end sill, projecting downward.
Clearance of outer end of handhold shall be not more than sixteen
inches from end of end sill. End handholds shall be securely
fastened with bolts or rivets. ,
End Platform Handholds—Four: [Cars equipped with safety
gates do not require end platform handholda] Minimum clear-
ance, two, preferably two and one-half, inches, metal. Horizontal
from or near door post to a point not more than twelve inches from
corner of car, then approximately vertical to a point not more than
six inches from top of platform. Horizontal portion shall be not
500 CARS
less than twenty-four inches in length nor more than forty inches
above platform. End-platform handholds shall be securely’. fas-
tened with bolts, rivets, or screws. .
Uncoupling Levers—Uncoupling attachments shall be applied
so-they can be operated by a person standing on the ground. Mini-
mum. lengthv of ground uncoupling attachment, forty-two inches,
measured from center of' end of car to handle of attachment. On
passenger-train cars. used in freight or mixed train service, the
uncoupling attachments shall be so applied that the coupler can
be operated from left side of car. '
PASSENGER-TRAIN CARS WITHOUT END PLATFORMS.
Hand Brakes—Each passenger-train car shall be equipped
yvith an eﬁicient'hand brake, which shall operate in harmony with
the power brake thereon. Each hand brake shall be so located
that it can be safely operated while car is in motion.-
Sill Steps—Four; " Minimum length of tread, ten, preferably
twelve, inches. Minimum cross-sectional area, one-half by one and
one-half inches or equivalent, wrought iron or steel. Minimum
clear depth, eight inches. One near each end on each side, not
more than twenty-four inches from corner of car to center‘ of
tread of sill step. Outside edge of tread of step shall be not more
than two'inches inside of face of side of car. Tread shall be not
more than twenty-four, preferably not more than twenty-two, inches
above the top of rail. Steps exceeding eighteen inches in depth
shall have an additional tread-and be laterally braced. Sill steps
shall be securely fastened with not less than one-half-inch bolts
with nuts outside (when possible) and riveted over, or with not
less than .one-half-inch rivets.
Side Handholds—Four: Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an
inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clear length, sixteen, prefer-
ably twenty-four, inches. Minimum clearance, two, preferably-two
and one-half, inches. Horizontal or vertical: One near each end
on each side of car over sill step. If horizontal, not less than
twenty-four nor more than thirty inches above center line of
coupler. If vertical, lower end not lessthan eighteen. nor more
than twenty-four inches above center line of coupler. Side hand-
holds shall be securely fastened with bolts, rivets or screws.
CARS 501
O
End HandhoZds—Four: Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an
inch, wrought iron or steel. Minimum clear length, sixteen inches.
. Minimum clearance, two, preferably two and one-half, inches.
Horizontal: One near each side on each end, projecting downward
from face of end sill or sheathing. Clearance of outer end of
handhold shall be not more than sixteen inches from side of car.
Handholds shall be ﬂush with or project not more than one inch
beyond face of end sill. End handholds shall be securely fastened
with bolts or rivets. When marker sockets or brackets are located
so that they cannot be conveniently reached from platforms, suit-
able steps and handholds shall be provided forl'men to reach such
sockets or brackets.
End Handrails-Four [011 cars with projecting end-sills]:
Minimum diameter, ﬁve-eighths of an inch, wrought iron or steel.
Minimum clearance, two, preferably two and one-half, inches.
One on each side of each end, extending horizontally from door
post or vestibule frame to a point not more than six inches from
corner of car, then approximately vertical to a point not more
than six inches from top of platform end sill; horizontal portion
shall be not less than thirty nor more than sixty inches above
platform end sill. End handrails shall be securely fastened with
bolts, rivets or screws. - _
Side-Door Steps—One under each door: Minimum length of
tread, ten, preferably twelve, inches. Minimum cross-sectional
area, one-half by one and one-half inches or equivalent, wrought
iron or steel. .Minimum clear depth, eight inches. Outside edge
of tread of step not more than two inches inside of face of side
of car. Tread not more than twenty-four, preferably not more
than twenty-two, inches above the top of rail. Steps exceeding
eighteen inches in depth shall have an additional tread and be
laterally braced. Side-door steps shall be securely fastened with
not less than one-half inch bolts with nuts outside (when possible)
and riveted over, or with not less than one-half inch rivets. A
vertical handhold not less than twenty-four inches in clear length
shall be applied above each side-door step on door post.
' Uncoupli'ng Levers—Uncoupling attachments shall be applied
so they can be operated by a person standing on the ground.
Minimum length of ground uncoupling attachment, forty-two
502 . CARS
inches, measured from center line of end of car to handle of at-
tachment. On passenger-train cars used in freight or mixed train
service, the‘ uncoupling attachment shall be so applied that the
coupler can be operated from the left side of car. Cars of con-
' struction not covered speciﬁcally in the foregoing sections, relative
to handholds, sill steps,- ladders, hand brakes and running boards, 4
may be considered as of special construction, but shall have, as
nearly as possible, the same complement of handholds, sill steps.
4 ladders, hand brakes and-running boards as are required for cars
of the nearest approximate type. “Right” or “left” refers to
side of person when facing end or side of car from ground. To
provide for the usual inaccuracies of manufacturing and for wear,
where sizes of metal are speciﬁed, a total variation of ﬁve per cent
-below.size given is permitted.
The term Blind-End Car is sometimes used to designate non-
vestibuled cars, though, more properly, it is a car without end '
doors, either non-vestibuled or with open platforms. The cafe-
parlor or parlor café car is a combined‘café and parlor car. The '
cafe coach or kitchen is a combined coach and café car, for use
on, trains where a dining car could not be proﬁtably run. The
other passenger cars are described, in Chapter I of this book,
under classes B, C, D, and P. All types are now equipped with
anti-telescoping devices, devices of special end framing that-usually
combine the end sills and a plate generally backed by special
springs for 'buﬁ’er use. As regards the depreciation due to age,-
passenger .cars' are, by M. C. B. rules‘, exposed to threeper
cent loss annually upon the yearly depreciated value ‘of the
same; to continue, but not to exceed ﬁfty per cent of its original
value; this applying" equally to the bodies and trucks of such cars.
On account of its superior merits and higher degree \of efficiency,
the clasp or double type of brake is now generally used on such ‘ _-
cars, as the single shoe type does not come up to the requirements
of passenger car needs, and because a pressure ‘of 9,000 pounds
on the clasp brake is equal to or better than 18,000 pounds on the
single shoe kind. _ 1
Other features of the passenger’ car are ‘quite distinctive, but
‘ - there should be more standards for its various parts. These need
not specify all details, but cover only the features which affect
interchangeability.
CARS 503
The details of the six-wheel truck have already been shown;
all passenger cars have swing bolsters; and the windows in sleep-
ing and parlor cars are generally double, to enclose an air-space
and prevent draughts and radiation of heat. Truss-rod anchor-
irons fastened to the sills near the bolsters are sometimes used.
Some passenger cars use the arched roof, or turtle-back roof, which
has a curved surface and has no upper deck or clere-story. In
passenger cars, carlines are divided into main carlines, passing
entirely across the car; short carlines or deck carlines, which are
conﬁned to the upper deck; and rafters, which are conﬁned to the
lower deck. The main carlines are usually compound, i. e., built
up of wood and iron. They sometimes pass directly from side to
side of the car, across and under the upper deck, being here called
continuous or straight car-lines; but usually they are bent to the
proﬁle of the clere-story, and are then termed proﬁle carlines.
There is no doubt that the decorating of cars used in passenger‘
service was, up to a few years ago, carried to extremes. Such
embellishments as carving and turning were so freely used that
it was an impossibility to thoroughly glean the cars and the
lambrequins and heavy curtains that were in ‘common use on
parlor cars were a menace to health. In the desire to get away
from the overdecorative eﬁ'ect, however, the idea of ‘simplicity
has in some cases been ‘carried out to an extent that makes the
cars not only appear‘I severely plain but sometimes unﬁnished.
It is by no means beyond the bounds of possibility to obtain sim-
plicity and still retain beauty, and while the lack of decoration
is probably due to a desire to keep the cost of the car at a mini-
mum, it should be borne in mind‘that the traveling public is likely
to prove critical in matters of this kind and cars with a reasonable
amount of decoration, both inside and out, are more likely to
help the passenger department in getting and retain-ing business
than are those in which the decorative feature is neglected.
The use of metallic sheathing, usually of steel, for both steel
and wooden passenger cars, is on the increase; it is durable, ﬁre-
proof, and adapted for use on the exterior of such cars, whether
they have steel or wooden frames. Such sheathing is' furnished
in panels or slats of required size, and fastened on side of car
with rivets on steel frames, and screws on wood frames, the method
of fastening not being discernible from the exposed surface.
an - ' CARS
Concerning draft gear, a typical one for passenger cars is the
McConway and Torley Buhoup three-stem equipment—an im-
proved form of the original J anney draft gear. The coupler
head is connected to the center stem and the two side stems, and
its movement to either side of the center- line of the car is resisted
by the side-stem springs. The center-stem is backed by the draft-
springs proper, which are held in a pocket between the sides and
which absorb most of the shock. The buﬁer-plate is backed by two
buffer-stem springs, which aid in absorbing buﬁer shocks. This,
like other eﬂicient passenger-car gear, unites maximum strength
and ﬂexibility with economical main-tenance. -It has three ‘draft
stems instead of only one (see Plate III of Portfolio 2), three
springs instead of one, and produces greater ﬂexibility between
cars, by means of a rotating head pivoted to three stems, with
side-motion stirrup—thus relieving the platform from strains on
‘curves and tangents and making the train run more steadily.
Also, this type is adapted to any style of platform without change
of draft timbers, and greatly increases the platform ’s life.
Regarding ﬂoors, passenger cars are more‘ complex than freight
cars, especially as noiselessness has to be attained in the former
to make travel endurable to travelers. This problem, greatly in-
creased since the introduction of steel passenger cars, supposes
certain essentials for correct ﬂooring for passenger equipment.
1. Lower-dead load of plate with maximum strength. 2. Shaping,
by dove-tailing or other union, to thoroughly anchor the composi-
tion or material. 3. This union to make the strongest possible
construction. 4. The smallest amount of composition or material
to be used; and 5, an unsupported span of forty-eight inches to
be obtained. Most of these ﬂoors use pressed steel forms and
concrete or a special composition such as is seen in Chanarch Car
Flooring (Fig. 386), the Karbolith Flooring (Fig. 387), and the
Ferrinoclave Flooring (Fig. 388).
In all passenger cars without such special ﬂoorings, the ﬂoor
consists of two and sometimes three courses of boards, called re- '
spectively the ﬂooring, intermediate ﬂoor, and deafening ceiling,
the latter being on the under side of the sills. With steel passenger
cars, concrete or other heavy compositions are ﬂoor necessities,
because of the tendency of metal to repeat noise. For the steps
of passenger cars, specially metalled treads are often used, the
CARS 5%
best types having a gritty substance imbedded in the form of
strips in some metal surface to keep the foot from slipping. The
hand brakes on such cars are so arranged as to work harmoniously
with the power brakes, and often have special devices for accele-
rated motion in case their quick application is necessary. This is
usually obtained by some sort of gearing.
The plates of Portfolio 2 exhibit many details of passenger
cars, such as Water-Rising System, Heating System, Lighting


Fig. 386.
Flexolith Composition Laid Over Chanarch Metal Flooring.
pGeneral Railway Supply Company.
. -;___.


Fig. 387.
Karbolith for Steel Passenger Train Cars. American Mason Safety
Tread C0.
Systems—gas, electric, etc., Car Framing, Air and Hand Brakes
and Signal Pipe; Trucks, Draft Gear, etc.
However, a new era in passenger car construction has arrived.
The building of new wooden passenger care was practically stopped
a year or more ago and most roads are applying steel underframes
and ends to the older cars as fast as money can be obtained for
the work, with the result that there are now 3,566 less wooden
passenger cars in service than there were two years ago, so with
the general use of steam heat and electric lights passenger travel
on steam railroads is steadily growing safer. The fact that in
1912 the number of passengers killed in train accidents was only
one for each 251,000,000 passenger miles, has enabled insurance
0
Con ﬁrefe

Fig. 388.
Ferrinoclave Floor Covering. Brown Hoisting Machinery Company.
companies to pay double and triple indemnities for such accidents,
and, as stated before, the conditions are steadily improving.
It must be always remembered, however, that it is important
that all passenger equipment cars be constructed to withstand very
heavy shocks, as the draft gears on this class of cars are rather
light and the car body must take more of the shock proportionately
than is the case with freight cars.
CHAPTER XIV
STEEL PASSENGER CARS
In this country, our former light wooden coaches with open plat-
forms and link~and-pin couplers, hauled at comparatively low speeds
by light engines, gave satisfactory service in their day, until the in-
creasing speed of passenger trains led to frequent accidents with
consequent telescoping of the coaches and resulting loss of life. To
avoid this, the Miller and the J anney couplers and strong platforms
were introduced with beneﬁcial results, until the growing use of
heavier passenger cars, greater speed, and more powerful engines
proved the inadequacy of these devices unsupported by other ar-
rangements, and ﬁnally led to the use of the narrow vestibule,
which, in its turn, accomplished good results till heavier equipment,
especially in sleeping cars, ultimately forced the adoption of the
wide vestibule. The Pullman Company about this time commenced
,to strengthen its cars by the use of heavy steel platforms and steel
"ﬂoor construction extending back beyond the body bolsters, rein-
forced by steel corner and door posts and steel transoms, making
this wooden car unusually strong, and constituting the best car
construction of its day. Due to competition, the speed was still
increasing, however, with resulting greater damage to coaches,
although the Pullmans held their own in the same accidents where
the coaches were reduced to kindling wood. This induced rail-
roads to build their coaches practically as strong as the sleeping \
cars, especially in through passenger trains, and the solid wide-
vestibule train became general throughout the country. -
A steel passenger car was built in 1890, but did not create
a favorable impression; and the ﬁrst real practical step towards
the use of steel in the car body of passenger equipment was taken
during the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 by the
Illinois Central, which used a simple design of a side door pas-
senger car. The use of steel in other parts of the car other than
the body eventually led to a further consideration of the subject
as regards the car body; but not until 1897 were deﬁnite attempts
507
508 CARS
made to adopt all-steel cars. In that year, the Pittsburg, Bes-
semer, and Lake Erie ordered a number of all-steel gondola cars
of 100,000 pounds capacity, which made such a favorable impres-
sion that during the next two years some 19,000 steel cars were
constructed.
The development of steel passenger cars was slower than that
of steel freight cars, largely because the development of the former
was left almost entirely to car building companies, and not with
the railroads themselves; the former direction of improvement of
passenger ‘cars having been along the lines of decoration and
luxury, rather than strength or increase of capacity in proportion
to dead weight. However, the use of steel in passenger car con-
struction has come on just as certainly as steel took the place of
wood in bridges, tenders, and freight car framing; the use of
steel passenger equipment being initiated by the Illinois Central
in the fall of 1902 by the introduction of the steel-frame side-door
suburban car, because of the marked advantages of this type of
construction. The ﬁrst modern experimental all-steel passenger
car for through traiﬁc was built, in quantities, ‘by the Southern
Paciﬁc in 1906, and by the Pennsylvania Railroad. __ In the next
year, 1907, the latter ordered 200 of these cars, and, later, moved
by a serious accident with heavy loss of life in the subways of
Paris through the use of wooden cars which became ignited, the
Pennsylvania concluded to build steel passenger cars for use in
its tunnel under the Hudson River.
This started the construction of steel cars, the ﬁrst idea being
to avoid the danger of ﬁre, which was speedily followed by an
appreciation of their greater strength; and this by January 1, 1909,
there were in service 629 all-steel passenger cars. The movement
received its great impetus in the East because of the electriﬁcation
of the steam roads entering New York City and the possible dangers '
if wooden equipment were to be used in connection with the use of
electric power in the long tunnels. In the West, on the Harriman
Lines, steel cars were introduced because of the belief that they
would prove safer and more economical to maintain than wooden
equipment. The publicity departments of the roads which ﬁrst
started to introduce the steel equipment were not slow to realize
the advertising value of having all-steel cars on their limited
trains, and this undoubtedly had some considerable inﬂuence in
0.112s 509
inducing the other roads, especially those in competitive territory,
to adopt such equipment for their better class trains.
The speed of trains is an element of great economic importance,
especially in a country with widely scattered trade and-traﬂ‘ic
centers, like America; and in connection with suburban passenger
traﬁic, to lessen speed or delay trains adds to the cost of operat-
ing. The demands of passengers for increased speed together with
insistence upon greater safety, and the growing importance of safe
elevated and subway service in cities, led to the general adoption
of the steel car and the gradual disappearance of the wooden pas-
senger car. The better class of wooden cars now in service can be
used on slow trains or on divisions where the trafﬁc is light, until
their deterioration will permit their replacement by steel cars,
without imposing an unnecessary burden on our railways. But
where trafﬁc is heavy and is operated at high speed, steel cars are
increasingly necessary and demanded by the public.
The most important reasons which brought the desirability of
introducing steel passenger cars prominently before the railroads
were as follows: ( 1) The burning of wooden cars in wrecks, and
the frequent destruction of human life by ﬁre. (2) The splinter-
ing of the large wooden sills, etc., when the cars were wrecked,
causing injury and death. (3) The scarcity of lumber suitable
for sills, stringers, etc., and the threatened exhaustion of such
material. (4) In collision with steel freight cars, which were being
introduced in great numbers, the passenger equipment was more
liable to destruction than was the case with the wooden freight
cars. (5) Increased speeds, greater train lengths, and larger
capacity cars. _ ‘
Together with the demand for stronger cars, went the economic
desire for longer ones. The very long timbers required for pas-
senger car sills are already very expensive and hard to get in
quantity, and the price of lumber increases rapidly; whereas steel
sills, for instance, can now be had cheaply, in abundance, and of full
lengths, as can all other steel car parts. Steel cars can be painted
quite as cheap as wooden ones; and not only is steel interior car
ﬁnish more abundant, easier to apply, and cheaper each year, but
it adds to the strength of the car when properly designed, the
reverse of all these being the case with wood ﬁnish. Indeed, there
are many other economical features in the steel car.
510 CARS
Considering the radical change in design‘ from wood to steel
in passenger train cars, the rapidity with which steel cars have
been introduced is most remarkable. From 629 all-steel passenger
cars in use January 1, 1909, the number rose during the next four
years to 6,642, or over 1,000 per cent; and by 1914, the roads had
in general stopped ordering wooden cars, as experts already had
agreed that the all-steel car was unquestionably better than other car-
types, and, with such cars properly reinforced at their ends, it
was the most advanced car up to date. While still in a more or
less experimental state, as concerns the best type of design to
properly resist and dissipate end shocks and aﬁord the greatest
protection to both car and lading, still their behavior in wrecks
and in rough service indicates both their economic value and general
efﬁciency as to wear and tear, plus safety to their passengers. In
fact, most of our roads now use nothing but all-steel cars on their
high-class passenger trains.
Even as early as 1913, of passenger cars built in that year,
2,165 were all-steel, 364 had steel underframes, and 442 were all-
wood. The law regulating postal cars resulted in all but three of
those cars being of all-steel construction. The passenger cars
ordered that same year were as. follows:-

a ' Com-
- Steel posite
All- under- under- Not
steel frame frame Wood speci-
d f ﬁed

Coaches and Smoking, including '
.Comb. Coach and Smoking. . ‘1,472 50 11 105 6
Parlor and Chair . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 2 . . . 2v
Dining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 104 8 Comb. Passenger and Baggage. 135 4 . . . 17 . . .
Comb.PassengerandMail.... 3 Baggage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 339 65 ' 15 26 3
Comb. Baggage and Mail. . . .. 200 34 . .. 1 ..~. . .
Mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185............ 2
Other Combination . . . . . . . . . . . 18 . . . . . . . . . 10 1
Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 3
Gas-electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1 . . . 15
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 4 14 12


Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,765 171 29 177 37

CARS 51]
The percentage of new wooden cars placed in service has dropped
from 51.4 in 1909 to about 2 per cent nowadays. One large road
which had in 1914, 3,000 all'steel passenger and freight cars, had
then the following percentage of cars in service: All-steel, 40
per cent; Steel Underframe, 40 per cent; Wooden, 20 per cent.
On 247 railroads operating 227,754 miles and owning 57,493 pas-
senger cars, there were then 7,271 all-steel cars, 3,296 steel under-
frame cars, and 46,926 wooden cars. Of these, 2,236 wooden cars
were retired in that year alone.
The present number of passenger cars in service in the U. S.
and the average cost of all-steel cars of the various classes, are as
follows:—


_ Number ‘M85258
Postal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 $11,000
Mail and Baggage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,672 ' 10,000
Mail, Bagga e and Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 10,000
Baggage an Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,600 10,000
Baggage or Express . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,259 8,500
Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,487 12,800
Parlor, Sleeping, Dining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,405 22,000
Business . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 15,000
Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 20,000

The ﬁrst cost of the ﬁrst steel passenger cars was approximately
20 per cent greater than wooden cars of the best existing types,
per passenger; but on account of the increasing cost of lumber _
and the decreasing cost of making steel cars, the cost of the steel
car will soon be equal to, if not less than, that of wooden cars.
At the present time, in fact, many steel cars cost no more than
equivalent wooden ones. Besides this, the steel car has a far
longer life, costs less to maintain, is more easily and cheaply re-
paired, and more quickly returned to revenue service. When worn
out, everything about a steel car has a market value ‘as scrap,
which is not the case with the wooden car.
As to comparative weights, at ﬁrst the early steel cars were
much heavier than wooden ones; but greater practice. in the con--
struction of steel cars and the use of lighter parts thereof are
rapidly being developed, effecting a corresponding reduction in the
difference in weight between the two types. Some steel coaches
512 . CARS
have a dead weight per passenger of less than 1,400 pounds; and
it is doubtful if the ﬁrst-class wooden coaches which they replaced,
weighed much less than that. On the other hand, some roads use
all-steel coaches which have a dead weight of 1,700 pounds per
passenger. .The questions of developing the car as regards strength-
ening it without unduly adding to its weight, of increasing its
capacity in proportion to dead weight, are of extreme interest and
importance; but the above factors give the new steel cars such
great advantages over wooden ones as to promise, in a few years
to banish the latter, save on minor roads or branch lines. Fur-
ther, the general use of steel cars makes the train as a whole
more symmetrical in strength—instead of having both light and
heavy cars in the same train as formerly, with the lighter ones
menaced with destruction in cases of collision.
In designing steel passenger cars, it is always necessary to
keep the weight as low as possible, consistent with safety. Other-
wise the expense of operating the equipment will prove a burden.
There is a considerable variation in the weight per passenger in
the diﬁerent designs of steel cars now in use, and more will have
to be known about the behavior of the various types of cars in
wrecks before the car which is to be perpetuated can be selected.
It is not much of a problem to design a steel passenger train car
which will operate safely. It is a tremendous problem to design
one which at one and the same time aﬁords' ample safety and is
the cheapest to operate and maintain.
The term “steel car” has nowhere been deﬁned with suﬂ‘icient
' authority to establish its mean-ing. In this work, however, we
assume that it includes all cars, freight and passenger, of all-steel
construction or having steel upper frames as well as steel under-
frame cars. Where a wooden car simply has metal trucks even
together with metal draft arms, it will be called a wooden car.
The car with steel upper and underframes, sometimes called a
steel-frame car, is properly called a steel car, no matter if wood
is used for roof, sheathing or lining; for with its steel frame
work and proper attention to the construction of the hoods and
.end frame to prevent telescoping, it can be made of suﬂicient
strength to ensure safety, and the danger of ﬁre and splinters
will be so far reduced as to be neglible in case of wreck. This
is particularly true of splinters, which are not nearly so serious
CARS ' 513
a matter when the heavy framing timbers are replaced by steel
members. -
The use of steel will probably make few if any essential dif-
ference in the general types of passenger cars as regards their
shape and body parts. For obvious reasons, neither the length
or capacity of steel passenger cars will be appreciably increased;
the questions concerning principally the material to be used in
place of wood, and the interior details together with the steel
underframe. Passengers must now be provided with greater safety
than in the former wooden car, together with equal comfort; the
problems of heating, lighting, and ventilation being common to
both steel and wooden cars. The improvements in air-brakes for
the modern heavy high-speed steel passenger trains running at times
as fast as eighty miles an hour, permit the maximum brake cylinder
pressure to be applied on a train of 10 cars in four seconds. For
the purpose of shortening even this, some roads contemplate the
installation, on steel trains, of the type of brake equipment used
in the New York subway, known as the electro-pneumatic, which
will not only cut the time of application in half, but by means
of the electric control, it applies all the brakes simultaneously, thus
both shortening the stop and preventing shocks. For steel pas-
senger cars, claspbrakes are now exclusively used. These not only
shorten -the stop but also aid greatly by equalizing the eifects of
pressures on the wheels, journal-bearings, and trucks, and by min-
imizing lost motion which effects the brakes through increased
piston travel, besides lessening the tendency toward wheel sliding
‘when the brakes are applied.
Cars in which steel is largely used may be classiﬁed as Steel
Underframe, Steel Frame, and Steel Cars. All three kinds have
their ardent advocates who claim superior advantages for their
own preference among these three classes. The number of vari-
ations among the three kinds is already large. Some of the steel
underframe cars have steel ends; whilst among the steel frame
cars some have steel ends, others wooden ones. Also, some of the
steel frame cars have steel sheathing over their wooden sides and
ends, and yet others have these parts made up either of metal
plates or panels riveted or otherwise fastened together. Some
steel frame cars have wooden sheathing but steel interior ﬁnish,
and are sometimes then termed all-steel cars. Further complicat—
514 CARS
, ing any deﬁnite classiﬁcation, some cars are equipped with cast-
steel or built-up metal end framing attached to the platform and
underframe of the car, so as to lessen the danger in collisions. The
weights vary—‘of course—with the pattern, class, and type of the
car, but the comparisons made between them as to the important
matter of dead weight are too often obscured by misleading state-
ments—such as that the all-steel passenger car weighs 20 per cent
more than the steel frame car, etc. Obviously, much depends on
the construction and other factors involved, which largely aﬁect
the weight.
One system which has a large number of steel frame passen-
‘ ger cars in service claims that this type “is very much superior
to a large proportion of the steel equipment now being turned,
out, due to being lighter than steel and, also, to the fact that
steel sheathing in itself is a safeguard only against ﬁre and is
not as good a protection, in the case of most of the accidents that
.happen on railroads, ‘as steel underframes and framing properly
designed.” This road is of opinion that the danger of the train
taking ﬁre from the locomotive in case of wreck is largely
. eliminated by the use of steel mail cars which are placed next to
' the engine. It claims that with a steel frame and a reinforced end
construction, such cars are probably as safe from telescoping as
some of the steel cars which have been built. Others claim that
the steel underframe cars with reinforced ends, compared to an
all-steel car of equal strength, is actually heavier, and will cost
as much as or more than an all-steel car. Many such comparisons
are really between the wooden car and the all-steel car, altogether
ignoring the just-named type of steel underframe car. One
authority states: HThose who have been in close touch with the
development of the steel car industry, know that at the present
time, steel cars cost and weigh no more than equivalent wooden
cars.”
The steel underframe does not appear to be a satisfactory or
permanent development. There is but little saving either in weight
or cost over the all-steel construction, and it is difficult to see how
the same strength in caseof accident can be obtained. Experience
will show whether the wood superstructure can be secured in such
a way as to prevent working as the car gets old, but as it cannot be
arranged to carry any weight this appears questionable. It can
sales 515
hardly be regarded except as an intermediate step between all—
wood and all-steel construction. However, the weight of steel cars
is being reduced by improvement in the art of steel car construc-
tion. And, while each is entitled to his own opinion, yet most car
men agree that the all-steel passenger car will eventually replace
all other types for use on main lines, or wherever high speed or
heavy traffic obtains. -
The use of the steel passenger car has brought with it many
new problems and an assortment of more diverse opinions than
any other change that has occurred in car equipment. The con-
struction of the wooden car gradually developed along fairly
uniform lines and was the result of years of evolution; whereas
the-steel car sprang into full and vigorous life almost at a bound, ’
with the inevitable result that many types of steel car construction,
especially in the underframing, were so immature and defectite as
to fail to meet the test of hard service, much less wrecks. Some
steel cars were built like battleships, with so much dead weight
as to be impossible, economically, even though they were amply
able to resist rough service; while, on the other hand, others were
fashioned so slenderly as to give way even ‘in the switching yards.
An excess of metal was used in some parts of the car, a
deﬁciency in others. Each car builder was a law unto himself,
until ﬁnally the various railway associations compelled certain re-
quirements as to strength, the insistence upon which has led to our
present fairly eﬂ‘icient types. '
Amongst the various steel-car problems still in the solving are
those of insulation; outside ﬁnish-wood or steel sheathing over
wooden sides, or steel plate; end construction; anti-telescoping
devices; ﬂoor—design and material; roof construction—clere-story
or oval; underframing—center girder, side girder, etc.; proper
heating at low cost; and, greatest of all, minimum weight with
maximum safety to passengers in case of wrecks or collisions. This
last problem involves three factors: adequate strength to carry the
load; suﬂicient strength to prevent the car’s collapsing or crush~
ing in wrecks; 'and eﬂicient brakes. The last we have spoken of;
this is a matter that likely will soon be made law by the I. C. C.
This same authority will probably also prescribe the size and weight
of both freight and passenger cars; and it may impose limitations
upon the maximum speed permitted passenger trains, in the
516 CARS
interest of the safety of passengers, unless the associated railways
take united action thereon, as some of them are already suggest-
ing. Such speed limitation will not only greatly reduce the
destructive action of undue speed and heavier trains upon the
permanent way, as well as the number of accidents, but will cause
changes in steel passenger car construction. . .
The use of steel permits a distribution of material to better
advantage than is possible with wood. When steel is disposed in
the shape of a deep plate girder with a thin web and heavy ﬂanges,
a large moment of inertia and a high moment of resistence is ob-
tained per unit of weight, which cannot be had in wood, as there
is not room enough available in car construction for the volume of
- wood required. Forsyth ﬁgured that the comparative strength of
wood for equal weight was as 1 to 1.5 in favor of steel; but a
better knowledge of the relative value of wood and steel in car
construction, has led the designer to abandon the basis of the
ultimate strength of the material, and to substitute- therefor the
basis of elastic limit; and, ﬁnally, to select a ratio of 4 to 1 as
the relation of the elastic limit of steel, as used in cars, to that of
good timber. In facthit was a lack of this knowledge that has
been the cause of some of the defective steel cars that have been
built, even comparatively recently.
In using steel, there is a great opportunity to use the super-
structure as an- aid in strengthening the car. The whole side of the
steel passenger car below the windows often is a compound steel
girder, made up of the deep plate girder with numerous posts
riveted to it, with a stiﬂ’ side plate connecting them at the top.
Such cars frequently have side eaves—steel plates running along-
the eaves or edges of the roof. In some designs, the side sills are
done away entirely, and the whole side of the car is designed as
a deep plate girder to carry most of the load to the bolster.
As'regards cost, the ﬁrst-cost of many steel cars is now about
20 per cent more than equivalent wooden cars. But the ultimate
‘cost, which is the real and ﬁnal test of the actual value of the
steel car as an investment, includes not only the ﬁrst-cost, but also
the important factors of: Durability, length of life, endurance
of wear and tear and of exposure to the elements; Wreck-Survival,
the comparative damage done therein; Repair~Cost, relative cost
and facility in making repairs; and as a corollary to the last,
CARS 517
revenue service ‘time gained by the quickness in getting the car
back into earning service. All these are heavily in favor of the
wooden car. As concerns its durability, sufficient time has not yet
elapsed since steel cars were put into large service, to give deﬁnite
data thereon, but it may be said that the life of the ordinary steel
car will probably be at least four times as long as that of a cor-
responding wooden one—which is in itself a proof of the far
greater cheapness of the steel car. The life of a steel car depends, -
to a considerable extent upon the condition of its paint, as steel
wastes much faster than wood whose paint has worn 011‘. Here,
however, the steel car possessesthe advantage, in the all-steel car,
in that it may be rapidly dried after painting, by bakingthe paint
on the steel, instead of applying it and then using the ordinary
air-drying ‘system which is compulsory with wooden cars; thus
effecting a saving of about 1'0’ days in the painting of a steel car;
a large item in car and revenue-service economy.
The proper insulation - of steel cars is a problem that still
invites the serious attention of car builders. In this, the use of
good high-grade insulating material has done much to facilitate
the use and adoption of the steel car, for unless the car is
eﬁiciently insulated, not only will maintenance and operating costs
be high, but also passengers will not ride in them and they become
useless as revenue producers.‘ Another trouble with steel cars is
that of properly heating and ventilating them; and for this reason,
it is necessary that the lining of passenger cars must be insulated
throughout. When of metal, this lining is riveted to the framing,
and is an advantage from the standpoints of strength, weight, and
cost, but it must be correctly insulated so that heat may not be
lost from the car by conduction during cold weather; although this
heat may not compare with that carried oil? by adequate ventilation.
Steel-car insulation should possess the following properties:
Highest insulation value; Good sound-absorbing qualities; Flex-
ibility, ease of application, and adaptability to irregular surfaces;
Light Weight; Moisture Proof; Fire Proof, and permanently
Vermin Proof.
Many steel care now in use are _not satisfactorily insulated;
they are hot in summer, cold in winter, and noisy all the time.
These defects have to be overcome, because there soon will be no
substitute for the steel car; it has come to stay, the replacement
513 CARS " ‘
of wooden cars on account of safety ‘alone suiﬁcing to effect this
radical change. The cost of certain classes of steel cars is still
high, and any change after their completion entails great and
needless expense. Hence, proper‘ insulation should be installed
when the car is built, rather than afterwards. On account of
steel ’s high conductivity of heat, cold, and sound, the insulating
material must be of the very best, and in sufﬁcient quantity. It
must be as light as possible, so as not to unduly increase the
already great weight of the car. It must be able to stand up by
itself; and must be self-supporting, so‘ as to permanently remain
in its place, because glue or cement will not long hold an insulation
to a steel wall, on account of the metal not being porous and thus
not giving the glue a chance to grip it fast. Besides, the vibration
of the car breaks the glue; all glues are short-lived especially when
subjected to vibrations or variations'of temperature, as in a car.
Further, the use of .wooden blocks or iron bands or frames is
unsatisfactory. -
The greatest diﬁﬁculty is the application of the material to or
in the frame of the car, although this is sometimes overcome by
its being manufactured to ﬁt exactly the place desired in the car
frame, or by its being stiﬁ’ enough to be easily sawed to shape, like
a board is. Out to a squeezing ﬁt, it must remain in place, follow-
ing any curve found in passenger cars, even in the roofs.‘
There are three general methods of steel car insulation: Wood
lining; by placing insulating material on the outside of steel
lining; by placing insulating material on the outside of the steel
lining, and on the inside of the steel sheathing. Experiments have
been made also with other methods, such as completely ﬁlling the
space between sheathing and lining with block magnesia and mag-
nesia cement. The problem that presents itself is: Given a car
body with a comparatively smooth exterior surface protected by
several coats of paint, double walls, painted on both sides—if of
steel—isolated air spaces rather large in volume between the walls,
an inside cubic volume in which the air must be continually re-
xnewed, and a window surface of about one-third the area of the
side walls. ‘
If the spaces between the lining and the sheathing are properly
isolated, little is gained by also insulating the sheathing. Better
results are obtained by using double windows, as when single
CARS 519
windows are used, the air close to them is hot in summer and cold
in winter. , '
On several occasions various railroads have tried ﬁlling the
wall spaces solid with an insulating material, and where it did not
shake down, it was found to increase the insulation efficiency by
twenty per cent; still, by the correct use of double insulation,
almost as good results are now obtained. It was found impossible
to use granulated cork for such solid ﬁlling, as it settles and shakes
down, which would likely cause condensation. To break the con-
tinuity of the steel plates by the use of felt, etc., tends to reduce
radiation through steel post sections. If this is not done, the
steel plates are apt to sweat, the same as cold water pipes running
through a warm room.
There are a number of steel car insulators now in large use,
most of them felts or interwoven ﬁbres of diﬁerent kinds, some of
which are ﬁreproof, although heretofore it has been regarded as
necessary to sacriﬁce some insulating value to obtain ﬁreprooﬁng.
Those now most in favor are Asbestos Fibrofelt, which purports
to be entirely ﬁreproof; Agasote, whose insulation practically equals
' that of wood; Feltlino, which weighs one pound per square foot
for one-inch thickness and two pounds for two-inch thickness, etc.;
Nycinsul, weighing per square foot eleven ounces for the one-quar—
ter-inch thickness, 16 ounces for one-half-inch thickness of twenty-
se'ven ounces per square foot for the usual courses; and Salamander,
weighing per square foot eleven ounces for the three-quarter-inch
three-ply kind or twenty-two ounces. per square foot for two
courses. Cork itself weighs eleven ounces per square foot for use
between the walls of steel cars. But even allowing that in a steel
car weighing one hundred thousand porinds that a saving of ﬁve
hundred and eighty pounds can be made by using cork, that is
only one-half of one per cent of the car’s total weight. And, in
general, the weight of the present insulations is not enough to
merit serious attention compared to its efﬁciency and reasonable
cost. These materials are now so high-grade that with a steel
coach standing on a siding exposed to the sun in hot weather, a
diiference of one degree in temperature was actually found in its
favor, even with insulation only on the outside of the steel coach,
compared with a wooden coach on the same siding.
520 CARS
For car ﬂoor insulation of steel cars, the material must be both
a non'conductor of heat and cold and a sound-deadener; besides
being light-weight, ﬁreproof, durable, economical, sanitary, and
vermin-proof. For steel cars, the ﬂoors are generally much different
from those in wooden cars, and there are a number of kinds in
popular use, the usual type being of metal covered with concrete
or some other composition. They not only save putting in wooden
ﬂoors, but frequently outwear.two or three wooden ones. They
should be non-absorbent and thus kept in a clean and sanitary
condition by ﬂushing with the hose, etc., and then mopping them
dry. Also, they must be fairly ﬂexible and without joints or
cracks. Sometimes wooden ‘ﬂoors are used, additional insulating
material being placed below it, or a sub-ﬂoor being made use of.
On one road, in addition to a cement-covered metal-base ﬂoor, an
underﬂoor covered with ‘insulation is installed; the cement of the
upper ﬂoor being covered with one-half inch of cork.
The underframes for steel passenger cars must be specially
designed and quite able to carry the increased load of such cars,
which with the high speed at which steel passenger trains run,
' calls for special and strong underframes. For such cars of a
length of at least 70 feet, there are four types of underframes‘,
each of which is in use and has its own partisans. Because of the
diﬂiculty of inspecting the car with deep side sills, this type has
gradually fallen in disfavor; its place being taken by the deep
center sill, though its use interferes with axle-lighting and allows
the inspection of only one, side of the underframe at a time.
Moreover, on 60-foot spans, its use requires so much'weight of
metal as not to be economical. The type where the weight is
carried on both side and center sills is a good one, using cast-
steel construction in addition which often includes body bolster,
platform, end framing, side and center sills as far back'of the
bolster as is necessary to form a strong connection with the center
sills.
As regards steel cars in general, the box girder center con-
struction continually grows in favor, although there are many who
still favor the side-girder kind, especially for freight cars. The
side-girder construction utilizes the greater strength on the side
framing without superﬂous weight, and it is possible that greater
framing strength may prove necessary. With equal strength of
CARS 521
side framing the side-girder car may be made lighter than the
center-girder type, and the weight of steel passenger cars is one
of the most serious problems to be faced by any railroad not
having a level line. American passenger equipment was already
excessively heavy per passenger carried with wood construction,
and the use of steel has increased this weight from ten to twenty
per cent, which is a most serious matter. Apparently side-girder
cars, as so far constructed, have a decided advantage over the
center-girder type in their light weight and greater strength in
case of accident tending to crush in the side of the car. This will
probably lead to the use of this type on roads on which weight is of
importance. Now that grade crossings are being done away with,
the necessity for transverse strength for the latter purpose has
diminished. The weight of the box-girder is certainly a drawback,
but recent passenger cars eschew the use of the side-girder. A
strong steel passenger car for heavy service should have a center
sill area of forty-ﬁve square inches braced against buckling and a
strong and eﬁicient draft gear. For lighter service, steel cars may
have a center sill area of thirty-two square inches.
Steel passenger cars use either four or six-wheel trucks, the
latter being always used under the heavy cars. Some new cars
weighing from 100,000 to 116,000 pounds are using four-wheel
trucks; those weighing more, the six-wheel truck. Cars with six-
wheel trucks do not necessarily have better riding qualities, than
those with four wheels. The use of the four-wheel truck saves
18,000 pounds per car, and is therefore advisable, unless the car
is too heavy—so much so, that the weight per journal exceeds 1,500
pounds per inch of length, which is the limit of permissible loading.
Steel-car bodies of the enclosed kind, such as box cars and
passenger train cars, are of rigid construction and have a high
torsional resistance; hence there is no need for ﬂexibility between
the car body and trucks, and for an even distribution of the load
upon the wheels all the time, even in taking or leaving curves,
where the load is thrown upon the two diagonal corners of the
car, with resultant gripping of the side bearings, and, often, with
worse results in the form of wrecks due to broken wheels, rails,
etc. Steel cars will always be rigid though devices such as roller
side bearings may ease the strain. It is claimed that the balanced
side-bearing truck gets more even distribution of the load on the
522 CARS


Fig. 389.
Commonwealth Center Frame Applied to Commonwealth 6-Wheel
Passenger Truck. Commonwealth Steel Company.


Fig. 390.
Commonwealth Center Frame Applied to 4-Wheel Commonwealth
Passenger Train Truck.
wheels than center-bearing trucks. Various special trucks are
also coming into use under steel passenger cars; a number of
roads having adopted distinctive trucks of their own for their
steel passenger equipment.
The Truck Center Frame is a. frame made of one piece riveted
to the side frames or wheel pieces of steel passenger trucks, and
CARS 523
' .
taking the place of the transoms in old types. Two of the best
kinds of such center frames are the Commonwealth Center Frames
for six and four-wheel passenger trucks, Figs. 389 and 390. Such
frames have the desirable advantages of economy, easy inspection,
ideal ﬂexibility, strength, safety, the ‘substitution of one strong’
frame-piece for hundreds of small pieces, strength at the “joints,”
and the fact that they are and remain square, being of only one
piece. a
The ordinary forms of underframes installed under such cars
are shown in Figs. 391, 392, 393, 394 and 395. Under all of them
the draft gear must be especially strong, as a substitute for the
elasticity of the former wooden underframing. Draft gear is better


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Fig. 391.
Underframe of Pennsylvania Railway Steel Passenger Train Cars,
Class P70.
and more easily applied with steel cars, but for heavy passenger.
service special arrangements are necessary to ensure comfort to
passengers and the avoidance of shocks.
The general framing of the body of steel passenger cars is
shown in Figs. 396 and 397. Their side framing is seen in Fig.
392, and in Fig. 398.
The construction of the ends of passenger cars has received
much attention, and its strength ‘now is much greater than in the
wooden car. The structure, above all the ends, has been so
developed as to be as nearly indestructible as is possible with the
avoiding of injury to the human load. The platform, vestibule,
and its hooded covering are often so constructed that they will
collapse under a less shock than is required to crush in the end
of the car itself—this “give” tending to absorb the shock of
collision, and prevent damage to both car body and passengers.
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CARS 525


Fig. 393.
Stee! Underframc for Passenger Train Cars.


Fig. 394.
Steel Underframe for Passenger Train Cars.
526 ‘ CARS
With an eight-foot space between car bodies in a train of ten care,
this gives eighty feet of shock-absorbing space, which is ample.
The ends of these cars are therefore peculiarly designed to prevent
telescoping, the common forms of some are seen in Figs. 400 and
401.
All agree that steel underframe cars having wooden posts are
not nearly so strong or so safe as the steel cars with steel end

Fig. 395.
Steel Underframe for Atlantic Coast Line Day Coach.
I
posts, due to the danger in collisions of cars over-riding the steel
underframe and telescoping the car body. In such accidents, the
point of maximum shock is never over twenty inches above the
ﬂoor line—the U. S. Postal Car Speciﬁcations give it as eighteen
inches—and hence the end posts are reinforced for \about four
feet above that line, by steel angles riveted to the Z-bar end posts.
In most cars use is made of strong vertical members to prevent
cars over-riding each other; such members being generally of steel,
sometimes riveted to other parts of the car body or platform, or,
C 'AR S 527
again, being part of a steel casting that comprises other parts of
the car, as in Figs. 402 and 403.
In the collapsible platform and vestibule, the longitudinal sills
stop at the end sill of the car body proper, the end of which is

Fig. 396.
Steel Frame for Pennsylvania Railway Day Coach.
sheathed with a heavy plating, the body resting on the side bearing
as well as on the center plate. A special truck is used, whose center
plate is nearer the rail than usual, in the center girder underframe
where it bears all the weight. The aforesaid plate extends in one
piece vertically from the roof to the bottom of the end sill (Fig.
404), with the idea that if the shock is not absorbed by the
528 CARS


Fig. 397.
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L ............... l :___.i'_'_'.'.'.'.'IIIIIIifIIZTZIZLLIZZZ'II2:111? 1 ,f1" _
Fig. 398.
Side Construction of Pennsylvania Railway Steel Passenger Train
Cars.
vestibule members, before the car body end can be crushed, this
plate will tend to pull the roof downward. -v
Here, to further offset the effect, pressed steel shapes in the
nature of anti-climbers, found on many steel cars, are placed
below the buffer beam and platform. For vestibule center posts
extra heavy steel beams are used. fastened securely above and
I


CARS 529
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_ Fig. 400.
End Construction of Pennsylvania. Railway Steel Passenger Train
Cars.
530 CARS
below. The intermediate posts are also reinforced by angles four
feet six inches long, riveted to the inside to prevent over-riding.
The steps, vestibule doors, and hood all collapse when the rivets
shear on the sill extensions, still further absorbing the shock before
the car roofs are pulled down to form a cushion between the cars.
The vestibule is separate from the body, and if damaged, can
cheaply and quickly be replaced or repaired.


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Fig. 401.
End Construction of New York Central & Hudson River Railway
Dining Car.
In this connection, we may here note the strong reinforced end
construction for passenger cars designed by the Pullman Company,
by means. of which a large number of comparatively modern wooden
cars still in service can be rebuilt with steel underframing and
ends, and be almost as safe as steel-frame cars (Fig. 405.)
The end construction consists of two lengths of I-beams bent
to the form of deep U’s, the legs of which are inserted from under-
neath through suitable apertures in the combination body bolster
CARS 531
and platform end casting used in Pullman underframes; the loca-
_tion of said apertures and the I-beams being so bent that the legs
of the U’s towards the center of the car form the door-posts (Fig.
406), while the outer legs serve as a substantial portion of the
vestibule framing to which the diaphragms may be attached. The
upper end of the I-beams are ﬁrmly secured in the superstructure
framing; the number of riveted joints throughout being purposely


' Fig. 402.
Commonwealth Steel Company’s Upright End Frame in One Piece.
and Commonwealth Combined Platform and Double
Body Bolster for vestibuled Cars.
reduced to a minimum, so that in case of a collision the failure
of such joints is not depended on to provide a cushioning effect for
the blow, the principal resistance to which would be the legs of
the U’s and other members. This Company, in both its new and
its older reinforced cars offers the car further protection by attach-
ing the end wall framing, made up of Z-bars secured to the cast-steel
underframe end construction and to a heavy channel deck end
sill, above the doorway, the latter also serving as a means of
attachment for the upper ends of the door posts. It also ﬁts old
532 CARS
cars thus reinforced, with steel sheathing, giving such original
wooden cars as near an approach to steel cars as seems possible.
The use of such steel sheathing for passenger cars has given
rise to the so-called sheathed car, which has many advantages,
though it seems at present as if the cost and weight of the additional
' metal, when applied to wooden-sided cars especially, would prevent
its extensive use except on such special and costly cars as would


Fig. 403.
Commonwealth Steel Company’s Upright End Frame in One Piece,
and Commonwealth Combined Platform and Double
Body Bplster for Non-Vestibuled Cars.
warrant the expenditure. From the artistic standpoint, it is more
pleasing than the boilerplate-looking all-steel car of some makes,
and it should be less noisy than the riveted cars whose large steel
plates often partake of the nature of sounding boards. This is not.
the case where small sheathing units are used, thanks to the baked
paint between the insert metal slats and the sections riveted to
the car frame. The sheathing comes in small panels or slats
for use on either wood or steel cars; the sections being fastened
CARS 533
with rivets on steel frames or screws on wooden ones. The insert
slats are dipped in a mixture of oil and color and driven into place,
,thus hiding the screw or rivet heads. When part of the sheathing
is injured, repairs are quickly made by cutting and driving out


A Fig. 404.
Collapsible Platform and Vestibule on All-Steel Car.
the damaged parts, and driving new ones into place. On a plate
car, similar damage would require much rivet cutting and straight-
ening of plates.
Such sheathing facilitates the practice of the baking of paint
on all steel parts before they are put together. The sheathing is
534 CARS
furnished with two ‘coats of priming baked on, and is immediately
ready when applied to the car, to receive the body color and varnish, '
thus saving the time generally required for priming, surfacing, and.


n-~u--¢__-____-< n.-


Fig. 405.
Side Elevation; Reinforced Car End Construction. Pullman Co.
rubbing. With riveted plate exteriors, the rivets must be painted
after application; and these rivet-heads offer points for the dis-
integration and scaling of the paint, which are not found in sheathed
cars. It is necessary to shop these cars only every ﬁfteen to .
CARS 535

Fig. 406.
Perspective View of Cast Steel End Framing with Reinforcing
Members in Place.


Fig- 407.
Commonwealth Steel Company’: Cast Steel Buﬁer Sill for
Passenger Train Cars.
536 ' CARS
eighteen months, while wooden and riveted plate cars go to the
shop every ten or twelve months. I
No‘ greater aid has been given steel passenger car construction
than the present use of cast-steel parts, particularly at the ends of "
the‘car, comprising many parts in one single piece of metal. Such
castings are lighter, stronger, less expensive, and more permanently
e-ﬁective than built up types, as the metal is better distributed and
there are no loose or imperfect joints possible. We have seen the
upright end frame attached to the combined platform and double
body bolster, as well as the one-piece cast-steel platform with other
' attachments. Cast-steel buffer sills, combined end and buffer sills,
and one piece buffer ‘sill and anti-telescopic plate are shown
respectively in Figs. 407, 408 and mo.
The cast-steel platform as now provided for blind end cars,
comprises the buﬂing sill having recesses for the buffer foot plates,
holes and brackets for the buffer stems, pockets'for the buﬁ‘mg
'device, brackets for safety chains, lugs for draft gear, brackets
for drawbar carry irons, anti-telescoping plate, extensions of the
center sills and bottom chords of the side sills, all of the double
body bolster members including side bearing arches and extending
' for a distance of over fourteen feet inward from the end of the
car to a point considerably back of the truck center, and counting
rivets, gusset plates and connecting angles, combining more than
1,000 pieces into a single, powerful, shock-absorbing element of
less weight than fabricated material of the same strength."v The
cast-steel platform and double body bolster for vestibule cars com-
prises all the parts enumerated for blind end cars, and in addition,
includes the exposed platform longitudinal members, step risers and
end sill, measures over seventeen feet in length, is _made of a
single piece, and is also of less weight than fabricated material
of the same strength.
The M. C. B. Recommended Practice for platform safety chains
for passenger train cars is as follows: Chains to be located
fourteen and one-half inches each side of center; to be suitably
attached to under side of platform members, and to be of such
length that when extended horizontally, the chain with hook
shall measure twelve and three-quarter inches from face of end
member to bearing point of hook, and the chain with eye shall
measure two and three-quarter inches from face of end member
CARS 537


Fig. 408.
Commonwealth Steel Company's Cast Steel Combined End and
Butter Sill.
'


Fig. 409.
Commonwealth Steel Company's One-Piece Cast Steel Buffer Sill
and Anti-Telescoping Plate for Non-vestibuled Cars.
to hearing point of eye. The hook shall be not more than one
and one-quarter inches thick transversely, and the eye shall not
be less than one and one-half inches wide or less than four inches
long in its opening. When facing end of car, the chain with
hook shall be on the left, and the chain with eye on the right hand
side-
538 CARS
‘With steel cars, the roof must be sufficiently strong to bear
the car when turned upside down, without collapsing. Steel cars
have steel roofs, made up of steel rooﬁng sheets supported by and
fastened to steel carlines or ceiling-beams as they are called in
passenger cars. The circular roof (also called the oval, elliptical,
arched, or turtle-backed roof) is another type of roof, that has
no clere-story at all. The circular roof has been extensively intro-
duced on steel passenger cars on account of its lightness and sim-
plicity of construction. It has the objection that deck sash ven-
tilation cannot be employed. The Pullman Company while using
the clere-story roof have, however, discontinued the use of deck
sash ventilation, so tha't evidently in their opinion this objection


Fl lllgllwjflilill .. .1. l l "T lIIHIIF' t hm." " __ w " l§=Fz=i ‘Lesa: lzzsssirs] i _
-l ! nit-lint llLLLy
Fig. 410.


Circular or Oval Roof for Passenger Train Cars.
is not important. The deck sash is, however, of value in a stand-
ing car, and when properly screened is certainly advisable in hot
weather, especially when the road is dusty. The Canadian Paciﬁc
has compromised on this question and is using a roof of approx-
imately circular form with deck sash. The strength and simplicity
of the circular roof are retained with the ventilating qualities of,
the clere-story type. ,
Baggage, postal, and express cars especially use this roof (Fig.
410) as it is cheaper to build and maintain than the clere-story roof,
and ﬁts the purposes of such cars. For other steel cars, the clere-story
generally prevails, because of its assistance in lighting, ventilating,
and decorative effects. With either type, the carlines must be so
shaped as to aid in fastening the roof and the inner ceiling or '
ﬁnish together; sufﬁcient insulation (here called headlining) being
inserted between the two to intercept cold or heat. The speciﬁca-
tions for roofs for U. S. Postal Cars, herein given later, may be
regarded as authoritative for both roof and carlines; and it has
been noted that they have been found, in accidents where steel
CARS 539
cars have rolled over, to afford suﬂicient roof strength to prevent
serious roof distortion in such cases.
Opinion amongst car builders and railroads is still divided as
to which is the preferable material for interior ﬁnish, wood or
steel. There is today very little difference in cost, and both kinds
' are in use. With the ample protection afforded by a steel car
against injury to passengers, there does not appear to be any
serious objection to wood interior ﬁnish on the grounds of safety,
but it should always be reduced within reasonable limits. Wood is ‘
more ornamental than steel as heretofore applied, and is of use
as a better insulator for the car than steel ﬁnish. Its advocates
claim that it gives a more pleasing ﬁnish to the car, does not
appreciably aﬁect the car’s strength, and is practically as safe
as the steel ﬁnish. Indeed, many cars classed as all-steel, have
such a wood ﬁnish. The use of a small amount of wood for such
parts as window sash, mouldings, seat arm-rests, window capping,
etc., is not objectionable, as it has certain desirable advantages
over steel, and therefore wood is used for such details to a con-
siderable extent. In many cars, few persons can detect the
presence of wood, yet they are practically ﬁreproof.
Nevertheless, it appears probable that, in the future, steel
ﬁnish will be almost exclusively used for steel cars in place of
wood. This steel ﬁnish must, of course, be insulated to prevent
radiation, and the best method of its application is still in
question. Its advocates, who aim at eliminating wood wherever
possible, enumerate steel ’s advantages as follows: Non-Com-
bustible; Prevents splintering in wrecks; Easily removed, if neces-
sary to repaint the inside of steel car sheets; Increases interior
width of car; Avoids trouble in steel car due to different expan-
sions of wood and steel; Becomes cheaper each year, whereas
suitable wood grows more expensive; Easier to train or obtain men
to apply it than wood; Easier to repaint than wood; Advan-
tageous from building standpoint in handling and making, as it is
made in factories, and more men can work in a car at a time in
applying it.
In the all-steel car the steel lining can be securely riveted to the
framing and adds somewhat to the strength of the complete
structure, but as steel is a good conductor, it carries away the
heat of a body coming in contact with it, and, therefore, will
540 CARS
always feel cold, even when the temperature in the car is suf-
ﬁciently high. Satisfactory results have been realized from the >
use of a double steel lining between seats, forming a hot-air duct,
extending from the heater pipes to the window sill, with outlet
through small holes in the lining proper, located immediately below
the window sill. Wood lining requires considerable wood furring,
and adds weight to the car without adding to the strength. As
the steel frame of a long passenger car may vary as much as one-
half inch between extremes of temperature it is necessary to make
allowance in the construction of the wood lining for this variation
in length. As a car with metal lining riveted to the framing has
the advantage in strength, weight, and cost, it will gain in favor;
in fact, it would be at present universally preferred if all railroad.
shops had practical experience with steel lining, and the necessary
proﬁciency and machinery for its manufacture. The advantages
of wood over steel as a non-conductor can be reduced by proper
insulation correctly applied; a matter becoming better understood
and attended to each year.
Sometimes the interior ﬁnish, in whole or part, consists of a
composite material made ﬁreproof and waterproof, and which when
applied in the same way as steel to the ceiling and below the
window-sills, is not objectionable. Wood ﬁnish will soon be a
novelty on new cars. Already the problems of repairs, insulation,
and the appearance of steel ﬁnish are being solved, and much of
it is as handsome and comfortable as was the ﬁnish in the old
wooden cars. Made largely of sheet steel by process welding equip-
ment, it possesses lightness, strength, durability, and often real
beauty. Steel sash, single and double sheet car partitions, car
seats, integral window-frames, doors made of hollow metal with
the interior of the door ventilated to prevent the collection of
moisture (after being dipped in enamel and repeatedly baked to
keep 011‘ rust) together with steel parts for exterior ﬁnish, are
largely used. Steel ﬁnish especially adapts itself to the present
revolt against the expensive and over-elaborate wooden ﬁnish for-
merly the fashion in passenger cars; although in some cases this
revolt has gone too far and robbed the American passenger car
of that distinctive type of artistic beauty which made them at
once the pride of Americans and'a treat to the eyes of tired men
and women. Despite the disappearance of the fancy mouldings,
CARS 541
frettings, and carvings of yore, steel ﬁnish gives both an- artistic
and elegant eﬁect, and is becoming more so each year.
The general conditions concerning steel cars and the proper
structural construction of their parts, may well be described
brieﬂy by the speciﬁcations given below, as prescribed by the U. S.
Government for postal cars, and which apply to postal cars of
thirty to sixty feet, with mail apartments of eight to thirty feet, and
alley apartments of six to ﬁfteen feet. While these speciﬁcations
were drawn up with the view to making postal cars as strong and
stiff as possible, still they correspond, in general, to the rules which
govern the construction of most steel passenger cars. At present
practically all postal cars are made of all-steel. ,-
The following speciﬁcation, dated March 28, 1912, and cor-
rected to June 24, 1912, is for the construction of steel and steel
- underframe full postal cars. It will also govern in the case of
steel and steel underframe mail apartment cars.
GENERAL
1. Type—Postal cars may be built according to any of the
following types of construction:
I. Heavy center sill construction, the center sills acting as
the main carrying member.
II. Side carrying construction, the sides of the car acting as
the main carrying members, having their support at the bolsters.
III. Underframe construction in which the load is carried by
all the longitudinal members of the lower frame. The super-
structure framing may be of steel or of wood reinforced as per
Railway Mail Service speciﬁcation plan No. 1.
IV. Combination construction in- which the side frames carry
a part of the load, transferring same to the center sills at points
remote from the center plate for the purpose of utilizing uniform
center sill area.
Steel castings may be used as parts of the underframe in any
of the above types.
2. Materials—All rolled-steel plates and shapes used in the
car framing shall be made by the open-hearth process.
3. The physical and chemical properties of all material used in
the car framing shall be in accordance with the latest standard spec.
iﬁcations of the American Society for Testing Materials, as follows:
542 CARS
The standard speciﬁcation for structural steel for bridges, for steel
plates, shapes, and bars; the standard speciﬁcation for wrought
iron, for iron bars and plates; the standard speciﬁcations for
steel castings, for malleable castings, and for gray iron castings.
4. Workmanship—All workmanship throughout the car shall
be ﬁrst class. The jointing of the car framing shall be made so
that the structure as a whole shall be built to dimensions speciﬁed,
and all joints exposed to the weather shall be made tight against
leakage.
5. Live Loads—The car body shall be designed to carry the
speciﬁed live load in addition to its own dead weight under service
conditions. Where no live load is speciﬁed the maximum capacity
of car, as determined by wheel loads given in paragraph forty-ﬁve,
shall be used as a basis for calculations.
6. Buﬁing—The maximum end shock due to buﬁing shall be
assumed as static load of 400,000 pounds applied horizontally at
the resultant line of the forces acting at the center line of the
buffing mechanism and at the center line of draft gear, respectively,
and shall be assumed to be resisted by all continuous longitudinal
underframe members below ﬂoor level, provided such members are
sufficiently tied together to act in unison.
7. Details—All connections, except those speciﬁed in paragraph
twenty-ﬁve, shall be designed for the maximum strain to which
the member connected shall be subject, and secondary stresses in
any members caused by eccentric loads shall be properly combined
with the direct stresses in such members. The maximum ﬁber
stress in any member subject to both direct and secondary stresses
may be taken at twenty per cent greater than those given in
paragraph twenty-eight, but the direct stresses considered alone
must not exceed the allowable stresses given in said paragraph.
8. The minimum distance between centers of rivet holes shall
be three diameters of the rivet, and the minimum distance between
the center of the rivet hole and a sheared edge shall be not less
than one and one-half times the diameter of the rivet.
9. Below the ﬂoor line, framing connections of ﬂoor beams,
posts, etc., may be of rolled steel, pressed plate, or cast steel, and
above the ﬂoor line such connections may also be of malleable
iron. Connection for I beams, channels, or tees may also be made
CARS 543
by coping the ﬂanges and bending the web to ‘form a knee, and
for angles by coping one leg and bending the other.
10. The use of ﬁllers in the underframe and superstructure
shall be avoided wherever possible.
‘ 11. All holes for rivets or bolts in the underframe, super-
structure, and outside ﬁnish shall bedrilled or punched and reamed
to size and fairness. No drifting of holes will be allowed. In
deducting rivet or bolt holes to obtain the net area of any section
they shall be taken at one-sixteenth inch larger than the diameter
of the rivet or bolt. The eﬁ'ective area of a rivet shall be taken
as its area before driving.
12. All rivets when driven must completely ﬁll the holes and
have full concentric heads or countersunk when required.
13. Center Sills—The center sills may be built up or composed
of rolled or pressed ‘shapes, either with or without cover plates,
and cast~steel draft sills or end construction may be used in con-
nection with any of the above types, with suitable riveted con-
nections at splices. Built-up center sills may be either of uniform
depth or of the ﬁshbelly shape and may be composed of rolled
shapes, web plates, ﬂange angles, and cover plates. If preferred,
the web plates may be ﬂanged and angles omitted. When ﬂange
angles are used they shall be connected to the webs with a suf-
ﬁcient number of rivets to transfer the total shear at any point
in a distance equal to the depth of the sill at that point. When
cover plates are used they must extend at least two rows of rivets
at each end beyond their theoretical length.
14. Bolsters and Cross Bearers—The body bolsters and cross
bearers may be of either cast steel or built-up construction, with
ample connections at center and side sills to transmit the, calculated
vertical shear.
15. Floor Beams—Transverse ﬂoor beams may be of rolled
or press shapes, with suitable connections at center and side sills.
16. Floor Supports—Longitudinal ﬂoor supports shall be sup-
ported at each transverse ﬂoor member.
17. End Sills—The end sills may be either of rolled or pressed
shapes, built~up construction or cast steel, with ample connections
at center and side sills. They must be designed for the maximum
vertical loads to which they may be subject and also for the as-
\
‘544 CARS
sumed horizontal ‘loads transferred from vertical end members as
speciﬁed in paragraph twenty-six.
SIDE FRAME
18. General-In calculating the stresses in the side frame, its
eﬁective depth when designed as a truss or girder may be taken
either as the distance between centers of gravity of the side plate
and side sill or as the distance between centers of gravity of
belt rail and side sill. At the side—door openings the bending mo-
ment caused by the vertical shear at doorposts shall be considered
as being resisted by the section above and below door openings,
and the sum of the direct stresses and those due to bending at such
sections shall not exceed the stresses speciﬁed in paragraph twenty-
eight. A suiﬁcient proportion of any reinforcing members added
to these sections shall be extended far enough beyond the door-
posts at each side that their reaction can be taken care of by the
side frame without exceeding the limit speciﬁed for stresses.
19. Posts—The sum of the section moduli taken at any hor-
izontal section between ﬂoor line and top line of windows, of all
posts and braces on each side of car, located between end posts,
shall be not less than 0.30 multiplied by the distance in feet
between the centers of end panels, a panel length being considered
as the distance between lines of rivets in adjacent vertical posts.
20. Sheathing—Outside sheathing plates of steel or iron shall
be not less than one-eighth inch in thickness.
ROOF -'
21. General—The roof may be of either the clere-story or
turtleback type, depending on the standard contour of the railroad
for whose service the cars are built. In the clere-story type the
deck plates shall be in the form of a continuous plate girder extend-
ing from upper-deck caves to deck sill, and either built up of
pressed or rolled shapes or pressed in one piece from steel plates.
The carlines may be of either rolled or pressed steel shapes extend-
ing in one length across car from side plate to side plate or may
extend only across upper deck. In the latter case the lower deck
carlines may be formed by cantilever extensions of the side
posts orby independent members of pressed or rolled shapes. In
CARS 545
the turtleback type the carlines may be,of either pressed or rolled
shapes extending in one length across car between side plate and
side plate or may consist of cantilever extensions of the posts.
22. CarZines—The projected area of the portion of roof in
square feet supported by carlines divided by the sum of the section
moduli of the carlines must not be more than 100.
23. Roof Sheets—Roof sheets, if of steel or iron, shall be of a
minimum thickness of 0.05 inch and either riveted or welded at
their edges. '
END CONSTRUCTION
24. Vertical End Members—The sum of the section moduli of
all vertical end members at each end shall be not less than sixty-
ﬁve, and the section moduli of the main members, either forming or
adjacent to the door posts, shall be not less than seventy-ﬁve per
cent of this amount.
25. The horizontal reactions ‘of all vertical end members at
top and bottom shall be calculated from an assumed external hor-
izontal force applied eighteen inches above ﬂoor line, to all vertical
members in the proportions given in above paragraph, such force
being of sufficient amount to cause bending of all vertical members
acting together, and top and bottom connections of vertical mem-
bers shall be designed for these reactions.
26. Except where vertical end members shall bear directly
against or be attached directly to longitudinal members at either
top or bottom, the assumed reactions shall be considered as loads
applied to whatever construction is used at end sill or end plate,
and both these last-named members shall have section moduli,
respectively, suﬂicient to prevent their failure horizontally before
that of the vertical end members.
27. End Plate—The end plate may be 9. rolled or pressed
section or of built-up construction and shall extend across end
of car from side plate to side plate, with ample connections at
ends, or shall be of other satisfactory construction to withstand
the assumed loads given above.
28. Stresses-All parts of the car framing shall be so pro-
portioned that the sum of the maximum unit stresses to which any
member is subject shall not exceed the following amounts in pounds
per square inch, except as modiﬁed in paragraphs, seven, twenty-
546 CARS
ﬁve and twenty-six. These stresses, unless otherwise stated below,
are for steel having an ultimate tensile strength. of from 55,000
to 65,000 pounds per square inch. Where other materials are used,
they shall bear the same proportion to the ultimate strength of the ,
material used. " _ -
Bolsters of Rolled Steel-Stress shall not exceed ‘12,500 pounds‘
per square inch.
Sills and Framing of Rolled Steel—Stress shall not exceed
' 16,000 pounds per square inch.
When cast steel is used the allowable stresses may be the same
as for rolled steel, except tension stresses, which must be at least
twenty per cent less than those allowed for rolled steel as speciﬁed
above. '
For members in compression the above stresses shall be reduced
in accordance with the usual engineering practice.
' ‘ Pounds per
Rivets (rivet steel) square inch
Shear other than buiﬁng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,000
Bearing other than buffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000
Shear, buﬁ‘ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,000
_ Bearing, buffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,000
29. Floor—Subﬂoor of postal cars to be of iron or steel plate,
upper or wearing surface to be of matched wooden ﬂooring, maple
or rift-sawed yellow pine or ﬁr, laid longitudinally, or composition,
preference in order named. If composition is used, the wearing
surface between doors and the standing surface in front of letter
tables and paper racks shall be of wood, cork, or other suitable
material. Proper insulation, including air space, should be pro-
vided between upper and lower courses. Floor strips for w'cod
upper course should be bolted to subﬁoor. Composition, ﬂooring
may be secured by corrugated, keystone, or equivalent style of
plate or by wire fastening anchored to subﬁoor.
30. Interior Finish—Inside, side, and end linings and head
lining of postal cars to beef ﬂat or corrugated steel plate, com-
position board or wood, properly secured to the car framing.
31, Insulation—Suitable fabric or material shall be used as
an insulation against cold or heat in the side and end walls and
roof of steel postal cars, securely fastened as the nature of the
material may require for efficiency and durability.
CARS 547
The insulating speciﬁcations proposed to be used by each rail-
road company should be submitted to the department for approval.
32. Doors, Windows and Skylights—Postal cars to be equipped
with such side doors, end doors, side windows and skylights as are
shown on the standard plans of the Railway Mail Service. Storm
or double windows to be provided where required. Doors and win-
dows may be made of wood, combination wood and metal, or metal;
preference in order named, and when glazed the glass shall be
double strength. Windows should be made of two sash sections.
The upper section should be double the area required and should
be divided; the lower half to be ﬁtted with glass and the upper
half screened, so suspended that glass or screened section may
be used as desired. Where design makes this impracticable, any
equivalent screen application may be accepted. Doors and windows
to have suitable weather stripping. Trimmings and locks to be
the railway company ’s standard.
Skylights shall contain ﬁve square feet, glazed with not less
than one-quarter inch thick rough glass.
, 33. Lighting—Lighting of postal cars primarily to be with
electricity or gas, mantles to be used where practicable, with pro-
vision for emergency light. Distribution of light shall be as shown
on the standard plans of the Railway Mail Service. Electric-light
installations on postal cars shall include distribution, preferably
by condulet system with separate circuits, cut-outs, and switch
board regulation. The generator, distribution, battery boxes, and
their equipment, train connectors, charging plugs, other accessories,
and all wiring to be as per the railway company ’s standard practice.
Gas-lighting installation on postal cars to be in accordance
with the railway company ’s standard practice. ‘ .
34. H eating—Heating of postal cars primarily to be with
steam or hot water. Pipes are to have suitable protection guards
of wire or perforated metal. Pipes located behind paper-rack
sections shall not occupy space exceeding twenty inches in height
and four inches from wall of car. Where service conditions require,
an auxiliary coal-burning stove of safety pattern shall be furnished,
complete with coal box and ﬁring tools, smokpjack properly
screened, and protection guards. The stove and coal box to be
securely attached.
548 CARS
The train pipe steam line to be applied and equipped with end
valves, steam hose and couplings, as per M. C. B. requirements
and the railway company ’s standard.
Requirements of the Post Oﬂice Department embody three
main points: First, sufficient heat to keep the postal car or apart-
ment comfortably warm; second, proper distribution of heat, par-
ticularly throughout that part of the car occupied by letter cases
and paper racks. (care should be taken not to have excess of heat
around the letter cases), and third, an arrangement of pipes to
avoid interference with distributing facilities.
To obtain the results outlined above the Department will require
postal cars and apartments to be equipped with suﬁicient amount
of radiation to make the ﬂoor of the car comfortable and to obtain
a temperature of sixt'y-ﬁve degrees between the side doors at a
point of ﬁve feet above the ﬂoor line, and to maintain such tem-
perature under the most adverse weather conditions to which the
car is subjected when in service. Suﬂicient radiation should be
provided in the end of the car containing hopper and washstand
to maintain a temperature of at least forty~eight degrees in that
location.
All coal-burning stoves furnished as an auxiliary or emergency.
heat must be" of a safety pattern or design, properly guarded by
metal casing so as to prevent over-heating of closely-surrounding
objects and damage which might result therefrom.
35. Ventilation—Ventilation of postal cars of clere~story
design to be accomplished preferably by means of self-acting
ventilators, having intake and exhaust working in conjunction.
Four such ventilators per side for seventy and sixty-foot cars;
three per side in ﬁfty and forty-foot cars, and two per side in
mail apartments placed to obtain maximum results. Other deck
sash to have clear glass and to be placed in ﬁxed position without
screens. Trimmings of deck sash to be railway company ’s
standard.
Postal cars not having clere-story roofs are to have a sufﬁcient
equipment of self-acting ventilators in the roof.
36. Vestibule—Postal cars are to be equipped with railway com-
pany’s standard short vestibule, preferably with outside buffer
springs, and with diaphragms when needed for communicating
between cars.
CARS 549
37. Couplers and Draft Gears—The details of the coupler and
draft gear to be in accordance with M. C. B., and United States
safety appliance requirements, and the practice of the railroad
for which the cars are built.
38. Bujﬁng M echanism—The details of the buﬂing mechanism
to be in accordance with the practice of the railroad for which
the cars are built.
39. Brake and Signal Equipment—Postal cars to be equipped
with automatic air brakes and signal equipment of the latest
design, railway company ’s standard. Hand brakes in accordance
with United States safety-appliance standards. Brakes to be
applied to all wheels and to be preferably arranged inside on
four-wheeled trucks.
The braking power should not be less than 80 per cent of the
light weight of the car, based on sixty pounds air pressure in the
air-brake cylinder.
Suitable cord or attachments shall be furnished for convenient
operation of the conductor ’s valve and train-signal system.
TRUCK
44.. General—Trucks may have either the built-up metal or
cast-steel frames and may be either of the four-wheel or six-wheel
type, within the limit of wheel loads given below. For cars
equipped with one cast-iron brake shoe per wheel the effective maxi-
mum emergency brakeshoe pressure must not exceed 18,000 pounds
per shoe. When two brake ,shoes per wheel, or one shoe per wheel
having a higher coeﬁ‘icient of friction than cast iron, are used,
the wheel loads may be increased to the allowable carrying capacity
of the M. C. B. standard rules. -
45. Wheel Loads—Maximum weight of loaded cars must not
exceed 15,000 pounds per wheel for M. C. B. standard axle having
ﬁve by nine-inch journals, or 18,000 pounds per wheel for M. C. B.
standard axle having ﬁve and one-half by ten-inch journals.
46. Details—Wheels shall be either all-steel or steel-tired. All
other truck details, including body and truck center plates and side
bearings, shall be in accordance with M. C. B. requirements and the
practice of the railway for whose service the cars are built.
550 CARS
47. Painting—The painting of car body and trucks shall be in
accordance with the railway company ’s speciﬁcations for steel cars.
Light-color enamel paint to be used for interior ﬁnish.
48. Lettering and numbers—The lettering and numbering of
postal cars to conform to Railway Mail Service requirements and
the railway company 's standards.
Typical modern steel passenger cars are shown in Figs. 411,
412, 413, 414, 415 and 416. General types of trucks for such
cars are seen in Figs. 417, 418, 419 and 420. Of these trucks,
the Commonwealth Top Equalizer Passenger Trucks (Figs. 417
and 419) represent the latest and highest adaptation for the clasp
brake, as the brake shoes and heads are in full view and are easily
t'vrnzo NTATLQ \usu.
'IAlLWAY Im-ﬂ: "Erin:


Fig. 411.
Steel Postal and Express Car. Weight, 83,500 lbs.; Length Over
‘ Buffers, 64 ft. 5%in.
inspected, applied or removed; their accessibility adding to safety,
and a saving in time and labor being effected. There are a large
number of passenger trucks, as with underframes, for steel pas-
senger cars, of a great variety of types, though the tendency is
now more towards some kind of pedestal trucks.
For those desiring some data for purposes of comparison or
information, we give the following average weights and lengths
of various passenger cars of wood and steel:—
Wooden observation parlor car; weight, 132,000 pounds; length,
eighty-three feet eight inches. Steel vestibuled observation car;
weight, 135,000 pounds; length, 80‘feet ﬁve inches. Steel vestibuled
parlor-cafe car; weight, 140,000 pounds. Steel frame parlor car;
weight, 140,000 pounds. Wooden vestibuled day coach; weight,
95,000 pounds; length, sixty-nine feet seven inches. Steel vestibuled
day coach; weight 127,000 pounds; length, seventy-two feet six,
w‘
I‘ I’: I: m"
0
UNlTIZD STATIS MAIL
muLwM' POST OFHCI’.
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Fig. 412.
Steel Baggage and Postal Car.
Buffers, 63 ft. 2% in.
Weight. 118.700 lbs.; Length Over.
Barney & Smith Car Co.
552 CARS


Fig. 413.
Steel Vestibuled Day Coach. Weight, 116,000 lbs; Length Over
Body, 70 ft. 5% in.


_ Fig. ‘414.
Steel Frame Vestibuled Day Coach, with Steel Sheathing Below
Windows. \Veight, 120,000 lbs.; Weight of Two
Trucks. 39.000 pounds.


Fig. 415.
Steel Vestibuled Dining Car. American Car & Foundry Co.
inches, while another of the same kind weighs 116,000 pounds, and
is seventy feet ﬁve inches long. Steel frame day coach; weight,
150,000 pounds. Steel vestibuled dining car; weight, 152,000
pounds, while another of the same kind weighs 155,000 pounds,
and is seventy-two feet long. Steel underframe vestibuled dining
I
CARS l 553
car; weight, 132,000 pounds; length, seventy feet. Vestibuled
dining car with steel frame and ends; weight, 175,000 pounds—
the six-wheel trucks weighing here 50,000 pounds, while on other


Fig. 416.
Steel vestibuled Sleeping Car. Weight, 150,000 lbs. The Pullman
Company. .


Fig. 417.
Commonwealth Top Equalizer 4-Wheel Passenger Train Truck.
Commonwealth Steel Company.
cars such six-wheel trucks weigh only 39,000 pounds. vestibuled
dining car with steel frame and sheathing; weight, 139,000 pounds;
length, eighty feet. Steel vestibuled sleeping car; weight, 142,000
pounds.
As car men are greatly interested in the comparative behavior
of the modern steel car in wrecks and collisions, we give here a
few cases that partly elucidate the subject, although each acci-
554 ' . CARS
dent is really a separate study in itself, as the circumstances
vary so, and it is generally hard to classify them, still in such
accidents, the steel passenger car has shown up to good advantage
in wrecks where Wooden cars would have been badly smashed or
entirely destroyed; though it is not yet known exactly what steel
types will really compare, and which one of each kind, class, and
type will be perpetuated. In all such accidents, fair comparisons

‘ .
‘i 5310' ,
w‘
‘ 1' than.
‘gin/19'“ -Qalgf'ngh .. . l-
_ -'_I .'.' I‘ l.- ' ' l'1I:_'.'-.'.'.'.'Ig'lbid;;,)il:I' "If." ' '
''>-—-—-----7T7v‘‘b(af$%W-"' ‘ -'- -'

Fig. 418.
Six-Wheel Steel Truck. Standard Steel Car Co.
are hard to make, as just stated, but the known facts at least
form some basis for judgment on steel cars. With heavy steel
trains, heavier engines were needed to. haul them. These heavier
engines with steel trains behind them, running at high speed,
became, in accidents, more destructive than trains in days of
wooden cars; indeed, we have records of the complete destruction
of steel sleeping cars in rear-end collisions, for it is quite impos-
sible to build a steel car that can resist the shock in such an
accident from a train running sixty miles an hour. Any one look
CARS


Fig. 419.
Commonwealth Top Equalizer 6-Wheel Passenger Train Truck.
Commonwealth Steel Company.
556 CARS
r ; ‘vu-
_.'\_ ‘ _.
ing at one of the huge passenger engines standing at a station
and at a steel car, can imagine the result of a collision between
them. There is little doubt that even steel sleeping cars would
give way under such a terriﬁc impact.
In one recent collision, the wooden cars of one train were
smashed to kindling, while the steel car next to the engine on the
other train was but slightly damaged. This may be compared
with a very similar collision on another road, the speed of the
approaching train here, as in the former case, being about forty
miles an hour; the other train being practically at a standstill,
as the former train ran into it, from behind. In the former


Fig. 420.
Slx-XVheel Truck with Side Frame and Pedestals Forged in One
Piece. J. G. Brill Company.
collision, the two rear cars were practically demolished, the third
car badly damaged, and a number of passengers killed. In the
latter case, none of the cars were destroyed, though several had
their ends badly damaged, although no passengers were killed—
the shock of the collision being absorbed by the crushing (i the
platforms and vestibules, as shown in Fig. 421. This was one of
the most severe wrecks that steel cars have been in, and its study
is therefore of special interest.
A characteristic of this illustrated steel car design is that it is
of uniform strength for any cross-section throughout the length
of the car. There are strong vertical members at the end to
prevent one car from telescoping another, and the roof, in addition
to being sufficiently strong to keep from collapsing when it is
CARS 557

Fig. 421.
Crushed End of Steel Parlor Car After \Vreck.
turned up-side-down, is so braced as to aﬂ'ord considerable resist-
ance to end stresses. With a construction of this type the car
will start to give way at the point of impact, as it would in any
other case, but the heavy vertical members and the manner in
which they are tied to the framework, together with the roof
558 - CARS
braces, cause a sort of pulling-in eﬁect, drawing the roof and
side framing inward, into the 'zone where they oﬁer the most
resistance, giving the damaged end a “mushroom appearance.”
While the force of the blow is ﬁrst communicated to the small
areas of the ends which may be in! contact, and these parts crumble
and give way, it is quickly transmitted to the other parts of the
structure which offer more and more resistance as the stress is
distributed throughout the whole cross-section, until the force of
the blow is entirely absorbed. In other words, the blow is cushioned
by offering a yielding resistance suﬂicient to absorb the shock
while the end is giving way, thus protecting the body of the car.
Other car designers, however, do not always agree with this
kind of construction; their general idea being either to have a
special collapsible vestibule to absorb the shock and protect the
car body, or to provide extra heavy end construction. The trouble
with this last plan is, that if the cars are made too strong, so that
some part will not give way and absorb the shock, the lives of
the passengers will possibly be in as great danger as if the car
was too weak. As the car'will give way ﬁrst at the point of
impact, it is conceivable that the vestibule could be made con-
siderably stronger than the cross-section through the body of the
car, but the difference in strength should not approach the point
where the body of the car will be in danger of crushing or
crumbling.
In another accident, an older car constructed of wood, behind
steel cars, was crashed into by a heavy locomotive, and was com-
pletely destroyed with large loss of life. In another, great
damage was done by the wooden car being forced through the
end of a steel car. In fact, the great damage to cars is not from
wrecks due to derailment, but to collisions, in which if the cars
were so solidljr built that there would be neither “give” nor
telescoping proper, probably many passengers would be hurled
about so violently as to be killed or badly injured. How the 7
giving or crushing of the end of a steel car may protect passengers
and the car body itself, is shown in Fig. 422.
In derailment, the steel car has behaved wonderfully well. In
a recent derailment of a fast express train running at terriﬁc
speed to make up lost time, the engine and cars ran along the
CARS 559
cross ties until the engine hit one side of the bridge, tore its
foundation and fell with it half a dozen feet to the creek bed.
Six steel coaches were ﬂung to the other side of the track and
turned over in a cornﬁeld, the ﬁrst near the edge of the little stream.
Two rear coaches—an observation dining car and a Pullman—re-
mained upright on track bed. None of the steel coaches was
much damaged, but all were scarred by rails, ties and earth, and
with comparatively little repair all can be replaced in service.
Injuries to passengers were caused principally by falling and being
thrown about in the coaches, though some were cut by ﬂying glass.


Fig. 422.
How End of Steel Car Protected Car.
proof of the safety resulting from the use of steel cars, for bad
the cars been wooden ones, past experience shows that a heavy
loss of life would have taken place then and there.
Regarding the passenger cars of the future, several forces are
already moving to compel the adoption of steel cars exclusively,
owing both to motives of ultimate economy on the part of rail-
ways and to the insistent demand of the public for all-steel cars
because of the greater safety to passengers obtained by their
use. The kind of federal legislation that will eventually be passed
regarding passenger cars is foreshadowed by several bills intro-
duced in Congress, of which the Stevens Bill for the regulation
of railway equipment is typical. It is made unlawful for carriers
after ten years to use any passenger-train cars not constructed
of steel or with steel underframe, unless the commission shall
560 CARS
extend the time, and no new passenger-train cars not of steel or I
with steel underframe are to be added after the date of passage
of the bill, the commission having authority to permit during the
ten years the use of passenger-train cars not constructed of steel ‘
or with steel underframe. The I. C. C. recognizes that even ten
years from now, there will be many more or less wooden cars
available for further valuable service with reasonable safety,
especially on minor roads where few and small trains are operated
--above all, with cars of special construction and strength like
the Pullmans. Y ' ' '
In ﬁve years, lately, some 16,000 passenger train cars were
built, or at the rate of 3,200 cars per year. Two of the largest
car builders estimate that 3,500 all-steel passenger cars can be
built each year with present facilities, and a canvas shows that
the maximum number of all-steel cars per year that can be built
is about 4,630. An I. C. C. report gives the annual maximum
capacity of various car building plants of this country, as
follows:— -
American Car & Foundry:-
Jeﬂ’ersonville, Ind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . ..300
St. Charles, Mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 480
Berwick, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 600
Wilmington, ' Del . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . 300
> 1,680
Standard Steel Car Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., plant at _
Butler, Pa., New Castle, Pa., and Hammond, Ind .... .. 420
Pressed Steel Car Company, McKees Rocks and Pittsburgh,
Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . 360
Barney & Smith Car Company, Dayton, Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Harlan 8a Hollingsworth Corporation, Wilmington, Del. . . . 250
Wason Car Company, Springﬁeld, Mass.£ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 180
Laconia Car Company, Laconia, N. H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Pullman Company, Pullman, 111.: _
Passenger equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1,200
Pullman cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
--—— 1,800
CARS 561
If all the wooden and composite cars are to be replaced, about
46,926 cars will be needed; and the average cost for the 23,692
steel coaches being taken to be only $12,800, the total cost for this
new passenger equipment would be $614,619,100. Besides this,
about $300,000,000 worth of fairly good and serviceable equip-
ment would have to be destroyed or sold for scrap. One steel car
designer estimates that steel passenger train cars can be built for
‘about twelve cents per pound, as compared to about two and one- '
half cents per pound for steel freight cars. A steel car builder
states that all-steel passenger coaches cost from $14,000 to $17,000
each, averaging about $15,000; while others list such cars at
$16,500 each. The cost of the other steel passenger train cars
we have already given elsewhere. Building passenger cars is a
slow process, and is generally regarded as not nearly so proﬁtable
as building freight cars of equivalent’ value. Still, it is only a
question of time till legislation requires all passenger cars to be
all-steel.
CHAPTER xv
THE STEEL FREIGHT OAR
The causes leading to the introduction of the steel freight
car were; Demand for larger‘ car capacity; Need of greater
structural strength to resist present severe operating stresses of
freight service; and the approaching equalization of the costs of
steel and high grade car lumber, particularly for framing. Begin-
ning with the use of steel for certain parts of the trucks and
underframing, the steel underframe car was evolved, since which
the use of steel has been extended to other parts of freight cars
until we have developed the present steel-frame and all-steel freight
cars.
The ﬁrst steel freight cars, as before stated, were built in
1896-7, of forty and ﬁfty tons capacity, thus exceeding by two-
thirds the capacity of former freight cars; and their immediate
success led to the rapid increase of the steel freight car. Some
of the early steel— cars were built with a view to keeping the
light weight of the car down “to a minimum, with the inevitable
result in those days of steel inexperience, that some of them were
really weaker than the standard wooden freight car. The men
handling cars in the yards believed that all cars built of steel
could stand much rougher handling than wooden cars, and this
increased the resultant damage to the defective types of steel
freight cars. However, as further experience was had, the art of
constructing such steel cars has rapidly advanced so far that, in
view vof present and future circumstances, all the leading car
experts agree that before long the prevailing type will be the
steel car-by which term ,we mean those having steel underframes
with either steel-frame or all-steel superstructures. Cars with
simply steel underframes are not classed as steel cars.
Q
The majority of car men agree that ultimately the freight _
car will be all-steel; and even today there is no good argument
against steel for complete framing so constructed that the car
sides carry part of the load. The change from wood to steel in
freight car construction resulted in the abandonment of designs
562
CARS 563
that had almost become standardized, and led to the appearance
of many new types. Yet, outside of the question of design, there
is the problem of how far to go in the use of steel in‘ the super-
structure; whether it is better when composite (wood and steel
combined), or all-steel. In all freight cars it would seem that the
wooden ﬂoor must be retained, in order to secure proper blocking
for the lading; but outside of this feature, the use of wood is
slowly disappearing, with the possible exception (for some time)
of wooden sheathing for steel-frame freight cars. The comparative
weight of cars is of the greatest importance, and herein the steel
freight cars are commencing to show to marked advantage. Even
in 1898, the steel self-clearing hopper car had a dead weight of
only 36.36 per cent of the paying load as against 45.7 per cent
in the wooden hopper car which it replaced; and with some new
steel hopper cars when loaded, eighty per cent of the total weight
hauled by the engine is paying, and only twenty per cent dead
weight—an economic factor of the greatest importance in freight
service. .
The advantages of the steel freight car, in addition to those
before mentioned, are its survival in wrecks‘, its long life, greater
revenue service, and the fact that when the car is worn out, all
of it has a certain value as scrap. Many prophecies have been
made as to the possible length of life’ of all-steel freight cars, and
its estimates have varied over a wide range. Steel freight cars in
considerable numbers have now been in service since 1896, and from
the observations which have been made of their condition it can
safely be said that the life of the ﬂoor and hopper sheets will
vary from ﬁfteen to twenty years, and that the life of the rest
of the car will be double that of the ﬂoor sheets, or from thirty
to forty years. New ﬂoors and hopper sheets can be put in a
hopper car at an expenditure of roughly seventy-ﬁve dollars for
material and ﬁfty dollars for labor—a total of about $125. When
this is done the cars are said to be in practically as good condition
as when new. The mistake was made in many of the cars which
were designed in the earlier stages of steel freight car develop-
ment—and in some of the later stages as well—of making the
center sill constructions too light and in not using a cover plate
or heavy box girder construction. When new ﬂoor sheets are
applied it is therefore necessary in some cases to reinforce the
5641 ' 0412s '
center sills, but this is not generally the case. Naturally, as the
steel cars in service have grown older, and more and more have
been built, it has become necessary for roads to provide more
extensive facilities for making repairs to, them. This, in turn,
has acted to still further reduce the cost of repairs to such cars. ‘
Already, the general cost of maintenance of steel freight cars is
only a fraction of what it is for wooden cars, when the steel
car is properly constructed.
Of 207,684 freight cars built last year, only 7,237 were of
all-wood construction (only one-half the amount of all-wood cars 5
built the year before); 48,000 others using the old wooden super-
structure, while the rest were steel. This year the class of freight
equipment is exceptionally high-grade, ‘the extensive use of steel
cars‘being most noticeable. By far the larger part are of all-steel
construction, especially in hopper cars and, hardly less so in ﬂat
and gondola cars. The number of all-steel box cars ordered was
small; steel frame and steel underframe box cars comprising almost
all the box cars ordered. Concerning the material used in these cars,
it may be noted that for plates, posts, braces, etc., plain‘ rolled steel
shapes are used; for the more irregular members, pressed steel
shapes are largely adopted. _, Channels, I-beams, Z-bars, angles,
etc., are in great use;; cast-steel parts and combinations thereof
being conﬁned, in freight cars, almost entirely to trucks and
bolsters.
As regards construction, the widest diversity is observed
amongst box cars with steel upper and underframes, especially
among such parts as the sills. This is illustrated in Fig. 423.
The heavy lines in the drawings indicate the cover-plates used
with these sills. The use of such plates is now a general practice,
as it is considered a very desirable feature; for, besides adding
to the rigidity of the structure, it increases the net area of section
and therefore reduces the ﬁbre stress to a reasonable ﬁgure.
Freight cars do not, as a rule, fail because of the weight of
r the lading, but principally because of stresses transmitted through
the coupler. Such is the magnitude of the end shock that now
has to be withstood, that it would seem advisable to assume an
end strain of at least 200,000 pounds on the center-sills of box
cars with steel side frames and 300,000 pounds for those supplied
with wooden side-frames. Some of the thirty-six-foot cars with
CARS ' 565
steel body framing have an average stress per square inch behind
the bolster that is too high for safe practice; and this stress should
be reduced by increasing the area of center-sills, especially where
cross-bearers transmit to center-sills part of the car body ’s weight,
thus adding to the bending moment of said sills. In the forty-
foot cars with steel body framing, the maximum combined stress
at the center of the car is still somewhat high. As to that, the
forty-foot cars with wooden body framing have far too high a


_ | J I
til I I [ I, l
V YYPEE — ' YYPEK
O
1 I l ‘I _ 1 1 d

v
10:! "a L
Types of Center Sllls Showing the Dlverslty in Design, Arrange-
ment of Cross Bearers, Length of Cover Plates, Etc., as
Applied to Box Cara With Steel Side Frames.
Fig. 423.
stress, in many cases, and the sill area should be increased.
Failure to, observe such precautions accounts for the numerous
failures of center-sills found in all car shops. Other things being
I equal, the side sills should not be so deep as to make inspection
diﬂ‘icult; easy inspection means better inspection,'and when made
diﬂicuit by covering the parts which should be easily accessible,
defects will be missed by car inspectors.
With the increasing impacts cars new sustain, draft gears are
demanding increased ‘attention. One large road found that, as the
566 CARS
results of the shifting impact tests in its own yards, its cars must
be prepared to stand an end shock of at least 250,000 pounds.
After some exhaustive service tests, 'the Westinghouse Company
however, say that their own gear, which has capacity of from
140,000 to 160,000 pounds, is equal to all the demands of service,
other than wreck shocks, which nothing will ever completely absorb.
It is the opinion of the M. G. B. Engineers that a friction draft
gear should have a capacity for resistance of from 150,000 to
200,000 pounds, which would make a total resistance of from
300,000 to 400,000 pounds, as the gear is operative on both ends
of the car. _ '
The M. C. B. Association is now paying great attention to
draft gears, which will likely lead to higher capacities and greater
travel of gears. The perfect draft gear has not yet been found,
but it should fulﬁll the following requisites: Simplicity—Large
wearing surface—Easy movement at beginning of stroke—Large
absorption of work with low recoil—Easily assembled-No delicate
adjustment of parts—and, when closed, all yielding parts are to
be out of action. It must be admitted that draft gear engineers
have been handicapped by the limitations set by railroads. To
absorb 200,000 pounds and over in a movement of from two to
two and one-half inches, in a fraction of second of time, is cer-
tainly a large problem in mechanics. .
An example of one of the best of these gears is the Butler-
Piper Friction Draft Gear (The Butler Drawbar Attachment 00.‘),
Figs. 423-A and 423-B, both of which have a capacity of 200,000
pounds, and are widely used here and in foreign countries.
By the use of steel in hoppers, gondolas, and box cars, the
car sides act as trusses which carry that part of the load which
comes to the sides; unlike wooden cars, wherein the braces are
compression members and the rods are generally inadequate, as -
tension members, to take up much of the lading load. In a steel _
frame for a box car, both posts and braces are riveted to sills
and plates, and the posts contribute lateral strength, both by their‘
inherent strength due to their cross-section, and by their bowstring
action. As their load is increased, this action comes more and more
into play, stiffening the posts and preventing bulging. Z-bar posts
are therefore now largely used. The steel end framing can be
thoroughly tied, and this weak part of the ordinary box car is
CARS 567
immensely strengthened in the steel box car. With the side fram~
ing members securely riveted, it will be observed that there can
be no fore and aft working of the body (“weaving”) to loosen
the nailing of the sheathing, which is quite a gain in maintenance
results. In steel gondolas or hoppers, the side plate stiffening


Fig. 423i-a.
Butler-Piper Friction Draft Gear, No. 350. For 9%-inch Yoke or
combined with Any Side Link Attachment. Capacity,
200,000 lbs. Butler Drawbar Attachment Co.


Fig. 423-b.
Butler-Piper Friction Draft Gear. No. 370. For 61,5-inch Yoke or
combined with Any Side Link Attachment. Capacity,
200,000 lbs. Butler Drawbar Attachment Company.
angles or stakes are angle-irons riveted to the side plates, and serve
the same purpose as the wooden stakes on wooden cars.
In some of the new large capacity steel freight cars, use is
made of six-wheel trucks to carry their great load, and their use
is rapidly increasing. In Fig. 424 is shown a recent high-capacity
truck with only four wheels; but many car men predict that the
six-wheel freight car truck will eventually be used under all new
steel freight cars of maximum capacity.
568 CARS
In prevalent designs of steel cars, the underframe is almost
rigid, and as a result there are many times when the load is
almost lifted oif one of the center-plates on curves. Frequent
derailments have provedv that with steel freight cars, the friction
between the body and the truck must be reduced, either by increas-
ing the clearance of the side-bearings, or by putting on roller side-
bearings, or by some other method.
The all steel roof is a comparatively new development, and con-
sists of moderately heavy steel sheets, usually about sixteen. U. S.
gauge, resting on steel carlines; the latter being an integral part
of the roof. In some cases, the sheets extend from side to side


Fig. 424.
140,000-lb. Capacity Freight‘Truck.
of the car; in others, the sheets are divided, extending from the
caves to the ridge-pole. On all such steel sheets, the galvanizing
is about 1.8 ounces per. square foot on both sides of the sheet.
It is claimed that this kind of roof lightens the weight of the car;
but to the objection raised against it which apply to all outside-metal
roofs with their wear and corrosion, is also added that of the
metal ’s tearing out, due to its rigid application. This, however,
is being rapidly overcome, and we now have several ﬂexible all-
metal roofs at our disposal. This roof is more expensive than
other kinds, but probably will be used on all new steel cars. Some
metal roofs dispense with carlines altogether, the junction of the
roof sheets being so formed as to take their place by adding suf-
ﬁcient rigidity to the roof to enable it to fulﬁll its functions.
CARS 569
In all~steel cars, arrangements must be made for,ventilation,
to protect the lading from sweating and excessive heat which
might injuriously affect many high grade commodities. In Fig.
~125 is shown a modern steel box car, in which the sides and ends
are made from panels ﬂanged inwardly and riveted together on
the inside of the car, to prevent. corrosion at the rivets and facil-
itate the removal of panels when damaged. The caves are made
of special rolled shape, designed to form a column along the upper
edge of the sides, and permitting of inside riveting. The roof
sheets run longitudinally, and are lapped over the caves and each
other. The running board and bridge—which are in one piece—


Fig. 425.
Bettendorf All-Steel Box Car.
are made from checkered plate pressed into a U-shape and ﬂanged
for riveting to the roof sheets. This construction gives both
transverse and longitudinal strength, and still allows for the torsion
required of the car on curves and rough track. At each top
corner of the ends is a specially designed ventilator, to prevent
condensation upon the roof and side sheets, thus keeping moisture
off the lading besides preventing corrosion. Steel end doors, steel
side doors, and steel hatches and grain doors make the car ﬁt
to meet the needs of any freight service.
Generally, steel plate is used for the sides and ends, but in
some all-steel cars, corrugated iron or steel sheets are used, Fig.
426.
Another all-steel box car is seen in Fig. 427, of 100,000 pounds
capacity. Its weight is 50,000 pounds, and its inside measure-
ments are: Length, forty feet ﬁve inches; width, eight
feet ten inches; height, nine feet one inch. The height at eaves


Fig. 426.
All-Metal Box Car. Toncan Metal.


Fig. 427. .
‘ Pennsylvania Railway Steel Box Car.

CARS 571
is twelve feet ten inches; width at eaves, nine feet two inches.
Length over end sills, forty-two feet six inches. Truck centers
are thirty-two feet six inches apart. The center sills are of the ﬁsh-
belly type, built up of three-eighth-inch pressed steel U or channel
shaped sections, placed back to back. They extend from end sill
to end sill, and are twenty inches deep for a distance of eight

Fig. 428.
Steel Roof and ‘Voodoo Lining of Pennsylvania Railway Steel
Box Car.
feet eleven inches on either side of the central line of the car.’ There
is a three-eighth-inch top cover-plate, two feet two inches wide,
extending the full length; while four-inch by four-inch by nine-
sixteenth-inch angles reinforce the sills on the inside at the bottom.
The car has a wooden ﬂoor and a seven-eighth-inch wooden lining.
The roof sheets (Fig. 428) are about three thirty-second-inch thick,
‘ and are spot welded to carlines of U-section and three sixteenth-inch
thick. A one-eighth-inch space is provided between the roof sheets
and the side sheets where the former turn down over the eaves, to
allow for ventilation. The body bolster sections are U-shaped,
572 CARS
i;
placed seven and three-eighth inches back to back. There are no
longitudinal stringers, and the transverse ﬂoor supports are pressed
U-sections, six and three-quarter inches deep. The end sills are
pressed steel and have a vertical ﬂange for about eight inches up
the end of the car and are riveted to the end sheets. The side
sills consist of six inch by four inch by three-eighth inch angles,
with the four inch ﬂanged horizontal and turned inward, and
riveted to the back there is a four inch by three and one~ha1f inch
by three-eighth inch bulb angle. Diagonal braces of pressed U-
section extend from the outer end of the end sills to the center
sills at the bolster. The side plate is a six inch by four inch by
three-eighth inch angle. There are no braces employed in the body

w ‘ .-,-.~~
IOO ~ooc '
L ._
Fig. 429.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Box Car. Weight, 37,400 lbs.; Inside
Length, 40 ft.; Inside Width, 8 ft. 10% in.; Inside
Height, 8 ft. 2 in.


framing and the posts are of U-section pressed in the sheets.
There are two end posts, one on either side of the center line
of the car with an additional post, having a wood ﬁller, at the
center. - Nailing strips are provided for the wooden lining. The
side sheathing is one-eighth inch thick and the end sheathing ﬁve-
sixteenths inch thick. ‘
Other common types of all-steel box cars are Figs. 429 and
430. All hopper cars are now all-steel, Figs. 431 and 432, as are
nearly all ore-cars, and also gondola cars, Figs. 434 and 435.
Very many ﬂat cars have steel underframes, especially the
high capacity ones, while all of them have wooden ﬂoors. All tank
bars are now ﬁtted with steel frames of varying designs, with
various methods of attaching the tank proper to the car. A
CARS 573
n nun small-IQ; -


Fig. 430.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Box Car. Weight. 39,000 lbs.; Inside
Length, 36 ft.; Inside Width, 9 ft. 6 in.; Inside Height, 8 ft.


Fig. 431.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Hopper Car. Weight, 44,000 lbs.; Inside
Length 32 ft.; Inside Width, 6 ft. 6 in.; Capacity,
Level Full, 1,450 cu. ft.
variation, the steel Barber Four-Point-Bearing ﬂat car, is shown
in Fig. 433.
A southern road now uses seventy-ton steel hopper cars weigh-
ing 58,600 pounds, of which 38,700 pounds is in the body, and
19,900 in the trucks. This is several thousand pounds heavier
than would generally be needed in seventy-ton cars, but these ones
were built to stand very severe service. Their length over strik-
574 CARS
ing-plates is forty-one feet ﬁve inches. The ratio of paying load
to total weight of loaded car is 72.5 per cent. Several roads are
using steel gondolas of from seventy to ninety tons, in some cases
using six-wheel trucks under them. Steel ﬂat cars are now in


Fig. 432.
All-Steel lO-Ton Capacity Twin Hopper Car. Weight, 14,800 lbs.;
Inside Length, 13 ft.; Inside \Vidth, 6 ft. 6 in.; Capacity,
5, . 225 cu. ft. The Kilbourne & Jacobs Mfg. Co.


Fig. 433.
Barber Four-Point Bearing Flat Car.
Standard Car Truck Co.
service with a capacity of 100 tons. One of the ninety-ton high-
side gondolas is shown in Fig. 436.
Cars larger than 120,000 pounds capacity, if mounted on four-
wheel trucks, often bring pressures on the journal~bearing which
cause a large increase in the troubles with wheels and axles,
CARS 575

Fig. 434.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Ore Car. Weight, 32,000 lbs.; Inside
Length. 18 ft. 10 in.; Inside Width. 8 ft. 6 in. National
Dump Car Company.
.576 CARS

Fig. 435.
All-Steel 50-Ton Capacity Drop-Bottom Gondola. Car.


Fig. 436.
Ninety-Ton Gondola Car Mounted on New Design of Six-\Vheel
Trucks.
CARS 577
besides producing frequent hot boxes. The passenger six-wheel
truck is too expensive and complicated for satisfactory use in
freight service, and hence has rarely been so employed. With
ninety-ton cars, and the usual ten per cent overload, a six-wheel
truck is practically compulsory. Therefore, with the car just
depicted, a six-wheel truck was used which permits the use of the
ordinary ﬁve and one-half by ten inch M. O. B. journal-box, while
at the same time the weight is equalized, and the truck is given
the necessary ﬂexibility. We show the details of this truck in
~ Fig. 437. ‘
The maximum outside dimensions of this type, Fig. 436, of the
coming freight car, are, on- the inside—nine feet six inches wide,
six feet six and one-half inches high, and forty-ﬁve feet six and
one-quarter inches long. As its ﬁrst load, it took on ninety-ﬁve
tons of coal. The design is of the continuous center¢sill type;
cross-beams being used to prevent deﬂection of the center-sills in
such a long car, thus transmitting load to car sides, which (as
plate girders) carry it to the bolsters, whence it is transferred.
to the center-plates. Inside stakes are used, thus doing away
with the undesirable body cross-ties, and acting as powerful side
stiﬁ‘eners near the top chord angle of the side plate. Commercial
shapes are largely used, special castings being found at only a
few points. The center-sills consist of two ﬁfteen inch 33-pound
channels, continuous for the full length over end sills, and set‘
apart twelve and seven eighths inches with the ﬂanges extending
outwards, employing a ﬁve-sixteenths‘inch top cover plate extend~
ing continuously between the bolsters. Because of the great weight,
two- bolsters set thirty-six inches apart have been used, and a
large casting ﬁtted between the center-sill channels connects the
two and includes the center-plate. The side-bearings are attached
to a properly shaped casting, forming a bridgebetween the two
bolsters ; they are located at a radius of three feet nine and one-half
inches from the,truck center. A large part of the load is carried,
by the sides of the car which consist of one-quarter inch steel
plates eighty-seven inches in width and 138 inches long; the vertical
joints between these sheets being made by one-quarter inch splice
plates on the inside, and the double stakes as these points are
set in enough to allow for them. Each car has two sets of brake
rigging—auxiliary reservoir, triple valve, brake cylinder, etc. The
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CARS 579
truck has no pedestals—a noyelty—and consists of a cast-steel side
frame in two parts and of peculiar shape, to carry three journal-
boxes at'four feet six inch centers.
Many car men believe that the kind of steel freight car most
advisable, is the steel framed single-sheathed box and other house
car; and in fact this type is rapidly growing in favor both here
and in Canada. Of this type, there are two sub-types of this steel
upper and underframe car; the kind with outside sheathing, and
that with inside sheathing. Neither kind has a separate lining,
the sheathing acting as both lining and sheathing. As we saw,
the wooden car was ﬁnally replaced by the box car ﬁtted with com-
plete steel underframe and metal trucks. While having many ad
vantages over the old wooden car, the steel underframe car devel-
oped some troubles peculiar to itself, the most important being
due to the fact that the body being carried on a rigid frame and
not held together by the strains resulting from its weight, as in
the old trussed cars, has a tendency to develop slack in the super‘-
structure. This in turn aﬂ‘ects the roof and sheathing. One
principal trouble with outside sheathed cars is that, after they
have been in service a comparatively short time, the sheathing fre-
quently loosens at the end sill and at the side sills near the bolsters
with resultant leakage of grain.
Later on, Mr. C. A. Seeley designed the ﬁrst steel superstructure
box car, which was of the outside sheathed type. In 1902, the
Norfolk and Western built 100 of these calls, and in 1909 it had
2,700 of them in service, whilst the Rock Island and Frisco had
5,000 similar ones. All were outside sheathed, and as regards leak-
age at the sills it was found that they were but little better than
the old wooden superstructure box cars. Probably for this reason,
these roads have since turned to the inside sheathed type.
In 1908 the Canadian. Paciﬁc Railway designed a steel frame
inside sheathed box car. This car avoided the disadvantage of
the outside sheathed car which had not been accomplished by the
steel frame cars constructed up to that time, and at once obtained
a further reduction in weight and provided for cheapness of
maintenance by the use of steel superstructure, without the ad-
ditional lumber required by the outside sheathed car. With prac-
tically no preliminary experimenting 500 of these cars were built
and since, over 30,000 have been built similar to the ﬁrst cars,
.580 CARS
with. the exception of several reﬁnements of details, such as corner
and door posts, end doors and side plates, and joining of ﬂooring
, and lining. . These changes have not aifected the general design
of the car, but are the improvement that have been introduced
from time to time to reduce weight and simplify the construction.
The steel frame sheathed car has several advantages over
the types previously used, notably in that the tare ton weight
is low in proportion to the capacity. There ‘is such a variation
in the ﬁgures used for the cost of hauling per ton-mile, that no
attempt is made to say what the saving would amount to, but
the advantage of having a car equal, if not superior to other cars
in all respects, weighing from 1,000 to 5,000 pounds less will
appeal to all trafﬁc and operating men. Not only is there that
much less dead weight to haul when the car is empty or partly
loaded but additional lading can frequently be carried. The
actual limit on'the'paying load that can be carried in a properly
designed car is the total weight on the axles. Thus, a car having
ﬁve-inch‘by nine-inch axles with such a tare weight that, when
deducted from the capacity of the axles, allows the car to be safely
loaded to 88,000pounds could, if dead'weight be reduced by 3,000
pounds, safely carry a paying load of 91,000 pounds and retain
the same strength. Thus the actual capacity of the car is increased
almost four per cent with a better ratio of paying to dead load.
With the wooden superstructure, it had been thought necessary
to assist the superstructure by heavy roof“ construction, some go-
ing so far as to use diﬁerent methods of diagonal bracing, but
with the steel car ‘it has been found that there is no appreciable
local movement of the framing in the heaviest service which
makes a simple proposition of the roof as it has only to take care.
of itself. This presents a simpler problem to roof designers,
making it possible to design a roof much lighter, without neces-
sity for use of purlines or ridge poles to strengthen the car. It
is obvious that unnecessary weight in the roof raises the center of
gravity, and increases the tare weight and cost and has other dis‘
advantages. ~As there is no appreciable movement in the framing,
thislighter roof can be used, thus lessening the cost and lowering
the center of gravity. Car builders diifer as to kind of roof to be
installed on such cars, some of them covering the steel roof with a
CARS . 581
cheap grade of timber boards to protect it, as many galvanized
roofs wear out far too rapidly.
Last year there were about 75,000 box cars with steel under
and upperframes with single sheathing in service, including the
outside sheathed kind. But with all of them there is no question
about the ability of the steel frame structure to carry considerably
greater loads, both vertically and due to end shocks, than the
wooden upper frame car, on account of the diagonal braces assist-
ing in transmitting the strain throughout the side. Some employ
rolled steel sections for center-sills, having a smaller net area
than many consider good car practice as to sills; and here, espe-
cially, continuous cover plates should always be used on such center
sills. Further, the steel frame car adapts itself readily to standard
construction, and the cars of this kind now being built are in
general much alike, although the Pennsylvania has built a number
of such cars with a framing different from the others in many
respects. Experience proves that the wind resistance of the inside-
sheathed box car, as compared to outside sheathed cars, may be
ignored. In brief, owing to its many advantages, an enormous
number of this type of freight car is being ordered and built.
One of its best features is the facility of making repairs and
their low cost, particularly if structural steel is used for the upper
framingw—a practice nﬁow almost universal. Such rolled steel shapes
seldom need’ renewal even when the car is wrecked, as they can
easily be restored to their original shape at any car repair plant;
whereas wood has to be replaced, and pressed steel shapes would
require special’ dies to re-form them. Pressed steel costs more than
stock rolled steel, and is often weakened by ﬂattening out the
ends of posts and braces where they connect with sills or plates.
Using structural shapes, repairs are largely a question of labor.
The cars with steel upperframes are not entirely rigid, and will
endure slight distortion without injury. This capacity ‘for twisting
is to be desired, as it allows a car to adjust itself to curves and
rough track.
In addition to being ﬁve and one-half inches narrower than the
outside of the sheathing of a wooden car, the superstructure is
protected by the framing, so that a side swipe that would do serious
damage to an outside sheathed car frequently does not touch the
lining and is resisted by the framing without damage to the posts
582 . ’ CARS
or braces. Frequently it is found that a side swipe that would
almost demolish the sides of a wooden car only bends the steel
framing, and in making repairs, the lining is merely removed,
posts and braces straightened and the original lining replaced, the
whole cost being the comparatively small labor charge. J acking
frames are being installed at all of the principal repair points of
roads having a quantity of such cars, and with these frames many
jobs that would ordinarily require the car to be cut apart, thus
taking several days, can be done in a few hours without cutting
rivets. With structural steel, no material need be carried in stock
for repairs except that used generally for all cars; while with
wooden cars, the amount of material necessary to be kept in stock
for repairs rapidly increases with the age of the car. This is not
so with the steel frame car. i
The problem of upper framing here depends very much on how
the sheathing is to be applied, whether vertically, horizontally, or
diagonally. As a rule, it has been extended horizontally for all-_
steel frame cars except the pressed steel frame. Vertical sheath-
ing is, however, the best, as it protects the lading against water.
In horizontal sheathing, rain gets in at the joints, which is a
serious objection in grain shipments. The M. C. B. Recommended
Practice for lining for outside framed cars, with dimensions, is
illustrated in Fig. 289. Single sheathing now varies, in practice,
for this type of car, from one and one-quarter to ﬁve-eighths inches
thick, and three and one-quarter to ﬁve and‘ one-quarter inches
wide. Some roads are using corrugated galvanized steel sheathing
with good results, as its application is as simple as a wood lining;
No. 13 gauge sheets, lapped and riveted, are used, four inches of
the bottom sheet being straightened at the ﬂoor, resting on the
side sills with the boards superimposed upon them- to make a
tight joint. Such is the rigidity of the car that the paint sealing
the joints of this car, is generally unbroken. In fact, steel or
iron lining will likely be used considerably, if no damage occurs
from heat, cold, or sweating. Insulation will probably not be
used to any extent, as it adds to the cost and weight of the car
without affording protection to the lading other than that secured
by a wooden lining.
The most popular construction for the frame is that having
nine panels with the end panels braced diagonally, for cars forty
CARS 583
feet or more in length, and the same for thirty-six-foot cars,
omitting one panel. On certain roads, the diagonal brace has been
omitted on the side panels, as also has been the brace from the
end panel. Where these are omitted, the corners of the car do
not seem to be sufficiently supported. The diagonal brace extend-
ing from side plate to end sill is a very desirable feature, and
should always be retained, especially in the end panel where it is
in tension, due to its share of bearing the lading. It relieves
stress on the side sill near the bolster, and also ties together the
lower corner of the side frame. The diagonal braces used in the
end framing tend to keep the end framing of the car square, and
dispensing with them will likely‘ lead to a loosening of the riveted
joints uniting the posts with the plates and underframe. Z-bars
set‘ behind the end sills, using channel end sills with steel cover
plate, is always a good construction. The Canadian Paciﬁc has
used two four-inch Z-bars end posts of 8.2 pounds per foot, with
one and three-quarters inch lining, and it' has given good service.
This road now proposes to use two ﬁve-inch end posts of 11.6
pounds per foot, with a two and three-quarter inch lining for a height
of four feet, and one and three-quarter inch linin‘g above that.
The single thickness end makes convenient the application of single-
thickness grain-tight end doors. '
The disadvantages of this type of car are the end construction
and the shrinkage of lumber in side and end lining; the last of
which demands special attention. The car is a good type when
proper lumber is used and due care in building the car is taken.
The grading, drying, and painting of the lumber require much
more attention than anything else in this kind of car. Yellow pine,
ﬁr, and some spruce have been used; the advantage of spruce in
lightness being offset by its slow drying. The diiﬁculty of getting
proper and well-dried lumber is the main trouble here. On some
of the ﬁrst cars of this type, ‘green timber was used, and hence
it shrunk, giving the cars an unsightly appearance. Even so, the
cars could have been tightened for $4.00 per car, were it not that
this was rendered unnecessary because no claims for damaged
lading resulted from the use of said cars.
The lining should not be matched before drying, as it warps
and curls, making it difficult to secure a tight ﬁt. The rough size
of the lumber should be at least one-quarter inch greater than the
584 CARS
ﬁnished dimensions. One railroad ’s practice is that a piece of
lining of full cross-section subjected to a temperature of 170
degrees F. for ninety-six hours, should not lose more than six per
cent in weight, and samples losing ten per cent must not be used
till further dried. Lumber from yards often shows twenty-ﬁve to
thirty per cent loss due to moisture, which proves the importance
of drying lumber properly. It requires, also, careful judgment as to
the length of time lumber should be kept in the lumber-drying kilns.
Nearly all the car plants of roads now making large use of this
type of car, are equipped with dry kilns, the additional cost being
only one dollar per car for present requirements over past ones.
Proper drying makes the car side practically one board; but, in any
event, this occasional shrinkage is a triﬂing argument against this
kind of car.


Fig. 438.
Steel Frame 40-Ton Capacity Box Car. \Neight, 37.100 lbs.; Inside
Length, 36 ft.; Inside Width, 8 ft. 6 in.; Inside Height, 8 ft.
The defects in the sheathing that must be most closely watched
are shakes or splits that extend obliquely downward into the car
which must be knifed 'n with paste before the car is painted.
The edges of the lining should be painted, and we have found this
can be done more easily and thoroughly by dipping the boards
and putting them through between two rubber scrapers which re-
moves the surplus paint leaving the edge thoroughly coated. This
gives a thin coat of paint on the inside of the car which is an
CARS '585


Fig. 439.
Steel Frame 40-Ton Capacity Box Car for Automobile Traffic.
\Veight, 39,100 lbs.: Inside Length, 40 ft. 6 in.; Inside Width,
8 ft. 6 in.; Inside Height, 9 ft. 3 in.


Fig. 440.
Steel Frame 50-Ton Capacity Hopper Car. Weight, 38,600 lbs;
Inside Length, 30 ft. 9 in.; Inside Width, 8 ft. 91/,- in.:
Capacity, Level Full, 1,595 cu. ft.
586 . CARS
advantagein causing the lumber to dry more uniformly and dimin-
ishes the tendency to warp. Narrow boards have the advantage
of having less tendency to warp, and also if the lumber should
not be thoroughly dry, there is less total shrinkage for each board
making the space between the edges narrower. The steel work


\ “ Fig. 441.
Steel Frame 55-Ton Capacity Solid Bottom Gondola Car with Drop
Ends. Weight, 46,000 lbs.; Inside Length, 46 ft.; Inside
Width, 8 ft. 9 in.; Inside Height, 2 ft. 61,; in. '
Capacity, level full, 1,015 cu. ft.


Fig. 442.
Steel Frame for 40-Ton Capacity Steel Frame Box Car.
and rooﬁng are painted the same as other cars. This considerable
space has been given to the grading and drying, and painting of
lumber, as we have found that these factors have required much
more attention than everything else combined in connection with
the car.
Examples of this car are exhibited in Figs. 438 and 439, the
last being the ordinary steel-frame automobile car. Steel frame
hopper and gondola cars are seen in Figs. 440 and 441.
CARS 587
With a view to lessening damage to freight, one railway in a
recent order for 1,000 box cars, required that special attention
be given to making them burglar-proof, waterproof, and grain
and leakage-proof, as well as providing a smooth style of interior
intended to reduce to a minimum the destruction of package freight
in paper bags, boxes, etc. This car (see Fig. 442) uses the Posson
I-beam carline. The car is of the general Canadian Paciﬁc type,

Fig. 443.
Canadian Paciﬁc Railway Steel Frame Box Car, Equipped with an
All-Steel Roof. Designed by R. W. Burnett.
Master Car Builder.
fr‘om which the Erie type differs in having a ﬂat (strap) member
which reaches from the end sill upward to the top of the vertical
members of the next panel.
A Canadian Paciﬁc steel frame car is seen in Fig. 443. This
car is a steel-frame one of 80,000 pounds capacity, weighing
36,000 pounds, and is of the horizontal sheathed kind. It has
structural steel frames, channel center-sills, and Z-bar side-fram-
ing. It is thirty-six feet long, eight feet six inches wide, and eight
feet high inside. It is furnished with a steel roof of arch shape
588 CARS

Fig. 444.
The Burnett Metal Roof; Exterior and Interior Views.
and without carlines, purlines, or ridge pole. The roof sheets are
so formed that they interlock at the edges; and over the joints
on the outside there are U-shape cap pieces extending the width
of the car, and provided with a certain amount of ventilation
through their ends, as seen in Fig. 444.
CHAPTER XVI
STENCILING CARS
In the early days of railroading the carrier was content simply
to transport the freight over his own line, and, if it was to be
delivered to a connection, to unload it at his own terminus and
let the connection take it. But in these days a shipment of freight
may, for instance, be loaded at New York and unloaded at San
Francisco without ever leaving the car in which it was ﬁrst placed.
Consequently such a car will traverse the lines ‘of many companies
in carrying its load from point of origin to destination. It
follows that the freight cars of the different railroad companies
of the country are scattered in what would seem to be the wildest
confusion all over the country.
It is apparent that under such circumstances it is of great
moment that the carrier who takes a car from another road should
be able to tell at a glance its salient mechanical features so that
he may know how to handle it and how most quickly and efficiently
to inspect it as to its condition. Accordingly .every freight car
is marked in various ways by letters or ﬁgures painted by means
of stencil plates (hence the term “ stenciling”), which indicate
the style or dimensions of certain of its parts such as the length and
width, the style of coupler, draw bar attachments and brake beam;
the size of journal and axle, the kind of air-brake with which it
is equipped, etc.
As this is a matter of concern to all shippers and railroad
companies, and as its eﬂicacy depends upon uniformity of practice
by railroads generally, the M. C. B. Association eventually adopted
as Standards certain rules on the subject. Similarly, in order
that the markings might be standard for all freight equipment,
the Association adopted uniform heights and dimensions for
letters and ﬁgures for all speciﬁed markings, besides certain styles
therefor, so that uniform stencils might be prepared and used on
all freight cars.
589
590 Units
The M. C. B. standards are as follows :-
. That on all box cars standing more than twelve feet from top
of rail to eaves, the height and width at eaves be stenciled in
three-inch letters on side of car as near the bottom as convenient;
if running board is ﬂush with eaves, the height should be given to
top of latitudinal running board. All classes of cars ‘are to have
size of coupler, style of rear attachments, kind of draft gear, and
style of brakebeam stenciled in two or three inch letters on each
side of car at opposite ends, or on each end of car directly above
coupler, where design of car permits it. Where the kind of draft
gear implies the style of rear attachments, the marking for the
latter may be omitted: that where the construction of the track
permits, trucks shall be stenciled on each side, giving the size of
journal, and the letters “M. C. B.” if the axle is M. C. B.
standard axle. If the axle is not M. C. B. standard, use dimen-
sions from center to center of journal in place of M; C. B. This
stenciling to be in one or two-inch letters, and to be put on end
or side of bolster .in Diamond trucks, and on side truck frame in
center on pedestal type of trucks. Initials of the road should also
appear in letters one or two inches high on one side of bolster or
transom of each truck.
Flat cars should be stenciled with length of car over end sills,
measured at the center; the stencil ‘ ‘ Length-—-—feet” to be located
on side of car. Drop-end gondola cars should be stenciled with
length of car inside of drop-end doors, measured at the center;
this stencil “Inside length --- feet” to be located on side of
car.
The M. C. B. Recommended Practice for uniform lettering of
cars is as follows:
1. That Roman letters and ﬁgures of the design shown on
Sheet M. G. B., Fig. 445, be used. 2. That the sizes of these
letters and ﬁgures be conﬁned to one, two, three, four, seven and
nine inches. 3. That seven and nine-inch letters or ﬁgures be
used for the initials, names and numbers for the sides of cars,
and four-inch letters or ﬁgures for the lettering on the doors and
ends of cars. 4. That for other car-body markings on sides and
ends, such as capacity, couplers, brake beams, class of car, date
built, outside and inside dimensions, and markings inside of car,
two or three-inch letters and ﬁgures be used, with the following


STANDARD LETTERING FOR FREIGHT CARS.


2_ 81
MASTER Bummaamssocmuou ~


O'ARS 591
exceptions: '(a) ‘All weight marks to be three or four-inch letters
or ﬁgures. (b) Trust marks, patent marks and other private marks
should be one-inch letters or ﬁgures. 5. That all marks on trucks be
conﬁned to one or two-inch letters or ﬁgures. 6. That stenciling
on air-brake cylinders or reservoirs be one-inch letters or ﬁgures.
These various M. C. B. rules are illustrated in Figs. 282 and 445.
The M. C. B. standard marking on freight equipment cars is
as follows:--- '
1. Freight Equipment Cars that have a superstructure which
will permit should be stenciled with markings on sides of car, in
the following order:
Lettering (Initials or name of Road),
Number,
Capacity,
Light Weight. g
This marking is to be located as nearly over the truck as the
lettering will permit, preferably to the left of center line of side
of car. On box and other house care where doors slide to the
left, the above marking may be placed to the right of center line
' of side of car. On any other cars where the construction makes
it necessary, this marking may be placed either to the‘ right of
center line of side of car, or in the center of side of car. The
distance from the center line of coupler to the bottom of car num-
ber to be normally two feet four and one-half inches, with a min-
imum dimension of one foot ten and one-half inches, and a max-
imum of two feet‘ ten and one-half inches. The spacing of the
remaining markings to be as shown on diagram. The ends to show ‘
the initials or name of road, car number and light weight, in the
upper half of end of car. On box or other house cars having
end doors this lettering should be so located that it will not be
obscured when doors are open.
Flat and low-sided gondola cars should show the lettering
(initials or name of road), number, capacity and light weight on
the side of car in the best available location offered by the con-
struction of the car. Suggestions as to the arrangement of this
lettering are shown on the diagrams. When possible the sizes
of lettering and ﬁgures should correspond with present Recom-
mended Practice. The end marking on ﬂat care may be omitted.
Side and end doors should be stenciled with the initials or name of
592 i CARS ' \
read either on the outside or inside of door. If placed on the inside
the stenciling should be so located that it will not be defaced by
the sliding of the door. '
The ‘ ‘ date weighed’ ’ shall include the symbol ‘of station where
weighed. On steel underframe gondola cars, the maximum height
of number above the center line of the coupler is one foot ﬁve
inches. The word ‘ ‘ weight ’ ’ is to be preceded by the word ‘ ‘ new. ’ ’
The M. C. B. Standard Marking of Freight Cars, with loca-
tions thereof, is fully shown in Fig. 282.
The M. C. B. rules as to weighing- and stenciling cars are
as follows:-“ (a) ‘Each new car must be weighed separately and
the light weight, capacity in pounds, :1: station symbol and the
date (month and year) must be marked thereon at the car works,
under the supervision of the owner ’s inspector. vThe accuracy of
the scales used must be certiﬁed to by a railroad scale inspector
appointed by the car owner. These provisions to be incorporated
in the contract covering the purchase of. the equipment.
“ (b) Wooden and steel underframe cars should be reweighed
and remarked at least once. every twelve months during the ﬁrst
twoyears the car is in service, and thereafter once every twenty-
four months. All-steel cars should be reweighed and restenciled
at least once every thirty-six months. A car must be clean when
weighed for marking. The station symbol and the date (month
and year) of each reweighing should be marked the same as pro-
vided for new cars in paragraph (a).
“ (c) When a car is materially changed by repairs, alterations
- or repainting, it should be reweighed and remarked.
‘ ‘ (d) Any car‘ without marking or which has not been reweighed
and remarked within the prescribed period should be immediately
reweighed and marked. If the ear is reweighed at any time and
is found to have a variation of over one per cent between the
marked and the actual weight, it should be immediately remarked.
When a car is remarked the car owner should be notiﬁed of the
old and of the new weights, with place and date. The proper
ofﬁcer to whom these reports should be made will be designated in
‘ The Oﬁicial, Railway Equipment Register. ’ ’ ’ ‘
Iand cubical capacity except for ﬂat and tank cars.
CARS 593
Besides requiring the installation of safety appliances on cars,
the federal law requires the marking of cars accordingly; and the
M. C. B. Association has therefore adopted the following designat-
ing marks for cars equipped with such appliances:—
For cars built 'on or after July 1, 1911:
UNITED STATES
SAFETY ‘APPLIANCES,
STANDARD.
For cars built prior to July 1, 1911:
UNITED STATES
SAFETY APPLIANCES.
The above markings to be used on each side of the car; letters,
if stenciled, to be not less than one inch in height and as per
M. G. B. standards for lettering for freight cars, Fig. 445;
letters, if on' a metal badge plate, to be not less than one-
sixteenth-inch and have not less than one-eighth-inch bar or staﬁ.
The arrangement of the words to be as near as possible as shown
above.
A metal badge plate, three and one-half by ten inches, with
the proper marking is preferred, one plate to be secured on each
side of the car by four bolts or rivets,“ if on metal cars, and by
four bolts or screws, if on wooden cars, the bolts, rivets or screws
to be not less than one-quarter-inch diameter. The badge plate
to be of metal as shown on drawing below.
’ uumsu STATES “
SAFETY-APPLIANBES


Us STANDARD is,
594 cities ,
In the Interchange Code of Rules of the M. C. B. Association,
issued as a Supplement to this book, will also be found other
oiﬁcial rules concerning stenciling, as regards the following mat-
ters; Marking of Brakebeams; Marking of Tank-Car Safety-
Valves; Marking of Car equipped with Steel Wheels; Marking of
Air and Steam Hose, Pipe, and Couplings; Marking so as to show
the month and year when the car was originally built, etc. These
rules direct that each new freight car must be weighed separately
and the light weight, capacity iri, pounds, and cubical capacity,
except for flat and tank cars, together with the station symbol
and the date (month and year) must be marked on said car at the
car works. All freight cars except tank cars are to have their
light weight and capacity, - or their light weight and maximum
weight, stenciled on them. After October 1, 1915, cars not having
stenciled ‘on them when they were built new, will not be accepted
in interchange.
As to tank cars, the M. C. B. Association requirements as to
their stenciling will be found under “Speciﬁcations, M. C. B., for
Tank Cars” in Chapter XII, of this book.
The following rules regulate the M. C. B. Placard Board:—
The space available for placards should not be less than sixteen
inches by twenty-four inches on each end and each side of car.
House cars with suﬁ’icient space available on Wood siding, or ex-
posed lining, should have a rectangular space, painted black, on
each side and each end. QOther house cars should be provided with
placard boards, made of soft wood, not less than sixteen by
twenty-four by one inch. The vertical edge should be reinforced
with metal protection, and the bolts fastening the boards to the car
should not be less than six in number, and should pass through
the metal reinforcing pieces, three through each. The boards may
be made of more than one piece, and should then be tongued and
grooved. The distance from the ﬂoor line of car to bottom of
board should be not less than four feet six inches.
Routing boards, preferably the same size as the placard boards
described, should be placed on the side of the car, as near as v I
possible to the door seal.
The light weight of car should be stenciled on each car. The
cross frame tie, when exposed, furnishes a convenient place on
which to show the weight, but- when this place is not available
CARS 595
some other means should be provided. In addition to this, the
length of the ‘cylinder end of the cylinder lever should be shown so
that no calculation would be necessary to determine the proper
cylinder lever for the car.
It may be found desirable by some railroad companies to mark
each lever in a manner to indicate the schedule to which each
belongs and the location of each in the brake rigging, and if this
is done it is suggested that the marking be the same as indicated.

TABLE I.
Schedule Light weights Type of Size of Brake Logiaztulilluitlidle
Designation of Cm- Truck Cylinder of Brake
(Lbs) Beam
100,000
A. to 6-wheel 16 inches 28,000 lbs.
- 137,000
- - 80,000
A-l. to 6-wheel 14 inches 22,000 lbs.
’ 100,000
70,000
B. to 4-wheel 14 inches 28,000 lbs.
90,000
. 50,000
B-l. to 4-wheel 12 inches 22,000 lbs.
7 0,000
C. 50,000 }
l and less. 4-wheel 10 inches 15,200 lbs.


There have been brought together in Table I the distinctive
data of each schedule so that by referring to the table there can
be found quickly the correct schedule for any particular car.
Here the location of levers and rods are designated by letters,
the ﬁrst letter in the designation distinguishes between body and
truck. The second letter distinguishes between the levers and the
connections. The ﬁgure following the second letter is the dis-
tinctive number for the lever or connection; and following this
ﬁgure is the schedule letter to which the lever or connection belongs.
Thus B-C2-B means body connection number two (second from
cylinder piston rod), of schedule “B”; also T-L2-B would mean
truck lever number two for schedule ‘ ‘B. ’ ’
The M. C. B. Association has recommended to the American
Railway Association that stenciling on the end of freight cars be
596 p , cans
S
omitted, because of the liability of making errors the stenciling
of weights, the increase in the amount of work involved thereby,
and the danger to employees, for whom it is unsafe either to ‘
stencil or make use of the ladder to get up near the top of the
car to enter the weight. In fact, the majority of roads do not
now stencil weight on car ends. ' Formerly it was done principally I
for reading weights when the cars were on the scale tracks; but
the inspector now can and should make use of the stenciling on
the side of the car. The bars below the number and abovethe
initial marking are not included in the M. C. B. markings, and not
many roads use them nowadays. '
The name of the road in full should-be put in some manner in
‘some place on the car. One objection to this is that, in the steel
outside frame car, the outside frame reduces the stenciling space
on the car and greatly interferes with getting the stencils on them.
For this kind of car, use may yet be made of ‘bridge plates with smal-
ler ‘letters, giving the data as to coupler, brakebeam, class of car,
date it was built, outside and inside dimensions, and the markings
on inside of car. This will make a better appearance for such
type of cars. In any case, where a railroad has the same initials
as another road, the name in full should be put in some part of the
car where it may be readily seen. It is also proposed to use
separate letters placed on each side of the car near the door hasp
of house cars for seal record purposes, so that such records can be
taken by letters.
The following practice for stenciling fast freight line cars is
recommended: 1. The half of sides of car on which the doors
do not slide, to show the name of the “Fast Freight Line, ’ ’ spelled
out in full, and the car number, in the Fast Freight Line series,
immediately below it. In the same panel and within two feet of
the sill shall appear, in letters not over four inches high, the name
of the railroad company owning or contributing the car, and
between the same and the sill shall, appear the light weight of the
car, with such other information as it is found, advisable to give
in connection with same. '
2. Side doors to bear the initials of the road to’ which the car
belongs, or the name of the line on which the car is used, together
with the number of the car.
CARS 597
3. The ends to show the initials, in the “Fast Freight Line,”
with the car number, in the Fast Freight Line series, and the light
weight just below them; no other marks will appear on ends of car.
4. The half sides of cars on which the doors do slide, to be
reserved for advertising symbols or trade marks where used. The
use of profuse lettering in this panel is to be discouraged, however,
and it is recommended that only the simplest trade marks or
advertising signs shall be used; the capacity of the car to appear
near the sill in this same panel.
The American Railway Association urges that strict attention
he paid to the standard locations for, and uniform marking of all
freight cars, as set by the M. C. B. standards, and that in re-
lettering or repainting old cars, the marks should be replaced in
the proper location, regardless of the old location of said marks.


R I A
G.L GLOBE LINE .--‘I\
.322. "w _.- , (if:
nan-‘c.5000 :3 ‘
. “m- D on _ mm‘-
11- i @e O 'O {by
Fig. 447.
Marking Fast Freight Line Cars.
Among other things, the neglect to place the light weight on cars
causes confusion to both roads and shippers, involving all in delay
and expense. Private car lines do not follow the M. C. B. practice
of stenciling the light weight on the car, which often leads to
trouble in, billing freight loaded on them. The loading of re-
frigerator cars is, in a way, estimated and corrected by weighing
the car after it is unloaded, but even the ice still in the car is
thus included therein. ,
The present tendency is to stencil the light weight and max-
imum load on all new cars, especially as practically all new cars
are steel or steel underframe construction with general use of the
twenty-four-inch minimum cross-sectional area of the center-sills;
although many still oppose the marking on even steel and steel
underframe cars unless such cars actually have a safety factor
suﬂicient to carry the maximum load marked on them, and are
also strong enough in both truck and superstructure to be properly
so stenciled.
' CHAPTER XVII
PAINTING CARS
~All cars are painted with the primary object of protection.
The coloring of the paint is a secondary consideration. It is
chosen on the strength of its durability or‘ color retaining prop-
erties and its attractiveness. Paint, as is well known, is a mechan-
ical mixture of a pigment and a carrying vehicle. After being
spread over the surface to be covered this vehicle dries or hardens
and, with the pigment held in suspension, it forms a coating
which protects the painted part from the deteriorating eifects of
the weather. This coating presents a smooth, impervious surface
to the elements and thus, excludes the moisture which is the
principal cause of the decay of wood and the rusting of iron‘or
steel. ' _ - ' ,
, In general there are four qualities of a good paint for use on_
railway cars. First, durability; second, covering power; third,
drying qualities; fourth, ease of application. These all apply to
paints used both on passenger and freight equipment. By dur-
ability of course is meant its ability to withstand the effects ‘of
all sorts of exposure at the same time retaining its original color.
Covering power refers both to the amount of surface over which
a given quantity of the paint can be spread and also to its ability
to thoroughly hide the ground color or unpainted surface to which
it is applied. Drying qualities refer to its ability to harden or
dry more or less rapidly. Ease of application means the ease with
which it can be spread over the surface to be painted without
leaving heavy streaks and rolled up or hardened pieces.
Naturally the best paint, is one which will retain its color .
longest, withstand the exposure best, spread over and thoroughly
cover the largest surface and at the same time dry reasonably
quickly as well as spread out easily when being applied. No one
paint excels in. all these qualities. The choice of a paint then
depends on a careful analysis of the conditions of the service and
the facilities for applying the paint. A paint that has durability, '
can be easily applied and spreads well, can be made to dry quicker
598
CARE’ 599
by the addition of special preparations called ‘ ‘ driers.” The
usual vehicle in paint does not dry by evaporation alone. The
absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere sets up a chemical action
which changes the vehicle into a somewhat resinous state through—
out. which are held the particles of the pigment. This oxidization
is often assisted by these driers which act on the oil, as a ferment,
causing a more rapid absorption of the oxygen.
In the painting of wooden freight cars a linseed oil paint is
used the same as for house painting. The particular color of the
paint is a matter of th ' personal opinion of those in charge of the
car department as well as the desire of the freight department
of the road. For a long time many roads endeavored to keep their
cars distinctive by using a coloring peculiar to their equipment.
One road would paint the entire body of the car with a “catchy”
or ‘.‘gaudy” color; another would make their particular “catch-
iness” appear in the color of the side doors; still another would
have a wide band all around the car painted in an odd color, while
still another would paint the ends in a different shade or color
from the rest of the car. A few roads still retain this practice
but by far the larger number are painting the bodies of all freight
cars with a dark red or brownish mineral paint. Three coats of
paint are usually called for, the ﬁrst of which is applied directly
to the wood which has been surfaced in the‘ mill before erecting.
At least twenty-four hours should elapse between the application
of each consecutive coat. The most durable results are obtained
when each of these coats is applied with a brush. Spraying on
paint is now generally abandoned, though once a common practice
on many large railroads. In every case, though, the last coat is
brushed in, as it seems to bind the paint' better and leaves a
smoother and glossier ﬁnish than the spraying process. As ex-
plained, to this smooth ﬁnish is due the durability and protecting
qualities of the paint.
After the last coat of the body color is applied and has had time
to dry the lettering and “blacking off” is done. “Blacking oﬂ’”
consists in painting with black, usually an asphaltum paint, all the
exposed metal used on the body of the car, such as rod ends; corner
bands; door hangers; locks, stops, rails, etc,
The lettering and special marking are sometimes outlined by the
use of pounce patterns. These patterns are made of thick paper on
600 CARS
which is drawn the outline of the letter or device it is desired to trans-
fer. Small holes are then cut through the paper at short intervals
along these lines. When the pattern is held against the car and the
powder brush is rubbed on it, a little of the powder passes through
each hole, which leaves on the car a very plain outline of the
ﬁgure. With this as a guide the ﬁgure can then be readily painted
in. . Two coats of paint are ordinarily called for when this method
is used. Another way to put on the lettering, cheaper and ‘as sat-
isfactory, is to use a pattern out of which the complete ﬁgure
is cut. With this a “dauber’ ’ is used in place of a brush. As a
consequence of being able to use a thicker paint with a ‘ ‘dauber” .
than with a brush only one coat is ordinarily required. These _
patterns are made of heavy paper or a thin sheet metal. The
latter is more satisfactory as the centers of the letters can be
held rigidly in place by small wires soldered across the openings,
while with the paper patterns the ﬁgures can be cut out only in
skeleton and a brush is needed to ﬁnish up the letters where the
binding pieces are left across the'openings.
Besides the painting of cars which is visible from the ‘outside
there is considerable painting done during construction which is
entirely covered up. All mortised and tenoned joints, butting
joints of posts, braces and sills, the top and outside faces of side
and end sills, the top and outside faces of side and end plates, all
woodwork against which metal is placed, etc., receive a. heavy
coat of either mineral or creosote paint. Paint is also applied to
the ends and edges of all roof boards before they are laid. When
a double board roof is used the top of the ﬁrst course is thoroughly
painted before the second course is laid. All painting which is
ﬁnally covered up is invariably done with a heavy or thick paint,
a precaution which results in saving the wood, thus giving a. longer
life to the car.
The most satisfactory way to paint metallic roofs where the
metal is exposed to the weather is to give it three coats of a good
mineral paint. Galvanized iron will not take paint readily but if the
ﬁrst coat is made thin and is well brushed out it will aid materially
in the life of the paint. ‘
In the painting of passenger cars a much greater reﬁnement is
necessary for the exposed parts of the car both inside and out, .
- than is practised on the freight equipment. During the construc-
CARS 601
tion of the car the same attention is given to painting the joints,
etc., as outlined for freight cars. It is to the exterior that the
painter has to give his careful attention. While painting freight
cars he has to beware only of frost and rain. A variation of the
temperature does not materially affect his work and any amount of
moisture less than a rain appears to make little diiference in the
appearance of the cars. With passenger cars this is entirely dif-
ferent. An even temperature and a dry atmosphere are almost
essential to perfect results. As a consequence especial buildings
are prepared for painting this class of cars. Elaborate arrange-
ments are made to keep the temperature steady and evenly dis-
tributed. The aim is to keep the room at seventy degrees F. An
excess of moisture is also avoided, care being taken to thoroughly
drain away the wash water used in scrubbing down the cars.
Instead of using a simple linseed oil paint the paint is made
up with considerable spirits of turpentine and “japan drier” in
the vehicle. This is made necessary by the ﬁnish that it is desired
to obtain. An oil paint will not entirely obliterate the graining
of the wood and the ﬁnishing varnish that is used cannot be suc—
cessfully applied over an oil paint. The complete obliterating of the
grain of the wood gives the background for the beautiful ﬁnish that
is'so distinctive of passenger cars. The varnish that is ﬁnally applied
is the real protective coating and to it is due, with slight qualiﬁca-
tions the durability of the paint. These qualiﬁcations consist simply
in requiring that the surfacing coats are properly prepared and
applied, and that the varnish itself is up to the proper grade.
With these conditions satisﬁed the car should be prepared so that
with occasional varnishings and patchings it will last from eight
to ten years before the paint will have to be entirely removed and
a new foundation coat applied.
There are four distinct parts in the painting of the exterior
of a passenger car: ﬁrst, the preparation of the wood; second,
the surfacing; third, the application of the body color and mark-
ings; and fourth, the ﬁnishing with the varnish covering.
To begin, the car must be carefully sand papered and then
dusted. All grooves and corners must be thoroughly cleaned as
well as all ﬂat surfaces. It is then ready for the surfacing which
consists in applying ﬁrst a priming coat, then the “rough stuﬁ’ ’
and ﬁnally, after puttying and glazing, rubbing down to a smooth
602 CARS
surface with sand paper alone or pumice stone and water. The body
color is then applied, the requisite number of coats being deter-
mined by the nature or kind of color chosen. An opaque pigment
will naturally call for fewer applications than one which is more
transparent or does not possess good covering qualities. Usually
three coats will answer, twenty-four hours being allowed between
coats for thorough drying of each. When the last coat of body
color is dry the car is ready for the lettering and striping after
which the ﬁnishing varnish is applied. The lettering is always I
outlined by pounce patterns and is worked in with a brush. Some;
times the letters are only painted a distinctive color, at other
times gold, silver or aluminum leaf is used which adheres to the
outlined letter that has previously been marked in with gold size
japan. These practices apply also to the marking and striping.
Three coats of varnish are always used with forty-eight hours
between. each. Then after at least seventy-two hours’ time allowed
for ﬁnal complete drying the car is ready for service.
In following this general scheme of exterior coach painting there
are two general methods used. They are the oldest, called the
lead and foil method and its opposite, in which the use of lead
is entirely dispensed with. There are strong advocates of both
systems who give both technical and practical proof of their faith.
However, it is suﬂicient to say ‘that there are good grounds for
using either method.
In painting a car by the lead and oil method it is ﬁrst primed
with a mixture of “Keg-lead,” raw oil, turpentine and japan
drier, the proportions of each being varied to suit the tastes and
experiences of the Master Painter. After seventy-two hours the
second coat canbe applied. It is made up of the same ingredients
with a little coloring added. This coat requires about forty-eight-
hours to dry before the puttying and'glazing can be done. The
putty used is naturally a hard drying putty. All nail holes are
well ﬁlled with this, a putty knife being used to press it into the
recesses. A little putty is left projecting above the level of the
surrounding surface, as an allowance for shrinkage. In cases
where wood of a resinous nature is used for such places as corner
and door posts an application of a coat of gum shellac dissolved
in alcohol is made either directly on the wood or over the coat of
priming, which should have as little oil in it as possible. When
CARS 603
coarse or open grained woods are used such as walnut, oak or ash,
a thin putty or glazing is pressed or scraped into the pores with
a broad-bladed knife called a French scraper. This is ordinarily
done over the second priming ‘coat at the same time as the puttying
of the nail holes.
After about sixteen hours or when the putty has hardened, three
or four coats of a surfacer or “rough stuﬁ” are applied twenty-
four hours apart. ‘This "rough stuﬁ” is a mixture which must
possess toughness and cohesiveness to ‘prevent cracking. It must
also be hard and totally non-absorbent of water, consequently it
cannot be porous in the slightest degree. Its constituents are
selected according to the personal experience of the painter in
charge. , Often a prepared compound can be advantageously used.
A guide coat or .thin paint of some color distinctively diﬁerent in
shade from the rough stuff is at times used over the last applica-
tion of rough stuﬂ’ to assist in locating the uneven spots. The '
rubbing down of the rough stuif with pumice stone and water is
an art which is acquired only by considerable practice. - It must be
carefully done so as to avoid scratching or rubbing too close. After
completion the car is washed and dried with chamois skin. It is
then allowed to dry oﬂ’ thoroughly.
In- order to avoid the liability of accidents to the work from
water being absorbed by the rough stuff during the process of
rubbing down as outlined above, a great many painters use a putty
instead of the coats of rough stuff. This is applied with a French
scraper to all ﬂat surfaces. All the open grained wood is glazed
at the same time. After drying for twenty-four hours it is sand
papered down smooth.
The processes just outlined apply equally as well to the system
of painting when white lead is eliminated. The primer and rough
stuﬂ‘ are mixed without the use of white lead; they are applied
in the same way and are rubbed down with pumice stone and
water or sand papered after glazing instead of using rough stuff
the same as explained for the lead and oil method.
Following the surfacing the body color is applied, the striping
and lettering is done, which is followed by three coats of ﬁnishing
varnish. .
It ordinarily takes about eighteen days to paint the exterior
of a car when the glazing and sand papering method is followed.
604 ' cans
Twenty-eight days is the time required when the rough stuﬁ is
rubbed down ‘with pumice stone and water. '
' The painting of the interior of a car is now being done in the
plainest way. All wood work is ﬁnished in its natural color. It is
carefully sand papered and dusted after which it receives its
protecting covering ofv oil and varnish. When the head lining is
made of veneer it is treated the same as the rest of the interior
wood ﬁnish. At times it is painted a ﬂat color on which some
simple gilt striping is done, after which it is varnished. If the
head lining is made of cloth it has to receive special attention.
The piece of cloth cut to the proper .size is stretched on a frame.
It is then treated to a paste ﬁller, after which a ground work
of a lead paint is applied. Sometimes two- coats are used before
the design and vﬁnal color is applied.v After drying the head
lining is then put in place on the car and ﬁnally treated to the
ﬁnishing coat of varnish.
The ends of cars are usually damaged a great deal by the
cutting action of the cinders from the locomotive. This is
especially the case with cars that are habitually run in the train
close to the locomotive‘. As a means of protecting the paint
covering as well as the wood itself, the ends are sometimes sanded.
This sanding consists in throwing a sharp ﬁne sand on the fresh
paint before it is dried. The sand adheres to the paint and thus
forms a hard gritty covering which is not so susceptible to the
action of the cinders. Of course the ﬁnishing coats of varnish
are not applied to this sanded portion of the car.
The roofs are painted according to the covering used. If a
canvas roof is used with copper ﬂashings the roof boards are
painted with a heavy coat of white lead before the canvas and '
copper are laid. Then after the canvas is fastened in place another
coat of the white lead is painted over it. After this is thoroughly
dry it is given two coats of a linseed oil mineral paint, the. color
suiting the shade used on the sides. The metallic portions of the
roof covering over the hoods at each end of the car are usually
sanded the same as outlined above for the ends. With tin roofs,
the tin, after being laid in place, is painted with a linseed oil paint,
ordinarily three coats being applied, the ﬁrst of which is “ﬂat”
or very thin and well brushed out.
CARS . 605
The trucks of passenger cars do not receive the careful attention -
that the bodies do. This is natural because any attempt to make a
ﬁne ﬁnish would not be justiﬁed on account of the conditions of
their service. With the dust, dirt and oil all over them a paint
covering is needed that will stand the service and still have a clear
appearance when washed or rubbed off. A'plain linseed oil and
mineral paint is used, a single coat being applied after priming
with a lead and mineral primer. At times the trucks are'striped for
the appearance, a coat of varnish being ﬁnally applied to them.
This same ﬁnish is given to the platforms and steps of the car.
Platform sills (if of steel construction), truss rods, queen
posts, brake rigging, draw bars and all exposed metal parts of the
car are painted with an asphaltum paint and ﬁnally the steam,
air brake and air signal hose couplings are painted. The ﬁrst
two receive a coat of black asphaltum paint and the last is
_ painted red as a distinctive mark.
Maximum paint protection is a necessity in railway service,
and nowhere more so than on cars. The factors affecting this
have been given; and, also, the diiferent localities through which
the cars are to run, inﬂuence'to a certain extent the materials to
be used in painting said cars. The bestmaterials obtainable for
painting and varnishing are really the most economical in the long
run. It is false economy to consider only the ﬁrst cost when
painting passenger equipment, as it may lead to frequent renewal
and avoidable expense. It is useless to expect good and lasting
results when poor paints and varnishes are used on cars.
Railway colors should be fast and should last; he made of ﬁne
and‘natural pigments, not of chemical substitutes; be ground to
the utmost ﬁneness and smoothness that is possible, in the best
machines, under the most skillful direction, and ground in the
best J apans. Nearly all railroads have their standard colors, but
the most pleasing colors are harmonious combinations properly
applied under direction of competent master painters. Many roads
have adopted standard formulas for their colors; and some have
their own chemistsv test the materials. To determine the actual
relative value of paint stock, service tests should be made, under
normal conditions, of all paint materials for car use. As it would
take too long for this, if made on cars, test panels are often
employed, observing actual conditions in preparing the panels,
\
606 CARS
with exposure such as it would have to meet on the car. Such
panels are cut from the same piece, and ﬁnished with the same
priming, surfacing, and coloring material (together with the same
number of coats of varnish) in exactly the same manner as a new
- passenger coach; all‘ these operations being performed by one
man at as nearly the same time as possible. The results of such
tests, should be carefully studied and compared, after the panels
have been subjected to appropriate exposure; the panels being,
in some cases, ﬁled away for future reference. One peculiarity has
been noted—that our southern climate is more severe on varnished
surfaces than our northern climate. Also, it will be found in
many cases that the air-dried ﬁnish on the steel car does not
behave like that on the test panels, the test panels ‘being much
shorter lived than the cars. _
The priming coat should always be peculiarly penetrating, going
deep-into the grain of the wood; also, it should be moisture
proof,'ﬁlling the pores and enfolding the ﬁbres so ‘perfectly that the .
wood may be soaked in hot or cold water without raising the grain.
The priming must be tenacious, gripping the ﬁbres as if it were
grown fast ‘in them; and it should be elastic, not dusting, blister~
ing, peeling, or cracking. The loading coat is largely the same
as the priming coat, but with more body. Next comes the leveling
coat, with the same tenacity as the former two, and with all the
elasticity it ought to have. It should dry hard, rub down freely,
and make a solid, perfectly smooth, and durable surface on which
the varnish stands out with brilliant eﬁect. Surfacers should be
applied to all joints and the under side of battens before nailing
on, as good ones exclude dampness. Work well into nail holes,
as they greatly assist in retaining-the putty. -
The big saving in paint is in the lasting ﬁnish it gives—the
months it adds to the shopping periods. So, in laying out a
schedule for painting operation, it must be remembered that the
extra protection depends .upon the varnish; for whenever service ‘
exceeds the life of the varnish, the whole paint structure is en-
dangered, which meansextra expense for additional time and mate-
rials necessary for renewals. A varnish that keeps cars in good
condition ﬁfteen months instead of twelve, gives a saving of
twenty ‘per cent of the varnishing cost. The best car varnishes
now keep a car in good condition for eighteen months instead of
twelve, thus saving one-third of the varnishing cost. For chair
CARS 607
cars and coaches which must necessarily be cleaned at terminals,
a tough durable elastic varnish is required, which does not lose
its gloss under this rough treatment; one that does not mar
easily, and can- be rubbed. For refrigerator cars, the varnish
must resist temperature changes, alkali, and terminal. scrubbing.
It should preserve the natural color of the wood, leave no odor,
and not contaminate the products packed in such cars.
At ﬁrst, it took six to eight weeks to get the ﬁnish on a pas-
senger car, but new methods and systems have revolutionized the
art of car painting, saving more than the shopping time of lead
and oil. They also do the work better and cheaper, and their
result lasts longer. Many of the new surfacers, however, were of
poor grade; a surfacer that rubs too easily, has not the substance
in it and cannot last. To get a car out of the shop earlier by one
or two days is haste that makes waste, if that car must come back
to the shop ﬁve or six months earlier. The varnish may be the
best in the world, but the surfacer is its foundation. As to stain-
ing, the careful painter makes his own stain. Venetian red is
superior to lampblack, if the color allows of its use. . Thin with
turpentine. Use moderate pressure and lump pumice in rubbing;
use a half elastic bristle brush. For the painting of iron and
steel in trucks, when new, use two coats of some steel protecting
paint, asphaltum or carbon, for freight car trucks.
‘By the nature of things, the quality of ﬁnish secured in seven
days cannot equal that of one requiring ﬁfteen days. For certain
‘ classes of work the seven day system will answer, and satisfactory
results are had by proper systems which ‘recognize the occasional
necessity of getting out ears with the utmost speed. There are
several well-known systems, as a sample of which we here give the
Murphy seven day system for both steel and wooden cars:—
lst day-Steel car primer. ‘
2nd day—Putty in the morning and knife coat steel car surfacer,
full body, in afternoon. .
3rd day—Brush coat of Steel Car Surfacer, reduced, in morning.
Guide coat in afternoon.‘
4th day-'-Rub with block pumice or Eureka Rubbing Stone and
water. Late in afternoon coat of M. V. 00. Japan Color.
5th day—Morning, second coat of Japan Color, required. After-
" noon, stripe and ornament.
608 CARS
6th day—Coat of Murphy Perfect Railway Body.
7th day—Coat of Murphy Perfect ‘Railway Body. _
Some seven-day systems, together with the hurried method of
cleaning cars at terminals and caring for them en route, are
alleged, not without reason, to be the real cause of a considerable
amount of so-called paint failures.
With the advent of the steel freight and passenger cars, new
problems in car painting arose, and other methods became neces-
sary. After much experimenting these latter seem to now be well
on the road' to solution, and the adoption of standard practices
varying ‘but slightly ‘is new general. With the certainty that
within a few years nearly all cars will be made of steel, this matter
has become of great importance and has received much attention,
as the whole life of the steel car depends on the protection and
preservation of the metal by coating it with some rust inhibitive
material, here generally a paint. As in the case of the composite
car, rust and corrosion are the formidable foes of the steel car.
' If these were vanquished, the steel car body would be everlasting.
The problem of the preservation of steel is not new, but its
artistic. protection and preservation from rust and corrosion is a
new problem, as passenger cars must be so painted and maintained
as always to "present a pleasing appearance to the public eye.
Numerous mixtures claiming to prevent ' this rusting are on the
market; some are fair, but many even of these are ﬁt for uselonly
with structural steel in bridges and buildings rather than on cars.
The all-important point in the painting of iron or steel sur-
faces is to have these‘ surfaces thoroughly cleansed and entirely
rid of rust, scale and grease, before applying the paint. To accom-
plish this, sandblasting is now resorted to, supplemented sometimes
by the use by hand of scrapers, wire brushes, emery cloth, etc., in
more obscure places and the more uneven surfaces. Sandblasting
is largely conﬁned to the outside surfaces, and the latter practices
to the inside portions of the car and to cars that are to be
repainted—sandblasting being generally used only with new cars
that are being painted for the ﬁrst time. N o paint should ever
be applied to iron or steel except under the most favorable~ con- ~
ditions;- paint is‘ meant to protect the metal, not merely to cover
it over. " '
CARS 609
At ﬁrst, much difficulty was had in properly applying paint
to steel cars, owing principally to the fact that the importance of
thoroughly cleansing the metal before putting on the paint was
then not correctly appreciated. The mistake was made of using
the same methods for painting steel cars~ as were then used for
painting wooden ones. To show how elaborate a method that was,
we tabulate the time and work below of a. job using surfacer-s,
_ colors, and varnishes containing a relatively large amount of
artiﬁcial driers and varnish gums, in order to obtain the artistic
ﬁnish desired for the interior of the car:—
HEADLINING
1st day—Apply ‘one coat and stipple after application. ,
_ 2nd day—Stand for drying.
3rd day—Applyone coat and stipple after application.
4th day—Stand for drying.
5th day—Apply one coat and stipple after application.
Smns ABOVE WINDOW SILLS AND ENDS '
1st day—Apply one coat or primer.
2nd day—Stand for drying.
3rd day—Apply one coat surfacer.
4th day—Necessary puttying and glazing. ‘
5th day—Apply. as many coats surfacer as are necessary to make
a level surface.
6th day— Same as 5th day.
_7th day—Rub down with emery cloth and linseed oil.
8th day—Apply one coat of ground color.
9th day—Apply one coat of ground color.
10th day—Apply one coat of ground color.
11th day—Apply one coat and stipple after application.
12th day-Apply one coat rubbing varnish. '
13th day—Stand for drying.
14th day—Apply one coat rubbing varnish.
15th day—Stand for drying.’
16th day—Apply one coat rubbing varnish.
17th day—Stand for drying.
18th day—Rub with oil and pulverized pumice stone.
610 CARS
Smns BELOW Wmnows
1st day-Apply one coat or priming.
2nd day—Stand for drying.
3rd day—Apply one coat surfacer.
4th day—Necessary puttying and glazing. .
5th day—Apply as many coats surfacer as are necessary to make
a level surface.
6th day—Same as 5th day.
7th day—Rub down with emery cloth and linseed oil.
8th day-Stand, awaiting bringing up other work.
9th day— Stand, awaiting bringing up other work.
10th day—Apply one coat bronze green.
11th day—Apply one coat/bronze green.
12th day—Apply one coat of rubbing varnish.
13th day—Stand for drying. _
14th day—Apply one coat of rubbing varnish.
15th day-Stand for drying.
16th day—Apply one coat of rubbing varnish.
l7th'day—Stand for drying.
18th day—Rub with oil and pulverized pumice stone.
The results of'such system of air-drying paints on steel were,
quite often, more than poor. Due to imperfect cleansing, the
paint soon ﬂaked or cracked 01f, exposing the metal beneath to the
elements, thus causing its rapid erosion and speedy ruin, and
hence making this neglect a doubly expensive matter. Later, it
was’ found that the artiﬁcial driers and gums used in hastening‘ _
the time of drying and hardening of the various coats, caused paints
and varnishes to increase in hardness and brittleness, rendering
them likely to crack or chip—this being increased by the excessive
expansion and contraction of steel. This expansion is twice as great
as that of wood, and therefore requires-more elastic. coatings than
were formerly'used on wooden cars. After from four to six months’ ,
service, the interiors of the cars were often inpoor condition, due
to varnish cracks and checks, eighty per cent of them having the
varnish checked through to the surfacer. The exteriors of the cars
were generally in fair condition. '
This serious condition, afterI such short service, indicated the
need of radical revision in the methods of painting steel cars.
CARS ' 611
Before assembling the parts used in the construction of new steel
equipment, all of- them were therefore (as they are now) sand-
blasted and given one good coat of linseed oil at once, or placed
in a room warmer than the outside temperature, to prevent con-
densation of moisture on the steel. Nearly always nowadays the
steel is thus painted right after the sandblasting. However, one
road claims that ninety-nine per cent of the steel it uses in building
its steel cars is free from corrosion or rusting, and hence it omits
the sandblasting. This road considers and uses red lead as a rust-
inhibitive, retarding if not preventing rust action. Some of its
steel cars, it claims, have now been in constant service for from‘
eight to ten years with nothing but the ﬁrst painting, and said
cars are still in excellent condition, it alleges. Nevertheless, sand-
blasting is well nigh the universal practice before the ﬁrst painting
of a car.
In the search for a new system of steel car painting, the bak-
ing process was discovered and developed, and is now receiving
more attention than any other method. 0 The baking of paints and
varnishes on metal has long been in common use, but as applied
to passenger cars it is still distinctly and entirely new.‘ Already
it has passed the experimental stage, ‘as may be seen from the fact
one large road recently baked 1,000 of its steel cars in its own
' ovens. As this process is coming into widespread use, a brief
description of it is not amiss here.
The baking process, consists in applying a coat of paint to
a steel car, and then shunting the car into large specially con-
structed ‘ ‘ ovens, ’ ’ where a high temperature is obtained usually
by means of steampipe coils arranged alongside of the walls and
‘on the ﬂoors of the ovens. After remaining in the oven three or four
hours, the car is drawn out, allowed to cool, given another coat, re-
baked again, and so on, uﬁtil the car is ﬁnished. The ovens are gen-
erally of the kind shown in Figs. 448 and 449, being double-walled
buildings with insulating material between the walls. Small open-
ings near the ﬂoor and also the roof-ventilators are used to admit
and eject the air necessary for drying the paint and carrying off
the volatile matter. Automatic ventilation and steam-regulation
will probably soon be adopted for use in these ovens. '
To prepare a car body for enameling, remove all grease with
gasoline and, if necessary, sandblast the surface to remove all
612 CARS
the rust and scale. This must be done to insure a perfect and
lasting job. Immediately after sandblasting give the surface a
thorough dusting and apply a coat of priming enamel. Never
let a sandblasted job remain over night without priming, as it
will rust in a very short time. A steel passenger car when shopped
for general repairs can be completed in less than half the time by

Fig. 448.
Exterior of Oven Used for Baking Paint on Steel Cars.
I
the enameling process than by our present air drying system, if
there are proper facilities for doing the work. If the work is
properly done, enameling will outwear the air-dried job by two
years or more service, and the surface of the car is easier cleaned
and the appearance is 100 per cent better. Cars may be ﬁnished
on schedule time, temperature and weather conditions more care-
fully regulated, and there is no interference by workmen of other
trades while the paint is drying. It seems more economical, taken
altogether, and will likely become more and more so, as practice
CARS 613
improves. The life of the baked paint is greatly increased, and
it is more impervious to gas and moisture than the same vehicle
unbaked. Late developments of this process are the baking of
SI
r" * w-‘w‘a .
,.
5
wIii
it
I.
%
B—a-l‘mx or a p w
' :<‘*“"I II‘-
4 _l L ‘Ii

Fig. 449.
Steel Car in Oven.
the interior separately from the outside, by electric heaters sus-
pended from the ceiling of the car, the doors and windows being
closed tight.
Results and indications at this time seem to justify our ex-
pectations that the new process of baking will give, over the
present air drying system: (a) Longer life of material applied.
(b)A general appearance as good or better. (0) Less cost of
material at no increase in the labor charge. (11) A considerable
614 CARS
saving of time for shopping cars, which results in a saving of
shop space.‘ (6) Complete sanitation for old cars. These ad-
vantages are oﬁset by the initial cost'of installation and operating
cost of the oven. ‘
Paints foi: steel have different functions than those for wood;
therefore in painting equipment constructed with wood and steel
these functions should be carefully noted. Paint is absorbed into
the pores of steel only to a limited extent, and for this reason
a different quality of paint is required to secure stronger clinging
effects than that of the pores of wood. While it is undoubtedly true
‘that sandblasting gives a slightly roughened surface which aids
materially in holding the paint to steel, it is necessary to assist an
oil paint with something that is better as an adherent to steel than
linseed oil. The fewer the number of coats of paint on. steel which
will give the maximum protection, the longer the wearing and the
better service will the paint coats give. The pigment and vehicle
must be such as to exclude from the steel surfaces all moisture and
gases. It matters not what coating is to be applied, special atten-
. tion should be given to the application of the priming coat, espe-
cially on metal.
Where previously the seven or eight-coat system was used, it
‘has been found that three coats of paint would give the desired
capacity and ample protection to the steel. One well-known rail-
' road today uses a ﬁve-coat system, applied as follows: primer,
bodycolor, varnish color and two coats of varnish. The priming
coat is made with an inhibitive pigment as a fundamental require-
ment and ‘a vehicle of good adhering quality. The prime factor
of the second coat lies in the vehicle which must be the very best
moisture and gas resister that can possibly be obtained. The
pigment was also a very good inhibitive. The steel plates are
dipped in these two ﬁrst coats and baked at 240 degrees F. for
twelve hours. Cars so painted have been in service thirty months,
without the slightest indication of destruction of the paint. The
outside surface was entirely free from checks and cracks and as ‘
a general assertion, the paint was in excellent condition.
The paint coats must be of such material that the vehicle or
combinations of oils and varnishes ‘give the pigment a coating
which will resist to its utmost capacity the passage of moisture
and gases. The pigment must also be alkaline to a slight extent
CARS . 615
and electrolytically positive to the steel. Some varnishes are better
than others; some become ﬂat after rubbing, others look the same
‘as if air-dried, when baked on- steel cars. Paints and varnishes
have been worked up so that they are specially adapted for the
baking process; the greatest requisite being greater elasticity.
Many roads have exact formulas for their various baking mixtures
already well deﬁned, the majority of which are successful. All
roads using steel passenger cars are experimenting with non~drying
' and semi-drying oils for use on freight cars, with surfacers and
varnishes. If a paint can be dried artiﬁcially without the use
of liquid driers, its life and durability will be increased. As
J apans or other driers are not used in the baking process, this
feature alone makes this process very much worth while in car
painting.
The general use of steel cars has restored to high favor as a
paint, comparatively pure red lead, especially as a rust-inhibitive,
to prevent iron or steel from rusting. Used for such a purpose,
it had a high reputation for 100 years, being also largely used in
England as a priming coat for wood. Unfavorable opinions con-
cerning it arose principally because of its past impurity. Com-
mercial specimens often contained from ﬁfteen to thirty per
cent of litharge, from which red lead is made by roasting said
litharge. The remedy for this was found to lie in grinding the
litharge to an impalpable powder before roasting it. In a gallon
of mixed red lead containing twenty pounds of dry red lead of the
ordinary kind, there are about three pounds of litharge. One pound
of litharge is enough to make about three gallons of a lead Japan
drier; so, in a gallon of such mixed red lead paint there is enough
to make eight or ten gallons of drier. No wonder such paint
har'dens in the pail, and that it is hard to apply, stiif in working,
hard to brush out, and apt to lie unevenly on a surface.
However, practically pure red lead is at last easily obtainable,
and it makes a much superior paint to ordinary red lead. In
painting steel cars, for which it is now largely used, some roads
therefore call for pure red lead. One such railroad speciﬁes that
red lead should contain not less than ninety-ﬁve per cent of true
red lead. In a seven years’ test of nineteen paints made under
auspices of the American Society for Testing Materials, three
paints were officially reported ﬁrst class. In two of these the
616 CARS
active pigment was red lead containing ninety-seven per cent of
true red lead, proving that such high grade red lead is excellent
not only for- priming and body coats but also for the surface. If
it is the right kind, it makes a-good ﬁnishing coat. Such red lead
brushes out easily like white lead, giving a smooth uniform ﬁlm.
A gallon of such paint costs from three to: six per cent more than
that mixed by hand, if millground with seven per cent of oil, and
put up in steel packages like paste white lead; but a gallon of
pure red lead will cover from one-third to one-half more surface
than a gallon of the old kind—the net result being a great economy
in its‘ use. It can be ﬂowed on with a full brush, and coal cars
are sometimes painted this way.-
Three things are necessary for a complete surfacing system
for steel carsz—l. The surfacing must stay put. 2. It must
entail the least possible time in the shop. 3. All of its coats
must amalgamate into one solid and enduring coat. Ordinary clean-
ing of a steel car leaves small patches of rust. Unless every
particle of rust is disposed of, it causes the ﬁnish to peel off and
show ugly scars. Steel is not porous in the sense that wood is
porous; but under the microscope it shows ragged indentations
and crevices. A good steel car primer, ﬁne and penetrating, works
in under the particles of rust, incorporates them with itself as a
pigment, and fastens itself ﬁrmlyto the steel, gripping the ragged
ﬁbres permanently. It should ﬂow easily; dry to an extra hard-
ness; ‘ dry rapidly, and have long life. Many‘ quick-drying primers
disintegrate in a little while, crumble away, and go to dust. With
the liquid primer for steel cars often goes a heavy-bodied paste
surfacer. For good practical work, three coats are needed; ﬁve
coats for the very best work. Give each coat of, steel car surfacer
twenty-four hours to dry. Putty on ﬁrst coat and follow with as
many coats as desired. The ﬁnal coat, when dry, may be stained;
a thin wash coat being suﬂicient.
As an example of present practice, we give here a well-known
system for steel car painting, the Murphy system:-
1st working day—One coat steel-car primer.
3rd working day—First coat steel-car surfacer.
4th working day—Second coat steel-car surfacer.
5th working day—Third coat steel-car surfacer.
6th working day—Fourth coat steel-car surfacer.
\
CARS 617
7th working day—Stain.
8th working day—Bub with Eureka Rubbing Stone and water.
9th working day-Sandpaper and apply ﬁrst coat Murphy body
color.
a 10th working day—Second coat Murphy body color.
11th working day—Ornament.
12th working day—Coat Murphy ﬁnishing varnish.
14th working day—Second coat of Murphy ﬁnishing varnish.
15th working day—Final coat of Murphy ﬁnishing Varnish.
One large railway system has not made any very radical
changes in its paint speciﬁcations, using the same coats for both
wood and steel. Two hundred of its steel passenger cars painted
seven years ago with a well-known surfacing system, are, it says,
making a very ﬁne showing; the‘ cars having ﬁrst been thoroughly
sandblasted, then primed and surfaced in the old style way.
This, however, is quite exceptional these days; most roads hav-
ing adopted new systems and speciﬁcations for painting their steel
car equipment. One railroad gives. the following schedule for
painting its steel passenger trucks, underframes, and car bodies:—
Trucks—before assembling—all surfaces on truck parts throughout
including concealed surfaces (but not including wheels and axles)
must be covered with one coat of suitable surfacer and ‘the rough '
and uneven surfaces glazed with “surfacer composition; ’ ’ four
coats of surfacer being added‘, rubbed down with linseed oil and
emery cloth; two. coats of desired colpr material added, followed
by stripingand lettering; and ﬁnally ﬁnished with three coats of
ﬁnishing varnish. The outside of the roof must be ﬁnished with
one coat of heavy protective paint, followed by one coat of a
mixture composed by volume of three parts of mixed ground color -
and' one. part of the protective coating used. The top surface and
edges of the headlining vshould be painted with two coats of some
preservative or color paint. The interior of the car should receive
very careful attention, in order to produce the desired ﬁnish.
On another railway, after the cars .are cleansed, the outside
and underneath parts are given two additional coats of good linseed
oil paint with twenty-four hours between coats. After the last coat
is dry, the necessary stenciling is done. It is claimed that this
method insures four to six years’ service without repainting—this
for cars that have been painted at least once before.
618 I CARS
Still another railroad paints its cars immediately after sand-
blasting. After twenty-four hours, the sides and ends of the body
are given a second coat of paint; and twenty four hours later, they
are stenciled and released for service. On new cars, laps and joints
are given a heavy coat of red lead or carbon black before the car
is assembled. New trucks get two coats of carbon black; repainted
trucks getting but one coat. '
For repainting its cars, one road cleanses its cars with scrapers,
wire brushes, benzine, and _waste. They are then primed with
freshly mixed pure red lead and linseed oil; and ﬁnished with '
two coats of good high grade carbon black carrying the maximum
quantity of linseed oil. It is claimed that this method gives the
maximum wear with no-increase in the cost. If there is leeway
as to time and cost, the car after sandblasting is to be primed
with red lead mixed with raw linseed oil, and ﬁnished with two
coats of carbon black carrying the maximum quantity of raw lin-
seed oil to which has been added a portion of extending oil—the
last coat "being applied only,to the sides and ends of the super-
structure. I '
When refrigerator cars have steel ends, those parts in the .
interior of the car should have at least one coat of paint to protect
‘them from dampness. All other roofed steel or part steel cars
such as automobile cars, should have all exposed steel parts given at
least one coat of paint. It does not pay to paint the interior of
steel coal cars, or hopper or,ore cars, and hence it is not generally
done. As yet no successful means for protecting the- interior of
cars designed to carry such freight as, coal has been found, as the
coal dropping into the car scales the paint, and sulphur and other '
‘chemicals in the coal attack the unprotected surface of the metal.
Rust can be guarded against by cleansing the metal properly in the
ﬁrst place, and cementing all joints with good red lead.
(END) ~
IN DEX
PAGE
Abbreviation of American Railway Association. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Abbreviation of Common Car Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Abbreviation of Master Car Builders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >. . . 29
Abbreviation of Master Car Builders’ Association . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . 30
Causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Effect of, on steel cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
_ Number passengers killed per passenger mile . . . . . . . . . . . 505
,Acld Test for Purity of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Adjusting Height of Couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Advisability of Standard Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Agasote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . .63, 519
Air Brake— ‘
Arnerlcan Railways Association regulation on . . . . . . . . . . .. 319
Defect Card, M. C. B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 351
Freight Cars—M. C. B. Location of Air Pipe on . . . . . . . . . .. 340
Freight Cars—M. C. B. Location of Air Pipe on . . . . ..Illus. 341 _
Fundamentals of, for Freight Cars, M. C. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 340
_ High Speed Foundation for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Air Brake_Hose— _
‘ Coupling and Packing Ring. M. C. B. Standard . . . . . . .Illus. 349
Label for M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for, andTests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 341
Woven and Combination woven and wrapped, M. C. B.
Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 346
Air Drying System of Painting Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 610
Air Hose, I. C. C. Rulings on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 415
Alcohol Heater for Heating Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 464
All Metal Ends for Box Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 375
All Metal Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
All Metal Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26, 229
All Steel Cars, Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 569
All Steel Cars, Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 562
All Steel Cars, Freight, Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 387
All Steel Cars, Interior Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 540
All Steel Cars, Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
All Steel Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .366, 568
All Steel Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223, 521, 550
All Steel Versus Steel Frame, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
All Steel Wheels .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 238
American Continuous Draft Rods, M. C. B. Prohibition of. . . . . 202
American Passenger Buffet, Sleeping and Observation Car I Has. 471
American Railway Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
American Railway Association Standard Box Car . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
American Society for Testing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
American Steel Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 223
Anti-Climbers for Passenger Cars to prevent telescoping . . . . . . 528
Anti-Friction Center Plates of various types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Anti-Telescoping Device for Passenger Tram Cars . . . . . . . . . 502, 536
Arch Bars, M. C. B. Standard for 80,000 to 100,000 lbs.
capacity Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .Illus. 289
Arch Bars, Old Type of, now being abandoned . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l 289‘
Arch Bars, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Asbestos Fibrofelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 519
Ash, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for............................. 79
619
620 INDEX
Asphaltum Paint.‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Pggg
Association of American Steel Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51
Automatic Car Door Lock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 395
Automatic Couplers (also see couplers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Automobile Cars, Direction as to painting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Automobile Cars, Double Doors for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..373, 386
Automobile Cars, End Doors, Double Swinging . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Automobile Cars, General Structure of Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 425
Automobile Cars, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' 6
Automobile Cars, Steel Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 585
Axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Axle Test, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 285
Axles, Care to be used in selection of steel for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 279
Axles, Center, Neck, Wheel-Seat, Journal, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 216
Axles, Drop Test, M. C. B. for Iron and Steel . . . . . . . . . . . ..281, 283
Axles, For Cars marked “Capacity” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 285
Axles, For Cars marked “Maximum Weight” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 285
Axles,.How Sold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 279
Axles, Iron, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 280
Axles, Parts of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216, 278
Axles, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 225
Axles, Speciﬁcations for, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Axles, Standard, also Standard Dust Guards, standard manner
of Taking'Borings for analysis of . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . .Illus. 281
Axles, Steel, M. C. B. speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 282
Axles, Steel superseding wrought iron as material for . . . . . . .. 279
Axles, Test Machine, M. C. B. for testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 285
, Babbitt Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Baggage and Mail Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
Baggage Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
Baggage Express, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
Baking System for Painting Steel Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Balanced Side Bearing Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 521
Balanced Side Bearing Truck, Use of with enclosed steel cars. 521
Ballast Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Ballast Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 444
Ballast Cars, M. C. B. Classlﬁcation of various kinds of. . . .10, 12
Ball Bearing Center Plates, Types of . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 08
Barber Four Point Steel Flat Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 573
Barber Side Bearing Truck. . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Barrel Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 434
Bars, ‘Arch, and their use in Diamond Arch Trucks (see also
Arch Bars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-289_
Bars, Wrought Iron, Reﬁned, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . .. 46
Basswood, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- 79
Beams, Brake, see Brake Beams.
Beams, for Floor, U. S. Government PostaLSpeciﬁcations for. . 543
Bearings, Journal . .l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 286
Bearings, Journal, Malleable Iron or Steel Backed Foorbidden. . 287
Bearings, Journal, M. C. B. Standard Bearing Wedge and Lid,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 287
Bearings, Journal, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Bearings, Side, See Side Bearings.
Beech, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Belt Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' 474
Bettendorf I Beam Bolster. . . . .i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .Illus. 139
Billet Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 437
Birch, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 79
Blacking off in car painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 599
'Blind End Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..502, 536
Boarding Outﬁt Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Body Bolster, Functions of; Types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135
Bolster Springs. Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 227
I N DE X 621
PAGE
Bolsters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Bettendorf Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 301, 302
Bettendorf I Beam . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 137
Bettendorf Truck ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus 302
Box Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus 301-
Cast Ste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus -138
Cast Steel, for 7 0 Ton Capacity Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus 304
Cast Steel, I Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 302
Cast Ste , M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 143
Cast Steel, Truck and Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 301
Commonwealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus 140
Compo . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus 304
Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 302
Gould Improved Z Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 302
Monitor . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June. 303
Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 227
Pressed Steel Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 137
Rigid and Swing Motion Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Simplex . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- .Illus. 141, 301, 302
Truck, Function of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 300
Williamson Pries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 142
Wrought Iron Plate. . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 136
Bolts, Arch Bar, M. C. B. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288
Bolts, Column, M. C. B. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288
Bolts, Column, Functions of and Truck Columns . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Bolts, Journal Box, M. C B. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288
Bolts, Journal Box, Use of and Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288
Bolts and Nuts, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 227
Box Car, American Railway Asociation 36 Ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 420
American Railway Association Standard . . . . . . . .. . .Illus. 422
American Railway Association Standard
Dimensions for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 420
American Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 425
Convertible, for- carrying coal or grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 432
Convertible from ordinary Stock Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
Fruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 462
General Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Ill'us. 425
M. C. B. Recommended Practice for End Design . . . . . . .. 379
M. C. B. Ruling on Cars less than 60,000 lbs. capacity. . .. 418
Reasons given by roads for and against changing standar ee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 579
Stenciling, M. C. B for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 590
Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
Ventilated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 462
Box Girder Type of Center Sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 520
Box Journal and contained parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215, 286
Box Journal Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288
Box Journal Bolts, M. C. B. Details and Dimensions . . . . . . . . .. 288
Braces for Freight Car superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Braces for Side Frame of Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Brake Beam—
Adjusting Hanger Carrier Clip and Plates for . . . . . . . . . . . .' 322
Davis Truss Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Different Kinds of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 323. 328
Hanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 326
Hanger, Angle of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Huntoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 328
Improperly Hu‘ng.- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 330
M. C. B, and Marking of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illue. 323
' M. C. B., Requirements as to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 322
M. C. B.. Speciﬁcations and Tests for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 326
Safety Hanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 329
Solid or Trussed Types. . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 328
Trussed Type of and Requisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 328.
622 , INDEX
' PAGE
Brake Burns on Car Wheels, Causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242
Brake Chain for Hand Brakes, ‘M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for. . . . 317
Brake Clasp, Advantages of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 502
Brake Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 340
Brake, Feasible Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Brake, Vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 318
Brake Gear, Foundation .' . . . . . .2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . 313
Brake_Gear, Foundation, M. C. B. Recommended Practice for
High Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 341
.Brake Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r . . . . . . ..314
Arranged to work harmoniously with power brake . . . . . . '. . 505
Feaslble Drop Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 319
Ratchet Brake Applied to Drop End Gondola . . . . . . ..Illus. 320
Ratchet Brake Applied to Hopper Cars . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 320
Ratchet Brake for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 315
Standard, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 316
. S. Requirements as to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 314
Vertical Drop Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 318
Brake Head, Adjustable and Self Adjusting Kinds of. . . . . . . 330
Brake Head and. Shoes, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . 227
Brake Head Shoe and Key and Standard Gauges for Brake
Head and Shoe, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 331
Brake Pawl and Brake Pawl Dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 315
Brake Pawl and Brake Pawl Dog, M. C. B. Standards . . . . . . . 317
Brake Rigging, What it Includes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 312
Brake Shaft or- Staff of Hand Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 314
M. C. B. Dimensions and Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 316
M. C. B. Standard Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 316
Brake Shoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
and Key, M. C. B. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 330
Efﬁciency Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Examples of Many Kinds of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 336
M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
, Various Kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus., 333 335
Brake Slack Adjusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..321, 322
Brake Staff. See Brake Shaft. -
. Brake Wheel, Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jllus. 315
Brake Wheels, M. C. B. Dimensions and Location . . . . . . . . . .316, 317
Brasses for Journal Box, M. C. B. Proposed Speciﬁcations for. 286 -
Buckeye Friction Draft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 179
Buckeye, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
Buckeye Pressed Steel Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 233
Buckeye Tandem Spring Draft Gear . . . . . . . .., . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 172
Buckeye Twin Spring Draft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 173
Buhoup Three Stem Janney Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 209
Buhoup Three Stem Janney Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . .. 208
Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . .160, 482
Buffer Bars used in Passenger Cars. . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Buffer Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._. . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . .._ . . . . .. 160
Buffer Friction Striking Plate for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160
Buffer Sills for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 535, 537
Buffet Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of. . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Buffing Shocks, Steel Underframes an improvement to... . .. 160
Bulkheads, Bohn’s Collapsible Steel, for Refrigerator Cars. . .. 469
Bulkheads for, Refrigerator Cars . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 461
Bunkers, Ice for Refrigerator Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 469
Bunkers Ice, Ice Capacity of,,M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . .. 469
Burlap, Use of in Grain Carrying Cars . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Burner, Automatic, for Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 464
Burnett Hopper Bottom Convertible Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '432
Business Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
Butler-Piper Friction Draft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 566
Butternut, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . .._ . . . . . . . . . .. 79
INDEX 623
PAGE
Caboose Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443‘
Four and Eight Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 445
M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
U. S. Safety Appliances for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
U. S. Safety Appliances for . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 411
Caboose and Tool Car, M. C. B‘. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Cafe Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of... . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cafe Observation Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Cafe Coach or Kitchen'Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Cafe Parlor Car. . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Car Construction and Problems Involved in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23, 471
By using good material from dismantled cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Depreciation in value, Annual of Cars, Underframes, Trucks
and Tanks, M. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Difference in_ Weight and Capacities of certain Freight
Cars, relatively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Economic Values of using best materials, etc . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of heavy stress in modern train . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31, 558
Greater Strength for Cars now necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lumber for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..74-132
Metals used in, and what they include . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41
New era in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 505
Practical suggestions for economical repairing of Freight 36
O U I I I O I I O O 0 O O O I O O I O l I I I I I I l O I O I I Q I I l Q I o O I I I 0 I o I
Progress in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Rebuilding of Cars often economical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34
Size of Cars, Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Standardization of Cars and Car Parts, and Advantages
thereof '
Steel Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
To Withstand Heavy Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 506
Wooden Cars, giving way to steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..31, 417, 564
Car Heating (also see Heaters for Cars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 463
Car Materials—
Accelerated Sulphuric Acid Test for Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Chemical Electrolysis, effect on metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
Composite Materials, Kinds o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
Galvanizing of Metals, How effected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Insulation of Car Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..33, 64
Iron being repgaced by steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Iron, Special inds, Kalamined, Planished, etc . . . . . . . . . .. 60
Lumber, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..78-132
Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Principal Ones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-
Qualities upon which value depends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Repairing Foreign Cars with wrong kinds of . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41
Rustmg of Iron and Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
Salt Water Drippings, effect on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Steel Cast, Advantages of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Steel Cast, Parts made from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62v
Steel, M. C_. B. Standard for composition must be adhered to 42
Steel, Speciﬁcations for, American Association Steel
Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51, 541
Stresses to which they are subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40
Testing of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42
Car Service, how classiﬁed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Card, Air Brake, Defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Carlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 478
Different Types‘ of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 359
Freight Car Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 357
Passenger Car Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Postal Car, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Proﬁle for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 503
Steel, for All Steel Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 358
624 1 ' INDEX
PAGE
8arry Iron, Drawbar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
ars— -
Classiﬁcation and Designation of M. C. B. Recommended
- Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ~12
Classiﬁcation of Kind of Service they perform. . . .- . . . . . . . . 1
Classiﬁcation of Material constructed from . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
Construction of (See Car Construction) '
Convertible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Convertible Box and Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Convertible Center to Side Dump Gondola. . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Convertible Coal or Grain Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Convertible Hart Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Convertible Hart Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus.: 430
Convertible Heater Ventilator, Refrigerator Type . . . . .427 , 462
Convertible Heater Ventilator, Refrigerator . . . . . . ..Illus. 429
Damaged in Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Evolution of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..13—22
First Recorded use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . .416, 562
Classiﬁcation of those ordered during 1913 . . . . . . . . .. 418
Heater . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .427, 463
Heaters for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 463
Heating of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
How Obtained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Increase in size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27, 33
Insulation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Lighting of . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Lumber, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..78-132
M. C. B Annual Depreciation in value of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 502
Material (See Car Material)
Passenger (See also Steel Passenger Car) . . . . . . . . . . . .470, 507
Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . 541
Safety Appliances for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396-415
Safety Appliances for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 415
Steel, (See Steel Cars). _ .
,Castings, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Cast Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Advantages of for Car Use. . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
May Alternate with Rolled Steel—U. S. Postal Cars . . . . .. 61
Use in the car Underframe. . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Cast Steel Bolsters, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for. .- . . . . . .- . . . 143
Cast Steel Bolsters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 138
Cast Steel Needle Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 154
Cast Steel Passenger Car Parts . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 536
Cast Steel Truck Side Frames, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . .. 290
Center Filling Piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 267
Center Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Center of Axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 278
Center Piece of Wheels . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 235
Center Pin, Locatlon and Funct1ons. . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Center Plate—
Anti-Friction Type of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Ball Bearing Type . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . .~ 308
Baltimore Ball Center Bearing. . .; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .JZlus, 307
Barber Roller Center Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 308
M. C. B. Standard. . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 289
M. C. B. Standard Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 306
Roller Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307
Center Sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133
Anchorage of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Application to old Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 151
Area of when too small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Area Recommended for Steel ones . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . .153, 521
Center Girder Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
INDEX 625
- PAGE
Center Sills, Cover Plates to be Used with. . . . . . . . . . .150, 152, 564
Examples of Showing Diversity Cover Plates, etc. . . . . . . . 153
Examples of’ Showing Diversity Cover Plates . . . .Illus. 565
Fish Belly Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153, 571
If Area is small, must use Continuous Cover Plates with 27, 581
. C. B. Requirements as to space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Minimum Strength and Area of Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . .. 151
Of Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . 541
Of Steel Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 565
Splicing of, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 149
Steel Ones Often Faulty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150
Strengthening of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148
._Typical Sections of Modern.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 154
Chain, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Platform Safety for Passenger Cars, M. C. B. Recom-
mended Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 210
Safety Permanent, for Wooden and Steel Underframe
Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 211
Safety Permanent, Hook for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 211
Safety Permanent, Reasons for and against use of . . . . . . . . 211
Chair Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Chanareh Metal Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 504
Chemical Electrolysis and Its Action on Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Cherry, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
Chestnut, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
Chipped Rim of Wheels, How Incurred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 246
Circular Roofs for Passenger Train Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 538
Clasp Brake, to Act on both Sides of Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 >
Clasp Brake, Power as Compared with Single Shoe Type . . . . .. 502
Classiﬁcations of Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
Classiﬁcation, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations with Grading and Dressing
Rules for all kinds of Lumber, Hard and Soft, including
defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-132
Clearance of Side Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 568
Coach, Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 470
Coach, Day, 0 en Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 470
Coach, Day, S eel Vestibuled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 552
Code of Rules, M. C. B. for Interchange of Traffic . . . . . . . . .. 30
Collapsible Platform and Vestibule for Steel Passenger Cars. 530
Collar of Axle, Location and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 278
Collisions and Wrecks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 553
Colonist Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . .. 5
Column _Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .“'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
M. C. B. Standard for Cars of 80,000 and- 100,000 lbs.
capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . 288
Combined Car, Baggage and Passenger, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation 2
Baggage, Mail and Express, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation . . . . .. 5
Mail, Passenger and Baggage, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation . . . . . . 3
Smoking and Baggage, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation . . . . . . . . . . 2
Commonwealth Bolsters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 140
Commonwealth Center Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . z. 523
Comr‘rrnonwealth Top Equalizer, Six Wheel Passenger Train
rue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commonwealth Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217
Composite Materials for Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
Compound Carlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Compression, Deﬁnition of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Convertible Cars (See under Cars Convertible)
Cork, for Car Insulation Purposes. . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Corner Plates End Sill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 134
Corrosion—-
Differs from mere rusting of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
How it can be avoided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Nature of and Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
That due to Salt Water or Coal Water Drippings . . . . . . . . . . 57
. 626. INDEX
PAGE
Cottonwood, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Coupler Parts of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202, 203
Coupler Yoke, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 . . . . . . . . . .. 183
Coupler Yoke, M. C. B. Gauges for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Coupler Yoke, M. C. B. Gauges for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .Illus. 187
Couplers and Parts, Attachments, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
.Automatic and Parts thereof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 184
Automatic and Parts, Inspection of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Automatic and Parts, Knuckle Pivot Pin, M. C B. Speci-
ﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Automatic and Parts, M. C. B. Marking of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Automatic and Parts, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . 186
Automatic and Parts, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . .Illus. 187
Automatic and Parts, Method of measuring axial distor-‘
tion and knuckle closure in Test No. 1 and Test No. 2.. 187
Automatic and Parts, Test and" Testing Machine . . . . . . . .. 186
Automatic and Parts, Testing Machine, M. C. B.. . . .Illus. 203
Couplers, Adjusting Height of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199
Buhoup Three Stem Janney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 208
Buhoup Three Stem J'anney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 209
Cast Steel, Simplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 203
Cast Steel, Simplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 204
Gillman Brown Emergency Knuckle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 184
Heavy Ones and Attachments of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 202
Height of, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 198
Hinson Emergency Knuckle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 185
J'anney Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
Krakau M. C. B., etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209
Malleable Iron ones forbidden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . ' . . . . . . 202
Major Top and Bottom Operated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 207
M. C. Gauge for worn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 03
Number of Different Kinds and Types in use . . . . . . . . . . . .. 208
Parts of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..202, 203
Pitt Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204
Pitt Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 205
Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . 549
Sharon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204
Sharon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 205
Side Clearance of M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Straight Line Contour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Tests of M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 201
Top, Bottom and Side Operated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204
Uncouphng Arrangement for M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Wedge Lock Type . . . . . . . ."I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
With American Continuous Draft Rods, Forbidden. . . .' . . . . 202
Coupler and Platform for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Janney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .18, 485
Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 481
Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Cover Plates:
Continuous One, Tep and Bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
Desirability of Us1ng..' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
For Use under Steel Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Must Always be Used with Center ,Sills of Small Area of
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coverings of Passenger Car Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 478
Cow Hair, Used as Car Insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Cracks in Car Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 250
Creosote Used to Preserve Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Cross Bearers or Cross Ties of Steel Underframes . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
Cross Frame Tie Timbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 140
Cross Ties, Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
Cypress, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Damaging Cars in Switching, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Date Weighed, to be Stenciled on Cars . . . . . . . . . . .. .- . . . . . . 592
Davis Brake Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
INDEX 627
PAcn
Davis Cast Steel Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Dayton Freight Car Door Lock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 394
Day Coach (See Coach Day).
Deadwood of the Underframe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ 160
Decorating of Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Decoration of Steel Passenger Cars: Wood versus Steel In-
terior Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Deck Carlines for Passenger Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Defect Card for Air Brakes; Use of location, etc, M. C. B. . 350
Defect Gauge for Wheels, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Deﬁnitions and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Deﬁnitions and Designating Letters of Cars, M. C. B . . . . . . . .
Delays Due to Use of Special Patented Car Parts . . . . . . . . . . 27
Depreciation and Deterioration, Annual of Freight Cars, Trucks,
Underframes and Tanks, M C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Depreciation and Deterioration, Annual of Passenger Cars. .32, 502
Deterioration of Rolling Stock. . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30, 417
Development of the American Freight Car, History of . . . . . . . . 13
Development of the American Passenger Car, History of. . ._.‘.. 13
Diamond Arch Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Dining and Parlor Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
Dining Car, Introduction of ﬁrst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
Dining Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Dining Car, N. Y. C. & H. R. Ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 524
Dining Car, Steel Vestibuled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..3. . 470
Dining Car, Steel vestibuled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 552
Ditching Car. M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Dog for Pawl of Hand Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Doors, Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 371
All Steel.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 387
Automobile,‘ Double Ones Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Two Piece Type............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 387
Details of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 380
End OIOOOI'OQOIIOIOOI'OOOO I I I I I O I O I I I I O I o n o c O 0 I I 0 I e OI
Framing, Weaknesses of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
M. C. B. Recommendation as to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
New Cars being built without them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 372
Seal Records of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3
Fasteners or Fastenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Flush Side Door for Box Car, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 385
General Construction: Batten and Framed Types of. . .380-381
Grain—
Losses caused annually by poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Nature and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383, 387
New Types—Auxiliary Top Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Old Style and Examples of: Canale, Chicago, Rabbeted,
etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 389-392
Temporary kind now largely used and made of cheap
slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Williams All-Service. .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Grated Doors for Cars Carrying Fruit, Live Stock, etc.. 384
Hangers for Doors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jones Car............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 393
O I O I Illlll......'.'l.llii I O O 0 t 0 O O o I I I I 0 I O U"...- 3
Automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 395
Dayton Freight Car Door . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
National Safety Car Door Fastener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Losses Caused by Pilfering Owing to Unsubstantial. . . .372, 385
Losses direct and indirect, caused bv poor . . . . . . . . . . . .384, 385
Outside Hung and Flush Types, Standard M. C. B.. .‘Illus. 383
Outside Hung Box Car Door, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 385
I
628 INDEX
PAGE
Doors, Freight Car, Posts of Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 353
' eel, for Rumsey Car- Door . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Proper Anchorage of Door most important. . . . . . . . . . .. 384
Requisites for Good ones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 386
‘Rounding Comers of Stock Cars. . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illtts. 371
Rounding Corners of Stock Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Side Door, Construction and Suspension of. .' . . . . . . . . . . . .. 382
Damages done by their falling off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 385
Weakest part of Car superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Stenciling of End Door, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Stenciling of Side Door, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Stops for, and their present weakness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 382
Suspension of: Underhung and Overhung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382, 383
Doors, Posts for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 475
Double Board Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361
Doublle Blpdy Bolster used on Cars Equipped with Six Wheel 216
rue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . .
Double Lip Retaining Ring for Steel Tired Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Douglas Fir, One of the Best Present Car Woods . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
M C B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. S. Government Tests of, compared with other woods. . . . 78
Draft Arms:
Economy Applied to Center Sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 168
M. C. B. Forbid acceptance in interchange when draft arms
do not extend beyond body bolster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 418
Metal Used to Strengthen Underframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Not to be Riveted to Center Sills without Cover Plates. . . . 165
Draft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158, 566
American Continuous Draft Rod Type Forbidden . . . . . . . .. 202
Annual Losses to Railroads caused by poor. . 1= . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Apglication of Cast Steel Transon, with reinforcements for
1d Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 169
Buhoup Three Stem Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 504
Carry Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Cast Steel Transom Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 168
Draft Timbers must never be spliced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Failure of Former Short Draft Timbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163
Farlow-Westinghouse Two Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 181
Functions of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 162,166
Friction Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Buckeye . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 179
Butler-Piper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 567
Examples of various kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 174
Miner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 179
Strength as compared with Spring Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 178
Universal Attachments for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 180
Westinghouse Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 566
Old Wooden Members disappearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163
Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 504
McConway and Torley Buhoup Three Stem . . . . . . . . . .. 504
Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . .. 549
Spring Gear:
Buckeye Tandem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Ill,us. 172
Buckeye Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 173
Miner Tandem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jllus. 173
Present Springs much more powerful . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 168
Tandem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166
Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....166
Two Kinds of: Tandem and Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166
Draft Gear Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182-
Draft Gear Transom, Cast Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 170
Draft Sills: '
Cal‘ c o o o o a I o o on. o o o o on... n I o o o - u o a e e - e e e u e e e e o e c o gast Steel, With Pockets and Steps Integral . . . . . . . . .Illus. %
teel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Arranged for Fastening to both bolster and end
sill of Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 166
PAGE
Drawbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
- and Yoke Returned to an automatic coupling position Illus. 182
Ca Iron of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
Heig t of, Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 158
Housing, Spring Pockets, Follower Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Side Thrust of Drawbar and Its Effect, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Drop Bottom Gondola Car . . . . . . . . . . . .~ A . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Dumg Car: o
enter, also Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
M. C. B. Clasiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Two Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 437
Two Way Side Dump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 438,439
Dust Guard of Axle: Location and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 226
Dynamometer Car: Used to Record Shock, Pull, etc . . . . . . . . . .. 31
Eaves of Steel Roof of Steel Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Economy Draft Arms Applied to Center Sills . . . . . . . . .Illus. 168
Economy Freight Car Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 . . . 465
Electric Baggage Car, M. C. B.'Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Combined Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
Mail Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Passenger Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Street Railway Service Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . 3
Electro Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Electro Pneumatic Brake, suggested for Fast Steel Trains. . . . . 513
Electrolysis, Chemical, and Its Effect on Metals . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
Elliptical Roof for Passenger Train Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Elliptical Springs, M. C. B. Plans speciﬁcations for standard. . 51
Elliptical Springs, Nature, Kinds and Use on Passenger Cars.. 294
Elm, Rock, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Elm, Soft, M. C. B. S eciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
Emergency Coupler uckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185
Emigrant Car,.M. C. B. Clasiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
End Construction of Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Braces to run from Center Sills to Side Plates-not
the reverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
MetalEnds found superior to wooden ones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
End Construction of Passenger Train Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations . . . . . . . . . . . .. 545
Pullman Style of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 530
End Construction—Side Elevation—Pullman . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 534
End Doors of Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
End Framing and Reinforcing members in place . . . . . . ..Illus. 535
Commonwealth Steel Company’s Upright . . . . . . ..Illus. 531, 532
Passenger Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Steel Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 566
Wooden Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
End Plates of Freight Cars, Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
End Posts of Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
End Sills of Underframes . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l. . . . . 133
End Stiﬂfenersor Tie Bands for Freight Cars . . . . . . ..». . . . . . . . 37
End Stiffeners or Tie Bands, Cleveland Pressed Steel. . has. 374
Ends, Steel, for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 376
Van‘Dorn and N. Y. Central Types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Van Doi'n One Piece Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 378
Van Dorn Two Piece Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 378
Experimental Couplers, M. C. B. . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Explosives, Not to be Carried in Refrigerator Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Express Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
Fahrikoid, Composite Car Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
Face Plates, Back and Front of Steel Tired Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Farlow S ring Draft Gear With Twin Springs . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 177
Farlow- estinghouse Two Key Draft Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 181
Fastenings, Door, Side and End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Fast Freight Line Cars, Stenclllng of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
Fast Freight Line Cars, Stenciling of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 597
630 I . INDEX
, PAGE
Feasible Drop Hand Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Feeding and Watering Appliances: Twenty-Eight Hour Law 9
for Stock . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Feltlino, Insulator for Cars. . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Felts as Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 519
Ferrinoclave Car Flooring . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 504
Fibrofelt, a Car Insulator.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 519
Filling Blocks for TrussRods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Flange, Thickness of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256
Flanges, Inside Gauge of,‘ Deﬁnition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256
Flat Car:
Barber Four Point Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 574
Four Truck, Sixteen Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . ..\ . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 435
General Planv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 435
. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Barrel Rack Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
Gun- Truck, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Logging, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation°of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Ordinary, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
Transporting Rails, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,. . . 11
Well Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
M. C. B. Stenciling of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 590
Modern Construction, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 434
U. S. Safety Appliances for. .7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Floor of Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Height above Top of Rail. . .; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 461.
Refrigerator Car Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 461
Steel Cars still retain wooden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 563
Wooden Ones retained, to Block Lading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 369
Floor of Passenger Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471, 473, 504
Construction, when Two Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Insulation of Steel Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Special Floors and Concrete, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
. Three Floors speciﬁed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Flooring: .
Ferrinoclave ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. .Illus. 506
Flexolith _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 505
Karbolith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 505
Standard, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..143,368
Followers or Follower Plates, M. C. B. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
Foreign Car, Deﬁnition of Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
Foreign Cars, Repairs to, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations as to material 41
Foreign Road, Deﬁnition of Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Forsyth Radial Keyed Yoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 182
Foundation Brake (See Brake Foundation). '
Fox Patent Pressed Steel Freight Car Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Fox Patent Pressed Steel Freight Car Truck . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 219
Frames, Truck Center:
Commonwealth Center Frame Applied to Six Wheel Passen—
ger'Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 522
Framing»: G
and Fastening.End Sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: . . . . . . . 135
and Side Trusslng Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Arrangement of Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 354
Body of Steel Passenger CCars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
End Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 355
End of Passenger Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 477
Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 472
Freight Cars above sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Side of Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 353
Side of Passenger Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 476
INDEX ' 631
PAGE
CarSIIIOODOIOO O O C I O I IIIOOIOIIIIC. I I I I .00 U ‘ ' . . ‘.416,
Evolution of New Types . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19, 21
History of Development of American Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
History of Development of Steel. ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Marking of, M. C. B. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 363
Standard American Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 135
Trucks for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Speciﬁcations for Freight Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Wheels for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 213
Freight Train Service Caboose, M.» C. B. Classiﬁcation of. . . . 9
Friction Draft Gear, (See also Draft Gear) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Friction Striking Plate Buffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Friction Striking Plate Buffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 161, 162
Fruit Cars, Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Furniture Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Furniture Car, Size Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Galvanized Roof Sheets for Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Galvanized Sheets, M. C. B. Standard, contemplated . . . . . . . .. 51
Galvanizin of Metals. Method and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Gasoline otor Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
Gasoline Motor Propelled Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . 4
Gauge, Inside of Flanges, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Gauge of Track, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Gauge of Wheels, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256
Gauges of Axles, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Automatic Car Coupler, Contour Line and Limit Gauge,
M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
And Yoke Gauges, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183
And Yoke Gauges, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 187
Limit Gauge for Remounting Cast Iron Wheels . . . . . . . . .. 257
Gauges Wheel . Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 257
Wheel Defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Gear Brake: (See Brake). ,
General Service Stock Car- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 428
Gibson Retaining Ring for Steel Tired Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 267
Gillman-Brown Emergency Knuckle . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: . . . . . .Illus. 184
Girths of Freight Car superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 369
Gold Improved Storage Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 467
Gondola Cars:
Coke Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Convertible, Center or Side‘ Dump Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 427
Drop Ends, Drop Bottoms, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of... .. 8
Drop Ends, Drop Bottoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . .. 436
Hart Convertible Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 . . . . . . . . ..427
High Side, Low Side, Drop Bottom and Hopper-Bottom
Gondolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 436, 437
I. C. C. Special Ruling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Side Dump Operated by Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . .. 437
Side Dump Operated by Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 438, 439
Steel, Drop Bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illrus. 576
Steel Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 440
Steel Frame Solid Bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 586
Stenciling of, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. 590
U. S. Safety Appliances for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 401
Wooden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Gould Friction Striking Plate Buffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 162
Grain Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
Burnett Hopper Bottom Car for . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 433
Converted into, temporarily from Box Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
Special, combined Stock and Grain Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426 '
632 - ~ I N DEX


- PAGE
Grain Door (See Doors, Grain). -
Grain Strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 370
Grass Cutter, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
Grated Door (See Doors Grated).
Grill‘ Room Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Guide Block of Truck Bolster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288
G'rum, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Hair Felt‘, Use of for Car Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
_ Hand Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Handholds for Freight Cars, U. S. Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 399
Hart Convertible Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 427
Hatches of Refrigerator Cars for Admitting Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 469
Heater Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 463
Heater Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 464
Heater Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427, 463
Heaters for Cars; Alcohol Heating and Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 464
Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 467
I. C. C. Ruling on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Portable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Heating of Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,504
Heating of Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for.. 547
H'elical or Spiral Springs, for Car Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
, ' M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for Use in Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Hemlock, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Hemlock, Western, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Hemp and Its Use as Car Insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
Hickory, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
High Speed Foundation Brake Gear for Passenger Service. . .. 341
I-l'inson Emergency Knuckle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 185
Home Car, Deﬁnition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
Home Road, Deﬁnition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Hook, Miller and Platform . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
Hooks for SafetyChains, M. C. B . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211, 537 '
Hopper Bottom Gondola Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Hopper Bottom Gondola Cars Paying Load of New Steel 70 Ton
Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Hopper Cars, General Description of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Hopper Door Operating Shaft, End, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
M. C. B Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 572
Steel Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 585
Twin Side Dump, etc., M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . ..
. S. Safety Appliances for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. v401
Various Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441, 442
Horizontal versus Vertical Sheathing for Freight Cars . . . . . . .. 582
Horse Cars, M. U. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..2,10
Hose for Air Brakes: (See Air Brake Hose).
Howe Truss as Used in Car Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 357
Hub of Wheel............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..235
Hutchins’ Improved All Steel Carline Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 364
Sectional Metal Inside Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 363
Type D Outside Metal Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 364
Ice Tanks of Refrigerator Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 461
Ice Tanks, M. C. B. Capacity of required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 461
Idaho White Pine, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Inside Lining of Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 370
Inside Lining of Freight Cars, M. C. B. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . .. 370
. Inside Metal Roof of Freight Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Inside Sheathed Box Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Instruction Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
I N DEX 633
PAGE
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
By Hollow or Air Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Conductors and Non-Conductors and Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Functions of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
LaFlare for Refrigerator Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 461
Necessity of Proper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
f oors of Steel Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Of Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . 546
Of Refrigerator Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Of Steel Freight Cars, to resist sweating, etc . . . . . . . . . .. 33, 6
Of Steel Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64, 517
Problem or Steel Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64, 517
Tests of Different Kinds: Value of Same . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67, 72
Insulating Materials, Comparative Value of Different'Ones. . . . . .68
Cow Hair and Other Felts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
Future M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for Refrigerator Cars . . . . 51
Good Quality Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Insulating Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Requisites of Eiﬁcient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 517
Tests of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 72
Various kinds ‘in use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Vegetable Fibers, Hemp, Hennequin, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
Fibrofelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 66
Linofelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Interchange of Traffic. What is Meant by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
M. C. . Rules Governing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
Interior Finish of Passenger Cars:
Advantages claimed for Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Composite . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Postal Car, U. S. ‘Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wood versus Steel.....'....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 539
I. C. C. Abbreviation of Interstate Commerce Commission . ron . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Accelerated Sulphuric Acid’Test for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 57
Chain, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Compared with Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..> . . . . . . . .. 60‘
Corrosion of, Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..55, 58
Kalamined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Kinds of, Used in Car Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .., . . . . . . 60
Oxidation or Rusting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Planished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Protection of, by Galvanizing and method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Reﬁned Wrought Iron Bar, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for. . . . 46
Russian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Superseded by Steel for Car Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Wrought Bars, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
Janney Platform and Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Jones Car Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. us. 393
Journal of Axle, Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215, 279, 286
Journal Box and Contained Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215, p
and contained parts, M. C. B. or all Journals, including
new 6 inch x 11 inch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 287
Bearings, M. C. B.: (See Bearings, Journal).
Bolts, Functions of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Standard M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288
Brasses, M. C. B., Proposed Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
‘Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 287
Dust Guards, M. C. B. for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288
Dust Guards, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 226
Formerly Cast Iron—now Steel or Malleable Iron . . . . . . .. 287
Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Wedges, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Journal Springs . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Kalamined Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Karbolith Flooring
n | o - a . a 4 a . 1 0 I p I I a o - I n o u 4 - n . , , . , . I . ' I - ¢ - . .
634 ‘ INDEX
PAGE
Key or Wedge of Journal Box. ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Key Ring_T1re Fastening for Steel Tired Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Kiln Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Knots in Timber, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82-
Knuckle of Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Krukau Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Label for Air Brake Hose, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Ladders for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 398
End Clearance of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
I. C. C. Special Rulings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Safety Apliances for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 398
Lead-Lined Journal Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 286
Lettering on Cars, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 590
Lettering on Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for. . 550
Lettering, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 228
Lever, Marking of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 595
Light Weight to be Stenciled on Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594, 597
Lighting of Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for.. 547
Lighting System for Passenger Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17, 505
Lming of Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Combined Lining and Sheathing, M. C. B. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 370
Combined Lining and Sheathing, M. C. B. . . . . . . . ..Illus. 371
Standard, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Lining and Sheathing Combined, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 582
Lining for Outside Framed Cars, M. C. . Recommended Practice 582 -
Lining, Inside, for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 479
Lining Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 540
Linocel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Linofelt for Use as Car Insulator . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
Speciﬁcations using ‘it for refrigerator Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Tests of, for Insulatlon and Physical Qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Looks, Door, Gram Door, etc. (See also Door Locks). 393
Look Nut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..289
Lohmannized Roof Sheets for Cars . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 366
Longitudinal Sills of Underframe._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133, 527
1 Lumber for Car Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74
Chemical’ Treatment of, for Preservation of Lumber by
various Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
For Steel Frame Freight Cars, Shrinkage of . . . . . . . . . ..-. .. '
Proper Klln Drying of, necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..75, 584
Tests‘ of such Lumber before Using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 584
M. C. B. Classiﬁcation, Speciﬁcations, with Grading and
dressing Rules for All Kinds of Lumber, Hard and Soft,
including defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78-132
U. S. Government Tests'of .various woods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
Mail Service, First Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
Major Top and Bottom Operated Freight Coupler . . . . . . ..Illua- 207
Malleable Castings, Practical Speclﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 227
Malleable Iron Bearings are not to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Malleable Iron Castings, FutureM. C. B. Standards for . . . . .. 51
Mansell Retaining Rlng for Steel Tired Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 267
Maple, Hard, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Maple, Soft, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Marking of Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..363, 592
M. C. B. Ass’n, Nature and Authority of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
M. B. Abbreviation of, Master Car Builders . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
M. C. B. Association’s Standardization of Car Equipment. . . .. 28
M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
M. C. B. Lumber Speciﬁcations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..78-132
M. C. B. Rules for Interchange of Traffic. .._ . . . . . . . . .._ . . . . . .. 29
M. C. B.t Rules—Indexed under special subJect of WhlCh they
trea .
M. C. B. Safety Appliances and Illustrations . . . . . . . ._ . .396-415
Meat and Provision Refrigerator Car, M. C. 4B. Classification of 7
Metal Ends for Box Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 5
Metal parts of Car, Painting of . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
INDEX 635
22
PAGE
Metals:
Parts conforming to M. C. B. Standard and Recommended
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Used in Car Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Metallic Sheathing for Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
For Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 503
Middleton Car Works Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 218
Mild Steel Bars, Future M. C. B. Standards for . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Milk Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Milk Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Miller Hook and Platform for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
‘her Friction Draft Gear . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 179
per Tandem Spring Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 17 3
[urphy Systems of Car Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..607, 616
[urray Keyoke for Use with Tandem Spring Draft Gear. .Illus. 171
Name of Railroad to be Stenciled on Car in Full . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
Narrow Vestibule of Passenger Car, First Introduced . . . . . . . . . 489
National Car Door Fastener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 393
Neck of Axle, Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Needle Beam of Underframing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 140
Norway Pine, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Nut Locks necessary with Arch Bar Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 289
Nycinsul, Insulating Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 519
Oak, . S. Government Tests of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
Oak, Red, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Oak, White, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Observation Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Observation Car, Wooden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 470
Ore Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 441
Ore Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 430, 442,443, 575
Ore Cars, I. C. C. Rulings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 415
Outside Metal Roofs of Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Outside Sheathed Box Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Ovens for Baking Paint on Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
,Over All Gauge, Deﬁnition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Oxidation of Steel and Iron, Causes and Prevention of . . . . . . .. 59 ,
Painting of Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3". . . . . . . l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Automobile Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 618
Baking Process versus Air Drying System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- 613
For Painting Steel Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 611
Ovens used in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Coal or Hopper Cars, Interior not painted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
' Coats—Color, leveling, loading, priming, varnishing,
requisite qualities for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..602, 606
Enameling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . 604
Non-Drying and Semi-Drying Oils for. . .' . . . . . . . . . . . .615
Paints: Asphaltum_for Blackin Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599, 605
Four Qualities of the est . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Red _Lead and Its Value for ‘Car Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611, 615
Should be of-the best . . . . . . . . . . .< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Panels, Test for Judging of Paints. . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 605
Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . .. 550
Pounce Patterns, Hose Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 599
Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 . . . . . . . . .611, 615
Refrigerator Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g . . . . . . . 618
Re-Painting of Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,18

Sand Blasting, Importance of, before Painting Steel Cabrg,8 611
636 I N DE~X

. PAGE
Painting of Cars, Surfacers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 603
Systems of : - '
Air Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . 610
Baking Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Baking Process—Exterior of Oven Used for. .. .Illus. 612
Eighteen Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . .. 609~
Five Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 614
Lead and Oil Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 602
Murphy
Seven Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Fifteen Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616-
Surfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609, 616
Three Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 599
. Trucks—
Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605, 617
Varnishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .602, 606
Panels and Slats for Sheathing of Steel Passenger Car . . . . . . . . .v 503
Panels, to Test Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 605
Pantasote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Paper for Insulation, Its General Value for . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Neponset Red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 469
Parlor Car, First Introduced . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Parlor Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of. .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Passenger Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Decoration of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479, 503
End Construction, specially'strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Pullman Reinforced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507, 530
First Ones in U. S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Floor Framing..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 471
Floor Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 472
Floors for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471, 473,504
History of the Development of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 6
Outside Covering for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 479
Painting of—(See Painting Cars).
Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 473
Posts - . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 473
Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..477, 478
Safety Appliances for, U. S. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..498-502
Side Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Steel (See also Steel Passenger Cars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 470
Patterns, Pounce for Car Painting. . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Pawl of Hand Brake, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘ 315
Paying Load Increase in, by Introduction of Steel 70 Ton
, Capacity Hopper Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Pecan, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for. .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Pedestal for Journals 3% in. x 7 in, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 289
Pedestal for Journals 414 in. x 8 in. and 5 in. x 9 in. M. C.z B. 289
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . us.
Pedestal Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. 550
Pile Driver, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; 12
Pine: Idaho White, Norway, Southern Yellow, Western, W'hite,
. C. B. Classiﬁcations of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Pipe, Welded, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Pitt Passenger Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 204,205
Planished Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Plastic Car Roof for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361
Plates of Freight Car Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..._ . . . . . . . 357
Plate of ‘Ordinary Chilled Iron Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Platform of Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 481
and Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 489
Collapsible and Vestibule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,.. . . . 527
Collapsible and Vestibule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 533
‘ Janney . . . . ., . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 486, 487, 488
Janney and Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 485
INDEX ' 637
' , PAGE.
Platform of Passenger Cars, Miller and Hook . . . . . . . . . . ..~.18, 481
iller and Hook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ .Illus. 482, 484-
Safety Chains for, M. C. B. Recommended Practice . . . . . . . . 53 '
Pockets, Push of Underframe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-
Pockets, Stake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 440
Collapsible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 441
Temporary and Permanent, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . 440
Poplar, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Portable Heaters for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 353
Postal Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
Steel and Express. . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 550;
U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25, 541
Postal Storage, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Pounce Patterns for Car Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ f’ . . 599
Pratt Truss . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357'
Private Car, Deﬁnition of Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Private Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Progress in Car Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Pullman Car . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16, 553
Purlines . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Push Pole Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Rail Bender, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Rail Saw . . . . . . . .» . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Ralston Patent Steel Underframe for Freight Cars . . . . . ..Illus._155
Ratchet Hand Brake for Freight Cars . . . . . . . .’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Ratchet Wheel of Hand Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..315, 317 -
Recommended Practice, Abbreviation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Red Oak, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Redwood, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Refrigerator Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Bohn System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4'69
Capacities of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Convertible, Growing Demand for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 _
Convertible Into Heater, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . 427, 460.
Door, Edman for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Special Fasteners for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 461.
Explosives, not to be carried in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46?.
Floor, Minimum height of above Top of Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461.
Ice Tanks, M. C. B. Capacity of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461..
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64, 61
M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of: _ . '
Beer and Ice Refrigerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Meat and Provision Refrigerator. . .4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Refrigerator Express Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 2
Refrigerator or Produce Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 -
Standard Refrigerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
M. C. B. Rulings on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Salt Water Drippings from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Steel . . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
White Enamel Refrigerator Car System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Reinforcement of Wooden Cars.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Re-Painting Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Requisites of Proper Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ." . . . . . . 66'
Retaining Rings for Steel Tired Wheels . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Rivet Steel, Future M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . .., . . . 51
Roller Side Bearings . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 568
Rolling Stock,‘ Deterioration of . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Roof, ,Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . _. 357
All Steel Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “361,568,v
Burnett Steel Roof for Box Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588.,
Double Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .Illus. 363 ,
Franklin Flexible Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 363
Functions of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
638 ' I N DE X
PAGE
Roof, Freight Car, Hutchins’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 3,67
. Hutchins’ Improved All Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 364
Outside Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 364
Sectional Metal Inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 363
Importance of Systematic Care of . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
M. C. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 363
Metal: . . . .
Inside . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361, 366
Outside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361
Metallic, How Painted‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 600
Outside Iron Roof, Chicago Cleveland Car Rooﬁng Co.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-.‘.............Illus. 365
Pai ting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 604
Pla tic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361
Running Board, Important Adjunct to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 366
Wooden, Single and Double Board . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361
Roof, Passenger Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . 477
' Carlines for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357, 478, 503
Covering for . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Kinds of, Clere Story, usual type . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . ..47 7, 538
' Oval, (Circular, Elliptical or Turtle Back) . . . . . ..503, 538
‘ Painting of . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Postal Car, U. S. Spepiﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..544
' Steel Roof . . . . ..' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538, 617
Rounding of- Corners of Stock Car Door, M. C. B . . . . . . .Illus. 371
Rumsey Freight Car Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 389
' Running Board for Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . .366, 368
Standard M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Russian _ Iron . . . . . . . .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Rusting of Iron and Steel, Causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Effect of upon them . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
_ - How it can be avoided...."....' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
Safety Appliances, U. S. for All Kinds of Freight Cars. . . . .396-415
Safety Appliances, U. S. for All Kinds of Freight Cars. . . .Illus. 415
Safety Appliances, U. S. for Passenger Train Cars. . . . . . .498-502
Safety Appliances, M. C. B,. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus; 315
Safety Chains for Cars . . . . . . . . . . . .z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Safety Chains for Freight Cars, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 212
Safety Hanger for Brake Beam: (See Brake Beam Safety ~
' - Hanger). '
.Safety Valves of Tank Cars, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~ . . . . . . . 449
Safety Vents of Tank Cars, -M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Salamander, Insulating Material . . . . . . '. -. .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Salt Water Drippings, Must be Retained between Stations. . . . 460
- Sand Blasting of Steel Cars before Painting them . . . . . . . ..608, 611
Schoen Pressed Steel Truck Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 220
Schoen Steel Truck Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 221
Seamy Treads of Wheels, Causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- 242
Section Gang or Track Inspection Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of 12
Shaft Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Sharon Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
‘ Sharon Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 206-
Sharp Flanges of Wheels, Causes of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
I Examples of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Sheathed Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Sheathing of Freight Car . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
’ ‘ Horizontal versus Vertical Appllcation of Same . . . . . . ..363, 582
Inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
' Standard, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . ..Illus. 363
Sheathing of Postal Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
' Sheathing, Metallic for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Sheathing, Steel for Steel Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..503, 532
Sheet Metal Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v . . . . . . . . . . . "36
Shelled Out VV-heels, Causes of: Examples of . . . . . . . . . . . . ..244, 253
4» INDEX .. ' 639
PAGE
Shoes: (See Brake Shoes). > > -
Shrinkage of Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Side Bearings: .
Adjustable Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~. . 310
Cardwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 311
Im rtance of Clearance and Location of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
101 et . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 311
Location and Functions of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216, 308, 310
M. vC. B. Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 310
Miner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I . .Illus. 311
‘ Produces Derailments, if insufficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 308
Side Clearance, M. C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Forms a russ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Framing of Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 353
Steel Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 567
Side Framing of Passenger Cars, Forms a Truss. . . ..' . . . . . . . . 47.4
ooden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Side Frames, Andrews Cast Steel, For use with and without -
ars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 293
Side Frames, Bettendorf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 294
Side Frames of Truck: ‘
Arch Bar Type of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Buckeye Channel Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 295
Buckeye Pedestal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 296
Cast Steel, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 290
Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . 541
Side Girder versus Center Girder Construction for Underframe. . 521
Sills, Center General Use of 24 Inch Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Sills for Steel Frame and All Steel Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..509, 565
Sills of Steel Underframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..! . . . . . . 151
Sills, Splicing of Steel and Wooden, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Simplex Body Bolster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. ‘141
Simplex Coupler‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . 203
Single Board Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361
Single Board Roof ‘covered with metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Six Wheel Trucks for 100 Ton Flat Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 232
Skeleton of Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Slack Adjusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
American Automatic Slack Adjuster, applied to Brake
Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 321
Westinghouse Latest Improved Slack Adjuster . . . . . . .Illus. 322
Sleeping Car, First Efforts made to furnish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
Steel vestibuled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 553
Slid Flat Wheels, Causes of . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
Snow Removing Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . ." . . . . . . . . .. .12
Southern Yellow Pine, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Speed of Train an Important Economic Element . . . . . . . . . . . .. 509
, Splicing of Draft Timbers not allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149
Spraying on of paint now abandoned . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . 599
Spring Caps, M. C. B. for Truck Springs ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Spring Caps, M. C. B. for Truck Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illua. 297
Spring Gear: ' .
Farlow, with Twin Springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..177
Tandem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - . . . 166
With Universal Yoke and Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 175
Spring Plank, Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . 300
' Bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
For Rigid Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
For Swing Motion Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 300
Function and Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215, 300
Safety Hanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
I
e40 ' . INDEX v
Springs in General: PAGE
and-Spring Caps—M C. B Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 297
Elliptical and Helical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Elliptical used almost exclusively for Passenger Cars. . . . .4 294
Helical or Sp1ral............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 216
MC. B. Standard for. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Springs Truck:
_ ‘ Alloy Steel Springs stand 35% more stress. . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . 299
~ ‘Body Bearing and Bolster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
M; C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L- . . . . .. 299
M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for 140,000 lbs. capacity Cars with
Arch Bar Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 297-2'99
Nests and Grouping of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 299
- ‘ Pedestal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 292
Spruce, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . .. 81
.Spruce, U. S. Government Tests of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Spruce, Western . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Staff Brake: (See Brake Shaft).
.‘Stakes for Flat Cars and Gondolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
M. C. B. Spacing for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 440
Standard American Freight Car Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 214
Standard Terms, M. C. B. and Gauging Points for Wheels, and
' Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
‘Standard Ventilator, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Standardization of Car Parts, Advantages of . . . . . . . . . . . .26, 27, 62
Steam ‘Shovel, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
‘Steel, as used in Car Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..41, 513
' Corrosion and Rusting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
For Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for
. . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43, 61, 541-550
Introduction of, ' in underframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
. Speciﬁcations for Cast, Boiler. Flange, Extra Soft, Mild,
- Rivet, Structural, Open Hearth, Plate Steel, With Tests,
' ' American Steel Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51
Strength of as compared with wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21, 516
i - Superseding Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Steel Cars: " .
.. Baggage and Postal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 551
Causes Leading to its Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..7 4, 562
Deﬁnition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
History of Development of . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Insulation of . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . 64
Lack of “Give” in them, and effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 164
Painting (See under Painting).
Steel, Cast, Advantages of for Car Construction . . . . . . . . . . . ..60, 61
Lighter in weight than built up parts . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Pressed versus Rolled (Structural) Steel for Steel Freight
. Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6]
Steel Castings? Rivet Steel and Rivets, Mild Steel Bars; Steel
Plates and Structural Steel, M. C. B. Standards .contem-
OOIOUDIGIIIIO O O 0 I C O O I o U O O O l I O O O O O I I O Q Q I l.’ I I O O U O OI 'Steel, Chain, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.
Steel Ends for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Steel Frame‘ Freight Cars:
‘Forty Ton Capacity Box Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 584
Ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 575
Sheathed and Single Sheathed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579, 580
Use of Z Bars for .Framing of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . 566
Steel Freight Cars: All Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 562
Advantages Claimed for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 563
Box Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569, 570, 573
\ Construction of Box Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564'
* Hopper, Ore, Gondola, Flat Cars, nearly all steel . . . . . .572, 573
Hopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 573
I- Must increase. side clearance or use Roller Side Bearings. . 568
Paying Loads compared with Wooden Cars . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . 563
Ventilation, How Secured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 569
I N DE X 641
. , PAGE
Steel Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Clasp Brake Used Exclusively on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . 513
Deﬁnition of Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 512
Floors of and various kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504, 520
Four or Six Wheel Trucks used on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
General Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
History of Its Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 508
Insulation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Interior Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Painting of: Baking Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509, 517
~ Side Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 528
Steel Lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39
Stevens Bill relating to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Weight of Steel and Wooden Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Weight per passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Wrecks of—how they compare to wooden cars . . . . . . . . . .. 553
Steel Plates and Superstructural Steel, Future M. C. B.
Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51
Steel Wheels, Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Stenciling of Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . 589
M. C. B. Rules Governing. . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
Steps of Passenger Cars, metalled treads often used . . . . . . . .. 504
Stock Cars:
Convertible into drop bottom box Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
Dimensions and Capacities of average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Feed and Watering Appliances no longer needed . . . . . . . . .. 426
General Construction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
General Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 425
General Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-Rounded Corners for, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 371
Twenty-Eight Hour Law Concerning Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Type—Convertible into Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
Store Supply Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Straight Line Contour Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209
Structural Steel, Future M. C. B. Standards for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
Structural Steel, Repairs to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 581
Sub-Sills for strengthening old cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 151
Summers’ Balanced Side Bearing Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 232
Superstructure of Freight Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 352
Superstructural Framing of Postal Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Swing Motion Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 224
Switching, Damage to cars in. ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31, 162
Sycamore, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Tamarack, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Tank Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 443
Construction, Functions, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25
Discharge Valves of Frequently Faulty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 444
Leakage of—a serious problem . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 444
M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
M. C. B. Safety Valves, Vents and Disks for Tanks . . . . .. 446
M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..446-460
U. S. Safety Appliances for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Water Test of . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Widely Varying Capacities of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Tension, Deﬁnition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40
Tests for Couplers M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 201
Testing Value of Insulating Materials . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . .66, 72
Threads, U. S. for Bolts and Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
Tie Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288
Tires for Steel Tired Car Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 267
Minimum Thickness for, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Tool and Block Car, M. _C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Torsion, Deﬁnition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Tourist Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , _ _ 6
Track Layer, ,M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
642 INDEX
PAGE
Transom Draft Gear, Cast Steel . . . . . . . ..' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 170
Tread of Wheels.- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 235
Treads, Seamy, of Car Wheels, causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Truck Bolster Guide Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Truck Center Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Truck Sides—Gauges for Cast Steel, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 289
Truck Sides, Limiting Dimensions . . B . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus- 289
Truck Standard American Freight Car. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 214
Trucks:
All Metal and Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
All Metal Cast Steel vs. Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Two Classes of, Rigid and Swing Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 216
Trucks, Freight Car, American Standard. Essentials of. . . . . . . . 215
High Freight Truck, General Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 217
Painting of, Practical Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Practical Speciﬁcations for Freight Truck Side Frames,
Cast Steel, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Six Wheel Equalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 578
Six Wheel....- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 567
140,000 lbs. Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. .Illus. 568
Trucks, Passenger Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492, 521
For Steel Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521. 550
Four Wheeled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 493, 494
Painting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605, 617
Six Wheeled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 495
Trucks, Types of :‘
Balanced Side Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . 230, 521
Barber Side Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Ilms. 232
Bettendorf Truck for 70 Ton Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 233
Buckeye Pressed Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 233
Commonwealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Commonwealth Top Equalizer for 6, wheel passenger. .Illus. 555
Four Wheel for New Large Capacity Freight Cars of Steel,
O O I O O O O I O O O O I O O I 0 I l I I O C I O I ‘),
o o o a o a o oouoooooooooooo u a a . n 4 e ’ - ~ u u - ~ . o s n a a e .6.
Roller Side Bearing. . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Schoen Pressed Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 221
Side Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 230
Six .Wheel for 100 Ton Flat Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 232
Six Wheel Freight Car Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 231, 567
Six Wheel with Side Frame and Pedestal forged in one
piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . \ . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 556
Summers Balanced Side Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 232
Swing Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Tupelo, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Truss Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Twenty-Eight Hour Stock Law . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
. Twin Spring Draft Gear with Universal York and Attach-
ments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . has. 17 5
Uncoupling Arrangements, M. C. B. Recommended Practice. . . 199
Uncoupling Device, Tennis “C” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Illus. 201
Uncoupling Levers, U. S. Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Underframes; I
For Steel Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. 568
For Use Under Steel Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Four General Types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25, 151, 520
.Postal Cars, U. S. Government Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . 541
Pressed Steel for 50 Ton Capacity Box Car . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 156
Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150, 514, 523
Steel for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 155
Steel for Passenger Cars . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'.Illus. 525, 526
Various Kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523-526
Various methods used in strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
INDEX 3 e43
PAGE
Underframing :
Essential Parts and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Principal Troubles with Former Styles of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163
Steel, Painting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
U. S. Government, Speciﬁcations for Postal Cars . . . . . . . . . .541-550
U. S. Government Requirements as to Hand Brakes . . . . . . . . . . 314
U. S. Government Tests of Timbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
U. S. Safety Appliances for Coupling Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
U. S. Safety Appliances for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396-415
U. S. Safety Appliances for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 415
U. _S. Safety Appliances, marking on of—on Cars . . . . . . . . . . .. 593
Universal Attachments for Friction Draft Gear . . . . . . .. I Hus. 180
Universal Double Keyed Yoke with Twin Springs . . . . . . . . .Illus. 176
Van Dorn Steel Ends for Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 377
Varnishes for Car Painting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02, 606
Vegetable Ventilator, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Ventilated Box Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Ventilator Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372, 373, 426, 461
Ventilator, Heater and Refrigerator Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 427
Vertical Drop Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 318
Vestibuled Parlor Cafe Car, Steel Frame For . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 528
Vestibuled Train, Introduction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Vestibules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Vestibules, Narrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illfus. 490, 491
Vestibules, Wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 121m. 493
Walnut, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Water Rising System for Passenger Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 505
Weed Burner, M.‘C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
Weighing of Freight Cars,- M. C. B. Rules for . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 592
Reweighing of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘592
Western Larch, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Western Pine, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Western Spruce, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
...I..I-'....'...... O I O O I I I 00......- l Q I Q Q I 0 I 0 c I i Q 0' Cast Iron, M. C. B. Recommended Practice for 38 in.. .Illus. 261
M. C. B-
I I O I I O O I I O O I O I Q I I I I I I I D I O O I O I I O 0 I U I O O 0
Chilled Iron, M. C. B. Standard for various capacities. . . . . 260
Method of Manufacture, Qualities of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 258
Nickel Chrome . . . . . . . . . . . .> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 264
Replaced by Steel.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 266
Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 240
Davis Cast Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Ilms. 274
Deﬁnition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 215
Deterioration of after twelve years’ service . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
Development of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Examples of seamy shelled out and other defects in and
Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242-253
Hub of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
M. C. B. Branding of solid Steel Wheels and details of
letters and ﬁgures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 279
M. C. B. Gauge for measuring steel wheels to restore con-
tour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . us. 279
M. C. B. Recommended Practice for 33 in., 36 in. and 38
in. solid steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 279
Mounting of, M. C. B. Recommended Practice . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255
Second Hand ones not to be mated with new ones . . . . . . . . . 255
Service Guaranteed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Standard Hydraulic Pressure for Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256
gtatistics showing accidents due to defective . . . . . . . . . . . .. 236
cc :
Branding of M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Comparative Cost of . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 238
Development of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
For Steel Freight Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Gauges for M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
644 . INDEX‘
- PAGE
Wheels, Steel, Continued. '
Increase Carrying Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
, M; C. B. Standard Various sizes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Mileage of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Practical Speciﬁcations for. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Solid Forged and Rolled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 275
Solid Rolled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 274
Steel Tired Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Illus. 268
M. C. B. Standard . . . . . . . . . .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . .268, 289
Need for Careful Inspection of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
‘Thermal Cracks in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Illus. 270
Tire Fastenings for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Tire Fastenings for M. C. B. . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Various kinds . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘269
Why Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Wheel and Track, Gauge Distances for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Y 256
Wheel Seat or Wheel Fit of Axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
White Oak, M. C._ B. Speciﬁcation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
White Pine, M. C. B. Speciﬁcation for. . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Wide Vestibule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Williamson-Fries Body Bolster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Illus. 142
Wrecks . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Wrecking Derrick, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of various kinds. . . . . 11
Wrought Iron Bars, M. C. B. Speciﬁcations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Yard Pick Up Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Yard Poling Car, M. C. B. Classiﬁcation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Yoke of Draft Gear: ' ‘
Forged Steel and Cast Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Forsyth Radial Keyed Yoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
. Functions and Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160, 178
Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Key and Slot for, M. C. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
M. C. B. Standard . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Ill'u-s. 183
Zinc and Its Use in Galvanizing Iron and Steel. . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . 59
' SEP 16 1919.
“KIRKMAN’S SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS:

Books .of Especial Interest and Value to ENGINEMEN,
TRAINMEN and SHOPMEN

For the convenience of those interested particularly in‘ certain
lines of work, “Kirkman’s Science of Railways” is divided and sold
in groups, as follows:
Special prices for these groups are made to railway employes,
and payment may be made on the monthly instalment plan, if
desired. The books are bound in half leather, and are a handsome
addition to any library.

GROUP A, MOTIVE POWER DEP’T.
Locomotive and Motive Power
Department.
Engineers’ and Firemen’s Handbook.
Locomotive Appliances.
Electricity Applied to Railways.
Air Brake—~Construction and Working,_
Vol. 1.
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Portfolio of Locomotives.
Portfolio of Air Brake—Westinghouse.
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AirrBlraike—Construction and Working,
o
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O .
Electricity Applied to Railways.
Portfolio of Cars.
Portfolio of Air Brake—Westinghouse. -
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Locomotive Appliances.
Shops and Shop Practici. Vol. I.
Shops and Shop Practice, V 01. II.
AiiirBiraIke—Construction and Working,
o
BlraikIe—‘Construction and Working,
o . .
Electricity Applied to Railways.
Portfolio of Locomotives.
Portfolio of Air Brake-—Westinghouse.
Portfolio of Air Brake—New York.
GROUP D, ROUNDHOUSE
Shops and Shop Practice, Vol. I.
Shops_and Shop Practice, Vol. II.
Electricity Applied to Railways.
Portfolio of Locomotives.
Portfolio of Air Brake—Westinghouse.
Portfolio of Air Brake—New York.
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Operating Trains.
Cars——Construction, Handling and
‘Supervision.
Aiix'lBlralke—Construction and Working,
0
Air Brake—Construction and Working,
Vol II
Electricity Applied to Railways.
Portfolio of Cars.
Portfolio of Air Brake—Westinghouse.
Portfolio of Air Brake—New York.
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Engineers’ and Firemen’s Handbook.
Locomotive Appliances‘.
Electricity Applied to Railways.
Cars—Construction, Handling and
Supervision.
AiavBli-aike—Construction and Working,
0
Air Brake—Construction and Working,
Vol. II.
Operating Trains. .
Shops and Shop Practice, Vol. I.
Shops and Shop Practice, Vol. II.
Portfolio of Locomotives.
Portfolio of Cars.
Portfolio of Air Brake—Westinghouse.
Portfolio of Air Brake—New York.
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