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THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
SCIENCE SERIES
Editorial Committee
ELIAKIM HASTINGS MOORE, Chairman
JOHN MERLE COULTER
PRESTON KYES
HE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
SCIENCE SERIES, established by the
Trustees of the University, owes its origin to
a belief that there should be a medium of publica-
tion occupying a position between the technical
journals with their short articles and the elaborate
treatises which attempt to cover several or all
aspects of a wide field. The volumes of the series
will differ from the discussions generally appearing
in technical journals in that they will present the
complete results of an experiment or series of
investigations which previously have appeared
only in scattered articles, if published at all. On
the other hand, they will differ from detailed
treatises by confining themselves to specific prob-
lems of current interest, and in presenting the
subject in as summary a manner and with as little
technical detail as is consistent with sound method.
They will be written not only for the specialist
but for the educated layman.
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THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
THE BAKER AND TAYLOR COMPANY
NEW YORK
THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON
THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
Tokyo, osaRA, KYOTo, FUKUOKA, SENDAI
THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY
SHANGHAI
THE OLDEST KNOWN BONE TUMC) R
This hemangioma, or vascular bone tumor, occurs between two caudal vertebrae of a large dinosaur, Apatosaurus, and has firmly united the
two bones into a solid mass. All traces of an intervertebral junction are lost. The specimen was collected in the Como beds, Comanchean, of
Wyoming, by Dr. S. W. Williston, at the time when these deposits were in the height of their fame as dinosaur quarries.

THE ANTIQUITY OF
DISEASE
By
Roy L. MooDIE
Associate Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Illinois
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THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

Museums
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, NA69.
CopyRIGHT 1923 By
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
All Rights Reserved
Published March 1923
Composed and Printed By
The University of Chicago Press
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
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TO THE MEMORY OF
SAMUEL WENDELL WILLISTON
PREFACE
The study of the ancient evidences of disease is
known as paleopathology. The antiquity of the evidence
is very great, measured in millions of years, and includes
data from the oldest geological examples of pathology,
from the earliest dependent associations of animals and
plants, and from the appearances of disease on the
remains of the ancient human races. The beginning
and the exact time of closing the study of paleopathology
are uncertain and somewhat indefinite dates. Perhaps
we may say that the study of this subject includes
material from the time of the introduction of animal and
plant life on earth to the civilization of the continents
by races which left written records of such things.
The present little volume by no means undertakes to
cover such an ambitious field. The evidence presented
here is chiefly that of the fossil vertebrates and ancient
human races, with slight excursions into other fields;
the chief contributions being to Mesozoic pathology and
early man. Restricting the discussion in this manner
will enable me to give an account of my own studies on
original material, and obviate any necessity of dealing
too extensively with accounts of the researches of others.
The chapters of the volume are based on various
brief papers previously published in the Southern Medical
Journal, the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America,
Science, and the Scientific Monthly. These articles were
written in a non-technical vein, and contain material
not otherwise recorded. They were prepared as side
ix
X PREFACE
issues of a more comprehensive and detailed study of
paleopathology, included in another volume, to be
issued presently by the University of Illinois.
The prosecution of the study of fossil and ancient
human material would have been impossible but for
the assistance of friends in charge of paleontological and
anthropological collections at Field Museum, Walker
Nſuseum, Peabody Museum at Harvard, the Yale
Museum, United States National Museum, Princeton
University, University of Kansas, and especially the
American Museum of Natural History. All of the
institutions loaned material or furnished photographs.
By the aid of a grant from the American Medical Associa-
tion, all of these institutions were visited and the evidence
seen. The National Academy of Science, the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, and the
trustees of the Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund made
other grants which have forwarded the work greatly.
ROY L. MOODIE
DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
CHICAGO
CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION * * * * * * * * g & e
Historical Sketch. Nature of Ancient Diseases. Disease
as a Factor in Extinction. -
CHAPTER
I. PALEOPATHOLOGY tº 9 tº wº
Paleontology and Medical History.
II. ANCIENT BACTERIA AND THE BEGINNINGS OF DISEASE
Thread Molds and Bacteria in the Devonian.
Bacteria in the American Permian. Mesozoic
Bacteria. The Origin of Parasitism and the
Nature of Disease during the Paleozoic.
III. PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF THE ANTIQUITY OF
DISEASE tº $ tº $ tº q g º & ©
Carboniferous. Permian. Triassic. Jurassic. Co-
manchean. Cretaceous. Eocene. Oligocene.
Miocene. Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Recent.
Table of Geological Evidences.
IV. CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY . &
Osteomyelitis in the Permian. Vertebrae of a Dino-
saur Exhibiting a Pathological Lesion. Spondy-
litis Deformans in the Dinosaurs. Spondylitis
Deformans in Eocene Mammals. An Ankylosed
Elbow Joint in an Eocene Mammal. A Sub-
periosteal Abscess. American Cave Bears.
Pathology of the Clam. Caries. Regeneration.
Necrosis. Fractures. Multiple Arthritis in a
Mosasaur. Opisthotonos. Mesozoic Pathology.
V. DISEASE AND INJURY AMONG FOSSIL MEN AND THE
BEGINNINGS OF SURGERY tº gº e º e g
Syphilis among Ancient Men. Stone Cultures and
the Age of the Human Race.
PAGE
xiii
II
2 I
38
59
84
xi
xii
CONTENTS
VI. PRIMITIVE SURGERY
Stone Age Man's Cure for Headache. Trephining.
Use of the Cautery. Scarification. Amputation
of Fingers and Other Mutilations. Primitive
Surgery in the Land of the Incas. Surgery
among the Pre-Columbian Indians of North
America. Surgery in Ancient Egypt.
VII. PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES
INDEX .
Diseases of the Ancient Egyptians. An Eruption
Resembling Smallpox. Early Evidences of
Schistosomiasis. Hydrocephalus in Early Egypt.
A Psoas Abscess. A Pelvic Osteosarcoma.
Osseous Lesions in Ancient Egyptians. Sym-
metric Osteoporosis of the Skull. Rickets in
Ancient Egypt. Diseases of the Ancient Peruvi-
ans. Pathology of the Pre-Columbian Indians
of North America.
PAGE
96
IIS
I45
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Frontispiece. The Oldest Known Bone Tumor . . facing
FIGURE
I •
. Carboniferous Bacteria and Fungi.
. An Example of Paleozoic Pathology
. Examples of Paleozoic Parasitism .
. A Long-spined Permian Reptile
. The Oldest Fracture . • * ~ *
. Humerus of Mosasaur Showing Pathology
. Photomicrographs of Osseous Lesions.
. A Cretaceous Osteoma
. Fracture of Rib of Mastodon
. Pleistocene Pathology . . . . . . . . .
. Section of a Reptilian Spine Showing Osteomyelitis
. Dermal Armor of Stegosaurus Showing Necrosis
. Fracture of the Snout of a Long-headed Reptile.
. Skeleton of Steneosaurus Exhibiting Opisthotonos
. Photomicrographs of Normal and Pathologic Fossil Bone
. Skeleton of Camptosaurus Showing Necrosis .
. Osteomyelitis in the Tail of a Dinosaur
. A Neolithic Trephined Skull
. An Ancient Arrow Point Injury
. A Case of Neolithic Pott's Disease
. Rondelles . * * * * * * * * * * *
. A Female Skull from Peru Showing Effect of Cautery .
. Ancient Peruvian Trephined Skulls
. Primitive Surgical Instruments from Peru
. A Set of Primitive Splints from Ancient Egypt .
. Osteoporosis of the Skull
. Cribra cranii interna .
Types of Cambrian Animals
PAGE
V
I7
29
32
34
4O
43
47
48
49
52
54
62
69
7o
73
75
79
8I
85
88
Qo
QQ
IO3
Io'7
Io8
III
I27
I 28
xiii
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
29. Diseased Limb Bones from Ancient Peru . . . . . I 32
30. A Cranial Osteoma . . . . . . . . . . . IS3
31. Ancient Peruvian Pottery Showing Lesions of Uta . . I 34
32. Indian Bones Showing Well-healed Lesions . . . . I36
33. Indian Skull with Arrow Point . . . . . . . I38
34. A Suggestion of Pott's Disease . . . . . . . . I39
35. Arthritis Deformans . . . . . . . . . . I4O
36. Osteomyelitis in the American Bison . . . . . . I4I
INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL SKETCH
NATURE OF ANCIENT DISEASES
DISEASE AS A FACTOR IN EXTINCTION
The manner in which various lines of investigation
arise, the motives and acts which bring them into being,
are of the greatest interest. Many avenues of thought
develop as a direct outcome of previous studies, suggested
by some unsolved phase of the problem. Some arise
as a result of observations made in travel or exploration,
while others develop from stray remarks or questions,
chance seeds of thought dropped by the wayside. To
the latter class my own studies belong.
While we were camped at an old Indian spring on
the bare, dreary plains of Wyoming, huddling over a
small tin stove in an attempt to ward off the chill of an
unseasonable blizzard, Dr. Williston diverted our minds
from bodily discomforts by telling us of the early pale-
ontological discoveries in America; the hardships of
Mudge in early days in Kansas; his own explorations
in the same territory and in the dinosaur quarries of
Wyoming; of the famous discoveries of Leidy, Marsh,
and Cope. But of them all none excited my interest
quite so highly as his discussion of Cope’s discoveries
of land and fresh-water vertebrates in the coal of Ohio.
Here in the flapping tent amid a cold Wyoming blizzard
began my interest in what later developed into a first
serious paleontological study. Why the brief account
of these lonesome, voiceless amphibians living in a
{
2 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
noiseless world in the swamps of old Carboniferous
times should have appealed so strongly to my imagination
I Cannot say; but from that day on thoughts of the
Coal Measures Amphibia have been steady, comforting
Companions
Curiously enough a second series of studies, that on
the ancient evidences of disease, discussed in this little
book, began in a similar manner from a chance question
of a friend as to paleontological evidences of disease in
various museum collections. This was merely a small
seed but it grew and developed a whole flower bed of
thoughts. In reply to the question, mention was made
of a set of dinosaur bones which as they lay in the
museum seemed to have been broken during life and
subsequently healed with considerable callus. Closer
study of the specimen, kindly loaned by the University
of Kansas, revealed the startling fact that the tail lesion
of this ancient dinosaur was a bone tumor (Frontispiece),
a hemangioma, the oldest bone tumor so far known. So
the path of inquiry was begun. It lay first among the
Mesozoic vertebrates, then among the mammals of the
Tertiary and Pleistocene, back to the vertebrates of
the Paleozoic, to evidences in fossil man; to the ancient
inhabitants of the American continents, and finally,
inspired by the writings of Marc Armand Ruffer, to the
ancient Egyptians.
Unfortunately, the scope of the study was halted at
the brink of the ancient invertebrates, which loomed as
an unknown field before me. Lack of an adequate
knowledge of these forms forced me to narrow the
investigation to vertebrate evidences. Fortunately for
the completeness of the subject, and for our knowledge
INTRODUCTION 3
of Paleozoic pathology, the study of “organic dependence
and disease” in early forms has been made by a master
in the paleontology of the invertebrates. The reader
is therefore referred to the writings of John M. Clarke,
listed at the close of chapter ii, for the details of pale-
ontological evidences of the inception of disease on earth.
Naturally a book bearing such a title as the present one
does should include a discussion of the earliest evidences
of disease and injury," but I have chosen to restrict
myself largely to vertebrate evidences.
Similarly, scant attention is paid to the evidences
adduced by paleobotany. The evidences of disease
among fossil plants have been presented by Dr. E. W.
Berry as chapter iii of a large work on paleopathology
to be published shortly. -
My own studies really begin with the Permian,
although earlier Paleozoic vertebrates have been studied
but without finding pathological evidences. The Coal
Measures forms, if diseased or injured, failed to show
evidences of it in any of the many hundreds of specimens
of these ancient vertebrates which have been closely
scrutinized. Thus for a discussion of the paleopathology
of the vertebrates we are forced by our present limitation
of knowledge to begin with the Permian. This does not
by any manner mean that disease and injury did not
annoy earlier vertebrates, but that we do not know
about it. Remains of Permian vertebrates bearing
# The data on early examples of disease and injury among the fossil
invertebrates are collected by Edgar Dacqué in his book, Vergleichende
biologische Formenkunde der fossilen niederen Tiere (Berlin, 1921), under
the titles: (1) “Epökie, Parasitismus, Symbiose,” pp. 457-76, and
(2) “Regeneration, pathogene Schalen, Häutung,” pp. 693–703. This
work has come to me too late for a detailed discussion of the evidence.
4 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
pathological evidences have been called to my attention
by Dr. Williston and by Dr. Case. The few instances
known are certainly not all of Permian pathology.
Studies So far made constitute merely an introduction
to a study of the ancient evidences of disease among
fossil vertebrates.
HISTORICAL SKETCH
Our knowledge of the antiquity of disease is contained
in a body of facts which has been accumulated during
the past one hundred and fifty years through the activi-
ties of various observers. The scattered and unrelated
observations may be gathered into a coherent subject
which has been called paleopathology, although the
term was not proposed until near the end of this long
period of observation.
Pathological conditions on the fossil bones of ancient
animals were first recognized in Pleistocene mammals,
especially those of the European cavern deposits. Tn
1774 the subject was opened by E. J. C. Esper, a professor
in Erlangen, who described a lesion which he regarded
as an osteosarcoma on the lower half of the femur of a
cave bear. Later students revised his interpretation to
a callus formation surrounding a badly infected fracture,
and to this day Osteosarcomata are unknown in a fossil
condition. Goldfuss and Cuvier added to our knowledge
of the subject in the opening decades of the past century
by discussing lesions of fractures particularly in a
Pleistocene hyena and a fossil ungulate.
The year 1825 is significant in the history of paleo-
pathology because of the entrance of a medical man,
Philipp Franz von Walther, by his description of the
INTRODUCTION 5
remains of cave bears preserved at Bonn, many of which
showed pathological lesions. Von Walther's observa-
tions were so accurate and his diagnoses so reasonable
that Virchow, studying the same collection seventy
years later, could find little to change. Von Walther
attributed the majority of the lesions to accidents, to
the weather, but some had been visited upon the poor
bears because of the sins of their fathers.
The next stage of advance was made by a pale-
ontologist, one P. C. Schmerling, a Belgian, remarkable
for his early recognition of the significance of the ancient
human remains found in the caverns of the province of
Liège. His studies in paleopathology resulted in a very
fine memoir which was published as an appendix to his
researches on Pleistocene mammals which appeared in
1835. I have been unable to find a complete copy of
this work in America. He described lesions as the results
of fractures, caries, necroses of other kinds, and a few
neoplasms which do not belong to these categories;
altogether as sensible a classification as we have had to
this day. Schmerling thus early spoke of the importance
of what he called a new science, that of the study of
ancient diseases.
Twenty years later Mayer's memoir reviewed all
previous literature, as well as adding to the subject by
describing and figuring in a beautiful lithographic plate
lesions on twenty-four bones of Pleistocene mammals.
Mayer was a medical man and pays high tribute to the
observations of von Walther. His sensible conclusions
point out that nature's processes of healing were as
potent in the Ice Age as now, as well as indicating the
destructive effects of infecting bacteria.
6 + THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
There now entered the field a highly trained patholo-
gist, a man known the world over for his studies in this
subject, Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow, who may in
many respects be regarded as the founder of our modern
conceptions of pathological processes. Although his
observations in 1870 on fossil bones were not important
in themselves, yet they show an interest which produced
much fruit twenty-five years later. In 1895 his study
of the paleontological collections at Bonn reviewed
the work of von Walther and added numerous other
observations.
While work was developing among the Pleistocene
mammals, a body of facts Concerning the pathology of
ancient man was being brought out, especially in a
series of observations by anthropologists on the signifi-
cance of trephining and other ancient Surgical procedures
of which there were evidences in widely scattered
places. Trephining had developed in Neolithic times
in France and independently at a much later period in
Peru. Observations on fractures, dislocations, and joint
diseases increased the interest in this subject. The
fields of observation among ancient man and Pleistocene
mammals were later merged into a coherent whole by
Marc Armand Ruffer, whose studies on ancient Egyptians
has had such an important influence on the development
of paleopathology. -
It will not be necessary here to record the Scattered
observations of paleontologists. This has been done
elsewhere, but we have learned that from the close of
the Paleozoic upward the vertebrates have not been
free from disease, and there has been a progressive
increase in bacterial infections, attacking even such
INTRODUCTION - 7
sluggish beasts as the heavily armored dinosaurs, though
it must be admitted that these infections were not of a
disastrous nature So far as the dinosaurs were concerned.
One of these giant reptiles carried an infected fracture
containing several liters of pus for many months and may
have expired as a result of the infection, though the
wound appears to have healed somewhat.
NATURE OF ANCIENT DISEASES
Pathological Conditions among the ancient vertebrates
do not indicate types of disease differing from modern
forms. There may be extinct diseases, but so far the
difficulties of interpretation do not allow us to be sure.
The details of structure Compare so favorably with
modern pathological types, that we may say that
pathological processes have followed the same paths
and ended with the same results then as now. So far
as our studies have gone, no new type of disease has
been recorded among ancient vertebrates.
DISEASE AS A FACTOR IN EXTINCTION
It is a noteworthy fact that many groups of animals
became extinct before disease was at all prevalent.
The eurypterids, a group of gigantic arachnoids, appear
first in the lower Silurian rocks and had disappeared
before the close of the Paleozoic. The trilobites, early
crustaceans, were among the first of the higher forms to
develop. They thrived continuously for many geological
periods and ended their career with the Permian. Other
instances might be cited but these will suffice to show
that disease has not always been an important factor,
since it was almost wholly absent during the periods of
the early and middle Paleozoic.
8 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Osborn has called our attention to the part disease
may have played in the extinction of the mammals,
basing his suggestions on the prevalence of certain
diseases among modern mammals, such as the Texas
fever, “rinderpest,” biliary fever, and the diseases
transmitted by biting insects, especially the tsetse fly.
He did not, however, cite any instances in which disease
is known to have played a part in the extinction of the
ancient mammals, and it is not likely that epidemic
diseases of which he spoke would leave any impression
upon the fossilized skeleton. -
The presence of several species of tsetse flies of the
genus Glossina during the Oligocene is established by
the studies of T. D. A. Cockerell on the insects from the
Florissant shales of Colorado. This discovery is very
suggestive of the possibility of a widespread epidemic of
the nagana among the ungulates of the early Tertiary,
a million or more years ago. It is of course impossible
to determine whether or not these flies carried trypa-
nosomes, but their definite occurrence in a horizon of the
Tertiary rocks is certainly very suggestive of such a
possibility, and must be considered as an extremely
probable cause of extinction, and as an almost certain
factor of disease in ancient times. If such a disease
as the nagana did invade the Tertiary herds of horses
and other mammals, there would be no Osseous lesions
left to tell the tale, since this disease is essentially an
affliction of the blood and blood-forming organs, spleen,
liver, and bone marrow, and does not attack the bones.
Trypanosomiasis in modern Cattle, mules, and horses
of the Sudan, South and Central Africa, South America,
and Southern Asia is due to the presence in the blood
INTRODUCTION 9
and blood-forming organs of Trypanosoma brucei, T.
manum, T. dimorphum, carried from the sick to the well
by several species of tsetse flies.
The lesions on fossil bones, so far studied, are the
results of accidents, or of infections, and none of them
are extensive. It is improbable that any of these lesions
were so severe that the life of the race was endangered,
and only in a few instances may we say that the life of
the individual was sacrificed to the disease. It is
extremely doubtful if lesions of the nature of most of
those seen in a fossil condition are ever fatal. They
probably resulted in the loss of usefulness of the member
afflicted and no other result was noticeable.
The present results of the study of fossil pathology
indicate the early appearance in geological time and
widespread distribution of diseases of many kinds, but
none of them appear to have been sufficiently severe to
have played a part in the extinction of any of the known
races of vertebrates. They are to be regarded rather
as chronic, infectious, or constitutional diseases which
may have played a part in extinction, but there must
have been some other and more powerful ally which is
at plesent unknown.
CHAPTER I
PALEOPATHOLOGY
PALEONTOLOGY AND MEDICAL HISTORY
Paleopathology has been characterized as the science
which is destined to shed new light on old diseases. The
subject is still in a formative state, and there is much to
be done before a complete realization of its value is
attained.
Its beginnings, our knowledge of which is largely of
a speculative nature, are to be found in the associations
of the earliest animals whose remains occur in Proterozoic
rocks, their ancestors being buried in the great Arche-
ozoic complex. Its culmination is in the nature of disease
and injury in ancient and prehistoric man; the Paleo-
lithic, the Neolithic, and other fossil men of Europe and
Africa; in the ancient races of America; the Aztecs, the
Nahua, the Chibcha, the Maya, the Inca, and the other
numerous pre-Columbian races, of whose structure our
knowledge is more complete; and in other scattered
evidences of primitive peoples, whose remains come to
us in archaeological and anthropological investigations.
Its field thus covers all of the evidences of disease and
injury prior to the opening of recorded medical history
which begins with the writings of Hippocrates, Aristotle,
Aetius, Alcmeon, Democritus, Empedocles, and other
early writers on biological and medical subjects.
A closely analogous field, possibly a part of paleo-
pathology, is the study of the evidences of disease in
II
I 2 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
ancient monuments, stelae, pottery, sculptures, and en-
gravings of many kinds which often picture faithfully
deformed, atrophied, and injured parts from which we
may read something of the pathology of the day they
represent. Thus Hamburger has figured a stela from
Egypt showing a figure of a man who, judging from the
talipes equinus indicated on the stela, suffered in youth
from infantile paralysis.
The study of paleopathology originated with the
interpretation of pathological evidences among the
Pleistocene cave mammals of Europe, whose skeletons
were studied by Esper, von Walther, Schmerling,
Soemmering, Cuvier, Mayer, and Virchow. It was
extended by Ruffer, Elliot Smith, Wood Jones, and others
to the study of the pathology of ancient Egypt and
the subject was named paleopathology by Ruffer. More
recently the evidences of pathology among the more
ancient animals, particularly the vertebrates of the
Mesozoic, have been studied.
Disease and injury among the early inhabitants of
the earth during the Paleozoic are not so well known,
but this is a field which can be cultivated and in which
important results may be obtained. Recently, pale-
ontologists, working with invertebrate fossils, have
called attention to callosities on the shells of brachiopods
and other shelled animals, indicating Some form of
traumatism; injuries to ancient molluscs which are
possibly of a parasitic nature. If someone acquainted
with the fossil invertebrates should attack this problem,
I am sure a great deal could be learned, but so far as the
present literature is concerned definite lesions seldom
have been described.
PALEOPATHOLOGY I3
The earliest form which pathological processes took,
aside from those of a traumatic nature, were parasitic.
Parasitism, preceded by mild forms of communism and
commensalism, is known to be very ancient and to this
influence, doubtless, the first forms of disease were due.
Parasitic evidences have been described as old as the
Devonian, and traumatic evidences are known as old
as the Ordovician. Doubtless, close search would reveal
other interesting evidences among the older forms of
life, even as far back as the evidences of life itself, unless,
as suggested elsewhere, infectious diseases were warded
off by the great natural immunity which only broke down
after ages of evolution, accompanied by racial degener-
€SCCIlC62.
The part played by bacteria—and it is now well known
that bacteria are very ancient—is still largely speculative.
The pre-Cambrian bacteria. So far known are supposed
to have had an activity allied to that described by Drew
for Bacterium calcis and other marine calcium-precipitat-
ing bacteria. Doubt has even been expressed as to
whether the small bodies seen in the algal shales are
really bacteria.
The results of infection by bacteria are not definitely
known prior to the Permian. Bacteria and fungi,
possibly, however, chiefly those of decay, are widely
distributed and well known from the Carboniferous
rocks. Here lies a wide field of research, although a
difficult one, dealing with the origin of that type of disease
which is so troublesome to humanity today. It seems
probable from present evidences that a wide distribution
of the bacterial types of disease and the resulting pathol-
ogy is a relatively recent phenomenon, with an antiquity
I4 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
of a few million years, which, when compared with the
scores of millions, possibly hundreds of millions, of years
which animal and plant life have existed, is a very brief
time. Future studies and more data may, however,
modify this conception considerably. But as we ascend
the geological scale of life, evidences of bacterial infections
are more and more commonly found.
Disease may be defined in its primitive condition
as an antagonism between two units of life, whether
neighboring cells in the same metazoan, or between an
animal cell and a plant cell. The presence of certain
one-celled fungi in protozoans, if it results in injury to
either, is a form of disease in its simplest aspects. We
may have to look to conditions in the unknown
Archeozoic for future knowledge of these conditions.
Pathology, of course, is the disturbing results of this
antagonistic association. The search for the earliest
evidences of disease may be a fruitless one, and we
may have to be content with speculations for some
time to come, but in view of the recent great advances
made in paleontological investigations the future seems
bright.
The nature, classification, and cause of tumors among
man and animals is an important phase of pathological
research. It is interesting to find among the earliest
evidences of pathology definite tumors due to parasitic
influences among the Paleozoic forms. Later, in the
Mesozoic, true tumors, Osteomata, and a form of tumor
with the characteristics of the modern tumors so far as
organization is concerned occur and differ only in slight
details from a similar pathology of more recent times.
Tumors were apparently not very numerous, so far as
PALEOPATHOLOGY I5
we can read the record from the fossil bones, being known
So far chiefly in the Mesozoic dinosaurs and mosasaurs.
Whether the study of these ancient evidences of
disease and injury will aid in a better interpretation of
modern pathology is not yet determined. It will
certainly give a wider viewpoint to the interpretation
of disease, and a study of ancient evidences extends our
knowledge into the remotest periods of time.
PALEONTOLOGY AND MEDICAL HISTORY
The study of the ancient evidences of disease is a phase
of medical history which must depend upon paleonto-
logical data for its extension. That pathological lesions,
especially those on the bones, retain all of their character-
istics after many hundreds of thousands and millions
of years has been clearly shown and distinct evidences
of disease are known as far back in geological time as the
early Paleozoic. Evidences of traumatism, fractures
with the formation of callosities on the inner surface of
the shells of brachiopods, have been seen as old as the
middle of the Ordovician. Reasoning from the theo-
retical aspects of paleopathology, on the basis of possible
parasitism of early hosts, disease may have originated in
the Archeozoic, but there is no definite, recorded evidence.
The relation of paleontological data to medical
history is based on the assumption that the manifesta-
tions of disease are the same whether seen on man or
in mammals, and the infection of a Cambrian crustacean
by Protozoa is as much a matter of medical history as
the presence of osteophytes on the femur of Pithe-
canthropus, the fractured ulna of the Neanderthal man,
or bilharziosis among ancient Egyptians.
I6 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Many lesions are commonly seen among fossil
vertebrates especially, and paleontologists have not
referred to them at all, or merely mentioned them
incidentally, forgetting that such evidences are of
extreme importance in tracing the origin and antiquity
of phenomena which are of such vital importance to
humanity today.
The importance of paleopathology is that it gives
an opportunity of studying evidences of disease over a
great period of time, and especially is this true in regard
to the data offered by paleontology. That the study
of these evidences may aid in the solutions of problems
which are at present not solved is evident when we
consider that many epidemics which sweep the world
are doubtless the result of an accumulation of changes
Over a long period of time. It is well known in medical
history how whole populations have been swept away by
Scourges, which, had the people understood them,
could have been avoided, and in the future when we
come to understand all of the events of past history
we may be better prepared to avoid future conditions
of a like nature.
A disadvantage under which the student of paleopa-
thology works is that the results of epidemics are scarcely
ever recorded, especially in paleontological material.
The presence of tsetse flies in the Oligocene of Colorado
suggests the possibility of trypanoSomiasis among the
herds of artiodactyls and perissodactyls of the early Ter-
tiary but it can be considered merely suggestive. The
search for such evidences is, however, just begun, and we
may in the future learn more of the epidemics which must
have swept through the herds of early animals.
FIG. I.--Types of Cambrian animals which lived at the time when there was no
disease. They were the highest type of animals then on earth, and while as we look
back on these little animals they seem very primitive, yet they were descended from
animal groups which had existed for millions of years. The soft parts of these little
creatures might have been infected by sporozoans, and hence have been diseased, but
we know nothing of this. The forms of animal life were crustaceans, molluscs, brachio-
pods, and related forms. The specimens were collected on the west slope of the ridge
between Mount Field and Wapta Peak, I mile northeast of Burgess Pass, above Field,
British Columbia, in rocks of middle Cambrian age. Since the brachiopods and other
shelled animals form the greater proportion of the known Paleozoic faunas, it is among
them that we must look for the earliest evidences of disease. a, a middle Cambrian
crustacean; b, a lower Cambrian trilobite; c, a middle Cambrian jellyfish; d, a middle
Cambrian spiny segmented worm; e, a middle Cambrian annulate; f, Cambrian brachio-
pods; g, a middle Cambrian crustacean; h, a middle Cambrian crustacean. (All figures
after Walcott, in his Evidences of Primitive Life.)

I8 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
The careful description, illustration, and study of
ancient cases of fracture, diseased bones or any evi-
dences of pathology is extremely desirable and will
advance the study of paleopathology. Evidences of
disease may be detected in the positions assumed by
animals at death, the opisthotonos, the pleurothotonos,
and related phenomena. It is a question open to
discussion whether the opisthotonic attitude is a mani-
festation of disease, but it is as suggestive of neurotoxic
disturbances as may well be. Whether the position
assumed by the fossilized skeleton is the same as the
animal assumed at death, how much is due to shifting
before fossilization, are matters of minor importance to
the student of medical history who is chiefly impressed
with the fact that a dinosaur preserved in the opisthotonic
attitude suggests to him the spasms seen in many recent
diseases. The student of medical history is interested in
a Mesozoic fracture because it extends his knowledge of
traumatism, and if the study of the fracture is complete
it adds to his knowledge of general pathology.
The relation of disease to extinction, and other
more important relations, may be cleared to some extent
by a study of paleontological material. The part
disease has played in the evolution of forms, whether
retarding, changing, or ending their development, also
attracts the attention of the student of paleopathology.
Medical history, like all other histories, is based on
an accumulation of data from widely different fields,
and it is the privilege of paleontologists to add to the
great wealth already accumulated more data as to what
happened among the animals with which they are
familiar, representing the inhabitants of the earth
PALEOPATHOLOGY IQ
millions of years ago. The subject is worthy of more
careful consideration than has been given it in the past.
Paleopathology has attracted Scant attention among
paleontologists, but eminent students such as Cuvier,
Soemmering, Goldfuss, Schmerling, Leidy, Williston,
have found the subject of interest. It remained for
the men who had been trained in pathology, men like
von Walther, Mayer, and Virchow, to show the exact
relation of pathological lesions among extinct animals
to the general problems of disease which are interesting
us today.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GENERAL REFERENCE WORKS
ON PALEOPATHOLOGY
FLETCHER, ROBERT
1882. “On Prehistoric Trephining and Cranial Amulets,”
Contrib. N.A. Ethnology, Vol. V. Washington.
LUCAS-CHAMPIONNIñRE, L.
I912. Trépanation néolithique, Trépanation pre-Columbienne,
Trépanation des Kabyles, Trépanation traditionnelle.
Paris.
MOODIE, ROY L.
I917. “Studies in Paleopathology. I. General Considera-
tion of the Evidences of Pathological Conditions
Found among Fossil Animals,” Ann. Med. Hist.,
Vol. I, No. 4 (issued February, 1919). New York.
I918. “Studies in Paleopathology. II. Pathological Evi-
dences of Disease among Ancient Races of Man and
Extinct Animals,” Surg., Gynec. and Obst., pp. 498–
5Io. Chicago.
I918. “Studies in Paleopathology. III. Opisthotonos and
Allied Phenomena among Fossil Vertebrates,” Amer.
Wat., LII, 384-94.
RUFFER, SIR MARC ARMAND.
1921. Studies in the Paleopathology of Egypt, pp. xx+371;
illustrated by 7 I plates. University of Chicago Press.
2O THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
SMITH, G. ELLIOT, AND JONES, F. WooD.
“General Pathology, Including Diseases of the Teeth,
Fractures, and Dislocations,” Report of the Arche-
ological Survey of Nubia, 1907–8. (Contains a wealth
of material on the pathology of ancient Egyptians.)
VIRCHOw, RUDOLF.
1895. “Knochen von Hohlenbären mit krankhaften Ver-
ânderungen,” Ztschr. f. Ethnol., XXVII, 708. Berlin.
CHAPTER II
ANCIENT BACTERIA AND THE BEGINNINGS
OF DISEASE
THREAD MOLDS AND BACTERIA IN THE DEVONIAN
BACTERIA IN THE AMERICAN PERMIAN
MESOZOIC BACTERIA º
THE ORIGIN OF PARASITISM AND THE NATURE OF
DISEASE DURING THE PALEOZOIC
Germs are among the oldest inhabitants of the earth,
It is even suggested that while the earth was still forming
bacteria were carried from distant planets on meteorites
and thus initiated life on the earth. However this may
be, bacteria are found in the oldest fossil-bearing rocks
of North America, having been discovered in central
Montana in association with fossil algae, in the substance
of which the bacteria were fossilized. Far from being
disease producing the earliest types of bacteria were
doubtless of the kind which assist in withdrawing
calcium from the sea water. They were rock builders.
An analogous form exists in the Atlantic Ocean at the
present day, and is especially active around the West
Indies in building up the Coral reefs.
The form of these most ancient germs is so similar
to that of recent bacteria that they are called Micro-
coccus, a bacterial form which is especially Common
today. Considerable comment has been aroused as to
the possibility of such delicate organisms as bacteria
being capable of preservation in a fossilized condition.
This is, however, pretty definitely settled by investiga-
2I
22 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
|
tions in other lines. Fossil brains, fossil flowers, fossil
blood, and fossil muscle are known to be so well preserved
that there is permitted an examination of the minute
structure of the tissues. Renault, too, has described a
great number of bacteria in the coal of France, so no doubt
exists longer as to the structures seen being bacteria.
Disease, however, did not exist with the most ancient
bacteria. Whether bacterial organisms were instru-
mental in effecting the origin of disease we do not know.
This is a wide field of study which has not yet been
explored. In a later geological period, bacteria are
found in partially decayed bone, together with thread
mold and other types of fungi. This condition, however,
cannot be regarded as disease, but decay in dead material.
The earliest animals were free from disease, although
they were subject to injuries incident to the life of any
creature. The larger attacked the smaller then as now.
Infection of the injured part did not take place in the
early periods of animal life, and it is only after the great
Coal Period that infected wounds are found.
The Coal Period witnessed the earliest widespread
condition of bacteria and fungi, and possibly witnessed
the beginning of bacterial disease, although there had
been previously a mild form of pathology due to the
action of animal parasites. The first diseased conditions
preserved are of course not the earliest manifestation of
disease, since disease is doubtless the result of long ages
of struggle between the two contending forces of nature.
The early animals were so highly immune to attack by
bacterial and other infective organisms that it was only
after the races of animals began to grow weaker through
age that disease was able to make any headway.
ANCIENT BACTERIA - 23
It is idle to attempt to place a beginning of any
limited time during which disease began. Disease was
not present in the earliest times of the earth's history,
so far as animals and plants are concerned. The
incidence of maladies began slowly, was introduced
gradually, and has been an important factor only within
relatively recent times. It was a minor and unimportant
factor for millions of years.
The action of early parasites on the shells of ancient
animals are our oldest evidences of disease. The
activity of these organisms resulted in the formation of
the oldest tumors. Diseased conditions of a very inter-
esting type were caused in the early history of animal
life by poisoning of the waters in which the animals lived.
This resulted in a thickening of the shell, a twisting of
the spirals of snails, or a diminution in size of some
forms, certain of the depauperized individuals being
only one-twentieth their normal size.
The origin and development of disease may be traced
to a large extent from the evidences of pathology found
on the fossil bones of the ancient races of man and
extinct animals, as well as from the associations of the
earliest animals. That early man may have acquired
some of his diseases from the coexisting animals is evident
from the fact that the men of the Stone Ages, the cave
bears, and other cave-inhabiting animals were often
afflicted with the same maladies, as may be seen from
the diseased appearance of their bones.
It would thus seem that the relation between disease
in ancient times and the extinction of great groups of
animals like the dinosaurs was a matter of minor
importance. The indications of disease So far seen on
24 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
ancient bones are the results of accidents, or minor
constitutional disturbances which did not endanger the
life of the race, and seldom that of the individual. The
evidence, to be sure, is scanty, being Confined to that seen
on the hard parts of ancient animals. But on a similar
basis is erected our present extensive knowledge of the
evolution of animals in past time. Many of the epidemic
diseases of today, which are so fatal to life, leave no
traces on the bones. It may have been so in past times,
to a great extent.
The beginnings of disease are thus seen to be lost in
an immense obscurity of time, during which the evil forces
of nature were battling with the good for Supremacy. Im-
munity doubtless was early established, and strongly in-
trenched. So firmly guarded were the primitive animals
of the first ages of the earth that no disturbing influences
entered into their existence. Only when racial old age
and the introduction of other antagonistic influences
disturbed this natural immunity, did animals see the
new factor of disease enter into their lives. Early land
animals doubtless lived long lives of placid contentment
undisturbed by fear of infection either from within or
without. Disease was in its very beginnings and with
the land animals spread more and more over the face of
the earth as time passed on in a mighty succession of
geological ages. -
THREAD MOLDS AND BACTERIA IN THE DEVONIAN
While making a comprehensive survey of the com-
parative histology of the skeletal parts of ancient
vertebrates, in conjunction with the study of paleo-
pathology, my attention was attracted to the enlarged
ANCIENT BACTERIA 25
and distorted shapes of many lacunae in the carapace of
Bothriolepis and Coccosteus. Closer examination under
the oil immersion revealed the occurrence of thread molds
and bacteria in the almost disrupted lacunar spaces, and
since these organisms have never before been noted in
the OSSeous elements of such ancient vertebrates, a
brief description will be given of them here. There is a
great gap in our knowledge of ancient bacteria, especially
between the pre-Cambrian bacteria described by Walcott
and the Carboniferous forms described by Renault, so
that we know nothing of the occurrence of bacteria in
bony material during the early and middle Paleozoic.
The occurrence of thread molds (Mycelites ossifragus)
in the hard parts of invertebrates and vertebrates, from
mollusks to man, has been noted for more than eighty
years, and the literature is very extensive. The canals
made by the penetrating molds, known as the Canals of
Roux or Wedl, have been noted by Kölliker in the hard
parts of invertebrates, fossil and recent, by Triepel in
recent human bones, by Shaffer in ancient human teeth,
by Sonders in a Neolithic skull, by Roux in the skeletal
parts of vertebrates, Carboniferous to recent. They
have been recently seen in the bony parts of Devonian
vertebrates. Doubtless they have a very wide distribu-
tion, and may be regarded as one of the most ancient
types of organisms in existence. There is nothing
peculiar in their occurrence in the ancient vertebrates
except that their course of growth is modified by the
histology of ancient bone. In the absence of definite
lamellae, the mycelia often seek out a lacuna, enter it,
and growing out along the direction of the brief canaliculi,
expand both the lacuna and Canaliculi until the entire
26 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Structure is disrupted and the canals meet other canals
growing out from adjoining lacunae. In modern human
bone the mycelia very often follow the interlamellar
spaces, but ancient bone has seldom any definite spaces
of this kind and more often is to be regarded as an
Osteoid substance. That the appearances described for
the enlarged lacunae are not normal is easily checked by
a study of normal lacunae in the adjacent material.
A single microscopic field will show both normal and
invaded lacunae. The canals, from 2–4 microns in diam-
eter, have an undulating course and offer easy channels
of entrance to invading bacteria.
The presence of these thread molds would seem to
indicate that the piece of bone showing them was
preserved in a moist, sandy, or muddy place close to the
shore, thus agreeing with our previous conceptions of
the preservation of fossil material. It is difficult to see
how the molds would find entrance if the material were
imbedded under sand or silt in deep water. The
ancient Egyptian mummies, buried for thousands of
years in the dry sand of Nubian deserts, do not show
such canals, nor do the Cretaceous vertebrates from
Kansas show them. Seitz has figured them, though
apparently did not recognize their nature, in the bones of
labyrinthodonts and dinosaurs, and I have seen evidences
of them in sections from the vertebra of an American
Sauropod dinosaur. -
The bacteria doubtless have entered the bone along
the course of the Canals of Roux and may be detected at
first by the beady, nodular appearance of the canal.
Often the bacteria, in Bothriolepis, for instance, have
invaded a canaliculus which the Mycelites did not find.
ANCIENT BACTERIA 27
The small clumps, or nodes, may clearly be regarded as
Colonies of bacteria and doubtless as a form of the
Micrococcus, described by Renault in the canaliculi of
Permian fish bone. The beady appearance of an invaded
Canal of Roux or canaliculus recalls exactly the picture
of the invaded dentinal tubules in cases of human
dental caries. We are of course in this case, as in the
case of other ancient phenomena, arguing from the known
to the unknown. Here is an ancient situation which
parallels a similar modern situation, and the argument
is sound because on it for over one hundred years we
have built the science of paleontology.
These conditions cannot be regarded as disease in
any sense, but are rather to be regarded as the agents
of decay and disruption at the present time, and from
present evidences the same agents of decay have been at
work for many millions of years, at least since Devonian
times.
BACTERIA IN THE AMERICAN PERMIAN
The presence of bacteria in the closing period of
the American Paleozoic has been suggested by the
Condition of a fractured reptilian spine, recalling an
Osteomyelitis. Careful search through microscopic
Sections of the spine has failed to reveal any sequestrum,
such as is commonly found in modern chronic Osteo-
myelitis, nor were bacteria found in the margins of the
Calcite-filled sinuses. The presence of pathogenetic
bacteria in such a situation would be rather rare in a fossil
state, since the nature of fossilization would prevent
their preservation. It is doubtful, too, whether we
could prove the pathogenicity of such bacteria Save by
their location. .
28 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Bacteria of the Micrococcus type, so common in the
fossil vertebrate material studied by Renault from the
Autun of France, are, however, abundantly preserved in
the distorted osseous lacunae. They are similar in all
respects to those occurring in the fossil bone of fishes
previously described from the Devonian of America
and Scotland. The bacteria, often seen isolated in the
terminal bulb of the canaliculus-like burrows, which
radiate out from the body of the lacuna, are no doubt
those of decay and had nothing to do with the infection
producing the Osteomyelitis. There seems no doubt that
bacteria of this type may be found in any fossil vertebrate
material which has been imbedded in moist ground long
enough to undergo a slight amount of decay, prior to
fossilization. The only reason they have been seen so
seldom in fossil vertebrate material is simply because no
one has looked for them. They are there beyond any
question.
The bodies which have been interpreted as bacteria,
when seen isolated at a magnification of 1,240 diameters,
measuring from I to 2.5 microns, appear as Semicrystal-
line, rounded, brownish bodies, resembling minute specks
of amber. The question as to whether they are really
bacteria has been satisfactorily discussed by the re-
searches of Bernard Renault, who has placed the subject
of bacteriology of fossil vertebrate remains on a safe
footing. Those seen in the present sections often group
themselves in pairs recalling the modern Diplococci.
I have never seen chains of these forms in vertebrate
material.
The question as to how such minute bits of proto-
plasm are capable of preservation over many millions
FIG. 2.-Examples of Carboniferous bacteria and fungi, as figured by Renault, who
found his material in various types of coal, in fossil feces, and vertebrateremains. a, b, d,
and e are sections of fossil fish bones from the Autum Basin of France, showing pro-
gressive destruction of osseous lacunae by the invasion of bacteria of the Micrococcus
type. In a the black, diamond-shaped spots are normallacunae with radiating canaliculi:
b shows the nodular, beady appearance of the canaliculi, due to aggregations of bacteria
in the minute canals; d shows the canaliculi greatly enlarged and distorted; in e the shape
of the lacunae is so distorted as to be almost unrecognizable and the canaliculi are practi-
cally destroyed; crepresents mycelia with spore cases of a fossil fungus, which had invaded
ancient wood preserved as lignite in the fossil beds.

3O THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
of years is one of those unsolved puzzles of paleontology
which we may place with that of the fossilization of
ganoid fish brains.
MESOZOIC BACTERIA
No definite studies on the occurrence of bacteria in
the remains of Mesozoic vertebrates have been made.
The bacteria are known to exist, however, though they
are probably chiefly those of decay. Seitz in his study
on the comparative histology of the bones of recent and
fossil reptiles showed in a section of Belodon, magnified
360 diameters, many distorted lacunae and Canaliculi.
These objects have all the appearance of the lacunae
distorted by bacteria and thread mold in the bones of
Coccosteus and Bothriolepis. The magnified spaces seem
to be packed full of bacteria. The distorted lacunae
occur in clusters, as if the invasion had spread from a
focus of infection, the more peripheral canaliculi inoscu-
lating with those from adjacent lacunae. Again in
sections from the bones of a pterodactyl, Rhampho-
cephalus Bucklandi, from the Jurassic of Yorkshire, Seitz
shows the results of invasions of the OSSeous spaces by
thread mold and bacteria. Similar effects are shown in
the bones of the giant dinosaur, Iguanodon, and I have
seen similar lacunae showing very definite Micrococci
in the toe bone of Apatosaurus from the Comanchean of
Wyoming.
A second class of evidence is seen in the variety of
necroses which are fairly common in the vertebrates
of the Mesozoic. These are listed in detail at the end of
chapter iv, so that no elaborate account of them is needed
here. The nature of the necrosis may often be deter-
mined. In the United States National Museum there
ANCIENT BACTERIA 3I
is a portion of a dermal armor of Siegosaurus which
shows a necrosis on the dorsal surface due to an infected
injury. Thereislikewise a specimen of another dinosaur,
Camptosaurus, which shows an extensive necrosis on the
upper surface of the right ilium. This was accompanied
by considerable hypertrophy. Another giant land reptile
shows in an infected fracture undoubted evidence of
the presence of active, energetic bacteria. Not only
are evidences clear among the land vertebrates but even
in the water reptiles, the mosasaurs and plesiosaurs,
there are undoubted effects of bacterial action, seen in
arthritic lesions, in extensive necroses, carious roughen-
ings, and alveolar absorption. It is of course impossible
to assign any known type of bacteria as the cause of any
of these lesions. It may be suspected that some of them
were tuberculous in nature but it cannot be definitely
determined. It is extremely interesting to find examples
of rheumatism, alveolar Osteitis, and dental caries in
the Mesozoic vertebrates, indicating that focal infections
are as old as many millions of years. Toothache and
rheumatic fever doubtless disturbed the rest of the
Cretaceous mosasaurs, as it did that of the pharaohs of
Egypt and as it does many modern people.
THE ORIGIN OF PARASITISM AND THE NATURE
OF DISEASE DURING THE PALEOZOIC
Parasitism began when there were forms developed
capable of living at the expense of another. It has been
suggested that parasitism, and Consequently disease,
began in the Archeozoic. This idea is based on the
theoretical assumption of the infection of early hosts by
sporozoans, a supposition which can be neither denied
nor affirmed on definite evidence. It is true that most
.
32 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
parasites leave little or no impress on the hard parts,
hence the geological record is very incomplete in this
respect, and we shall probably never know the actual
beginnings of parasitism. The evidences of dependent
life, symbiosis and parasitism, presenting themselves to
the paleontologist, are chiefly of marine origin, since
very little is known of early fresh-water forms. The
Fro. 3.-An idea of the simple nature of early pathology may be had from an
examination of the present figure, that of a crinoid stem from the Bainbridge Lime-
stone (Silurian), of St. Genevieve County, Missouri. The pathology is that of hyper-
trophy and is due either to incrusting organisms or worm tubes around the enlarged
part, or the hypertrophy may have been in response to the grouping of the arms of the
crinoid stem, the cirri, which may have all been attached on one side to be away from
the strong water current. The pathology is benign and is on the borderland of a diseased
condition. This is one of the oldest examples of pathology known. Crinoids were
stalked animals whose stems were often the seat of infection by parasites, this being
readily possible owing to the inactive nature of the stem; X5. (The specimen was
presented by Dr. Stuart Weller.)
ancient faunas show that these associations of dependent
life began far back in the history of life.
There have been assembled materials from the older
faunas of geological history which illustrate the begin-
nings of dependent life, thus attacking the problem in a
practical way. John M. Clarke writes:
So far as our facts go there are but few evidences of true
parasitic conditions in the Paleozoic faunas. The oldest and
clearest is the well known case of the coalition of the limpetlike

ANCIENT BACTERIA 33
snail, Platyceras, and the crinoids. The snail settles down at an
early age on the dome of the crinoid placing the aperture of the
shell over the anal vent of its host and remains attached for an
indefinite period of its subsequent life. k
It is clear that the snail depends for its food on the waste
from the crinoid and the fact that it remains attached for a very
considerable period of its existence is shown by specimens of the
crinoid dome bearing successive scars made by the enlarging
growth of the mouth of the snail shell. Though this is the most
extreme expression of ancient parasitism known to us, it was
evidently of a very elastic kind and by no means affected all
individuals of this genus of shells. This combination makes its
first appearance in the early Devonic and seems to have become
intensified in the great crinoid plantations of the early Carbonic
but in either formation the examples of the actual dependent
combination are in very slender proportion to the number of
individuals of either snail or crinoid. Some of the snails acquired
this habit of parasitic dependence, others evidently did not.
Apparently it was in some measure an individual adjustment.
Yet the more general dependence of this snail, Platyceras, on the
crinoids is indicated by the fact that quite generally Paleozoic
strata carrying an abundance of the one also abound in the other.
Time has not extinguished this affiliation, for the existing
seas afford occasional evidences of similar relation between the
limpets and the crinoids. Our material seems to throw some
light on the inception of this dependent habit. A crinoid,
Glyptocrinus, from the Upper Silurian is occasionally found
inclosing in its arms a holostomatous snail, Cyclonema, not attached
to the dome, for the shell had not the limpet habit of attachment
but lying free in such attitude as to get the full advantage of the
crinoid's waste.
True dependence is also indicated by a similar association
between the crinoids of the Carbonic rocks and the starfish
Onychaster. The starfish adjusts itself, mouth downward over
the anal aperture of the crinoid. Our specimens showing this
condition have been caught in this act of feeding. The flexible
character of the starfish made the attachment easily subject to
change. This association too is one that time has not cured.
34 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Fig. 4.-Examples of Paleozoic parasitism. These associations are on the border-
land of diseased conditions representing the beginnings of a dependent existence which
later resulted in a definite pathology, a and b are cystids from the Silurian, fossilechino-
derms, which have been incrusted by some small animal such as sponges or bryozoans;
c and d are examples of Paleozoic parasitism, indicating a dependent relation between
snail shells and crinoids from the Upper Coal Measures. The snail shells, cap-shape
in form, are seen to be applied closely to the dome of the crinoid, on the waste of which
they fed. Dr. Clarke has described these associations in detail (Specimens in Walker
Museum, University of Chicago.)

ANCIENT BACTERIA 35
Commensalism and symbiosis are the natural pre-
cursors of parasitism, and these associations became
established more abundantly and at an earlier date
than parasitism. Several writers have described a
number of examples and have illustrated a variety of
Paleozoic symbiotic associations.
The coexistence of the tubicolous worms with the
corals became established at a very early stage in the
earth's history, and in the Devonian coral reefs the habit
had already become widespread and varied. The
association was probably less frequent in Silurian times
where the oldest known examples indicate an elementary
example of commensalism.
A typical case of symbiosis, involving the association
of a hydractinian and a hermit crab, has been described
from the Eocene of Egypt, and has been called “Kerunia”
after a place where it was found, Birket-el-Kerun.
Fraas described similar recent forms from the Fiji
Islands. While the fossil Kerunias consist of hydrac-
tinians which have grown around Small Snail shells,
the recent ones have been formed upon a nucleus of
serpulid shells. In the fossils the gastropod shells which
had been overgrown by hydractinians had later served
as dwelling-places for hermit Crabs. -
Robert Etheridge first recognized the nature of the
swollen stems of fossil Carboniferous crinoids although he
was unable to determine the parasite. He found on open-
ing one of the enlargements that a fossilized worm was evi-
dent as a piece of black matrix reposing against the farther
wall of the cavity. Graff was able to confirm the findings
of Etheridge and recognized in the carbonized remains the
fossilized integument of a myzostomid. Graff remarks:
36 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
All deformities on fossil crinoids due to myzostomids belong
to two categories of arm enlargements as represented among
recent species. All fossil myzostomid deformities occur on the
stems of crinoids, where the lesions are of many kinds. Many
of the described cases of deformity of the stem are due to accre-
tions of corals, bryozoans and brachiopods, but there are numerous
authentic cases of stem enlargement which have involved two or
II].OTC 3,III].S.
There are a number of instances showing a symbiotic
relation between the fossil hexactinellid sponges of the
family Dictyospongidae and worm tubes attached to
the inner wall of the cloaca of the sponge. Associations
of the sponges and annelids are also known. The
associations of corals and barnacles is known from the
Silurian and Devonian. An association of crinoids and
cystids with gastropods doubtless is an instance of
genuinely dependent parasitism where an attached organ-
ism relies upon its host for its nutriment and existence.
Keyes has recorded a long list of these parasitic associa-
tions and especially indicates the effect of this condition
in modifying the aperture of the gastropod.
Examples of pseudoparasitism are indicated by the
boring forms on dead shells, material which forms a large
part of the fossils studied by paleontologists. These
boring bodies infesting the dead shells are likely to be
either minute algae or fungi, or Sponges of genera
producing similar effects to the living Cliona or Vioa.
The total amount of deterioration and disintegration of
skeletons caused by these minute organisms was doubt-
less great even in Paleozoic times. Boring pelycopods
were not unknown in the early Paleozoic, and have been
freely described in Mesozoic faunas as well as boring
insects in the woods of the Tertiary.
ANCIENT BACTERIA 37
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON FOSSIL BACTERIA AND FUNGI
BERRY, EDWARD W.
“Remarkable Fossil Fungi,” Mycologia, Vol. VIII,
No. 2, pp. 73–78, Pls. 180–82.
CLARKE, JOHN M.
“The Beginnings of Dependent Life,” Fourth Annual
Report, State Museum of New York, 1908, pp. I–28,
13 plates and text-figures. - -
1921. Organic Dependence and Disease: Their Origin and Sig-
nificance, pp. I–II3; IoS figures. Yale University Press.
FLEMING, GEORGE.
1871. Animal Plagues, Their History, Nature and Prevention.
MOODIE, Roy L.
1916. “Bacteriologic and Pathologic Evidences in Past
Geologic Ages,” Trans. Chicago Path. Soc. (October),
pp. 84–88. p
1916. “Mesozoic Pathology and Bacteriology,” Science,
N.S., Vol. XLIII, No. IIo8, pp. 425–26.
OSBORN, H. F.
1917. Origin and Evolution of Life. New York.
RENAULT, BERNARD.
1899–1900. “Microorganismes des combustibles fossiles,”
Bull. d. la Soc. d. l’Industrie minérale à Saint-Etienne,"
Ser. 3, T. I3, pp. I-460, 20 plates.
SEITZ, ADOLF LEO.
1907. “Vergleichenden Studien über den mikroskopischen
Enochenbau fossiler und rezenter Reptilien und
dessen Bedeutung für das Wachstum und Umbilding
des Knochengewebes im allgemeinen,” Nova Acta,
Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akad. der
Naturforscher, Band 87, No. 2. Halle.
WALCOTT, C. D.
1914. “Pre-Cambrian Algonkian Algal Flora,” Smith Misc.
Coll., Vol. LXIV, No. 2, Publ. 2271.
1915. “Discovery of Algonkian Bacteria,” Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci., I, 256, Figs. 2–3.
1916. “Evidences of Primitive Life,” Smith Rept., for 1915,
DD. 235-55.
CHAPTER III
PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF THE
ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
CARBONIFEROUS EOCENE
PERMIAN OLIGOCENE
TRIASSIC MIOCENE
JURASSIC PLIOCENE, PLEISTOCENE, AND RECENT
COMANCHEAN TABLE OF GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES
CRETACEOUS
Fossils are not only horizon markers, but as evidences
of former life they bear the oldest indications of disease.
Fossils form a wide range of objects, from a mammoth
frozen in the ice of Siberia to an impression of a leaf in
clay. While they are always preserved in sedimentary
or stratified rock, yet they may be found in the greatest
variety of places. They may have been eroded from
their original bed and again buried in secondary sediment.
They suffer from frost, from water transportation, from
disintegration, from mineralogic deformation, and from a
variety of other causes, so that only an expert paleontolo-
gist can determine when a fossil bears evidence of disease
or when it is deformed by the growth of internal minerals.
Often the stems of crinoids are converted into geodes,
lined with beautiful calcite crystals. These geodes, in
their early stages of formation, look like other enlarge-
ments in crinoid stems, known to be due to the presence
of parasites. A shell may be fractured by the growth
of a crystal so that it is difficult to determine whether
the crack is due to a traumatism during life, or is a
38
PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES t 39
postfossilization affair. Through all of these vicissitudes
the fossils find their way to the hands of the paleontologist
who must exercise great care in discriminating phenomena
of a pathologic nature.
That fossils do bear evidences of disease and injury
has been observed for more than a century and a half
by a great number of paleontologists. They bear these
evidences because in life the animals are subject to
mechanical injuries, such as the Crushing or breaking
of bones or shells by wave shock, by falling, or by being
attacked by some larger animal. Parasitic lesions are
caused by the presence of worms, Sponges, Corals, algae,
or other organisms which become attached on, or bore
into, the shells of living animals or the unprotected
columns of living crinoids. This type of injury is com-
monly seen in the irregularly thickened walls of oyster
shells which have been attacked by Sponges. As soon
as an animal dies its remains are subject to bacterial
action, which often causes the complete dissolution of
the parts, leaving no trace, or, as frequently happens,
the partially decayed remains are fossilized and furnish
evidence not only of the animal but of the bacteria.
Such instances are described from the Devonian and
Permian in the previous chapter. Bacterial sinuses, too,
may be formed in the living, and are sometimes found
as decayed teeth, arthritic lesions, alveolar fistulae, and
other instances. Bacterial diseases of fossil plants and
lesions produced by fungi are known. In a few cases
there has been a general faunal pathology produced
over an extensive area by the poisoning of the waters,
resulting in depauperized individuals. A weakened or
senile condition is indicated, too, in the presence of
40 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
enormous spines or excrescences developed in a variety
of forms. Such an example is the spiny reptile shown in
Figure 5, a land animal from the Permian of Texas. All
of the foregoing types of cases, preserved on fossil
remains, are interpreted as the paleontological evidences
of the antiquity of disease.
FIG. 5–Along-spined reptile from the Permian of Texas. The huge development
of the vertebral spines is thought to be an indication of racial degeneration or senility,
and is hence a phase of disease. Many different races of animals show, toward the close
of their period of existence, a tendency toward the development of external excrescences
of the hard parts. One of the spines of this reptile had been broken near the tip during
life and presents an interesting example of a Permian fracture. (Skeleton mounted in
the American Museum of Natural History. Courtesy of H. F. Osborn.)
Pathological conditions among fossil animals are
known as far back in geological time as the early Paleo-
zoic, hence it may be proper to state on the basis of our
present knowledge that disease began among both plants
and animals at this time. These evidences are found
both in the new and the old world, so that there must
have been a very fundamental condition underlying
the evolution and development of animal and plant

PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES 4I
races which favored the ingress of disease and the
overpowering of the natural immunity which had previ-
ously protected the forms of life from the devastations
of disease. This statement of affairs implies the absence
of disease, or of a tendency toward disease, among the
inhabitants of the earth during the early geological
periods. This may not be correct, but so far as we
know at present the animals of the Proterozoic were
free from disease.
CARBONIFEROUS
Present evidences tend to show that the Paleozoic
witnessed the origin of disease. One of the oldest known
evidences of pathological conditions among fossil animals
is found in the enlarged stems of fossil crinoids (Fig. 3),
which have been known for many years. They were
described by Robert Etheridge, from the Carboniferous
of Scotland. Five years later a correct interpretation of
these deformities was given by L. von Graff. He showed,
on the basis of similar enlargements among recent
crinoid stems, that these enlargements were due to the
parasitic action of myzostomids. Graff supported his
interpretation by describing the carbonized remains of
Some worm, supposedly one of the myzostomids, to
which the tumor was due, preserved in a channel of one
of the fossil lesions. **
During the Carboniferous, also, there was a wide-
spread development of fungi and bacteria which doubt-
less were influential in the spread of disease. Renault
has found these forms abundantly preserved in the
fossilized feces of fishes, in ancient wood, and in coal.
He also discovered in the teeth of certain extinct fishes
indications of caries, as shown by the irregular decayed
42 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
spots within the substance of the teeth. Renault's
work covered many geological periods later than the
Coal Measures, and his large monograph is the summing
up of twenty-four years of activity spent in investigating
the nature of the Microorganismes des combustibles
fossiles in peat, lignite, bituminous schists (in which he
found rhizopods, bacteria, and fungi), boghead coal,
Cannel, ancient Schists, and the silicification of organisms
in very ancient rocks. Renault's work is of great
importance. A few of his figures are given herewith
(Fig. 2). The bacteria take the form of coccoids,
bacilli, diplococcoids, and micrococcoids. Often in
Sporangia of the early Cryptogamous plants Renault
found natural cultures of bacteria which have been
preserved by silicification. These organisms, which have
been made so well known by the studies of French
Scholars, may all of them have been non-pathogenic
forms, but the possibility of their being the cause of
the disease of succeeding forms of life is very evident,
and they should be mentioned as possible sources of
disease.
PERMIAN
The great Permian period, with its widespread
development of curious reptilian forms, has furnished us
with the first evidences of traumatic conditions as they
prevailed among the early forms of vertebrate life.
Fractures may have occurred earlier than the Permian,
but they have not yet been seen. The oldest known
fractures are found among the reptiles from the Permian
of Texas. A left radius of Dimetrodon, a primitive
reptile, presents a well-marked case of fracture (Fig. 6)
with subsequent healing, although there is still Some
PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES 43
intermediary callus. An attempt to study the nature
of this fracture by means of the X-ray has not resulted
in any new knowledge. The fracture runs directly
across the bone, as do all the early cases of fracture
- ºn
-
- -
Fig. 6.-The oldest known fracture. It is a simple transverse break of the radius
of Dimetrodon, a long-spined reptile from the Permian of Texas. The injury healed with
some callus, indicating a slight amount of mechanical irritation, but no infection. The
bone was solid, as were the majority of ancient reptilian bones, and this doubtless deter-
mined the nature of the fracture. a, photograph of the radius, showing nature of injury;
b, X-ray picture of the bone. The light line is a postfossilization break. On account of
the impregnation of minerals, little of the pathology can be determined. (Specimen in
Walker Museum, University of Chicago.)
among animals with solid limb bones, and the resulting
callus produces a decided enlargement of the bone around
the fracture.
A small fragment of a fractured rib, from the same
beds in which there was quite an old callus, has been
studied microscopically. The callus was quite evidently

44 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
an old One, for the fracture was completely healed.
A study of the microscopic section proves this to be
true, since evidences of Osteosclerosis and osteohyper-
trophy are clearly evident. The region near the spicule
of bone is regarded as due to Osteosclerosis, which is
interpreted on the basis of the presence of a heavy
deposit of Calcium Salts and the absence of Osseous
trabeculae. The white band running vertically may be
interpreted as a spicule of bone due to the splitting of
the rib. The hypertrophied area to the right of the
Osseous band is often seen in old calluses and is inter-
preted on the basis of the presence of numerous trabeculae
of bone. There is no evidence that the fracture was
infected, necrotic sinuses being entirely wanting.
TRIASSIC
Except for occasional specimens of fossil fishes and
other forms preserved in the pleurothotonos and opistho-
tonos, attitudes suggesting a Condition of Spastic distress,
little is known about the pathology of the animals which
lived during the Triassic. There doubtless is much to
learn in the future, since many vertebrate species are
known from this period.
JURASSIC
The Jurassic of England furnishes the first evidences
of necrosis, and a suggestion of metastasis is seen in the
pathological nature of the bones of Meiriorhynchus
moreli Desl., a crocodile described by Erwin Auer from
the Oxford Clay.
The skeleton of this interesting animal was only
partially preserved. There are evidences of pathology
PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES 45
in the palate, on the two femora, on a Sacral vertebra,
and on the pelvis. Auer says:
On the middle of the inferior side of the palatine is a section
that is unusually differentiated by cavities, and consists of fossulae,
a condition that is not otherwise encountered in crocodiles, and
that doubtless is connected with the pathologic deformities the
bones exhibit.
The right femur is normally formed, but it displays below
the caput femoris a peculiar corrosion, and the Condylus internus
is reduced at the distal end.
The left femur departs in form quite considerably
from the normal type. The head of the bone has under-
gone a significant contraction, and the formerly globular
articular surface is deformed. Under the head of the
bone the femur exhibits an abnormally small diameter,
and on the external side of the bone a ridge is raised.
The sacral vertebrae also exhibits significant deform-
ities of a pathologic nature; the body of the vertebra
is noticeably thickened, irregularly jagged on the Outer
side, and set with numerous rather deep holes. The
body of the vertebra is completely hollowed out from
the end surface.
The description indicates the presence of a tuberculous
or similar necrosis of the bones and is the most complete
example of a seriously diseased vertebrate which has been
seen in the fossil condition.
COMANCHEAN
The gigantic dinosaurs of the Comanchean have long
been known to have suffered from disease and injury.
These have been described sufficiently well in other places
to make their characters known. The most interesting
lesion seen among the dinosaurs has been regarded as
46 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
resembling a modern hemangioma (Frontispiece). A
Sawed section through the fossil tumor shows the nature
of the vascular spaces and the arrangement of the
OSSeous trabeculae is seen in a Sagittal Section of the mass.
CRETACEOUS
The diseases of the mosasaurs may be taken as
samples of the prevalence of disease and injury among
the vertebrates of the Cretaceous. These aquatic
vertebrates, as well as their congeners, the plesiosaurs
and dinosaurs, were afflicted with a variety of diseases
and the writer has been able to study the details of the
lesions on the fossils from the Cretaceous of Kansas.
Twenty years ago Williston called attention to the
diseased nature of the arm bones of one of the Cretaceous
mosasaurs. Recently I have been able to study these
bones (Fig. 7). Their pathological nature and the
exostoses of a hyperplastic nature are at Once evident.
A tentative diagnosis of Osteoperiostitis has been given
as the cause of the lesions. Microscopic study of the
lesions reveals the bony lamellae laid down in a concentric
manner, as if to form Haversian systems. The lacunae
are relatively large and are provided with short Cana-
liculi, and there are areas where Osteoid tissue is present,
comparable in every way with Osteoid tissue seen in
modern cases of Osteomyelitis. For the first time in
the history of paleohistology, perforating fibers of
Sharpey are seen running through the Sections.
A dorsal vertebra of PlateCarpus, a well-known
mosasaur from the Cretaceous of Kansas, presents an
extremely interesting example of an osteoma (Fig. 9),
the only one thus far known in a fossil Condition. The
PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES 47
specimen has been studied microscopically, and a gross
examination of a sawed section through the osteoma and
vertebra shows in a very interesting manner how the
FIG. 7.-An example of Mesozoic pathology seen in the flat exostoses developed on
the humerus of a mosasaur, an aquatic reptile, from the Cretaceous chalk of western
Kansas. The pathology has been diagnosed as that of osteoperiostitis, with arthritis
deformans, indicated by the lipping of the joint surfaces. The bone, though flat in its
fossilized condition, was more rounded in life. Normal bones have smooth surfaces.
The pathological excrescences indicate the presence of bacteria or other irritant under
the periosteum. Microscopically the osseous outgrowths differ from normal bone.

º
º
Fig. 8-Photomicrographs of various fossil pathological and normal bone, showing
microscopic anatomy of bony parts. Figures represent Comanchean and Cretaceous
vertebrates. a, High-power photomicrograph (600 diameters) of a giant dinosaur bone,
showing the general arrangement of the osseous lamellae and lacunae around the vascular
canal, which is represented by the oval black spot in the lower right-hand corner, b, Sec-
tion of the same bone in another situation, showing a distinctly distorted lacunae near
the upper right-hand corner, due to the invasion of bacteria. Dinosaur bones are largely
osteoid in nature, indicated in the present instance by the wide, structureless spaces
between the lacunae. c, Haversian systems are not usually present in Mesozoic bones,
but the present case shows the influence of pathology on the formation of such structures.
An exceptionally good system is shown near the center of the picture. d, A section of
the Cretaceous osteoma, showing in the light spaces the huge vascular spaces separated
by the narrow, dark, fibrous bands of bone, e, The round objects on the border of the
light area in the center of this picture are supposed to represent fossil blood corpuscles
of a giant dinosaur, f, histology of the Hemangioma shown in the Frontispiece. The
six light areas with black borders are vascular spaces.

PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES 49
tumor mass grew out of the vertebra. An X-ray
examination of the bone reveals nothing of importance.
Osteºne.”
Fig. 9-A Mesozoic osteoma, the oldest known, seen on the dorsal vertebrae of
Platecarpus, a Cretaceous mosasaur from western Kansas. The osteoma is a definite
outgrowth from the body of the bone; natural size.
A radius of another mosasaur shows on the proximal
surface an extensive necrosis. Sections of the bone show
hypertrophy of the peripheral substance. The nature
of the organism producing the necrosis is not determined,

5O THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
but the fossil presents an exact duplicate of modern
instances of extensive arthritic necrotic sinuses, which
result in hypertrophy and the production of numerous
Osteophytes.
Dollo has described dental caries in a mosasaur jaw,
with a hyperplasia of the bone and accompanying necrosis,
as if the creature had suffered from a mouth infection
similar to modern alveolar pyorrhea. The results of
pyorrhea are identical in modern and ancient bones.
The prevalence of disease reached a climax in the
mosasaurs, dinosaurs, plesiosaurs, and turtles of the
Cretaceous, and with the opening of the Tertiary
the incidence of disease went sharply down, to rise
again with the rise of mammalian life and reach a very
high point during the Pleistocene.
EOCENE
The extinction of the large groups of reptiles at the
close of the Cretaceous doubtless brought about the
disappearance also of many forms of disease which
attacked these animals. Some forms of disease, as seen
in the lesions left on the fossil bones, were persistent in
the case of caries and alveolar osteitis with the associated
forms of necrosis. It is to be expected that the paleon-
tological evidences of disease would be rather scanty
during the Eocene and in fact not a great deal is known.
One interesting indication of a pathological condition
may be seen in the tibia, fibula, and associated tarsal
bones of Limnocyon potens, a Creodont Carnivore from
the Washakie Eocene. These bones show considerable
exostoses and hypertrophy indicating an infection of
some duration. The appearance of the bones suggests
PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES 5I
modern conditions of nutritional disturbances resulting
in the Softening and lightening of the bones as in
Osteomalacia.
OLIGOCENE
The mammals of the Oligocene suffered from disease
and injury, though not so greatly as their successors,
nor were any of the diseases prevalent at that time of
Sufficient importance to produce extinction. It must be
remembered, however, that paleontological evidences of
the antiquity of disease deal with hard parts exclusively,
the Soft parts known not being pathologic. The Oligo-
cene dog, Daphaenus felinus, so carefully and beautifully
described and figured by Hatcher, presents on the
inferior portion of both radii a symmetrical tumor-like
mass, the only example of duplicate exostoses in fossil
animals. The nature of the exostosis is problematical
and I have not been able to find a parallel for this
Condition among the lesions on human bones. An
excellent example of fracture with resulting callus
formation and a splendid pseudarthrosis is known in
a rib of the right side of Titanotherium robustum, a
perissodactyl from the White River beds of South
Dakota. A careful account of this interesting fracture
has been given, accompanied by a detailed illustration
of the callus.
MIOCENE
As an example of the nature of disease during the
Miocene may be mentioned the lower jaw of Merychippus
campestris, a three-toed horse from the Loup Fork beds
of South Dakota. One ramus of the jaw has a promi-
nent Swelling indicating the presence of a long-standing
infection, possibly actinomycosis in its early stages,
52 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
before the eruption of the bone took place. Alveolar
osteitis with the formation of some osteophytes, resem-
bling the results of pyorrhea, are also seen.
PLIOCENE, PLEISTOCENE, AND RECENT
The pathological conditions found among the mam-
mals of the Pliocene, Pleistocene (Fig. Io), and Recent
FIG. Io-Fractured rib, with a pseudartbrosis, in a skeleton of the American
mastodon. (Yale University.)
geological periods were the first known and have been
extensively described and studied by a number of
writers from Esper (1774) to Virchow (1895). There
are about twenty contributions dealing with the diseased
nature of bones from these periods. A review of our knowl-
edge, especially of the pathology of fossil man, has been
given elsewhere and little need be said here concerning

PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES 53
the pathological evidences from these periods. A few
examples of diseased and injured bones from the Pleisto-
cene, Rancho la Brea beds of southern California shown
in Figure II, will give an idea of the prevalence of disease
in the bones from these periods.
The foregoing brief summary of paleontological evi-
dences shows that in each geological period there are a
few evidences of pathological processes known, although
there there has been no organized search made for
diseased remains. In fact, paleontologists as a rule
have paid very little attention to evidences of pathology
in fossil remains, though the subject is one which yields
much that is interesting. The subject increases our
vision as to the possibilities of medical history and
extends our knowledge of the occurrence of disease
back into geological time for many millions of years.
No new ideas of pathology have been seen in the study
of these ancient lesions—nor were they expected. Since
the organization of animal and plant forms of ancient
times differs only in minute details from those of recent
times, there is no reason why we should expect new forms
of pathology. Doubtless many of the lesions described
will, on closer examination, prove to be lesions of extinct
diseases. We know from medieval history that diseases
do become extinct, and possibly many of the diseases
from which ancient animals suffered are now extinct.
Their results, however, as seen in the fossilized bones,
closely parallel the pathological anatomy of recent times.
The question of extinction is still an open problem.
A study of the paleontological evidences of diseases, as
seen in the bone lesions, does not help us much yet in an
appreciation of what part disease may have played in
54 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
extinction. The part may have been great, but this is
a hypothetical assumption, based purely on analogy.
FIG. I.-a, c, and d, are fossil Pleistocene bones from the Rancho la Brea beds of
southern California, showing pathological lesion. a, seven phalangeal bones of wolf
showing results of arthritis, osteomyelitis, and fracture with accompanying callus and
osteophyte. The second figure in the top row is the example showing the result of osteo-
myelitis. The necrotic processes had left merely a shell of bone, b, Modern human
lumbar vertebra showing a widespread lesion of spondylitis deformans for comparison
with the fossil bone showing a similar lesion in d, c, Vertebra of saber-toothed cat,
showing pathology seen in the hypertrophy in the upper right-hand portion. d, Lumbar
vertebra of Smilodon, a giant saber-toothed cat, showinglesions of spondylitis deformans.
There appears to have been an extensive lesion, extending on to several vertebrae. The
articular surfaces are normal, the pathology being confined to the marginallipping charac-
teristic of this disease in man.

PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES
55
TABLE OF GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF DISEASE
(Modified from Schuchert)

Eras Geological Periods Evidences of Disease *
RECENT Diseases of the ancient Egyp-likise of world-civili-
tians; the pre-Columbian zation
Indians of North America;|Age of man
PSYCHOZOIC the Incas of South America|Domesticated ani-
and Neolithic man of Europe mals
Extinct mammals
PLEISTOCENE Spondylitis deformans on Paleolithic man in
cave bears; fracture and Europe; world-wide
callus; necroses; caries in extinction of great
mastodon; osteomyelitis; ex- mammals; period of
ostoses on femur of Pithe-| glaciation; trans-
canthropus formation of man-
ape to man
PLIOCENE Spondylitis deformans; acti-Ancient types of
nomycosis in a rhinoceros O r S e S; m a ny
groups of extinct
mammals
CENOzoIC
MIOCENE Fracture and callus; hyper-|Culmination of mam-
trophy; actinomycosis; den-I mals
tal caries; pyorrhea; necrosis
OLIGOCENE Fracture and callus; tumor |Rise of higher mam-
mals
EOCENIE Dental fistula; necrosis; os-|Introduction of
teomalacia; ankylosis higher mammals;
vanishing of archaic
mammals; intro-
duction of grasses
EPI-MESOZOIC INTER- Rise of archaic mam-
VAL OF UNCERTAIN mals
LENGTH
CRETACEOUS Osteoma; exostoses; fracture|Extinction of great
and callus; dental caries; reptiles; extreme
necrosis; hypertrophy; ar- specialization of
thritides; alveolar osteitis; reptiles; smallm, m-
pachyostosis; osteoperios- mals; toothed birds;
titis; Opisthotonos large, bony fishes;
deciduous trees
COMANCHEAN Hemangioma; arthritides; ne-|Giant reptiles; rise
crosis; opisthotonos; frac-l of flowering plants;
MEsozoic ture with callus; parasitism| small mammals
JURASSIC Opisthotonos; pleurothotonos;|Rise of birds; flying
suppurative necrosis in croc- reptiles; Smallmam-
odile; indication of metas-| mals; first turtles;
tasis 4. ganoid fishes
TRIASSIC Opisthotonos; pleurothotonos;|Rise of dinosaurs;
fracture and callus; necrosis] archaic reptiles;
labyrinth odonts;
fishes
56
THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
TABLE OF GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF DISEASE—Continued

Eras
Geological Periods
Evidences of Disease
Animal and
Plant Life
EPI-PALEOZOIC IN-
TERVAL OF UNCER-
TAIN LENGTH
Extinction of an-
cient life
PALEOzOIC
PERMIAN
Oldest known callus and frac-
ture; caries in fish bone;
bacteria; osteomyelitis
Modern insects; ar-
chaic reptiles; ar-
mored amphibians;
scaled fishes; peri-
odic glaciation
PENNSYLVANIAN
Myzostomid parasite in crin-
oid stem; first tumor, fungi
bacteria
First reptiles; nu-
merous amphibians;
first bony fishes; in-
sects; rise of land
floras
MISSISSIPPIAN
Amphibian foot-
prints; rise of an-
cient sharks
DEVONIAN
Parasitism
First footprints of
land vertebrates;
first land floras;
dominance of ar-
mored fishes; in-
sects; lung fishes
SILURIAN
Communism
First air-breathers
(Scorpions); lung
fishes; fresh-water
fishes; starfishes;
giant arachnids
ORDOVICIAN
First recorded traumatism
First armored fishes;
corals; nautilids;
dominance of tri-
lobites; 5,000 spe-
cies of invertebrates
known; rise of
shelled animals
CAMIBRIAN
Communism; beginnings of
dependent life
I,ooo species of in-
vertebrates; first
known marine fau-
nas; brachiopods;
trilobites; corals;
Sponges; protozoa.;
molluscs; algae; no
land plants
EPI-PROTEROZOIC IN-
TERVAL OF GREAT
DURATION
PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES 57
TABLE OF GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF DISEASE—Continued

Eras Geological Periods Evidences of Disease º
ALGONKIAN No known evidences of dis-Age of primitive
Ča.SČ Iſla,IIIle inverte-
b r a tes; oldest
known fossils;
PROTEROzo[C worms; radiolaria;
bacteria (non-path-
ogenic)?
NEO-LAURENTIAN No fossils known
PALEO-LAURENTIAN No definite evi-
dences of life; lime-
stone deposits may
º j º
of biological Cond1-
ARCHEozoic tions. This period
witnessed the origin
of life and the
beginning of the
world
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON PALEONTOLOGICAL
EVIDENCES OF DISEASE
ABEL, O.
1912. Grundzüge der Palaeobiologie des Wirbelthiere, “Spuren
von Kampfen,” pp. 88–91; “Knochenerkrankungen,”
pp. QI-95.
AUER, E.
I900. “Ueber einige Krokodile der Juraformation,” Paleonto-
graphica, Band 55, pp. 217–94, I5 figures, Taf. XXII-
XXVI.
ETHERIDGE, R.
1880. “Observations on the Swollen Condition of Carbonif-
erous Crinoid Stems,” Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. of
Glasgow, Vol. IX, Part I, pp. Ig—36, Pls. I–II.
GRAFF, L. VON.
1885. “Ueber einige Deformitäten an fossilen Crinoiden,”
Paleontographica, Band 31, pp. 183–92, Taf. XVI.
LEIDY, JOSEPH
1886. “Caries in the Mastodon,” Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.,
p. 38. Philadelphia.
58 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
MAYER, DR.
1854. “Ueber krankhafter Knochen vorweltlicher Thiere,”
Nova Acta Leopoldina, Band 24, Part II, pp. 673–89,
Pl. 30.
MooDIE, ROY L.
1918. “Paleontological Evidences of the Antiquity of
Disease,” Scientific Monthly, Vol. VII, No. 3, pp.
265–82, Figs. I-21.
SCHLOSSER, MAX
1909. “Die Bären-oder Tischofer-höhle im Kaiserthal bei
Rufstein,” Abhandl. d. math. physikal. Klasse d.
königlichen bayerischen Akad d. Wissenschaft, Band 24,
pp. 385-506, Pls. I–V.
SCHMERLING, P. C. *
I835. “Description des ossemens fossiles, ā l'état path-
ologique, provenant des caverns de la province de
Liège,” Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, T. 7, pp. 51–61.
CHAPTER IV
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY
OSTEOMYELITIS IN THE PERMIAN
VERTEBRAE OF A DINOSAUR EXHIBITING A PATHOLOGI-
CAL LESION
SPONDYLITIS DEFORMANS IN THE DINOSAURS
SPONDYLITIS DEFORMANS IN EOCENE MAMMALS
AN ANKYLOSED ELBOW JOINT IN AN EOCENE MAMMAL
A SUBPERIOSTEAL ABSCESS
AMERICAN CAVE BEARS
PATHOLOGY OF THE CLAM
CARIES
REGENERATION
NECROSIS
FRACTURES
MULTIPLE ARTHRITIS IN A MOSASAU
OPISTHOTONOS
MESOZOIC PATHOLOGY
There have been so many examples of fossil pathology
made known that it will not be possible to discuss them
all in this small volume. Selections have been made of
the more striking cases of disease or injury which will
serve to give a conception of the wide range of patho-
logical processes in operation during the lifetime of the
fossil vertebrates. That these evidences, abundant as
they are, are only a small fraction of disease as it really
existed in geological time will be apparent when we
consider that all the examples described below are diseases
or injuries of hard parts, shells, or bones. The number
of modern diseases afflicting the skeleton, compared to
those which attack the soft parts and hence leave no
59
Óo THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
trace, is very Small. Doubtless a similar proportion has
prevailed since early geologic time. We thus see merely
traces of the pathology of fossil animals. To this factor
We must add the Small number of animal remains as
Compared to those which must have existed, as well as
the Small fraction of recovery of those whose remains
were fossilized.
Such examples of pathology as are given furnish not
only light upon the nature of Mesozoic pathology, but
give an insight into the life-histories as well. When a
sluggish Permian reptile was so unfortunate as to fracture
his femur, we are led to conclude from the manner in
which the injury healed that the animal sought quiet
and refrained from either acquiring an infection or
producing Callus by aggravating the wound. Such
fractured Permian bones as are known have healed
in a manner (Fig. 6) to bring joy to any surgeon. The
lesions are always direct transverse breaks, because,
I suppose, of the solid nature of the bones of these
creatures. If they were sluggish, as we suppose they
were, it must have taken considerable time for the new
bone-forming Osteoblasts to function to an extent to
permit movement. Their very sluggishness would
obviate any necessity of food over a period of time.
In this way, probably, we may account for the unusually
perfect healing of the early reptilian bones. A certain
giant dinosaur, when he broke a rib, was not So cautious,
and as a result left a large Callus Surrounding a simple
transverse fracture.
When the lesions are infected, as many of them were,
we learn of the activity of bacteria in new situations.
While we may not always succeed in recovering the
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSII, PATHOLOGY 6 I
ancient pathogenic bacteria, they have nevertheless left
indubitable evidences of their activity. Such examples
indicate a wide range of necrotic processes, ranging from
dental caries to Osteomyelitis. Some of the necroses
may be evidences of injuries received during the pairing
Season, as Abel suggests, when the males actively
contended with each other for mates.
The lesions described below are all skeletal in nature.
So rarely are soft parts of fossil vertebrates found that
when discovered they constitute paleontological gems,
and none So far seen exhibit any pathological evidences,
and many of them are so perfectly fossilized as to retain
their original cellular morphology.
OSTEOMYELITIS IN THE PERMIAN
It is always an interesting matter to be able to call
attention to the earliest appearance in geological time
of any phenomenon of nature which is common at the
present time. It is especially important in ancient
pathology to point out the similarity inform of the results
of infective processes of ancient times with those of re-
cent epochs. It is evident that the results of pathologi-
cal processes have undergone no particular evolutionary
change, and one untrained in the study of fossil objects
is able to recognize an example of osteomyelitis from the
Permian if he is acquainted with modern pathology.
The specimen which shows this interesting phase of
pathology is a posterior dorsal spine of a reptile of the
Dimetrodon type and was collected in the Red Beds of
Texas by Mr. Paul C. Miller, of the University of
Chicago. The spine had been fractured near its base
in a simple transverse break, the line of which is still
62 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
evident, and from an ensuing infection a chronic osteo-
myelitis developed in the shaft of the bone, producing
a sinus-filled tumefaction which is today so characteristic
of that condition. This argues for the presence of
infective bacteria during the Permian, such as have
º
º 2
Fig. 12.-Photograph, enlarged ten diameters, of a cross-section of one of the dorsal
vertebral spines of Dimetrodon, a long-spined reptile from the Permian of Texas, showing
the effects of osteomyelitis in the arrangements of the osseous trabeculae around the
large necrotic sinuses, filled with pus during the infected period and now preserved by
calcite crystals. The infection was a mild one compared to the vinulent infection shown
in Figure 36 (p. 141) from the American bison.
been demonstrated by the magnificent researches of
Renault in the Paleozoic of France.
This is the oldest vertebrate fossil showing the
results of infection which has been seen or described
(Fig. 12), as it is likewise the oldest example of osteo-
myelitis. These statements apply only to fossil verte-

CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 63
brates for I have not sufficient knowledge of invertebrate
fossils to make a sweeping statement covering all fossil
forms, but So far as my studies go I have seen no example
of bacterial infection during the life of any Paleozoic
animal older than the reptile referred to above. This,
of Course, brings up the question as to the existence of
a very mild form of pathology during the early geological
periods. -
VERTEBRAE OF A DINOSAUR EXHIBITING A
PATHOLOGICAL LESION
The assistance which paleontology may render stu-
dents of disease is instanced by the following discussion of
a pathological lesion involving two caudal vertebrae of a
Sauropodous dinosaur from the Como beds of Wyoming.
The lesion has the appearance of a spongy growth
surrounding the intervertebral articular surfaces, and
involving the spinous processes of two caudal vertebrae.
The normal form of the vertebrae is well known and
the large amount of pathological growth is evident.
The mass resembles closely (Frontispiece) the tumor-like
masses of oak trees. It entirely encircles the vertebrae
and has involved fully half of the two bones. All
evidence of separate structure is obliterated and the
vascular canal of the chevron has been filled by the bony
matter, and the chevron has been pushed far out of its
normal position.
The specimen has a length of 26.5 centimeters and a
weight of 5.1 kilograms. The circumference of the
normal articular surface is 27 centimeters, and the same
measurements around the middle of the tumor-like mass
is 38.5 centimeters. The surface of the lesion is rather
64 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
deeply pitted, and the mass is asymmetrical, having
attained greater dimensions on one side than on the
other.
The enlargement is somewhat suggestive of the lesion
of chronic osteomyelitis. It may be a callous growth
due possibly to a fracture of the caudal vertebrae; or
it may be a bone tumor, such as a hemangioma. Its
nature is of course uncertain, but it is an interesting
thing that in the Comanchean pathological processes
should have produced results which are to all appearances
the same as occur today.
SPONDYLITIS DEFORMANS IN THE DINOSAURS
Coalesced vertebrae have been frequently seen,
described, and figured in the skeletons of the huge land
reptiles of the Mesozoic, and Osborn especially has
referred to them as being the resting-point of the tail.
Coalesced cervicals are known in Camarasaurus, Dip-
lodocus, and Tyrannosaurus, and doubtless close scrutiny
of the known material would reveal the lesions elsewhere
in the body. The condition was extremely puzzling
until a series of five caudals of Diplodocus were studied
in the American Museum of Natural History. A
fortunate postfossilization fracture revealed the un-
affected articular surfaces of the vertebrae in two places
and showed the ringlike growth of the lesion, similar in
all respects to the modern advanced cases of spondylitis
deformans, seen SO Commonly in mammals and in man.
Ruffer has reported a case of spondylitis from a Miocene
crocodile of Egypt, so the disease is not unknown among
reptiles. Its age, however, is greatly extended by the
recent observations, and it is probable that further study
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 65
will Carry the antiquity of this peculiar pathological
Condition far back into geological time.
SPONDYLITIS DEFORMANS IN EOCENE MAMMALS
Definite evidences of similar pathology were observed
in two Small mammals from the Eocene, one being in
the tail, and the other in the anterior dorsal region.
The lesions are so similar to those of human pathology
that additional descriptions are unnecessary. No evi-
dences of the incipient lipping were definitely observed,
though it was suggested in a number of cases. The
lesions may not have followed the same method of
formation in ancient times which they follow now.
AN ANKYLOSED ELBOW JOINT IN AN EOCENE
MAMMAI, -
A small, primitive, five-toed ungulate from the
Eocene, known as Ectoconus, had in life suffered a fracture
of the left humerus immediately above the condyles,
resulting in the coalescence of the articular end of the
humerus in the olecranal fossa. A pseudarthrosis was
formed between the fractured end of the humerus and
the radius particularly, though some new joint surfaces
occurred also on the ulna. The joint surfaces were dense
and eburnated, recalling in their ivory-like consistency
the eburnated surfaces in joint lesions of the so-called
rheumatoid arthritis. The fracture had evidently been
extremely septic, for the whole lateral surface of the ulna
is pitted with necrotic sinuses and roughened with
carious bone. In fossilization the bones were all crushed
flat, so a detailed study of the joint lesion would not
reveal a great deal more than is shown in an external
66 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
examination. This is the oldest known ankylosed elbow,
with an antiquity of millions of years.
A SUBPERIOSTEAL ABSCESS
The limb bones of the huge dinosaurs of the Mesozoic
were seldom fractured because of their great size and
strength. A single limb bone of one of the largest
animals has a length of 6 feet and a weight, as fossilized,
of about 700 pounds. But one of the horned dinosaurs
of the Edmonton Cretaceous, discovered by Barnum
Brown, has suffered an oblique fracture of the humerus
which healed in a very bad way, resulting, as Mr. Brown
said, “In the sickest fossil bone I have ever seen.”
On the anterior surface of the bone the periosteum had
doubtless been greatly elevated by an ingrowth of callus,
which later Ossified into a bridge of bone connecting the
lower articular surface with the enormous deltoid crest,
and covering an enormous abscess, capable of holding
several liters of pus.
AMERICAN CAVE BEARS
Virchow, Mayer, Esper, Schmerling, and the other
founders of paleopathology did their initial observations
on the diseased bones of cave bears of Europe. Esper,
in 1774, initiated the subject by describing what he took
to be an osteosarcoma on the femur of a cave bear.
It is extremely interesting then to observe in the United
States National Museum, in a collection of mammalian
fossils from the Cumberland cave deposit of Maryland,
diseased bones of a large American cave bear. A right
femur shows on the lower posterior surface a wide area
of carious roughening, with low, blunt Osteophytes.
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 67
A skull of an ancient pig shows similar carious patches
On the left mastoid. This collection, soon to be described
by Dr. J. W. Gidley, will add much to our knowledge of
disease in the American Pleistocene.
PATHOLOGY OF THE CLAM
In the Miocene of the eastern states there occurs a
large species of clam, known to paleontologists as Venus
iridacnoides. The shell is immensely thickened and very
heavy. Dr. Gilbert Van Ingen, of Princeton, to whom
I am indebted for calling my attention to this species,
regards the form as a pathological race of Venus Rileyi,
a normal clam occurring in the same beds. Thickening
in the tests of ancient invertebrates, simulating osteo-
hypertrophy in vertebrates, is fairly common. A careful
study of this pathological clam has resulted in interesting
data.
CARIES
I nave stated elsewhere that caries of the teeth is
fairly common among fossil vertebrates, yet a careful
investigation into the matter reveals the interesting fact
that it seems to be the rarest form of pathology in ancient
times. It is true that Dollo in the mosasaurs, Renault
in fishes, and Leidy and Hermann in the mastodon have
described this form of pathology, yet it seems not to be
common. Experienced collectors of fossil mammals
have never seen a Carious tooth. In one of my papers,
on the basis of the appearance of the photograph, I
figured what I took to be a carious spot in the lower
premolar of a three-toed horse. Examination of the
specimen, however, reveals the fact that the defect
is a postfossilization fracture and is not due to disease.
68 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Mr. Anderson, at the American Museum, showed me
Some thin Sections of a tusk of Mastodon obscurus which
showed undoubted carious spots along the edge of the
dentine. The pathology is, however, not common.
REGENERATION
This phenomenon is essentially not pathological, but
that it often follows traumatism is my excuse for
mentioning it here. Mr. Frank Springer, at the United
States National Museum, showed me some Silurian
crinoids which had apparently had an arm broken or
bitten off, and in the process of regeneration often two
arms took the place of the lost one, the regenerated arms
being usually smaller than the normal ones. Mr. A. H.
Clark, of the same institution, has lately made a study
of the pathology of recent crinoids and his results are
incorporated in Volume II of his Monograph of Existing
Crinoidea. t
NECROSIS
The huge glyptodonts of the Pliocene and Pleistocene
of South America, in spite of their heavy armoring of
bone on skull, body, and tail, were often subjected to
injuries which became infected and produced extensive
necroses in the bony carapace. Dr. Sinclair, of Princeton,
suggests that these necrotic sinuses were caused by
injuries from the Saber-toothed Cat which in attacking
the glyptodont, and finding himself baffled by the bony
armor, clawed and bit the carapace of the beast. If the
giant Pleistocene cat’s teeth and claws were as septic
as the modern house Cat's are reputed to be, sepsis may
well have followed such an attack. Similar necrotic
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 69
sinuses were seen in the dermal plates of the giant
dinosaur, Stegosaurus (Fig. 13), which bore a huge
armament above his vertebral column.
- –
Fig. 13–A portion of one of the dermal plates of the armored dinosaur, Siego-
saurus, preserved in the United States National Museum. An infected area is evident
in the several sinuses which have been eaten out of the solid bone by bacterial action.
The infection doubtless arose as the result of a slight injury and furnishes undoubted
proof of the presence of infective bacteria in the Cretaceous. The margins of the
sinuses are well rounded, indicating that the wound had healed before the death of
the animal.

7o THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
FRACTURES
This form of traumatism is extremely common among
fossil vertebrates, more so in some forms than in others.
Nearly every modern phase of fracture is to be seen
among ancient animals, the form of the skeleton, of
course, modifying the pathology. A skull fracture, for
instance, in an ancient phytosaur, a long-snouted,
crocodile-like creature (Fig. 14), would not be of the
same nature as a skull fracture in man. Fractures are
º,
Fig. 14-Skull of a long-headed reptile, Mystriosuchus, from the Triassic of
Germany, showing the oldest known skull fracture. The injury is anterior to the nares
and was badly infected, though healing with the formation of much callus and many
necrotic sinuses, which are especially evident on the palate of the skull. The large
anterior muscular eminence looks like a callus following fracture, but the true injury
is further posterior indicated by the star (after von Huene).
especially common in the skeletons of Moropus, a heavy,
clawed ungulate of the Tertiary, with much the appear-
ance of a horse, though the fore limbs are longer than
the hind, and provided with huge claws. These Chali-
cotheroidea must have had a pugnacious disposition, for
they suffered many severe fractures of the skeleton.
There are many dozens of fractures evident among five
or six thousand bones of this genus. Fractures in this
animal are interesting to the paleontologist as indicating
something of the habits of life of the animals; but to
the medical man the fractures are interesting in the form
of pathology which is evident. Fractures in the skeleton

CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 71
of this beast will be described and illustrated in the
forthcoming treatise on paleopathology.
MULTIPLE ARTHRITIS IN A MOSASAUR
Mr. H. T. Martin, of the University, of Kansas has
loaned me for study a nearly complete series of the left
hallux of a large mosasaur, Platecarpus, from the Cretace-
ous of Kansas, showing extensive arthriticlesions in all the
joints of the toe. The metatarsalis especially pathologic,
flattened, shortened, necrotic, with the articular ends
of the phalanges lipped, similar to the lipping observed
in arthritis in human skeletons. This is the first known
example of multiple arthritis in a fossil vertebrate. The
primary lesion was doubtless at the metacarpotarsal
junction. Whether the other lesions are to be regarded
as metastases is uncertain. Microscopic study of the
lesions will be made, and the specimen will be more
carefully described and illustrated later.
OPISTHOTONOS
Past events can only be interpreted in the light of
recent phenomena, and to this rule, first so clearly
outlined by Sir Charles Lyell, the writer was adhering
when he proposed the interpretation that the attitude
of fossil vertebrates often suggested spastic distress and
induced an inquiry into the causes of their death.
Bashford Dean especially has criticized this interpreta-
tion and suggested an alternative, voicing not only his
opinion, but the Sentiments of other paleontologists.
Opisthotonos cannot be regarded as a phenomenon re-
stricted to the human race, but the phenomena, Opistho-
tonos, pleurothotonos, and emprosthotonos are extremely
72 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
common among modern vertebrates of all classes, as well
as in the mollusks. Laboratory animals are often found
fixed in this attitude by the rigor mortis. Rabbits, guinea
pigs, dogs, frogs, and other laboratory animals frequently
exhibit the phenomena. The phenomena occur among
modern vertebrates in the order of frequency named,
as they do also among fossil vertebrates. It was the
similarity of these occurrences which first suggested
that these phenomena might indicate disease among
fossil vertebrates (Fig. 15).
There is no medical literature bearing on this problem,
partly because the phenomena are so commonly seen
that medical writers have not deemed it worth while.
However, Cushny in his textbook of pharmacology has
figured a rabbit in opisthotonos, and most medical works
on nervous diseases mention the phenomena, but to
date none have discussed it. -
It is easy to see that the pull is exerted by the muscles
and tendons, and the reason why opisthotonos is the
more commonly seen is that the muscles of the neck
are strongest. In this spastic condition all the muscles
of the body are intensely contracted and the more
powerful muscles overcome the resistance of the weaker
ones. It is interesting to observe in this connection
that in the arm muscles of the male frog the flexors
overcome the extensors and flex the arms into the
attitude of embracing, while in the female frog the
extensors overcome the flexors and the arms stick out
straight, while in a spastic condition. Occasionally,
however, as in pleurothotonos, the lateral muscles
overcome the dorsal ones. The ligaments of the verte-
bral column are but slightly elastic. If the ligaments
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 73
did cause this phenomenon then the head should be
pulled the other way, for the ventral ligaments drying
first would overpower the dorsal ones. Sheep, cattle,
and horses are commonly seen dead in this position on
Fig. 15.-Skeleton of an ancient teleosaur, a crocodile-like reptile, known as Steneo-
saurus bollensis, from the Jurassic of Germany, as mounted in the United States National
Museum. The specimen shows the opisthotonic attitude, suggestive of spastic distress.
The head is thrown far backward and the tail is drawn upward, as if the muscles were
in a violent contraction at the time of death. Similar attitudes in modern vertebrates
follow neurotoxic conditions.
the western plains, but no one can prove that the drying
or rotting of the ligaments caused the attitude, while
it is easily and daily proved that they died in a spastic
condition, in opisthotonos.

74 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Opisthotonos and its related phenomena cannot be
rightly regarded as a special form of disease, but rather
as a result accompanying many forms of disease and
poisoning.
Another important phase of the matter, and a more
difficult one, is that vertebrate fossils are not always
figured and studied in the positions in which they died.
They are subject to so many disturbing agencies, wind,
water, and predatory animals, that we cannot be sure
that the position is really the one in which they died.
Often the limbs and parts of the body are shifted in
preparing for museum exhibition. A sufficient number
of animals have been discovered in an undisturbed
position to warrant the conclusion that some of the
vertebrates preserved in the opisthotonos were the
victims of disease. The beautiful skeleton of Siene-
osaurus bollensis (Fig. 15), in the United States National
Museum, exhibits one of the most interesting examples
of this known.
MESOZOIC PATHOLOGY
The subject of paleopathology is replete with pitfalls.
When one recalls that the field covers all evidences of
disease or injury from the Proterozoic to the civilization
of the continents by the white races, the reasons for the
pitfalls will be evident.
The difficulties arise on every hand. First, paleopa-
thology is “dry-bone pathology,” a subject held in some
contempt by medical men, and in consequence the
literature on the subject is widely scattered. One thus
needs to build up a knowledge of modern human and
animal pathology relating to the skeleton. Second, the
determination of disease and its pathology in modern
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 75
medicine is by microscopic (Fig. 16), as well as by gross
examination. Hence a knowledge of the histological
-º- º - - -
º º º sº tº º º
Fig. 16.-Photomicrographs from various portions of fossil lesions. a, mosasaur
bone showing numerous vascular spaces; b, mosasaur bone; c, toe bone of Pleistocene
wolf; d, a recent bison, osteomyelitis; e, a Haversian-like arrangement in a fossil
reptile bone; f, a coprolite showing spicule of bone containing bacteria.
nature of fossil bone was necessary. Such a review has
been made and its results will be recorded. Third, one

76 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
must venture out of his chosen realm of thought and is
likely to regard a geode as a tumor; a postfossilization
fracture as evidence of caries; a normal muscular
eminence as a callus following fracture. However, with
care and the advice of friends, experts in their fields,
the subject may be pursued with profit.
The subject had its inception in a difficult way.
While it was being studied and defined among Paleozoic
animals in America, Ruffer, thousands of miles away,
was studying and defining it among the ancient Egyptian
mummies, the workers being equally unaware of the
others. My work has been to fill in between the ancient.
evidences of disease in the Paleozoic (Fig. 4) and the
evidences of pathology among ancient men. Hence a
knowledge of the status of disease during the Mesozoic
is essential to a proper filling out of the subject.
We need not discuss at this time the origin of disease.
It may have been present in the Proterozoic or it may
have arisen later. I am inclined to think that our con-
ception of the time of origin of disease will be modified
by our definition of the term disease. It is a pity that
the Permian is not a portion of the Mesozoic, for Permian
pathology is more closely related to the Mesozoic than
to the Paleozoic. However, to be orthodox, we shall
begin our discussion with the Triassic. The following
brief tabulation of Mesozoic pathology will aid in
appreciating the degree of progress disease had made
at this time.
This array of fifteen pathological results is indeed
a startling one. I do not say that this is all the pathology
of the Mesozoic, but it is all I have seen or heard
described, and Serves merely as a basis for future knowl-
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 77
edge. This array of diseased members argues for a long,
preceding history of pathology of which we are largely
ignorant. The necroses and arthritides argue for the
presence of Mesozoic pathogenic bacteria of various types
which are otherwise unknown, although bacteria have
recently been seen in an Osteomyelitis from the American
Permian.
I. Arthritides
II.
III.
IV.
I. Spondylitis deformans (Diplodocus, Camarasaurus, Tyran-
nosaurus)
2. Multiple arthritis (rheumatoid in mosasaur)
3. Arthritis deformans (with Osteoma and periostitis)
Tumors
I. Osteoma (mosasaur) (Fig. 9)
2. Haemangioma (Apatosaurus) (Frontispiece)
Necroses
(Jurassic crocodile
Triceratops skull
Camptosaurus (Fig. 17, p. 79)
I. Necrosis with hyperplasia |
Mosasaur radius
2. Caries in mosasaur
Hyperostoses
. Alveolar osteitis (mosasaur of Belgium—Dollo)
. Exostoses (scapula of Triceratops)
. Gigantism (hyperostosis in nothosaur)
. Osteoperiostitis (humerus of mosasaur) (Fig. 7)
.
. Fractures
I. Skull in Mystriosuchus (Triassic) (Fig. I4)
2. Oblique fracture in humerus of Hypacrosaurus and Sub-
periosteal abscess)
3. Simple fracture in rib of dinosaur
4. Fracture (?) of tail, accompanied by Osteomyelitis
(Fig. 18, p. 81)
78 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
It will be more satisfactory to discuss briefly the
evidence on which the foregoing classification is made:
I. Arthritides: This is a group term used to define
all pathological results found in or around the joint
surfaces of the limbs, vertebrae, and skull. The lesions
are the result of a great variety of diseases.
I. Spondylitis deformans: This is a type (Fig. II)
of pathology found around the articular surface of the
vertebrae. It is the result of inflammation in the
vertebral ligaments, caused either by infection or injury.
It accompanies Pott's disease (vertebral tuberculosis)
and may cause a complete rigidity of the spine. Co-
Ossified vertebrae are often indications of this form of
pathology. The united caudals of Diplodocus described
by Hatcher and Osborn are clearly examples of this type.
Other co-ossified vertebrae in the dinosaurs are due to
different causes. Thus the co-ossification in the caudals
of Brontosaurus mounted in the Carnegie Museum is not
spondylitis deformans, but Osteomyelitis. Spondylitis
deformans has a curiously satisfactory geological history,
being known in the Comanchean, Cretaceous, Eocene,
Miocene, abundantly in the Pleistocene, and very
common in the Recent epoch.
2. Multiple arthritis (rheumatoid): This form of
pathology, involving the great toe of a large Kansas
mosasaur, is the only fossil example known to me.
This is a sort of mosasaurian gout, or rheumatism, which
must have caused the old fellow some inconvenience.
3. Arthritis deformans: Only two examples of this
form of pathology are known to me, both accompanying
other pathological lesions. The articular surfaces are
only slightly deformed (Fig. 7). -
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 79
II. Tumors: These pathological growths, neoplasms
(Fig. 9), are not due to a definite infection and arise from
pre-existing tissues. Only two examples of tumors are
known during the Mesozoic.
I. Osteoma: Seen on the dorsal vertebrae (Fig. 9)
of a Kansas Cretaceous mosasaur. Not to be confused
Fig. 17–The rightilium of Camptosaurus, a dinosaur in the United States National
Museum, showing a large necrotic sinus. The necrosis had resulted in extensive osseous
hyperplasia. The infection doubtless arose from an injury possibly received during the
pairing season. The individual doubtless had a huge unsightly sore on the hip for a
long time, for the extent of the necrosis and hypertrophy indicate that there was an active
infection for a long period of time. In man necrosis and hypertrophy, following infected
injuries, go on very rapidly, but we are allowed to assume in the case of the sluggish
dinosaurs that the reparative and destructive processes went on more slowly. The
injury had completely healed before the death of the animal, as indicated in the well-
rounded margins of the sinus.
with a hypophysis, but is a true outgrowth of the ver-
tebra.
2. Hemangioma: This has been previously described
and appears to be a true tumor. It occurs between two
caudal vertebrae of a Comanchean dinosaur (Frontis-
piece).
III. Necroses: These are the definite result (Fig. 17)
of bacterial or other infection. The various types can-
not be distinguished in a fossil condition. There are
numerous examples known.

8O THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
I. Necrosis with hyperplasia is present in the ilium
of Camptosaurus in the United States National Museum
and in a mosasaur radius belonging to the University of
Kansas.
2. Caries is not common among fossil vertebrates,
although Dollo gives an example of it in the mosasaurs,
and Leidy and Hermann have described it in the
American mastodon. I have never seen an example of
fossil dental caries.
IV. Hyperostoses: These are thickenings of bone,
taking the form of outgrowths not classified in the
preceding groups.
I. Alveolar osteitis, the result of pyorrhea, I have
never Seen in Mesozoic fossils, although Dollo has
described it in a Cretaceous mosasaur.
2. Exostoses are fairly common and assume a variety
of forms.
3. The pathology of gigantism, or extreme Osseous
hyperplasia, is suggested by Volz and Abel as an explana-
tion of certain hypertrophied nothosaur and fish bones.
4. OsteoperioStitis: This is a diagnosis assigned as
the cause of the pathological excrescences seen in a
Cretaceous mosasaur from Kansas (Fig. 7).
V. Fractures are of a variety of types, depending on
the situation and the degree of pathology involved
(Figs. 6 and I4).
I. Skull fracture in the Triassic Mystriosuchus (Fig.
I4) reported by von Huene. Occurs immediately an-
terior to the nares.
2. Oblique fracture with subperiosteal abscess seen
in the humerus of Hypacrosaurus in the American
Museum. A common form of pathology today. The
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 81
bridge of bone present in the fossil humerus is due to an
elevation of the periosteum by an enormous abscess
capable of holding several liters of fluid.
3. Simple fracture, commonest type of fracture
among fossil animals. An example in the mounted
skeleton of Apatosaurus in the Field Museum.
FIG. 18.-The mounted skeleton of a huge dinosaur, Apatosaurus louisae, in the
Carnegie Museum, shows an interesting form of pathology which indicates osteomyelitis,
possibly following an injury. The lesion does not have the same character as those
of spondylitis deformans seen in caudal vertebrae of Diplodocus. The surface of the
lesion shown above is pitted with irregular necrotic sinuses, indicating a serious infection
such as seldom accompanies spondylitis deformans. It is impossible to be sure that the
present case is osteomyelitis without examining the vertebral articular surfaces, but it
was due to an infection of some sort. Coalesced caudals are not uncommon in dinosaurs
but this differs from any other example of coalescence.
4. Fracture in tail of Brontosaurus with osteomyelitis
(Fig. 18).
It will be apparent, especially to those interested in
other lines of paleontological research, that the foregoing
discussion relates entirely to the fossil reptiles; and,
indeed, I know no other Mesozoic pathology. The
Mesozoic fishes, amphibians, birds, mammals, and hosts

82 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
of invertebrates have not been drawn on at all, for the
reason that I know very little of pathology in these
fossils. It is rather strange that no pathology is known
among the hosts of Cretaceous fishes. Various types of
tumors are said to be common among recent fishes, but
I know of no examples among fossil fishes in any age.
This shows clearly how meager is our present knowledge
of Mesozoic pathology and what great vistas of research
are open for future exploration.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON FOSSIL PATHOLOGY
CLIFT, WILLIAM.
I823. “On Some Fossil Bones Discovered in Caverns in the
Limestone Quarries of Oreston,” Phil. Trans. Roy.
Soc. of London, Pl. 8, Figs. I–3.
ESPER, E. J. C.
1774. Ausführliche Nachrichten won neuentdeckten Zoolithen
wnbekannter vierfüssiger Thiere. Nürnberg.
GILMORE, CHARLES W.
I909. “Osteology of the Jurassic Reptile Camptosaurus,
with a Revision of the Species of the Genus, and a
Description of Two New Species,” Proc. U.S. Nai.
Museum, XXXVI, 296–97. (Description of patho-
logical ilium.)
1912. “The Mounted Skeletons of Camptosaurus in the
United States National Museum,” ibid., XLI, 689,
Pls. 56 and 58. (Describes and figures pathologic
ilium of this dinosaur.)
1915. “On the Fore Limb of Allosaurus Fragilis,” ibid.,
XLIX, 501–13. (Refers to pathological scapula,
p. 504.)
HATCHER, J. B.
1901. “Diplodocus Marsh, Its Osteology, Taxonomy, and
Probable Habits, with a Restoration of the Skeleton,”
Memoirs Carnegie Museum, Vol. I. No. 1, p. 36, Fig. II.
CERTAIN EXAMPLES OF FOSSIL PATHOLOGY 83
(Figures Ossified caudals, 25 inches long with a tumor-
like mass at the intervertebral junction. Refers to
two specimens.)
“Oligocene Canidae,” ibid., No. 2, p. 85, Pl. XIX,
Figs. 9 and II. (Figures radius of an early dog with
a pathologic exostosis on its end.)
1907. “The Ceratopsia,” Monograph 49, p. 124, with O. C.
Marsh and R. S. Lull. (Refers to pathologic opening
on the superior surface of the skull of Triceratops
Serratus.)
MOODIE, ROY L.
1916. “Two Caudal Vertebrae of a Sauropodous Dinosaur
Exhibiting a Pathological Lesion,” Amer. Jour. Sci.,
XLI, 530–31, I figure.
I918. “Pathologic Lesions among Extinct Animals; a Study
of the Evidences of Disease Millions of Years Ago,”
Surgical Clinics of Chicago, Vol. II, No. 2, pp. 319–31,
Figs. Io9–16.
1918. “The Diseases of the Mosasaurs,” Bull. Geol. Soc.
Amer., XXIX, I47.
RIGGS, E. S.
1903. “Structure and Relationship of the Opisthocelian
Dinosaurs. Part I, Apatosaurus,” Field Museum
(Chicago) Publication 82, p. 177. (Fracture of
dinosaur rib.)
TROXELL, EDWARD L.
1915. “The Vertebrate Fossils of Rock Creek, Texas,”
Amer. Jour. Sci., XXXIX, 626, Fig. I4.
Volz, W.
1902. “Proneusticosaurus, eine neue Sauropterygier-Gattung
aus dem unteren Muschelkalk Oberschliesens,” Pale-
ontographica, Band 49, pp. 121–62, Taf. XV-XVI.
WILLISTON, S. W.
1898. “A New Plesiosaur from the Niobrara Cretaceous of
Kansas,” Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci., p. 1.
“Mosasaurs,” Univ. Geol. Surv. Kan., Vol. IV, Pl.
LVI, Figs. 3-5. . . . . . . . . . . . --- . . . . . . . -
CHAPTER V
DISEASE AND INJURY AMONG FOSSIL MEN
AND THE BEGINNINGS OF SURGERY
SYPHILIS AMONG ANCIENT MEN
STONE CULTURES AND THE AGE OF
THE HUMAN RACE
The remains of ancient Stone Age man occasionally
show evidences of disease and injury. These evidences
among the Neolithic and Paleolithic races of Western
Europe have been studied by Raymond and Le Baron,
and mention of sundry other lesions is to be found in
the writings of Keith, Manouvrier, Ruffer, Baudouin,
and other students of anthropology. These studies are
based on remains of human races found in Western
Europe, since no representatives of the Stone Age men,
as they are called, have been found in the Western
Hemisphere. The remains of these early races are
scanty, and many of the skeletal elements are normal.
Some few, however, give us an insight, because of their
pathological conditions, into the possible cause of their
pathology and the necessity of the introduction of
surgery to care for these injuries. Trephining, itself a
traumatism, was introduced quite early (Fig. 19) among
ancient man, as were finger amputation, cauterization,
and possibly scarification. These phases of primitive
surgery are discussed in chapter vi, and it remains to
point out the original need for surgery, the factors
underlying its development, as well as the data on which
these conclusions are based.
84
DISEASE AND INJURY AMONG FOSSIL MEN 85
Man's oldest representative, or man's precursor, is
identified in the oldest well-authenticated skeletal man-
like remains found in 1891 by Dr. E. Dubois, at that time
a surgeon in the Dutch Army, stationed in Java. In the
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FIG. Ig.—Trepanation is the oldest Surgical art. Examples of this process are
known throughout human history, beginning with Neolithic man, fully Io,000 years ago,
and it is still practiced to this day by primitive people in Kabylia, South Sea Islands, and
in Peru. Huge defects, exposing wide areas of the cerebral cortex, were often made in
the skull. Whether this practice arose in the Paleolithic times is not known but it had
attained a high degree of development in the Neolithic era especially in France. It may
have been performed for the relief of depressed fractures but there is little evidence to
prove what it was for. The skull shown above is from the Neolithic of France and
exhibits three large defects due to trepanation (from Keith).












































86 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
leisure of his station he had undertaken paleontological
excavations along the banks of the Solo River, near
Trinil, in the central part of the island of Java. He
found, quite widely scattered, a calvarium, some teeth,
a portion of a jaw, and a left femur entire. These
important remains were described by Dubois in a finely
illustrated quarto issued at Batavia in 1894. His work
was immediately received as one of the greatest contribu-
tions to the study of the antiquity of man. Although
a very extensive literature has developed concerning the
antiquity of man, this discovery still ranks as the most
marvelous revelation of man’s ancestry so far known.
The interest to us in this curious apelike form is that
the femur shows marked exostoses indicating the presence
of a pathological condition of great severity. This is
the oldest evidence of pathology in a humanoid form.
‘T On account of the very great interest attached to
such a discovery the pathology has been widely discussed.
The great pathologist Virchow, who was also an eminent
student of anthropology, called attention to the similarity
of the medial exostoses on the femur of the ancient form
to those seen in modern femora. He exhibited a number
of these which he had selected from the collections of the
Berlin Pathological Institute.
The next oldest known form representing man is
that designated Eoanthropus, meaning the dawn man.
Sir Auckland Geddes, after an examination of the
Piltdown remains, decided that this ancient Englishman,
who lived and died thousands of years ago, had suffered
a pathological alteration of the bones of the skull. He
based his conclusions on the remarkable thickness,
* ~ * - - -
DISEASE AND INJURY AMONG FOSSIL MEN 87
ridge, which can only find their diagnosis in Acromegaly.
He fails, however, to differentiate this condition from
Paget’s disease which produces a similar pathology.
It is possibly due to this factor that the remains were
preserved. Thus it is seen that the oldest representatives
of man had suffered from disease. Where there is disease
or injury even among wild animals, there is always some
instinctive, though primitive, means of healing. While
from the actual evidences nothing whatever is known
of the state of Surgery during the most ancient periods
of man’s development, may we not safely surmise that
these primitive apelike humans pondered in a vague way
over the means of curing disease and injury, and thus
laid a foundation for the development of that knowledge
of surgery which we see emerging from the darkness in
the late Paleolithic and early Neolithic races, thousands
of years later P An instinctive licking of an injury is
the forerunner of antiseptic appliances, or the sucking of
pus wounds. Quietness and seclusion after fracturing a
limb was the instinctive act preceding the use of bark,
skin, or hardened clay splints.
The most famous of the skeletal remains representing
men of the old Stone Age, when surgery had its first
recorded existence, are the portions of a skeleton of an
extinct species of man found in a cave in the valley of
the Neander River, in the Rhine Province of Prussia,
hence the individual is known as the Neanderthal man.
The proximal end of the left ulna had evidently been
fractured since there is a marked widening of the articular
fossa.
* Lortet and Gaillard have described the skull of a mummified ape
from ancient Egypt, which shows the effects of Paget’s disease or osteitis
deformans.
88 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
The left humerus also shows signs of injury in
consequence of which it doubtless remained much weaker
than the right bone. Virchow thought that the condition
of the bones of this ancient man indicated rickets. If so,
this would be the oldest evidence of rickets in man,
FIG. 20.-Injuries of the war and of the chase furnish a part of the evidence of
paleopathology. Rare specimens, such as the one figured above, indicate the nature of
the injury which often produced the death of the one afflicted. Arrow-point injuries of
vertebrae, skulls, and limb bones are known from a variety of ages and from widely
scattered places in the two hemispheres. The present instance, from the Neolithic of
Europe, doubtless caused the death of the individual since there is no callus formation
or other indication of a long-standing infection such as would naturally ensue following
such an injury (after Verneau).
but Schwalbe restudied the question and decided that
there was no evidence of malnutrition and his conclusions
are widely accepted.
One of the most interesting cases of ancient injury
which has come down to us is a specimen of lumbar
vertebra of a late Stone Age man, showing an arrow point
deeply (Fig. 20) imbedded in the visceral surface.

DISEASE AND INJURY AMONG FOSSIL MEN 89
Older injuries of a similar nature teach us that ancient
man was liable to such inflictions incident to war and the
chase. During this period, wounds made by blows
from stone hatchets, arrow and spear points are fairly
common. Many of these injuries, as shown on the
remains found in the ancient sepultures, show evidences
of long standing and final healing, thus pointing, indis-
tinctly to be sure, to some preventive measures being
taken. Le Baron from his study of ancient human
skeletons arrived at the conclusions that early man
reduced and fixed fractures with great perfection,
evidenced by the great numbers of well-healed fractures.
Among eighteen cases he examined, only three had
healed badly.
Nearly all types of fractures are found among the
remains of ancient man. The frequency of spondylitis
deformans is striking. Pott's disease (Fig. 21, p. 90)
was occasionally observed. Alteration of skulls due to
ulcerations; Scoliosis; various hyperostoses; caries of
bone and teeth; atrophy of the skull; exostoses and
Osteomata; and many varieties of arthritides indicate to
us the variety of afflictions to which early man was
subject. It is no wonder that, with this array of pa-
thology to contend with, early man saw the necessity of
dealing with them. While many of the earliest recorded
evidences of surgery were developed as a phase of
religious procedures, there must have been many thera-
peutic measures known to them which have not been
recorded but whose presence we may infer from the
pathological evidences of their skeletal remains. Surgery
then in its earliest beginnings was derived from three
sources: (1) instinctive acts after injury or during the
90 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
progress of a disease; (2) surgical operations on the
body which though developed in connection with religious
practices often had therapeutic results; (3) voluntary
mutilations, practiced apparently since the earliest dawn
of humanity. This was the condition of pathology and
FIG. 21-Tuberculosis of the spine has a very ancient history, proved by the
present case from the Neolithic. The Neolithic skeleton was that of a young man about
twenty years of age, and was found in a grave of proved Neolithic age (7000-3ooo B.c.)
near Heidelberg and regarded by Bartels, who described the skeleton as the oldest
case of Pott's disease. The symbol “R” refers to the costal articular facets. The Roman
numerals refer to the position of the vertebrae in the thoracic series. The kyphosis is
quite evident (after Bartels).
surgery among those manlike creatures of the hills and
forests from whom the modern human races have slowly
evolved.
SYPHILIS AMONG ANCIENT MEN
In studying the evidences of syphilis among early
human races, it is very important to keep in mind the
nature of the fossil bones of extinct animals which show
hypertrophy, hyperostoses, and carious roughening quite
similar to the lesions frequently diagnosed among ancient
bones as syphilis. Such diagnoses are of uncertain

DISEASE AND INJURY AMONG FOSSIL MEN 91
importance, unless backed by further evidence. Virchow
called attention to this similarity in his paper on the
history of syphilis. He had previously described and
figured carefully the hypertrophied and roughened radius
of a cave bear which resembles strongly human bones
showing lesions ascribed to syphilis. Virchow applied
the term “Höhlengicht,” or cave gout, to some of the
lesions of the cave bears, referring especially to the
spondylitis deformans and other arthritic lesions seen
in cave bears of the Pleistocene. It may be safely
said that syphilis has not been definitely shown to exist
anywhere in fossil or subfossil bones. The earliest
accepted date at which syphilis is definitely known is
I495, when the sailors of Columbus carried it to Naples.
The tubercle of Carabelli, described by the noted
dentist of Vienna, as the “Tuberculum anomalus’’ occurs
on the anterior, lingual surface of the first, second, and
frequently the third upper molars. Since aberrant
cusps may develop at any one of three places along the
lingual margin of the molar, there has often been some
confusion in the proper identification of the tubercle of
Carabelli. The presence of this cusp is often said to be
indicative of congenital syphilis, and Jeanselme relates
that treatment for congenital syphilis is often instituted
on the basis of the presence of this cusp. The fact that
this cusp is more frequently present in children than in
adults and in primitive races more frequently than in
civilized races, and its widespread occurrence in Neolithic
and Paleolithic dentitions calls for its discussion in this
place. Gorjanovic-Kramberger says that the tubercle
occurs in nearly all of the first and second upper molars
of the fossil human skeletons from Krapina, which
92 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
represent a race of men who lived about 75,000 years
ago. He has given an excellent photograph of the
tubercle of Carabelli on the molars of fossil man, and for
comparison similar cusps on the molars of a native of
Java are shown. Batujeff has shown that the presence
of this cusp in the primitive races of man and many
genera of apes is of wide distribution. I do not doubt
that a careful study of the upper molars of fossil primates
would reveal the presence of similar cusps.
Since the tubercle of Carabelli has such an ancient
history, being demonstrable many, many thousands of
years prior to our knowledge of the occurrence of syphilis,
it is difficult to see that the two have any significance as a
diagnosis of disease. Especially is this a probable
solution since Hutchinson’s teeth, so long regarded as
diagnostic of congenital syphilis, have been recently
shown to be due to faulty nutrition. The tubercle of
Carabelli may be regarded as the persistence of an
ancient character, and while it may be hereditary, it
certainly can have nothing to do with syphilis.
DISEASE AND INJURY AMONG FOSSIL MEN 93
HUMAN RACE
STONE CULTURES AND THE AGE OF THE
(After Osborn)
Geological Stone Cultures and tº dº º *
Period Cold Periods Division |Human Types Animal Types
RECENT . Modern races! Recent faunas
ºn Bronze age Prehis- Ancestors of | Reindeer periods
㺠Neolithic toric . modern
y Neolithic Iſha.Il
Azilian-Tardenoisan TJPPER Grenelle
Magdalenian PALEO- || Cro-Magnon
Solutrean LITHIC | Grimaldi
Aurignacian
25,000 years Neanderthal
e Neanderthal º
Mousterian Ancient horses, ele-
5O,Ooo years Neanderthal phants, hippo-
PALEO- (Krapina) potami, woolly
Acheulean LITEIIC rhinoceros, hairy
75,000 years mammoth, lions
and bears
Chellean Piltdown man
Ioo,ooo years
Pre-Chellean
I25,ooo years
Third glacial period
I5O,OOO-2Oo,ooo years
Second interglacial period
2OO,OOO-35o,ooo years
Second glacial period
35O,OOO-4OO,Ooo years
First interglacial period Heidelberg Cave bears, and
425,000-500,ooo years Iſla. It their associates

Man's precur-
SOT
Pithecanthro-
pus (Trinil)
Saber-toothed cats,
ancient horses,
elephants, ex-
tinct mammals
PLIOCENE
Duration
5OO,OOO
years
525,000 years from the
close of the Pliocene to
the opening of the
Tecent
Extinct mammals
94 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE PATHOLOGY OF
FOSSIL MAN
JACKSON, J. WILFRID.
1914. “Dental Mutilations in Neolithic Human Remains,”
Jour. Amat. and Physiol., XLIX, 72-79.
JEANSELME, E.
1918. “De l'Existence du Tubercle de Carabelli aux Epoches
Paléolithique et Néolithique dans l’Antiquité Clas-
sique et au Moyen Age,” Bull. et Mem. de la Soc. Med.
des hop. de Paris, Sér. 3, Année XXXIV, Nos. I–2
(Janvier 24), pp. 51-52.
LE BARON, JULES.
1881. Lésions osseuses de l’homme préhistorique en France et
en Algérie, pp. I–II8. (Thesis.) Paris.
LYELL, SIR CHARLEs.
1914. The Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man.
(Edited by R. H. Rastell.)
PARKER, CHARLES A.
1904. “Evidences of Rheumatoid Arthritis in the Lansing
Man,” Amer. Geol., XXXIII, 39–42.
RAYMOND, PAUL.
1912. “Les maladies de nos ancétres à l’âge de la pierre,”
Aesculape, III, I21. Paris.
SCHAAFHAUSEN, D.
1858. “Zur Kenntnis der ältesten Rassenschädel,” Archiv.
für Anat. Physiol. und wissen. Med., pp. 453–78,
Pl. XVII.
1861. “On the Crania of the Most Ancient Races of Man—
with Remarks and Original Figures Taken from a
Cast of the Neanderthal Cranium by George Busk,”
Nat. Hist. Rev., pp. 155–76, Pls. IV-V.
SCHWALBE, G.
1901. “Ueber die spezifischen Merkmale des Neander-
thalschädels,” Verhandl. d. Anat. Gesellschaft, pp. 440–
6I.
VIRCHow, R.
1872. “Untersuchungen des Neanderthal Schädels,” Zeit.
für Ethnol., IV, I57.
DISEASE AND INJURY AMONG FOSSIL MEN 95
VIRCHOw, R.
1895. “Exostosen und Hyperostosen von Extremitäten-
knochen des Menschen in Hinblick auf den Pithe-
canthropus,” ibid., XXVII, 787–93.
1896. “Beitrag zur Geschichte der Lues,” Derm. Zeit.,
III, 4.
CHAPTER VI
PRIMITIVE SURGERY
STONE AGE MAN'S CURE FOR HEADACHE
TREPHINING
USE OF THE CAUTERY
SCARIFICATION
AMPUTATION OF FINGERS AND OTHER MUTILATIONS
PRIMITIVE SURGERY IN THE LAND OF THE INCAS
SURGERY AMONG THE PRE-COLUMBIAN INDIANS OF
NORTH AMERICA
SURGERY IN ANCIENT EGYPT
A discussion of the evidences of primitive surgery is
essential to a proper rounding out of the subject of
paleopathology, because the practices in themselves
indicate the presence of disease or injury and also the
surgical results, on account of the crudity of the opera-
tions, often resulted in an intense form of pathology.
Surgical procedures, then, among primitive human races
are of interest not only in showing something of the
nature of the mind of primitive man but enables us to
trace the rise of the surgery of today. We find that
many surgical ideas arose in the dawn of human history,
many thousands of years ago, and persisted for a long
period of time, terminating only with the development
of modern surgical ideas on the basis of our modern
conceptions of asepsis and all the other remarkable
discoveries which have made surgery an important
factor in modern life.
Primitive surgery arose in conjunction with the
religious practices of shamanism. When the shaman, or
96
PRIMITIVE SURGERY 97
medicine man, or priest, amputated a finger, trephined
a head, cauterized a scalp, or sucked the pus from an
infected wound, he had no intention of counteracting
any antagonistic phase of nature, but his belief was to
let out the evil spirits, to exorcise a demon, or in some
manner to appease an angry god. Gods dwelt in every
object of nature, and the mind of primitive man saw
Only the steps necessary to appease them. Surgery,
thus, had its beginnings, and to these simple beginnings
the name surgery has been applied because the same
results are obtained now with what we believe a more
rational basis of work.
Shamanism, from which early surgical procedures
were evolved, is well known in many parts of the world
as a phase in religious evolution. All races of men at an
early stage of their development display this form of
concept in some manner. Although the term was first
applied only to the practices observed among the tribes
of Northern Asia, it has been more generally used to
express the placation and control by magic or fetishistic
rites of spirits or demons which are supposed by primitive
man to rule all mankind, and, indeed, the whole realm
of nature. The shaman was thus not only a practitioner
of sorcery, able to drive off the spirits which bring death,
sickness, and misfortune, and to invoke others which
Confer success and love, but he was a priest, who by
communion with the higher powers learns, and afterward
teaches to others, the form of practice used in the cult.
The term “medicine man” is an awkward compound,
invented by the early explorers of North America,
which is entirely misleading, since it conveys some
conception of therapeutics. If they had any pharmacal
98 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
knowledge or any idea of healing, it was a secondary
matter to that of appeasing the spirit. Primitive man
had no idea of what constitutes surgery. The processes
performed by them we call surgery now, and they do
indicate Some knowledge of ligation, stoppages of hemor-
rhage, Sepsis, and the like. -
STONE A.G.E MAN's CURE FOR HEADACHE
Headaches are bothersome things. People have been
annoyed by them for a long time, several thousand years
at least, and probably longer. We are all quite willing,
when afflicted with a headache, to agree with the people
of the old Stone Age that a headache is a demon, and we
would be willing to do most anything to get rid of it.
The pain, whether due to a blow on the head, indigestion,
nervousness, or other cause, certainly reminds one of a
demon, and it is readily understood how ancient man
should have conceived the idea of releasing this demon
which was bothering him. He devised a remedy which
certainly was an effective cure for headache, whether
the pain was due to eyestrain, brain tumor, skull fracture,
or nervousness, although it must be admitted that his
cure was worse than the pain (Fig. 22).
Primitive man devised his curative measures as a
phase of his religious beliefs, hence the cure adopted for
headaches was a religious rite. The operation was
performed by a shaman or medicine man in some remote
fastness of his region and here the patient remained
until completely recovered. This treatment consisted
in opening the skull in a variety of ways to relieve the
pain, or, as the Stone Age men thought, to let out the
demon. Men in the Stone Age phase of their culture,
PRIMITIVE SURGERY 99
whether in Peru, Mexico, France, Kabylia, or the South
Sea Islands, practiced this method of relief and it is said
to be still employed in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia
and in Northern Africa.
This ancient surgical art, which forms the very
beginnings of prehistoric Surgery, seems to have been
FIG. 22.--Stone Age man's cure for headache was doubtless effective, but in this
case the cure was worse than the disease. Trephined skulls of men, women, and children
indicate a great prevalence of this method of healing, the patient often returning as many
as five times for treatment, until the top of the head was badly riddled with huge holes.
The large plaque of bone on the left was doubtless removed from a dead skull, indicating
that the ancient medicine man practiced and perfected his skill on the dead. Often
these “rondelles” were perforated to be worn as necklaces, as shown on the right.
developed first in the region just north of Paris near the
Seine and Oise rivers more than ten thousand years ago.
In the dolmens, or burial mounds, have been found the
ancient skulls trepanned or opened to release the head-
ache demon. No special class of individuals seems to

IOO THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
have been favored since the operation was performed on
man, woman, and child, apparently without respect to
either age or sex. Its frequency is attested by the great
number of skulls exhibiting the surgical openings. In
one burial mound in France yielding the bones of 120
individuals more than 40 showed the effects of trepana-
tion.
It is not very pleasant to picture the torture under-
gone by the ancient sufferer at the hands of the priest
who either cut, scraped, or bored the bone of the skull
away with a sharp piece of stone. Some relief from pain
may have been had by the application of a quid of coca,
a plant yielding anesthetic substances which grows in
Peru. But the worst thing about headaches is that
they recur, so the ancient people not deterred by one
failure submitted themselves to the operation again
and again. A few ancient skulls reveal five cruel open-
ings, which had all healed. The patient had survived
them all.
The equipment of the primitive Surgeon was meager.
His knowledge of cleanliness was not keen. If he
possessed a rough flint knife, a scraper, a few leaves of
the coca plant, and a piece of coarse cloth to bind the
wound, he was content. A mossy bank out in the woods
served him for an operating table.
PREHISTORIC TREPHINING
Trepanning, or trephining, the skull was an operation
frequently performed Io,000 years ago in Neolithic
times, especially in Western Europe, and in Bohemia.
Evidences of its practice in early times are also found in
Bolivia, Peru, North America, Mexico, and Central
PRIMITIVE SURGERY IOI
America, although none of these latter evidences are of
Neolithic age. There is no evidence of the operation
being performed by either the Hindus or Chinese, nor
among the Greeks and Romans. A single doubtful
example is known from Egypt. Some trepanned skulls
have been discovered in Gaul, belonging to an epoch
corresponding to that of Roman civilization.
The contemporary hill tribes of Daghestan, the na-
tives of Tahiti, the Polynesians, and Loyalty Islanders,
the Kabyl tribes (but not the Arabs or Negroes in contact
with them), Montenegrins, and the Aymara Indians in
Bolivia and probably in the highlands of Peru still
perform this operation, and thus express their belief in
its efficacy. The operation is often performed following
a depressed skull fracture received in one of the frequent
brawls of the Indians on feast days. Many of the skulls
showed evidences of more than one operation and as
many as five have been seen. The openings are large
and crudely made, and the operation, fatal in a very
high percentage of cases, must have been excruciatingly
painful.
Common and widespread as trephining was in
Neolithic times yet very little is known of its purpose
or the method of procedure of the prehistoric surgeon.
Broca decided that prehistoric Surgical trephining was
performed for the relief of certain internal maladies. He
suggested that it was performed on young epileptic
or mad persons to rid them of the “genius,” the
“demon” causing the dreaded symptoms. They may
have performed the operation for the relief of depressed
fractures, but as most of the trephined skulls show no
signs of accidents, headache was very probably the chief
I O2 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
indication for this operation. A religious significance
has been attached to the procedure, but there is no recent
evidence to support this view.
TJSE OF THE CAUTERY
The idea of using heat as a means of exorcising the
demon of disease appears to have a very ancient history,
beginning in the Neolithic. On skulls found in Neolithic
dolmens of northern France, Manouvier, a French
anthropologist, first investigated the curious lesion,
since known as the “sincipital T.” This lesion is now
known to be due to the cauterization of the scalp, taking
the form of a T-shaped cicatrice. The lesion was in
the form of an anteroposterior groove or ridge, extending
from the anterior curve of the frontal bone, along the
Sagittal suture, terminating usually near the obelion,
where the transverse branch is encountered, but at
times extending on down over the occiput to near
the foramen magnum. The skulls were all those of
females.
A pre-Columbian female skull from Peru also shows
an analogous Scarification, as if heat had been applied
to the scalp, the resulting wound having been badly
infected, producing an extensive hypertrophy of the
outer table of the skull. The pathological areas form
a variant of the Neolithic sincipital T, being in the form
of a Latin cross with the longer portion of the upright
anterior to the obelion.
By the use of our powers of imagination we see in
pre-Columbian times, in a secluded spot in the highlands
of Peru, a primitive blanket- or skin-clad shaman holding
the head of this demented woman on his knee while he
PRIMITIVE SURGERY Io.3
very roughly cuts her scalp with a flint knife, first a
long anteroposterior incision, then transversely across
the obelion in the form of a Latin cross. Near by on a
|
sº
Bºº
- 7.
º
Fig. 23.-The pre-Columbian female skull from Amazonas, Peru, showing a variant
of the sincipital T (shown at A). The cauterization must have been very intense since
great osseous ridges have developed along the lines of the incisions. The nature of the
bone seen in a cross-section of the right parietal ridge is shown in B. The form of the
cicatrice suggests a lesion following surgical interference. The skull may be 5oo years
old, or older. It lay in an ancient cemetery partly exposed to the weather, so its exact
age is uncertain. It is however probably pre-Columbian. (Original is in the American
Museum of Natural History.)

IO4 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
slow, wood fire is an earthern pot containing the fat
of a llama. Close to the operator's hand lies a twisted
rope of vegetable fiber. As soon as the incisions are
made the Surgeon tenses the scalp so as to make the
wound gape, then with the wisp of vegetable fiber he
applies Some of the bubbling oil to the wound. The
application of boiling oil to the wound would result in
an instant and hearty response, and the patient would
have an instant, though possibly temporary, relief from
the demon of insanity. The shaman, still holding the
patient’s head, urging her to control her wild yells of
pain, applies to the cauterized wound a quid of coca,
which he had been quietly chewing during the operation,
and binds it in place with cooling leaves by means of
dirty strips of blanket or other cloth. The riotous
infection which followed gave rise to the pathology
which is present on the skull, but the woman recovered
and lived many years after the healing of her surgical
wound. There is no indication that she ever had another
attack of melancholia. The memory of the boiling oil
was too vivid.
SCARIFICATION
The antiquity of the practice of producing scar tissue
on various parts of the body can be inferred from its
modern prevalence among primitive peoples. The
primitive races of Australia, and Some of the tribes of
Africa, at the time of puberty, or later, have a custom
of scarifying the body with long, though not deep, cuts
of a flint knife, involving the skin and Superficial fascia.
The resulting scar tissue was thought to be beautiful
and enhanced the attractive qualities of the individual.
PRIMITIVE SURGERY IO5
Some knowledge of anatomy was expressed in the care
that was taken to avoid the larger blood vessels. The
incisions, made a few at a time, bled profusely, and no
apparent attempt was made to arrest the flow of blood.
To secure a beautiful adornment of the body often
Consumed several weeks or months. It is remarkable
that there are so few cases of sepsis involved either in
tatooing or other forms of scarification, and the absence
of keloids, to which negroes are especially prone, is an
interesting commentary to the oft-recorded observation
of the immense resistance possessed by primitive races
of man and wild animals.
AMPUTATION OF FINGERS AND OTHER MUTIILATIONS
Silhouettes of hands in red and black are depicted on
the walls of a cave at Gargas, Spain, indicating that in
the Aurignacian age (late Paleolithic, possibly 25,000
years ago) primitive man had already begun to mutilate
himself. He spared a finger to appease a god, until
often he had none left. The impressions of amputated
hands on the walls of the late Paleolithic caves are present
in great numbers, over 200 being recorded. They indi-
cate a truly shocking prevalence of finger amputations
among the early human races. The custom still persists
in modern primitive human tribes.
Similar imprints showing amputated fingers are found
on the walls of caves in California, Arizona, Peru,
Africa, and Australia, in recent times, and an imprint,
known as the “red hand,” has been observed in Egypt,
Palestine, Arabia, Babylonia, India, Phoenicia, and
Mexico. The purpose of the amputation was as various
as the countries in which it was employed. It was a
Ioé THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
symbol of mourning in the Nicobar Islands. It was
a Sacrifice in India, demanded at the death of a
ruler. It was a part of the initiation ceremony among
Certain Indians of North America; to appease an
angry god; as a distinguishing mark of caste; as a
preparation for marriage; and for other reasons more
obscure.
The operation was often confined to the little finger,
and was performed by a flint knife, the incision being
made at the joint and the first amputation involving
Only the terminal phalange. Hemorrhage was stopped
by a bandage, by applying fats, and by a heated stone.
Rare cases have been observed in which an individual,
usually a woman, had sacrificed the last two joints of all
her fingers.
PRIMITIVE SURGERY IN THE LAND OF THE INCAS
The most highly developed surgical art in the high-
lands of Peru, in the time of the Inca princes, was that of
trephining. No other area in the world has produced
So many trephined skulls, some of them having undergone
the operation five times. The methods of procedure
seem to have not been uniform, but were of three or
more types. The surgical technique employed in this
operation by the ancient Indians is suggested by the
steps followed in recent times observed in the highlands
of Bolivia. This modern practice is doubtless a direct
descendant of ancient times.
The operation in Bolivia is performed by the shaman
with a well-sharpened pocketknife, a piece of glass, or a
sharp-edged stone, the process being one of cutting and
scraping. The operation is often performed following
PRIMITIVE SURGERY IoW
Fig. 24.—Ancient Peruvian trephined skulls, showing different types of openings:
A, Skull opened by a saw or notched knife. An attempt was made at a second opening
to the right of the completed opening. B, Skull showing very crude opening in the right
frontal, with a large plaque of bone removed, after several abortive attempts. The
darkened areas around the opening are blood stains. It is doubtful if this individual
survived the operation. C, Skull with small, rounded trephine opening in the left occipital
region. The patient survived the operation for many years since the margins of the
opening are completely rounded. D, Skull with large rounded trephine opening in the
right parietal. The margins slope greatly, indicating some scraping process. E, Skull
with three moderate trephine openings on the vertex (after Muniz and McGee, “Primitive
Trephining in Peru,” Smithsonian Report. Washington, 1894-95).

Io8 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
a depressed fracture of the skull received in one of the
frequent brawls of the Indians who are continually
FIG. 25.-Primitive surgical instruments of
metal (copper or bronze), doubtless used by
prehistoric Peruvian surgeons in performing the
operations of trephining, amputation, and in-
cisions. The instruments are well adapted to
the various procedures involved: cutting, saw-
ing, scraping, and boring. A, B, bronze or cop-
per instruments to which a haft of wood was
fixed and tied with thongs.
drunk on feast days.
The openings in the skull
are large and rudely
made, and the opera-
tion, fatal in a high per-
Centage of cases, must
have been excruciatingly
painful. The plaques of
bone, after being taken
out, were not replaced,
but a mass of grass or any
dirty cloth in reach was
inserted under the scalp.
The use of the cau-
tery in producinglesions
of the sincipital T has
already been discussed.
Only one example is
known from Peru.
Judging from the evi-
dences of their pottery,
the ancient Peruvians
also performed amputa-
tions, and removed infected areas, cut out parasites, and
did other things now included under Surgery.
SURGERY AMONG THE PRE-COLUMBIAN
INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA
The evidences of ancient surgical practices in North
America are very meager; it was in a rude state of
advancement. So far as we know trephining was not

PRIMITIVE SURGERY IO9
practiced nor was cauterization used. The Indians were
still in the Stone Age of culture, and they really knew
less about Surgical procedures than many other races of
similar advancement. More recent Indians seem to have
known how to remove Small tumors, and were versed
in the art of the ligature, using in late centuries horse-
hair for this purpose. Blood-letting, which they doubt-
less acquired from the whites, was extensively employed,
irrespective of the disease. More ancient Indians seem
to have been skilful in the use of splints for fractures,
and they developed a variety of forms of protection for
the injured limb. A set of splints made of bark, curved
to fit the limb or else padded with wet clay, which on
hardening made a very good support, was doubtless
employed over a long period of time. Another device
was to wrap the injured limb in wet rawhide, which on
hardening made a firm support. They also devised
rude corsets of bark to be tightened with laces for support
of spinal or abdominal difficulties. They strapped the
mammae in case of abscesses, and bandaged the thorax
in cases of pulmonary inflammations. Amputation may
have been extensively employed, hemorrhage being
stopped by hot stones. -
SURGERY IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Since surgery had so great a vogue among Neolithic
peoples, 25,000 years ago, it is only natural that we
should find evidences of it in the place where civilization
had its origin, which was in and around the region
bordering on the eastern and southern coast of the
Mediterranean Sea. The Egyptians played an impor-
tant part in this early civilization. Present evidences
indicate that Egypt has been peopled for I2,000 years at
IIO THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
least, and doubtless longer, but we do not know when the
first nomadic tribes wandered into the valley of the Nile.
Surgical procedures were developed in Egypt after
the period of the First Dynasty, and are first indicated
in the Fifth Dynasty, 2750–2625 B.C. On the walls of
a tomb of the Twelfth Dynasty, 2000–1788 B.C., the
period of the ancient empire, there are depicted several
figures of a primitive surgeon in the act of circumcising
a boy with a sharp-edged flint knife. The Egyptians
early learned to work flint, and predynastic knives,
beautifully designed and executed, with elaborately
carved gold and ivory handles, are well known. These
are doubtless the first surgical instruments, but later,
after the discovery of the copper ore, malachite, in the
Sinai Peninsula, bronze replaced flint, ivory, and bone.
It is often stated that the ancient Egyptians had a
highly developed practice of dentistry, but recent active
investigations have largely disproved this statement.
A mandible from the old empire (1500 B.C.) indicates
that a primitive Egyptian Surgeon attempted to drain
an alveolar abscess in the right mandibular ramus.
Two openings leading directly into the sinus seem to have
been made by a sharp-pointed tool to allow drainage.
It is well known from the studies of Ruffer that the
pharaohs and their subjects suffered tortures from tooth-
ache, indicated by the prevalence of dental caries,
alveolar abscesses, and pyorrhea. It seems unlikely
with all this evidence of a prevalent pathology before
us that the Egyptians had any conception of dentistry.
They did, however, know how to apply splints
(Fig. 26) to fractures. A set of splints used on a com-
pound fracture of the femur has been found preserved
PRIMITIVE SURGERY III
FIG. 26.-Fracture of the limb of an ancient Egyptian set with splints, with blood-
stained vegetable fiber for absorption of blood (after G. Elliot Smith).

112 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
on the limb of a girl fourteen years old, in the rock tomb
at Naga-ed-der, about Too miles north of Luxor, dating
from the Fifth Dynasty (2750-2625 B.C.). The appliance
consists of four splints, which formed a sleeve or tube
around the entire limb. It was not especially successful
since it did not prevent shortening of the limb or hold
the fractured ends of the bones in place.
Another set of splints was applied to the forearm in
a case of compound fracture of both bones of the left
antebrachium. There was a pad of fiber, evidently
from the date palm, adherent to the fragment of the ulna,
and its blood-stained condition indicates its use as a
means of absorption. The splints consist of three
pieces of rough bark, arranged in the form of a tube
completely around the forearm, strengthened by a
bundle of coarse grass.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON PRIMITIVE SURGERY
ANDREWS, R. R.
1895. “Evidences of Prehistoric Dentistry in Central
America,” Trans. Pan-Amer. Med. Cong., Part II,
p. I872.
BAUDOUIN, MARCEL.
1907. “Etude d'un crâne néolithique à double trépanation,”
L’Homme préhist., V, 207–15. Paris.
1908. “Etude d'un crâne préhistorique à triple trépanation,
exécutée sur le vivant,” Arch. prov. de chir., XVII,
362–76. Paris. w -
1909. “La préhistoire de la luxation congénitale de la
hanche,” ibid., VII, I29–39, 2 figures.
CARRIERE, G., AND REBOUL, J.
1894. “Un cas de trépanation préhistorique fait pendant la
vie et suivie de guérison opératoire, observée sur un
cråne de la grotte Sépulchrale de Rousson, près Salin-
dres,” Bull. Soc. d'anthrop. de Paris, Ser. 4, V, 351–56.
PRIMITIVE SURGERY II.3
CRUMP, J. A.
1901. “Trephining in the South Seas,” Jour. Anthrop. Inst.,
XXXI, I67–72, 2 plates. London.
FREEMAN, LEONARD.
1918. “Primitive Surgery of the Western Hemisphere,” Jour.
Amer. Med. Assoc., Vol. LXX, No. 7, p. 443. Chicago.
HOOTEN, E. A. -
1917. “Oral Surgery in Egypt during the Old Empire,”
Harvard African Studies, I, 29. (Hooten's evidences
are regarded by other scholars as inconclusive.)
LUMHOLTZ, C., AND HRDLICKA, A.
1897. “Trephining in Mexico,” Aſner. Anthrop., X, 389–96,
2 plates. Washington.
LEHMANN-NITSCHE, R.
1899. “Trois crânes, un, trépané, un lésionné, un perforé,
conservés au musée de la Plata et au Musée national
de Buenos-Aires,” Rev. d. Mus. de la Plata.
MACCURDy, G. G.
1905. “Prehistoric Surgery, a Neolithic Survival,” Amer.
Anthrop., N.S., Vol. VII, No. 1, pp. 17–23, I plate.
Washington. &
MANOUVRIER, M. L. t
1904. “Incisions, cauterisations et trépanations crâniennes
de l’époque néolithique,”, Bull. et Mem. de la Soc.
Anthrop. de Paris, Ser. 5, V, 67–73, I figure.
MOODIE, ROY L.
1920. “Studies in Paleopathology. The Diseases of the
Ancient Peruvians and Some Account of Their Surgical
Practices,” Surgical Clinics of Chicago, Vol. IV, No. 1
(February), pp. 21 I-31, Figs. 72–83.
1920. “Primitive Surgery in Ancient Egypt,” ibid., No. 2
(April), pp. 349-58, Figs. I2I–28.
1920. “The Antiquity of Pott's Disease and Other Spinal
Lesions; Primitive Treatment,” ibid., No. 3 (June),
pp. 619–27, Figs. 200–207.
1920. “The Use of the Cautery among Neolithic and Later
Primitive Peoples,” ibid., No. 4 (August), pp. 851–62,
Figs. 289–92.
II.4. THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
MOODIE, Roy L.
I920. “Surgery and Disease among the Pre-Columbian
Indians of North America,” ibid., No. 5 (October),
pp. Io91-IIo2, Figs. 338-4I.
1920. “The Amputation of Fingers among Ancient and
Modern Primitive Peoples and Other Voluntary
Mutilations Indicating Some Knowledge of Surgery,”
ibid., No. 6 (December), pp. 1299–1306, Figs. 392–94.
1921. “A Variant of the Sincipital T from Peru,” Amer.
Jour. Physical Anthrop., Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 219–22,
2 plates. Washington.
MORGAN, E. L. g
I904. “Surgical Methods among Savage Races,” Washington
Med. Ann., III, 54.
MüLLER, WILLIAM. *
1906. “The Earliest Representations of Surgical Operations
(in Egypt),” Egyptological Researches. Carnegie Inst.,
Wash., No. 53, pp. 60–62, Pls. IoS-6.
SMITH, G. ELLIOT.
1908. “The Most Ancient Splints,” Brit. Med. Jour., I,
732–34.
SOLLAS, W. J.
1915. “Ancient Hunters (2d ed.), pp. 205–50. London.
SUDHOFF, KARL.
1908. “Le T-sincipital néolithique,” Bull. Soc. franç. d’hist.
de la Med., VII, 175–79. Paris.
1909. “Medizin in der Steinzeit,” Zeitschr. f. irtzl. Fort-
bildung, Jahrg. 6. Nr. 6, pp. 196-200.
CHAPTER VII
PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES
DISEASES OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS
AN ERUPTION RESEMBLING SMALLPOx
EARLY EVIDENCES OF SCHISTOSOMIASIS
HYDROCEPHALUS IN EARLY EGYPT
A PSOAS ABSCESS
A PELVIC OSTEOSARCOMA
OSSEOUS LESIONS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIANS
SYMMETRIC OSTEOPOROSIS OF THE SKULL
RICKETS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
DISEASES OF THE ANCIENT PERUVIANS
PATHOLOGY OF THE PRE-COLUMBIAN INDIANS
OF NORTH AMERICA
The study of paleopathology includes properly only
the early phases of each race, but it is impossible to
draw a line which shall separate the prehistoric from the
historic. The discussion of pathology in this chapter
will deal only with evidences of ancient pathology,
without much respect to the existence of written records,
such records dealing always with other aspects of human
life.
There are only three primitive peoples of whose
pathology we know a great deal, namely, the ancient
Egyptians, the Peruvians, and the North American
Indians. Our knowledge of the pathology of other races
is extremely fragmentary and unsatisfactory. For our
knowledge of the paleopathology of Egypt we are
indebted to the researches of Fouquet, Ruffer, Elliot
Smith, Wood Jones, Lortet, and Gaillard. Hrdlicka
II5
II6 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
has studied the pathology of the ancient Peruvians, to
which Eaton has added considerable data. I have
described an interesting pre-Columbian skull lesion from
ancient Peru. Hrdlicka has likewise produced most of
the data for our knowledge of the pathology of the
North American Indians of pre-Columbian times. To
this I have been enabled to add a great deal by the study
of an extensive Collection of skeletons loaned by the
American Museum.
The following discussions are arranged in the order
of the antiquity of the evidence, beginning with the
Egyptians, followed by the Peruvians. The North
American races are the most recent. It is not thought
necessary to introduce figures of Egyptian pathology
since this has been adequately done by others. (See
bibliography at close of chapter i.)
DISEASES OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS
It was in Egypt that the foundations for the study
of paleopathology were laid. Fouquet initiated the sub-
ject so successfully followed by Marc Armand Ruffer,
G. Elliot Smith, F. Wood Jones, Derry, and others. The
pathological conditions which are encountered among the
ancient Egyptians, covering a range of several thousand
years, are many. Pott's disease, pneumonia, Smallpox
(variola P), deforming arthritides of many kinds, renal
abscesses, arteriosclerosis (atheroma), many types of
fractures, necroses, tumors, cirrhosis of the liver, caries,
alveolar osteitis, and many other interesting lesions may
be discerned.
Syphilis has been reported by De Morgan among the
ancient Egyptians, although the evidences, as indicated
PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES II 7
by Fouquet, are uncertain. Lortet and Gaillard, in
their study of the ancient fauna of Egypt, indicated by
the mummified remains of the sacred animals preserved
by the ancient Egyptians, such as birds, fish, lizards,
Crocodiles, antelope, bulls, dogs, cats, and other forms of
vertebrates, have reported lesions of syphilis on the skull
of a young woman. The lesions take the form of irregular
erosions in the outer table of the frontals and in the
anterior portion of the parietals. They recall those
described by Eaton in a child's skull from ancient Peru.
As an evidence of the community of interest between
history and medicine may be mentioned the pathological
anatomy of the aorta of King Merneptah, the reputed
pharaoh of the Hebrew Exodus. The mummy was found
at Thebes, in the tomb of Amenhotep II, who reigned
in Egypt from 1448–1420 B.C., and was unwrapped by
Elliot Smith, who sent the aorta to the Royal College of
Physicians of London. The finding of Merneptah's
mummy at Thebes of course discomfited the adherents
of the theory that, as the pharaoh of the Hebrew Exodus,
he must have been drowned in the Red Sea.
Shattuck undertook a microscopic study of the aorta
and demonstrated sections before the Royal Society of
|Medicine in London.
“The sections showed the picture of typical senile
calcification of the aorta, the bony parallel, elastic
lamellae being perfectly preserved, and the interlamellar
material thickly strewn with calcium phosphate.”
That Merneptah, who reigned in Egypt from 1225–
1215 B.C., thirteenth son and the successor of Rameses II
(1292–1225 B.C.), was a man of great age is shown by
his baldness, by the whiteness of the little hair left, by
II.8 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
the complete ossification of the thyroid cartilage and of
the first rib, not its sheath alone, and by the calcareous
patches in the aorta. A single tooth, the upper right
median incisor, was visible. Although the body was
reduced to little more than skin and bones, the redun-
dancy of the skin of the abdomen, thighs, and cheeks
indicate that Merneptah was a somewhat corpulent
old man.
These interesting observations upon the atheromatous
patches in the aorta of the elderly pharaoh were followed
by two studies by Ruffer on various arterial lesions found
in Egyptian mummies. The earlier and more complete
study deals with arteries taken from mummies of the
Eighteenth to the Twenty-seventh dynasties (1580–527
B.C.), and from the time of the Persian conquest (525
B.C.). Ruffer also dissected mummies from later periods
So that his studies ranged over material representing a
period of nearly two thousand years.
The arteriosclerosis of the ancient Egyptians followed
exactly the same course as the disease follows today.
The small atheromatous patches and the histological
anatomy of the vessels are identical with those of today.
The earliest sign of the disease now, as then, is in, or
close below, the fenestrated membrane. The ancient
disease, as well as the modern, was characterized by a
marked degeneration of the muscular coat and of the
endothelium. The small atheromatous patches subse-
quently fuse and form large patches of degenerated
tissue, which may reach the surface and open out into
the lumen of the tube.
The etiology of this disease three thousand years ago
is as obscure as it is in modern people. The common
PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES 119
Causes, such as Syphilis, tobacco, alcohol, can almost
certainly be eliminated from the life of the ancient
Egyptians. The diet and daily life of the ancient
Egyptian people was not such as to bring on this disease,
and all that can be said is that it was widespread in young
and old, and that three thousand years ago the disease /
represented the same anatomical characters as it does
today.
AN ERUPTION RESEMBLING SMALLPOX
In view of Hirsch's suggestion that the Egyptian
regions are probably one of the endemic foci of infection
of smallpox, Ruffer's discovery of a case of variola, or
something very like Smallpox, in a mummy of the
Twentieth Dynasty (1200-IIoo B.C.), is of extreme
interest. The body from which the skin was taken
was that of a tall man of middle age. This body was
the seat of a peculiar vesicular or bulbous eruption,
which in form and general distribution bore a striking
resemblance to smallpox. The piece described and
figured was taken from the adductor surface of the right
thigh. The eruption was a closely set vesicular one.
Microscopic examination of the tissue shows the
wavy fibrillae and bundles, but no nuclear staining is
discernible. Bacteria are present in great numbers.
They seem to be the organisms which produced the
infection, but the number of bacteria was doubtless
greatly magnified after death.
It would not be at all surprising to find smallpox in
Egypt at this time since it has been described as occurring
in India and in China as far back as 2000 B.C. Although
prior to Ruffer's paper there was no definite information
I 2C) THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
on the existence, in early centuries, of this disease on the
African continent.
EARLY EVIDENCES OF SCHISTOSOMIASIS
One of the most interesting discoveries made by
Ruffer was the recognition of the calcified eggs of
Bilharzia (Schistosoma) haematobia in the kidneys of
two mummies of the Twentieth Dynasty (1250–Iooo
B.C.). At the present time there is perhaps no disease
more important to Egyptians than that caused by the
Schistosomids. So far there is little evidence to show
how long it has existed in the country, although medical
papyri contain prescriptions against hematuria. The
lesions are usually seen in the bladder and rectum, but
these two organs are seldom preserved in the mummies,
but in the kidneys of two out of six examined Ruffer was
able to demonstrate microscopically a large number of
calcified eggs of Bilharzia haematobia, situated, for the
most part, among the straight tubules. Although
calcified the eggs are readily recognizable and cannot be
mistaken for anything else, proving that renal diseases
were not infrequent among Egyptians 3,000 years ago.
Malaria is suggested by the discovery of hyper-
trophied spleens in ancient Egyptians.
HYDROCEPHALUS IN EARLY EGYPT
The case of hydrocephalus in an Egyptian of the
Roman period, described by Douglas E. Derry, is one of
the oldest examples of this deformity. The skull,
nearly complete, the pelvis, and certain limb bones are
carefully described and should be noted in Connection
with the diseases of the ancient Egyptians. The skeletal
PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES I 2 I
parts described belong to a man of about thirty years of
age. The teeth were considerably worn, and the indi-
vidual may have been older than indicated. The stature
was estimated to be 1.506 meters in height. The
individual was the victim of some disease of the brain,
probably hydrocephalus, which not only caused the
growth of the skull to remarkable proportions but was
also responsible for the partial paralysis of the left side,
which has left its mark in a very definite manner upon
the skeleton of the parts concerned.
A PSOAS ABSCESS—TUBERCULOSIS-POTT'S DISEASE
The mummy exhibiting the psoas abscess, associated
with Pott's disease, or tuberculosis of the vertebral
column, was a priest of Ammon of the Twenty-first
Dynasty (Iooo B.C.), found in 1891 by M. Grébaut in
the region of the great Theban city. In 1904 the
body, with others, was transferred by order of Director
Maspero to the medical school at Cairo, where it attracted
the attention of Ruffer and Smith, who have carefully
described it, arriving at the conclusion that it is a
definite example of tuberculosis, the first one met with
in ancient Egypt. The body was that of a young, adult
man showing in the lumbar region a very unusual
disturbance. The lower thoracic and upper lumbar
vertebrae are kinked and necrosed, and on the right side
there is a large swelling in the psoas muscle, extending
into the iliac fossa.
Microscopic examination of the left psoas shows the
presence of unmodified muscle fibers, while on the right
side there are indications of great disturbance, with
numerous calcified leucocytes, imbedded with the
I 2.2 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
muscle fibers, together with a lot of trash introduced
into the body in the embalming process. The right
psoas muscle must have been in a semifluid state, as
is shown by the imbedding of a large amount of material
into the fibers of the muscle, indicating a psoas abcess
on the point of rupture.
Tuberculosis has been suggested as the cause of
ancient lesions in Egyptian human and animal mummies
by Poncet, Fouquet, De Morgan, and others, but
Ruffer and Smith are of the opinion that no true case
has been established by them, the majority of their
lesions being clearly those of spondylitis deformans.
A PELVIC OSTEOSARCOMA
The bone in which the tumor was found comes from
the catacombs of Kom el Shougafa, in Alexandria, and
dates most probably from the middle of the third
century after Christ. Owing to the fact that the tombs
had been previously rifled and the skeletons were in a
great disarray, no other bones of the skeleton could be
identified.
The tumor occupies the right pelvic bone, affecting
particularly the ischium and lower part of the ilium,
the pubis being apparently normal. The ilium is greatly
thickened throughout and the body of the ischium
enormously dilated, the enlargement encroaching upon
the obturator foramen. The tumor started, doubtless,
in the cancellous tissue of the pelvis and its growth has
caused a very marked expansion of the bone, deformation
of the obturator foramen, and encroachment upon the
acetabulum. There are numerous grooves on the surface
suggesting that the tumor was highly vascular. The
PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES 123
exact nature of the lesion must remain uncertain, but
owing to the fact that the swelling is deeply seated,
partly solid and partly cystic, and had evidently been
growing fast, Ruffer is of the opinion that this tumor
was probably an Osteosarcoma, of which the bony
substance has resisted the effects of time, while its soft
parts have disappeared. This is the only known ancient
example of an Osteosarcoma, unless Some of the tumors
seen in the ancient dinosaurs are of that nature.
OSSEOUS LESIONS IN EARLY EGYPTIANS
There is a great wealth of material on the Osseous
pathology of the ancient Egyptians to be gained from the
memoirs of Ruffer and Rietti, Derry, Smith and Jones,
and other minor sources of information. A great store of
specimens was secured in 1907 and later years when
the Egyptian government decided to make an archaeo-
logical survey of that part of Nubia which would be
flooded more or less permanently when the Assuan dam
was raised. Students of medical history were extremely
fortunate in this survey for there has been a continuous
exportation of Egyptian mummies since the beginning
of the Middle Ages, more than one thousand years,
material which was thus largely lost for examination.
Many of the lesions described by Ruffer have been placed
in the museum of the medical School at Cairo.
Spondylitis deformans was extremely common among
the early Egyptians, often of a very Severe nature, since
one vertebral column, described by Ruffer and Rietti,
belonging to a man whose name was Nefèrmaat, belong-
ing to the Third Dynasty (2980–2900 B.C.), from the
fourth cervical vertebra to the Coccyx, and possibly
I24. THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
through its whole length, had been converted by disease
into one rigid block, by the formation of new bone in
the anterior spinous ligament (Ligamentum longitudinale
anterior). Distinct bulging of this osseous bridge,
opposite each space for intervertebral disk, allows an
examination of the articular surfaces of the vertebrae
which are perfectly smooth. The Ligamentum longi-
tudinale posterior was likewise completely ossified al-
though there was no narrowing of the spinal canal.
A less severe case of spondylitis deformans is described
in the vertebral column of a woman of the Twelfth
Dynasty (2000–1788 B.C.), where the disease is localized
in the anterior portion of the ninth and tenth thoracic
vertebrae.
The disease seems to have had a continuous history
in ancient Egypt from very early times. Ruffer and
Rietti describe examples of this condition in bodies
from the tombs of the soldiers of Alexander the Great
and Ptolemy I at Chatby (about 300 B.C.). The early
stages of the disease usually show themselves in the
dorsal and lumbar regions on the anterior borders of
the vertebral bodies on either side close to the middle
line. They are characterized by the formation of a
small lip which meets a similar prolongation projecting
from the adjacent vertebra. Sometimes the new bone
spreads as a thick ridge all around the anterior border
of the vertebral body and forms powerful masses which
may extend over the sides, meeting with similar ridges,
forming finally a continuous mass of bone. The disease
seldom extends to the posterior spinal ligament, and
even should the latter become completely Ossified, the
new bone never intrudes on the spinal Canal. The
PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES 125
lesions never extend into the substance of the bone but
are entirely superficial,
The hands of one mummy of the time of the Persian
Occupation (about 525 B.C.) showed enlargements of
the heads of the first phalanges which may be regarded
as Bouchard's nodosities,a malformation which Bouchard
has shown to be caused by chronic dilatation of the
Stomach.
Fractures, with or without callus, are quite common,
being described in a left first rib, tibia, and fibula, and
a very badly healed leg bone fracture. Smith and Jones
have described a number of other fractures and have
figured them in great detail.
They figure also an interesting skull of an ancient
Egyptian, showing an erosion of the floor of the brain
case due to a Carotid aneurism.
Caries and alveolar osteitis are frequently met with,
and Ruffer has described a number of these cases often
associated with necrosis of the surrounding bone, as
well as by rarefying periodontitis. He made a special
study of these diseases in the skeletons found at Merawi,
representing people of the Twenty-fifth and Twenty-
sixth dynasties (712–550 B.C.), and at Faras of the
Meroític age (Ioo B.C.–300 A.D.). His study is devoted
especially to the teeth in adults. There were lesions of
the teeth (caries, periodontal disease, alveolar osteitis)
in all but two of a series of thirty-six skulls. The
lesions were present in the following order of frequency:
(1) impaction, (2) attrition, (3) caries, (4) abscesses and
fistulae, (5) periodontitis and pyorrhea alveolaris.
Besides the very bad dentition there were many fractures.
Wormian bones were occasionally observed. Two bones
I 26 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
showed deformities due to rickets, and a series of verte-
brae gathered from many places showed a continuous
history for spondylitis deformans from 4000 B.C.—
300 A.D. Ruffer concludes from these studies that the
people usually did not survive the age of fifty and life
for most of them must have been pretty miserable.
There are no evidences that dentistry was ever practiced.
Pyorrhea alveolaris especially seems to be as old as the
human race, since Ruffer observed evidences of it in
skulls of Greeks, Romans, Peruvians, Mexicans, Mero-
vingians, and Germans. -
Thoma, IQI6, has studied the evidences of dental
diseases in 250 ancient Egyptian skeletons (2000 B.C.)
preserved in the Peabody Museum at Harvard Univer-
sity. His results agree with Ruffer's.
SYMMIETRIC OSTEOPOROSIS OF THE SECULL
A nutritional disturbance, evidently having its
inception in infancy or early childhood, was doubtless
the cause of the development of patches of porous bone
developed in the skulls of certain ancient Egyptians.
Thus Adachi has described and figured a skull of a young
Egyptian from an ancient cemetery of Siut which exhibits
on the posterior half of each parietal, removed from both
the sagittal and lambdoid sutures by about 2 centimeters,
an elongated, oval area of rounded openings of various
dimensions which find their way into the diploë but never
into the cranial cavity (Fig. 27).
A similar condition is described in a recent Dyak
skull of middle age, in which the porosities are larger
and more developed on the left side. Another example
of this condition is given by Hrdlicka from ancient Peru.
PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES 127
This curious appearance is generally known as Cribra
cranii and is usually associated with the Cribra orbitalia,
discussed below. Hrdlicka first suggested a pathological
Fig. 27.-Healed lesions of symmetric osteoporosis, a disease of childhood, resulting in
absorption of the skull bonesin unilateral areas, frequently seen in the parietals. The con-
ditionis often much more virulent than shown in this ancient Egyptianskull (after Adachi).
significance for these appearances, Adachi having been
uncertain as to its cause, though suggesting pressure
atrophy in artificially deformed skulls as possible cause.

I 28 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Cribra orbitalis is a similar condition of the roof of
the orbit, and as in Cribra cranii the porosities never
penetrate the neural cavity but do communicate with
the paranasal sinuses. Rudolf Martin has tabulated its
occurrence among primitive peoples as follows: Sokotrans
47.6 per cent, Negroes of the East Sudan 35 per cent,
Malays 22.5 per cent, Ainos 16.8 per cent, Chinese 13.4
- -
,--------
--------, -- --- -
º - -
º -- -- --
º º
º ---
º
-
Fig. 28.-Cribra cranii interna (after Koganei)
per cent, Mongolians, 8 per cent, Japanese, II per cent,
in children 27 per cent, in ancient Peruvians 8.9 per cent,
in ancient Egyptians 7.1 per cent, and in various
European races 3.1-4.7 per cent. Hrdlicka records the
recovery of two infantskulls with a coral-like osteoporotic
development in the roof of each orbit from a Twelfth-
Dynasty cemetery in Egypt, and Welcker has reported
other examples. The osteoporosis appears to be absent
in Eskimo skulls and in most white races. Carl Toldt

PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES I29
found only eleven examples in an examination of Io,000
European skulls, although Ahrens elsewhere reported 17
per cent occurrence among 470 German skulls examined.
Oetteking found thirteen cases of Cribra orbitalia in an
examination of 182 ancient Egyptian skulls.
These interesting pathological conditions, known as
Cribra cranii (parietalia) and Cribra orbitalia, are not to
be confused with the activities of beetles which produce
porosities in ancient skulls, but of such a different
character that they are not at all similar.
RICKETS IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Definite evidences of the occurrence of rickets have
not yet been found in the human bodies examined from
the ancient graves of Egypt, although Poncet, in the
memoir by Lortet and Gaillard on the mummified fauna
of ancient Egypt, has described rickets in the skeleton
of an ape. F. Wood Jones remarks in this Connection:
Some diseases—notably rickets and syphilis–if at all common
must inevitably have left traces of their presence on the bony
structure of the body, and that such traces have not been found
in the large series of bodies examined at Biga and Hesa Cemeteries,
and by Dr. Elliot Smith in other cemeteries in Egypt, is strong
presumptive evidence that the diseases did not occur. The infant
mortality was apparently a high One, and great numbers of young
people, of all ages up to puberty, are found in all the cemeteries,
and yet not one of the cardinal signs of the bony manifestations
of rickets has been seen in any case.
The occurrence of this disease among modern apes
has been discussed by Bland-Sutton and by Frassetto.
Poncet's observations on rachitis in the mummified
apes of ancient Egypt is thus an addition to Our previous
knowledge. The evidence is to be found in a set of
I3O THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
limb bones markedly curved which indicate the occur-
rence of rickets. *
Among fossil animals older than the ancient fauna
of Egypt the disease has been suggested by P. C.
Schmerling in the limb bones of a Pleistocene bear
from the caves of Belgium, but his evidence is not
Conclusive.
Among living animals Frassetto has cited the liter-
ature in which the occurrence of the disease has been
noted in the pig, horse, dog, Cat, cow, sheep, and goat,
domestic birds, the turtle, and the primates cited above.
Rickets thus seems to have a fairly wide occurrence
among recent vertebrates. -
DISEASES OF THE ANCIENT PERUVIANS
Pathological evidences of disease in South America
are largely confined to the area of the highlands of Peru,
chiefly that portion inhabited by the subjects of the
Inca princes. Here the evidences are of three kinds:
indications of disease on the skeletal remains, such as
trephined skulls and pathological bones; representations
of disease on pottery; and recorded history.
The high degree of development of the primitive
Surgical art indicated in the numerous trephined skulls
found in the ancient Peruvian burials has been discussed,
and figures given, in chapter vi, as has likewise the
evidence suggesting the use of the actual cautery by
the primitive skin-clad surgeon. No area of similar
extent in the world has furnished such numerous evi-
dences of trepanation, which was executed in a variety
of methods. The subject has received wide attention,
and it seems probable that these primitive races really
PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES 131
understood some of the fundamental principles of
Surgery, practicing on the dead, and even learning to
replace plaques of bone, removed for disease or injury,
by similar objects of shell, gourd, or metal.
The difficulty of assigning definite periods of time to
any Peruvian Indian burial will be obvious to anyone who
Considers the matter at all seriously. Consequently we
cannot be sure that the evidences considered here are
of true pre-Columbian age but we may safely say that
they are relatively ancient. Of course nothing human
in the Western Hemisphere is really ancient compared
to the European and Egyptian evidences. Pre-
Columbian Peruvian skeletons often bear evidences of
disease, and these indications have been studied especially
by Hrdlicka and Eaton, as well as a number of modern
Peruvian writers, the most active being Dr. Edmundo
Escomel, of Arequipa. Unlike the Egyptians the ancient
Peruvians do not present marked evidences of skeletal
pathology. Spondylitis deformans, from which thou-
sands of the ancient inhabitants of the Nile suffered, and
many were totally disabled, is not apparent in ancient
Peru in any measure, although there are indications of
it in the incipient lipping of vertebrae. Osteophytes
on parts of the skeleton indicate the existence of
various local disturbances. A general osteomalacia is
indicated by one skeleton, but this nutritional disease
seems not to have been common. Syphilis of the bones
has been reported but the evidence is so uncertain as to
be largely worthless. This disease is so readily confused
with another disease, uta, commonly prevalent in Peru
in ancient times and now, that it is not always possible
to distinguish the two. Tuberculosis seems to be
I32 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
- - 3
Fig. 29-Diseased limb bone from ancient Peruvian graves of Machu Picchu,
showing hypertrophy and necrosis supposed by some to be indicative of syphilis but the
results may as well be ascribed to other infections. Diseased bones, tibia and fibula, on
the right, compared with normal bones, on the left (after Eaton).

PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES 133
indicated in certain pathological femora, but no definite
evidences of Pott's disease, so common in Egypt and
among the North American Indians, are known in Peru.
Pulmonary tuberculosis might be determined in the
mummified remains, if present, but no one has paralleled
FIG. 36.-A cranial osteoma seen in a Peruvian skull
on Peruvian material the splendid researches of Ruffer
on Histological Studies of Egyptian Mummies. Dental
caries seems not to have been common, and other dental
infections were not burdensome. A curious disorder of
infancy, possibly a nutritional disorder, known as
osteoporosis, chiefly evident (Fig. 27) on the skull, has
been discussed under the diseases of Egypt. Osteo-

I34 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
porosis has a world-wide distribution, though its exact
significance is unknown. Other pathological indications
are merely those of a local nature. A single, as yet
undescribed, tumor of the skull is in the Yale University
collections. It is a large, honeycomb-like affair, so far
as I know the only tumor of its kind known on the
remains of ancient man.
Fig. 31.-Ancient, pre-Columbian, water jars showing around the mouth and nose
the eroded areas due to uta, a phase of Leishmaniosis still common in the Andean High-
lands. Often the lips and nose are indicated in the potteries with even scar lines, as if
surgical interference, through amputation of the diseased areas, had attempted to arrest
the advance of the disease. Such water jars are fairly common, but in no other country
has pathology received such plastic representations as in ancient Peru. (Original
examples of the pottery are in the American Museum of Natural History.)
The early Peruvian, like many another primitive race,
quite early became adepts at pottery-making. Unlike
other races, however, they represented on the pottery
objects the manifestations of nature around them. This
was true of the several tribes composing the former
Peruvian civilization. Among many other objects, that
of disease came in for its share of representation, so we

PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES I.35
have preserved to us representations of men afflicted
with uta, Verruga Peruviana, amputated limbs, gondou,
and surgical incisions for removal of the burrowing
jigger from the soles of the feet. From these vessels in
pottery we are assured of the age of the diseases there
depicted. Uta, especially, seems (Fig. 31) to have been
prevalent in former times and is common today. It is
the Leishmaniosis of parasitologists, and manifests itself
in horrid lesions of the face, being especially common
around the mouth. Facial features exactly Comparable
to those depicted on the pre-Columbian pottery may be
seen in many of the Indian villages of today. A less
commonly represented disease is that of verruga, a skin
disease, resulting in nodular eruptions throughout the
body. A single example of a water jar, depicting an
achondroplastic dwarf, represents this form of pathology
in ancient times. Gondou, a disease of the base of
the nasal bones, is likewise represented by a single
example, but the likeness is so striking there can be no
doubt about its interpretation.
PATHOLOGY OF THE PRE-COLUMBIAN INDIANS
- OF NORTH AMERICA
The primitive predecessors of the white race in the
North American Continent were, so far as we can judge,
the most healthy and vigorous of all the ancient human
races of which we have adequate basis for an opinion.
They did not suffer from such modern universal plagues
as syphilis, Smallpox, uta, tuberculosis, Scarlet fever, or
any other serious afflictions to which the races of Egypt
and Peru were subject. Only a single indication of
cancer has been found possibly represented in the portions
I36 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
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FIG. 32.-Pathology among the pre-Columbian Indians of North America. Left,
fractured humerus, well healed, of a male pre-Columbian lndian from Huichol, Mexico.
The lack of deformation may have been due to surgical interference, since it is well known
that the Indians understood the use of bandages. Center, well-healed fracture in a right
tibia of a male pre-Columbian Indian, anterior view, May's Lick, Kentucky. Right,
right humerus of a pre-Columbian female Indian, showing a condition resembling sar-
coma. The middle of the shaft has disappeared with the remaining ends tapering toward
the lesion. Pueblo, San Cristobal, New Mexico. (Originals in American Museum of
Natural History.)





















































PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES 137
of a humerus preserved from an ancient grave in Utah.
Nor were caries or other dental disturbances prevalent.
Part of our lack of knowledge may be due to the supposed
custom of disposing of diseased or maimed individuals.
The North American Indians did not look upon the care
of the helpless as a duty, as did the ancient Egyptians.
But taking into consideration all known factors the
ancient red men were a very healthy race. The introduc-
tion of disease came with the Coming of white men and
here we see the disastrous effect of disease in bringing
about the extinction of a primitive race. -
Few studies on ancient pathology have been made,
and such as are known are of doubtful chronology since
there is the greatest difficulty in discriminating between
skeletons of true pre-Columbian age and those of a
later period. The Indians used the same burials for
centuries and often interred a recent body in the grave
of a more ancient burial.
The pre-Columbian Indians suffered from a variety
of injuries and disease, many of which resulted in
surgical conditions. Whitney has described skull frac-
tures, arrow-point wounds, fracture of the Clavicle, arm,
femur, as well as luxation of the hip, Congenital and
otherwise. Among the constitutional afflictions he
mentions a variety of exostoses, periostitis, arthritides,
caries, and doubtful evidence of syphilis.
It is Curious to note that there are little clay images
found in the graves of children in Tennessee, Arkansas,
and Missouri, which are faithful representations of per-
sons afflicted with Pott's disease (Fig. 34, p. 139). Many
of the water bottles from the stone graves of Tennessee
and from the mounds of Missouri represent women with
138 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
hunchbacks. Tuberculosis of the spine is seldom
indicated (Fig. 34, p. 139) in skeletal remains, and it is
possible that the clay images do not indicate any great
prevalence of Pott's disease in these localities but repre-
sent other spinal deformities.
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which has been very little studied. Often some insight into the life of ancient man can
be had from the injuries he received in war or in the chase. The skull is that of a North
American Indian, and since the arrow point was found imbedded in the bone it undoubt-
edly caused the death of the individual (after Wilson).
The mound-builders of ancient times, in the
Mississippi Valley, show in the skeletal remains many
gross pathological changes. Evidences of injury with
the formation of Callus, complete ankylosis of humerus
and ulna, periostitis, Osteoperiostitis, Osteitis deformans,
slight arthritides, fractured ribs, and spondylitis defor-


















PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES 139
mans all indicate the degree of pathology among the
ancient tribes. A serious illness is usually required to
effect changes in the bones. There is no definite evidence
of rickets. Trephining was unknown north of Mexico.
FIG. 34.—Primitive pottery from an ancient grave in Tennessee, suggesting in the
marked scoliosis the presence of Pott's disease in the tribe by which the pottery was
used. Note the crudity of design compared to the finished products shown in Fig. 28.
The history of the Indians is intimately associated
with that of the bison, which was the chief food supply
for many nations. It is fitting that we should close
this account of ancient pathology with a note on the

140 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
pathology of bison remains. The lesions known are
all due to injuries: gunshot wounds, spear-point injuries,
fractures, contusions, and other traumatisms. Osteo-
myelitis (Fig. 36) was a very frequent result of injuries,
since in the nature of the case an injured bison was not
left in peace to recuperate. He was annoyed by coyotes,
FIG. 35.-Rheumatism seems to have been very common among the pre-Columbian
tribes of North American Indians. The presentscapulae indicate a mild form of pathology
compared to what the ancient Egyptians suffered, but still severe enough. The articular
surfaces are eburnated, deformed, and lipped by osteophytes of new bone due to the
irritating effects of infective bacteria. The lesions undoubtedly caused considerable
limitation of movement of the member as well as intense pain. (Specimens in the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History.)
attacked by wolves, or pursued by the red men. Enforced
action following an injury induced infections and the
consequent irritation resulted in the formation of callus.
An interesting example of a false joint following a fracture
is known. The pseudarthrosis was accompanied by
huge exostoses. No constitutional diseases of the
bison are known, nor should we expect to meet any.

FIG. 36.-The most recent phase of paleopathology is certainly that of the study of
the diseases of the American bison, so recently become extinct as to be within the memory
of many now living. The injuries were received after the coming of white men, in the
specimens studied, since one osteomyelitis shows in its large necrotic sinus a leaden
bullet. The present specimen was collected in western Kansas in the days when the
bison still roamed the plains in great numbers

I42 THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Animals afflicted with disease or injury, whether young
or old, very soon succumbed to the hostile acts of
predatory animals or man. Few survived sufficiently
long for Osseous changes to develop, for life with the
ancient bison was a fierce struggle for existence. They,
like the primitive human races, became extinct following
the introduction of the white race.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE PATHOLOGY OF
PRIMITIVE RACES
EATON, GEORGE F.
I916. “The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu
Picchu,” Mem. Conn. Acad. Sci., V, I-96, Pls. I—
XXXIX. -
HRDLICKA, ALES.
1908. “Physiological and Medical Observations among the
Indians of Southwestern United States and Northern
Mexico,” Bulletin 34, Bureau of American Ethnology.
1909. “Tuberculosis among Certain Indian Tribes of the
United States,” Bulletin 42, Bureau of American
Ethnology.
1911. “Some Results of Recent Anthropological Exploration
in Peru,” Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. LVI, No. 16.
1912. “Early Man in South America,” Bulletin 52, Bureau
of American Ethnology. (With Holmes, Willis,
Wright, and Fenner.)
I912. “Report on Skeletal Remains from a Mound on Haley
Place, near Red River, Miller Co., Ark.,” Jour. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, XIV, 639–40.
1913. “A Report on a Collection of Crania and Bones from
Sorrel Bayou, Iberville Parish, Louisiana,” ibid.,
XVI, 95–99.
1914. “Anthropological Work in Peru in 1913, with Notes
on the Pathology of the Ancient Peruvians,” Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll., Vol. LXI, No. 18, pp. I-69, Pls.
I–26. -
PATHOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE HUMAN RACES 143
HRDLICKA, ALES.
I916. “The Most Ancient Skeletal Remains of Man,”
Smithsonian Report for 1913, pp. 491–552, Pl. 4.
LAMB, D. S.
1898. “Pre-Columbian Syphilis,” Proceedings of the Assoc.
Amer. Amat., X, 63. (Review of literature and
report on new material inclusive.)
LANGDON, F. W.
1881. “The Madisonville Prehistoric Cemetery, Anthro-
pological Notes,” Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist.,
III, 40–68, 128–39, 203–20; ibid., IV (October),
250–53, Figs. I-22.
LORTET, L., AND GAILLARD, C.
I903–9. La Faune momifiée de l’ancienne Egypte. Archives
du Muséum d’Histoire nat. de Lyon, T. 8–Io.
ORTON, SAMUEL T.
I905. “A Study of the Pathological Changes in Some
Mound-Builders' Bones from the Ohio Valley, with
Especial Reference to Syphilis.” University of Penn-
Sylvania Med. Bull., XVIII, 36–44, Figs.
RUFFER, SIR MARC ARMAND. -
I909. “Preliminary Note on the Histology of Egyptian
Mummies,” Brit. Med. Jour., I, Ioos.
I911. “Note on an Eruption Resembling That of Variola in
the Skin of a Mummy of the Twentieth Dynasty
(I2Oo–IIoo B.C.),” Jour. Path. and Bact., XV, Pl. I.
1913–14. “Studies in Paleopathology in Egypt,” ibid.,
XVIII, I49–62, Pls. V-X.
I9I4. “Studies in Paleopathology. Note on a Tumor of
the Pelvis,” ibid., 480.
SMITH, G. ELLIOT.
1908. “The Most Ancient Splints,” Brit. Med. Jour., I,
732–34, Figs.
1910. “Report on Human Remains,” Archeological Survey
of Nubia. Report for 1907–1908, II, I-375, with folio
Atlas Pls. I–XLIX. Ministry of Finance, Egyptian
Survey Department, Cairo. (With F. Wood Jones.)
INDEX
Abscess, subperiosteal, 66
Achondroplasia, II6
Acromegaly, 87
Actinomycosis, 51
Age, racial old, 24, 40
Alveolar osteitis, 52, 125
Amenhotep II, II 7
American Museum of Natural His-
tory, Io9
Amputation, IoS, IoS, Io9
Aneurism, carotid, 125
Ankylosis, 65
Antiquity of disease, 55
Aorta of Egyptian King, II 7
Apalosaurus, 30, 63, 81
Arrow-point injuries, 88, 138
Arteriosclerosis, II 7
Arthritis, multiple, 71, 78, I40
Asepsis, absence of, 96, Iog
Atheroma, II6
Auer, Erwin, 44
Bacteria, 13, 2I; Devonian, 24;
Mesozoic, 30; Permian, 27;
pre-Cambrian, 2I
Baldness, II? -
Berry, E. W., 3
Bilharziosis, I5, I2O
Bison, I4I
Bolivia, trephining in, Ioff
Bothriolepis, 25
Bouchard’s nodosities, 125
Broca, Paul, IoI
Brown, Barnum, 66
Callus, 43, 51
Cambrian animals, 17
Camptosaurus, 31, 79
Carabelli, tubercle of, 91
Carboniferous, 29, 38
Caries, 50, 67, 80, II6
Cauterization, Io2
Cautery, Io2
Cave bears, 66;
European, 4
Circumcision, IIo
Cirrhosis, II6
Clam, Miocene, 67
Clark, A. H., 68
Clarke, John M., 3, 32
Coal Measures Amphibia, 3
Coal period, bacteria of, 29
Coca, IoA
Coccosteus, 25
Cockerell, T. D. A., 8
Comanchean, 45
Commensalism, 35
Como beds of Wyoming, 45, 63
Cope, E. D., I
Cretaceous, 46
Cribra cranii, 128
Crinoid gall, 35
Crinoid stem, 32
Crinoids, Silurian, 32
Crocodile, Miocene, 64
Cyclonema, 33
Cystids, 34
American, 66;
Daphaenus felinus, 51
Dean, Bashford, 71
Degenerescence, 40
Demon, 98
Dentistry, 126
I45
I46
THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Dependent life, 3, 32
Dimelrodon, 40, 43, 62
Dinosaurs, armored, 69
Diplococci, 28
Diplodocus, 64, 77, 78
Disease, 22; ancient, 31;
tion of, 22, 76
Dollo, Louis, 67
Dubois, E., 85
defini-
Ectoconus, 65
Egyptians, ancient, II6
Emprosthotonos, 7I
Eoanthropus, 86
Eocene, 50, 65
Epidemics, 8, 24
Esper, E. J. C., 4
Etheridge, Robert, 35
Eurypterids, 7
Extinction, 7, 50
Fibers of Sharpey, 46
Florissant shales, 8
Focal infections, 31
Fossils, nature of, 38
Fraas, E., 35
Fractures, 43, 52, 70, 81, 89
Fungi, Carboniferous, 29, 37
Geddes, Sir Auckland, 86
Gidley, J. W., 67
Gigantism, 77
Glossina, 8
Glyptocrinus, 33
Glyptodonts, 68
Gondou, 135
Hatcher, J. B., 51
Headache, cure of, 98
Hemangioma, 2, 45, 64, 79
Hematuria, I2O
Hemorrhage, Ioë, Io9
Hydrocephalus, 120
Hypertrophy, 80
Iguanodon, 30
Immunity, 7, 22, 24
Incas, land of, Ioë
Indians, pre-Columbian, IoS, 135
Infections, bacterial, 22
Instruments, primitive surgical,
Io8
Invertebrates, Paleozoic, 3, 32
Java, 85
Jigger, I35
Jones, F. Wood, II6
Jurassic, 44
Kabylia, 85, IoI
Keith, Sir Arthur, 84
Keloids, IoS
Kerunia, 35
Knife, flint, Ioo, Io2
Lacunae, 26, 29
Leishmaniosis, 131
Limnocyon potens, 5o
Lortet, Charles, 87, II 7
Lyell, Sir Charles, 71
Malachite, IIo
Malaria, I2O
Mammal, Eocene, 65
Mastodon obscurus, 68
Medical history, 15
Medicine man, 97
Melancholia, 98, Io4
. Men, disease and injury in fossil,
8
Mºran, King, II 7
Merychippus campestris, 51
Melriorhynchus, 44
Micrococcus, 27, 28
Miocene, 51
Molds, thread, 25
Moropus, 7o
Mosasaurs, diseases of, 46
Mummies, Egyptian, II6
INDEX
I47
Mutilations, voluntary, IO4
Myceliles ossifragus, 25
Mystriosuchus, 70
Myzostomids, 35, 41
Neanderthal man, 87
Necrosis, 49, 68, 79
Neolithic, 6
Oligocene, 8, 51
Onychaster, 33
Opisthotonos, 71
Ordovician, 13
Osborn, H. F., 8, 40
Osteohypertrophy, 77
Osteoma, 46, 49, 79, I33; Creta-
CeOuS, 49
Osteomalacia, 131
Osteomyelitis, 61, 81
Osteoperiostitis, 46, 80
Osteophytes, 131
Osteoporosis, I26, 133
Osteosarcoma, 4, 122
Osteosclerosis, 44
Paget’s disease, 87
Paleolithic surgery, 87, IoS
Paleopathology, II
Parasites, Paleozoic, 23, 32
Parasitism, origin of, 31
Pathology, 59; Mesozoic, 74;
Paleozoic, 32, 34; Permian, 42
Pelycopods, 36
Permian, 3, 27, 40, 42, 61
Peruvians, ancient, I 30
Pharaohs, diseases of, 31, 117
Piltdown man, 86
Pithecanthropus, I5, 85
Plants, fossil, 3
Platecarpus, 46
Platyceras, 33
Pleistocene, 54
Pleurothotonos, 71
Pliocene, 52
Poisoning, 23, 72
Pottery, ancient Peruvian, 134
Pott's disease, 90, I21, 139
Priest of Ammon, 121
Proterozoic, 13, 74
Protozoa, I5
Pseudoparasitism, 36
Pyorrhea, 80, 126
Rancho la Brea, 54
Rawhide splints, Io9
Recent Epoch, 52
Red hand, IoS
Fegeneration, 68
Renault, Bernard, 25, 28, 37, 42
Rhamphocephalus Bucklandi, 30
Rickets, 88, 126, 129
Rinderpest, 8
Rondelles, 99
Roux, Canals of, 25
Ruffer, Marc Armand, 2, 6
Scarification, IoA
Schistosomiasis, I2O
Schmerling, P. C., 4
Schwalbe, Gustav, 88
Seitz, Leo, 30
Sepsis, 68
Shaman, 96
Shamanism, 97
Silhouette of hands, IoS
Sincipital T, Iog
Sinus, necrotic, 49, 68
Smallpox, II9
Smith, G. Elliot, II5
Splints, 87, IIo; bark, Io9; clay,
Io9; Skin, Io9
Spondylitis deformans, 64, 65, 78,
I24, ISI
Sporozoans, 17
Springer, Frank, 68
Stegosaurus, 69
I48
THE ANTIQUITY OF DISEASE
Surgery, 84; in Egypt, Io9; origin
of, 84; primitive, 89, 96
Symbiosis, 35
Syphilis, 90, II6, I29, 131
T, sincipital, Iog, Io&
Talipes equinus, I2
Titanotherium robustum, 51
Toothache, I25
Traumatism, 13
Trepanation, 85
Trephining, 6, 84, Ioo; Neolithic,
85; Peruvian, IoI, Ioff; pre-
historic, 85
Triassic, 44
Trilobites, 7
Trypanosomes, 8, 16
Tsetse flies, 8, 16
Tuberculosis, 45, 90, I21, 131, 138
Tuberculum anomalus, 91
Tumor, 2, 122
Uta, I31, 135
Van Ingen, Gilbert, 67
Venus Rileyi, 67
Venus tridacnoides, 67
Verruga peruviana, 135
Virchow, Rudolf, 6, 86, 91
Walther, Philipp Franz von, 4
Wedl, canals of, 25
Williston, S. W., I, 46
Wyoming, 63
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